Reflections on Things at Hand: The Neo-Confucian Anthology By Chu Hsi; LÜ Tsu-Ch'Ien
PREFACE BY CHU HSI In the summer2. of the second year of the Ch'un-hsi period [ 1175], Lü Pokung of Tung-lai3. came from Tung-yang4. to my Han-ch'üan Study5. and stayed for [over] ten days.6. Together we read the works of Masters ChouTun-i, Ch'eng Hao, Ch'eng I, and Chang Tsai, and lamented over the fact that their doctrines are as extensiveand broad as a sea without shores. Fearing that a beginner may not know where to start, we have selectedpassages concerned with fundamentals and closely related to daily application to constitute this volume,making a total of 622 items divided into 14 chapters. I believe that the essentials of the student's search for thebeginnings of things, exerting effort, ____________________ 1. This and the next preface are actually postscripts at the end of the anthology. Following the example of YehTs'ai, I have transferred them to this position. 2. According to the Chu Tzu nien-p'u (Chronological biography of Master Chu) by Wang Mou-hung ( 1668-174), ch. 2, under entry for the second year of Ch'un-hsi ( 1175), Lü came in the fourth month. 3. See above, Introduction, n. 132. 4. Modern Chin-hua County, Chekiang Province. 5.
Chu Hsi's study on the southern slope of T'ien-hu (Heavenly lake) Mountain in Chien-yang County, FukienProvince. Chu Hsi made his home here from 1143 to 1191. In the first month of 1170 he buried his mother,who had died four months earlier at the age of seventy, on this slope. 6. Literally "ten-day period(s) and day(s)." According to the biography in the Lü Tung-lai Hsien-sheng wen-chi (Collection of literary works of Master Lü Tsu- ch'ien ), p. 2a, he stayed for more than a month. Thechronological biography in the Tung-lai Lü T'ai-shih wen-chi (Collection of literary works of Lü Tsu-ch'ien,member of the Han-lin Academy) has recorded under the second year of Ch'unhsi that he went on thetwenty-first day of the fourth month and stayed for over a month. Since Chu Hsi's preface was written onthe fifth day of the fifth month, the statement that Lü stayed for over a month is questionable. In Lü's ownaccount of the Fukien visit in ch. 15 of the Tung-lai Lü T'ai-shih wen-chi, it is said that he left on thetwenty-first day of the third month, arrived at Chu Hsi's place on the first day of the fourth month andstayed in Chu Hsi's study. Because there is no record from the sixth day of the fourth month until theseventh month, we do not know how long he stayed. However, since he arrived on the first day of the fourthmonth and Chu Hsi wrote the preface on the fifth day of the fifth month, presumably after the anthologywas compiled and Lü had left, the intervening period was just a little over a month. The account of theFukien visit is Lü's own and is a day by day account, and is therefore most reliable. I believe the statementthat he arrived on the twenty-first day of the fourth month is a mistake, probably resulting from a confusionof Lü's date of departure (the twenty-first) and his date of arrival (the fourth month). -1conducting himself, and managing others, as well as the gist of understanding the heterodox schools andobserving the sages and worthies can be seen in rough outline.7. Thus if a young man in an isolated village whohas the will to learn, but no enlightened teacher or good friend to guide him, obtains this volume and exploresand broods over its material in his own mind, he will be
able to find the gate to enter. He can then read thecomplete works of the four gentlemen, deeply sift their meanings and repeatedly recite their words, and absorbthem at leisure, so as to achieve an extensive learning and return to the simple truth.8. He can then acquire allthe beauties of the ancestral temple and all the richness of the governmental offices.9. Someone may shrinkfrom effort and be contented with the simple and convenient, thinking that all he needs is to be found here, butthis is not the purpose of the present anthology.10. Respectfully, Chu Hsi of Hsin-an11. The fifth day of the fifth month12. ____________________ 10. This postscript also appears in the Chu Tzu well-chi, 81:6a-b. 11. Former name of Hui-chou Prefecture, which included Wu-yilan County, Chu Hsi's ancestral home, in AnhuiProvince. His father moved to Fukien Province where Chu Hsi was born and lived all his life except for thetime he spent in government service. He visited Wu-yüan in 1150 and 1176. For his biography, seeIntroduction. 12. Corresponding to May 26, 1175. 7. I have followed Yeh Ts'ai in providing these chapter numbers. Mao Hsinglai, however, argues that the sixcategories apply to all chapters. It is true that Chu Hsi was not systematic in grouping passages intochapters. Overlappings are obvious. But, in general outline, Yeh's correlation is correct. 8.
This is a reference to Analects, 9:11, where Confucius taught the extensive study of literature andrestraining oneself with rules of propriety. The idea of restraint is extended to mean simplicity. 9. A reference to Analects, 19:23. -2PREFACE BY LU TSU-CH'IEN The Reflections on Things at Hand is now completed. Some people believe that the doctrines of the yin andyang, change and transformation, and the nature and destiny of man and things in Chapter I are, generallyspeaking, not matters for the beginning student. I have had the opportunity of understanding the purpose ofthis compilation. Although a young man should not be allowed to go into the fundamentals of moral principlesall of a sudden, nevertheless, if he is completely ignorant even of their outline, where will he be at the end? Toinclude these doctrines at the beginning of the book is merely to enable the student to know their terms and tohave something to look forward to. As to the contents of the remaining chapters dealing with methods of studyand the concrete steps of daily application and personal practice, they involve definite steps. If the studentproceeds accordingly, ascending from the low to the high and going from the near to the far, he will probablynot miss the aim of this anthology. If, however, he disdains the low and the near and restlessly seeks the highand the far, skips over the steps and crosses the limits, he will be drifting in emptiness and vacuity, withoutanything to rely on. Can that be called reflecting on things at hand? The reader should thoroughly understandthis idea. Respectfully, Lü Tsu-ch'ien of Tung-lai The fourth day of the fourth month of the third year of the
Ch'un-hsi period2. ____________________ 1. This postscript also appears in the Tung-lai Lü T'ai-shih ch'üan-chi, ch. 7. 2. Corresponding to May 14, 1176. -3-
I: ON THE SUBSTANCE OF THE WAY YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: On the Substance of Tao. 51 sections. In this chapter theoriginal source of human nature and the substance and state of Tao are discussed. These are theessentials of learning. 1. MASTER LIEN-HSI [CHOU TUN-I] SAID: The Ultimate of Nonbeing [Wu-chi]1. and also the Great Ultimate[T'ai-chi]!2. "The operations of Heaven have neither sound nor smell."3. And yet this [Ultimate of Nonbeing] isreally the axis of creation and the foundation of things of all kinds [ultimate being]. Therefore "theUltimate of Nonbeing and also the Great Ultimate." It does not mean that outside of the GreatUltimate there is an Ultimate of Nonbeing. (Chu Hsi, Commentary on the T'ai-chi-t'u shuo) The Great Ultimate through movement generates yang. When its activity reaches its limit, it becomes tranquil.Through tranquillity the Great Ultimate generates yin. When tranquillity reaches its limit, activity beginsagain. So movement and tranquillity alternate and become the root of each other, giving rise to the distinctionof yin and yang, and the two modes are thus established.
By the transformation of yang and its union with yin, the Five Agents of Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and Eartharise. When these five material forces4 are distributed in harmonious order, the four seasons run their course. The Five Agents constitute one system of yin and yang, and yin and yang constitute one Great Ultimate. TheGreat Ultimate is fundamentally the Ultimate of Nonbeing. The Five Agents arise, each with its specific nature. The Five Agents differ in substance, and the four seasons differ in material force, but none of them can beoutside yin or yang. Yin and yang differ in ____________________ 1. See below, "On Translating Certain Chinese Philosophical Terms," p. 369. 2. Kaibara Ekken ( Daigi roku, pt. 2, p. 4b) says this saying comes from Tu-shun, Hua-yen fa-chieh kuan, butI have not been able to find it there. 3. Book of Odes, no. 235. 4. Ch'i. See below, "On Translating Certain Chinese Philosophical Terms," p. 360. -5position, and activity and tranquillity differ in time, but none of them can be outside the Great Ultimate. TheGreat Ultimate itself is originally without either sound or smell. It is so because the original substance of itsnature makes it so. Is there anything in the universe without nature? As the Five Agents arise, each follows itsown physical nature and is different in its endowment. Hence each has its specific nature. (Ibid.)
When the reality of the Ultimate of Nonbeing and the essence of yin, yang, and the Five Agents come intomysterious union, integration ensues. Ch'ien [Heaven] constitutes the male element, and k'un [Earth]constitutes the female element. The interaction of these two material forces engenders and transforms themyriad things. The myriad things produce and reproduce, resulting in an unending transformation. It is man alone who receives the material forces in their highest excellence, and therefore he is most intelligent.His physical form appears, and his spirit develops consciousness. The five moral principles of his nature5. arearoused by, and react to, the external world and engage in activity; good and evil are distinguished; and humanaffairs take place. The sage settles these affairs by the principles of the Mean, correctness, humanity,6. and righteousness (for theway of the sage is none other than these four), 7. regarding tranquillity as fundamental. (Having no desire,there will therefore be tranquillity).8. Thus he establishes himself as the ultimate standard for man. Hence thecharacter of the sage is "identical with that of Heaven and Earth; his brilliancy is identical with that of the sunand moon; his order is identical with that of the four seasons; and his good and evil fortunes are identical withthose of spiritual beings."9. The superior man cultivates these moral qualities and enjoys good fortune, whereasthe inferior man violates them and suffers evil fortune. This is to say that the sage completely possesses the characters of activity and tranquillity but always considerstranquillity as the basis. Man is born with the endowment of the excellent forces of yin, yang, and the FiveAgents, ____________________ 5. Humanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness. 6. For a discussion on the translation of jen as "humanity," see below, "On Translating Certain ChinesePhilosophical Terms," pp. 365-66.
7. This insertion and that immediately following the sentence are Chou's own. 8. Nakamura Shūsai ( Kinshi' roku kdsetsu, I:lb) and Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shōsetsu, ch. 1) arecorrect in pointing out that these words originated in K'ung An-kuo (fl. 130 B.C. ) comment on the Analects,6:21 (in the Thirteen Classics ed.). It is doubtful, however, that philosopher Chou was consciously quotingK'ung. 9. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven]. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 417. -6and the sage is born with the most excellent. Therefore his action is in accord with the Mean, his handling ofthings is correct, whatever issues from him is characterized by humanity, and his decisions are guided byrighteousness. Whether active or tranquil, he always preserves the way of the Great Ultimate completely. In thisway, anyone who is overcome by passion because he has been aroused by selfish desires, or has in his mind aconflict between benefit and harm, can settle himself. But tranquillity means returning to sincerity and truenature. Unless one's mind is tranquil by being absolutely quiet and without desire, how can one handlechanging events and become one with the activities of the world? Therefore the sage abides by the Mean,correctness, humanity, and righteousness. His activity and tranquillity are all-pervasive but in his activitytranquillity is always fundamental. This is why he can occupy the central position, and neither Heaven, Earth,the sun and moon, the four seasons, nor the spiritual beings can oppose him. (Ibid.) Therefore it is said that "yin and yang are established as the way of Heaven; the weak and the strong as the wayof Earth; and humanity and righteousness as the way of man."10. It is also said that "if we investigate the cycleof things,
we shall understand the concepts of life and death."11. Great is the Book of Changes!12. Herein lies itsexcellence! 13. 2. Sincerity engages in no activity, but is the subtle, incipient, activating force 14 giving rise to good and evil. ____________________ 10. Ibid., "Remarks on Certain Trigrams," ch. 2. Cf. Legge, p. 423. 11. Ibid., "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 4. Cf. Legge, p. 353. 12. The Book of Changes, or I ching, is both a Taoist and a Confucian classic. It is made up of two parts. Thefirst part consists of 64 hexagrams and their texts, or judgments on them. These hexagrams are based onthe Eight Trigrams, each of which consists of three lines, divided or undivided, the divided representing theweak, or yin, and the undivided represent ing the strong, or yang. Each trigram corresponds to a direction,a natural element, a moral quality, etc. Each of the 64 hexagrams is followed by two texts, one explainingthe whole hexagram, the other explaining its component lines. The second part of the book consists of sevencommentaries, one on the first text, one on the abstract meanings of the two texts, one on the philosophicaland ethical meanings of the first two hexagrams, one called "appended remarks," one called "remarks oncertain trigrams," one called "remarks on the order of the hexagrams," and one called "random remarks onthe hexagrams." These seven commentaries, three of which are in two parts, constitute the "ten wings,"which have been ascribed to Confucius ( 551-479 B.C. ). The Eight Trigrams have been ascribed to thelegendary Fu-hsi, the hexagrams to King Wen ( 1171-1122 B.C.), and the two texts to King Wen or the Dukeof Chou (d. 1094 B.C.). Most modern scholars have rejected these attributions and believe the work to be theproduct of many writers, and to have been composed between the sixth and the fourth centuries B.C. ForEnglish translations see
the Yi King, tr. by James Legge, and the I Ching or Book of Changes, tr. by Cary F.Baynes from the German version of Richard Wilhelm. 13. For Chu Hsi comment on the selection of this section see below, "On the Chinssu lu and Its Commentaries,"p. 324. 14. Chi. See below, "On Translating Certain Chinese Philosophical Terms," p. 360. -7Sincerity means concrete principle, and engaging in no activity means being absolutely quiet. Concreteprinciple involves both tranquillity and activity, but in its original substance it takes no action. Incipient forcemeans activity at the subtle stage. With activity, good and evil take shape. With sincerity, there is no activity,and there is only goodness. With activity, there will be both good and evil. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 94:27b) The virtue15. of loving is called humanity, that of doing what is proper is called righteousness, that of puttingthings in order is called propriety,16. that of penetration is called wisdom, and that of abiding by one'scommitments is called faithfulness. One who is in accord with his nature and acts with ease is a sage. One whoreturns to his nature and adheres to it is a worthy. And one whose subtle emanation cannot be seen and whose[goodness] is abundant and all-pervasive without limit is a man of the spirit.17. Spirit is the character of the sage, mysterious and unfathomable. It does not mean that outside of the sagethere is a being called spirit. (Ibid., 31a) 3. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG ] SAID: "The state before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy arearoused is called equilibrium. "18. By equilibrium is meant "the state of absolute quiet."19. Therefore it is called"the great foundation of the world."20. "The state when these feelings are aroused and each and all attain duemeasure and degree is called harmony."21. By harmony is meant that [the state of absolute quiet] "when
actedon immediately penetrates all things."22. Therefore it is called " the universal path."23. 4. The mind is one. Sometimes it is spoken of in terms of its substance. (This is the state of absolute quiet.)24.Sometimes it is spoken of in terms of its function.25. (This is that which, when acted on, immediatelypenetrates all things.) It depends on one's point of view. Substance and the state of absolute quiet refer to man's nature whereas function, being acted on, andpenetrating all things refer to feelings. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 5:12b) ____________________ 15. Te. See ibid., p. 368. 16. Li. See ibid., p. 367. 17. Cf. Book of Mencius, 7B:25. 18. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1. 19. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 10. Cf. Legge, p. 370. 20. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1. 21. Ibid. 22.
Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 10. Cf. Legge, p. 370. 23. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1. 24. The parentheses are Ch'eng I's. 25. See below, "On Translating Certain Chinese Philosophical Terms," p. 368, for the translation of t'i-yung as"substance" and "function." 5. Ch'ien means heaven. Heaven is the physical body of ch'ien, whereas ch'ien is the nature and feelings ofHeaven [Nature]. Ch'ien means strength. What is strong and is unceasing in its activity is called ch'ien. Spoken of as one, Heaven is the Way [Tao]. This is the meaning in the saying, "Heaven will not be inopposition."26. Spoken of in its different aspects, it is called heaven with respect to its physical body, the Lordwith respect to its being the master, negative and positive spiritual forces with respect to its operation, 27.spirit with respect to its wonderful functioning, and ch'ien with respect to its nature and feelings. "Spoken of as one, Heaven is the Way. This is the meaning in the saying, 'Heaven will not be in opposition.'" Idare say this statement is incorrect. "Heaven" in the quotation merely means the heaven up there. ( Chu Hsi,Chu Tzu yü-lei, 69:22a) Someone asked, "Who is the master?" Chu Hsi answered, "Heaven itself. Heaven is an absolutely strong thing, yang, and therefore rotates withoutstop. There must be a master before it can do so. One must see such a thing for himself. It is not somethingthat can be fully explained in words." (Ibid., 68:2b) Negative and positive spritual forces follow a certain order and are manifested in observable facts. Spirit issuddenly this way and suddenly that way, without
any trace or order. Essentially it is not separate fromspiritual forces except that it is not manifested in observable facts. (Ibid., 2b-3a) Operation includes both the refined and the coarse; it refers to creation. Wonderful functioning refers to therefined. Its mystery is unfathomable. (Ibid., 3a) 6. Origination in the Four Qualities28. is comparable to humanity among the Five Constant Virtues.29. Spokenof separately, it is one of the several, but spoken of collectively, it embraces all the four. ____________________ 26. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, chien [Heaven; male]. Cf. Legge, p. 417. The idea is thatno true way contradicts itself. 27. Everything operates in expansion, which is due to the positive spiritual force (shen), and in contraction,which is due to the negative spiritual force (kuei). For a discussion of these terms, see below, "OnTranslating Certain Chinese Philosophical Terms." pp. 366-67. 28. Origination, Flourishing, Advantage, and Firmness. In the universe the process of Change goes through fourstages, namely, (1) Origination, the beginning of things, (2) their development, which enables them toflourish, (3) their harmony with one another, which gives each of them its own advantage, and (4) theircompletion, in which they are firm, strong, and correct to the end. See the Book of Changes, text ofhexagram no. I ( Legge, p. 57). 29. Humanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness. -9-
Origination means that things begin to grow. Only then will they develop, and only after they have developedcan they be completed. Advantage means their accomplishment. But this represents only sixty or seventypercent of their completion. They are not one hundred percent complete until they remain firm. Here we arespeaking of them separately. All principles of development, etc. are already involved in growth. Here we arespeaking of them collectively. The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of humanity, the feeling of shameand dislike the beginning of righteousness, the feeling of deference and compliance the beginning of propriety,and the feeling of right and wrong the beginning of wisdom30. Without commiseration, there will not be therest. The sense of shame and dislike is humanity expressed in shame and dislike. The sense of deference andcompliance is humanity expressed in deference and compliance. And the sense of right and wrong is humanityexpressed in approval and disapproval. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 68:8a) 7. Destiny is what is endowed by Heaven and the nature is what things have received. Principle is one. It is called destiny in terms of what Heaven has imparted to the myriad things, and it is callednature in terms of what they have received from Heaven. Actually, the different names express different pointsof view. That is all. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:4a-b) 8. Positive and negative spiritual forces are traces of creation.31 When asked about positive and negative spiritual forces as traces of creation, Chu Hsi said, "Wind, rain, frost,dew, and the change of the four seasons." When asked for an explanation, he said, "These are traces that can beobserved." Further question: "We look and cannot see them. We listen and cannot hear them. Why?" Answer:"If you say they are there, they are not. But if you say they are not there, they are. In the growth and maturity ofthings, are not positive and negative forces at work?" ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzuyü-lei, 63:25b-26a) The sun, the moon, stars, planets, wind, and thunder are all traces of creation. There is only one and the samematerial force in the universe. What is to come
is positive spiritual force, and what has gone is negativespiritual force. (Ibid., 26a) This refers to the operation of the universe. . . . The traces are those of activity and tranquillity, coming andgoing, condensation and dispersion, and rising and falling. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 1: 11 b) ____________________ 30 . This is the doctrine of the Four Beginnings taught in the Book of Mencius, 2A:6 and 6A:6. 31 . In folk religion, kuei-shell are understood as spiritual beings who control the life of men. Neo-Confucianistsprefer to understand kuei-shell as spiritual forces through which creation operates. -109. In the hexagram po [to strip],32. all the yang elements are completely stripped off except the topmost undivided line in which the yang element remains. It is comparable to a large fruit that has not been eaten.33. According to principle, it will be reborn. If the topmost undivided line also changes, then the whole hexagram will become purely yin. But according to principle, yang cannot be exhausted. While changes take place above, growth takes place below. There is not a moment in between. The Sage34. clarifies this principle to show that the way of both yang and the superior man cannot be destroyed.
Someone says, "When the stripping is completed, there will be purely k'un [Earth].35. How can there be any more yang?"
I answer, "When hexagrams are matched with the months, the k'un corresponds to the tenth month.36. In terms of the ebb and flow of the material force, while yang is being stripped to form the hexagram k'un, at the same time it comes to form the hexagram fu [to return].37. Yang has never been exhausted. As it is about to be exhausted on top in the hexagram po, it grows at the bottom in the hexagram fu. Therefore the tenth month is called the month of yang,38. for fear that people might think it contains no yang. The same principle is true of the month of yin.39. Only the Sage did not say so.
The ebb and flow of yin and yang continue in cycles without stop. According to principle, they never get exhausted. As soon as yang changes and is about to be exhausted above, it grows below without a moment in between. The way of the superior man is the same as the way of yang. They cannot be destroyed. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:6b-7a)
____________________ 32.This is the twenty-third
hexagram in the Book of Changes. It consists of one undivided line on top, representing yang, and five divided lines below, representing yin. In the symbolism of the Book of Changes the positive and negative cosmic material forces, represented by undivided and divided lines respectively, move from the bottom to the top. In this hexagram all forces have become negative except that represented by the topmost line. 33.Paraphrasing a comment on the hexagram in the Book of Changes. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 106. 34.Referring to Confucius. According to Chinese tradition, Confucius wrote the commentaries on the hexagrams. 35.This is the second hexa
gram, which consists of six divided lines. 36.According to the scheme of
Changes, the fourth month corresponds to the hexagram ch'ien [Heaven; male], which consists of six undivided or yang lines. In every month one yang line changes into a divided or yin line, so that by the ninth month there are five divided lines in the corresponding hexagram and only one undivided line on top. This is the po hexagram. In the next month the remaining yang line will change into a yin line, so that all the yang elements will be stripped off. 37.Hexagram no. 24, with
five divided lines on top and one undivided line at the bottom. 38.In the Erh-ya, sec. 8, it is said, "The tenth month is yang." 39.That is, the fourth month. -11-
Tung Chung-shu40. says, "The tenth month is purely yin. For fear that people might think it contains no yang, it is called the month of yang. The fourth month is purely yang. For fear that people might think it contains no yin, it is therefore called the month of yin."41. From this it can be seen that the fourth month has been called the month of yin. It is simply because he based his assertion on the Erh-ya [Correct meanings of terms] and the commentary on the Book of Changes that Master Ch'eng said the Sage did not say so. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 1:16b-17a)
10. When one yang element returns at the bottom,42. it shows that the mind of Heaven and Earth is to produce things.43. Former scholars have all contended that the mind of Heaven and Earth is seen in tranquillity. They did not know that the mind of Heaven and Earth is seen in the beginning of activity. How can those ignorant of the Way know this?44.
To return is to go back to the source. This source is the mind of Heaven and Earth.... This source is quiet and absolute nonbeing. Therefore, when activity ceases on earth, the mind of Heaven and Earth can be seen. ( Wang Pi, commentary on the fu hexagram in the Chou-i cheng-i)45.
The mind of Heaven and Earth is always present. Only because it is tranquil people do not see it. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 71:12a)
The character of Heaven and Earth is to produce and reproduce. Origination, Flourishing, Advantage, and Firmness are all indications of the mind of Heaven and Earth. When it is tranquil and has returned to its original state, it exists as substance before it is manifested. When it is active and penetrates everything, it exists as function after it has manifested itself. When one yang element returns, its growth is very subtle and of course seems to be tranquil. But it is the incipient state of activity. Its force increases every day, and all things depend on it for their beginning. In this we can see, when the Mandate of Heaven begins to operate and the process of creation and development starts, that the mind of Heaven and Earth is to produce and reproduce without cease. Although the substance of this mind, tranquil and unmanifested, is everywhere, it is not revealed. Therefore Master Ch'eng considers the beginning activity as the mind of Heaven and Earth. He mentions function to include substance. ( Ibid., 12a-b)
Fundamentally, the mind of Heaven and Earth makes no distinction
____________________ 40.For Tung Chung-shu, see below, ch. 2, n. 104. 41. Ku-wen yüan, 11:4a. 42.In the fu hexagram the un
divided line below indicates that yang has returned at the bottom. 43.In the Book of Changes, commentary on the hexagram, it is said, "In the act of returning, we see the mind of Heaven and Earth." Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 233. 44.In the opinion of Miyake Shōsai ( Kinshi roku hikki, ch. 1), this section belongs in ch. 4. 45. Wang was under the influence of Taoism, which considers quietude and nonbeing as the Ultimate State. As Iijima Tadao has pointed out ( Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p. 30), most scholars had followed Wang Pi's commentary, but Ch'eng I opposed it. -12between, activity and tranquillity, Furthermore, activity may be, based on tranquillity after all.However, in the state of tranquillity the material force of yang is dormant and there is no clue to themind of the universe, and when the force of yang grows and is strong and all things flourish, the mindis not concentrated and cannot be seen. Therefore it can be seen only when the force is about toterminate and yet continues and when tranquillity reaches its limit and activity begins. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:7a-b) 11. Humanity is universal impartiality; it is the foundation of goodness. The man of humanity regards Heaven and Earth and all things as one body.46. Therefore humanity iscalled universal impartiality. The Four Beginnings47.
and all goodness are led and controlled byhumanity. Therefore it is called the foundation of goodness. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:14) 12. Wherever there is influence, there is necessarily response. All actions are influences. As there is influence,there is necessarily response. The response becomes influence, and the influence becomes response again, andtherefore there will be no end. Let those who know the Way understand this principle of influence and responsein silence. Everything in the universe is governed by the principle of influence and response, whether universalcreation or human affairs. Take rain and shine, for instance. Rain does not mean simply raining. Ithas the influence to bring about shine. Shine does not mean simply shining. It is a response and hasthe influence to bring about rain. Thus, as there is influence, there is always response, and theresponse in turn becomes influence. The changes of winter and summer, and day and night, all followthis principle. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 72:3a) One thing causes another. This is the process of influence and response. The second thing causes athird. The second thing is influence, while the third is response. ( Ibid., 73:4b) 13. According to the principle of the world, a thing will begin again when it ends, and can therefore last foreverwithout limit. Being long lasting does not mean being in a fixed and definite state. Being fixed and definite, athing cannot last long. The way to be constant is to change according to circumstances. Unless one knows theWay, how can he understand the constant and lasting Way of the universe48 and the constant and lastingprinciple of the world? ____________________ 46. Quoting Ch'eng Hao, I-shu, 2A:2a. 47. See above, n. 30.
48 The Chinese phrase can be interpreted this way or as "the way by which the universe is constant andlasting." This is also true of the next phrase. Among Japanese translators, Iijima Tadao ( Gendai goyakukinshi roku, p. 31) and YanadaKatsunobu Knowing the Way means to know that the Way is naturally like this. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu luchi-chieh, 1:8a) The constant and lasting Way of the universe refers to creation and transformation, such as morningand evening, and summer and winter, while the constant and lasting principle of the world refers tohuman affairs, such as serving or not serving in the government, and speaking or keeping silent. (Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 1:18b) To last long is not to be fixed. Therefore morning necessarily leads to evening and evening leads backto morning. . . . In the case of man, he drinks hot soup in the winter but cold water in the summer.When it is time to accept office, he accepts office, and when it is time to retire, he retires. If today oneagrees with his superior on principles, he follows his superior. If tomorrow he disagrees, he begs leave.Only when one changes according to the situation can he last long. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 72:11a) Someone asked, "If a thing has already changed, how can it be called longlasting?" Chu Hsi answered, "To go in and out is to be permanent. The rotation of the four seasons makesheaven and earth long-lasting. If there is only cold without heat, or heat without cold, how can they belong-lasting?" ( Ibid., 97:14a) 14. "Man's nature is originally good. Why is it that some people cannot change?"49. I answer, "In terms of their nature all men are good. In terms of their physical nature,50. there are the moststupid who do not change.51. The most stupid are of two kinds, those who do violence to their own nature andthose who throw themselves away.52. If one manages himself with goodness, he can
always change. Even themost beclouded and most stupid can gradually polish themselves and advance. Only those who do violence totheir own nature refuse to change because they do not believe in it, and only those who throw themselves awaycut themselves off because they do not want to do anything. Even if a ____________________ 48 Katsunobu ( Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shōsetsu, p. 67) have accepted the latter, while Katō Jōken (Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p. 12) and Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 20) have acceptedthe former. The former interpretation agrees with the Chinese interpretation, and Father Olaf Graf iscorrect in following it ( Djin-sï lu, II, 53). 49. Abei Bōsan ( Kinshi roku kummō shūso, 1:20b) understands this to mean that some people cannot changein their hearts, although they change on the surface. 50. The word ts'ai is used here in a different sense from that in the Book of Mencius, 6A:6, where it means"natural endowment." As Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 1) has pointed out, "the capacity herereferred to is the capacity conditioned by one's physical endowment. It is the same as physical nature. YehTs'ai is wrong in distinguishing ts'ai from physical nature in his commentary." Father Graf ( Djin-sü lu, II,53, and III, 115) is correct in translating ts'ai as "Physis bedingten Analgen." 51. Confucius says, "Only the most intelligent and the most stupid do not change" ( Analects, 17:3). 52. These are Mencius' terms. See the Book of Mencius, 4A:10.
-14sage should live among them, he could not influence them so they could enter into goodness. These are whatChung-ni [Confucius] called the most stupid. Those who do violence to their nature destroy themselves. They think they cannot abide by humanityand practice righteousness. They say they cannot do these things, cut themselves off, and refuse toact.... Throwing oneself away means that because one's will is weak and his interest inferior, hewillingly cuts himself off, thinking that he cannot abide by humanity or practice righteousness.Although he is told about the excellence of humanity and righteousness, he believes he cannot abideby and practice them. You cannot do anything with such people. Those who do violence to theirnature do so because of their strength, whereas those who throw themselves away do so because oftheir weakness. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 56:6a) Refusing to do means that the most stupid do not believe in the principle that people can change, andnot wanting to do means that they know that in principle people can change but that they themselvescannot do so. ( Mao Hsing-lai , Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 1:19a-b) "However, people in the world who do violence to their nature or throw themselves away are not all necessarilybeclouded or stupid. In most cases they are strong and violent, with superior ability and strength, like Hsin ofthe Shang dynasty.53. The Sage called such people most stupid because they cut themselves off from goodness.In the final analysis, they are truly stupid." "Since they are the most stupid, how can they make any change on the surface?"54. I answer, "Although in their hearts they cut themselves off from the principle of goodness, they are afraid ofpunishment and want to minimize their offense. In this they are similar to others. Precisely because they aresimilar to others we know that their failure is not due to the fault of their nature." Habits become one's second nature, causing one to get further and further from his nature. Thus inprinciple some people do not change. But human nature is originally good. Even the most wickedperson, if he can be good for
one day, becomes a good man for that day. Is it possible that one cannotchange? Ch'eng I's theory should be followed. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yülei, 47:2a) Confucius said that some people definitely do not change. They do not do so because of their physicalnature. How can we say that they can change? ____________________ 53. Private name of King Chou ( 1175- 1112 B.C.) who is so described in the Shih chi, 3:10b. Historians have heldhis evil deeds responsible for the fall of the Shang dynasty ( 1751-1112 B.C.). 54. In the commentary on hexagram no. 49, ko [change], it is said that the inferior man changes his face. SeeLegge, tr., Yi King, p. 168. -15They are called the most stupid, and the reason why they have become most stupid is because of theirphysical nature. Confucius' theory is perfect, whereas Cheng I's doctrine is only seventy percentcomplete. ( Ibid., 2a-b) Someone asked, "In your Lun-yü chi-chu [Collected commentaries on the Analects]55. you said thatamong people whose physical natures are nearly alike there are some who definitely cannot change,but at the same time you quoted Master Ch'eng's theory that all people can change. There seems to bea contradiction." Chu Hsi answered, "As Confucius said, there are people who cannot change. For example, Yao andShun56. cannot be changed into Chieh57. and Chou. Nor can Chieh or Chou be changed into Yao orShun. Confucius merely said this much. Ch'eng I, however, extended Confucius' theory. We mustrealize that while they differ in some respects, the fact remains that they agree in other respects.58. (Ibid., 2b)
15. That which is inherent in things is principle. That by which things are managed is moral principles.59. All things have their principle, for principle is not outside things or affairs. That by which things aremanaged is moral principles. I means to be proper. It means to handle a thing in the proper wayaccording to the principle of right and wrong.... Take this table. According to principle it can holdthings. When I use it accordingly, that is i. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:5b-6a) 16. Activity and tranquillity have no beginning and yin and yang have no starting point. Unless one knows theWay, how can he understand this? Activity and tranquillity push each other, and yin and yang change subtly. There is no interruption. Ifthere is interruption, there will be a beginning or a starting point. Since there is no interruption, it issaid that there is neither a beginning nor a starting point. ( Yeh Ts'ai Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:16) This means that yang, which is activity, and yin, which is tranquillity, operate in a cycle without endand no starting point can be found. (Shih Huang, Wutzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 1:15b) "No beginning" means a cycle while "no starting point" means a continuous operation. ( Ch'en Chih,Chin-ssu lu tsa-wen, 1:21a) ____________________ 55. Ch. 8, commenting on the Analects, 17:2. 56. Legendary sage-emperors of the third millennium B.C. 57. Wicked king (r. 1802-1752 B.C.) of the Hsia dynasty. 58.
Probably what Chu Hsi meant is that in actual fact certain people cannot change because of theirlimitations in physical nature and that this was where Confucius and Ch'eng I agreed. But Chu Hsi believedthat people can transform their physical nature (see below, ch. 2, sec. 100) and therefore potentially allpeople can change. In this respect, Chu Hsi seems to say, Confucius and Ch'eng I would agree. 59. The Chinese word for this, i, is ordinarily translated as "righteousness." It means "what is proper orcorrect," and denotes moral principles. -1617. Humanity is the correct principle of the world. When the correct principle is lost, there will be no order andconsequently no harmony.60. This explains the Analects, 3:3, which says, "If a man is not humane, what has he to do withceremonies? If a man is not humane, what has he to do with music?" ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 1:7b) The loss of the correct principle refers to the mind, while the absence of order and harmony refers tohuman affairs. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 1:20b) This is well said except that the idea is too general. It should have been said that humanity is theperfect virtue of the original mind and consequently there is the Principle of Nature [T'ien-li] in it. Ifthe Principle of Nature is absent, human desires will run wild. How can there be any order or anyresultant harmony? ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 25:4a) 18. MASTER MING-TAO [ CH'ENG HAO] SAID: There is no creature in the world that does not possesssufficient principle. I have always thought that rulers and ministers, fathers and sons, brothers, and husbandsand wives have somewhat failed to fulfill their functions.61. 19. "Loyalty62. and faithfulness are the ways by which one advances his virtue."63. "Making uninterrupted effortall day"64. means that the superior man should "face the Lord in Heaven"65. all day. For "the operations
ofHeaven have neither sound nor smell."66. Their substance is called Change; their principle, the Way; and theirfunction, spirit. What Heaven imparts to man is called the nature. To follow the law of our nature is called theWay. Cultivation according to the Way is called education.67. Mencius went further68. and expounded thedoctrine of the strong moving power.69. Nothing more can be said. Man is born with the correct and great force of the universe, which is originally strong and moving....This passage says that the material force of Heaven and man is one, and therefore man can face theLord in Heaven all day. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:17-18) ____________________ 60. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi- chieh, 1:9b) mistakenly assigned this saying to Ch'eng Hao. 61. Fen, literally, "Share," that is, "One's lot," "one's duty," "what one should do according to principle." 62. Chung, meaning "to be sincere and loyal to one's moral nature." 63. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven; male]. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 410. 64. Ibid. 65.
Quoting the Book of Odes, no. 266. Sakurada Komon ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 1B:2a) is right in saying that,to Ch'eng Hao, "to face" means "to be a counterpart" and "the Lord in Heaven" means "the Principle ofNature." 66. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 33. 67. Ibid., ch. 1. 68. According to Kim Chang-saeng ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, in the Sagye sŏnsaeng chŏnsŏ, 17:21b), ch'ü means"herein" instead of "going further." 69. Book of Mencius, 2A:2. -17Therefore it is said, "Spiritual beings seem to be above and to be on the left and the right."70. No matter howmany important things there may be, they can be covered by the saying, "Such is the impossibility of hiding thereal."71. What penetrates the higher level and what penetrates the lower level are nothing but this realness. The real, or sincerity (ch'eng), is concrete principle, that is, the substance of loyalty and faithfulness.This concrete principle penetrates both Heaven and man. Therefore the superior man advances hisvirtue with loyalty and faithfulness and faces the Lord in Heaven all day. ( Ibid., 1:18) What exists before physical form [and is therefore without it] constitutes the Way. What exists after physicalform [and is therefore with it]72. constitutes concrete things.73. Nevertheless, though we speak in this way,concrete things are the Way and the Way is concrete things. So long as the Way obtains,74. it does not matterwhether it is present or future, or whether it is the self or others.75.
Although the operations of Heaven have neither sound nor smell, the substance of their opening andclosing, and transfigurations and transformations, is called Change. The principle that makes theseopenings and closings, and transfigurations and transformations, possible is the Way. Their manifestand obvious functioning is called spirit. All these concern Heaven. As to what is imparted to man, it iscalled the nature. To follow the law of our nature is called the Way. And to cultivate ourselvesaccording to the Way is called education. All these concern man. After such a penetrating discussionon both Heaven above and man below, there is nothing more to be said. The fact that spiritual beingsseem to be above and on the left and the right is the obvious indication or manifestation of thisprinciple. Whether things are important or not, they cannot escape from this principle. Heaven,Earth, and spiritual beings above cannot get away from it, and all the ten thousand things belowcannot get outside of it. Therefore it is said that what penetrates the higher level and what penetratesthe lower level is nothing but this.... It is not that outside of physical forms and concrete things thereis another principle. Time, extending to the entire past and present, and the ten thousand things andaffairs are nothing but this. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:6b)76. ____________________ 70. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 16. 71. Ibid. 72. These terms are extremely difficult to translate. See below, "On Translating Certain Chinese PhilosophicalTerms," pp. 362-63. 73. Ch'i, literally an instrument, a utensil. It is to be differentiated from ch'i which means "material force."
