Name _________________________ __________________________________ _________
Period _________ Date___________
AP BIOLOGY – PARADE THROUGH THE KINGDOMSKEY Complete the questions using the chapters of your textbook Campbell’s Biology (6 th Edition). CHAPTER 27 – Prokaryotes & The Origin of Metabolic Diversity PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
1. How common are prokaryotes on earth? _____________________________________________________________________________ Their collective biological mass is at least 10 times that of all eukaryotes. They are the dominant species.
_____________________________________________________________________________ 2. How do bacterial cell walls differ from plant cell walls? Differ in molecular composition and construction. Most have cell walls of peptidoglycan.
_____________________________________________________________________________ This molecular fabric encloses the entire bacterium and anchors other molecules that extend from its surface. Archaean cell walls contain a variety of polysaccharides and
_____________________________________________________________________________ proteins, but lack peptidoglycan. 3. How does the cell wall aid in classifying the bacteria?
Using the gram staining methed we we can classify bacteria into 2 groups. Gram + are
_____________________________________________________________________________ bacteria with simpler walls and with large amounts of peptidoglycan. Gram – are bacteria bacteria with less peptidoglycan and are structurally more complex, with outer membranes that
_____________________________________________________________________________ contain lipopolysaccharides. 4. List the methods bacteria use to locomote. _____________________________________________________________________________ Flagella (most common); Chemostaxis (movement in response to stimulus) _____________________________________________________________________________
5. Give an example if a stimulus and describe how bacteria react to that stimulus (taxis). _____________________________________________________________________________ Movement toward nutrients/oxygen (positive chemotaxis); away from a toxic substance (negative chemotaxis).
_____________________________________________________________________________ 6. How do bacteria typically reproduce? _____________________________________________________________________________ Binary fission. The prokaryote replicates its genetic material and then simply divides into 2 equal cells. These in turn do the same thing (4, 8, 16, and so on). 1
Name _________________________ __________________________________ _________
Period _________ Date___________
_____________________________________________________________________________
7. List three methods that can modify bacteria genetically. a. transfor transformation mation a. _______________________________________________________________________ b. conjug conjugation ation c. tran transdu sductio ction n b. _______________________________________________________________________
c. _______________________________________________________________________
8. Identify and briefly define the four nutritional categories of bacteria. d. _______________________________________________________________________ d. Photoautotrophs – photosynthetic organisms that capture light energy and use it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from CO 2.
e. _______________________________________________________________________ e.
Chemoautotrophs – need only CO 2 as a carbon source. Instead of using using light for for energy, they oxidize inorganic substances, such as hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), ammonia (NH 3), or ferrous ions (Fe 2+).
f. _______________________________________________________________________ f.
Photoheterotrophs Photoh eterotrophs – use light light for energy energy but but must obtain obtain their their carbon in organic organic form.
g. _______________________________________________________________________ g. Chemohet Chemoheterotrophs erotrophs – consume organic organic molecules molecules for both energy and carbon. carbon.
9. How has molecular systematics lead to classifying prokaryotes into two domains? _____________________________________________________________________________ Using small subunit ribosomal RNA as a marker for evolutionary relationships, Carol Woese and his colleagues concluded that many prokaryotes once classified as _____________________________________________________________________________ bacteria are actually more closely related to eukaryotes and belong in a domain of their own. The domain Archaea Archaea was developed for these special prokaryotes.
_____________________________________________________________________________
10. What is the ecological significance of prokaryotes? Decomposers – convert inorganic compounds into forms that can be taken up by _____________________________________________________________________________ other organisms. Nitrogen fixation, O 2 production and symbiotic relationships with eukaryotes _____________________________________________________________________________ (mutualism intestines, etc.)
_____________________________________________________________________________
2
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Table 27.2 on page 512 and the information in the text, outline the key characteristics that distinguish the three domains. Include examples of organisms in each domain.
DOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS EXAMPLE
CHAPTER 28 – The Origins of Eukayotic Diversity DOMAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Bacteria
Nuclear envelope absent Membrane enclosed organelles absent Peptidoglycan in cell walls Unbranched hydrocarbons in membrane lipids 1 kind of RNA polymerase Formylmethionine for intiator of amino acids in protein synthesis Introns rare Antibiotics inhibit growth Circular chromosome
EXAMPLE Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Chlamydias Spirochetes Cyanobacteria Gram-positive bacteria
Archaea
Nuclear envelope absent Membrane enclosed organelles absent Some branched hydrocarbons in membrane lipids Several kinds of RNA polymerase Methionine initiator amino acid for protein synthesis Introns present in some genes Antibiotics do not inhibit growth Have histones & circular chromosom
Korarchaeotes Euryarchaeotes Crenarchaeotes Nanoarchaeotes
Eukarya
Nuclear envelope present Membrane bound organelles Unbranched hydrocarbons in membrane lipids Several kinds of RNA polymerase Methionine intiator amino acid for protein synthesis Antibiotics do not inhibit growth Histones present
Eukaryotes (plants, animals, protists, fungi) 3
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
11. Why are Protists said to be the most diverse of all eukaryotes? They inhibit more structural & functional diversity than any other group of organisms. _____________________________________________________________________________ They are the most nutritionally diverse. Their habitats are diverse.
_____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 12. What process is thought to be involved in the genesis of eukaryotes from prokaryotes? Endosymbiosis _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 13. Define serial endosymbiosis? _____________________________________________________________________________ A process in which certain unicellular organisms engulfed other cells, which become endosymbionts & ultimately organelles in the host cell.
_____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 14. Why do most systematists currently working on eukaryotic relationships consider Kingdom Protista and the five kingdom system obsolete? _____________________________________________________________________________ The Kingdom Protista is polyphyletic including members derived from 2 or more ancestral forms not common to all members & thus do not reflect phylogeny. Among _____________________________________________________________________________ several alternate classifications, a popular 8-kingdom system recognizes 3 protist kingdoms (Archaezoa, Protista & Chromista) in place of the single kingdom Protista. _____________________________________________________________________________ However, the less inclusive version of the Kingdom Protista is still polyphyletic. Using nucleic acid sequencing, systematics has begun sorting out monophyletic _____________________________________________________________________________ groups.
4
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 28.8 on page 554 and the information in the text, outline the key characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the Domain Eukarya identified on the diagram.
5 4
6
3 2 1
5
Name __________________________________
BRANCH POINT 1. Autotroph / Heterotrop h& Decompose rs
2. Flagella / No Flagella
3. Crystal rods in flagella / No rods
4. Symbiosis with fungi
Period _________ Date___________
CHARACTERISTICS Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products. Saprobes/bacteria absorb nutrients from non-living organic material (decomposers). Autotrophs can make their own food using light or chemical energy.
Flagella are long cellular appendage specialized for locomotion.
Euglenozoa have the presence of a spiral or cystal rod of unknown function inside their flagella. Other protest members do not have these rod structures.
Organisms such as lichens developed symbiotic relationships with fungi in order to survive. Other developed specialized adaptations for independent survival.
5. Live in shallow water / live on land
Some organisms require water for growth and reproduction, especially those lacking vascular tissue. Other developed vascular tissue in order to survive on land.
6. Decompose r/ Heterotrop hic consumer
Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products. Saprobes/fungi absorb nutrients from non-living organic material (decomposers).
6
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
CHAPTER 31 - FUNGI PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
15. How do fungi acquire nutrients? They are heterotrophs; they digest their food while it’s still in the environment by
_____________________________________________________________________________ secreting powerful hydrolytic enzymes, (exoenzymes) into their surroundings. They absorb their nutrients.
_____________________________________________________________________________ 16. Because of this mode of nutrition, fungi have evolved what structure to provide for both extensive surface area and rapid growth? Hyphae that form an interwoven mass called mycelium.
_____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
17. How do the cell walls of fungi differ from the cell walls of plants? Made of chitin, a strong but flexible nitrogen-containing polysaccharide that is also _____________________________________________________________________________ found in external skeletons of insects/arthropods.