74. As Abei Bōsen has pointed out ( Kinshi roku kummō shūso, 1:21b), Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:18) iswrong in interpreting the phrase to mean "the Way is practiced by us." 75. In the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 75:23b, this passage is ascribed to Ch'eng I. 76. For Chu Hsi's further discussion on the subject, see Chu Tzu wen-chi, 51:26ab. -1820. Books on medicine describe paralysis of the four limbs as absence of humanity.77. This is an excellentdescription. The man of humanity regards Heaven and Earth and all things as one body. To him there isnothing that is not himself. Since he has recognized all things as himself, can there be any limit to hishumanity? If things are not parts of the self, naturally they have nothing to do with it. As in the case ofparalysis of the four limbs, the vital force no longer penetrates them, and therefore they are no longer parts ofthe self. Therefore, to be charitable and to assist all things is the function of a sage. It is most difficult todescribe humanity. Hence Confucius merely said that the man of humanity, "wishing to establish his owncharacter, also establishes the character of others, and wishing to be prominent himself, also helps others to beprominent. To be able to judge of others by what is in ourselves may be called the method of realizinghumanity."78. The hope was that by looking at it this way we might get at the substance of humanity. 21. "What is inborn is called nature."79. Nature is the same as material force and material force is the same asnature. They are both inborn. This section is a difficult one. We must read it carefully. Ch'eng I's explanation is not entirelysatisfactory. What is inborn is called the nature. That means our nature comes from birth, is mixedwith physical nature with which we are endowed, and is therefore not the nature which is identicalwith
principle. Past scholars who said that human nature is evil or that it is both good and evil didnot understand human nature. Ch'eng I was the first to say that nature is identical with principle.This is something no one had said before. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:11a) According to principle,80. there are both good and evil in the material force with which man is endowed atbirth. However, man is not born with these two opposing elements in his nature to start with. Due to thematerial force with which men are endowed some become good from childhood and others become evil. (Suchas Hou-chi, who had an outstanding appearance at birth, and Tzu-yüeh-chiao, of whom it ____________________ 77. Su-wen, sec. 42, 12:2a. The meaning of the title is not clear, but according to the commentary in the book(1:1a), su refers to the original substance, and therefore does not mean "purity" or "plainness," as it issometimes translated. 78. Analects, 6:28. 79. A saying by Kao Tzu (c. 420-c. 350 B.C.). See the Book of Mencius, 6A:3. 80. According to Sun Ch'i-feng ( Li- hsüeh tsung-ch'uan, 2:11b), the word "principle" should be "nature." -19was known at birth that he would destroy his own clan.)81. Man's nature is of course good, but it cannot be saidthat evil is not his nature. For what is inborn is called nature. "By nature man is tranquil at birth."82. The statepreceding this cannot be discussed. As soon as we talk about human nature, we already go beyond it. Actually,in our discussion of nature, we only talk about the idea
expressed as "What issues from the Way is good."83.This is the case when Mencius speaks of the original goodness of human nature. The fact that whatever issuesfrom the Way is good may be compared to the fact that water always flows downward. Water as such is thesame in all cases. Some water flows onward to the sea without becoming dirty. What human effort is neededhere? Some flows only a short distance before growing turbid. Some travels a long distance before growingturbid. Some becomes extremely turbid, some only slightly so. Although water differs in being clean or turbid,we cannot say that the turbid water [evil] ceases to be water [nature]. This being the case, man must make anincreasing effort at purification. With diligent and vigorous effort, water will become clear quickly. With slowand lazy effort, water will become clear slowly. When it is clear, it is then the original water. Not that clearwater has been substituted for turbid water, nor that turbid water has been taken out and left in a corner. Theoriginal goodness of human nature is like the original clearness of water. Therefore it is not true that twodistinct and opposing elements of good and evil exist in human nature and that each of them issues from it.This principle is the Mandate of Heaven. For anyone to obey and follow it is the Way. For anyone to follow itand cultivate it so that everyone attains his function [corresponding to his nature] is education. From theMandate of Heaven to education, one can neither augment nor diminish this function. Such is the case of Shun,who possessed his empire as if it were nothing to him.84. ____________________ 81. Ch'eng Hao's own note. Hou-chi was Emperor Shun's minister. He is described in the Book of Odes, no. 245,as having had an outstanding appearance at birth, thus indicating his inborn virtue. The reference to Tzuyüeh-chiao is found in the Tso chuan, Duke Hsüan, 4th year. 82. Book of Rites, "Record of Music." Cf. James Legge, tr., Li Ki, II, 96. 83.
Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 355. 84. Paraphrasing the Analects, 8:18. The idea is that Shun could do so because he obeyed and followed the Way.For Chu Hsi's comment on the selection of this section, see below, "The Chin-ssu lu and Its Commentaries,"p. 324. In the Chu Tzu wen-chi, 67:16b-18a, and the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 4:16a, this section is ascribed to Ch'engHao. -2022. Observe the disposition of all living things within heaven and earth. (This was the view of Chou Mao-shu.)85. In the creative process, all things grow and flourish. The process is allprevalent and the principle isorderly and penetrates everything. When one sees this, one's originally good mind grows abundantly. (Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:21) 23. The most impressive aspect of things is their spirit of life.86. This is what is meant by origination being thechief quality of goodness.87. This is humanity.88. The spirit of life begins with origination, and origination is humanity. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu luchi-chieh, 1:14b) In the growth of all things and in the operation of the Mandate of Heaven, from beginning to end,principle is always present; however, it is particularly easy to see when things begin to grow and itspurity has not been diffused. Origination, Flourishing, Advantage, and Firmness are all good, butOrigination is the chief quality of goodness, out of which Flourishing, Advantage, and Firmness havecome. Similarly, humanity, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are all good, but humanity is thefirst of all virtues. Righteousness, propriety, and wisdom all come out of it.89. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:19a-b) 24. What fills the whole body is the feeling of commiseration.
The feeling of commiseration pervades the whole body. Therefore the body feels it whenever there isany pain or itch. From this we can see that as Heaven, Earth, and the ten thousand things form onebody, the feeling of commiseration is found everywhere. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:22) The mind that combines Heaven, Earth, and all things as one body fills the whole body. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:14b) The feeling of commiseration pervades the whole body. It can be aroused anywhere. For example, wehave a feeling of commiseration when we see a child about to fall into a well. When we see an ant insimilar danger, do we not have the same feeling? ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 53:7a) Question: Does "What fills the whole body is the feeling of commiseration" mean merely not toundernourish it?90. [Master Ch'eng also said,] "The mind ____________________ 85. This is Ch'eng Hao's own insertion. Chou Tun-i, whose courtesy name was Mao-shu, would not cut the grassin front of his window because to him all things had the spirit of life. 86. Sheng-i, the life impulse, such as is found in plants when they begin to grow. 87. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven; male]. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 408. 88. In the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:19a, the saying is attributed to Ch'eng I. 89. See above, sec. 6. 90.
A reference to the "strong moving power" in the Book of Mencius, 2A:2. -21must remain in the body."91. Does that mean merely not to let the mind get lost?92. IS ch'iang-tzu[body] a colloquial Zen expression? Answer: Ch'iang-tzu merely means the body. It is a colloquialism but not a Zen expression. Thefeeling of commiseration filling the body merely means that from the beginning it pervades the wholebody. No idea of nourishment is involved. What you said about the second saying is correct. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu wen-chi, 58:33a-b) 25. According to the Principle of Heaven and Earth and all things, nothing exists in isolation but everythingnecessarily has its opposite. All this is naturally so and is not arranged or manipulated. I often think of this atmidnight and feel as happy as if I were dancing with my hands and feet. Someone asked, "According to the Principle of Heaven and Earth, nothing exists in isolation buteverything necessarily has its opposite. As there is activity, there is necessarily tranquillity, and asthere is yin, there is necessarily yang, and so on, including expansion and contraction, rising andfalling, and flourishing and decline. Has this been so from the beginning?" Chu Hsi answered, "It is so from the beginning." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:20a) Someone asked, "Opposition concerns things. How can principle have opposition?" Chu Hsi answered, "The opposition between the high and the low, that between the large and thesmall, and that between the clear and the turbid are examples." "These refer to things. What do you say?" Chu Hsi said, "As there is the high, there is the low, and as there is the large, there is the small. This istrue because of principle. In the things produced by Heaven, there cannot be yin alone; there mustalso be yang. And there cannot
be yang alone; there must also be yin. There must be opposition. Inthis opposition it is not principle that opposes, but according to principle there should be oppositionlike this." ( Ibid., 19b) 26. The Mean93. is the great foundation of the universe. It is the correct principle of all under heaven which isunalterable, central, and ____________________ 91. I-shu, 7:1a. 92. Referring to the Book of Mencius, 6A:11. 93. In the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1, the state before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy arearoused is called chung, which is best translated as "equilibrium." Here chung denotes the Mean.Practically all Japanese commentators, however, from Muro Kyūsō (Kinshi roku dōtai kōgi) down throughthe Yamazaki Ansai school, especially Asami Keisai (Kinshi roku dōtai hikki) and his followers, haveinterpreted it in the sense of equilibrium. -22straight.94. Any deviation95. from it is wrong. Only when one cultivates it with seriousness (ching)96. withoutfail97. can one fully preserve it. 27. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: Where there is impartiality, there is unity, and where there ispartiality, there is multiplicity. If people's minds are as different as their faces are, 98. it is solely due topartiality. People all agree on the correctness of moral principles. Therefore, when there is impartiality, there isunity. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 1:12b) When impartiality prevails, all things form one body, but when partiality or selfishness prevails, theself and the other become multiplicities [that is, they
become different and there will be obstaclesbetween them]. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 1:23) 28. Among things some are fundamental and others are secondary.99. But the fundamental and the secondaryshould not be distinguished as two different things. To sprinkle and sweep the ground and to answerquestions100 are things to be done, but there must be a reason why they should be done. To order one's mind and cultivate one's person are fundamental, and to sprinkle and sweep theground and to answer questions are secondary. All these are things to be done but there must be theprinciple according to which they should be done. Principle is neither refined nor coarse, and neitherfundamental nor secondary. It is the one thread that penetrates all. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 49:11b) ____________________ 100 Elementary steps in a boy's education. 94. This colloquialism, literally "stable, correct, and straight up and straight down," according to Chu Hsi ( ChuTzu yü-lei, 95:20b) describes the Mean. In interpreting it to mean "penetrating above and below," bothIijima Tadao ( Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p. 42) and Inoue Tetsujird ( Kinshi roku, 1:22) make it moremetaphysical than it is. Gonoi Ranshū is nearer to the truth when he says ( Kinshi roku kimon, pt. 1, p. 23a)that the expression describes a weighing balance, which is perfectly level. Satō Naokata ( Onzō roku, 8:43b)is correct in understanding it to mean "no deviation" but to him this means all the feelings in their naturalstate. 95. Ch'en Hang ( Chin-ssu lu pu-chu, 1:22b) interprets the word ch'u literally, as "to go out," and thinks thathere it means to pursue material things in the external world.
96. For a discussion of the translation of this term, see below, "On Translating Certain Chinese PhilosophicalTerms," pp. 361-62. 97. For "seriousness without fail," see below, ch. 4, n. 27. 98. Quoting the Tso chuan, Duke Hsiang, 31st year. 99. This is a variation of a sentence in the text of the Great Learning, which is better rendered, "Things havetheir beginnings and their ends." Pen-mo can mean "beginning and end," "root and branches," "essentialand subsidiary," "fundamental and secondary," etc. -23Question: Things to be done are human affairs, whereas the reason things should be done is a matterof the Principle of Nature. Is that correct? Answer: Generally correct. Think over the matter more thoroughly. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu well-chi,58:33b) 29. [Though he might have benefited the whole world] by plucking out a single hair, Yang Tzu [ 440-360 B.C.?]would not have done it, but if by rubbing his whole body smooth from head to foot [he could have benefited theworld], Mo Tzu [ 468-376 B.C.?] would have done it.101. Neither attained the Mean. As to Tzu-mo,102. whowanted to hold the Mean between the two, how could he do so? If one understands [principle], there isnaturally the Mean in each and every thing. It does not require anyone's manipulation. If it is manipulated, itceases to be the Mean. This is to say that the Mean in things comes naturally out of the Principle of Nature, and is notsomething that human effort can manipulate. For the Mean has no definite form. Depending onwhether a thing is big or small, and
important or unimportant, when it is right to do it, then to do itis the Mean, and when it is right not to do it, then not to do it is the Mean. Tzu-mo hesitated betweenthe two. His selfishness was not as sharp as that of Yang Tzu and his universal love was not as extremeas that of Mo Tzu. He held on to the middle.... He did not know what the Mean was. ( Chang Po-hsing,Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:16a-b) 30. "What is meant by the Mean according to the circumstance?"103. Answer: "The word chung104. is most difficult to understand. It must be understood silently and apprehendedin one's mind. Take the living room. Its center is the chung, but in the whole house the chung is not the centerof the living room but is the central hall. In the whole country, the chung is not the hall but is the center of thecountry. Other cases can be inferred analogically. For instance, at the time of Yü [r. 2183-2175 B.C.?] and Hou-chi it was in accord with the Mean ____________________ 101. Mencius severely attacked Yang Chu for his egoism and Mo Tzu for his universal love which ignores thedistinctions in human relations. See the Book of Mencius, 7A:26. No work by Yang Chu is extant. Forquoted passages in several Chinese works, see Fung Yu-lan, A History of Chinese Philosophy, tr. by DerkBodde , I, 133-34. For Mo Tzu, see The Ethical and Political Works of Motse, tr. by Y. P. Mei. 102. A worthy of the state of Lu. See Book of Mencius, 7A:26. 103. Literally, "the timely Mean." 104. Chung means both "the Mean" and "center." The two meanings are used interchangeably below.
-24that they passed their own doors three times without entering them, 105. but it would not have been in accordwith the Mean to dwell in a humble alley. At the time of Yen Tzu [ 521-490 B.C.] it was in accord with the Meanthat he dwelt in a humble alley, 106. but it would not have been in accord with the Mean for him to pass hisdoor three times without entering it. 31. Absence of falsehood is called sincerity. Not to deceive is not as good. ( Li Pang-chih said that not to deceiveis called sincerity. He therefore regards the absence of deception as sincerity. Hsü Chung-ch'e regardsceaselessness as sincerity. The Doctrine of the Mean says, "Absolute sincerity is ceaseless,"107. but does notexplain sincerity in terms of ceaselessness. Someone asked the Teacher about this. Thereupon the Teacheruttered these words.)108. Absence of falsehood is natural sincerity, whereas not to deceive is an effort. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:21a) Absence of falsehood means that one has no falsehood in himself. Therefore there is sincerity. Not todeceive implies that one has an object. Therefore it is not as good. ( Ibid., 21b) 32. Empty and tranquil, and without any sign, and yet all things are luxuriantly present.109. The state beforethere is any response to it is not an earlier one, and the state after there has been response to it is ____________________ 105. Hou-chi passed his own door without entering it because he was busy attending to agriculture. Yü, also aminister of Shun, did so because he was busy directing the floods to the sea. See Book of Mencius, 4B:29. 106. Yen Tzu, whose private name was Hui. He was Confucius' most virtuous pupil, lived in a chaotic age, andpreferred to dwell in a humble lane. Though he had
little to eat, he did not allow his joy to be affected by hishunger. Confucius praised him. See Book of Mencius, 4B:29. 107. Ch. 26. 108. Original note in the I-shu, 6:8b. Li Pang-chih ( 1032-1102), whose private name was Ch'ing-ch'en, was a viceminister of the imperial patent office about 1095. Pak I-gon ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, 1:17b) says that Li may havebeen Ch'eng I's son-in-law, but he has given no reason for this assertion. For Li's biography, see the Sungshih, ch. 328. Hsü Chung-ch'e ( 1028-1103), whose private name was Chi, was an expert in astronomy and aprofessor about 1088. For his biography, see the Sung ming-ch'en yen-hsing lu, 2d collection, ch. 14.Nakamura Shūsai ( Kinshi roku kōsetsu, 1:9a) has suggested that the passage preceding "someone" may bethat person's words. 109. Many Japanese historians of Chinese philosophy have asserted that this saying is of Buddhist origin, butnone has given any direct reference. Yamazaki Ansai, in his essay on the saying ( Zoku Yamazaki Ansaizenshū, pt. 2, pp. 78-86), listed all quotations of this saying and discussions of it by NeoConfucianists butdid not say a word about its Buddhist origin. The Daikanwa jiten, the fullest dictionary of its kind so far,gives only Ch'eng I as its author. -25not a later one. It is like a tree one hundred feet high. From the root to the branches and leaves, there is onethread running through all. We should not say that the state described above, which has neither form nor sign,depends on man to manipulate it when the occasion requires, in order to pull it into a track.110. Tracks are,after all, tracks. Actually there is only one track.111. Before there is the relationship between the ruler and the minister, there is the principle of thatrelationship. Before there is the relationship between the father and the son, there is the principle. Itis not that originally there is no
such principle and that only after there are such relationships is theprinciple put into them.... Before the existence of things and affairs, their principles are alreadypresent. All our handlings of affairs and responses to things, however momentary, are manifestationsof this principle. A track is a path on which one should travel. Such things as deep love on the part ofthe father and filial piety on the part of the son are but one track. They all come from one source. (Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:21b-22a) 33. As we look at something immediate to us, our own body, we can see that all principles are present in it. Theprinciple of expansion and contraction, and of coming and going, can be seen in our breathing. Expansion andcontraction, and coming and going, are nothing but principle. It is not necessary to take the breath that hasalready contracted and reconvert it to the breath that is about to expand. The principle of production andreproduction is naturally ceaseless. It is said in the commentary on the fu hexagram, "in seven days it willreturn."112. Fundamentally there is no interruption. When yang reaches its limit it will return and grow again.When a thing reaches its limit in one direction, it will turn back to the other direction.113. It is because of itsprinciple that it has to do so. As there is life, there must be death, and as there is the beginning, there must bethe end. Someone asked, "Expansion and contraction, and coming and going, are matters of the materialforce. Why did Master Ch'eng say they are nothing but principle?" Chu Hsi answered, "It is according to principle that the material force has to expand or contract andto come or to go." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:23a) ____________________ 110. Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:22a) interprets this to mean a particular way in which principle isdemonstrated. 111.
Chu Hsi ( ibid., 95:22b) thought that possibly the recorder of the saying had missed some words, but he wasnot sure. It is safe to say that the idea here is that, before a principle is demonstrated in specific affairs, it isalready present. 112. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 24, fu [to return]. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 233. 113. A quotation from the Ho-kuan Tzu, sec. 5, the next to last sentence. -26In breathing we can see the meaning of expansion and contraction, and of coming and going. Interms of principle, expansion and contraction, and coming and going, are naturally unceasing. Interms of material force, since the contracted breath is not used to make expanding breath, the theoryis different from the Buddhist doctrine of transmigration. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:25) In this section, principle and material force must be considered as one. In his commentary Yeh Ts'aidistinguished them, but that was not the original intention of Master Ch'eng. Take breathing as anillustration of expansion and contraction. To exhale is to expand and to inhale is to contract. Tobreathe in a quantity of air and keep it in the lungs is to contract, and to exhale a quantity of air andspread it outside is to expand. When Yeh Ts'ai equates going as contraction and coming as expansion,he is following the Book of Changes, in which the process of going up means to go or to contract whilethe process of going down means to come or to expand. This is different from the coming and going inbreathing. However, the principle is the same. ( Sata Issai, Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 1) 34. MASTER MING-TAO SAID: Within heaven and earth there is only the process of action and response.What else is there?114. In the changes and transformations of yin and yang, the growth and maturity of things, theinteraction of sincerity and insincerity, and the beginning and
ending of events, one is the influenceand the other, the response, succeeding each other in a cycle. This is why they never stop. ( Chu Hsi,Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:23a) 35. WHEN ASKED ABOUT HUMANITY, MASTER I-CH'UAN SAID: It is up to you gentlemen to thinkfor yourselves and personally realize what humanity is. Because Mencius said, "The feeling of commiseration iswhat we call humanity,"115. later scholars have therefore considered love to be humanity. But love is feeling,whereas humanity is the nature. How can love be taken exclusively as humanity? Mencius said that the feelingof commiseration is the beginning of humanity.116. Since it is called the beginning of humanity, it should notbe called humanity itself. It is wrong for Han Yü [ 768-824] to say universal love is humanity.117. A man ofhumanity, of course, loves universally. But one may not therefore regard universal love as humanity. ____________________ 114. In the I-shu, 15:7b, this saying is ascribed to Ch'eng I. Also cf. above, sec. 12. 115. Book of Mencius, 6A:6. 116. Ibid. 117. Han Yij, whose courtesy name was T'ui-chih, equated humanity with universal love in his "Yüan-tao." Seethe Han Ch'ang-li ch'üan-chi, 11:1a. For further information on Han Yü, see below, ch. 14, sec. 14. -2736. QUESTION: What is the difference between humanity and the mind?
ANSWER: The mind is comparable to seeds of grain. The nature of growth is jen118. [humanity]. When itdevelops on contact with the material force of yang, that is feeling. Because Mencius said that humanity is man's mind [or heart],119. students have taken the mind tomean humanity, without realizing that humanity and the heart are different.... Actually the heart isthe physical embodiment of principle. It is made of blood and vital force. It is comparable to seedswhich are made of the essence of the grain. But they contain in them the principle of growth. Becausethey have the nature to grow seeds sprout after they have been sown. But it is wrong to regard seedsas the nature to grow. Similarly, because the human heart possesses the nature to grow, it is naturallycommiserative and loving, but it is wrong to regard the heart as the nature to grow. For the nature togrow is humanity. Because humanity is present in the heart, it becomes active as soon as it is affected,just as seeds sprout as soon as they are affected by the material force of yang. This is feeling. ( ChangPo-hsing , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:19b-20a) 37. I [righteousness] denotes what is proper and correct. Li [propriety, ceremonies] denotes distinctions. Chih[wisdom] denotes knowledge. What does jen denote? Scholars have said that it denotes consciousness or thedistinguishing characteristic of man.120. They are all wrong. One should combine Confucius' and Mencius'teachings on jen and thoroughly search for its general meaning. It will not be too late if one finds it in two orthree years. 38. The nature is the same as principle. Traced to its source, none of the principles in the world is not good.Before they are aroused, have pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy ever been found to be not good? As they arearoused and attain due measure and degree, they are good, no matter in what connection. When they arearoused and do not attain due measure or degree, then they are not good.121. Therefore whenever we speak ofgood and evil, good always precedes evil. Whenever we speak of good and evil fortune, good fortune always ____________________ 118.
Yen means "humanity," and also the quality in all things that makes them grow. 119. Book of Mencius, 6A:11. 120. Hsieh Liang-tso (see below, ch. 2, n. 85) defined jen as "consciousness," such as the awareness of pain in thecase of illness ( Shang-ts'ai yü-lu, pt. 1, 2b). In the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 20, it is said that "Humanity is[the distinguishing characteristic of] man." 121. This sentence is not found in the original source, I-shu, 22A:11a, or the Chu Tzu i-shu edition but in othereditions, most Chinese commentaries, and Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 5, comment on the Book ofMencius, 3A:1. -28prececies evil fortune. Anct whenever we speak of rignt and wrong, right always precedes wrong. (In the Ichuan it is said: "Completion precedes destruction. Destruction does not precede construction. Gain precedesloss. Without gain, how can there be loss?")122. "The nature is the same as principle." None since Confucius and Mencius has ever had this insight.None from ancient times on has ever made such a bold statement. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 59:13a) 39. QUESTION: Are there good and evil in the mind? ANSWER: What is received by man and things from Heaven is called destiny. What is inherent in things123. iscalled principle. What is endowed in man is called nature. And as the master of the body it is called the mind.In reality they are all one. The mind is originally good. As it is aroused and expresses itself in thoughts andideas, there is good and evil. When the mind has been aroused, it should be described in terms of feelings, andnot as the mind in
itself. For instance, water is water. But as it flows and branches off, some to the east andsome to the west, it is called streams and branches. I fear that there is something questionable about this paragraph. Every human activity is an act of themind. Even self-abandonment, moral deflection, depravity, and wild license are activities of the mind.Good and evil are similar to turning one's palm. Turning away from the good side is evil. Not to holdthe hand steady is also evil. For example, if when one should have the feeling of commiseration he hasthe feeling of shame and dislike, this is incorrect. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:23b) 40. Nature comes from Heaven, whereas capacity comes from material force. When material force is clear,capacity is clear. When material force is turbid, capacity is turbid. Capacity may be good or evil, but the natureis always good. Nature is based on principle, and principle is always good. Capacity is based on material force. Theendowment of material force is unequal, and is therefore in some cases good and in other cases evil. (Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:28) Master Ch'eng's interpretation of ts'ai [as capacity] is slightly different ____________________ 122. Ch'eng I, I chuan, 1:51a. The passage in parentheses is Chu Hsi's note in the Chin-ssu lu. This note isomitted in Yeh Ts'ai's version ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:27) and in many commentaries. 123. The text has i [moral principles) but Chu Hsi thought it should be wu [things]. In the Ho-nan Ch'eng-shih i-shu, p. 226, there is a note by Chu Hsi to this effect. -29from the meaning in the Book of Mencius.124.. Mencius refers to what comes from one's originalnature, and therefore regards ts'ai as always good, whereas
Master Ch'eng refers to what comes fromphysical nature; therefore one's capacity may be strong or weak, and enlightened or beclouded. ( ChuHsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 11, comment on the Book of Mencius, 6A:6) 41. The nature is naturally self-sufficient. Faithfulness merely means to have this self sufficiency. Therefore theFour Beginnings do not include faithfulness.125. If the feeling of commiseration or the feeling of shame and dislike, for example, is genuine, that isfaithfulness. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 53:20a) Spoken of separately, humanity, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are all naturally self-sufficient.Truly to have them means faithfulness. Thus faithfulness occupies no fixed position. Outside thesefour virtues there is not another one called faithfulness. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:28) 42. The mind is the principle of production. As there is the mind, a body must be provided for it so it canproduce. The feeling of commiseration is the principle of production in man.126. The mind of Heaven and Earth to produce things is jen. In man's endowment, he receives this mindfrom Heaven and Earth, and thus he can produce. Therefore man's feeling of commiseration is also aprinciple of production. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:25a) 43. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID: As the Great Vacuity, 127. material force is extensive andvague. Yet it ascends and descends and moves in all ways without ever ceasing. Here lies the subtle, incipientactivation of reality and unreality, of motion and rest, and the beginning of yin and yang, as well as theelements of strength and ____________________ 124. Book of Mencius, 6A:6. 125.
The Four Beginnings taught in the Book of Mencius, 2A:6, are: the feeling of commiseration as thebeginning of humanity, the feeling of shame and dislike as the beginning of righteousness, the feeling ofdeference and compliance as the beginning of propriety, and the feeling of right and wrong as the beginningof wisdom. It should be added that there is a set of Five Constant Virtues which includes these four andfaithfulness. The set was formulated to match the Five Agents, namely, Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, andEarth. It does not alter the meaning of the Four Beginnings. The original source, the I-shu, 9:1a, has as thelast word hsing [nature] instead of hsin [faithfulness], obviously a misprint. 126. A great deal of doubt has been raised about this passage. Chu Hsi thinks some words are missing, so thatthe first sentence is not completely clear ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:24b-25a). But when he was asked why heincluded it in the Chin-ssu lu he replied, "How dare I not do so?" ( Ibid.). 127. For the translation of this term, see below, "On Translating Certain Chinese Philosophical Terms," p. 365. -30weakness. Yang that is clear ascends upward, whereas yin that is turbid sinks downward. As a result of theircontact and influence and of their integration and disintegration, winds and rains, snow and frost come intobeing. Whether it be the countless variety of things in their changing configurations or the mountains andrivers in their fixed forms, the dregs of wine or the ashes of fire, there is nothing from which something cannotbe learned. 44. Material force moves and flows in all directions and in all manners. Its two elements unite and give rise tothe concrete. Thus the multiplicity of things and human beings is produced. In their ceaseless successions thetwo elements of yin and yang constitute the great principles of the universe.
Take day and night. Their endless succession is a case of the two elements of yin and yang at work.What proceeds from them in all directions and in all manners is the material force that moves andflows, by which the multiplicity of things and human beings is produced. I have always compared thisprocess with that of grinding flour. It comes out on all sides, layer after layer. This is just like thematerial force of the universe operating continuously without end, producing human beings andthings, stage after stage. The material force may be coarse or refined, and therefore men and thingsmay be balanced or unbalanced, refined or coarse. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:1b) 45. Heaven forms the substance of all things and nothing can be without it.128. It is like humanity, which formsthe substance of all human affairs and is present everywhere. Of the three hundred rules of ceremonies and thethree thousand rules of conduct,129. none is without humanity. "Great Heaven clearly sees you wherever youmay go. Great Heaven clearly sees you wherever you may leisurely walk.130. There is nothing of which [thePrinciple of Nature] does not form the substance. This is to say that the Way of Heaven is everywhere, thus making clear the idea that Heaven forms thesubstance of all things. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 1:36b) ____________________ 128. Paraphrasing the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 16. T'i-wu can mean either "forming the substance of things" or"entering into things." According to Chu Hsi's commentary on the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 16, in hisChung-yung changchü, the former meaning applies here. 129. As referred to in the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 27. 130. Book of Odes, no. 254.
-3146. The negative and positive spiritual forces are the spontaneous activity131. of the two material forces.132. This means that the spiritual forces are results of the natural operation of principle. The two materialforces are yin and yang. Spontaneous activity means that expansion and contraction, and coming andgoing, are all natural operations of principle. ( Yin Hui-i, in Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chichieh,1:24b) Coming and going, and contraction and expansion, are all natural according to principle, without anymanipulation or deliberate arrangement. Hence they are called spontaneous activities. ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 63:26a) The two material forces can naturally come and go, and contract and expand. ( Ibid., 28b) Ch'eng I's saying that the positive and negative spiritual forces are traces of creation133. is not as goodas Chang Tsai's saying that the positive and negative spiritual forces are spontaneous activity. MasterCh'eng's theory is good, but the two forces seem to be merged one with the other. Master Chang'stheory is clear. Yin and yang are clearly present. ( Ibid., 26b) 47. When a thing first comes into existence, material force comes gradually into it to enrich its vitality. As itreaches its maturity, material force gradually reverts to where it came from, wanders off, and disperses. Itscoming means positive spiritual force (shen), because it is expanding (shen). Its reversion means negativespiritual force (kuei), because it is returning (kuei). 48. One's nature is the one source of all things and is not one's own private possession. It is only the great manwho is able to know and practice its principle to the utmost. Therefore, when he establishes himself, he willhelp others establish themselves. He will share his knowledge with all. He will love universally. When heachieves something, he wants others to achieve the same. As for those who are so obstructed themselves as notto follow this principle of mine, nothing can be done.
The obstruction means that one thinks only of himself. ( Chiang Yung, Chinssu lu chi-chu, 1:17b) ____________________ 131. The term liang-neng [spontaneous activity] comes from the Book of Mencius, 7A: 15, where it is betterrendered "innate ability." Basically it means "natural ability." It is good because human nature, accordingto Mencius, is originally good. The spontaneous activity of yin and yang is also good, since it follows thePrinciple of Nature, which is good. 132. This is one of the most famous Neo-Confucian sayings. It rejects the traditional meaning of kuei-shen as"spiritual beings" and gives them the naturalistic and rationalistic meaning of "spiritual forces." 133. See above, sec. 8. -3249. Because there is unity, there is the wonderful functioning of the spirit. For example, the four limbs of thehuman body are one thing. Therefore, when any part is touched, the whole body is conscious of it. It does notneed to wait for the mind to go to the other parts before they are conscious of the contact. This is what ismeant by the saying, "When acted on, it immediately penetrates all things. It reaches without going and goesrapidly without hurrying."134. Chang Tsai has stated the matter very well. We must read carefully. But what is cited here is not thesame as in the original. When we compiled this anthology, Lü Po-kung did not agree to cite allChang's words, and therefore subsequently I did not include them. To the sentence, "Because there isunity, there is the wonderful functioning of the spirit," Chang Tsai himself added a note which says,"Because there are the two, spirit is unfathomable."135. There is only this one thing, but it operatesthrough all things. What we called
yin and yang, contraction and expansion, coming and going, goingup and coming down, and what operates in the thousands and tens of thousands of things, are noneother than this one thing. Therefore he said that as the two are present, spirit is unfathomable. To thesentence, "Because there are the two, there is transformation," he attached a note which says, "Theyextend the one into operation."136. In regard to everything in the universe, with unity alonetransformation is impossible. Only if there are two can there be transformation. For example, onlywith yin and yang can there be the creation and transformation of the myriad things. Although thetwo are two different entities, essentially their function is to extend the operation of the one. ( ChuHsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:6b) The one means one principle, but it functions in two different ways. Take yin and yang, for example.Within yin there is yang and within yang there is yin. When yang reaches its limit, yin is engendered,and when yin reaches its limit, yang is engendered. This is why the wonderful transformation isinfinite. ( Ibid., 6b) Unity means purity and spirit means wonderful functioning penetrating everything. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:30) The mind of the sage is single and pure and penetrates everything whenever it is acted on. ( Yin Hui-i,in Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:25b) The material forces of yin and yang are fundamentally one. They are distinguished as the twosubstances of yin and yang, but one embraces two. Therefore there is the unfathomable spiritualmystery. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 1:33b) ____________________ 134. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 10. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 370. For Lü Tsu-ch'ien'srefusal to include the whole passage, see below, "On the Chin-ssu lu and Its Commentaries," p. 325. 135.
This is the note attached to the original source, in the Cheng-meng, ch. 2, Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 2:5b. 136. Ibid. -3350. The mind commands 137. man's nature and feelings. The nature is substance, while feelings are function. Both come from the mind, and therefore themind can command them. To command them is like commanding troops, that is, being their master.( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:8a) "Before the mind is aroused, it is the nature. After it is aroused, it becomes feelings. Is that correct?" Chu Hsi answered, "This is the idea." (Ibid., 9b) 51. Everything has its nature. As there is the material force, there must be the principle. Men and all things share this principle. (Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 1:31) Because it may be free, open, or completely blocked, there is a difference between man and things. Theobstruction may be slight or heavy. Hence there is a distinction between the intelligent and the stupid.138. Thecompletely blocked is firm and cannot be opened. Heavy obstruction can be removed, but only with difficulty.Slight obstruction can be removed easily. One whose obstruction can be removed easily can penetrate the Wayof Heaven and become one with the sage. ____________________ 137. The word t'ung means both "to combine" and "to direct." Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 1) arguesthat here it means "to combine," for "the nature commands the mind and the mind commands the body."Chu Hsi does say
that t'ung means "to combine" ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:8a) but he repeatedly says that here itmeans "to command," in the sense of commanding troops. Sakurada Komon was on the right track when heobserved ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 1:57a) that Chu Hsi's interpretation of t'ung as "combining" was not hisfinal conclusion. 138. Abei B6san ( Kinshi roku kumm5 shūso, 1:41a) and Sakurada Komon ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 1:57b) thinkthat the free and open are men while the obstructed and blocked are animals, and Sawada Takeoka ( Kinshiroku setsuryaku, 1:81a) thinks that obstruction and the removal of obstruction refer to the comparisonamong men, while being blocked or open refers to the comparison between man and animals. All these areclearly farfetched analyses. -34II: THE ESSENTIALS OF LEARNING YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: On Learning. 111 sections. In this chapter are generallydiscussed the essentials of learning, for, having honored the moral nature, one must pursue inquiryand study. Having understood the substance of Tao and having known one's direction and objective,one can study the essentials of learning. 1. MASTER LIEN-HSI [CHOU TUN-I] SAID: The sage aspires to become Heaven, the worthy aspires tobecome a sage, and the gentleman aspires to become a worthy. I-yin1. and Yen Yüan2. were great worthies. I-yin was ashamed that his ruler would not become a sage-emperor like Yao and Shun, and if a single person inthe empire was not well adjusted, he felt that he himself was as disgraced as if he had been whipped in public.3.Yen Yüan"did not transfer his anger; he did not repeat a mistake,"4. and "for three months there would benothing in his mind contrary to humanity (jen)." If one desires what I-yin desired and learns what Yen Tzu5.learned, he will become a sage if he reaches the highest degree and a worthy if he reaches the proper degree.Even if he does not, he will not miss a good reputation.
2. The Way of the Sage is to be heard through the ear, to be preserved in the heart, to be deeply embraced thereto become one's moral character, and to become one's activities and undertakings when it is put into practice.Those who are engaged purely in literary expression are vulgar people. 3. [CH'ENG I] Someone asked:"In the school of Confucius there were three thousand pupils. Yen Tzu alonewas praised as loving to learn.6 It is not that the three thousand scholars had not studied and mastered ____________________ 1. I-yin was a minister who helped T'ang found the Shang dynasty. T'ang's grandson, T'ai-chia (r. 1738-1727B.C.) was not a good ruler and banished Iyin. 2. See above, ch. 1, sec. 30. 3. Quoting the Book of History, "Charge to Yüeh," pt. 3. Cf. James Legge , tr., The Shoo King, p. 262. 4. Analects, 6:2. 5. Yen Yüan. 6. Analects, 6:2. -35the Six Arts such as the Book of Odes and the Book of History.7. Then what was it that Yen Tzu alone loved tolearn?"
MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID:"It was to learn the way of becoming a sage." "Can one become a sage through learning?" "Yes." "What is the way to learn?" "From the essence of life accumulated in heaven and earth, that which receives the Five Agents8. in theirhighest excellence becomes man. Heaven and earth accumulate the essence of the two material forces and can therefore produce the myriadthings. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 30:14b) "That which receives the Five Agents in their highest excellence becomes man." Only the Five Agents, and notyin and yang, are mentioned because man requires the Five Agents to be produced. Yin and yang are inherentin the Five Agents. (Ibid., 15a) "His original nature is pure and tranquil. Before it is aroused, the five moral principles of his nature, calledhumanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness,9. are complete. As his physical form appears, itcomes into contact with external things and is aroused from within. As it is aroused from within, the sevenfeelings, called pleasure, anger, sorrow, joy, love, hate, and desire, ensue. As feelings become strong andincreasingly reckless, his nature becomes damaged.10. Someone asked, "How can one's nature be called damaged?" Chu Hsi answered, "Of course nature cannot be damaged that way. But when man disobeys principle andfoolishly acts as he pleases, he hurts his nature." (Ibid., 15b) "For this reason the enlightened person controls his feelings so that they will be in accord with the Mean. Herectifies his mind and ____________________ 10.
As by cutting a hole through it. 7. The Six Arts can mean either ceremonies, music, archery, carriage driving, writing, and mathematics, orthe Six Classics, namely, the Book of Odes, the Book of History, the Book of Changes, the Book of Rites, theBook of Music, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. (See Introduction, n. 8.) Yeh Ts'ai has adopted theformer interpretation ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:2), and a number of Japanese commentators have followedhim. But as Utsunomiya Ton'an has said ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 2:3a), here they should mean the Six Classics.Abei Bōsan says ( Kinshi roku kummō shūsu, 2:2b) that the expression "Odes, History, Six Arts" simplymeans the Six Classics, such as the books of Odes and History. 8. See above, ch. 1, sec. 1. 9. See above, ch. 1, sec. 41. -36nourishes his nature.11. The stupid person does not know how to control them. He lets them loose until they aredepraved, fetter his nature, and destroy it. In the way of learning, the first thing is to be clear in one's mind andto know where to go12. and then to act vigorously in order that one may arrive at sagehood. This is what ismeant by 'sincerity resulting from enlightenment.'13. "The enlightened...nourishes his nature" deals with general principles, while "In the way oflearning...arrive at sagehood" deals with details. (Ibid., 14b) To be clear in the mind and know where to go is a matter of investigation of principle, whereas topractice vigorously in order to arrive at sagehood is a matter of practice. (Ibid., 16a) "The way to make the self sincere lies in having firm faith in the Way. As there is firm faith in the Way, one willput it into practice with determination.