_____________________________________________________________________________
18. How do fungi contribute to an ecosystem? Decomposers are responsible for keeping ecosystems stocked with the inorganic _____________________________________________________________________________ nutrients essential for plant growth. Some form symbiotic relationships with photosynthesizers. _____________________________________________________________________________
19. Give some examples of how fungi are important to humans. Mycorrhizae = agriculture
provides essential nutrients to plants.
_____________________________________________________________________________ Digestion = helps breakdown plant material in rumenants (eg. cattle). Food Source = mushrooms and beverages such as beer and wine (yeast). 7
Medical value = used for reducing high blood pressure, stop maternal bleeding, production of antibiotics (penicillium), used in molecular and biotechnology research.
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
_____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 31.4 on 619 and the information in the text, outline key characteristics of each branch of the Kingdom Fungi identified on the diagram. Include several examples of organisms in division.
page the each
DIVISION
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLE
Chytrids
Saprobes & Parasites; cell walls of chitin, share key enzymes and metabolic pathways with other fungal groups; form colonies w/hyphae or exists as spherical cells. Have flagellated spores (zoospores)
Chytridium (fruiting spores)
Zygomycetes
Live as parasites or symbionts with animals. Mostly terrestrial & live in soil on decaying plant/animal material. Form mycorrhizae
Fast growing molds, Rhizopus stolonifer (black bread mold), pilobolus.
Ascomycetes
Sac fungi. Range in size & variety. Saprobes, plant parasites, have symbiotic relationships with algae (lichens). Produce sexual spores (asci). Have more extensive dikaryotic stage.
Morals, carbon fungus, truffles.
8
Name __________________________________
Basidiomycetes
Period _________ Date___________
Club fungus. Decomposers of wood and other plant material. Mutualists & plant parasites.
Mushrooms, shelf fungi, puffballs, rusts & smuts.
CHAPTER 32 – INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL EVOLUTION PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
20. Outline the major characteristics Campbell uses to define an animal. Nutritional mode, cell structure & specialization, reproduction & development.
_____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 21. List an hypothesis for the origin of animals.
Most systematics now agree that all animal lineages are monophyletic; that is, we can _____________________________________________________________________________ trace all lineages back to a single common ancestor. The ancestor was probably a flagellated protest; which was probably related to choanoflagellates. _____________________________________________________________________________
22. Describe the two forms of symmetry of the Eumetazoa. _____________________________________________________________________________ Bilateral which characterizes a body form with a central longitudinal plane that divides the body into two equal but opposite halves.
_____________________________________________________________________________ Radial characterizes a body shape like a pie, with many equal parts radiating outward
_____________________________________________________________________________ like the s okes of a wheel. 23. What is the significance of cephalization as an evolutionary trend? A trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment on the anterior region. The _____________________________________________________________________________
end of a traveling animal that is usually first to encounter food, danger, and other stimuli. Also development of the central nervous system. Adaptation for movement _____________________________________________________________________________ on land.
24. How do the germ layers of Radiata and the other Eumetazoa differ? They are diploblastic (having 2 germ layers). All other eumetazoa; the bilateria, are _____________________________________________________________________________ triploblastic having 3 germs layers.
_____________________________________________________________________________
9
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
25. Define the following terms and describe their significance in classifying animals. a. Acoelomates lack a coelom. a. Acoelomates ____________________________________________________________ b. Pseudocoelomates have a fully functional body cavity formed from the blastocoel, __________________________________________________________________________ rather than from the mesoderm.
b. Pseudocoelomates _______________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ c. Coelomates possess a true coelom, a body cavity completely lined with tissue derived from mesoderm.
c. Coelomates ____________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________
d. Protostomes development begins with spiral, determinate cleavage. The coelom forms from splits in the mesoderm. The mouth forms in the blastopore.
d. Protostomes ____________________________________________________________ e.
Deuterostomes development is characterized by radial, indeterminate cleavage.