When one puts it into practice with determination, he will keep itsecurely. Then humanity, righteousness, loyalty, and faithfulness will never depart from his heart. 'In momentsof haste, he acts according to them. In times of difficulty and confusion, he acts according to them.'14. Andwhether he is at home or outside, speaking or silent, he acts according to them. As he holds on to them for along time without fail, he will then be at home with them and, in his movements and expressions, he will alwaysbe acting in a proper manner, and no depraved thought will arise in him. This is the reason ____________________ 11. In the original text in the Wen-chi, 4:1a, there is here the sentence "This is therefore called turning thefeeling into the original nature," and after "destroy it," there is the sentence "This is therefore called turningthe nature into the feeling." These have been deleted, probably by Chu Hsi. The first sentence comes fromWang Pi's commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien, in the Book of Changes. According to KusumotoMasatsugu (in his letter to Yamazaki Michlo quoted in the latter's Kinshi roku kōhon shakugi, p. 38),Ch'eng I later regretted its quotation here and changed it in his I chuan, for to turn feelings into natureimplies the Taoistic idea that, while nature is good, feelings are evil, a position Neo-Confucianists would notaccept. Although Ch'eng I did not specifically refer to Wang Pi's saying in the I chuan, and therefore did notmake any explicit change, it is true that in the I chuan, 1:6b, he said that both nature and feelings are firmand correct. 12. In Ch'eng I Wen-chi, 4:1a, from which this section has been taken, the phrase is "what to nourish" (so-yang)instead of "where to go" (so-wang), with a note saying that another version reads "where to go." Chu Hsisaid (Chu Tzu yü-lei, 30:14b) that "where to go" is better, because the word "go" corresponds to the word"practice" (or "to go"). This is the phrase he used in the original text of the Chin-ssu lu as found in the ChuTzu i-shu. Chiang Yung ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:1b), Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:3b), and ChangPo-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:4a) are all correct in following Chu Hsi's choice. Yeh
Ts'ai ( Chl'n-ssu luchi-chieh, 2:3), however, ignores Chu Hsi and uses "what to nourish." 13. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 21. 14. Analects, 4:5. -37why Yen Tzu, in his behavior, 'did not look at what was contrary to propriety, did not listen to what wascontrary to propriety, did not speak what was contrary to propriety, and did not make any movement whichwas contrary to propriety.'15. Confucius praised him, saying, 'When he got hold of one thing that was good, heclasped it firmly, as if wearing it on his breast, and never lost it.'16. He also said, '[ Yen Tzu] did not transfer hisanger; he did not repeat a mistake.'17.'Whenever he did anything wrong, he never failed to realize it. Havingrealized it, he never did it again.'18. This is the way he earnestly loved and learned. "However, the sage 'apprehends without thinking and hits upon what is right without effort.'19. Yen Tzu had tothink before apprehending, and had to make an effort before hitting upon what is right. The difference betweenhim and the sage is as little as a moment of breathing. What was lacking in him was that he held on to[goodness] but was not yet completely transformed [into goodness itself]. Since he loved to learn, had he livedlonger,20. he would have achieved transformation in a short time. Since the sage has no anger, what is there to transfer? And since he makes no mistakes, what is thereto repeat? While Yen Hui did not transfer his anger or repeat his mistake, some idea still lingered inhim, such as the idea he had when he said, "I should like not to boast of my excellence nor to show mymeritorious deeds."21. It is like people today saying they wish not to be as they have been. This meansthey were this or that way all along and have only
now become different. This is what is meant byholding on to something but not being transformed. ( Ibid., 16a) When asked about holding on but not being transformed, Chu Hsi said, "A sage does not do that. YenHui still wavered between transferring or repeating and not transferring or not repeating." ( Ibid., 6a) "Not understanding the true meaning of this, in later years people thought that sagehood was basically due toinborn knowledge [of the good] and could not be achieved through learning. Consequently the way to learn hasbeen lost to us. Men do not seek within themselves but outside themselves and engage in extensive learning,effortful memorization, artful style, and elevant diction, making their words ____________________ 15. Ibid. 12:1. 16. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 8. 17. Analects, 6:2. 18. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 392. 19. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 20. 20. He died at thirty-two. 21.
Analects, 5:25. -38elaborate and beautiful. Thus few have arrived at the Way. This being the case, the learning of today and thelearning that Yen Tzu loved are quite different."22. This treatise is very systematic. If in one's learning one follows it, he has enough to last all his life. (Ibid., 14a) 4. [ CH'ENG HAO] Master Heng-ch'ü (Chang Tsai] asked Master Ming-tao [Ch'eng Hao], "Nature in the stateof calmness cannot be without activity and must still be impeded by external things. What can be done?"23. Master Ming-tao said, "By calmness of nature we mean that one's nature is calm whether it is in a state ofactivity or in a state of tranquillity. One does not lean forward or backward to accommodate things, nor doeshe make any distinction between the internal and external.24. To regard things outside the self as external, andforce oneself to conform to them, is to regard one's nature as divided into the internal and external.Furthermore, if one's nature is conceived to be following external things, then, while it is outside, what is it thatis within the self? To conceive one's nature thus is to have the intention of getting rid of external temptations,but to fail to realize that human nature does not possess the two aspects of internal and external. Since oneholds that things internal and external form two different bases, how can one hastily speak of calmness ofhuman nature? "Does calmness take place at the time when one is influenced by evil or when one is influenced by either good orevil?" Chu Hsi said, "The sage is not influenced by evil. His nature is naturally not receptive to it." "How about the influence of the good?" Chu Hsi answered, "When it should be responded to, the sage will respond. When it should be responded to to acertain degree, the sage will respond to a certain degree. This is calmness."
____________________ 22. According to Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 93:9a), Ch'eng I wrote this when he was eighteen. But he also said (ibid., 30:16a) that Ch'eng I wrote it at twenty. It is interesting to note that when Chiang Yung quoted thisstatement of Chu Hsi's ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:2a) he changed "twenty" to "eighteen." According to YaoMing-ta ( Cheng I-ch'uan nien-p'u, p. 16), Ch'eng wrote it at twenty-four. For Chu Hsi's comment on thechapter to which this section should belong, see below, "On the Chin-ssu lu and Its Commentaries," p. 324.In the original, this essay consists of 714 words. Chu Hsi deleted 255 and added 13, making a total of 472,without altering the general ideas of the essay. 23. The letter in which this question is thought to have been asked is no longer found in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu. 24. Indirectly quoting the Chuang Tzu, ch. 22 ( NHCC, 7:55b). See Herbert Giles, tr., Chuang Tzu, p. 219. -39"Confucius once cried bitterly.25. How can the Sage be said to have been calm?" Chu Hsi said, "He responded [to his pupil's death] in the way he should have." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,95:27a-b) "The constant principle of Heaven and Earth is that their mind is in all things, and yet they have no mind oftheir own. The constant principle of the sage is that his feelings are in accord with all creation, and yet he hasno feeling of his own. Therefore, for the training of the superior man there is nothing better than to becomebroad and extremely impartial and to respond spontaneously to all things as they come.
To have the mind in all things and to be in accord with all creation is the same as to be extremelyimpartial, and to have no mind or feeling of one's own is the same as to respond spontaneously to allthings as they come. (Ibid., 28a) "The Book of Changes says, 'Firm correctness brings good fortune and prevents all occasions for repentance. Ifone is hesitant in his movements, only his friends will follow his purpose.'26. If one merely attempts to removeexternal temptations, then no sooner do some disappear in the east than others will arise in the west. Not onlyis one's time limited, but the source of temptation is inexhaustible and therefore cannot be removed. If one's movement is incorrect and one is hesitant, that indicates personal feeling. If one is extremelyimpartial, he will not hesitate. If one spontaneously responds to things as they come, the situation inwhich only his friends will follow his purpose will not arise. ( Ibid., 72:2a) "Everyone's nature is obscured in some way and as a consequence he cannot follow the Way. In general thetrouble lies in the resort to selfishness and the exercise of cunning. Being selfish, one cannot take purposiveaction to respond to things, and being cunning, one cannot be at home with enlightenment. For a mind thathates external things to seek illumination in a mind where nothing exists is to look for a reflection on the backof a mirror. Someone said, "Being selfish, one cannot be extremely impartial and therefore cannot take purposiveaction to respond to things. Being cunning, one ____________________ 25. When Yen Hui died. See the Analects, 11:9. 26. Commentary on hexagram no. 52, hsien [influence]. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 123. -40-
cannot spontaneously respond to things as they come and therefore cannot be at home withenlightenment." Chu Hsi said, "Correct." ( Ibid., 95:28a) "The Book of Changes says, 'Stop in the back of a thing. See not the person. Walk in the hall and do not see thepeople in it.'27. Mencius also said, 'What I dislike in your wise men is their forced reasoning.'28. Instead oflooking upon the internal as right and the external as wrong, it is better to forget the distinction. When such adistinction is forgotten, the state of quietness and peace is attained. Peace leads to calmness and calmnessleads to enlightenment. When one is enlightened, how can the response to things become an impediment? The Book of Changes says merely, " Ken denotes 'to stop,' and that means to stop at the proper place."29. Man'sfour limbs and the other parts of his body can move, but the back cannot. To stop in the back is to stop at theproper place. That is the idea in Ch'eng Hao's letter on calming one's nature. Ch'eng I interpreted itdifferently.30. ( Ibid., 73:13b) "Does forgetting both the internal and external mean not to be unselfish internally and not to be unreasonablein responding to things?" Chu Hsi answered, "Yes, generally it means not to regard the internal as right and the external as wrong but toobey principle and spontaneously respond to things." ( Ibid., 95:29b) "The sage is joyous because according to the nature of things before him he should be joyous, and he is angrybecause according to the nature of things before him he should be angry. Thus the joy and anger of the sage donot depend on his own mind but on things. Does not the sage in this way respond to things? Why should it beregarded as wrong to follow external things and right to seek what is within? Compare the joy and anger of theselfish and cunning man to the correctness of joy and anger of the sage. What a difference! "Among human emotions the easiest to arouse but the most difficult to control is anger. But if in time of angerone can immediately forget his anger and look
at the right and wrong of the matter according to principle, hewill see that external temptations need not be hated, and he has gone more than halfway toward the Way."31. If one knows according to principle who is right and who is wrong and does not wrangle, that is fine. If heknows he is right and gets angry, he will become more and, more angry. ( Ibid., 95:29b) ____________________ 27. The text of hexagram no. 52, ken [to stop]. Cf. Legge, p. 175. 28. Book of Mencius, 4B:26. 29. Text of hexagram no. 52. Cf. Legge, p. 256. 30. See below, ch. 4, sec. 6. 31. According to Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 93:9a), Ch'eng Hao wrote this at twenty-two or twenty-three. -41Someone said, "This letter is difficult to understand." Chu Hsi said, "Not difficult. It is rather strange to say calming the nature, but the word 'nature' here means themind." (Ibid., 26a) 5. IN REPLY TO CHU CHANG-WEN'S LETTER,32. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: Sagesand worthies speak because they cannot help it, for if they speak, principles will become clear, and if they donot, something concerning those principles will be missing. Take plows, plowshares, and the
instruments of thepotter and the blacksmith, for example. If any of these had not been invented, man's livelihood would have beenreduced. How could sages and worthies stop speaking even if they wanted to? But while their words embrace allthe principles of the world, they are very simple. People of today, however, give their first attention to literarycomposition when they pick up a book. In their lifetime they are more active than the sages. But what they docontributes nothing to the world and what they do not do deprives the world of nothing. What they say isuseless. Not only is it useless; as it misses the essential, it departs from truth and becomes incorrect, and thuswill surely damage the Way. In your letter you say that sages and worthies wanted posterity to realize that theynever neglected to be good. Such a motivation is that of the selfish mind of the ordinary people. WhenConfucius said that the superoir man dislikes the thought of his name not being known after his death,33. hemeant the dislike of having no good deeds to be mentioned after one's death and not the dislike of having nofame. Fame is something that can encourage an average person, but the superior man's mind is not concernedwith it.34. 6. To accumulate loyalty and faithfulness within oneself is the way to advance in virtue. To be careful in wordsand steady in purpose is the way to occupy one's sphere of activity. To know the ultimate point35. to be reachedand to reach it is to extend knowledge. One seeks to know the ultimate point to be reached and then reaches it.Thus one ____________________ 32. Chu Chang-wen ( 1039-98), whose courtesy name was Po-yüan. Having obtained the "presented scholar"degree in his youth, for most of his life he taught in his own community. He finally became a professor atthe national university; about 1090 he was appointed correcting editor in the imperial library. For hisbiography, see the Sung shih, 444:16b-17a. 33. Analects, 15:19.
34. According to Mao Hsing-lai, some people have held that this letter was written by Ch'eng Hao. ( Chin-ssu luchi-chu, 2:9a) Another part of the letter to Chu Chang-wen appears below, ch. 3, sec. 1. 35. Most commentators agree with Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:9) in interpreting this to mean thehighest good. -42knows from the start and is therefore able to know the subtle beginning of things. This is what is meant by thesaying, "Starting the harmony and order of things is the work of wisdom."36. To know the finishing point andto reach it is to practice with effort. One already knows the finishing point and makes an effort to reach it. Thusone holds on at the end and is therefore able to preserve his righteousness. This is what is meant by the saying,"Concluding the harmony and order of things is the work of sageness."37. This is the beginning and the end oflearning.38. The point to be reached is the destination. To reach is to get there. The finishing point is where onestops, and to reach it means to stop there and not to get away. The purpose is to end up there, staythere, and not to leave. To know the subtle beginning of things means to know beforehand. Forexample, when a person wants to go to the city of Ch'ang-an, although he has not reached the city, healready knows where it is. Therefore he is said to be able to know the subtle beginning of things. If hehas already gotten there, this cannot be said of him, for a subtle beginning means foreknowledge. Tohold means to keep and not to lose a thing. If one knows what a moral principle is, holds on to itfirmly, and does not lose it, one may say he is able to preserve his righteousness. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzuyü-lei, 69:15b-16a) 7. The superior man holds it as fundamental to straighten the internal life with seriousness and to square theexternal life with righteousness. As seriousness is established, the internal life will be straight, and asrighteousness takes shape, the external life will be square. To say that righteousness takes
shape outside doesnot mean that righteousness is external. When one has established his seriousness and righteousness, his virtuebecomes eminent. It becomes great without expectation, for "virtue is not an isolated instance."39. It iscomplete wherever it ____________________ 36. Book of Mencius, 5B:1. 37. Ibid. 38. In the commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven; male], in the Book of Changes, it is said: "Thesuperior man is active and vigilant all day...he advances in virtue and cultivates all aspects of his task. Hisloyalty and faithfulness are the ways by which he advances in virtue. His care in employing words and hiseffort to establish his sincerity are the ways by which he occupies his sphere of activity. He knows theultimate point to be reached and reaches it, thus enabling him to know the subtle beginning of things. Heknows the finishing point and reaches it, thus enabling him to preserve his righteousness." Cf. Legge, tr., YiKing, p. 410. 39. Analects, 4:25. Asami Keisai ( Kinshi roku shisetsu, ch. 2) thinks that the second clause should be anindependent sentence with the following sentence as its explanation. But Chu Hsi clearly says that theexpression "not an isolated instance" explains the word "great" in the preceding clause. See the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 69:30b. Both Nakamura Shūsai ( Kinshi roku kōsetsu, 2:6a) and Ono Michihiro ( Kinshi roku kōgi, ch.2) are correct in saying that the meaning of the phrase here is "great" rather than "having neighbors" as inAnalects, 4:25. Asami also thinks -43-
functions, and it is advantageous wherever it is applied. Who has any doubt about it?40.
"Straight" means to go straight up and straight down without being crooked in the slightest degree. "Square" means to cut sharply to make a thing square and regular. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 69:28b-29a)
"Square" means to handle a thing correctly in every way. ( Ibid., 30b)
Asked about the sentence, "As righteousness takes shape, the external life will be square," Chu Hsi said, "Righteousness means the mind's making a decision. As it makes the decision inside, the outside becomes regular and correct, and everything is in its right place." ( Ibid., 29a)
If one has seriousness but not righteousness, what he does will be wrong. If he has only righteousness but not serioussnes, there will be no foundation. How can he practice righteousness? In either case, the virtue is an isolated instance. Only when both seriousness and righteousness are established will they not be isolated. ( Ibid., 30b)
8. When one is activated by Heaven,41. he will be free from error, but when he is activated by human desires, he will err. Great is the meaning of the hexagram, wu-wang [absence of falsehood].42. Even if one has no perverse mind, if he is not in accord with the correct principle, he will err, and that amounts to having a perverse mind. If one is free from error, he will not go away from the correct principle, for to go away means to err. Therefore the commentary on the hexagram wu-wang says, "Whoever is incorrect is in error, and it will not be advantageous for him to go in any direction."43.
Someone asked, "If one has no perverse mind, why is he not in accord with the correct principle?"
Chu Hsi said, "Of course, there are people whose minds are not perverse at all and yet they are not in accord with the correct principle. For example,
____________________ 39that the last sentence means that one should have no doubt in himself, but, as Miyake Shōsai has pointed out ( Kinshi roku hikki, ch. 2), the word "who" shows that it is someone else who doubts. 40.In the commentary on hexagram no. 2, k'un [Earth; female], in the Book of Changes, it is said: "The superior man is serious so as to straighten his internal life and righteous so as to square his external life. As his seriousness and righteousness are established, his virtue is no longer an isolated instance. Straight, square, and great, the superior man operates without repeated effort and everything he does is advantageous. Thus he has no doubts about his conduct." Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 420. 41. Yeh Ts'ai and other commentators are agreed that this means the Principle of Nature. See the Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:10. 42. This is hexagram no. 25 in the Book of Changes. It consists of the trigram ch'ien [strength] above and the trigram chen [to arouse] below. As Chang Pohsing has pointed out ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:12a), the whole passage here is Ch'eng I's interpretation of that hexagram.
43.Commentary on the hexagram. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 233. -44-
virtuous and wise people do more than they should. Are their minds perverse? And yet they are not in accord with the correct principle. Have the Buddhists a perverse mind?" ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 71:19a)
9. One's accumulation 44. becomes great through learning. It depends on knowing much about the words and deeds of former sages and worthies. One must inquire into their deeds to see their application and examine their words to find out what was in their minds. One must understand these things and get their meaning in order to accumulate and perfect his virtue.45.
10. The commentary on the hsien [influence] hexagram says, "The superior man keeps an open mind to receive influence from others."46.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "When one has no selfish subjectivity, there will be no occasion when he is acted on in which he will not penetrate everything. If one receives only that which fits his narrow capacity or accepts only that which he has chosen to suit himself, he is not following the way of the sage, according to which as soon as he is acted upon, he penetrates all things."47.
To have no selfish subjectivity does not mean to be vague or ignorant. It merely means to be impartial. If a thing is good, love it. If it is evil, hate it. If one does good, reward him. If he commits an evil, punish him. This is the influence of the sage in the most spiritual way. To have no selfish subjectivity is to be like the universe. When it is cold, it is cold everywhere, and when it is hot, it is hot everywhere. This means that when the mind is acted on, it penetrates everything. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 72:4a)
The text of the fourth undivided line of the hexagram says, "Firm correctness brings good fortune and prevents all occasions for repentance. If one is hesitant in his movements, only his friends will follow his purpose."48.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "Feeling an influence is a human activity. Therefore the hsien hexagram takes the human body
____________________ 44.Accumulation of virtue, says Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:12b). This is obvious from what follows. 45.Both Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi- chieh , 2:10) and Mao Hsing-lai ( Chinssu lu chi-chu, 2:11b) emphasize the fact that mere information is not enough. However, Shih Huang ( Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 2:10b) thinks that Ch'eng I is here urging people to read the Confucian Classics repeatedly. 46. Commentary on hexagram no. 31, hsien in the Book of Changes. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 305.
47.This is a reference to the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 10. Cf. Legge, p. 370. 48.Cf. Legge, p. 123. -45as its symbol.49. Although the fourth line from the bottom occupies the position of the heart, the commentaryon the line does not say that the mind is influenced, for it is the mind that acts on and influences things. Theway it acts on things penetrates all. If it has any selfish attachment, it will hinder its
influence and response.Hence there will be50. repentance. The sage feels the influences on the minds of all the people in the world. Heis like heat or cold, or rain or shine, which penetrates everywhere and responds to all. This is firm correctness.It means that the mind is empty and free from selfishness. If one is hesitant in his movements and acts onthings with a selfish mind, then he can only act on and activate those that he has thought of51. and cannot acton those that he has not thought of. Since a selfish mind that is attached to something is directed to aparticular corner or a particular thing, how can it be broad and penetrate everything?" 11. When a superior man encounters difficulties or obstacles, he always examines himself to see if these areresults of his own mistakes.52. If he is in any way wrong, he corrects his mistake, and if there is nothing to be ashamed of, he makes anincreasing effort. This is the way to cultivate one's virtue. 12. Without intelligence activity cannot proceed, and without activity intelligence cannot operate. Knowledge and action require each other. Neither can be neglected. ( Yeh Ts'ai , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:12) 13. To learn and to recite means to do so repeatedly. If at all times53. one thinks things over without stop, hismind will be thoroughly saturated with what he has learned. It is a pleasure. ____________________ 49. The lowest, divided line represents the toes; the second, divided line, the calves of the legs; the third,undivided line, the thighs; the fourth, undivided line, the heart; the fifth, undivided line, the flesh along thespine above the heart; and the topmost, divided line, the jaws and tongue. 50.
The Chu Tzu i-shu text has so-wei [called] but, as Mao Hsing-lai has pointed out ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu,2:12a), Ch'eng I's I chuan has nai-yu [therefore there is]. 51. According to Mao Hsing-lai ( Ibid., 2:12b), a Sung edition has hsin [mind] instead of ssu [thought]. 52. Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 2) has noted that following this sentence there is the sentence, "Thisis to return and examine oneself," in Ch'eng I's I chuan, which should not have been omitted since it is acommentary on the phrase, "to return and examine oneself and to cultivate virtue," in the Book of Changes,hexagram no. 39, chien [obstacle] (see Legge, tr., Yi King p. 315). However, it is clear that Chu Hsi deletedthe sentence because it is a repetition. 53. Abei Bōsan thinks ( Kinshi roku kummō shūso, 2:20b) that shih here means sometimes. -46In his theory, Ch'eng I emphasizes thinking ecxlusively to the neglect of practice. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,20:3b) Ch'eng I's idea is to explain learning in terms of thought. Of course, if one does not think first, how can he act?But to explain learning in terms of action does not exclude thought. Thought and action cannot be spoken ofseparately. ( Ibid., 4a) When one extends goodness to others, many will believe and follow him. He will therefore be delighted. Whenone is delighted to extend goodness to others and faces disapproval without being troubled,54. he can be calleda superior man.55.
14. In ancient times56. men learned for their own sake, that is, their own improvement. Nowadays men learnfor the sake of others, that is, in order to be recognized by others.57. 15. MASTER I-CH'UAN WROTE FANG FU-TAO:58. The Way of the sage is as level as a highway. Thetrouble with students is that they do not know how to enter it. If they know, they will reach it no matter how faraway it is. Are not the Classics the way by which to enter it? Today many people study the Classics, but everyone is as stupid59. as the person who bought the box but returned the pearls in it.60. The Classics are vehiclesof moral principles. Merely to read their sentences and to understand the meanings of their words withoutgetting down to their moral principles is to accumulate useless dregs. I hope you will search for moralprinciples through the Classics. If you make more ____________________ 54. Quoting the Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 409. 55. This passage is a commentary on the Analects, 1:1, which says, "Is it not a pleasure to learn and to repeat orpractice from time to time what has been learned? Is it not delightful to have friends coming from afar? Isone not a superior man if he does not feel hurt even though he is not recognized?" 56. Father Olaf Graf thinks ( Djin-sï lu, III, 203) this refers to the period from the reign of Emperor Shun tothat of the Duke of Chou (d. 1094 B.C.), but there is no need to be so specific. 57. A commentary on the Analects, 14:25, which says, "In ancient times men learned for their own sake.Nowadays men learn for the sake of others."
58. Ch'eng's friend, whose courtesy name was Yüan-ts'ai. Chang Po-hsing ( Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 2:15b) said hewas Ch'eng's pupil, but there is no evidence for this. Until his death, Fang was an assistant executive in theordnance division of the department of the army. 59. According to Kim Chang-Saeng ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, in the Sagye sonsaeng chŏnsŏ, 20:20a), some editionshave pi [trouble] instead of pi [beclouded, or ignorant). 60. In the Han Fei Tzu, ch. 32 ( SPTK, 11:2b), there is the story of a man of Ch'u who was selling pearls in abeautiful box in the state of Cheng. His customers bought the box and returned the pearls. See W. K. Liao,tr., Han Fei Tzu, II, 33. -47and more effort, some day you will see something [the Way] lofty before you. You will be as happy as if you weredancing with your hands and feet without knowing it. Then even without further effort you cannot help butkeep going.61. 16. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: The saying, "Carefully employ words and establishsincerity,"62. must be understood carefully. It means that if one can employ words carefully, he is at the sametime making an effort to establish his sincerity. If he merely aims at embellishing his words, that will beinsincerity. If, however, in carefully employing his words he is truly making an effort to establish his sincerity,that is personally realizing the fact that "seriousness is to straighten the internal life and righteousness is tosquare the external life."63. The Way is great and extensive. Where can we begin? Only after sincerity has beenestablished can there be any place for us to occupy. When there is such a place to occupy, we can then cultivateour task. No matter how active and vigilant we are all day, and no matter whether big
or small things areconcerned, the concrete way to start is through loyalty and faithfulness, which are the ways to advance invirtue, and the concrete way in which to cultivate our task is by the careful employment of words and theestablishment of sincerity.64. 17. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: Earnestly to set one's will on the Way is of course an evidence ofsincerity. But if one presses the matter and thus no longer is in accord with principle, that will be insincerity.65.For, according to true principle, there is a natural pace in things. There is no room for compulsion. Observe thetransformation of things in the universe and you can see that this is true. ____________________ 61. This may mean "Keep on having the joy,""keep on studying the Classics," or "keep advancing with the moralprinciples." Most commentators have left the interpretation open. The allusion is to the Analects, 9:10,where the idea is that of keeping on with the study. The word "effort" here implies that. 62. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven; male]. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 410. 63. Ibid., commentary on hexagram no. 2, k'un [Earth; female]. Cf. Legge, p. 420. 64. This is a commentary on hexagram no. I in the Book of Changes. See above, see. 6. As Chang Po-hsing hasreminded us ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:16a), Ch'eng Hao was afraid that students might misunderstand thesaying, "carefully employ words and establish sincerity," to mean devoting one's effort to words, rather thanto sincerity. 65.
He will be insincere because he will be making an artificial effort. -4818. [CH'ENG HAO] Mencius' natural endowment is on a very high level. For students who want to learn fromhim, there is nothing to hold on to. They should learn from Yen Tzu.66. As a way to enter into sagehood, hislearning is nearer at hand and there are in it definite places for the student to make his effort. FURTHER REMARKS: If students want to learn correctly, they should learn from Yen Tzu. (He had definiteobjectives.)67. Mencius' doctrines are rather crude. He was not very careful. It is only because his own natural endowmentswere great that he reached the point that he did. If students learn from him, they may misunderstand his ideas.What Yen Tzu said, however, is something with which we can begin our effort. Mencius' words have to beexplained before they can serve us in this way. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:31a) Yen Tzu's natural endowments are not inferior to those of Mencius. His learning is refined and concrete andtherefore students can find in him definite points at which to begin their effort. ( Ibid.) 19. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: Let one reduce his concern with external matters.68. If heonly understands the good and advances in his sincerity, even if he does not hit the mark of ceremonies andinstitutions,69. he will not be far from it. If in managing himself he does not keep to the essentials, he will bedrifting and will achieve no result. These remarks were uttered when Lü Ta-lin70. first came from Kuanchung71. to see the Ch'eng brothers.Chang Tsai72. often taught people ceremonies and institutions. Students may devote much effort to thesethings without getting at the essentials. Therefore Ch'eng Hao taught Lü this way. ( Chu Hsi , Chu Tzu yü-lei,95:31b) 20. A student should understand the substance of humanity73. and make it concretely part of his own self.Then all that is necessary is to
____________________ 66. See above, sec. 3. 67. Ch'eng's own note. According to Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 70), the objectives are theextensive study of literature, self-restraint with rules of propriety ( Analects, 6:25), and mastering oneselfand returning to propriety ( Ibid., 12:1). Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin- ssu lu chi-chu, 2:16a) has assigned thissection to Ch'eng Hao, but Chang Po- hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chichieh, 2:17a) has assigned it to Ch'eng I. In theI-shu, 2A:5b and 3:2b, the sayings are given as Ch'eng Hao's. 68. According to Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin- ssu lu chi-chu, 2:16a), these refer to ceremonies, institutions, etc. 69. According to Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:31b), wen-chang, as used here, means "ceremonies andinstitutions." 70. For Lü Ta-lin, see below, n. 138. 71. Former name of Shensi Province. 72. Chang Tsai, author of a number of selections in this anthology, had been Lü's teacher. 73.
According to Sun Ch'i-feng ( Li- hsüeh tsung-ch'uan, 2:20b), this means the Principle of Nature (T'ien-li). -49nourish it with moral principles. All such things as seeking the meanings of the Classics are meant to nourishit.74. To understand humanity and to make it a part of one's own self are two different things. Tounderstand it is to know it, and to make it a part of oneself is to possess it. Merely to understand it isonly to know that there is such a thing. Only when one makes it truly a part of himself can he possessit. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:31b-32a) 21. Formerly, when we received instructions from Chou Mao-shu [Chou Tuni], he often told us to find outwherein Confucius and Yen Tzu found their happiness.75. Master Ch'eng's words are suggestive but not explicit because he wanted students to think deeply andto discover for themselves. I dare not foolishly say what he meant. A student should simply devotehimself to the extensive study of literature and to restraining himself with rules of propriety so that hecannot stop until he exhausts his ability. He will probably make some discovery. ( Chu Hsi, Lun-yüchi-chu, ch. 3, comment on the Analects, 6:9) We should not inquire into where Confucius and Yen Tzu found their happiness. Let us look for it inourselves. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 31:17a) Someone asked, "Neither Master Chou nor Master Ch'eng ever explained wherein Yen Tzu found hishappiness. Wherein do you think he found it?" Chu Hsi answered, "People are unhappy because of the presence of selfish ideas in them. If oneovercomes these desires, he will find happiness." ( Ibid., 19a) Someone asked, "The learning of Confucius and Yen Tzu was of course different from that of thecommon people who are attached to material things. But if we consider Confucius and Yen Tzu tohave found their happiness in the Way, then they and the Way were, after all, separated. Essentially,their
happiness consisted in the complete elimination of selfish ideas, so that the Principle of Natureshone in them in perfect harmony and they were completely free from any attachment. Is that right?" Chu Hsi answered, "Yes. Today when people talk about enjoying the Way, they talk in superficialterms. However, there is no harm in saying that Confucius and Yen Tzu enjoyed the Way." ( Ibid.) 22. One's view and hopes should be broad and great. Nevertheless, in putting them into practice, one mustconsider his own capacity and proceed gradually. If one's ambition is so great as to be a burden in ____________________ 74. In the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 49:3a, this saying is ascribed to Ch'eng Hao. 75. All commentators say that this refers to the Analects, 6:9, where Confucius remarked that Yen Tzuremained happy even with a single bamboo dish of rice, a single gourd of drink, and living in his mean,narrow lane, and also to the Analects, 7:15, where Confucius said that with coarse rice to eat, water to drink,and his bent arm for a pillow, he was happy in the midst of them. But neither Chou Tun-i nor Ch'eng Haoexplained wherein Confucius and Yen Hui found their happiness. For Yen Hui's love of learning, see above,sec. 3. -50his mind, or if his capacity is small and the task too heavy, I am afraid at the end he will fail. 23. Discussion and study among friends is not as effective and beneficial as to observe each other and emulateeach other's goodness.76. 24. One must enlarge his mind so it will be open and broad, just as, when one builds a tower of nine stories,77.the base must be made broad. Only then will78. it do.
The mind will be big if it is relaxed, liberal, and fair. It will be big if there is no selfish idea to startwith. A big mind is naturally not tense. When, for example, disaster comes, it is not afraid, and whenthere is some gain, it is not automatically happy. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:32b) 25. MASTER MING-TAO SAID: If we want to understand thoroughly the facts that Shun rose from thefarm, that Sun-shu Ao was called to high office from his hiding place by the seashore,79. and so forth, we mustgo through a similar experience.80. 26. Ts'an81. finally succeeded through his stupidity. Tseng Tzu was stupid and comprehended with difficulty. But he would not let things go. He tried hardand was thorough and would not stop until he understood.... Therefore he finally succeeded. ( ChuHsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 39:9b-10a) ____________________ 76. The latter half of the sentence is a quotation from the Book of Rites, "Record of Learning" SPPY, 11:3b). Cf.James Legge , tr., Li Ki, II, 86. 77. This analogy comes from the Lao Tzu, ch. 64. 78. Chinese editions have shih [will then] while Japanese editions have fang [will then], but the original in the I-shu, 2A:15a, is hsü [must], obviously a misprint. 79. The text has "Po-li Hsi was called to high office from the market place." The version given in mostcommentaries is followed here, for it agrees with the original source, the I-shu, 3:1b. 80.
Mencius said ( Book of Mencius, 6B:15), "Shun rose from the farm;... Sunshu Ao was called to high officefrom his hiding place by the seashore; Po-li Hsi was called to high office from the market place. Thereforewhen Heaven is about to confer a great responsibility on any man, it will exercise his mind with suffering,subject his sinews and bones to hard work, expose his body to hunger, put him in poverty, and placeobstacles in the paths of his deeds, so as to stimulate his mind, harden his nature, and improve himwherever he is incompetent." Sun-shu Ao was prime minister to King Chuang (r. 613- 589 B.C.) of Ch'u andPo-li Hsi rose from abject poverty to become prime minister to Duke Mu (r. 659-619 B.C.) of Ch'in. For thelatter see the Book of Mencius, 5A:9. 81. Tseng Tzu ( 505-c. 436 B.C.), whose private name was Ts'an, was a pupil of Confucius. In the Analects, 11:17,he is described as stupid. -5127. Master Ming-tao considered memorization, recitation, and acquiring extensive information as "triflingwith things and losing one's purpose."82. Merely to memorize what one has recited and to have extensive information, but not to understandprinciple or to reach the point of thorough understanding and penetration, is to chase after what issmall and to forget what is great. One will be impeding one's free and clear mind with useless things.This is to trifle with things and lose one's purpose. ( Ch'en Chih, Chinssu lu tsa-wen, p. 9a) (At the time of this utterance, I had made a book of selections from the Classics.83. Cheng Ku84. said, "OnceMaster Hsien-tao85. told me, 'When I studied in Lo-yang86. I recorded the good deeds of the ancients in onevolume. When Master Ch'eng Hao saw it, he said that I was trifling with things and losing my purpose.' Ch'engHao meant that one should not harbor even the slightest things in the mind." Hu An-kuo [ 1073-1138]87. said,"At first Master Hsieh's learning consisted of memorizing facts and waiting for people to ask him questions. Hebragged about his extensive knowledge. He could read a
whole history book to Ch'eng Hao without missing aword. Ming-tao said, 'Sir, you remember a good deal. You may be said to be trifling with things and losing yourpurpose.' When Hsieh heard this, he sweated all over and his face turned red. Later, when he saw Ch'eng Haoread history line by line, without skipping a word, he was resentful. At the end, however, he reflected andunderstood, and turned Ch'eng Hao's words into a favorite saying as a guide to scholars who aimed at extensiveknowledge.")88. ____________________ 82. Quoting the Book of History, "Hounds of Ao." Cf. James Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 348. 83. According to Mao Hsing-lai, the "I" refers to Hsieh Liang-tso, who recorded Ch'eng Hao's saying. ( Chin-ssulu chi-chu, 2:18a). 84. He was an outstanding pupil of Hsieh. His courtesy name was Chih-yüan. He obtained the "presentedscholar" degree, served as keeper of records in the censorate, and later became an imperial librarian. 85. Courtesy name of Hsieh Liang-tso. He was honored as Master Shang-ts'ai. He was one of the four mostdistinguished pupils of the Ch'eng brothers. He obtained the "presented scholar" degree in 1085, andsuccessively served as a magistrate and a prefect. Once he was imprisoned because of some wordsattributed to him that offended the emperor. For his biography see the Sung shih, 428:1b-2a; for hisdoctrines, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, ch. 24; and for another account of him, see the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu,ch. 9. 86. In present Honan Province.
87. Hu obtained the "presented scholar" degree in 1097, and became a professor at the national university andlecturer in waiting to the emperor. His posthumous title was Wen-ting. For his biography, see the Sungshih, 435:4b13a; for his doctrines, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, ch. 34; and for another account of him, seethe I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, ch. 13. 88. The passage in parentheses is a -52Ch'eng Hao regarded Hsieh Liang-tso as trifling with things and losing his purpose because Hsieh didnot aim at understanding moral principles but was merely skillful in bragging about the quantity oflearning he had acquired and was trying to excel in minuteness. When Ch'eng Hao read historywithout skipping a word, his purpose was quite different. Here is the exact difference betweenstudying for one's own improvement and studying to impress others. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,95:32b) 28. If ceremonies and music are adjusted between going ahead and turning back,89. one's nature and feelingswill become correct. (All the above are Ch'eng Hao's sayings.)90. In observing ceremonies, we express ourselves less and less, by restraining ourselves in all things,controlling ourselves, and being respectful. In such cases we should make a strong effort to goforward. This means going ahead. Therefore it is civilized to go ahead. In music, such as singing andplaying orchestral instruments, we express ourselves to the fullest degree. In such cases there shouldbe a measure of control. To maintain harmony but not to be reckless is to turn back. Therefore it iscivilized to turn back. Ceremonies make us express ourselves less but we go forward, and music makesus express ourselves to the fullest degree but we turn back. In this our nature and feelings becomecorrect. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:33a-b)
"Ceremonies emphasize expressing our nature and feelings less and less" means to emphasize theircontrol. But if we control them too much, they will gradually disappear and there will be noexpression. Therefore it is civilized to go ahead, that is, to practice ceremonies with effort. "Musicemphasizes giving full expression" means to be overflowing in harmony and joy, but if they go too farthey will drift away. Therefore it is civilized to turn back, that is, express a little less. ( Ibid., 95:33b) In ceremonies there is reciprocity and in music there is return. Reciprocity means to help each other,while return means to know where to stop. ( Kim Chang-saeng , Kŭnsarok sǒgŭi, in the Sagyesǒnsaeng chǒnsǒ,.18:7b) 29. The relations between father and son and between ruler and minister are definite principles of the world.There is no place under Heaven ____________________ 88 note in the Chin-ssu lu. While the first part is an original note in the I-shu, 3:1b, the second part, beginningwith "Hu An-kuo," is not found there. Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 2) thinks Yeh Ts'ai has addedthe second part. It is more probable, however, as Nakamura Shūsai ( Kinshi roku kōsetsu, 2:10a) has said,that Chu Hsi added it in the Chin-ssu lu. 89. In the Book of Rites, "Record of Music" (SPPY, 11:23b), it is said, "Ceremonies emphasize expressing ournature and feelings less and less. We must make an effort to go ahead, and it is civilized to do so. Musicemphasizes giving them full expression. We must turn back, and it is civilized to do so." Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki,II, 126. 90. This is an original note in the text. Presumably, on the basis of this note, secs. 29-42 are not by Ch'eng Haobut by Ch'eng I, especially since sec. 43 begins with "Master Ch'eng Hao said." But Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:20b-23b) has assigned secs. 29-42 to Ch'eng Hao.
-53to which one can escape from them.91. If one is contented with the lot decreed by Heaven, and has no selfishthought, he will not commit an act of unrighteousness or kill an innocent person.92. To have an iota ofselfishness is not to act like a true king.93. T'ien-fen [contentment with one's lot] means the Principle of Nature. If the father, the son, the ruler,or the minister is contented and at ease with his lot or function, how could he be selfish? Therefore hewould not commit an act of unrighteousness or kill an innocent person even if to acquire an empire. (Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:34a) 30. Talk about the nature but not about material force is incomplete, and talk about material force but notabout the nature is unintelligible. (It is wrong to consider them as two.)94. Our original nature is perfectly good, but if we do not discuss it along with physical nature, we shallnot understand why some people are intelligent and others are stupid, and why some are strong whileothers are weak. Therefore the discussion is not complete. If we discuss only physical nature but notits source, although we know people are different in intelligence and strength, we shall not realize thatin their source, which is perfectly good, they are not different. Therefore the discussion will not beintelligible. We must examine both before the discussion can become thorough. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzuyü-lei, 59:13a) Original nature is embodied in physical nature. Therefore it is incomplete to talk about naturewithout talking about physical nature. Nature is the ____________________ 91. This sentence is a quotation from the Chuang Tzu, ch. 4 ( NHCC, 2:16b). Cf. Herbert Giles, tr., Chuang Tzu,p. 56. 92.