__________________________________________________________________________ The coelom forms from mesodermal outpockets of the archenteron. The mouth forms from a secondary opening. The anus develops from the blastopore.
e. Deuterostomes __________________________________________________________
f. Spiral, determinant cleavage – the planes of cell division are diagonal to the
__________________________________________________________________________ vertical axis of the embryo. Determines developmental fate of embryonic cells early on.
f. spiral, determinate cleavage _______________________________________________ g. Radial, indeterminate cleavage – cleavage planes are either parallel or
__________________________________________________________________________ perpendicular to the vertical axis of the egg. Each cell contains the capacity to develop into a complete embryo.
g. radial, indeterminate cleavage ______________________________________________ h. Blastopore – the indentation that during gastrulation leads to the formation of the __________________________________________________________________________ archenteron.
h. blastopore ______________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ 26. List a number of the major differences between the Protostomes and Deuterostomes. Protostomes - development begins with spiral, determinate cleavage. The coelom forms from splitscleavage in the mesoderm. The cleavage mouth forms from the blastopore.
_____________________________________________________________________________
blastocoel
_____________________________________________________________________________
Deuterostomes – development is characterized by radial, indeterminate cleavage. The ceolom forms from mesodermal outpocketings of the archenteron. The anus forms _____________________________________________________________________________ from the blastopore. 8 cell stage blastula zygote
27. Label the stages of early embryonic development of animal. blastocoel
Cross section of blastula
endoderm ectoderm
10 blastopore gastrula
gastrulation
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Figure 32.4 on page 636 and the information in the text, outline the key characteristics of each branch of the Kingdom Animalia identified on the diagram. Use definitions from Question 25 to supply the details in your chart. Include examples of organisms in each division.
11
Name __________________________________
DIVISION
CHARACTERISITICS
Period _________ Date___________
EXAMPLE
12
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
1. Porifera
Simple; sessile animals that lack true tissues. They live as suspension feeders; trapping particles that pass through the internal channels of their bodies.
sponges
2. Cnidaria
Share a distinctive body pattern that includes a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that serves as both mouth and anus.
Corals, jellyfish & hydras
3. Ctenophora
Diploblastic. Possess eight “combs” of cilia that propel the animals through the water. They also have a unique method for catching prey.
Comb jellies
4. Platyhelminthes
Bilateral symmetry & central nervous systemthat process information from eyes and other sensory structures. They have no body cavity or organs for circulation.
Flatworms (tapeworms, planarians & flukes)
5. Rotifers
Specialized organ systems, including an alimentary canal (digestive tract). They feed on microorganisms suspended in water.
Rotifers
6. Nematoda
Enormously abundant & diverse in the soil and aquatic habitats; many species parasitize plants & animals. They have a tough cuticle that coats their body and protects them from their host.
Roundworms
7. Nemertea
Swim through water and burrow through sand, extending a unique proboscis to capture prey. They lack a true coelom, but have an alimentary canal.
Proboscis worms, ribbon worms
DIVISION
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLE
13
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
8. Mollusca
Soft bodied; often posses a hard, calcified shell secreted by the mantle; muscular foot; digestive system with two openings and coelomates.
Snails, slugs, clams, squid, octopus, chambered nautilus, cuttlefish
9. Annelida
Body composed of segments separated by internal partitions; digestive system has two openings; coelomate; closed circulatory system.
Segmented worms, earthworms, sandworms, leeches
10. Arthropoda
Exoskeleton of chitin; jointed appendages; segmented bodies; many undergo metamorphosis during development; open circulatory system; largest animal phylum.
Ticks, spiders, scorpions, centipedes, millipedes, insects, crab, shrimp, pill bug, barnacle, lobster
11. Bryozoan
Coelom from cell masses (protostomes). Body cavity enclosed by mesoderm (coelomate). Bilateral symmetry and triploblastic. Eumetazoa.
Hydrozoans
12. Phoronida
Live in tunnels in the sea floor, extending tentacles out of the tunnel opening to trap food particles.
Marine worms
13. Brachiopoda
Superficially resemble clams and other hinge-shelled mollusks, but the two halves of the brachiopod shell are dorsal and ventral rather than lateral. Live attached to the seafloor by stalk.
Lamp shells
14. Echinodermata
Live in salt water; larvae have bilateral symmetry; adults typically have radial symmetry; endoskeleton; tube feet; water vascular system used in respiration, excretion, feeding and locomotion; deuterostomes
Sand dollars, sea stars, feather stars, brittle stars, sea cucumbers and sea urchins
15. Chordata
Dorsal hollow nerve cord, notochord, pharyngeal pouches, and a muscular tail during at least part of development.
Tunicates, lancelets, hagfish, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, & mammals
CHAPTER 33 - INVERTEBRATES
14
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
28. How does the structure of a sponge relate to its method of nutrition? They capture food particles suspended in the water that pass through their bodies, which _____________________________________________________________________________ typically resembles a sac perforated with pores. Water is drawn through the pores into a central cavity, the spongocoel, and then flows out the sponge through a large opening _____________________________________________________________________________ called the osculum,
29. What is a unique characteristic common to the Cnidarians? They exhibit a relatively simple, diploblastic, radial body plan. Their body plan is sac like _____________________________________________________________________________ with a central digestive compartment, with a gastrovascular cavity and it has a single opening. _____________________________________________________________________________
30. What are the two forms of shape within the Cnidarians? _____________________________________________________________________________ Polyp & Medusa _____________________________________________________________________________ 31. What are some evolutionary advancements we see in the Platyhelminthes? rd
Structurally more complex. The 3 embryonic layer, the mesoderm, contributes to the _____________________________________________________________________________
development of more complex organs & organs systems, including true muscle tissues.
_____________________________________________________________________________ 32. In what way are Platyhelminthes significant to humans? _____________________________________________________________________________ Structure & function of ecosystems; parasites to humans. _____________________________________________________________________________ 33. Define parthenogenesis. Some species consist only of females that produce more females from unfertilized eggs. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________ 34. What is unique in the structure and function of the Pseudocoelomates? _____________________________________________________________________________ They have a gastrovascular cavity with an alimentary canal, a digestive tube with a separate mouth and anus. Internal organs lie within the pseudocoelom.
_____________________________________________________________________________ 35. List ways in which Nematodes impact humans. They play an important role in the decomposition and recycling of nutrients. Research specimens (aging in humans). Also include agricultureal pests that attack roots of plants. Parasites to humans (hookworms & pinworms)
15
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
_____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 36. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Protostomes. Mollusks, Annelids, & Arthropods _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________ 37. What are the three major body regions of a Mollusk? Muscular foot, a visceral mass, & a mantle _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________ 38. Why do zoologists debate the relationship of Mollusks and Annelids? The life cycle of many marine mollusks includes a ciliated larvae called the trochophore, _____________________________________________________________________________ also characteristic of marine annelids and other protostomes. But mollusks lack the one trait that most defines an annelid heritage – true segmentation. _____________________________________________________________________________
39. What is the evolutionary significance of the coelom as seen in the Annelids? _____________________________________________________________________________ The muscles work against the noncompressible coelomic fluid, a hydrostatic skeleton. The muscles can alter the shape of each segment individually because the coelom is _____________________________________________________________________________ divided into separate compartments.
40. What is the importance of segmentation? _____________________________________________________________________________ Each segment of a polychaete has a pair of paddle-like or ridge-like structures called parapodia (setae) that function in locomotion. Each segment has its own set of nephridia, _____________________________________________________________________________ which are kidney-like structures.
41. Why are the Arthropoda regarded as the most successful of all animal phyla? On the criteria of species diversity, distribution, and sheer numbers, arthropods must be _____________________________________________________________________________ regarded as the most successful of all animal phyla.
_____________________________________________________________________________
42. Identify a characteristic that was most significant to Arthropod success. Segmentation, hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages. 16
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
_____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 43. List common examples that could be classified as Coelomate Deuterostomes. _____________________________________________________________________________ Echindermata & Chordates _____________________________________________________________________________ 44. What traits are particularly unique to the Echinoderms? _____________________________________________________________________________ Water vascular system & tube feet. _____________________________________________________________________________
PART 2. Directions: Using Table 32.4 on page 636 and Table 33.7 on page 675 and the
17
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
information in the text, label the phylogenetic diagram of animals with significant characteristics that distinguish major branches.