In the Book of Mencius, 2A:2, it is said that a good man would not do either of these things even if he couldacquire an empire by doing so. 93. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi- chieh, 2:20b-23b) has arbitrarily assigned this and the following thirteensections to Ch'eng Hao. Higashi Masatsumi ( Kinshi roku kōgi, p. 715) is correct in ascribing this to Ch'engI. 94. Ch'eng's own note. This saying is attributed to Ch'eng I in the Chu Tzu yü- lei, 4:12a and 59:12a, but toCh'eng Hao, ibid., 4:15a and 62:14b, and in the Chu Tzu wen-chi, 44:19a. In the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 4:22b,59:13b-14a, 15a, and the Chu Tzu wen-chi, 39:24b, the saying is merely ascribed to Master Ch'eng I. In hisMeng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 11, comment on the Book of Mencius, 6A:6, Chu Hsi quotes this saying and anotherone from the I-shu, 18:17b, as those of "Master Ch'eng." Since the latter saying is definitely Ch'eng I's, thissaying must also be his. Moreover since in sec. 28, above, Chu Hsi has noted that that section and severalpreceding sections are Ch'eng Hao's and since he also begins sec. 43, below, with "Master Ch'eng Hao says,"the intervening sections, secs. 2942, must be Ch'eng I's sayings. Huang Tsung-hsi has included this amongCh'eng I's sayings in the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 15:15a. Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:17) says that thissection should be in ch. 1. Wang Fu ( Tu chin-ssu lu, p. 14a), however, argues that there is a reason for itsbeing in this chapter, since, unless one understands nature and material force, one cannot transform hisphysical nature, and transforming physical nature is a major objective in the pursuit of learning. -54material out of which physical nature is formed. Therefore it is unintelligible to talk about physicalnature without talking about nature. (Ibid., 13b) 31. In discussing learning we must understand principle, and in discussing government we must understand itsnature.
Nature is self-evident according to facts and principle. Everything has its nature, or what it shouldbe...a country, a prefecture, or a county each has its own nature.... For example, a magistrate of acounty should settle litigations, eliminate banditry, and promote agriculture and sericulture.... Allthese are the norm and should be done. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:34a-b) 32. Tseng Tien95. and Ch'i-tiao K'ai96. already understood the basic idea. Therefore the Sage gave them hisapproval. When Tseng Tien expressed his wishes, he said, "In this last month of spring, when the clothes of theseason have all been made ready, I wish to go with five or six grownups and six or seven children tobathe in the I River, then to enjoy the breeze, and then to sing on the way home."97. For he realizedthat the universal operation of the great Way saturates everyday life. He was natural and at ease withhimself and had the feeling of being well adjusted to everything. When Confucius advised Ch'i-tiaoK'ai to become an official, the latter said, "I do not yet have the confidence to do so."98. K'ai of courseunderstood the principle, but in his daily dealings with affairs he was not confident that in everyrespect he was in accord with it. This shows that his understanding was great. But he was notsatisfied with small accomplishments. Therefore he held himself firmly and aimed at completeselfconfidence. Although the two pupils did not succeed in what they wanted to do, they bothunderstood the basic idea of the Sage. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:18) QUESTION: Doesn't the basic idea have to do with the wonderful universal operation of the Principleof Nature and the disposition of the sages and worthies in their activities?... The two disciples hadunderstood these but had not, perhaps, realized them in their practice. Therefore they are said tohave understood the basic idea. ANSWER: There is no defect in speaking this way. But one must make real effort and achieve sometrue insight before [the basic idea] has meaning to him. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu wen-chi, 58:34a) 33. [ CH'ENG I] Fundamentally one must first cultivate and nourish himself. Only then can he determine hisdirection. If the direction is correct, whether
his accomplishment will be great or small depends on how mucheffort he makes.99. ____________________ 95. Tseng Tien was a pupil of Confucius, and the father of Tseng Tzu. 96. Ch'i-tiao K'ai ( 540-c. 450 B.C.) was also Confucius' pupil. 97. Analects, 11:25. 98. Ibid., 5:5. 99. In the original source, the I-shu, 6:6a, this saying is assigned to Ch'eng I. -5534. [ CH'ENG HAO] With seriousness and righteousness supporting each other, go straight ahead. They are thestarting point from which one can reach the level of the virtue of Heaven.100. When one is controlled internally by seriousness and protected externally by righteousness, the twosupporting each other, one cannot let loose even for a moment and cannot help going straight ahead.He will therefore reach the level of the virtue of Heaven. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:35a) Going straight ahead means having no selfish desires to tie one down. (Ibid.) QUESTION: Does the two supporting each other mean to advance both internally and externally, anddoes going straight ahead mean to keep on advancing without stop?
ANSWER: Going straight ahead means not to be impeded by selfish desires and not to fall to the leftor to the right. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu wen-chi, 58:34a) 35. As soon as one allows himself to be lazy, he is doing violence to his own nature and throwing himselfaway.101. 36. If one does not study, he will grow old and decline. 37. If one makes no progress in his study, it is simply because he lacks courage.102. 38. [ CH'ENG I] When a student is handicapped by his physical nature or is overcome by bad habits, the onlything for him to do is to strengthen his Will.103. 39. [ CH'ENG HAO] When one is strong internally, he can overcome the external, which is light. When one'scultivation is deep, he can see that temptations are small. When moral principles in oneself are heavy or strong, material things outside become weak. When one'srealization of principle is deep, desires become little. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:19) ____________________ 100. A reference to the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 32. In Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:35a, this saying is ascribedto Ch'eng Hao. 101. On doing violence to one's nature, etc., see the Book of Mencius, 4A:10. 102. Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chichu, 2:21b) attributes this saying to Ch'eng Hao. 103. According to the I-shu, 15:10a, this is Ch'eng I's saying.
-5640. Tung Chung-shu104. said, "Rectify moral principles and do not seek profit. Illuminate the Way and do notcalculate on results."105. And Sun Ssumiao106. said, "We want to be brave but cautious, 107. and rounded invision but square in action."108. These sayings can serve as examples for us. The Way and moral principles are substance and function, respectively. The Way is a generalprinciple. Moral principles are applied to specific events. They are fine distinctions within the Way,whereas results are effects of the operation of the Way. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:35b) Someone asked, "To rectify moral principles means to handle things correctly without any idea ofprofit or advantage, and to illuminate the Way means to do so through handling things correctlywithout any idea of what may come later. The former takes place before one handles a thing and thelatter afterward. Is this interpretation correct?" Chu Hsi answered, "It is all right to say so. Basically, they are like the folding of one's palms. But whenyou look at the matter, to a slight extent there must be an order of first and last." (Ibid). "Rectifying moral principles comes first and illuminating the Way later. Is that correct?" Chu Hsi answered, "There is no difference in time. They are like the folding of one's palms." (Ibid.) 41. Generally speaking, if one can achieve learning so naturally as to be beyond words, 109. he will really achieveit in a natural ____________________ 104. According to the Han shu, 56:1a, Tung ( 176-104 B.C.) devoted himself to the Spring and Autumn Annals inhis youth. In 140, 136, or 134 B.C., he was the top scholar commanded by Emperor Wu (r. 104-87 B.C.) toanswer questions. This utterance was made in one of these conversations. It was largely through
Tung'sinfluence that non-Confucian scholars were dismissed from the government and Confucianism was madethe state dogma by the emperor. In 140 B.C. Tung was appointed chief minister to a prince. Because heapplied his belief in portents to governmental measures, he was attacked and dismissed. Later he was chiefminister to another prince. In his old age he retired to write. 105. Han shu, 56:21b. 106. Sun ( 601-82) was an expert on Taoism and medicine. He repeatedly declined office, including aprofessorship at the national university. For his biography, see the T'ang shu, 191:sa-6b, and the Hsin T'angshu, 196:2b-3b. 107. Literally, "have a large gall (seat of courage) and a small heart." 108. Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chichu, 2:22b) is wrong in saying that Ch'eng merely summarized a longconversation of Sun's through which these words are scattered. Mao is thinking of Sun's biography in theHsin T'ang shu, ch. 196, where, it is true, the saying as quoted here does not appear; but in the biography inthe T'ang shu, 191:6a, it is given. Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 2) has correctly pointed out thatthe saying originally comes from the Huai-nan Tzu. See the Huai-nan Tzu, ch. 9 ( SPPY, 9:20-a-b), whichhas "large ambition" instead of "large gall." 109. This is the general interpretation of pu-yen [no words], but Mao Hsing-lai thinks ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu,2:22b) that it means "without being told," as the phrase is used in the Book of Mencius, 7A:21. This doesnot seem convincing. -57-
way." 110. If one schematizes or makes deliberate arrangements, he does not achieve it in a natural way at all.111. Moral principles are fundamentally great and extensive in themselves. The truth is simply that if onereflects for a long time with a quiet mind and keeps on nourishing himself slowly, he will naturallyunderstand thoroughly. If one seeks hastily, that means he has made up his mind to hurry. That isselfishness. How can he enter into the Way? ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:36b-37a) 42. Seeing, hearing, thinking, reflection, and movement are all matters of nature. What man has to do is torealize wherein they are correct and wherein they are wrong. 112. Seeing, hearing, thinking, reflection, speech, and movement are all natural activities according to thePrinciple of Nature and cannot be avoided. If they follow the Principle of Nature, they will be correct,but if they follow human desires, they will be wrong. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:19) 43. MASTER MING-TAO [ CH'ENG HAO] SAID: In learning it is only necessary to drive with a whip, 113. as itwere, so that one may get nearer to the inside and be genuinely concerned with one's internal life. Therefore"inquire earnestly and reflect on what is at hand. Humanity consists in doing this." 114., "If one's words areloyal and faithful and his actions earnest and serious, they will do even in barbarian countries. If his words arenot loyal or faithful and his action is not earnest or serious, will they do even in his own neighborhood? Whenhe is standing, let him see his faithful words and serious action in front of him. When he is riding, let him seethem attached to the yoke. Then he will do." 115. This alone is learning. One whose physical nature is excellentwill be perfectly intelligent, the impure dregs in him will be completely transformed, and he can form one bodywith Heaven and Earth. Those who are inferior have to be correct and serious in their cultivation. But theirultimate accomplishment will be the same. ____________________ 110.
As Utsunomiya Ton'an has pointed out ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 2:29a), there are two interpretations of tzu-te:"to obtain in a natural way," that is, with case and spontaneity, and "to find in oneself." Chu Hsi hasinterpreted it in the former sense ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:36b), and most commentators have followed him. 111. According to the I-shu, 11:4a, this is Ch'eng Hao's saying. 112. According to the I-shu, 11:10b, this is Ch'eng Hao's saying. 113. According to Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 45:3a), pien-p'i was a colloquialism in Lo-yang. It meant to drivepeople further in. The driver of a carriage used to whip people to make them get off the street. Since therewere no sidewalks, this meant that they had to go into the houses. In the I-shu, 11:11b, it is noted that oneedition has pien-yüeh [whip and control] instead, 114. Analects, 19:6. 115. Ibid., 15:5. -5844. "Loyalty and faithfulness are the ways to advance in virtue. To be careful in words and to establish sincerityare the ways to occupy one's sphere of activity."116. This is the way of ch'ien [Heaven; male]. "Seriousness is tostraighten the internal life. Righteousness is to square the external life."117. This is the way of k'un [Earth;female]. The ch'ien hexagram emphasizes strength and activity. Therefore advancement in virtue andcultivation of activity are both ways of unceasing advancement. The k'un hexagram emphasizesharmony and tranquillity.
Therefore straightness through seriousness and squareness throughrighteousness are both ways to concentrate and to restrain. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:20) 45. When anyone begins to study, he should know where to direct his effort. After he has started to study, heshould know wherein he is competent. 46. Someone takes pains to work with wisdom and energy in his garden. The Teacher said, "The commentaryon the ku [trouble] hexagram says, 'The superior man is to arouse and uplift the people and to cultivate his ownvirtue."118. The activities of the superior man consist of these two things only; there is nothing else. The two arethe way to help oneself and help others." To take pains to work with wisdom and energy in the garden can neither perfect oneself internally norgovern others externally. What is the use of it? ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:37a) 47. If "one can study extensively, be steady in purpose, inquire earnestly, and reflect on what is at hand," why isit said that "humanity consists in doing this"?119. The student must think and find out for himself. When heunderstands this, he will know that this is the principle that penetrates both the higher and the lower levels.120. The four things are only matters of studying, inquiring, thinking, and sifting. They have not gotten tothe point of practice, which makes for humanity. However, if one devotes himself to these things, hismind will not be pursuing external things, and he will be at home in preserving humanity. ____________________ 116. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien. Cf Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 410. 117. Ibid., commentary on hexagram no. 2, k'un. Cf. Legge, p. 420.
118. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 18, ku. Cf. Legge, p. 290. 119. Analects, 19:6. 120. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chichieh, 2:25b) has assigned this saying to Ch'eng I. -59This is why it is said that humanity consists in them. ( Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chichu, ch. 10, comment on theAnalects, 19:6) To study is to seek humanity. But humanity is not something outside for us to seek earnestly. It is in our mindsand also in the midst of everyday affairs. At all times and with all things, we should investigate its principle bystudying extensively, wholeheartedly devote ourselves to its application by making up our minds with sincerityand earnestness, sift its truth by inquiring earnestly, and seek out its essential meaning by reflecting on what isat hand.... Humanity will be found in doing this. If a student understands this, he will know that this is theprinciple that penetrates both the higher and the lower levels, for what exists before physical form lies withinwhat exists after physical form, and studies on the lower level require the same effort as understanding thingson the higher level.... One thread runs through them all. ( Chang Pohsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:25b-26a) 48. One who is broad but not vigorously enduring will find it difficult to establish his character. One who isvigorously enduring but not broad cannot dwell on what he has cultivated.121. (This is the principle ofbroadness expressed in the Hsi-ming [Western Inscription] ).122. On the basis of the Western Inscription, Master Ch'eng teaches here the way to seek humanity. Theman of humanity regards Heaven, Earth, and all things as one body. This idea expressed in theWestern Inscription is indeed
extremely broad and all-penetrating. This is what is meant by theprinciple of broadness expressed there. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:26a) Without vigorous endurance, one's will and power will be feeble and he will not be able to maintainhimself. Therefore it will be difficult for him to establish his character. Without broadness, one'sknowledge will be shallow, his mind will be narrow, and he will not be tolerant. Therefore he cannotdwell on what he has cultivated. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:25a) One who is broad but not vigorously enduring is unrestrained, and one who is vigorously enduring butnot broad is narrow. If one can practice the principle of the Western Inscription, he will form onebody with all things without any differentiation. That is broadness in the highest degree. ( ChiangYung , Chinssu lu chi-chu, 2:12b) 49. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: Ancient students were leisurely and at ease, and thoroughlyabsorbed in what they learned. They followed a definite order. Students of today, however, merely engage inempty talk and strive after exalted position. I have always loved what Tu Yüan-k'ai said: "Be thoroughly soakedas if in a river, enriched as if with fat, free and widespreading like melted ice, and comfortably in ____________________ 121. This is a comment on the Analects, 8:7. 122. Ch'eng's own note. For the Western Inscription, see below, sec. 89. -60accord with principle. Only then can you be said to have achieved your objective."123. What Tu Yü meant was that we should study the Spring and Autumn Annals in this way. MasterCh'eng, however, took it to mean study in general. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:12b)
Students of today often regard Tzu-yu and Tzu-hsia124. as inferior and not worthy to learn from. But they wereconcrete and earnest in every word and every deed. Modern students desire exalted position like people whoseminds are wandering ten thousand li away. But they themselves are here and nowhere else.125. 50. The reason cultivation and nourishment can prolong life, a king can pray Heaven to extend for a long timethe mandate for his rule,126. and ordinary people can reach the level of sages and worthies is that when one'seffort has reached a certain point, it always finds its proper response. Whether one's life span is long or short depends on fate. Taoist scholars who cultivate their essenceand nourish their vital force can prolong life and enjoy longevity. Whether the extent of the rule islong or short depends on fate, but if sage and worthy rulers vigorously practice humanity andrighteousness, they can pray Heaven to extend the length of their rule. The capacity of ordinary peopleis far from that of those who are born with knowledge [of moral virtues] and can practice themnaturally, but if they study without stop, they will finally become one with the sages and worthies.These three things are not something that can be achieved in a day, through short cuts, or by luck.When proper effort has been made, the result will follow. ( Yeh Ts'ai , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:22) 51. One is impartial and just because he is conscientious and altruistic.127. If one advances in virtue, he willnaturally be conscientious and ____________________ 123. Tu Yü ( 222-84 ), whose courtesy name was Yüan-k'ai, was a military commander who was made a marquisafter he had conquered the state of Wu. He compiled a collected commentary on the Tso chuan. This sayingis found in its preface. For his biography, see the Chin shu, 34:8a-12b. 124.
Tzu-yu (b. 506 B.C.) and Tzu-hsia ( 507-420 B.C.) were Confucian pupils whom Confucius especially praisedfor their accomplishments in literature. See the Analects, 11:2. 125. Therefore their words and deeds should be concrete. 126. In the Book of History, "Announcement of Duke Shao," it is said: "If the king is wholeheartedly devoted tovirtue, he can pray Heaven to extend the mandate for his throne."Cf Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 431. 127. Chung-shu in Chinese. For the translation of these terms, see below, "On Translating Certain ChinesePhilosophical Terms," p. 362. -61altruistic. When these virtues are fully developed, he will be impartial and just. "If one advances in virtue, he will naturally be conscientious and altruistic" means thatconscientiousness and altruism come out of the advancement of virtue. "When these virtues are fullydeveloped, he will be impartial and just" means that if they are extended to the highest point, one willbe impartial and just. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:37b) 52. Essentially speaking, the way of humanity may be expressed in one word, namely, impartiality. However,impartiality is but the principle of humanity; it should not be equated with humanity itself. When one makesimpartiality the substance of his person,128. that is humanity. Because of his impartiality, there will be nodistinction between himself and others.129. Therefore a man of humanity is a man of both altruism and love.Altruism is the application of humanity, while love is its function. 130. Humanity is what the word "man" implies. A man originally possesses humanity. It comes with him from thevery beginning. Simply because he is
partial, his humanity is obstructed and cannot be expressed. Therefore, ifhe is impartial, his humanity will operate. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:37b) Asked about making impartiality the substance of one's person, Chu Hsi said, "Humanity is thecharacter of the mind. One originally has this principle in him. Impartiality is the highestachievement of self-mastery. Only with impartiality can one be humane. Making impartiality thesubstance of one's person means that after one has completely overcome his selfishness, he can seehumanity in his own person. ( Ibid., 39a) Impartiality, altruism, and love all describe humanity. Impartiality precedes humanity, whereasaltruism and love follow it. This is so because being impartial, one can be humane, and beinghumane, one can be loving and altruistic. ( Ibid., 39b-40a) 53. Nowadays students study like people climbing a hill. As long as the path is unobstructed and level, they alltake long steps. When they reach a dangerous point, they Stop131 right away. The thing to do is to be firm anddetermined and proceed with resolution and courage. ____________________ 128. Another interpretation: "Personally realize impartiality." 129. Literally, "mutually reflecting," suggesting perfectly clear mirrors without any dust (selfishness) on themreflecting each other. 130. For comment on why this section is placed here instead of in ch. 1, see below, "The Chin-ssu lu and ItsCommentaries," p. 326. 131
As Mao Hsing-lal (Chin-ssu tu chi-chu, 2:27a) has pointed out, the passage in the I-shu, 17:3a, has "shrinkfrom it" instead of "stop" and does not have the last sentence, which is probably a later addition. The sayingalso appears in -6254. People say we must practice with effort. Such a statement, however, is superficial. If a person really knowsthat a thing should be done, when he sees anything that should be done, he does not need to wait for his will tobe aroused. As soon as he artificially arouses his will, that means selfishness. How can such a spirit last long?132. Asked what the expression "How can such a spirit last long?" means, Chu Hsi replied, "After a longtime, one will somehow naturally stop, that is all." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:41a) This says that if a person can truly know a thing, he will surely practice with effort. When one trulyknows that a thing should be done, he cannot help doing it. Why should he have to wait for his will tobe aroused?... Momentary arousing of the will is unreliable. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 2:23b) 55. One who knows learning will surely love it. He who loves it will surely seek it. And he who seeks it will surelyachieve it.133. The learning of the ancients is a lifetime affair. If in moments of haste and in times of difficultyor confusion one is devoted to it,134. how can one fail to achieve it? 56. The learning of the ancients consisted of only one thing, whereas the learning of today consists of threethings, not including the heterodoxical doctrines.135. The first is literary composition; the second, textualcriticism; and the third, Confucianism. If one wishes to advance toward the Way, nothing other thanConfucianism will do. Master Ch'eng laments the increasing split within learning. In ancient times learning emphasized theimprovement of oneself, aiming at concrete achievements. For this purpose there was onlyConfucianism. The heterodoxical
____________________ 131 the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 7:1b, with the variation of a few words but with no difference in meaning. Maobelieves Chu Hsi has collated the passage according to the I-shu. 132. The edition used has chi-shih tzu [how long?] instead of chi-shih le (how long will it last?]. Le is a finalparticle indicating the realization of a situation, but tzu is not a particle. Both the I-shu, 17:6a, and the ChuTzu yü-lei, 95:41a, have le. I believe tzu is a misprint which some commentators have erroneously taken tobe a final particle. Although Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:27b) was aware that the I-shu has le, hehas chosen to follow Yeh Ts'ai and others in using tzu. Both Yanada Katsunobu ( Kinshi roku shakai bemm-5 sh5setu, p. 249) and Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shims kukai, p. 85) say that tzu is an auxiliary word.This requires justification. I believe Chiang Yung is right in retaining le ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:14a).Hsiung Kang-ta ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:17a) has correctly interpreted it as "how long." 133. Confucius said, "To know [the Way] is not as good as to love it" ( Analects, 6:18). 134. The Analects, 4:5, describes the superior man seeking the virtue of humanity in these terms. 135. Meaning Buddhism and Taoism. -63schools were not included. Today people learn chiefly to impress others. Defects have multiplied andlearning has been split into three parts, not
including the heterodoxical schools. ( Chang Po-hsing,Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:29b) 57. QUESTION: "Does writing literary compositions hurt one's effort to cultivate the Way?"136. ANSWER: "Yes, it hurts. When one writes a literary composition, the work will not be refined unless heconcentrates. If he does so, his will is restricted to the composition. How can he be as great as Heaven andEarth? The Book of History says, 'Trifling with things makes one lose his purpose.'137. To write literarycompositions is to trifle with things. Lü Yü-shu138. has written a poem, which says: When one studies as Yüan-k'ai did,139. one becomes an addict. When one's literary compositions resemble those of Ssu-ma Hsiang-ju,140. one becomes just a stageentertainer. We each stand in the Confucian school concerned with nothing. Except devoting ourselves to141. the way in which Yen Tzu142. succeeded in the fasting of themind.143. This poem is very good.144. When the ancients pursued learning, they were devoted only to nourishing theirnature and feelings and to nothing else. Today those who are engaged in writing literary compositions devotethemselves exclusively to phraseology and diction in order to please people's ears and eyes. Since they areengaged in pleasing people, if they are not stage entertainers, what are they?" "Did the ancients study the writing of compositions?" "When people see the Six Classics,145. they immediately say that ____________________ 136. According to Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:28a), the questioner was Liu An-chieh (1068-1116).
137. See above, n. 82. 138. The private name of Lil (1044-90) was Ta-lin. He was an outstanding pupil of the Ch'eng brothers and aprofessor at the national university in the middle of the Yüan-yu period ( 1086-94). For his biography, seethe Sungshih, 340:10a11b; for his doctrines, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, ch. 31; for another account ofhim, see the I-Lo Yüan-yüan lu, 8:10b- 14a. 139. For Yüan-k'ai, see above, sec. 49. In hls textual commentary on the Tso chuan, he wrote more than 100,000words. 140. Ssu-ma Hsiang-ju ( 179-117 B.C. ) is renowned for his prose poems, which are masterpieces of literarybeauty aimed at pleasing the reader. 141. The I-shu, 18:42b, has ch'uan [to transmit] instead of shu [to devote to]. 142. For Yen Tzu, see above, ch. 1, n. 106. According to the Chuang Tzu, ch. 4 ( NHCC, 2:13a; Herbert Giles, tr.,Chuang Tzu, p. 54), Yen Tzu fasted with his mind, that is, his mind was so quiet and empty that the Taoabode in it. 143. This poem is found in Hsieh Liang-tso , Shang-ts'ai yü-lu, pt. 1, 7a, with several variations of wording. 144. In some editions this sentence is missing. 145.
See above, Introduction, n. 8. -64the Sage also engaged in writing compositions. They do not realize that the Sage, however,146. unfolded andexpressed what was held in his mind, and that it naturally became literature. As it has been said, 'One who hasvirtue always has something to say.'"147. "Why were Tzu-yu and Tzu-hsia praised for their literary accomplishment?"148. "When did Tzu-yu or Tzu-hsia take up their brushes to learn to write literary compositions? Suppose one'observes the patterns of the sky and thereby understands the changes of the seasons, or observes the socialorder and thereby transforms and completes all under heaven.'149. Are these the patterns of literarycompositions?"150. 58. Self-cultivation requires seriousness; the pursuit of learning depends on the extension of knowledge.151. One must cultivate his mind with seriousness. Just so, in bringing up an infant, when its blood andvital force are not yet strong or substantial, one must see that it is looked after and fed at the propertimes. It must be taken care of at home and must be protected carefully. Then one can expect it togrow to maturity. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:41 a-b) Neither seriousness nor knowledge can be overemphasized or neglected. The extension of knowledgerequires cultivation and cultivation requires the extension of knowledge. ( Ibid., 18:14b) Someone asked whether cultivation precedes the extension of knowledge. Chu Hsi said, "From thevery beginning, cultivation comes first. In ancient times people were taught from childhood tocultivate themselves with seriousness. In time their fathers and brothers would teach them to readand to understand moral principles. However, if we say that we shall wait till we have cultivatedourselves before we understand how to extend knowledge, we shall
be waiting endlessly. We mustdevote our efforts to both. We must be cultivating ourselves; we must also be extending knowledge.(Ibid.) 59. Do not say that you will let others do the best and do the second best yourself. When you speak thus, you arethrowing yourself away. Although you will be different from those who are unable to abide by humanity orfollow righteousness, 152. your belittling yourself is the ____________________ 146. The I-shu, 18:42b, has chih [merely] instead of i [however]. 147. Analects, 14:5. 148. See above, sec. 49. 149. This is a quotation from the Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 22, p'i [adornment]. SeeLegge, tr., Yi King, p. 231. 150. The word wen means "literary composition," "literature," "pattern," etc. 151. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:31a) has assigned this saying to Ch'eng Hao. 152. Mencius said that these people throw themselves away ( Book of Mencius, 4A:10). -65-
same. In the pursuit of learning, we must aim at the Way, and in being a man, we must aim at being a sage. 60. QUESTION: In order always to be doing something, should we exercise seriousness? ANSWER: Seriousness is153. one item in moral cultivation. In order always to be doing something, we mustaccumulate righteousness.154. Merely to exercise seriousness without accumulating righteousness amounts tohaving done nothing. FURTHER QUESTION: Does righteousness not mean to be in accord with principle? ANSWER: Being in accord with principle has to do with things and affairs. Righteousness has to do with themind.155. There is dead seriousness and there is living seriousness. If one merely adheres to the seriousnesswhich concentrates on one thing, and when things happen does not support it with righteousness todistinguish the right and the wrong, it will not be living seriousness. When one becomes at home withit, then wherever there is seriousness, there will be righteousness, and wherever there isrighteousness, there will be seriousness. When tranquil, one examines himself as to whether he isserious or not, and when active, one examines himself as to whether he is righteous or not. ( Chu Hsi,Chu Tzu yü-lei, 12:17a) In moral cultivation, one must exercise seriousness. In handling affairs, one must accumulaterighteousness. (Ibid.) 61. QUESTION: What is the difference between seriousness and righteousness? ANSWER: Seriousness is merely a way of managing oneself. Righteousness, however, enables one to know whatis right and what is wrong. To act according to principle is to practice righteousness. If one merely holds fast toseriousness and does not accumulate righteousness, he has virtually done nothing. Take, for example, the desireto be filial. It will not do just to hold on to the idea of filial piety. One must know the way to practice it, forinstance,
the way to serve his parents and to take care of their comfort in both winter and summer.156. Onlythen can one fulfill the way of filial piety.157. ____________________ 153. The I-shu, 18:19a, has "is only." 154. For the doctrines of always doing something and accumulating righteousness, see the Book of Mencius,2A:2. 155. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi- chieh, 2:31a) has assigned this section to Ch'eng Hao. 156. This is discussed in the Book of Rites, "Summary of Ceremonies," pt. 1 (SPPY, 1:3b). Cf. p. Legge, tr., Li Ki,p. 67. 157. Mao Hsing-lai, in accordance with the I-shu, 18:19a, has combined this and the preceding sections into one.See the Chin-ssu lu chi-chu. 2:29b-31a. -66Seriousness and righteousness are only one thing. When one stands firmly on both feet, that isseriousness. As soon as he walks, that is righteousness. When one's eyes are closed, there isseriousness. When he opens his eyes to see things, there is righteousness. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,12:17a) Before anything happens, it is necessary only to exercise seriousness to straighten one's internal life.When things happen, however, one must distinguish right and wrong, and must not proceed withseriousness only. Seriousness and righteousness are not two different things. (Ibid.)
Seriousness means to hold on to something without wavering. Righteousness means to handle thingsin the proper way. (Ibid.) 62. The student must devote himself to reality. He should not be attracted to fame. If he has any desire forfame, he is insincere. The great foundation is already lost. What is there to be learned? Although devotion tofame and devotion to profit differ in the degree of impurity, their selfish motivation is the same. 63. For three months there would be nothing in Hui's mind contrary to humanity.158. It was so with Yen Huisimply because he had not the slightest selfish idea. If one has the slightest selfish idea, he is not humane.159. 64. "The man of humanity first of all considers what is difficult in the task160. and then thinks of success."161. Ifone acts with any calculation, he is thinking of success first of all. The only thing the ancients knew was topractice humanity. All people today think first of success.162. 65. Only when people have the will to seek to become sages can we study together with them. Only when theycan study and think carefully can we proceed with them toward the Way. Only when they can think withsuccess can we get established in the Way together with them. When they are thoroughly transformed with it,we can then weigh events with them as to which is standard and which is expedient.163. ____________________ 158. Analects, 6:5. For Yen Hui, see above, ch. 2, sec. 3. 159. In the opinion of Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:33b) this is Ch'eng Hao's saying. 160.
What is difficult in the task is open to many interpretations. Ch'eng Hao regards it as self-mastery, butCh'eng I speaks only in general terms. See Chu Hsi , Chu Tzu yü-lei, 32:16b. 161. Analects, 6:20. 162. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi- chieh, 2:33b) has ascribed these words to Ch'eng Hao, probably becausethe comment in the passage in the Chu Tzu yülei, 32:16b, mentions his name first. 163. This is a commentary on the Analects, 9:29. -67Studying together means to set the will on the objective. To proceed means to see the way to that objective. Toget established means to establish something. To weigh events means to know what is the proper thing to dowhen one encounters unexpected events. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 37:5b) Asked about what establishment means, Chu Hsi said, "Establishment means to see the correct principlesclearly and not to be shaken or perplexed by things or situations." (Ibid., 9b) 66.The ancients studied for their own improvement. In the end they will bring others to completion. Peopletoday study to impress others.164. In the end they will destroy themselves.165. 67.The learning of the superior man renews itself every day. To be renewed every day means to advance everyday. What does not renew itself every day surely falls back every day. There has never been anything which doesnot advance and yet does not fall back. Only in the Way of the sage is there neither advancing nor falling back,for in its development it has reached the ultimate.166.
68. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: He whose nature167. is tranquil is qualified to pursuelearning. 69. Those who are broad but not vigorously enduring are not firmly established.168. Those who are vigorouslyenduring but not broad are provincial and narrow.169. 70. Know that human nature is originally good170. and hold loyalty and faithfulness as fundamental.171. This isthe way to build up, first of all, the noble part of your nature.172. 71. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: If a person is reposeful and grave, his learning will be solid andfirm.173. ____________________ 164. Read wu (literally, "things," but in this case it means "others") as jen [people]. In his quotation of thispassage in his Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 7, comment on the Analects, 14:25, Chu Hsi has jen instead of wu. Thissubstitution agrees with the original in the Analects. 165. A commentary on the Analects, 14:25. 166. For the doctrine of daily renewal, see the Great Learning, ch. 2. 167. Kaibara Ekken ( Kinshi roku bikō, 2:27b) thinks this refers to physical nature. 168. According to Abei Bōsan ( Kinshi roku kummō shūso, 2:45a)wu-kuei-chü, literally, "unregulated" or"undisciplined," was a Lo-yang colloquialism meaning "not on a firm footing." 169.
Cf. sec. 48. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:35a) has assigned this saying to Chang Tsai, clearly amistake. 170. See the Book of Mencius, 6A:1-6. 171. Quoting the Analects, 1:8. 172. Quoting the Book of Mencius, 6A: 15. 173. Paraphrasing the Analects, 1:8. -68To be flippant is most hurtful. If one is restless and unstable, how can his learning be solid or firm? ( Chu Hsi,Chu Tzu yü-lei, 21:20b) 72. Study extensively, inquire accurately, think carefully, sift clearly, and practice earnestly.174. Learning whichneglects one of these is not learning. "Is there any order among studying, inquiring, thinking, and sifting?" Chu Hsi answered, "After onehas studied extensively, he can have the principles of all things before him. He can therefore examinethem and compare them to get the right questions to ask. Then, as he asks accurately, his teachersand friends will wholeheartedly engage in give-and-take with him, thus stimulating him, and he willbegin to think. As he thinks carefully, his thoughts will be refined and free from impurities. Thus heachieves something for himself. He can now sift what he has achieved. As he sifts clearly, he can makedecisions without making a mistake. He can therefore be free from doubts and can put his thoughtsinto action. As he practices earnestly, all he has achieved from studying, asking, thinking, and siftingwill become concrete demonstrations and will no longer remain empty words. This is the order of thefive steps." ( Chu Hsi, Chung-yung huo-wen, 20:105b- 106a)
73. Chang Ssu-shu175. asked some questions. His discussions were possibly on too high a level. I-ch'uan did notanswer him. After a long while he said, "To accumulate to any height, one must begin at the bottom." Chang I and Yin T'un176. were both pupils of Ch'eng I. Chang was known for profound knowledge andYin for earnest practice, and both were praised by Master Ch'eng.177. But he also said, " Yin T'un isstupid and Chang I is smart. A smart person will some day go too far, but a stupid person will hold onto something."178. Therefore, when in his questions Chang I often showed the defect of reaching toohigh, Ch'eng I told him to begin at the bottom in order to hold him back and thus save him. ( ChiangYung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:16a-b) 74. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID : In learning we must avoid setting up a target. If we gostep by step without stop, we will succeed. ____________________ 174. Repeating th e Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 20. 175. Courtesy name of Chang I (b. 1081), who was a native of present Honan Province. Coming from a poorfamily, he lacked schooling and as a youngster worked in his home town. However, eventually he became apupil of the Ch'eng brothers. For an account of him, see the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 12:1a-2a; the Sung-Yüanhsüeh-an, 30:4b-5a; and the Sung shih, 428:2b-3a. 176. See below, sec. 75. 177. According to the Wai-shu, 12:18a. 178. Ibid., 11:2a.
-69Someone asked, "In his endeavor, a student should aim at becoming a sage. Why not set up a target?" Chu Hsi answered, "Of course a student should regard a sage as his teacher, but what need is there toset up a target? As soon as one sets up a target, his mind will be calculating and deliberating as towhen he will become a sage and what the state of sagehood will be like. Thus from the start in hismind he puts success ahead of effort. Yen Hui said, 'Who was Shun, and who am I? He who exertshimself will also become such a person as he.'179. He said it merely to teach people generally that theymust look forward to becoming sages and worthies. But what need is there to set up a target? Just goahead and work and in a little while you will get somewhere." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:41b-45a) When asked about setting up a target, Chu Hsi said, "What Master Ch'eng meant was 'always bedoing something without expectation.'180. Although we now say we must learn to become sages, wemust keep on making effort from the start. If every day we compare ourselves with others this way orthat way, it will not do. Although we may say, 'Who was Shun, and who am I?,' if we only compare anddo not make an effort, what good is it?" (Ibid., 41b) If one first sets up a target, he will surely get into the trouble of aiming too high or trying short cuts. (Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:28) 75. [ CH'ENG I] Yin Yen-ming181. went to study under I-ch'uan. He had to wait for half a year before he wasgiven the Great Learning182. and Western Inscription183. to read. ____________________ 179. Book of Mencius, 3A:1. 180. Book of Mencius, 2A:2.
181. Courtesy name of Yin-T'un ( 1071-1142). He was honored as Master Ho-ching. He was a native of Lo-yangand a pupil of Ch'eng I. In 1135 he became lecturer in waiting. Later he offered his resignation in protestagainst peace negotiations with northern invaders and was transferred to a minor post. For his biographysee the Sung shih, ch. 428, and the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 11:4a-13b; for his doctrines see the Sung-Yüanhsüeh-an, 27: 1a-5b. 182. The Great Learning was originally ch. 42 of the Li chi. Not much attention was paid to it until Ssu-maKuang (see below, ch. 4, n. 44) wrote a commentary on it, treating it for the first time as a separate work.The commentary is now lost. The Ch'eng brothers rearranged the text. Chu Hsi did the same and, moreover,added a "supplement." He further divided the work into one "text" and ten "chapters of commentary," andwithout evidence attributed the former to Confucius and the latter to his pupil Tseng Tzu. The work has alsobeen attributed by many scholars to Confucius' grandson Tzu-ssu ( 492431 B.C.). In 1190 Chu Hsi groupedit with the Analects, the Book of Mencius, and the Doctrine of the Mean, and published these together asthe "Four Books," on which he had written commentaries. Since then they have been honored as Classics.From 1313 to 1905 they were the basis for civil service examinations, exceeding the other Classics inimportance. The Chinese title, Ta-hsüeh, literally means education for the adult. The book's emphasis on moralcultivation and social order gives the title the further meaning of education to be great. For Westerntranslations, see those by James Legge in The Chinese Classics, I, 355-81; by Lin Yutang in The Wisdom ofConfucius, pp. 139-52; and by Wing-tsit Chan, in A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, pp. 85-94. 183. For a discussion of the Western Inscription, see below, sec. 89. -70-
"I do not know what Yin T'un did during the half year. Perhaps he was merely taught how to listen." A pupil said, "Perhaps as a beginning student, Yin T'un did not know the order of study. It wouldn'tdo to let him read these right away." Chu Hsi said, "Was it not the case?" ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:42a) The beginning student does not know the direction. To teach him the Great Learning is to let himknow the gate through which to enter into the Way and the order of study. In learning, the mostimportant thing is to seek humanity. To follow up with the Western Inscription is to enable thestudent to know the substance of humanity. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, ch. 2) 76. Someone advocated the doctrine of the absence of mind. I-ch'uan said, "The absence of mind is wrong. Weshould say only the absence of a selfish mind." The absence of mind is a Zen Buddhist doctrine. Only the absence of a selfish mind is Confucianlearning. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu-lu fa-ming, 2:28b) 77. Hsieh Hsien-tao184. saw I-ch'uan.185. I-ch'uan asked him," How have you been doing recently?" Hsieh replied, "What is there in the world to think about or to deliberate about ?"186. I-ch'uan said, "There is such a principle, it is true. But, sir, you have discovered and applied it too early."187. Ch'eng I truly knew how to train people. Having stated his opinion, he went on to say, "This is the right time toexert effort." "What is the effort to be exerted?" Chu Hsi answered, "The trouble with people is that they do not understand the main principle. Fromthe very beginning Hsieh understood it, but he was deficient in his efforts at the learnings on thelower level.188. When Master Ch'eng said, 'This is the time to exert effort,' he was teaching Hsieh toexert this kind of effort." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:43b)
There are self-evident principles in things. "What is there to think about or to deliberate about?"means that one should act according to these principles and leave things as they are. Hsieh's learninghad not reached this ____________________ 184. See above, sec. 27. 185. Some editions have Ch'eng Hao instead. 186. Hsieh was quoting the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 389. 187. The term fa needs an explanation. Chinese commentators have interpreted it and elaborated on it but havenot found it necessary to explain it etymologically. The term has many meanings, including "to discover"and "to start." Here it means not only to discover the principle, but to start to apply it. Yanada has adoptedthe former meaning only ( Kinshi roku bemmō shōsetu, p. 284), while Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi rokushimō kukai, p. 96) is correct in emphasizing both. Father Graf's "knowledge of it" ( Djin-sï lu, II, 191) is aninterpretation. 188. Things concerned with everyday life -71point. Therefore he was said to have discovered the principle too early." ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu luchi chu, 2:17a) 78. [CH'ENG HAO ] Hsieh Hsien-tao said, "Formerly when Po-ch'un [ Ch'eng Hao] instructed me, I only paidattention to his words. He said, 'To
talk with you, sir, is like supporting a drunkard. When you prevent himfrom falling on one side, he drops on the other.'189. He very much dreaded people's adhering to one side."190. Hsieh merely adhered unfailingly to Master Ch'eng's words without understanding their meaning. (Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:35a) 79. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [ CHANG TSAI] SAID: "Investigate the principles of things with care andrefinement until we enter into their spirit."191. In this way before anything happens its principle is already wellestablished in my internal life and I can then seek to benefit my external life. "Utilize the application ofprinciples and secure personal peace."192. As principles always benefit my external life, I can apply them tocultivate my internal life. To understand spirit to the highest degree and to know the process of transformationis the natural result of profound cultivation and cannot be achieved in any forced manner through thought orphysical effort. Therefore, outside of the exaltation of virtue, there is perhaps nothing to which the superiorman extends his knowledge. Spirit is the mystery of all things and has no spatial restriction. Transformation is the manifestationof all things and can be traced. To understand spirit to the utmost and to know process oftransformation is to investigate the principles of things to the utmost, to develop one's nature fully,and to establish one's destiny. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:30) 80. With the existence of physical form, there exists physical nature.193. If one skillfully returns to the originalnature endowed by Heaven and ____________________ 189. According to Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:35a), Ch'eng's words stop here. Japanese translators (Nakamura Tekisai, Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 97; Katō Jōken, Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p. 80; AkitzukiKazutsugu, Kinshi roku, p. 82) have read the last sentence as, "I dread people's adhering to one side," andregard it as Ch'eng's utterance.
190. Cf. above, secs. 27 and 77. In the former case, the student tended to the extreme of recitation andmemorization, while in the latter case he tended to the extreme of metaphysics and mysticism. 191. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 390. 192. Ibid. 193. Meaning human nature conditioned by the material force and concrete stuff of the universe. -72Earth, then it will be preserved. Therefore in physical nature there is that which the superior man denies to behis original nature. As the Mandate of Heaven operates and endows the ten thousand things, all of them are originallygood. This is the nature of Heaven and Earth. As material force (ch'i) collects to become physicalform, the original nature is restricted by the physical nature, giving rise to the difference betweenpurity and impurity and between balance and imbalance. This is physical nature. If one can returnskillfully to the nature of Heaven and Earth it will be preserved. Therefore the superior man does nottreat his physical nature as his original nature. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:30) In this passage, Master Chang wants us to transform our physical nature. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssulu chi-chieh, 2:38b) Someone said, "The moral nature of man is originally complete but, because he is endowed withphysical nature, his original nature, almost without exception, becomes unbalanced. Contrasted withmaterial force, nature is the
same as principle. Principle is good, but because it falls into the midst ofphysical form and material force, it becomes different. Is this physical nature?" Chu Hsi said, "It is. However, when the endowment of physical nature is unbalanced, principle alsobecomes deficient." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 4:16a) The nature is principle only. However, without the material force and concrete stuff of the universe,principle would have nothing in which to inhere. When material force is received in its state ofclearness, there will be no obscurity or obstruction and principle will express itself freely. If there isobscurity or obstruction, then, in its operation of principle, the Principle of Heaven will dominate ifthe obstruction is small and human selfish desire will dominate if the obstruction is great. From thiswe know that original nature is perfectly good. . . . However, it will be obstructed if the physicalnature contains impurity. Hence in the physical nature there is that which the superior man denies tobe his original nature, and if one learns to return to the original nature endowed by Heaven andEarth, then it will be preserved. ( Ibid., 10a-b) The doctrine of physical nature originated with Chang Tsai and Ch'eng I. It has made a tremendouscontribution to the Confucian school and is a great help to students. . . . None before had enunciatedsuch a doctrine. . . . Hence, with the establishment of the doctrine of Chang and Ch'eng, the theoriesof human nature of all previous philosophers collapse. ( Ibid., 15a) 81. When moral character does not overcome the material force, our nature and destiny proceed from thematerial force. But when moral character overcomes the material force, then our nature and destiny proceedfrom moral character. If one investigates principle to the utmost and fully develops his nature, then his naturewill be in accord with the character of Heaven and his destiny will be in accord -73-
with the Principle of Heaven [Nature]. Only life, death, and longevity and brevity of life are due to the materialforce and cannot be changed. If one's moral character is not adequate to overcome material force, then there is nothing for him todo but to submit to material force as endowed by Heaven. If one's moral character is adequate toovercome material force, however, then what he receives from the endowment is all moral character.Therefore, if one investigates principle to the utmost and fully develops his nature, then what he hasreceived is wholly Heaven's moral character, and what Heaven has endowed in him is wholly Heaven'sprinciple. The cases in which material force cannot be altered are life, death, and longevity andbrevity of life, for these, and poverty and wealth, and honor and humble station, all depend onmaterial force. On the other hand, the practice of righteousness between the ruler and his ministersand the exercise of humanity between father and son are matters of fate [destiny]. But there is alsoman's nature. The superior man does not say they are matters of fate.194. They must proceed fromoneself, not from fate. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:11a) Chang Tsai said that only longevity and brevity of life cannot be changed. Generally speaking, this istrue. Nevertheless, they can also be changed. ( Ibid., 11b) 82. Everything is due to Heaven. If yang195. that is clear dominates, one's moral nature will function. If yin thatis turbid dominates, one's material desires will have their way. To "remove evil and complete the good"196.surely depends on learning. "Does 'Everything is due to Heaven' include both good and evil?" Chu Hsi said, "Yes. As has been said, 'The nature is of course good, but it cannot be said that evil isnot nature.'197. Both come from Heaven. Yang is good and strong, while yin is evil and weak. Withyang a thing becomes bright and clear. With yin it becomes dark and turbid. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:11b-12a)
83. By enlarging one's mind, one can enter into all the things in the world.198. As long as anything is not yetentered into, there is still ____________________ 194. Book of Mencius, 7B:24. 195. In Chinese philosophy all things are conceived to be the result of the interaction of two material forces, yin,which is the cosmic passive force, and yang, which is the cosmic active force. Both can be either pure orimpure. Yang that is clear represents good and yin that is turbid represents evil. 196. Book of Rites, "Confucius at Home at Leisure" (SPPY 15:b). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, II, 271. 197. I-shu, 1:7b. 198. To examine and understand their principles. According to Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:13a), t'i-wu heremeans "entering into things." This meaning is different from that in the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 16, wherethe term means "forming the substance of things." Some commentators on the Cheng-meng, like Wang Fu-chih ( 1619-92), for example, prefer the latter meaning. (See Chang Tzu Cheng-meng chu, ch. 4, firstparagraph.) Both meanings are possible. Father Graf ( Djin-sï lu, II, 198) has followed Chu Hsi. -74something outside the mind. The mind of ordinary people is limited to the narrowness of what is seen and whatis heard. The sage, however, fully develops his nature and does not allow what is seen or heard to fetter hismind. He regards everything in the world as his own self. This is why Mencius said
that if one exerts his mindto the utmost he can know nature and Heaven.199. Heaven is so vast that there is nothing outside of it.Therefore the mind that leaves something outside is not capable of uniting itself with the mind of Heaven. The operation of the principle of the mind penetrates all as blood circulates and reaches the entire body. Ifthere is a single thing not yet entered, the reaching is not yet complete, and there are things not yet embraced.This shows that the mind still excludes something. For selfishness separates and obstructs, and consequentlyone and others stand in opposition. This being the case, even those dearest to us may be excluded. Thereforethe mind that leaves something outside is not capable of uniting itself with the mind of Heaven. ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 98:12b-13a) If we leave twenty or thirty per cent of the work undone, we are leaving something outside. ( Ibid., 13b) 84. Chung-ni [Confucius] completely stopped four things.200. His is the teaching that covers both extremes, thebeginning of learning and the completion of virtue. Arbitrariness of opinion means selfish ideas. Dogmatismmeans desiring one's own ends. Obstinacy means absence of flexibility. And egotism means beingobstructed.201. If one has any of these, he will be different from Heaven and Earth. 85. Those who understand the higher things return to the Principle of Nature, while those who understand thelower things202. follow human desires. 86. Wisdom is as high as heaven.203. It belongs to the realm of that which exists before physical form. Whenwisdom "penetrates the ____________________ 199. Book of Mencius, 7A:1. 200.
Arbitrariness of opinion, dogmatism, obstinacy, and egotism. This is a quotation from the Analects, 9:4.Chang Tsai interprets the word chüeh to mean "to stop completely," thus emphasizing overcoming evil andtransforming physical nature. Chu Hsi, however, prefers to understand the word to mean "being completelyfree" ( Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 5, comment on the Analects, 9:4), thus emphasizing the original goodness ofConfucius' nature. 201. Literally, "spatially restricted." 202. Cf. Analects, 14:24. 203. So stated in the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 7. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 359. -75course of day and night,"204. it is high indeed. But if, when one's wisdom reaches that level, one does not makeit part of his own nature through practicing it according to the rules of propriety, that wisdom is not really his.Therefore, when the rules of propriety are understood and when the nature is fulfilled, all moral principles willbe revealed, just as when "heaven and earth have their fixed positions, the system of Change operates inthem."205. 87. Difficulties improve a person because they help him discriminate moral values carefully and they make hissensitivity greater.206. This is why Mencius said, "Men who have the wisdom of virtue and the knowledge ofskill are always found to have experienced great difficulties."207. 88. In one's words there should be something to teach others. In one's activities there should be something toserve as a model for others. In the morning something should be done. In the evening something should
berealized. At every moment something should be nourished. And in every instant something should be preserved. 89. MASTER HENG-CHÜ [CHANG TSAI] WROTE THE Ting-wen [CORRECTING OBSTINACY],208. WHICHSAYS: Heaven is my father and Earth is my mother, and even such a small creature as I finds an intimate placein their midst. Therefore that which fills the universe I regard as my body and that which directs the universe I consider as mynature. ____________________ 204. That is, the one universal operation of yin and yang. See the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1,ch. 4. Cf. Legge, p. 354. 205. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 7. Cf. Legge, p. 360. Knowledge needs to be realizedthrough practice, which in turn requires rules of conduct, for the tendency of knowledge is to go higher andhigher and to become abstract and extreme, and rules of conduct help one not only to put it into practicebut also to restrain it and give it a proper direction. Only in this way can human nature be fully realized. Allmoral principles proceed from the cooperation of knowledge and conduct, or wisdom and rules of conduct,just as the process of transformation operates through the cooperation of heaven and earth. 206. In the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 7 ( Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 397), it is said thathexagram no. 47, k'un, which means both "confinement" and "difficulties," represents the exercise ofdiscrimination of virtue. 207.
Book of Mencius, 7A:18. The word "always" is omitted from Chang's quotation of the Book of Mencius in hisCheng-meng, from which this passage has been selected. 208. This is also called the Western Inscription. See the end of this section. Obstinacy means persistence inwrongdoing. -76Heaven is yang and Earth is yin. These material forces fill the universe, on which man and things depend fortheir substance.... Heaven is strong and Earth is obedient. The will of Heaven and Earth is the leader of thematerial force.209. Man and things derive their nature from it.... If we examine this fact carefully, we can seethat we find an intimate place in their midst. ( Chu Hsi , commentary on the Western Inscription, Chang Tzuch'üan-shu, 1:2a) All people are my brothers and sisters, and all things are my companions. Man and things coexist in the universe. What they depend on for their bodies is what fills theuniverse, and what they have received as their nature is the leader of the universe. But their bodiesmay be balanced or unbalanced in their endowment, and therefore their nature may be clear ordarkened. Man alone has a balanced endowment in physical form and material force. Therefore hismind is the most intelligent and can understand nature and destiny completely. Among living thingsmen and women form the same species and are on the highest level. They are therefore called brothersand sisters. On the other hand, things have an unbalanced endowment in physical form and materialforce and cannot understand nature and destiny completely. They are not of the same species as manand are not on the highest level as man is. But if we trace the source of their body and nature, they arealso based on Heaven and Earth and are not originally different. Therefore they are calledcompanions. ( Ibid., 3a) The great ruler210. is the eldest son of my parents211. and the great ministers are his stewards. Respect theaged--this is the way to treat them as elders should be treated. Show affection toward the orphaned and theweak--this is
the way to treat them as the young should be treated.212. The sage identifies his character withthat of Heaven and Earth, and the worthy is the most outstanding man. Even those who are tired, infirm,crippled, or sick, those who have no brothers or children, wives or husbands are all my brothers who are indistress and have no one to turn to.213. When the time comes, to keep himself from harm--this is the care of a son. To rejoice in Heaven and to have noanxiety--this is filial piety at its purest. He who disobeys [the Principle of Heaven] violates virtue. He who destroys humanity is a robber. He whopromotes evil lacks [moral] capacity. But he who puts his moral nature into practice and brings his physicalexistence into complete fulfillment can match [Heaven and Earth]. ____________________ 209. Cf. Book of Mencius, 2A:2. 210. The emperor. 211. Heaven and Earth. 212. Cf. Book of Mencius, 1A:7. 213. Cf. ibid., 1B:5. -77One who knows the principle of transformation will skillfully carry forward the undertaking [of Heaven andEarth], and one who penetrates spirit to the highest degree will skillfully carry out their will.214.
Do nothing shameful in the recesses of your own house215. and thus bring no dishonor to them. Preserve themind and nourish the nature and thus serve them with untiring effort. The Great Yü hated pleasant wine but attended to the protection and support of his parents.216. BorderWarden Ying brought up and educated the young and thus extended his love to his own kind.217. Shun's merit lay in delighting his parents with unceasing effort,218. and Shensheng's reverence wasdemonstrated when he waited for punishment without making an attempt to escape.219. Ts'an received his body from his parents and reverently kept it intact throughout life,220. while Po-ch'ivigorously obeyed his father's command.221. Wealth, honor, blessing, and benefits are meant for the enrichment of my life, while poverty, humble station,worries, and sorrow are meant to help me to fulfillment. ____________________ 214. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 19. 215. Quoting the Book of Odes, no. 256.The word "recesses" refers to the northwest corner, the darkest in thehouse. 216. Reigned 2183-2175 B.C.? He was founder of the Hsia dynasty. See the Book of Mencius, 4B:20. 217. See the Tso chuan, Duke Yin, 1st year; James Legge, tr., The Ch'un Ts'ew, with the Tso Chuen, p. 4. 218.
See the Book of Mencius, 4A:28. 219. Heir-apparent of the state of Chin who committed suicide because he was falsely accused of attempting topoison his father, Duke Hsien (r. 675-648 B.C.). See the Tso chuan, Duke Hsi, 5th year; see also the Book ofRites, "T'ankung," pt. 1 ( SPPY, 2:5a-b; Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 126-27). 220. In ch. 1 of the Hsiao ching (Book of filial piety), falsely attributed to Tsang Tzu (Tsang Ts'an), it is said;"Our bodies--to every hair and bit of skin--are received by us from our parents, and we must not presume toinjure or wound them." See Mary Lelia Makra , tr., The Hsiao Ching, p. 3. 221. Yin Po-ch'i of the 9th century B.C. Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 109), UtsunomiyaTon'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 2:53a), Inoue Tetsujirō ( Kinshi roku, 2:35), Yamazaki Michio ( Kinshi rokukōhon shakugi, p. 107), Ishitsuka Saikō ( Kinshi roku shōsetsu, ch. 2), Nakai Chikusan ( Kinshi roku hyōki),and Kaibara Ekken ( Kinshi roku bikō, 2:39a) all say that the story is told in the Shuo-yüan, without givingany definite reference. In his annotation on the concluding eulogy in the Han shu, 79:12b, Yen Shih-ku (581-645) quotes the Shuo- yüan as saying, " Po-ch'i's stepmother, who wanted her own son as the crown prince,slandered him before the king, and the king expelled him." This passage, however, is not to be found in thesurviving Shuo-yüan. A summary reference to the story is found in the K'ung Tzu chia-yü, 9:3a. The ChangTzu ch'üan- shu, 1:6a, quotes Huang Yen-sun (not identified) as saying that Po-ch'i lived on weeds,eventually composed a song, sang it, and drowned himself. -78In life I follow and serve [Heaven and Earth]. In death I will be at peace. Master Ch'eng Hao said,222."The words of the Western Inscription are absolutely pure. No scholar since theCh'in [ 221-206 B.C.] and Han [ 206 B.C.-
A.D.220] dynasties has reached that level."223. He also said, "Theidea of the Western Inscription is perfect. It is the substance of humanity. The student should understand thisidea and make it part of himself. He will then have reached a high position. When he reaches this point, he willsee more. He should not try to go too far or reach too high. That will not help him in his search of the Way."224.He further said, "When one's motivation is that of the Western Inscription", he will understand the character ofHeaven."225. When one feels that all things form one body, there is neither separation nor obstruction. Such a mind alreadyunderstands the character of Heaven. ( Yin Hui-i, in Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:45b) Again, he said, "When Yu Tso226. obtained the Western Inscription to read, he immediately felt completely freewith nothing contrary to his mind. He said, 'This is the principle of the Doctrine of the Mean,227. somethingthat can be found outside of words.'"228. The Doctrine of the Mean [ch. 1] inquires into the nature endowed by Heaven. The substance of the nature isharmony, while its function is equilibrium. When equilibrium and harmony are realized to the highest degree,heaven and earth will attain their proper order and all things will flourish. All of these are based on the originalendowment by Heaven. According to the Western Inscription, men and things are all endowed with the samematerial force as their substance and all possess the same principle as their nature. Although they differ, theyhave only one foundation. To regard all things as one body ____________________ 222. The passages from here to the end of the section are Chu Hsi's comments. 223. I-shu, 2A:7b. 224. Ibid., 2A:2a.
225. Ibid., 5:1b. 226. The courtesy name of Yu Tso (1053-1132) was Ting-fu. He was a pupil of the Ch'eng brothers. Holder of the"presented scholar" degree of 1083, he was a professor of the national university and later became a prefectin the capacity of censor. For his biography see the Sung shih, 428:2a-b; the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 9:7a-10a;for his doctrines see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 26:1a-3a. 227. Originally a chapter in the Li chi, by the early Han dynasty it had achieved an independent exsitence.Ch'eng I wrote a commentary on it. Chu Hsi redivided the old text into thirty-three sections without alteringits order, thus making it clearer. He believed that Confucius' grandson Tzu-ssu was the author. Manymodern scholars have dated it around 200 B.C. The Chinese title, Chung-yung, means "central andharmonious" and also "the Mean." For English translations, see James Legge, "The Doctrine of the Mean,"in The Chinese Classics, I, 382- 434; Ku Hung-ming, "Central Harmony," in Lin Yutang, The Wisdom ofConfucius, 104-34; and Wing-tsit Chan, "The Doctrine of the Mean," in A Source Book in ChinesePhilosophy, pp. 97-114. Also see above, n. 182. 228. Ts'ui-yen, 2:10a. -79is to develop one's nature fully and to preserve the original endowment of Heaven. This is the principle of theDoctrine of the Mean. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 2:3b) Yang Chung-li229. asked, "The Western Inscription talks about substance without going into function. I amafraid it may lead to the doctrine of universal love.230. What do you think?"
Master Ch'eng I said, "It is true that in his Cheng-meng Heng-ch'ü has sometimes gone too far in what he says.The Western Inscription, however, extends principle in order to preserve righteousness. It opens up whatprevious sages have never propagated, and is meritorious as Mencius' doctrines of the goodness of humannature and nourishing the strong, moving power.231. (These two also had not been propagated by previoussages)232. Can Mo Tzu's doctrine be equal to it? It makes clear that while principle is one, its manifestationsand functions are many, whereas the doctrine of Mo Tzu has two foundations without any differentiation. (Torespect one's own elders and protect one's young and then extend the respect and protection to all the old andthe young means that principle is one. To love universally without distinction means to have twofoundations.)233. If we are obscured by the differentiation of functions, we will be overcome by selfishness andwill lose humanity. If we sin by not knowing the differentiation of functions, we shall love universally withoutrighteousness.234. To ____________________ 229. Yang Shih ( 1053-1135) was another pupil of the Ch'engs. His courtesy name was Chung-li. Holder of the"presented scholar" degree of 1076, he was a minor officer in the imperial academy but preferred to lectureand write, became an outstanding Neo-Confucianist, and was honored as Master of Kuei-shan. For hisbiography, see the Sung shih, 428:10b- 13b, and the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 10:1a- 17a; for his doctrines, see theSung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 25:1a-10a. The question was raised in a letter to Ch'eng I. See Yang Shih , Yang Kuei-shan Hsien-sheng chi, 16:6b. 230. That of Mo Tzu, which teaches treating other people's parents and one's own alike, thus rejecting theConfucian theory that one owes a special obligation to one's own parents. See Yi-pao Mei, tr., The Ethicaland Political Works of Motse, chs. 14-16. 231.
Book of Mencius, 6A:1-6 and 2A:2, respectively. 232. Ch'eng I own note in Wen-chi, 5:11b, but omitted in the Chin-ssu lu. 233. Ch'eng's own note, omitted in the text and some commentaries. In the Confucian view, all morality proceedsfrom one's filial piety toward his own parents. That is the foundation of morality. From this central pointthe moral feeling is to be extended to all with love for all. But the foundation must remain one and theapplication of love in different relationships must be different although the principle of love is one. 234. If we merely know that functions and manifestations are different, that is, different relations requiringdifferent applications of love, we shall lose humanity, which regards all people as one. But if we ignore thedifferentiated functions and love all people in the same way, we shall lose righteousness, which delineates aspecific behavior in a specific relationship as proper. -80establish the different functions and then extend principle, which is one, so that we will not degenerate intoselfishness--that is the method of humanity. To ignore differences and to pursue universal love blindly to theextreme of not recognizing the special relationship with one's parents is to destroy righteousness. You arewrong in equating the Western Inscription with Mo Tzu's doctrine. Furthermore, Master Chang wants peopleto extend principle and to put it into practice primarily for the sake of function. Yet you say that he did not gointo function. Is that not strange?"235. Master Chang also wrote the Pien-yü [Puncturing ignorance], which says, "Playful words come from thought.Playful acts come from deliberation. To say that what we say and what we show in our bodily movements arenot from our mind is unintelligible, and it is impossible to expect others not to suspect that they originate fromour mind.
"It is not our original mind that makes us err in speech, and it is not our sincere will that makes us err inaction. To be mistaken in words and to be erroneous and deceived in action and then to say that it is naturalwith us is to slander ourselves. And to expect others to think the same way is to slander them. "Some will say that while speech and action originate from our mind, any fault there is lies no twith it but withour playfulness, or that while we are wrong in thought, we are really sincere. Such people do not guard againstwhat comes from within and blame their mistakes on what does not come from within. Their pride willincrease and, furthermore, they will finally be wrong. Who can be more stupid?" (There was a pair of windows in Heng-ch'ü's school hall. On the righthand one he wrote the CorrectingObstinacy and on the lefthand one he wrote the Puncturing Ignorance. I-ch'uan said, "This will causecontroversy."236. He therefore changed Correcting Obstinacy to Western Inscription and PuncturingIgnorance to Eastern Inscription.)237. 90. To cultivate oneself, one must first of all conduct oneself seriously and gravely. If one is serious and graveand knows how to study, his ____________________ 235. Wen-chi, 5:12b. 236. Probably over the definitions of "obstinacy" or "ignorance." Yi Huang Chŏng Yŏp , Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, 2:44b)and Abei Bōsan ( Kinshi roku kummō shūso, 2:63a) think it was because of the obscurity of the meaning ofthe two essays, but Sawada Takeoka ( Kinshi roka setsuryaku, 2:69b) thinks it was because students mightargue over the titles 237.
This passage in parentheses from the Wai-shu, 11:6b, was added by Chu Hsi as a note. The essays werewritten on the paper window panes. See the I-shu, 2A:16b, which contains a description of a study with awindow on each side, each window having thirty-six panes, on which passages were written. -81virtue will advance and he will not be narrow. The way to advance virtue through loyalty and faithfulness is tocherish friendship and to befriend the worthy without delay. In order to be intimate with those superior tooneself, there is nothing better than correcting one's mistakes without reservation.238. 91. Master Heng-ch'ü told Fan Sun-chih,239."We cannot match the ancients. What is the source of the trouble?" Sun-chih asked for an explanation. The Teacher said, "This is not difficult to understand. I asked the question because I want students to have it inmind and never forget it so that their minds will dwell on it and become thoroughly absorbed in it. One daythey will feel suddenly released as though waking up from deep sleep." 92. Before one makes up his mind, the trouble is that he has too many ideas and is uncertain. After he hasmade up his mind, the trouble is that his study and cultivation are not refined. Thoughts of study and ofcultivation are all matters of learning. Pursue it diligently. Why get tired of it? One must lose no time in seekingwhat is desirable in order to get his mind established in a position of certainty. Then he can go ahead easily likea river bursting forth. "Humble your will. Maintain constant earnestness. In this way your cultivation willsurely come."240. Therefore Confucius, even with his ability and excellence, sought earnestly.241. Now as for aperson with inferior capacity who wishes to pursue learning at leisure and allow it to proceed wherever itpleases -- I have never heard that such a person can succeed. 93. It is fundamental to understand what is good. Hold it firmly and it will be established in you.242. Extend itand enlarge it and it will be great. Neglect it and it will be small. It depends on man to make it great.243.
94. Let us make up our minds to "honor our moral nature and follow the path of study and inquiry."244. Let usask ourselves every day ____________________ 238. Cf. Analects, 1:8. 239. The private name of Fan (fl. 1087) was Yü, and he was Chang's pupil. He served first as a magistrate andlater as a vice-minister in the department of the treasury. For an account of him, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 31:12b-13b. 240. Book of History, "Charge to Yüeh," pt. 3. Cf. Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 261. 241. Analects, 7:19. 242. Cf. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 20. 243. Confucius said, "It is man that can make the Way great" ( Analects, 15:28). 244. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 27. -82whether we have done anything contrary to the subject of our inquiry and study or have neglected our moralnature in any way. This is the same principle as those governing the extensive study of literature andrestraining oneself with rules of propriety,245. and studying things on the lower level and penetrating thehigher level.246. If we arouse ourselves in this way for a year,
how can we help growing? We must seek toimprove a bit every day. We must try to know what we do not yet know,247. and to correct what is not good inus, however little. This is the improvement of our moral nature. In studying books, search for moral principles.In compiling books, appreciate what ultimate purposes they have. Do not just copy them. In addition, knowmuch about the words and deeds of former sages and worthies.248. This is the improvement of our inquiry andstudy. Do not relax for a moment. Keep on like this for three years and there will be progress. 95. Make up your mind for the sake of Heaven and Earth. Establish the Way for the sake of living men.Continue the learning that has been interrupted for the sake of past sages. And inaugurate great peace for thesake of the next ten thousand generations. The mind of Heaven and Earth is to produce and reproduce. The sage participates and assists Heavenand Earth in this process of transformation and nourishment so that all things will fulfill their natureand destiny correctly. This is to make up one's mind for the sake of Heaven and Earth. To establishthe Way for living men is to establish and make prominent moral principles and to support humanrelationships and cardinal virtues. To continue interrupted learning means to continue thetransmission of the Way. If great peace is inaugurated, whenever a true king arises he will adopt thesystem as a model and benefit ten thousand generations. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chinssu lu chi- chieh, 2:40-41) ____________________ 245. As taught in the Analects, 6:25 and 9:11. 246. Ibid., 14:37. 247. This part of the sentence and the preceding sentence can be combined to mean improving every day ourknowledge of what we do not yet know. Yeh Ts'ai has
punctuated it this way ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:40),and many Japanese commentators have followed him. Chŏng Yŏp ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, 2:46b), Kim Chang-saeng ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, in the Sagye sŏnsaeng chŏnsŏ, 18:31b), Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho ch. 2),Chiang Yung ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:22b), and Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:49b) havepunctuated the sentence as it is punctuated here. As Satō said, Chang was thinking of the two kinds ofimprovement to be mentioned. 248. As taught in the Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 26, ta-ch'u [great accumulation]. Cf.Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 300. -8396. I tell students to study rules of propriety first of all because in doing so we remove the bondage of thatbunch 249. of worldly conventions. They are like creeping vines. When the entanglement is removed, the treewill rise up. If we can remove that bunch of worldly conventions and habits, we shall naturally be free.Furthermore, if we study rules of propriety, we can hold ourselves firmly. 97. We can understand the Way if we seek it with a mind that is open, free, in good spirits, and impartial.Furthermore, moral nature itself is extensive and great. The Book of Changes says, "Understand spirit to thehighest degree and know the process of transformation. That is eminent virtue."250. Can one achieve the Waywith a shallow mind? 98. Many people think they are mature and experienced and therefore are not willing to learn from theirinferiors. Consequently they remain ignorant all their lives. Some people regard themselves as the first ones toknow moral principles and for them there is no such thing as ignorance. Consequently they too are not willingto learn from inferiors. Because they are never willing to learn, they think of many things that deceivethemselves and others. They are willing to remain ignorant throughout their lives. 99. Information, however much, is not to enable us to understand why all the things in the world are as theyare. If we handle the changing events in the
world with much information, we can respond to those eventsabout which we already know something. But if we are surprised with something unforeseen, we will be at aloss. 100. The great benefit of learning is to enable one to transform his physical nature himself. Otherwise he willhave the defect of studying in order to impress others, in the end will attain no enlightenment, and cannot seethe allembracing depth which the sage has. ____________________ 249. I-fu-tang is a colloquialism meaning "a set," "a piece," "a group," etc. I do not know on what basis AbeiBōsan ( Kinshi roku kummō shūso, 2:66a) and Kaneko Sōsan ( Kinshi roku teiyoō) say it means "all" or"every case." Akitzuki Kazutzugu ( Kinshi roku, p. 95) is not quite correct in interpreting the term to mean"a kind of." 250. Appended Remarks, pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 390. -84101. Our writing must be251. refined and penetrating. Our minds must be broad and far-reaching. 102. People who do not doubt simply have not devoted themselves to concrete practice. If they have concretelypracticed, there must be some doubts. Something must be impracticable, and that raises questions. 103. If one's mind is big, it can penetrate everything. If it is small, everything becomes trouble for him. If one's mind is narrow, there will be obstacles to prevent him from carrying out the things he wantsto do. Humanity, for example, may degenerate into indulgence and righteousness into cruelty. Ineither case, the mind sees only one side. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:23a)
104. Although one cannot achieve learning by his effort, he should not forget it. If he does not forget it, even hisdealings with daily affairs will be concrete practice, and the Way will be found in them. If he forgets learning,although he may practice all his life, what he does will be no more than conventional action. Learning is not limited to studying books. Dealings with daily affairs are also matters of the Way.They are, therefore, also learning. The difference between concrete practice and conventional actionlies in one's intention. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:23b) 105. Combine the internal and the external into one and regard things and the self as equal. This is the way tosee the fundamental point of the Way. 106. In the pursuit of learning, if one's intention is first of all toward accomplishment, he will hurt his learning.With that intention, he will try to bore through things in violation of principle and to make up things, thusleading to a lot of trouble. To devote oneself to accomplishment before virtue is fulfilled is to "undertake to hewwood for the master carpenter" and one will "rarely escape injuring one's own hands."252. ____________________ 251. Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi- chu, 2:50a), conforming to the sentence in the Doctrine of the Mean, ch.31, and following a Sung edition, reads wen-yao [writing must] as wen-li [pattern]. This emendation isunnecessary. Furthermore, it destroys the parallelism of the two sentences. 252. Lao Tzu, ch. 74. -85107. I have been worrying about this: since Confucius and Mencius passed away, scholars253. have made a lot ofnoise with their conflicting opinions and have been ignorant about how to return to the essentials or to get atthe source.
They are vigorous in doing things carelessly. With inferior capacity, they are impatient in wantingto be known by posterity. An enlightened person sees through them as if he saw their hearts and reins. He iswell aware that they do not know their own capacity. Right then he wants to remove this trouble and quietlynourish his sincerity. But he is afraid that his daily effort is not enough; consequently, he has no time foranything else.254. If one does not know how to return to the essentials or to get at the source, he will be shallow and lacksubstance. Quietly to nourish one's sincerity is the business of returning to the essentials and gettingat the source. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:43) 108. When one who has not achieved learning loves to talk about expediency,255. I know for sure that he willfinally get into trouble. For expediency is not something to be lightly discussed. If someone discussesexpediency too readily, I know his method of conducting himself has already become incorrect. Expediency is not what is regular but is something of an irregular nature. Unless one sees principleclearly and has sharp judgment concerning righteousness, he is not qualified to have anything to dowith it. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 2:43) 109. Whenever we cover up our activities so that others will not see them, it merely means that we are notlooking for improvement. Some people are unwilling to talk about the degree of moral accomplishment theyhave achieved because they do not want others to know they have achieved it. These people are not those whoare pleased with whatever others may say about them. These people live in a fool's paradise and are satisfied with themselves. They are afraid that othersmay criticize them, and are not like Yen Hui,256. who, seemingly stupid, was pleased with whateverConfucius said. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 2:43) ____________________ 253.
According to Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:52a), these refer to Confucianists from the Han andT'ang dynasties ( 618-907) on. 254. As Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:52a) has pointed out, this is part of Chang's letter to Chao Ta-kuan which is found in the Sung wen-chien ( Literary collection of the Sung dynasty), 119:6b-7a. 255. Literally, "changing circumstances," that is, the unusual. 256. For the reference to Yen Hui, see Analects, 11:3. -86110. Our eyes and ears serve us only in external matters. Those who chase after 257. external things actuallydegenerate, 258. and are unwilling to manage themselves. They can only criticize others and cannot examinethemselves. 111. It is very important that a student should not have a small ambition or be flippant. If his ambition is small,he will be easily satisfied. If he is easily satisfied, there will be no way for him to advance. Being flippant, he willthink that he already knows what he does not yet know and that he has studied what he has not yet studied. ____________________ 257. Literally, "to grab." 258. Abei Bōsan ( Kinshi roku kummō shūso, 2:70b) prefers "destroy themselves." -87-
III: THE INVESTIGATION OF THINGS AND THE INVESTIGATION OF PRINCIPLE TO THE UTMOST YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: On the Extension of Knowledge. 78 sections. In thischapter the extension of knowledge is discussed. Only when knowledge has been extended can therebe practice. The first 22 sections deal with methods of the extension of knowledge in general. For theextension of knowledge, nothing is more important than reading. Sections 23 to 33 are devoted to itsmethods. From section 34 on, these methods are discussed separately, according to the order of thebooks. The Great Learning is discussed first, so that the reader may know the pattern and procedureof learning. This is followed by discussions on the Analects, the Book of Mencius, the Book of Odes,and the Book of History. When one is thoroughly equipped with moral principles, one can theninvestigate the wonder of the great foundation and the one source. Therefore discussion on theDoctrine of the Mean follows. Having understood the foundation and source, one can investigatespirit to the utmost and understand transformation. Therefore discussion on the Book of Changesfollows. When the excellence of moral principles has been understood to the point of penetrating thedepth of creation and transformation, one can then understand the great functioning of the Sage.Hence discussion on the Spring and Autumn Annals comes next. If one understands how theprinciple of this book is applied, one can extend it to examine history and distinguish what was rightand what wrong, and what was wise or unwise. From Heng-ch'ü's [ Chang Tsai's] I-shuo [Commentaryon the Book of Changes] [sec. 70] on, the order follows that of his Yü-lu [Recorded conversations].Thus the meaning of the Chou-kuan [Offices of Chou] is made complete. 1. IN REPLY TO CHU CHANG-WEN'S1. LETTER, MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: Only whenour minds understand the Way can we distinguish right and wrong. It is like having a balance to weigh things.This is what Mencius meant by "understanding words."2. If our mind does ____________________
1. See above, ch. 2, sec. 5. In his letter to Ch'eng, he had said that he tried to study the ancients in order toenable his mind to understand. See Mao Hsinglai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 3:1b-2a. 2. Book of Mencius, 2A:2. "I understand people's feel Ings from their words," according to Chao Ch'i's (d. 201)comment on the term, or "I understand the principles of things as expressed in words," according to ChuHsi ( Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 3, comment on the term). -88not understand the Way and we try to determine wherein the ancients were right or wrong, it is like reckoningweight without a balance. After having exhausted the strength of our eyes and tired out the wisdom of ourminds, although we may hit the mark occasionally, it is like what the ancients called "repeatedly hitting themark through imagination."3. This is not valued by the superior man.4. 2. IN A LETTER IN REPLY TO HIS PUPILS, MASTER I-CH'UAN SAID: Were Confucius' and Mencius'pupils all virtuous and wise? Of course many of them were just ordinary people. As ordinary people, when theyobserved the words and deeds of the Sage and the worthy,5. many of them did not understand. Preciselybecause they did not trust themselves but trusted their teachers, they made searching efforts and finallyunderstood.6. Now, when you gentlemen do not agree with what I say, you let the matter go and think no moreof it. This is why you are in the end different from the followers of Confucius and Mencius. Do not leave thematter alone but think of it further. This is the way to extend knowledge. 3. IN A LETTER IN REPLY TO MASTER HENG-CH'Ü, MASTER ICH'UAN SAID: Your discussiongenerally shows evidence of hard thinking and the utmost effort but not the spirit of ease, gentleness, orwarmth.7. Yours is penetration not through clear intelligence but through thought. Consequently your ideashave often been one-sided, your words have often
been inexpressive, and you have often made slight mistakes.(To penetrate through clear intelligence is like seeing with the eye minute and subtle things, knowing all ofthem. To arrive at penetration through thoughtful investigation is like estimating and conjecturing aboutthings. You can only roughly see their resemblance. How can you avoid errors?)8. I hope you will completelynourish your thoughts and deliberations and cultivate moral principles. Someday your mind should naturallyfunction smoothly. ____________________ 3. Analects, 11:18. 4. In Ch'eng I Wen-chi, 5:6b, there 'is a note saying that some scholars a tribute this reply to Ch'eng Hao. 5. Nakamura Tekisal ( Kinshi roku shimo kukai, p. 128), Katō Jōken ( Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p. 100),Father Olaf Graf ( Djin-sï lu, II, 247), and others are correct in interpreting these terms to mean Confuciusand Mencius. 6. As Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:2b) has understood it, "With hard thinking and utmost effort,they got at the depth of their teacher's words." 7. According to the Wen-chi, 5:4a, one edition has well-ho [geniality] instead of well-hao [warmth]. 8. Ch'eng's own note. -89-
4. To find out whether one has succeeded in learning or not, one can examine his own mind and vital force.When he has achieved something in his thoughts and deliberations, and is delighted in his own mind and feelsabundantly enriched, his achievement is real. If, however, after he has achieved something in his thoughts anddeliberations, his mind is tired and his vital force spent, he has really not achieved anything; he has merelyconjectured that he has. Once I heard someone say that of late in studying the Way he had thought anddeliberated and that as a result his heart had become weak. I said, "Man's blood or vital force may of course beweak or strong,9. and sages and worthies cannot avoid illness when it comes. But I have never heard that theheart of anyone, from ancient sages and worthies down, ever became weak as a result of study." 5. People today believe in all kinds of supernatural things and strange tales simply because they do not clearlyunderstand [universal] principle. If they try to understand principle in everything [that seems strange], whenwill there be an end? We must try to understand [universal principle] through learning. If we understand principle clearly, we can judge all supernatural things according to it. According toprinciple, some things are regular and others are not. Supernatural things need not seem strange tous. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 3:1b) 6. The source of learning is thought.10. Thinking stimulates and develops intelligence. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96: 1a) 7. Although the patterns of realization of those who attain to humanity once a day or once a month and thosewho attain to it for a long time without cease" seem to some extent alike, in meaning and in disposition theyare far different. One must inquire deeply, understand quietly, and ponder for a long time, and then he willprobably find out for himself. If a student is to learn from a sage at all, he must deeply ponder over the feelingsand dispositions of the sage, and must not ____________________
10. This section, 4:38, 40; and 5:19, 38 are the shortest in the Chin-ssu lu, with only four Chinese characterseach! 11. Such as Yen Hui, Confucius' favorite pupil, who for three months would have nothing in his mind contraryto humanity. See the Analects, 6:5. 9. Hsü-shih, literally "empty" and "full," or "hollow" and "solid." Mao Hsingtai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 3:3a) hasinterpreted the two words to mean "deficient" and "excessive," respectively. -90try to understand him merely in terms of words. If he does that, what he studies is nothing but writing. In the case of those who have nothing contrary to humanity, humanity lives in them like a host. Hedoes not stay at home always, but occasionally leaves the house. In the case of those who attainhumanity once a day or a month, humanity is outside like a guest. Although he comes in, he does notstay long. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 31:8b) 8. SOMEONE SAID: One can make a special effort in advancing virtue through loyalty and faithfulness,12.but it is very difficult to extend knowledge. MASTER CH'ENG I SAID: A student should make a special effort at advancing virtue, but he must knowbefore he can act. If he does not know, he will merely watch Yao and imitate his behavior. Without Yao'squickness of apprehension, intelligence, insight, and wisdom, how can one act and appear in the propermanner as Yao always did? To advance virtue with effort, as you say, means to believe in it earnestly andadhere to it firmly and does not mean to possess it originally.13. To wish to make the will sincere before one hasextended one's knowledge is to skip over steps. If one's practice requires effort, how can one hold on for verylong? The fact is14. that if we clearly
understand principle, we will naturally and joyously follow it. Man's natureis originally good; it acts in accordance with principle. Therefore it is, after all, not a difficult thing to followprinciple. People say it is difficult because they do not know principle and on the spur of the moment resort tomanipulation. There are many kinds of knowledge, some exceedingly profound and some exceedingly shallow.The student must know truly. As soon as he knows what is correct, he will practice it serenely and keep ondoing so. When I was twenty I interpreted the meanings of the Classics in no other way than I do today. Butwhen I come to think of it, I feel that today they mean something quite different from what they meant at thetime when I was young. 9. There is principle in everything, and one must investigate principle to the utmost. There are many ways todo this. One way is to read ____________________ 12. For thus advancing virtue, see above, ch. 1, sec. 19. 13. So that it can be practiced easily and naturally. 14. Ch'u-fei means "none other than this." This was Chu Hsi's understanding when he paraphrased the passagein his Ta-hsüeh huo-well, p. 45a. Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 3:4b) is correct in equating it with"only." According to Yi Ik ( Kŭnsarok chilsŏ, ch. 3), ch'u-fei means "not fei" or "not wrong," that is, "thetruth is." -91books and elucidate moral principles. Another way is to discuss people and events of the past and present, andto distinguish which are right and which wrong. Still another way is to handle affairs and settle them in theproper way. All these are ways to investigate the principle of things exhaustively.