CHAPTER 34 – VERTEBRATE EVOLUTION & DIVERSITY
18
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 1. Directions: All answers are to be completed on your own and neatly written.
45. What are the four characteristics of the Chordates? _____________________________________________________________________________ Notochord, hollow dorsal nerve chord, pharyngeal gill slits and a muscular, post anal tail. _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ 46. List and describe an example of an invertebrate chordate. _____________________________________________________________________________ Tunicates favor chordates as larvae. As adults the tail and notochord are reabsorbed. Lancelets as larvae develop a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits and a _____________________________________________________________________________ post anal tail. As adults they retain all four characteristics of chordates.
47. Define paedogenesis. The precocious development of sexual maturity in a larva. Common among groups of _____________________________________________________________________________
salamanders. An example is the mudpuppy which retains gills and other larval features when sexually mature. _____________________________________________________________________________
48. What characterizes the subphylum Vertebrata? _____________________________________________________________________________ They are craniates (having a more complex nervous sytem) with a backbone (more complex skeletal system).
_____________________________________________________________________________ 49. In the evolution of vertebrates, identify the significance of being tetrapod? In place of pectoral & pelvic fins, they have limbs that can support their weight on land & _____________________________________________________________________________ feet with digits that allow them to transfer muscle-genreated forces to the ground when they walk. _____________________________________________________________________________
50. Identify the significance of the amniotic egg and the amniote? Amniotic egg contains specialized membranes that protect the embryo. The shell around _____________________________________________________________________________
the egg slows dehydration. Amniotes also have skin that’s less permeable and the ability to use the rib cage to ventilate the lungs. _____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________
19
Name __________________________________
Period _________ Date___________
PART 2. Directions: Using Table 34.7 on page 684 and the information in the text, outline the key characteristics that distinguish the major branches of the subphylum Vertebrata identified on the diagram. Include examples of organisms in each class.
1
2
8 7 3
4 6
5
20
Name __________________________________
CLASS
Period _________ Date___________
CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLE
1. Cephalaspidomorphi
Larvae filter feeders; adults parasites whose circular mouth is lined with rasping toothlike structures; many live in both salt water and fresh water during the course of their lives.
Lampreys
2. Chondrichthyes
Have jaws, fins and endoskeleton of cartilage; most live in salt water; typically several gill slits; tough small scales with spines; ectothermic; two-chambered heart; male possess structures for internal fertilization.
Sharks, skates, rays, chimaera, sawfish
3. Osteichthyes
Bony endoskeleton; aquatic; ectothermic; well-developed respiratory system, usually involving gills; possess swim bladder; paired fins; divided into two groups – ray-finned fishes, which include most living species, and lobe-finned fishes, which include the lungfish and coeloacanth.
Salmon, perch, bass, sturgeon, tuna, goldfish, eel, marlin, catfish
4. Mammalia
Endothermic; subcutaneous fat; hair; most viviparous; suckle young with milk produced from mammary glands; four-chambered heart; most have four legs; use lungs for respiration.
Monotremes, marsupials, and eutherians
5. Amniotes
Have amniotic egg (shelled and water retaining egg). Functions as a “self-contained pond” that enables vertebrates to complete their life cycles on land. Mammals also retain key features.
Birds, reptiles, & mammals
6. Reptilia
Adapted to fully terrestrial life, some live in water; dry, scalecovered skin; ectothermic; most have three-chambered hearts; internal fertilization; amniotic eggs typically laid on land; extinct forms include dinosaurs and flying reptiles.
Lizards, snakes, tuataras, turtles, tortoises, & crocodilians
7. Diapsids
Cladistic analysis provides strong evidence that birds are the closest living relatives of extinct dinosaurs. Class reptilian does not have feathers that distinguish birds.
Lizards, snakes, tuataras, turtles, tortoises, crocodilians & dinosaurs that took to the air
8. Aves
Endothermic, feathered over much of body surface; scales o legs and feet; bones hollow and light-weight in flying species; four-chambered heart; well-developed lungs and air sacs for efficient air exchange.
Owl, eagle, duck, chicken, pigeon, penguin, sparrow, stork, ostrich
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