We must investigate the principle of things to the utmost. Then we can see the right and wrongclearly. If a thing is right, we will do it, and if evil, we will not. One must personally realize right andwrong. If we can personally do so in discussing literature or in handling affairs, and gradually extendour realization, our position will be extensive and broad. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yülei, 15:2b) We must investigate principle in the things and affairs we deal with. For example, when we read, weinvestigate principle in the printed word. When we listen to others, we investigate it in conversation.When handling affairs, we investigate it in the affairs themselves. Whether things are refined orcoarse, big or small, we must investigate them all. After a long time we shall understand them, andthe coarse will become refined and the small will become big. ( Ibid., 5a) SOMEONE ASKED: In investigating things, is it necessary to investigate everything or can one know allprinciples by investigating any one thing? ANSWER: How can one understand everything this way? Even Yen Tzu15. would not dare say he couldunderstand all principles by investigating only one thing.16. One must investigate one item today and anotheritem tomorrow. When one has accumulated much knowledge, he will naturally achieve a thoroughunderstanding like a sudden release. After we understand one layer, there is another layer under it, and after that, another layer. Fromsimple to complex affairs, we must try to understand one after another. From difficult to easyprinciples, we must try to understand one level after another. As we continue to try to understand, weshall reach the utmost. ( Ibid., 15:4b) (FURTHER REMARK: To devote oneself to investigating principle to the utmost does not mean to investigatethe principle of all things in the world to the utmost nor does it mean that principle can be understood merelyby investigating one particular principle. It is necessary to accumulate much knowledge and then one willnaturally come to understand principle.)17. ____________________
15. See above, ch. 1, sec. 3. 16. When he heard one point, he knew all about the subject. See the Analects, 5:8. 17. Original note in the Chin-ssu lu. -9210. "The virtue of thinking is penetration and profundity."18. When you think for a long time, penetration willnaturally come about. If you do not succeed in thinking over one thing, well, think over another. Do not stick tothis one thing. For as your knowledge is beclouded here, you will not understand even if you force yourself tothink. 11. QUESTION: Suppose someone's will is set to study but his knowledge is beclouded and constricted and hisstrength inadequate. What can he do? ANSWER: The only thing to do is to extend one's knowledge. If one's knowledge is clear, his strength willnaturally be improved. 12. QUESTION: Do observation of things and self-examination19. mean returning to the self and seeingprinciples after some principles have been discovered in things? ANSWER: You do not have to say it in this way. Things and the self are governed by the same principle. If youunderstand one, you understand the other, for the truth within and the truth without are identical. FURTHER QUESTION: In the extension of knowledge, how about seeking first of all in the Four Beginnings?20. ANSWER: To seek in our own nature and feelings is indeed to be concerned with our own moral life. But everyblade of grass and every tree possesses principle and should be examined.
(FURTHER REMARK: From the principles in one's own person to those in all things, if one understands moreand more, gradually21. he will naturally achieve a far-reaching understanding.)22. From the Ultimate of Nonbeing and the Great Ultimate23. above to a small thing like a blade of grass,a plant, or an insect below, each has its principle. If we fail to read one book, we shall miss theprinciple of one book. If we do not investigate one affair to the utmost, we shall miss the principle ofone affair. And if we do not investigate one thing, we shall miss the principle ____________________ 18. Book of History, "Great Norm." Cf. James Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 327. 19. Sakurada Komon ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 3:6b) thinks that ch'a means "to know" rather than "to examine,"that is, "to know the principle in the mind." This is an unnecessary departure from the usual meaning of theword, and has no justification. 20. The Four Beginnings of human nature, namely, humanity, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. See theBook of Mencius, 2A:6. 21. Some editions have hsiung-tz'u (the mind) instead of chiang-tz'u (gradually). 22. Original note in the Chin-ssu lu. In some commentaries this is treated as part of the text. 23. See above, ch. 1, sec. 1. -93-
of one thing. We must understand them one by one. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 15:13b-14a) 13. "The virtue of thinking is penetration and profundity. Penetration and profundity lead to sagehood."24. Toexert thought is like digging a well. At first there is only muddy water. Later on, after one has done somedrawing, clear water will come out. One's thoughts are always muddy at first. After a long while they willnaturally be nicely clear. 14. QUESTION: What is meant by reflection on things at hand? ANSWER: To extend on the basis of similarityin kind. This is well said. We must not skip over steps and aim too far, nor should we stray to the right or tothe left. We must only proceed from what we understand in what is near to us and move from there.For instance, if one is thoroughly familiar with doing one thing, he can, on the basis of this, extend hisskill to doing another. It is the same with knowledge. If one knows how bright this lamp is, he can, onthe basis of this, extend his understanding to know how bright that candle is. It is like ascendingsteps, going from the first to the second, from the second to the third, and from the third to thefourth.... For example, if one understands how to be affectionate to his parents, he will extend thisfeeling, on the basis of similarity in kind, to being humane to all people, for being humane to peopleand being affectionate to parents are similar in kind. When he understands how to be humane topeople, he will extend this feeling, on the basis of similarity in kind, to loving all things, for beinghumane to all people and loving all things are similar in kind. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 49:5a-b) 15. The student must first of all know how25. to doubt. 16. IN REPLY TO FAN SUN-CHIH26. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID: It is not difficult to discussthe strange things and monstrous beings you inquired about, but you may not believe in what I say. Menciussaid, "He who knows his nature knows Heaven."27. When one has studied to the point of knowing Heaven[Nature], then how things originate should be abundantly self-evident. When one knows how things originate,then whether
there is such and such a thing will be completely understood, and one need not depend on anydiscussion ____________________ 24. See above, sec. 10, n. 18. 25. Sakurada Komon ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 3:9a) says hui here does not mean "to know how," but "tounderstand." This is another case of needless and unjustified departure from common usage. 26. See above, ch. 2, sec. 91. 27. Book of Mencius, 7A:1. -94to know. If you gentlemen 28. hold on without fail to what you have discussed,29. are not overcome byheterodoxical doctrines, and keep advancing without stop, you need not refute the theories of monstrosities orattack heterodoxical doctrines, and within a year our Way will win. If you abandon yourselves to the positionthat the number of monstrosities is infinite and give yourselves the idea that they are unknowable, your studywill then be confused by doubt and your wisdom obscured by material things. Monstrosities will come one afteranother without interruption. In the end you will not be able to maintain your own position and will surely besubmerged in monstrosities and falsehood. 17. Tzu-kung30. said, "We cannot hear what our Master said about human nature and the Way of Heaven."31.Since he said "what our Master said," he means that Confucius often talked about these things when he satdown with his pupils. Followers of Confucius felt it was their responsibility to realize
humanity.32. They did notconsider casual knowledge as sufficient but insisted on real understanding before regarding themselves ashaving heard. This is why Tzu-kung spoke as he did. To know casually is merely to hear the doctrine, whereas really to understand is to apprehend theprinciple profoundly. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:7) 18. In the study of moral principles one must be thoroughly immersed 33. in them before there can be anyachievement. It is not something to be obtained through a simple, easy, or casual effort. 19. If in one's study one cannot probe and examine the principles of things, it is because one's mind is notrefined enough. Even in the case of Yen Tzu, who did not reach the stage of the sage, the reason was that hismind was not refined enough. ____________________ 28. Literally, "the several gentlemen." Most commentators have correctly taken the term to refer to Chang'spupils. Yanada Katsunobu ( Kinshi roku shakai bemmō shōsetsu, p. 384) has specifically included Fan.Iljima Tadao ( Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p. 98) thinks the gentlemen are scholars of the Confucian school.Katō Jōken understands the reference to mean ancient sages and worthies ( Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p.109). To Sakurada Komon they were gentlemen of the time ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 3:7b). 29. According to Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin- ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:8b), their discussions are the words of Confucius andMencius. 30. Confucius' pupil, 520-456 B.C. 31.
Analects, 5:12. 32. Quoting the Analects, 8:7. 33. Some editions have wan [brood over] instead of ch'en [immerse]. -95Someone asked, "Is it not too much to say that Yen Hui was not refined enough?" Chu Hsi answered, "Compared to ordinary people he was completely pure, but compared to Confucius he wascoarse. For instance, whenever he made a mistake he never failed to realize it, and having realized it he wouldnever do it again.34. This is how refined he was. But he still made some mistakes. This made him coarse. ( ChuHsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:23b) Anyone who makes the least mistake shows that his mind is not refined enough. (Ibid.) 20. In the extensive study of literature, it is necessary to go through obstacles repeatedly so that the mindbecomes penetrating.35. For only after one has experienced obstacles and difficulties will his mind bepenetrating. Responding to things, handling affairs, and so on, are similar to studying literature. If we drill andpolish ourselves in the principles of things and studies, our minds will naturally be penetrating. Takereading, for example. Often, even after a great deal of thought, we cannot see through to the realmeaning. As we try and try again, we find obstacles everywhere, blocking us in all directions. Butthere must be a way to go through. In a case like this, there are many difficulties and obstructions,but repeated effort will find a way to go through. To go through means that the mind penetrates. (Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 33:8b) 21. Whenever there is any doubt about moral principles, one should wipe out his old views so new ideas willcome. Whenever one's mind penetrates
something, he should note it down. If he does not think, his mind willbe blocked again. Furthermore, he should seek the help of friends. Each day he discusses things with friends,36.each day his ideas will become different. One must discuss things and deliberate like this every day. In time hewill naturally feel that he has advanced.37. ____________________ 34. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. CE James Legge, tr., Yi King, pp. 392-93. 35. In the Book of Changes, comment on hexagram no. 29, k'an [pit], it is said that one pit after another helpsto make one's mind penetrating. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 236 36. This clause is omitted in Yeh Ts'ai's version. 37. According to Yeh Ts'ai, in one edition secs. 21 and 33 were at the end of the chapter, but in an older editionthey are found here. Since these sections deal with the extension of knowledge in general, Yeh said, theyshould not go to the end of the chapter. Yeh has therefore followed the older edition. Yeh further said thatthis section originally consisted of only the first sentence and that the rest has been interpolated from sec.78 by someone. (See Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:8.) Mao Hsing-lai, however, thinks it was Yeh who made theinterpolation. Following the Sung edition, Mao has shifted this material back to the end of the chapter. (SeeChin-ssu lu chi-chu, 3:10a; see also comment below, On the Chin-ssu lu and Its Commentaries, p. 327.) -9622. Whenever in our effort at thinking we come to something that cannot be expressed in words, we must thinkit over carefully and sift it clearly again and
again. Only this can be considered skillful learning. As for Kao Tzu,whenever he came to something that could not be expressed in words, he would stop and inquire no more.38. 23. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: When we read, we must first of all understand the meanings of thewords. Only then can we find out the ideas of the text. It has never been possible to understand the ideaswithout knowing the meanings of the words. 24. Students must find things out for themselves.39. The Six Classics40. are vast and extensive. At first it isdifficult to understand them completely. As students find their way, each establishes his own gate, and thenreturns home to conduct his inquiries himself. That will do. Asked what the gate meant, Chu Hsi said, "The method of study. For example, if you want to read this book,you must know how to read it." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:1a) 25. In trying to understand writing, if one's mind is at ease, he will naturally see principle. Principle is nothingbut the principle inherent in man. It is very clear, like a level road. The Book of Odes says, The road to Chou is as smooth as a whetstone, And as straight as a dart. This is what it means.41. SOMEONE SAID: I am afraid the words of the Sage should not be looked upon as easy tocomprehend. ANSWER: Some of the Sage's words are of course easy to comprehend and others are deep and profound. Ifthey are easy to comprehend ____________________ 38. According to Mencius ( Book of Mencius, 2A:2), Kao Tzu said, "What is not attained in words is not to besought for in the mind."
Yeh Ts'al ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:9) says that this and the preceding sections deal with methods of theextension of knowledge in general while the following sections deal with seeking knowledge in books. 39. Nakal Chikusan says ( Kinshi roku setsu, ch. 3) that tzu [himself] can also mean "naturally" and that it isnot clear which meaning Ch'eng I had in mind. However, the word is definitely used in the sense of "oneself"below. 40. For the Six Classics, see above, Introduction, n. 8. Sawada Takeoka says ( Kinshi roku setsuryaku, 3:9a)that after the disappearance of the Book of Music there were only Five Classics and that the phrase "SixClassics" is used to conform to ancient usage. He is mistaken, for the phrase is not so used. Here it refersnot to the ancient Six Classics which included the Book of Music but to the Six Classics in which the Book ofMusic is replaced by another Classic. 41. Ode no. 203. -97how can we artificially make them deep and profound? Yang Tzu said, "The words of the Sage are as faraway asthe sky and the words of the worthy are as near as the earth."42. want to43. change it to: "The words of the Sageare as far away as the sky and as near as the earth." 26. Among students those who do not rigidly adhere to the literal meanings of words turn away from themcompletely, while those who understand the literal meanings of words adhere to them so rigidly that theirminds become blocked. For instance, in the case of Tzu-cho Ju-tzu's acting as a general, Mencius approved onlythe idea of not rebelling against one's teacher.44. But some people have insisted on trying to understand fromthe story how to serve the ruler. Or take the case of Wan Chang asking about Shun's repairing a granary anddigging a well. In answer Mencius merely gave the basic idea. But
some people have insisted on trying tounderstand how Shun came out of the well or how he came down from the granary.45. This kind of studymerely wastes spirit and energy. 27. In reading books, we should not rigidly stick to one meaning because the words are the same or similar.Otherwise every word will be a hindrance. We should see what the general tone of the passage is and what thepreceding and following ideas are. For example, "beauty" in the saying, "He whose goodness is extensive andsolid is called a beautiful man,"46. and "beauty" in the Book of Odes47. are different things.48 ____________________ 42. Fa-yen, 8:4b. For Yang Hsiung, see below, ch. 14, sec. 5. 43. Some editions have yü [to let] instead of yü [to want]. 44. In the Book of Mencius, 4B:24, Mencius told the story of Tzu-cho Ju-tzu who, as a general of Cheng, wasordered to invade Wei. A general of Wei pursued and caught him but did not kill him because he was theteacher of the Wei general's teacher. 45. When Shun was young, his father told him to repair a granary. After he went to the top, his father took theladder away and set fire to the building to kill him. On another occasion, his father told him to dig a well.Not knowing that he had already gotten out, his father and brother attempted to bury him by filling in thewell. When Wan Chang, Mencius' pupil, asked if Shun did not know that his brother had plotted to kill him,Mencius answered that Shun loved his brother so much that when the brother was happy, he was alsohappy, and when the brother was sad, he was also sad. (See the Book of Mencius, 5A:2.)
46. Book of Mencius, 7B:25. 47. This is a basic Confucian Classic' a collection of 305 poems, including songs sung in religious and officialfunctions and popular songs from the various states of the early Chou times ( 1111-770 B.C.). Five aresupposed to have come from the Shang dynasty. According to tradition, Confucius selected all these from3,000 prevailing songs, a belief rejected by modern scholars. It is agreed, however, that many of the songswere popular In his day and that Confuclus knew them. For English translations, see B. Karlgren, tr., TheBook of Odes, and Arthur Waley, tr., The Book of Songs. 48 This section is included in the -98The beauty of extensive and solid goodness refers to the beauty in oneself, whereas the beauty described in theBook of Odes refers to the beauty of others. In cases of this sort we should not rigidly stick to one meaning. (Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:10) 28. YING-CHUNG49. SAID: I once loved to read Wen-chung Tzu.50. Someone asked him about studying theBook of Changes. He said that the sentence "Be active and vigilant all day"51. will do. This saying coverseverything. After all, King Wen [r. 1171-1122 B.C.] became a sage in no other way than by being unceasing in hisefforts. THE TEACHER SAID: In explaining the meanings of the Classics, if one allows himself to go from one point toanother and to keep extending, I know he will cover everything. However, the sentence, "Be active and vigilantall day," does not cover everything in the Book of Changes. The sentence can merely be used52. to explain thecharacteristic of the third undivided line from the bottom of the hexagram. If one says that being active andvigilant means to be unceasing and, furthermore, that to be unceasing means the Way, thus
extending step bystep, of course one sentence will cover everything in the Classic. But according to principle this is not the way toproceed. Students of the Classics must be comprehensive and refined. They must investigate the finalobjectives of the Classics to the utmost before they can understand them. To pick a sentence out ofcontext and claim that it covers all the meanings of a Classic is not the way to study it. Rather it is thedefect of aiming too high and of oversimplification. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:11) 29. Confucius, standing by a stream, said, "It passes on like this."53. He meant that the nature54. of the Way islike this. Here we must find out for ourselves. ____________________ 49. Courtesy name of Ch'en Kuan ( 1062-1126), Ch'eng I's pupil. A professor at the national university, he laterbecame a policy critic and adviser to the emperor. For his biography, see the Sung shih, 345:11a-15b; foranother account, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 35:1a-6b. 50. Wang T'ung (584-617). He was probably the greatest Confucianist between the third and the seventhcenturies. He refused to serve in the government, preferring to teach. He wrote treatises on andsupplements to the Six Classics (see above, Introduction, n. 8), considering himself comparable toConfucius. These works are lost. Later Confucianists have never excused him for his presumptuousness. Hisdoctrines are found in his surviving work, the Chungshuo. 51. Commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven; male], in the Book of Changes. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p.410. The conversation is found in the Chung- shuo, 4:7a.
52. As Yi Hwang has pointed out ( Chŏng Yŏp, Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, 3:5a), the word shih [to use] ends this sentencerather than begins the next. 53. Analects, 9:16. 54. According to Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin- ssu lu chi-chu, 3:13b), t'i here means "nature" rather than "substance." x Chang Tzu yü-lu, pt. 2, p. 9a, as Chang's saying. -99In the transforming process of the universe, the past has just gone and the future continues to come.They continue without a moment of rest. This is the nature of the Way as it originally is. But therunning stream is something that can be pointed to and easily seen. Therefore Confucius used the factto teach people. He wanted students to examine things at all times without the slightest interruption.( Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 5, comment on Analects, 9:16) In saying that the sentence "Be active and vigilant all day"55. is not enough to explain the Book ofChanges entirely and that one cannot understand the passing stream through the idea of infinityalone, Ch'eng I was teaching the student to read books earnestly and not to make a superficialinterpretation the basis of high-sounding, sweeping, or loose words. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 3:6a) Chang I56. said, "This means infinity." The Teacher said, "Of course it means infinity. But how can this single idea of infinity tell everything about thepassing stream?" 30. People today do not know how to study books. Take the passage, "Though a man may be able to recite thethree hundred odes, yet if, when he is given a
governmental position, he does not know how to act, or if, whenhe is sent on missions to various states, he cannot give his own answers, although he has read much, what isthe use?"57. Although before one has studied the Book of Odes, he does not know how to act in the governmentand cannot give his own answers, after he has studied the book, he understands how to act in the governmentand can give his own answers in various states. Only then can we say that he knows how to study the Book ofOdes. Or take the passage, "One who has not studied the 'Chou-nan' and the 'Shao-nan'58. is like one whostands with his face right against the wall."59. Before one has studied the Book of Odes, he is like a personfacing the wall, but after he has studied the book, he will not be facing the wall. Only in this way will his studybe successful. Generally speaking, this is the only method of studying books. Suppose one studies the Analects.60 If, afterhaving studied it, one is still the same person as before, he has not really studied it. ____________________ 55. See above, sec. 28. 56. For Chang I, see above, ch. 2, n. 175. 57. Analects, 13:5. 58. Literally, the odes of Chou and Shao and the areas south of them, that is, nos. 1-25 in the Book of Odes. 59. Analects, 17:10. 60
Called Lun-yü (Conversations) in Chinese, it I's a collection of sayings by Confucius and his pupilspertaining to his teachings and deeds. It was probably put together by some of his pupils and their pupils.There were originally three versions, two of which have been lost. The surviving version is that of Confucius'native state, Lu. It is divided into two parts of ten sections each. Chu Hsi -10031. When we read passages such as those concerning matters that take up seven years, a generation,61. or ahundred years, we should in all cases think over how they were carried out. Only then will the reading bebeneficial. In the Analects Confucius said, "Let a good man teach the people seven years, and they may then be employedin war."62. He also said, "If a true king were to arise, it would still require a generation for humanity toprevail."63. Again he said, "If good men were to govern a country for a hundred years, they would be able toovercome the brutal and eliminate killing."64. In looking into varying degrees and time elements of thegovernmental effects of sages and worthies, we must examine the essential character of their patterns and themethods of their execution before we can derive any benefit. This is the method of the extension of knowledge. (Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-suu lu chi-chieh, 3:12) 32. In interpreting the Classics, there is no harm in differing from their original meaning, except for importantpoints, on which we must not differ. 33. When T'un65. first came, he asked about the methods of study. The Teacher said, "Sir, you should know thatto study one must read books. One need not read many. The important thing is to know their essentials. If onereads a great deal without knowing the essentials, he is but a bookstore. Because as a youngster I was greedyand read a great deal, I have forgotten much of it now. One must explore and get the real taste of the words ofthe Sage, remember them, and then exert effort to put them into practice. One will naturally gainsomething."66. 34. As an introduction to virtue for the beginner, there is no book ____________________
60 combined or divided certain chapters of these, making a total of 482 chapters. The material isunsystematic, in some cases repetitive, and In other cases historically inaccurate. However, it is generallyaccepted as the most authentic and reliable source of Confucian teachings. See above, ch. 2, n. 182. ForEnglish translations see James Legge Confucian Analects, in The Chinese Classics, vol. I, and Arthur Waley,The Analects of Confucius. 61. In Chiang Yung Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 3:6b, the phrase i-shih [one generation] has been collated to read pi-shih [surely or still (requires a) generation]. The argument is that the latter phrase appears in the Analects,13:12. This rigid adherence to the source of an allusion is quite unnecessary. 62. Analects, 13:29. 63. Ibid., 13:12. 64. Ibid., 13:11. 65. See above, ch. 2, n. 181. 66. As Yeh Ts'al has noted ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:13), the foregoing sections deal with the methods of studyand the following deal with the procedure. -101better than the Great Learning.67. Among the rest, nothing is better than the Analects68. and the Book ofMencius.69.
I want people first of all to read the Great Learning to set a pattern, next to read the Analects toestablish a foundation, next to read the Book of Mencius for stimulation, and next to read theDoctrine of the Mean to find out the subtle points of the ancients. The Great Learning containsdefinite steps and a regular order. It is a coherent treatise and is easy to understand. It is true that weshould first read the Analects, but its ideas are scattered and it is difficult to read at first. The Book ofMencius can stimulate and arouse the reader's mind. The Doctrine of the Mean is difficult. Oneshould read it after having read the three other books. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 14:1a) Reading the Great Learning is different from reading the Analects or the Book of Mencius. In thesetwo latter books, each conversation involves a particular principle. For example, when Mencius talkedabout humanity and righteousness, he talked only about principle appertaining to humanity andrighteousness. When Confucius told Yen Hui to discipline himself and to return to propriety,70. hetalked only about principle appertaining to selfdiscipline and returning to propriety. The GreatLearning, on the other hand, speaks of principle in general. It discusses the operation of principle inthe highest degree, that is, peace throughout the world. But the way to bring peace to the world isfirst to order the state, the way to order the state is first to regulate the family, the way to regulate thefamily is first to cultivate the personal life, the way to cultivate the personal life is first to rectify themind, the way to rectify the mind is first to make the will sincere, the way to make the will sincere isfirst to extend knowledge, and the way to extend knowledge is first to investigate things.71. ( Ibid., 6b) 35. The student should first read the Analects and the Book of Mencius. If he has studied them thoroughly, hewill get the fundamental points. He will save a great deal of effort if he reads other Classics on the basis ofthese. The two books are like the measure and the balance. When things are measured and weighed by them,which is long and which short72. and which is heavy and which light73 will naturally be seen. The Analects deals with self-cultivation and the preservation of one's mind and nature, while the Bookof Mencius deals with personal realization
____________________ 67. See above, ch. 2, n. 182. 68. See above, n. 60. 69. Meng Tzu in Chinese. It is divided into seven sections, each of which is subdivided into two parts. In allprobability it was compiled by pupils of Mencius after his death. See above, ch. 2, n. 182. For Englishtranslations, see James Legge , tr., The Works of Mencius, The Chinese Classics, vol. II, and W. A. C. DobsonH , tr., Mencius. Satō Issai (Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 3) thinks this is Ch'eng Hao's saying. 70. Analects, 12:1. 71. This is the order taught in the Great Learning. 72. Also meaning whether it is meritorious or not. -102and the extension of the originally good nature. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 19:17a) In teaching people, Mencius talked mostly about moral principles and the great foundation, whileConfucius taught mostly concrete and earnest effort. ( Ibid., 2a) 36. In reading the Analects, simply consider Confucius' pupils' questions as your own and the Sage's answers aswhat you have personally heard today.
Then you will get something. If you can look into the Analects and theBook of Mencius deeply and explore them and get the real taste of them, eventually your cultivation will reachthe point of maturity at which your physical nature will become excellent.74. 37. In reading the Analects and the Book of Mencius, do so thoroughly and explore them and get the real tasteof them. Apply the words of the Sage to yourself earnestly. Do not merely treat them as so many words. Ifpeople will but look upon these two books as being meant for concrete application to themselves, they willderive much benefit throughout life. 38. There are people who have read the Analects without having anything happen to them. There are otherswho are happy after having understood a sentence or two. There are still others who, having read the book, loveit. And there are those who, having read it, unconsciously dance with their hands and feet. 39. The student should use the Analects and the Book of Mencius as the foundation. When these have been wellstudied, the Six Classics75. can be understood without study. This means that the Classics will be easily understood. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:14) The Analects and the Book of Mencius require less effort but will yield more result, whereas the SixClassics require more effort but will yield less result. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 19:1a) ____________________ 73. Also meaning whether it is important or not. 74. Shen-sheng was a Lo-yang colloquialism meaning "how," "what a," "unusual," "very good." The idea is thatphysical nature, which is by nature unbalanced and therefore contains an element of evil, will betransformed to
be good. Hsiung Kang-ta ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:13a) understood the expression to mean"extraordinary." 75. See above, Introduction, n. 8. -103In reading, we should examine the purpose for which the Sage wrote the Classics, his motive in writing them,and why the Sage reached the position of a sage, whereas we have not been able to reach that point or to havethe achievement ourselves. Reaching refers to action, whereas achievement refers to knowledge. ( Yeh Ts'ai , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:14) Inquire into every sentence. Brood over it in the morning and think it over at midnight. Have a calm mind anda peaceful disposition, and put aside what is doubtful,76. and you will see the purpose of the Sage. 40. If one reads the Analects and the Book of Mencius without understanding the Way, "what is the use,although one has read much?"77. 41. If one reads the Analects and the Book of Mencius many times, he will fully understand their meaning. Thestudent must brood over them and get the real taste of them. If he tries to explain them literally, he will neverget the full meaning. Some time ago I annotated the two books, but when I came to think of it, I felt myannotation was superfluous. So I merely corrected some misunderstandings on the part of certain formerscholars78. and put the books in shape. One should read the Book of Mencius differently from the way he reads the Analects. The latter shouldbe read coolly and quietly, whereas the former should be read thoroughly and intimately. In theAnalects each word or idea deals with a particular principle and therefore it must be read carefullyand quietly. The Book of Mencius, on the other hand, consists of long passages, each forming aharmonious whole from beginning to the end. If the two books
are read thoroughly, their meaning willbecome clear. One should not try to understand them word by word. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 19:4b) 42. SOMEONE ASKED: Suppose we concentrate on the important points in the Analects and the Book ofMencius. What do you think? I-CH'UAN ANSWERED: This is, of course, good. But even if one learns something from the books, he doesnot really become at home with them. For our Way is different from that of Buddhism which, once understood,will take one off to the realm of emptiness and silence. ____________________ 76. As taught by Confucius in the Analects, 2:18. 77. Analects, 13:5. 78. According to Ka'bara Ekken ( Kinshi roku biko, 3:11b), these refer to Ho Yen ( 190-249), commentator ofthe Analects, and Chao Ch'i, commentator of the Book of Mencius. For Ch'eng I's explanations of the twoClassics, see his Ching shuo. -104In the Analects there are important points and there are general remarks. To direct one's effort onlyto the important points means to discriminate. If that were the way to study, much of the Book ofMencius could have been deleted. We must thoroughly understand the words of Confucius andMencius, regardless of whether they are precise or general. For moral principles are great andextensive. Some can be easily explained and others are more difficult. Some are generally and othersprecisely expressed. If one does not understand all, one's mind will surely be blocked. ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 19:7a-b)
43. "Being stimulated by poetry"79. means that one expresses his own feelings and character, cultivates himselfand functions smoothly in his moral life, gets the feeling of being stimulated and aroused, and thus has thedisposition for which Confucius approved Tseng Tien.80. (Master Ch'eng also said, "'Being stimulated bypoetry' means to have one's good intentions aroused so that they become broad and extensive and one's entirepersonality is characterized by them.")81. 44. [ CH'ENG HAO] Hsieh Liang-tso82. said, "Master Ming-tao was skillful in discussing the odes. He wouldnever explain line by line or verse by verse. He would only brood over the odes leisurely to get the real taste ofthem, softly chanting them in a rising and falling voice. In that way he enabled one to achieve something. Onthe ode which says, Through days and months, I have been longing and longing. The way is far. When will he return?83. he merely remarked, 'Thinking earnestly indeed.' On the last verse of the ode, which says, Oh, sirs! I do not know your virtuous deeds. You dislike none and covet nothing. How can you but be good?84. he merely said, 'This means to arrive at correctness.'" ____________________ 79. Analects, 8:8. This may also refer particularly to the Book of Odes, for which see above, sec. 30.
80. See above, ch. 2, sec. 32. Shih Huang ( Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 3:34a) has attributed this saying toCh'eng Hao. 81. Chu Hsi's note. For a comment on why sections on the Book of Odes should be placed here, see below, "Onthe Chin-ssu lu and Its Commentaries," p. 326. 82. See above, ch. 2, n. 85. 83. Book of Odes, no. 33. 84. We are not sure who the person or persons involved were but it is generally agreed that a woman wasthinking of her husband. -105Hsieh also said, "In discussing the odes, Po-ch'un [Ch'eng Hao] would not utter a word of literal explanation.Occasionally he would alter a word or two to tidy up the verse 85. and recite it. That was enough to make peopleunderstand." Hsieh added, "This is why the ancients highly valued being intimate with students andinfluencing them."86. 45. MASTER MING-TAO SAID: The student should by all means read the Book of Odes. Reading the Book ofOdes wil I enable one to advance a step. How do readers of the Book of Odes know how to advance a step? Although the function of the odes toarouse the sentiments is the least important of its functions, it is the function that stimulates people.If the reader is stimulated by the poet, he has advanced a step. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 80:19b) 46. "Do not use the words of an expression to spoil it."87. A word is a term of expression. If you mention only aterm, that is a word. When words are
grouped into a phrase or a sentence, that is an expression. It is not rightto interpret a poem by just one word. One must make some allowance in interpretation. Take, for example,"The Chou has not been prominent."88. In a literary composition, this should be the way of expression.89. 47. [CH'ENG I] In reading the Book of History90. one must understand the Way of the Two Emperors and theThree Kings.91. Take the two "Canons."92. They are the places to find out how Yao ruled the people and howShun served his ruler.93. ____________________ 85. Following Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:16), read ti as t'a [it]. If the reading ti is followed, the phrasewould mean "to recite In a tidy manner." 86. In some editions the last two remarks are given as notes. 87. Book of Mencius, 5A:4. 88. Book of Odes, no. 235. 89. As Yeh Ts'ai has noted ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:16), the sentence is really a rhetorical question, "Has theHouse of Chou not been prominent?" It means that the Chou has been prominent. 90. This is a collection of documents covering the period from the time of Yao to the early Chou. Twenty-five ofthe 58 chapters are believed to be forgeries by Wang Su ( 195-256), Huang-fu Mi ( 215-82), or Mei Tse (fl.317). Of the remaining chapters, modern scholars accept only the Chou documents as
authentic. Thetraditional theory that Confucius edited the book has been rejected. For English translation, see JamesLegge, tr., Shoo King, The Chinese Classics, vol. 111. 91. The Two Emperors were Yao and Shun, of the third millennium B.C. The Three Kings were the kings of theThree Dynasties, namely, King Yü, founder of the Hsla dynasty; King T'ang (r. 1751-1739 B.C.), founder ofthe Shang dynasty; and King Wen, founder of the Chou dynasty. Some scholars group King Wen and KingWu (r. 1121-1116 B.C.) together as founders of the Chou, and refer to the four as the Three Kings, that is,founders of the Three Dynasties. 92. Canon of Yao and "Canon of Shun," the first two chapters of the Book of History. 93. In the I-shu, 24:1b, this is given as Ch'eng I's saying. -106Asked about reading the Book of History, Chu Hsi said, "It is better to read the Great Learning. The Book ofHistory goes into much more detail about ordering the state and bringing peace to the world." ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-let, 78:5b-6a) 48. [CH'ENG I] The Doctrine of the Mean94. is a work transmitted through the Confucian school. [Thistransmission] was completed by Tzu-ssu and Mencius.95. Although the book is a miscellaneous collection, itmakes no distinction between what is refined and what is coarse but talks about them as a synthetic whole.When people discuss the Way today, they usually neglect the low when they talk about the high and neglect thesecondary when they talk about the fundamental.96.
Asked about the Doctrine of the Mean, Chu Hsi said, "It is rather difficult to understand. In my orderof reading, I must first read the Great Learning earnestly, then the Analects earnestly, and the Bookof Mencius earnestly. After one has read these three books, he will already understand half of theDoctrine of the Mean. One does not have to ask others about it, but should read it through himself ina general way. One should not cast aside the easy part and begin by tackling the difficult part. TheDoctrine of the Mean talks a great deal about intangible things on a high level, such as spiritualbeings and forming a trinity with Heaven and Earth.97. It talks little about learning on the low leveland much about understanding on the high level. It is all right if one understands its meaning." ( ChuHsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 62:1a-b) In talking about the Way, the Doctrine of the Mean includes both the high and the low and both thefundamental and the secondary aspects. ( Chiang Yung , Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 3:8b) 49. [CH'ENG I] Master I-CH'UAN'S PREFACE TO HIS Commentary on the Book o Changes98.SAYS: The Book of Changes concerns transformation. It teaches people to change according to the situationin order to be in accord with the Way. Such remarks as these of Ch'eng I's are not easily acceptable. He arbitrarily considered this book to beconcerned with human affairs.99. He meant to say that Confucius wrote this book simply becausehuman affairs, by their very nature, involve many changes. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 67:9a) ____________________ 94. See above, ch. 2, n. 227. 95. As explained by Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin- ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:17), it was recorded by Tzu-ssu and transmitted byMencius. 96.
According to the I-shu, 15:14a, this is Ch'eng I's saying. Kaneko Sōsen (Kinshi roku teiyō) thinks somewords are missing in this section. 97. Doctrine of the Mean, chs. 16 and 22. 98. For the Book of Changes, see above, ch. 1, n. 12. Ch'eng's commentary is included in the Erh-Ch'eng ch'üan-shu. 99. Instead of divination. -107As a book it is comprehensive, great, and perfect. It is intended to bring about accord with the principle of thenature and destiny, to penetrate the causes of the hidden and the manifest, to reveal completely the nature ofthings and affairs, and to show the way to open up resources and to accomplish great undertakings. Theconcern of the sages100. for later generations may be said to be complete indeed. Although we are far fromantiquity, the Classic that was left to us is still extant. But former scholars101. have lost sight of its ideas andhave only transmitted its words, and later students have recited its words and have forgotten its meaning.Since the Ch'in dynasty [ 221-206 B.C.] its ideas have been no longer transmitted. Now, living a thousand yearslater, I mourn the obscurity and possible disappearance of our cultural tradition.102. I have written thiscommentary in order to enable later generations to follow its developments and trace its source. "In the Book of Changes there are four principles characteristic of the sages. We should highly value itsremarks 103. as a guide for us in speaking. We should highly value its changes for the initiation of our activities.We should highly value its forms and symbols as a guide for us in inventing and making utensils. And weshould value its prognostications for our practice of divination."104. However, the principles of good and evilfortune, and of the rise and fall of things, and the way of their advance or retreat and of their
existence ordestruction, are fully contained in the remarks. If one makes inferences from them and examines thehexagrams, one can understand transformation. Forms and symbols and prognostications are all included inthe remarks. The remarks in the Book of Changes are an embodiment of principles;... its changes provide theproper timing for activities;...its forms and symbols, [such as heaven, earth, wind, fire] offer patternsfor the invention or making of utensils;...and its fortune telling gives a clue to the future. ( Yeh Ts'ai,Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:18) ____________________ 100. Referring to King Wen, the Duke of Chou, and Confucius, who have been believed to be the authors of thevarious parts of the Classic. 101. According to Sakurada Komon ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 3:27b), these refer to commentators on the Book ofChanges, such as Wang Pi ( 226-49) and Han K'ang- po ( 332-80). 102. Ssu-wen, meaning "truth" "the moral tradition," the culture promoted by Confucius. See the Analects, 9:5. 103. According to Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:18), these refer to the appended remarks or philosophicaldiscussions which form the most important part of the Classic and which have been attributed toConfucius, but according to Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 67:6b), they refer to the propositions or judgments onthe 64 hexagrams and their component lines. Chu Hsi is correct. 104.
Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 10. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 367. -108"While a superior man remains quiet, he observes the forms and symbols and broods over the remarks. Whenhe starts any activity, he observes the changes made in divinations and studies the prognostications fromthem."105. There have been those who understood the remarks but missed their ideas, but there has never beenanyone who has missed the remarks and yet could understand their ideas. Principle is most subtle, whereas forms and symbols are most obvious. Substance and function come from thesame source and there is no gap between the manifest and the hidden.106. "Substance and function come from the same source" means that, although substance leaves no trace,function is found in it. "There is no gap between the manifest and the hidden" means that the hiddenis found in the manifest. Before the existence of heaven and earth all things were present. This showsthat within substance there is function. After heaven and earth have come into existence, principlestill exists. This shows that within the manifest, there is the hidden. ( Chu Tzu Yü-lei, 67:9b) "He examines how principles converge and what principles will prevail without obstacle so he can actaccording to the proper standard."107. This means to examine how the various principles converge, select the one that is applicable, and actaccording to it. For instance, suppose there is a matter involving many principles governing therelations between father and son, between ruler and minister, and between husband and wife. If therelation between father and son is important in this case, one should go ahead and direct his action tothe relation between father and son and, if necessary, overlook the others. If the relation between rulerand minister is important, one should go ahead and direct his action to the relation between rulerand minister and, if necessary, overlook the others. If the love between father and
son is important,then the principle of "not daring to injure our bodies, hair, or skin because we have received themfrom our parents"108. ____________________ 105. Ibid., ch. 2. Cf. Legge, p. 351. 106. Kaibara Ekken ( Daigi roku, pt. 2, p. 4b) says that this saying comes from Ch'eng-kuan's ( 760-838)commentary on the Hua-yen ching (Avatam + ̥saka sūtra), but he has given no specific section or pagereference. Other Japanese sources (e.g., Daikanwa jiten, XII, 587) maintain that the first half of the sayingoriginated in Ch'eng-kuan's commentary but, as Ōta Kinjō has pointed out ( Gimon roku, pt. 1, p. 6b), itdoes not appear there or in any of Ch'engkuan's works. It is possible that it was in the portion of hiscommentary which is now lost, but no one has given any specific source. However, Ch'eng-kuan saidvirtually the same thing, rather extensively, though in slightly different words, in his commentary (Zokuzōkyō, 1st collection, case 88, 3:35a-b). By the eleventh century the saying was common among bothBuddhists and NeoConfucianists. As T'ang Shun-chih ( 1507-60) said, "Both Buddhists and Confucianistssaid the same thing and none could tell whose words they were" ( T'ang Ching- ch'uan chi, 6:2b). Ōta saidthe second half of the saying is Fatsang's ( 643-712) dictum, but he gave no specific reference. 107. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 8. Cf. Legge, p. 360. 108. Book of Filial Piety, ch. 1. -109applies, and the doctrine of sacrificing oneself [for the ruler] will not do. If the righteousnessgoverning the relation of ruler and minister is important, one should sacrifice one's life and overlookthe doctrine of not injuring oneself.
This is called examining how principles converge and whatprinciples will prevail without obstacle. ( Ibid., 75:2a) All this is found in full in the remarks. Therefore, one who knows how to study will look for the words of sages that are applicable to things at hand.Those who take things at hand lightly do not understand words. My commentaries are on the remarks. Butgetting the ideas from the remarks depends on the reader. 50. IN ANSWER TO CHANG HUNG-CHUNG'S109. LETTER, MASTER ICH'UAN SAID: I have nottransmitted my Commentary on the Book of Changes because I feel my energy has not declined and I still hopeto improve the commentary somewhat. In your letter you said that the principle of the Book of Changesoriginates with number. It is wrong to say that its principle originates with number.110. There must beprinciple before there can be forms and symbols. There must be forms and symbols before there can benumber.111. The Book of Changes clarifies principle by means of forms and symbols, and from forms andsymbols number is known. If you know the principle of the Book of Changes, forms and symbols as well asnumber are found in it. (Principle is without physical form. Therefore principle is made clear by means offorms and symbols. As principle is revealed in the remarks, forms and symbols can be observed through them.Therefore I say, that if the principle is known, forms and symbols as well as number are found in it.)112. If youinsist on investigating to the utmost the forms and symbols, no matter how hidden or subtle, no matter howinfinitesimal, you will be looking for the derivative and pursuing the secondary. This is what the schematistsand occultists highly value but it is not something to which we Confucianists devote our efforts. Before Ch'eng I's time the Book of Changes was interpreted as a book dealing with forms andnumbers. Only from the time of the Ch'eng School ____________________ 109.
A pupil of the Ch'eng brothers about whom, according to the I-Lo yüan- yüan lu, 14:2a, nothing is known. 110. Following Mao Hsing-lai ( Chinssu lu chi-chu, 3:23a), the last eight words have been added to conform tothe original text in the Wen-chi, 5:16a. 111. Forms and symbols refer to natural phenomena like the sun and the mountain, which the Book of Changestakes to be symbols of good and evil, fortune and misfortune, etc., and number refers to the six lines of eachhexagram, which represent the yin and yang forces and their operation. Divination is possible because ofthe interaction of form and mumber. 112. Ch'eng I's own note. -110on has it been interpreted as a book expressing moral principles. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 67:5b)
The moral principles of Master Ch'eng Commentary on the Book of Changes are excellent, and its expressions are adequate. There is not an iota wanting. The work of other commentators is no more than patching. How can it be as spontaneous? But Master Ch'eng's commentary is not in accord with the original meaning of the book. Basically the Book of Changes is a book of divination. Its texts on the hexagrams or on their component lines contain everything. How to use them is left to people. But Master Ch'eng talked about them only in terms of principle. ( Ibid., 6b)
Master Ch'eng's commentary is not concerned with the literal meaning of the text but only with moral principles. This aspect is most interesting. ( Ibid.)
The commentary is complete in its discussion on principle but deficient on forms and numbers. ( Ibid., 7b)
51. The fundamental method of studying the Book of Changes is to know times and circumstances.
52. In the ta-ch'u [great accumulation] hexagram,113. the two undivided lines at the bottom, being the substance of the ch'ien [Heaven] trigram, are strong and firm and yet not sufficient to advance. The fourth and fifth lines from the bottom are feminine and weak and yet can stop the advance.114. Students of the Book of Changes should know thoroughly whether the time is high or low and whether the conditions are strong or weak.
53. In hexagrams, although the second and fifth lines from the bottom are out of place115. in most cases, they have the excellence of being the Mean,116. and although their third and fourth lines are in the proper positions, yet sometimes they lack the merit of being in the middle. With regard to the Mean, correctness is always emphasized. To be
____________________ 113. Hexagram no. 26 in the Book of Changes, which consists of the trigram ken, with two divided or weak lines at the bottom and one undivided or strong line on top, as the upper half, and the trigram ch'ien, with three undivided lines, as the lower half.
114.Because the component lines of the trigram symbolic of strength or advancing are under the component lines of the trigram symbolic of stopping. 115. The first, third, and fifth positions from the bottom of a hexagram are positions of yang (strength), whereas the second, fourth, and sixth are positions of yin (weakness). A yang or undivided line which is in a yin position is out of place. For example, in hexagram no. 2, k'un [Earth; female], which consists of six divided lines, the first, third, and fifth lines, being yin or divided, are out of place because these positions should be occupied by yang or undivided lines.
116.Since each of them is the middle line of its trigram. -111-
in the middle means not to violate correctness. Correctness is not necessarily identical with the Mean, but of allprinciples in the world none is better than the Mean. This can be seen from the yang line in the second positionand the yin line in the fifth position.117. 54. Someone said, "Master Hu118. interpreted the fourth, undivided line as that of the prince.119. I am afraidthis is not the meaning of the hexagram." The Teacher said, "There is no harm, if the interpretation is applied correctly. If it should be interpreted as theposition of the prince, let us so interpret it. The fourth, undivided position is near to that of the ruler, and thereis no harm in regarding it as that of the prince. But we must not restrict ourselves to one particular thing. If so,then the 384 lines120. are but so many particular things and no more." Someone said, "In discussing the Book of Changes, Ch'eng I talked too much about principle."
Chu Hsi said, "Ch'eng I said the sage can apply it to the sage and the worthy to the worthy, and that, ifeach line is applied to one event, since there are only 384 lines, there would be only 384 events. This iswell said. But, nevertheless when he explained the lines, he treated them as 384 lines applying to only384 events." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 67:8a) 55. "In reading the Book of Changes, one must know how to apply its remarks in accordance with thecircumstances. The remarks on the six lines of a hexagram can be applied by everybody. The sage can applythem in the way of the sage, the worthy in the way of the worthy, ordinary people in the way of ordinary people,the student in the way of the student, the ruler in the way of the ruler, and the minister in the way of theminister. There is none by whom they cannot be applied." ____________________ 117. Being in the middle of their trigrams, they represent the Mean. 118. Hu Yüan ( 993-1059), whose courtesy name was I-chih and who was honored as Master An-ting. He was oneof the first outstanding Neo-Confucianists. He taught for twenty years and was successively a collator in theimperial library, a prefectural judge, and a lecturer at the national university. For his biography, see theSung shih, 432:10b-12a; for his doctrines see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 1:1a-4b. 119. As recorded in his Chou-i k'ou-i; 1:9a. Hu interpreted the line to represent the prince rather than any highnoble, which is the ordinary interpretation. Applied to the ancient Chinese social structure, the six linesrepresent, respectively, one who has not yet become an official; a knight-scholar; a great officer; a highnoble; the sovereign; and one who prefers no position or has retired. Philosophically, the fifth line from thebottom represents the highest
continuous development, and therefore the sovereign. The sixth line meansthe end of the course, and therefore no further development. 120. Of the 64 hexagrams. -112Thereupon someone asked, "The k'un [Earth; female] hexagram121. deals with the affairs of the minister. Areits remarks useful to the ruler?" The Teacher said, "Why not? Take for example the remark, 'The superior man supports men and things withhis abundant virtue.'122. Why can't this be useful to the ruler?" 56. [CH'ENG HAO] The Book of Changes deals with nothing but the principles of reversion, of coming andgoing, and of rise and fall.123. In the way of yin and yang, each advance is followed by a withdrawal and each increase is followed bya decrease. Reversion, coming and going, and rise and fall, can be seen in this process. ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 65:6b) 57. [CH'ENG I] The Book of Changes written by the sages is suitable 124. for everything, from heaven, earth,the hidden, and the manifest, 125. to insects, plants, and minute things. The Book of Changes includes all and is suitable for all because it represents the root and ultimate ofprinciple. Fundamentally it is the one thread running through all. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,3:21) 58. People today read the Book of Changes but do not know what it is. They merely push their way through itwithout regard to principle. If someone has not read it carefully, you may add one characteristic to a hexagramand he will not realize that something has been added; you may take one characteristic away from it and he willnot realize that something has been taken away. Suppose someone does not know this stool. If a leg has beentaken away, he will not know that something is missing, and if a leg has been added, he will
not know that thereis one too many. If he knows, it will not do, of course, to add or to take away anything. 59. Yu Ting-fu126. asked I-ch'uan about the saying, "That which is unfathomable in the operation of yin andyang is called spirit."127. i-ch'uan said, "Sir, have you asked because you have some doubts about it or becauseit is difficult to understand?" ____________________ 121. The second hexagram in the Book of Changes. 122. Comment on the hexagram. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 268. 123. In the I-shu, 14:2a, this saying is ascribed to Ch'eng Hao. 124. Ho can also mean "to include." 125. The hidden and the manifest refer to spiritual beings and human beings, respectively. 126. See above, ch. 2, n. 226. 127. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 357. -113-
Yu Tso probably had not thought over the matter deeply. He asked too soon because the sentence isdifficult to understand. For this reason Ch'eng I did not give him the answer but directly attacked hismind so he would return to himself and make an effort to think. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,3:21) 60. I-ch'uan showed his Commentary on the Book of Changes to his pupils and said, "It tells only seventypercent. People who read it must later realize the rest themselves." 61. MASTER I-CH'UAN'S PREFACE TO HIS Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals128.SAYS: Among Heaven's creatures there must be outstanding talented men who rise to become rulers to rulethe others, to govern them so that quarrels will stop, to direct them so that the mutual sustenance and supportof life will be accomplished, and to teach them so that the principles of human relations will become clear; andthen the way of man will be established, the way of Heaven will be completed, and the way of Earth will bestabilized. Up to the times of the Two Emperors129. sages and worthies appeared in the world. They institutedthings as the times required. Following what was proper to the situation, they did not start things for menbefore they were outwardly necessary but instituted governmental measures according to the times. As theThree Kings130. successively arose, the three important things131. were complete. The eleventh, the twelfth, andthe first month of the lunar calendar were set up by the Three ____________________ 128. Ch'un-ch'iu in Chinese. It is the chronicle of Confucius' native state of Lu from 722 to 481 B.C., covering thereigns of twelve rulers totaling 242 years. Its wording is such as to imply judgment on the events it hasrecorded. Tradition has ascribed its authorship to Confucius. Although most modern scholars have refusedto accept this tradition, many have believed that Confucius may have edited it. There are threecommentaries on the Classic, of which the Tso chuan, ascribed to Tso Ch'iu-ming, Confucius' contemporary,is the standard. It fully describes the events which are only summarized in the Spring and Autumn Annals.The other two commentaries, by Kung-yang Kao
and Ku-liang Ch'ih, both pupils of Confucius' pupil Tzu-hsia, attempt to interpret the meaning of the Classic. For an English translation of the Classic and the Tsochuan, see James Legge, tr., The Ch'un Ts'ew, with the Tso Chuen, The Chinese Classics, vol. V. Ch'eng'scommentary is ch. 4 of his Ching shuo, which is part of the Erh-Ch'eng ch'uan-shu. 129. Yao and Shun. 130. See above, n. 91. 131. The term san-chung [three important things] comes from the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 29. In hiscommentary on the chapter, Cheng Hsüan ( 127-200) said that it means the ceremonies of the Three Kings.Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chichieh, 3:22) and many Japanese commentators have followed him. In his Chung-yung chang-chü, ch. 29, commenting on the term, Chu Hsi agrees with another Neo-Confucianist that itmeans ceremonies, regulations, and the form and pronunciation of written characters. Chinesecommentators have followed him. In view of the context in ch. 28 of the Doctrine of the Mean, Chu Hsi iscorrect. -114Kings as their first months respectively.132. Faithfulness, substance, and ornament were progressivelyvalued.133. The way of man thus became complete and the way of Heaven universally operative. Since then,sage-kings have appeared no more. Although the rulers of empires wanted to imitate the observable facts of thepast, they only acted erroneously from selfish motives. As an example of how wrong a thing can be, the Ch'inwent so far as to set up the tenth month of the lunar calendar as its first month.134. As an example of violationof the Way, the Han controlled the world with cleverness and force exclusively. Did they any longer know theWay of the ancient kings?
The Grand Master lived at the end of the Chou dynasty. Believing that no more sages would arise and that thegovernment that was in accord with Heaven and responded to the times would not prevail again, he wrote theSpring and Autumn Annals to be the great law which the kings of the next hundred generations would notalter. It is something that may be described in the words "tested by the experience of the Three Kings andfound without error, applied before Heaven and Earth and found to be without contradiction in theiroperation, laid before spiritual beings without question or fear, it can wait a hundred generations for a sage toconfirm it without a doubt."135. A biography written by a former scholar says that neither Tzu-yu nor Tzu-hsiawas able to contribute a word.136. Actually the Sage needed no help in words. Rather they were not qualified toparticipate in the work. Yen Tzu137. alone had heard of its principles. "Use the calendar of the ____________________ 132. The Twelve Earthly Branches are correlated with the twelve months. The first member, tzu, corresponds tothe eleventh month; the second, ch'ou, to the twelfth; and the third, yin, to the first. Furthermore, tzu isequated with the beginning of heaven, ch'ou with that of earth, and yin with that of man. The Chou dynasty,with tzu as its first month, constituted the System of Heaven; the Shang, with ch'ou as its first month,constituted the System of Earth; and the Hsia, with yin as its first month, constituted the System of Man. 133. The Hsia dynasty valued faithfulness (chung: realness, loyalty) in its ceremonies, etc.; the Shang valuedsubstance (chih: natural substance, simple stuff); and the Chou valued refinement (wen: culture, ornament,literature, patterns). 134. The tenth month is the hai month, the last of the Twelve Branches. The Ch'in believed that thecharacteristic of the Chou was fire and that its own characteristic was water, which overcomes fire, thusmaking its overthrow of
the Chou logical and natural. But in the tenth month of the lunar calendar water isscarce. Therefore the Ch'in's choice of the month as its first month is wrong. 135. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 29. 136. This remark was made by Ssu-ma Ch'ien ( 145-86 B.C.?) in his Shih chi, 47:28a. For translation, seeEdouard Chavannes , tr., Les Mémoires historiques de Se-Ma Ts'ien, V, 420, or Lin Yutang, ed. and tr., TheWisdom of Confucius, p. 96. Among the Confucian pupils, Tzu-yu and Tzu-hsia were most famous forliterature ( Analects, 11:2). 137. See above, n. 11. -115Hsia dynasty, adopt the carriages of the Shang dynasty, and use the imperial crown of the Chou dynasty. Formusic, adopt the dance of the shao."138. This is the standard. Later generations have regarded the Spring andAutumn Annals as history and have said that it is confined to praising good and condemning evil. They do notknow its fundamental law governing the world. This does not mean that Confucius told Yen Tzu the fundamental law of the Spring and AutumnAnnals. The systems of the Three Dynasties were perfect, and Confucius could add nothing to them.Therefore he told him the ceremonies and music of the Four Dynasties.139. He merely put all theunchanging laws of ancient kings together. When he wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals, hepraised good people and condemned evildoers. That was all. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 83:10b) The Spring and Autumn Annals embodies many great principles. Although its principles are great, they are asclear as the sun and stars, which can easily be seen. But because its words are subtle and its meanings obscure,and its
application varies with times and circumstances, it is difficult to understand. It sometimes holds tightand sometimes relaxes. It sometimes gives and sometimes takes. It sometimes advances and sometimesretreats. It is sometimes subtle and sometimes manifest. But in all cases it is in accord with moral principlesand attains the mean between refinement and natural substance, the proper degree of leniency and severity,and justice with reference to right and wrong. It is the weight and balance for handling things and the norm forjudging moral principles. One has to observe a hundred things before he can understand the wonder of the work of creation. One has togather various materials before he can know the operation of building a house. Only a man of the highestintelligence can look into the purpose of the Sage on the strength of one principle. Therefore, in studying theSpring and Autumn Annals one must leisurely immerse and soak himself in it, understand quietly, andpenetrate it in his mind before he can get its subtle points. ____________________ 138. Analects, 15:10. This was Confucius' answer to Yen Tzu's question on how to run a government. Accordingto Chu Hsi ( Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 8, comment on this answer), the Hsia calendar was correct because it usedthe first month of the lunar year as its first month; the Shang unadorned wooden carriages had the virtue ofthe proper natural substance; and the Chou crown was correct in its ornaments. Shao was the name of themusic made by Shun, which Confucius praised as "perfectly beautiful and perfectly good" ( Analects, 3:25). 139. The Three Dynasties and that of Emperor Shun. -116If kings of later generations know the principles of the Spring and Autumn Annals, even though they do notpossess the virtue of Yü and T'ang, they still
can use the government of the Three Dynasties as a model. Thelearning of the book has not been transmitted since the Ch'in dynasty. Regretting that the purpose of the Sagemay not be clear to later generations, I have written this commentary to clarify it so that people of latergenerations may understand its words, search for its meaning, get its ideas, and use it as their model. Thecondition of the Three Dynasties may then be recovered. Although this commentary cannot reveal theprofundity of the Sage to the last degree, it can perhaps provide the student with the door through which to gointo it. 62. The Book of Odes and the Book of History are vehicles of moral principles, whereas the Spring and AutumnAnnals is the Sage's application of them.140. The Book of Odes and the Book of History are comparable tomedical prescriptions, whereas the Spring and Autumn Annals is comparable to the use of the medicine tocure disease. The Sage's application of moral principles is found entirely in this book. It has been said, "It isbetter to embody them in the description of actual affairs so they will be concrete, profound, and clear."141.There are repetitions, such as accounts of military expeditions and alliances, for in order to make the book atotal unit it was necessary to have these. We should not try to find a different meaning in each and every event.Nevertheless, if a different word is used in describing the same event or if the preceding or following words aredifferent, we must then distinguish the meanings. 63. The place of the Spring and Autumn Annals in the Five Classics142. is comparable to that of judgments inthe sphere of law. Laws merely prescribe rules of conduct. Not until judgments are made can the application oflaw be seen. 64. It is, after all, good to study the Spring and Autumn Annals. It describes an event in only one sentence andin that sentence what is right and what is wrong become clear. The book is essential to the ____________________ 140. In the I-shu, 2A:4b, sec. 63 is inserted after this sentence as a note.
141. According to Ssu-ma Ch'ien (Shih chi, 130:9a), Confucius said that rather than praising good andcondemning evil in "empty words" he preferred to embody moral principles in the description of actualevents. In his Shih chi soyin, commenting on Ssu-ma Ch' 'en's statement, Ssu-ma Chen 727) saysConfucius' words are found in the Ch'un-ch'zu wei. This book, except for a few fragments which do notinclude this passage, is no longer extant. 142. See above, Introduction, n. 8. -117investigation of principle. Are other Classics not used in the investigation of principle?143. Yes, they are, butwhile they discuss the meaning of principle, the Spring and Autumn Annals applies it to practical affairs, andtherefore right and wrong are brought out more clearly. Hence it is essential to the investigation of principle. I have often told students to read the Analects, the Book of Mencius, and another Classic before reading theSpring and Autumn Annals. One must understand moral principles before reading it. What is the standard ofthe Spring and Autumn Annals? There is no better standard than the Doctrine of the Mean. In order tounderstand the Doctrine of the Mean, there is nothing better than to understand the balancing factors in anexpedient situation. One must achieve the Mean according to the circumstance. To strike the middle pointbetween having the skin of one's hand and feet harden 144. and remaining behind a locked door 145. is not theMean. If the skin of one's hands and feet ought to be hardened, then having such skin is the Mean. If one oughtto lock his door and remain inside, then doing so is the Mean. To balance means to weigh. What is to be thebalance? It is righteousness and timeliness. We can only go as far as righteousness.146. One can hardly sayanything beyond that. It depends on how one looks at the matter. 65.The commentaries147. on the Spring and Autumn Annals contain cases. The Classic itself containsjudgments. (Master Ch'eng also said, "When I was
reading the Spring and Autumn Annals at twenty, HuangAo-yü148. asked me how to study it. I replied, 'The commentaries are to be used to inquire into eventsdescribed in the Classic and the Classic is to be used to distinguish wherein the commentaries are right andwherein they are wrong.'")149 ____________________ 143. The word "principle" does not appear in the passage in the I-shu, 15:16a. 144. As in the case of Yü, who for years worked hard in preventing floods and directing rivers to the sea.Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 3:33b) and Sawada Takeoka ( Kinshi roku setsu- ryaku, 3:22a)quote this as Lieh Tzu ( 450-375 B.C.?) comment on Yü, but it is not found in the extant Lieh Tzu. Thesaying is found in the Shih chi, ch. 2, in the eulogy appended to the biography of Yü. It also appears in theMo Tzu, ch. 56 ( SPTK, 14:14a), but there it does not refer to Yü. 145. As in the case of Yen Hui, who remained serene and happy in a humble lane. (See Analects, 6:9.) 146. In the I-shu, 15:16b, the two sentences read: "It is righteousness. But we can only go as far as righteousness." 147. For these, see above, n. 128. 148. The private name of Huang (fl. 1052) was Hsi. He was a collector of several thousand volumes and attractedmany students. Eventually he was appointed an assistant in the national university but died after one day ofservice. For his
biography, see the Sung shih, 458:3a-b. Japanese texts mistakenly have Huang Sheng-yü. 149 Original note in the Chin-ssu lu. Nakamura Shōsai ( Kinshi roku kōsetsu, -11866. In reading history, one must not only remember the historical facts. One must understand the principles oforder and chaos, peace and danger, rise and decline, existence and extinction. For example, in reading thechronicle of Emperor Kao,150. one must understand the reasons for the rise and fall, and the order and chaos,in the four hundred years of the House of Han. This is also learning. 67. Whenever the Teacher was halfway through a history, he would close the book to think and inquire into thereasons for successes and failures before he finished it. Whenever something seemed to be wrong, he would giveit further careful thought. Sometimes people succeeded by good luck or failed by bad luck. Nowadays people seethe success and forthwith regard it as right and see the failure and forthwith regard it as wrong, withoutrealizing that in the success there may very well be elements of wrong and in the failure there may very well beelements of right. 68. In reading history, we must understand the subtle, incipient, activating forces of the order and chaos shown151. in the writings of sages and worthies, and why virtuous men accepted or declined official positions andadvanced or withdrew. This is the investigation of things. 69. In the middle of the Yüan-yu period [ 1086-93] a visitor came to see Ich'uan. There was no other book onthe table except a printed copy of the T'ang ch'ien (Mirror of the government of the T'ang dynasty). TheTeacher said, "I have seen this book only recently. There has been no such discussion since the ThreeDynasties."152 ____________________ 150.
Kao-tsu (r. 206-195 B.C.) of the Han dynasty. Chronicles of the emperor are found in the Shih chi, ch. 8, andthe Han shu, ch. 1. 151. Literally, "preserved." Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 3) prefers to understand the word ts'un tomean not "to preserve" but "to pay attention to." This would mean the things to which sages and worthiespaid attention rather than the things preserved in their writings. 152 The T'ang chien, a book of twelve chapters, was written by Fan Tsu-yLi (1041-98), whose courtesy name wasCh'un-fu. He was also known as Shun-fu. After having received the "presented scholar" degree, he served ascorrecting editor of the imperial library and then as policy reviewing officer. Later, as a result of some falseimplications, he was banished to Kwangsi Province to be assistant to the governor. He died in office. He hadassisted Ssu-ma Kuang (see below, ch. 4, sec. 21) in compiling the Tzu-chih t'ung-chien and was partlyresponsible for its section on the T'ang dynasty ( 618-907). Later he wrote the T'ang chien to discuss T'anggovernment. In the Wei shu, 11:5a, it is said, "Fan Ch'un-fu used to discuss T'ang events with Ch'eng I.When he wrote the T'ang chien, he applied Master Ch'eng's ideas entirely. The Master said to his pupils, x 3:18b) says this is a saying in Ch'eng's reply to a letter from Liu Chih-fu. I have not been able to find it inCh'eng I's Wen-chi or in ch. 8 on Liu in the ILo yüan-yüan lu. Ch'eng's words are found in the I-shu,22A:2b, and also, with some variation, in 20:1a. -11970. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID: It should not be said that the "Remarks on the Order of theHexagrams"153. is not where the deep meanings of the Sage lie. When you want to put a thing awaysomewhere, you will carefully find the right place. How much more careful would the Sage be
with regard to theBook of Changes! Although the "Remarks" lacks extremely good principles, generally speaking it has significantmeaning everywhere. When we read a book by the Sage, we must be comprehensive and careful. How can oneunderstand the work of a master carpenter by looking at only one hewing of his axe? 71. One must have a broad mind and a wide perspective before one can read the section on the "Office ofHeaven."154 For its plan is on a large scale. If one does not possess a broad mind and goes off his way in orderto explore exhaustively one thing after another so as to acquire such a mind, he will surely fail. To theBuddhists the universe seems as small as pennies. Their minds are perfectly broad. But since they have neverhandled any big thing, they are incapable of handling ordinary affairs. If you give them a penny, they are at aloss as to what to do. Chang Tsai further said, "It is difficult to read the section on the duties of the chief minister of the 'Office ofHeaven', for unless one has a broad mind and a great heart which can embrace all its functions, one will forgetthis while he remembers that. When all the affairs of the empire are in one office, one must treat this fact asone behaves when he captures a dragon or a snake or seizes a tiger or a leopard; it will not do unless he devoteshis whole mind and energy to it. The other five sections are easy to read, for each deals with only one office." 72. Among the ancients Mencius alone understood the Book of Odes, because he taught that we shouldanticipate the will of the poets in ____________________ 153. One of the commentaries on the texts of the Book of Changes. See above, ch. 1, n. 12. Han K'ang-po had saidin his comment on the opening paragraph of the second section of this commentary that what is given hereis not the deep meanings of the Book of Changes. See his commentary on the Book of Changes (ThirteenClassics Series). 154
This is one of the six sections of the Chou li (Rites of Chou), also called the Chou kuan (Offices of Chou),attributed to the Duke of Chou but probably a product of the third or fourth century B.C. It describes thestructure and functions of the government of the Chou dynasty and divides It into six sections dealing withthe six offices, namely, the Office of Heaven, in charge of the government in general; the Office of Earth, incharge of education; the Office of Spring, in charge of ceremonial and musical institutions; the Office ofSummer, In charge of the army; the Office of Autumn, in charge of justice; and the Office of Winter, incharge of population and territory. See Le Tcheou-li ou Rites des Tcheou, tr. by Eduard Biot. x ' Ch'un-fu believes me to this extent!'" For Fan's biography, see the Sung shih, 337: 12a-18a; for hisdoctrines, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 21:1a-7b. -120our thought.155. The will of the poets is perfectly ordinary and simple and no desperate effort is required to findit out. If one studies poems with a sense of desperation, one has already lost his original mind. How can heunderstand the will of the poets? (The nature and feelings of poets are warm, genial, tranquil, at ease, andmature. They are expressed in words in an open and smooth manner. Now if one must search for them as if heis walking on a rough road, his mind is narrow and obstructed to start with, and there is no way for him tosucceed. The feelings of poets are basically happy and at ease. It is only because their happy and leisurelyfeelings are stimulated by current events that they express their will in poems.) 156. 73. The Book of History is difficult to read properly, for few people have the broad mind it requires. However, itis not difficult if one merely wants to know the literal meaning. Other books have an order. For example, the Great Learning. It goes from the investigation of things and theextension of knowledge to bringing peace to the world. There is a certain order. The Book of History, however,begins right
away with big things, like the "Canon of Yao." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 78:6b) 74. If one does not read enough, he will have no method of inquiry and comparison by which to find the essenceof moral principles. Books are intended to preserve and support one's mind. If one relaxes for a while, his moralcharacter will be neglected as long as he is relaxing. If one reads, his mind will always maintain itself. If not, hewill never understand moral principles. 75. In reading a book, one should recite it silently. Often excellent thoughts will come to him at midnight orwhile he is sitting in meditation. If one does not remember what he reads, his thoughts will not arise. After onehas thoroughly understood the great foundation of a book, however, it will be easy to remember. The reason for reading is to resolve one's doubts and to clarify what one does not understand. If with eachreading one learns something ____________________ 155. Book of Mencius, SA:4. 156. Chu Hsi note in the Chin-ssu lu. Cf. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 80: 1 Ob and 25b. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3:33b), Shih Huang ( Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu faming, 3:35a), and some others have treated this note asChang Tsai's own words but it does not appear in his surviving works. -121new, his learning will advance. When one doubts where nothing doubtful seems to exist, one reallyadvances.157. 76. The Six Classics158.must be gone through one after another, in repeated cycles. The student will find thattheir moral principles are unlimited. With every step that he advances, he sees something different.
77. In reading books like the Doctrine of the Mean, one simply must understand all the sentences so that theycan develop and clarify each other's meaning. 78. In ancient times there was no Spring and Autumn Annals. Confucius himself wrote it.159. And Menciusalone understood it. Unless one thoroughly understands moral principles, one is not qualified to study it.Former scholars studied it without this qualification and their theories are therefore mostly forced. ____________________ 157. Mao Hsing-lai, on the basis of the original edition of the Chin-ssu lu, has combined this section with thepreceding one ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 3:38a). 158. See above, Introduction, n. 8. 159. See above, n. 128. -122IV: PRESERVING ONE'S MIND AND NOURISHING ONE'S NATURE YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: Preserving One's Mind and Nourishing One's Nature. 70 sections. Inthis chapter the preservation of one's mind and the nourishing of one's nature are discussed. Although theinvestigation of things may be perfect, if one's cultivation is inadequate, he will gradually become beclouded.How can he find the proper condition to put his knowledge into practice? Therefore the effort of preserving andnourishing cuts across both knowledge and action. This chapter comes between those on these two subjects.
1. [ CHOU TUN-I] Someone asked, "Can one become a sage through learning?" Master Lien-hsi said, "Yes." "Is there any essential way?" "Yes. "Please explain it to me." "The essential way is to concentrate on one thing. By concentrating on one thing is meant having no desire.Having no desire, one is vacuous1. while tranquil, and straightforward while in action. Being vacuous whiletranquil, one becomes intelligent and hence penetrating. Being straightforward while active, one becomesimpartial and hence all-embracing. Being intelligent, penetrating, impartial, and all- embracing, one is almosta sage." Someone said, "Concentration on one thing means complete singleness of mind. Vacuity intranquillity means that the mind is comparable to a clear mirror or still water, without an iota ofselfish desire in it. Therefore all its activities ensue from the operation of the Principle of Nature, andare not disturbed by an iota of selfish desire. Vacuity in tranquillity is substance, whilestraightforwardness in action is function. Is that correct?" Chu Hsi answered, "Generally correct." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 94:38b) 2. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: When yang first grows, it is very subtle. It can grow only if it ispeaceful and tranquil. Therefore a ____________________ 1. Being absolutely pure and peaceful. -123comment on the abstract meaning of the fu [to return] hexagram says, "The ancient kings closed the passes on the day of the solstice."2.
On the day of the winter solstice, yin has accumulated. Yang begins to grow but is very subtle. Unless it is nourished by peace and tranquillity, its force will not be strong enough to become the foundation of growth. ( Chang Pohsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:2a)
On this day, the passes between stations were closed so that merchants and travelers would not move about. Dukes and lords would not inspect their states. People both above and below would be at peace and tranquil in order to nourish their subtle yang. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 4:2b)
Someone asked, "This is the principle according to which activity is possible only after there has been tranquillity. Is that right? For example, the Principle of Nature inherent in man is very subtle. There must not be any selfish desire to disturb it. Then it will proceed to operate smoothly."
Chu Hsi said, "That is the way to look at it." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 71:17b)
3. Activity, rest, restraint, and relaxation serve to nourish one's life. Drink, food, and clothing serve to nourish one's body. Disposition, appearance, and conduct according to righteousness serve to nourish one's virtue. And extending one's virtue to others serves to nourish mankind.
4. Be careful with speech so as to nourish your virtue. Regulate food so as to nourish your body. Nothing is more immediate and more important than speech and food.
5. "When thunder arouses and startles all within a hundred li, the sacrificer will not let go his spoon or cup of sacrificial spirit."3. Only with sincerity and seriousness can one remain peaceful and not be at a loss in the face of shocks and fear. This is the way to handle shocks.
6. One cannot be at ease when he is resting4. because he is stirred with desires. How can he rest when desires pull him forward? Therefore the principle of the hexagram ken [to stop] is that one should "stop at the back of a thing."5. What can be seen is in front. The back of a
____________________ 2. Book of Changes, comment on hexagram no. 24, fu. Cf. James Legge , tr., Yi King, p. 297. In the fu hexagram the first, undivided line, symbolic of the yang force, begins to grow. In the symbolism of Change, the process begins from the bottom. Cf. above, ch. 1, sec. 10.
3. Book of Changes, comment on hexagram no. 51, chen [to arouse]. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 255. 4."Abiding with moral principles," according to practically all commentators. 5.This and the following quotations are comments on hexagram no. 52, ken, in the Book of Changes. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, pp. 175-76. -124thing is behind it and therefore cannot be seen. When one stops at the point which cannot be seen, there will beno desires to disturb his mind and he can rest at ease.
"See not the person" means not seeing oneself, that is, not being conscious of oneself. When one is no longerconscious of himself, he can be at rest. There is no way to do so if he cannot rid himself of self-consciousness. "Walk in the hall and do not see the people in it." The space between the hall and the porch is very near. But ifone stops with his back to it, even what is nearest cannot be seen. This means that one is not lured into contactwith external things. When he is free from such contact, internal desires will not arise. To rest in this way is todo so according to the proper principle of resting. In this kind of resting, "there will be no error." In the Book of Changes "to stop" means "to stop in the proper place." This theory is perfectly correct. I amafraid Ch'eng I is wrong in interpreting it to mean stopping at the point which cannot be seen.... To stop meansto stop at the proper place, that is, the best place for one to abide, as humanity for the ruler and seriousness forthe minister.6. "Seeing not the person" means not to have oneself in view, and "not seeing the people" meansnot to have others in view. In other words, have neither oneself nor others, but only moral principles, in view. (Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 73:10a) "What do you think of the theory that when one is free from contact with external things, his internal desireswill not arise?" Chu Hsi answered, "The idea of having no contact with external things is difficult to understand. Underordinary circumstances, how can we avoid it? I believe Ch'eng I meant only that when we are in contact withpeople we should see that we stop at the proper place according to principle so that we will not be influenced byselfish ideas produced by contact with external things. ( Ibid., 14b) According to books on acupuncture and cauterization, man's five internal organs depend on the back. Althoughit does not move itself, all the movements of the body depend on it. Therefore only those who can calm theirnature can learn how to stop at the back. ( Ch'en Hang, Chin-ssu lu pu-chu, 4:3a) 7. MASTER MING-TAO [ CH'ENG HAO] SAID: If one does not preserve his mind and nourish his nature, hewill merely be talking.
If one is only engaged in asking questions and arguing but does not preserve his mind and nourish his nature,his learning is but that of the mouth and the ear. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:3) ____________________ 6. Cf. above, ch. 2, sec. 4. -1258. Sages and worthies have uttered thousands and thousands of words primarily from their desire that peopleshould recover their lost minds7. and keep them under control. If one can put his mind back into his ownperson, he will naturally seek to go toward higher things, and he can then "study things on the lower level andpenetrate things on the higher level."8. 9. Li Yü9. asked, "Usually when things happen we know how to hold fast and preserve our minds. But whennothing happens how can we preserve our minds and nourish our nature thoroughly?" Ch'eng Hao answered, "Concerning their listening to music, their observing ceremonies, and their dailymovements, the ancients had inscriptions carved or written on their bathtubs, food dishes, desks, and staffs10.so that whether they were in action or at rest there was something to help them nourish their minds. Thispractice is no longer observed. The only thing that will help us to nourish our minds is moral principles. If wehold on to these principles of cultivation, in time we shall nourish our minds very well. "Seriousness is tostraighten the external life."11. This is the meaning of cultivation and nourishment. 10. Lü Yü-shu12. once said, "My trouble is that I have many worries and cannot drive them out of my mind." Ch'eng Hao said, "This is just like resisting robbers in a ruined house. Before you chase away the one who hasentered from the east, another one comes from the west. They come in from all directions and there is no timeto chase all of them away. The reason is that the house is exposed on all sides so that robbers can come in easilyand there is no way for one to be the master of his
own house and keep the situation under control. It is likewater coming into an empty vessel. Naturally the water comes in. But if the vessel is filled with water, even ifyou put it under water, how can water get in? For whatever ____________________ 10. As mentioned in Wang T'ung, Chung-shuo, 6:2b. 11. Book of Changes, comment on hexagram no. 2, k'un [Earth; female]. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 420. 12. See above, ch. 2, n. 138. 7. As Mencius said, "The way of learning is none other than to find the lost mind." (See the Book of Mencius,6A:11.) 8. Analects, 14:37. 9. The courtesy name of Li (fl. 1088) was Tuan-po and he was a pupil of the Ch'eng brothers. Holder of the"presented scholar" degree, he was a collator in the imperial library in the middle of the Yüan-yu period anddied in office. See the Sung shih, 428:1b; the Sung- Yüan hsüeh-an, 30:2a; and the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu,8:4b-6b. -126has a master inside is no longer empty. Since it is not empty, external troubles cannot come in. Then there willbe nothing to worry you."
11. Hsing Ho-shu13. said, "We must always cherish and nourish our energy. We shall get tired as soon as it isdeficient, and shall then be laboring whenever we handle anything and shall lack sincerity. This will be evidenteven in our speech when we entertain guests. How much more when we handle important affairs!" 12. MASTER MING-TAO SAID: The student should completely preserve14. his mind. Although his studies maynot be complete, as things come to him he should not fail to respond, but should respond according to hiscapacity. If he does not hit the mark, he will not be far from it. This merely means to preserve the mind completely and not to be overcome by selfish desires. It doesnot mean that there is another mind that can preserve this mind. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:1b) 13."Be respectful in private life, be serious in handling affairs, and be loyal in dealing with others."15. Thissaying penetrates both the higher and the lower levels. Fundamentally the Sage has nothing else to say. Respect is seriousness expressed externally. In one's private life one should be grave and austere, anddignified in his countenance. When one handles affairs, he should be serious, and when one deals withothers, he should be ____________________ 13. Kaibara Ekken ( Kinshi roku bikō, 4:5a), Nakai Chikusan ( Kinshi roku setsu, ch. 4), Satō Issai ( Kinshi rokurangaisho, ch. 4), Sawada Takeoka ( Kinshi roku setsuryaku, 4:6a), Higashi Masatsumi ( Kinshi rokusankō, p. 754), and Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 4:5b) all say that in the Ehr-Ch'eng Hsien-shenglei-yü (8:26a), there is the word yü [with] preceding Hsing's name and that therefore the saying was Ch'engHao's since yü means "speaking to." The fact that ch. 8 of the Ehr-Ch'eng Hsien-sheng lei-yü is devoted tothe Ch'engs' relations with others lends weight to this theory. However, this is a compilation dated 1585. Itis not original and is too recent to serve as a basis for the assertion. There is no yü in the original text ( I-shu, 1:8a) where this passage appears. It is generally understood, however, that Hsing was either
repeatingCh'eng Hao's words or truly reflecting his ideas. Satō, however, thinks Hsing was a rebel in the Ch'engschool and that his saying should not have been included in the anthology. Sawada Takeoka ( Kinshi rokusetsuryaku, 4:6a) notes the presence of the word yü in the Ehr-Ch'eng Hsien- sheng lei-yü and its absencein the I-shu, but he is not sure which is right. Hsing (fl. 1127) was a pupil of the Ch'eng brothers. His private name was Shu. He was first a member andthen an executive of the censorate. He gained fame at an early age, but later was often treacherous to hisfriends. See the Sung shih, 471:6a-10a; the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 30:4a-b; and the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu,14:5b-6b. 14. T'i literally means "to manage." Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:4.) took it to mean "being one's ownmaster." Chu Hsi, however, has interpreted it to mean "to preserve." Most commentators have followed him. 15. Analects, 13:19. -127loyal. Thus he extends his moral discipline from dealing with himself to dealing with others. From theinitial learning to the completion of virtue, there is no other way. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,4:4) 14. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: The student should hold fast to the mind with seriousness. Heshould not be anxious. Instead he should nourish and cultivate it deeply and earnestly, and immerse himself init. Only then can he be at ease with himself. If one seeks anxiously, that is merely selfishness. In the end he willnot be able to understand the Way. 15. MASTER MING-TAO [ CH'ENG HAO] SAID: "Have no depraved thoughts."16."Never lack seriousness."17. Ifone follows only these two teachings and puts them into practice, how can he make any mistake? Any mistakeis due to the lack of seriousness and to incorrectness of thought.
16. Nowadays students are serious but do not show any evidence of it.18. Therefore, they are not at ease. All thisis simply because in their minds they are not at home with seriousness. It is also because they carry seriousnesstoo far in dealing with things. This is what is meant by "Respectfulness, without the rules of propriety, becomeslaborious bustle."19. Being respectful in this case means making a personal effort to be respectful.20. Rules ofpropriety are not a body of ceremonies but natural principles. Because one is only respectful, withoutpracticing natural principles, he is not at home with himself. One must be "respectful and yet at ease."21. Nowthe reason why one must be right in appearance and correct in speech is not merely to attain goodness forhimself and see what others will say. It is because according to the Principle of Nature he should be so.Basically there should be no selfish ideas but only accordance with principle. ____________________ 16. Analects, 2:2. 17. Book of Rites, "Summary of Ceremonies," pt. 1 ( SPPY, 1:1a). Cf. James Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 61. 18. All editions except the Sung edition have tzu-te [to be at ease, to achieve naturally, or, to achieve byoneself], but the original passage in the I-shu, 2A:16a, has chien-te [to show evidence of]. As Miyake Shōsaihas said ( Kinshi roku hikki, ch. 4), Chu Hsi reads chien-te and understands it in this sense ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 42:6b). Furthermore, as Mao Hsing-lai has pointed out ( Chin- ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:7a), the use of tzu-tehere would duplicate the following sentence. 19. Analects, 8:2.
20. Nakamura Shūsai ( Kinshi roku kōsetsu, 4:4a) thinks that "a personal effort to be respectful" is an ancientsaying. He probably thinks so because the corresponding part of the previous sentence is a quotation. Butthere is no need for this phrase also to be a quotation. 21. Analects, 7:37. -128The statement that rules of propriety are not a body of ceremonies merely means that they areintangible. Any personal effort should follow natural moral principles. One will then be at ease. ( ChuHsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:1b) 17. Now our minds are set on moral principles and yet we are not happy. Why? Precisely because weunnecessarily try artificially to help the mind grow. Although "hold it fast and you preserve it, and let it go andyou Jose it"22. is a true statement, yet if one holds it too fast, that will be "always doing something" withexpectation.23. But we must avoid these mistakes.24. One is unhappy in his mind simply because his virtue isonly an isolated instance. "One whose virtue is not an isolated instance will have neighbors."25. When one'svirtue becomes eminent, nothing will obstruct his mind and it will overflow as if it met its own spring on theleft and the right.26. 18. Seriousness without fail27. is "the state of equilibrium before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joyare aroused."28. Seriousness is not equilibrium itself. But seriousness without fail is the way to attainequilibrium.29. Asked about seriousness without fail, Chu Hsi said, "Not to hold on to it firmly means to fail." ( ChuHsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 42:13a) Someone asked, "Does seriousness without fall mean that one's mind is completely serious and thatone is without an iota of nonseriousness in thought or act?"
Chu Hsi answered, "It merely means to be serious at all times. Seriousness is the way to equilibrium."( Ibid., 96:2b) Master Ch'eng did not mention the cultivation of moral principles. In a general sense, both the statebefore the feelings are aroused and the state after the feelings are aroused require the same effort.One must of course preserve his mind and nourish his nature before the feelings are aroused, but ____________________ 22. Book of Mencius, 6A:8, quoting Confucius. 23. Book of Mencius, 2A:2. Cheng [to correct] should be read as chih [to stop], according to Chiao Hsün ( 1763-1820) in his commentary on this passage ( Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 3, comment on the Book of Mencius,2A:2) but Chu Hsi interprets cheng to mean "to expect." Most commentators have followed him. 24. Interpretation according to Kalbara Ekken ( Kinshi roku bikō, 4:6b). 25. Analects, 4:25. 26. In the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:1b, this saying is ascribed to Ch'eng Hao. 27. The phrase comes from the Analects, 12:5. According to Chu Hsi ( Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 6, comment on theAnalects, 12:5), shih means "being interrupted." In his Chu Tzu yü-lei, 42:13a, he says it means "wavering." 28.
Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1. 29. Although it is not clear whether Chu Hsi assigned this passage to Ch'eng Hao, all commentators think thathe did. However, in his Chu Tzu wen-chi, 64:29a, part of the passage is assigned to Ch'eng I. -129he must also carefully examine himself after the feelings are aroused. ( Ibid., 62:31b-32a) Basically seriousness without fail is not equilibrium, but in seriousness without fail the condition ofequilibrium can be seen. This is similar to the fact that impartiality is not identical with humanity,but when one is impartial and without selfishness, one is humane.30. Equilibrium is original with ournature. We must devote our effort to cultivate it before it can be manifested ( Ibid., 96:1b-2a) 19. Ssu-ma Tzu-wei wrote the "Treatise on Sitting Down and Forgetting Everything."31. This is what is called"chasing while sitting down."32. Ssu-ma wanted to stop his thoughts but that is precisely not the way to stop one's thoughts. When onemakes up his mind to sit down and forget everything, it means that he sits down and his mind chasesafter external things. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 4:8a) 20. One day while Po-ch'un33. was living in the bureau of provisions34. in Ch'ang-an,35. he was sitting atleisure. He looked at the columns in the corridor and counted them in his mind. After he had finished, he hadno36. doubt about the number, but when he counted them again, the number did not agree. He could not keepfrom having someone count them aloud, and found that the number agreed with his original ____________________ 30. Cf. above, ch. 2, see. 52.
31. Tzu-wei was the courtesy name of Ssu-ma Ch'eng-chen ( 655-735) a Taoist recluse who, in the middle of theK'ai- yüan period ( 713-41), lived by imperial command in the Wang-wu Mountain in modern ShansiProvince, and died at the age of eighty-nine. The treatise contained seven chapters. According to Yeh Ts'ai (Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:6), Tzu-wei lived in the middle of the T'ienpao period ( 742-55), in the T'ien- t'aiMountain in modern Chekiang Province, and his treatise consisted of eight chapters. However, Mao Hsing-lai ( Chinssu lu chi-chu, 4:8b) says there are seven chapters and gives their titles. The term "sitting downand forgetting everything" comes from the Chuang Tzu, ch. 6 ( NHCC, 3:26b). Cf. Herbert Giles, tr., TheChuang Tzu, p. 85. 32. This term comes from the Chuang Tzu, ch. 4 ( NHCC, 2:14b; Giles, p. 55). It is not clear in the I-shu,2A:24b, whether this saying is attributed to Ch'eng Hao or Ch'eng I, but both Mao Hsing-lai (4:8a) andChang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:9a) have assigned it to Ch'eng I. 33. Ch'eng Hao's courtesy name. 34. Miyake Shōsai ( Kinshi roku hikki, ch. 4), Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 4), Father Graf ( Djin-sïlu, II, 346), and others interpret ts'ang as "a storehouse." It seems unlikely that Ch'eng Hao was sitting in astorehouse which had a long corridor with columns. However, Satō has pointed out that in Japan there usedto be grain storages with separate buildings for officials and guests to live in. In the Sung period, under theregional governor's office there were four bureaus, one of which, called ts'ang, was in charge of storage, withoffices in various parts of the region. 35. Near present Sian in Shensi Province.
36. Nakai Chikusan ( Kinshi roku setsu) says that his teacher thought that the word pu [no] should have beenyu [to have]. The emendation is, however, unnecessary. -130count. From this we know that the more one exerts his mind to hold on to a thing, the more unsure he is.37. If one exerts his mind to hold on to a thing, his mind is already disturbed. Therefore he gets fartherand farther off the track. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:6) 21. If the mind, in playing the role of one's master, is not calm, it will be just like an ever-revolving wheel, 38.turning and moving without stop for a single moment. The mind is affected in ten thousand ways. If39. onedoes not master it, what can be done? Chang T'ien-ch'i40. once said he had vowed that for several years hewould stop thinking as soon as he had gone to bed.41. After one had stopped thinking,42 one would have tosubdue and restrain the mind with special effort and to do so one would have to put the mind into somethingwith physical features.43. All this is unnatural. Chün-shih44. said he knew the trick, and that it was to think ofthe word "Mean." In this case, ____________________ 37. Both Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 4:9a) and Chang Po-hsing ( Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 4:9b) haveascribed this passage to Ch'eng I. Satō Issai has raised doubts about the whole passage. He thinks it isunbecoming for a scholar to be so playful as to count the number of columns apparently for no particularpurpose and that if there was any necessity to count them he would have some subordinate do it. HigashiMasatsumi ( Kinshi roku sankō, p. 756) thinks that the passage sounded like child's play, is obviouslyunauthentic, and should be deleted. 38.
A water wheel operated manually to draw water for irrigation. For descriptions and history, see Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 4:9a-b. Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch., 4) erroneously considers it to be atoy. 39. In the I-shu, 2B:3b, the word "mind" precedes the word "if," making the sentence read, "If the mind doesnot become a master...". 40. The courtesy name of Chang Chien (fl. 1070). He was the younger brother of Chang Tsai. In the early yearsof the Hsi-ning period ( 1068-77) he was a censor-at-large, in which capacity he repeatedly criticized WangAn-shih's reform (see below, ch. 9, n. 55). Later he became a magistrate, and was subsequently appointedsuperintendent of bamboo groves in Feng-hsiang Prefecture in Shensi Province. For his biography seethe I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 6:11a-15a. 41. Not sitting in meditation, as understood by Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 189), InoueTetsujirō ( Kinshi roku, 4:6), Akitzuki Kazutsugu ( Kinshi roku, p. 153), and Katō Jōken ( Gendai goyakukinshi roku, p. 156). 42 The word "after" is omitted from Mao Hsing-lai's text. The clause would then read, "In order to stopthinking," which seems to be more logical. 43. So that it could be controlled like a physical object. Katō Jōken (p. 157), Father Olaf Graf ( Djin-sï lu, II,347), and Akitzuki Kazutsugu (p. 154) all think Chang's words stop here. But as Mao Hsing-lai has stated (Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 4:9b), the last sentence is Ch'eng Hao's comment. Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:2b)clearly says so. 44.
The courtesy name of Ssu-ma Kuang ( 1019-86). One of the most oustanding statesmen and scholars inChinese history, he was successively imperial counselor, lecturer in waiting, academician of the Han-lin[Forest of literature] Academy, and vice-president of the chancellery. He was uncompromisingly opposed tothe reforms of Wang An-shih, and feeling unable to endure them any longer, he retired to live in Lo-yang forfifteen years. But he was eventually recalled to become vice- president of the chancellery. In eight -131he is bound by the Mean. Furthermore, what physical features does the Mean have? Chang T'ien-ch'i wanted to cut off all thought, but then the mind would have had no place on which tobase itself. Ssu-ma Kuang wanted to place the mind in the mean, but then, after all, he would havebeen attached to it. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:7) Chang T'ien-ch'i wanted to control things from the outside so they would not disturb the mind, whileSsu-ma Kuang wanted to hold on to the things inside so the mind would not be disturbed by externalthings. This is what Chu Hsi called arbitrarily cutting off something and stiffly adhering to something.( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 4:9b) What physical features has the Mean? Where can you lay hold of it? The mind is already disturbed,and now this thing is added to it. The Mean cannot be laid hold of here or there. How can Ssu-maKuang lay hold of it? Although Chang T'ien-ch'i grabbed hard, he held something firmly in the mind.Let Ssuma Kuang think of the Mean as he pleased. He only aroused more things in the mind. Thatwas why he could not sleep. Chang T'ien-ch'i arbitrarily cut off something, while Ssu-ma Kuang stifflyadhered to something.... It is like someone with a home, who does not become its master but askssomeone else to do so. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:2a-b) There are men who always seem to have two people in their minds. When one wants to do good, there seems tobe evil to obstruct him, and when he wants to do evil, there seems to be a sense of shame. There are not reallytwo people.
What happens in the mind is a sure evidence of its own conflicts. One must hold the will firm45. sothe vital force cannot disturb him. One can then readily see the evidence.46. Essentially, sages and worthiesnever suffer from such mental defects as these conflicts. This is to say that, if in dealing with things there is the conflict between good and evil, it is becausethe mind is not its own master. If one holds the will firm and is not overcome by the vital force, thenone is firmly the master. What confusion can there be? ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:7) One has only one mind. If there were one mind to subdue and restrict and another mind to besubdued and restricted, there would be two minds. In that case, there would seem to be two people.When one mind wanted to do good, another mind that wanted to do evil would prevent it, and whenone mind wanted to do evil, another mind with a sense of shame would stop it. ( Chang Po-hsing,Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:10b) ____________________ 44. months he abolished most of Wang's reforms. As a writer, he is immortalized in his monumental Tzu-chiht'ung-chien in 324 chapters, which he compiled to present to the emperor. For his biography, and anaccount of his teachings, see the Sung shih, 336:1a-15b, and the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, chs. 7-8. 45. Quoting the Book of Mencius, 2A:2. 46. That the mind can be under control. -13222. MASTER MING-TAO SAID: When I practice calligraphy, I am very serious. My objective is not that thecalligraphy must be good. Rather my practice is the way of moral training.
We must understand what is meant by training here. The purpose is not to write beautiful characters but topreserve the mind and nourish the nature in this very act. Preserving and nourishing must continue at alltimes. Once they are neglected, the Principle of Nature inherent in oneself will be interrupted. Only withseriousness can the mind be preserved and principle retained. This is why he said that it is the way of moraltraining. ( Shih Huang , Wu-tzu chinssu lu fa-ming, 4:9a) 23. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: A sage does not make an attempt to remember things. He cantherefore always remember. People today forget things because they try to remember them. Both inability toremember and roughness in handling things are the results of imperfect and weak nourishment of the mind. Someone asked, "The sage does not attempt to remember things and therefore can always rememberbut people today forget because they try to remember things. Why?" Chu Hsi said, "The sage's mind is vacuous and clear. That is why he can do it. Ordinary people try toremember things but forget them because they are deliberate." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:2b) 24. When Master Ming-tao was in Shan-chou,47. he needed a long piece of lumber to repair a bridge. Hesought it extensively among the population. After that, whenever he went out and saw some good lumber,calculating thoughts rose in him. Therefore he told his students about this and warned them not to haveanything attached to their minds.48. Someone asked, "In everything, one must think before he can understand. Why say that one shouldnot have a thing in his mind?" Chu Hsi answered, "Why shouldn't we think about things? However, when a thing is part of the past,one should not allow it to linger in his mind." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:2b-3a) 25. MASTER I-CH'UAN SAID: There is nothing better than seriousness for entering into the Way. No one hasbeen able to extend knowledge without seriousness.
____________________ 47. Present P'u-yang County, Hopei Province. Ch'eng was a staff supervisor in the regional command there in1070-71. 48. As Utsunomiya Ton'an, quoting Yi Hwang, has pointed out ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 4:10a), the word "have" heremeans "to be attached to." -133Without seriousness one's mind will be beclouded and mixed. Thus principle cannot be understoodand knowledge cannot be extended. ( Yeh Ts'ai , Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 4:8) By holding fast to seriousness one's mind will be clear and can see principle perfectly well. Right andwrong will then not be confused. In this way knowledge can be extended. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssulu chi-chieh, 4:11b) Nowadays people do not calmly master their minds. They regard the mind as an enemy who cannot besubdued. Thus it is not that things impede the mind but that the mind impedes things. We must realize thatthere is not a single thing in the world that should not have been there. We must not hate anything. People today do not preserve their minds with seriousness. Their minds are not calm. They fear thattheir minds will be disturbed by things and complicated by them. They therefore avoid everything,subdue their own minds, and refuse to think. This is to regard the mind as an enemy who cannot besubdued, and to hate external things as an impediment. Are things really an impediment to themind? Rather, people shackle their own minds and put them in the position of uselessness. As aresult, things and affairs in the world are not managed. This is to impede things with the mind. Themind is the master that handles things. All things are already complete in oneself.49. All things,whether big or small and whether refined or coarse, have their selfevident principles. What is thething that should not have been there? If we realized that things are not unnecessary, we should knowhow to handle them.
Why regard them as an impediment and hate them? To hate a thing is not to beserious. This is what is meant by suffering a mental defect. (Ibid.) 26. What man has 50. is nothing but the Principle of Nature. If he cannot preserve it, how can he remain aman? 27. People often cannot be tranquil in their thought because they have not calmly mastered their minds. Theonly way to master one's mind is to let it rest in the thing one is doing, as, when one is a ruler, one abides[rests] in humanity.51. Take, for example, Emperor Shun's execution of the four criminals.52. Theythemselves53. had committed the crimes and Shun therefore executed them. Did Shun have any personalfeeling or selfish desire in the matter ? ____________________ 49. Quoting the Book of Mencius, 7A:4. 50. That distinguishes him from animals. 51. Quoting the Great Learning, ch. 3. 52. See the Book of History, "Canon of Shun"; cf. James Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 40. 53. This word is not to be read as i [already] but as chi [self]. In the I-shu, 15:lb, there is a note saying thatanother edition has t'a (they], meaning "they themselves." -134-
To rest means to rest in the principles of things as they should be, as, in the doctrine taught in theGreat Learning, to be a ruler one should rest in humanity. If in handling things one rests in the rightthing, there will be no trouble with confused or disturbing thoughts. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chichieh,4:8) People cannot rest in the things they are doing because they grab many other things and cannot leave things asthey are. To leave things as they are is to make things serve oneself, but to be a slave to things is to let thingsmake one serve them. "As there are things, there are their specific principles."54. One must rest in the thingone is doing. Specific principles are inherent in things. It is in them that one should rest. To leave things as theyare means to rest where one should rest, that is, to rest in [the principle of] the thing one is doing.When one rests in the thing he is doing, then the way in which he handles the thing will be calm. Whyshould there be any fear that his thoughts will not be tranquil? ( Chang Po-hsing , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:12b) 28. One does not move others simply because he is not perfectly sincere. When one feels wearied or tired whiledoing things, that is a case of lack of sincerity. 29. When one observes the myriad things after one becomes tranquil, they will all naturally show their impulsesof spring. To be tranquil means to be free from the impurities of selfishness or rashness and to be very much athome in preserving the mind and nourishing the nature. Tranquillity involves both activity andinactivity. It means calmness of mind and not absence of activity. ( Sakurada Komon, Kinshi rokutekisetsu, 4:21a) The impulses of spring means the operation of yang [active cosmic force] in the spring, that is, thefeeling of production and reproduction. When one's mind has become tranquil, if one looks at themyriad things, he will find that they all naturally show a flourishing feeling of life which does not stopfor a moment. One will feel identified with humanity, and be full of the feeling of love for life. (Nakamura Tekisai, Kinshi roku shimi kukai, p. 194)
The mind of Heaven and Earth to produce things is revealed at all times and in everything. Whetherthings are big or small, and whether they are refined or coarse, they all naturally reveal this mind.This is called the impulse of spring. The word "spring" does not denote merely the first of the fourseasons. In the midst of excitement of the great transformation of the universe, man's feelings arenumerous and confused and therefore he is unable to realize the mind of Heaven and Earth toproduce things. If he ____________________ 54. Book of Odes, no. 260. -135cultivates himself long enough, concentrated in spirit and calm in thought, and is so tranquil as to beone with the universe, and if he personally realizes the Principle of Nature everywhere, he will see thatall living beings, whether birds, fish, insects, or animals, and all things, whether light blue, dark blue,green, or yellow, and whatever he sees or hears are naturally full of vitality, showing the clearoperation of the Principle of Nature. ( Chang Pohsing , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:12b-13a) 30. When Confucius talked about humanity, he merely said, "When you go abroad, behave to everyone as if youwere receiving a great guest. Employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice."55. But the generalcondition desired is that in which one's mind is broad and one's body at ease, and all one's movements andexpressions are exactly proper according to the rules of propriety and are natural. The way to hold on tohumanity is to be watchful over oneself when alone. Someone said, "The general condition desired can be possible only with effort every day. It isimpossible if one simply goes abroad one day and behaves to everyone as if he were receiving a greatguest or employs people one day as if he were assisting at a great sacrifice."
Chu Hsi said, "But one must start like this before the condition can be possible. The point is simplythat if one can always keep this in mind the condition will be achieved." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,42:6b) Humanity is rooted in the mind, demonstrated through the body, and revealed in movements andexpressions. If there is the slightest selfish desire, the mind will not be broad, the body not at ease,and movements and expressions not in accord with the natural measures of the Principle of Nature.Confucius mentioned going abroad and employing the people to show that essentially this is true ineverything. His idea was to hold on to humanity at all times. But unless one is careful before goingabroad or employing people and is careful in those situations where one's act is only known to himself,one may not be able to hold on to humanity when one is momentarily affected. The only way to holdon to humanity is to be watchful over oneself when alone. ( Chang Pohsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,4:13a) 31. The sage "cultivates himself with seriousness" so as to "give other people security and peace."56. When theruler is "sincere and reverent, the world will be in order and at peace."57. When both the superior and theinferior are reverent and serious, "heaven and earth will naturally attain their proper order and all things willnaturally flourish."58. All material forces will be in harmony and the four super ____________________ 55. Analects, 12:2. 56. Analects, 14:45. 57. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 33. 58. Paraphrasing ibid., ch. 1.
-136natural creatures will arrive.59. This is the way to embody faithfulness and to arrive at harmony.60. Quicknessof apprehension, intelligence, insight, and wisdom all come from this. With this we can serve Heaven and offersacrifices to the Lord on High. To embody faithfulness is to embody sincerity and faithfulness, and to arrive at harmony is to havethe way of harmony operate everywhere. "Quickness of apprehension, intelligence, insight, andwisdom all come from this" means that they come from seriousness. The "this" in "With this we canserve Heaven and offer sacrifices to the Lord on High" refers to seriousness. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,44:28b) To embody faithfulness is concretely to realize this principle in one's own person. To arrive atharmony means that when the feelings are aroused each and all attain due measure and degree, andwhen they are extended to everything in the world, there will be no case in which they are not inaccord. ( Ibid., 27b-28a) Faithfulness is nothing but true principle, and harmony is but the material forces in perfect concord.To embody faithfulness is to achieve the equilibrium before the feelings are aroused, and to arrive atharmony is to achieve the harmony after the feelings are aroused.61. ( Ibid., 28a) To embody faithfulness means not to have an iota of insincerity, and to arrive at harmony means tohave the feelings aroused and to attain due measure and degree so that everything is in its right place.Quickness of apprehension, intelligence, insight, and wisdom all come from it. This is what is meantby "Given sincerity, there will be enlightenment."62. ( Ibid., 27b) Because of the harmony of the material forces in the world, the four supernatural creatures, beinglucky signs, appear in response to it. ( Nakamura Tekisai , Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 195) 32. When one has thoroughly preserved his mind and nourished his nature, if he keeps going calmly, there willbe progress.
33. Do nothing shameful in the recesses of your own house,63. and your mind will be peaceful and your bodywill be at ease. 34. The mind must always be kept inside the body. If there is any crack on the outside, it will run away.64. ____________________ 59. The four supernatural creatures are the phoenix, unicorn, tortoise, and dragon. According to the Book ofRites, when harmony prevails throughout the world, the four supernatural creatures arise. See the Li chi,"The Evolution of Rites" ( SPPY, 7:12a). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, II, 384. 60. Quoting the Li chi, "The Evolution of Rites" ( SPPY, 7:22b); cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 393. 61. For equilibrium and harmony, see the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1. 62. Ibid., ch. 21. 63. See above, ch. 2, n. 215. 64. Here Chu Hsi has assigned the saying to Ch'eng I, but in his Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:17a, he has assigned it to Ch'engHao. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chichieh, 4:14a) has assigned it to Ch'eng I and has separated thesection into two parts. -137-
If one lets his mind go astray, how can he keep it in the body? This is why Mencius emphaticallytaught people to seek the lost mind.65 If one lets his mind go astray all day, his body will be like a boatwithout a pilot. It will drift to the east and then to the west, while the people aboard are unaware of it.I once said that before one reads he must collect his mind in his body. Only then can he read anddiscover moral principles. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:3a) Cracks on the outside refer to the desires of the ears, eyes, mouth, and nose for external things. Whenthat happens, the mind will be lost and will no longer remain in the body. ( Kaibara Ekken, Kinshiroku bikō, 4:12a) Seeing, hearing, speaking, and acting are all cracks. Although there may be cracks outside, it is reallybecause of the neglect of internal effort that the mind runs away. If one holds fast to it and preservesit firmly and completely, so that the mind and the body form a perfect union, how can any crackappear? ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:14b) 35. The human mind must always be lively. Then it will operate everywhere without end and will not beconfined to one corner. Someone asked, "What is meant by being lively?" Chu Hsi answered, "When the mind is free fromselfishness, it can immediately extend itself and operate anywhere. To be lively means not to be dead."( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:3b) 36. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: "Heaven and earth have their fixed positions and yet thesystem of Change operates in them."66. This is nothing but seriousness. With seriousness, there will be nointerruption. Change is the system of natural creation. Confucius' original intention was merely to describe how thesystem of natural creation operates. Master Ch'eng, however, has applied the principle to man. Withseriousness, the moral principle will operate. Without seriousness, it will be interrupted. ( Chu Hsi,Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:3b) Someone asked, "How can Change be characterized as serious?"
Chu Hsi answered, "Master Ch'eng I and others spoke too broadly for people to understand. Withreference to heaven and earth, the operation is a true principle. With reference to man, only withseriousness can the mind in its reality operate without stop. As soon as one's seriousness isinterrupted, there will be no sincerity, and 'without sincerity there will be nothing.'67. That means theoperation will stop." ( Ibid., 4a) ____________________ 65 Book of Mencius, 6A: II. 66. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 7; cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 360. 67. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 25. -13837. "Never lack seriousness."68. One can then "face the Lord on High."69. 38. Seriousness overcomes all evil. 39. "Seriousness is to straighten the internal life and righteousness is to square the external life."70. This ishumanity. If one purposely uses seriousness to straighten his internal life, it will not be straightened, but if oneis "always doing something without expectation,"71. it Will be straight. Someone asked, "Why is seriousness to straighten the internal life and righteousness to square theexternal life humanity?" Chu Hsi answered, "It is humanity, yes. Whenever one can reach the point of completely eliminatinghis selfish desires so that the Principle of Nature will operate, there is humanity." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzuyü-lei, 96:4b)
"Seriousness is to straighten the internal life" means not to have the slightest selfish idea but to havethe mind perfectly clear and completely one in all its aspects. "Righteousness is to square the externallife" means that when one sees right he decides to do it and when he sees wrong he decides not to doit. He is then absolutely square and correct. In this way, selfish desires will be completely eliminated,the Principle of Nature will prevail, and the character of the human mind will be preserved. Thereforeit is called humanity. However, the Book of Changes does not say, "Use seriousness to straighten theinternal life" but instead it says, "Seriousness is to straighten the internal life." For if one purposelyuses seriousness to straighten his internal life, his mind is already partial and is not straight. "Alwaysbe doing something without expectation" means that seriousness is something that should bepracticed and one should not practice it only because he expects certain results. Hence it is calledstraight. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 4:13a) 40. [CH'ENGI] If one cultivates himself, he will attain his unity.72. ____________________ 68. Book of Rites, "Summary of Ceremonies," pt. 1 ( SPPY, 1:1a). Cf Legge, tr., Li Ki. I, 61. 69. Paraphrasing the Book of Odes, no. 266. 70. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 2, k'un [Earth; female]. Cf Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 420. 71. Book of Mencius, 2A:2. Chiao Hsün ( Meng Tzu cheng-i, ch. 3, comment on the Book of Mencius, 2A:2)interprets cheng to mean "to stop." But I follow Chu Hsi, who understands cheng to mean "to expect" or "toanticipate in the
spirit of calculation." (See the Meng Tzu chi-chu , ch. 3, comment on the Book of Mencius,2A:2.) 72. According to the I-shu, 15:1a, this is Ch'eng I's saying. All Chinese commentators and most Japanesecommentators have adopted the interpretation given here. However, it is possible to understand the sayingto read, "Cultivate my oneness." Sakurada Komon ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 4:29a) thinks this interpretationis better. Yanada Katsunobu ( Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shūsetsu, p. 518) understands the term to mean"Myself and principle becoming one," obviously a personal interpretation. -139Unity means being undivided and unmixed. It refers to the original substance of the mind. Ifcultivated, the mind will be tranquil, pure, peaceful, and clear, free from the defects of becloudednessand neglect. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 4:14b) Unity means sincerity and the absence of selfish desires. Without selfish desires, the mind is one, andwith selfish desires, it is divided. The phrase "his unity" means that the human mind is a GreatUltimate, and the Great Ultimate is inherent in oneself. Therefore it is not necessary to grab it fromthe outside. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:15b-16a) 41. [ CH'ENG HAO] Confucius, standing by a stream, said, "It passes on like this, never ceasing day ornight."73. None of the Confucianists from the Han dynasty down has understood the meaning of this. It showsthat the mind of the Sage is characterized by "purity which is also unceasing."74. Purity which is unceasing isthe character of Heaven. He who possesses the character of Heaven is able to practice the kingly way. Theimportant point of all this lies in being watchful over oneself when alone.75. The general idea of the passage is that things in the past have been unceasing just as the operation ofthe universe is unceasing. The Master wanted to warn the student to be similarly unceasing in hiseffort. For the mind of the Sage is
characterized by purity which is unceasing. He could thereforeunderstand all this. ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 36:24b) Things in the universe always pass on because the perfect sincerity of Heaven and Earth is unceasing.Affected by this unceasing process, the mind of the Sage is pure and is unceasingly so. To beunceasingly pure means to be completely identified with the Principle of Nature without anyinterruption by selfish desires. This is the character of Heaven. The kingly way is necessarily based onthe character of Heaven, for the kingly way emphasizes purity, and without purity it will be mixedwith the despotic way. ( Chang Po-hsing , Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 4:16a) Without the character of Heaven, there will be selfish thoughts and calculation. Latter-day people aremostly without the character of Heaven. That is why they cannot practice the kingly way. ( Chu Hsi,Chu Tzu yü-lei, 36:27a) It is desirable that the student examine himself at all times without the slightest interruption. As soonas he stops examining himself, there will be interruption. This is why the important point lies in beingwatchful over oneself when alone, for one is often interrupted when alone. ( Ibid., 27b) ____________________ 73. Analects, 9:16. 74. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 26. 75. In the I-shu, 14:lb, this saying is assigned to Ch'eng I. -14042. "If one does not preserve himself, no advantage will come to him. 76. If one does not establish himself, evenif he intends to do good, he will still be
overcome by material things. One must not allow the myriad things inthe world to disturb him.77. Once one has established himself, he can handle things in the world very well. 78. If one does not establish himself, his mind will not be under control. Even though he does good, he willstill be disturbed by the desire to chase after things. If one can establish himself, he can handle thingsfreely. All things will be at his command. What disturbance will there be? ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:11) If one does not establish himself, he will not be a master. Although he intends to do good, he will gotoward a thing only when he thinks that that thing is good. This is to be overcome by things. ( ChuHsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:5a) 43. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: The trouble of the student is that his thoughts are confused and thathis mind is not calm or tranquil. This is a common defect. He only needs to make up his mind. After that thingswill be all right. Only after one has made up his mind will things be all right. It is like building a house. If there is nofoundation, how can a house be built? ( Kim Changsaeng , Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, in the Sagye sŏnsaengchŏnsŏ, 19:11b) 44. If one is on guard against depravity, sincerity will be preserved.79. One does not seize something calledsincerity outside and preserve it. People today are slaves to evil outside and seek a good within evil to preserve.How can they enter into virtue this way? If one only is on guard against depravity, his sincerity will naturally bepreserved. This is why Mencius said that all goodness of nature comes from within."80. Simply be sincere, andsincerity will be preserved. What more effort does being on guard against depravity require? If one is simply correct in movement andappearance 81. and orderly in thoughts and deliberations, seriousness will naturally grow in him. ____________________ 76.
Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 4, meng [obscure]. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 65. 77. Satō Issai thinks this sentence is hard to understand and punctuates the two sentences to read, "One stillcannot overcome the material things but instead considers the myriad things in the world to be disturbinghim." (See the Kinshi roku rangaisho , ch. 4.) His reading is most artificial. There is no difficulty in the twosentences at all, once one realizes that the last sentence is in the nature of a command. 78. In the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:4b, this passage is ascribed to Ch'eng I. 79. Paraphrasing the Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 410. 80. Book of Mencius, 2A:2, 6A:6. 81. As taught in the Analects, 8:4. -141Seriousness is nothing but concentration on one thing. When one concentrates on one thing, he goes off neitherto the east nor to the west but remains in the center, and he goes off neither to this place nor to that place butremains within. When the originally good mind is preserved, the Principle of Nature will naturally becomeclear to him. The student must cultivate his mind 82. with seriousness while he straightens the internal life. It isfundamental to straighten the internal life. ( Yin T'un83. said, "What appearance has seriousness? If one's body and mind are collected, one will beconcentrating on one thing. For example, when
a person enters a temple or an ancestral hall to show hisreverence, and his mind is collected and not attached to anything in the slightest degree, is that notconcentration on one thing?")84. Asked about concentration on one thing, Chu Hsi said, "When you do a thing, just do it. After youhave done one thing, then do another. Before they finish one thing people today want to do another.Consequently their minds are all confused." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:5a) Concentration on one thing involves both activity and tranquillity. ( Ibid., 5b) 45. If one is on guard against depravity, that of course constitutes [concentration on]85. one thing. But if oneconcentrates on one thing, there will be no need to speak of being on guard against depravity. There are some who think that concentration on one thing is difficult to understand and do not know what todo. Concentration on one thing is nothing but orderliness and graveness. With these the mind will beconcentrated. As it is concentrated, it will naturally not do anything wrong. If one cultivates the mind for a longtime, the Principle of Nature will become clear to him. If one only realizes that depravity is here and is on guard against it, the mind is concentrated.Therefore it is said that being on guard against depravity of course constitutes concentration [of themind]. Since the mind is concentrated, depravity cannot enter. Therefore it is not necessary to be onfurther guard against it. Suppose one knows that tonight there is a thief outside against whom hemust be on guard. He is now alert. Since he is already alert, it is not necessary to say that he mustnow be on guard against the thief. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:5b) ____________________ 82. I, ordinarily meaning "feeling," is here understood as "the mind." 83. His courtesy name was Yen-ming. See above, ch. 2, n. 181.
84. This is Chi Hsi note in the Chinssu lu. For Chu Hsi's comment concerning this note, see the Chu Tzu well-chi, 54:18a. Yin sayings are found in the I-Lo yüanyüan lu, 11:7a-b. 85. This appears is one version of the I-shu. 15:6b. -14246. SOMEONE ASKED: To what does the mind86. adhere before it is acted on? ANSWER: "Hold it fast and you preserve it. Let it go and you lose it. It comes in and goes out at no definitetime and without anyone's knowing its direction."87. How will it look for a place to adhere to? One has only tohold it fast. The way to hold it fast is to straighten the internal life with seriousness. Someone asked about the passage, "How will it look for a place to adhere? One has only to hold itfast." Chu Hsi answered, "It is difficult to say. The difference is very little. One must think the matter overagain and again until one understands. If before the mind is acted on one has also to hold on to thatto which the mind adheres, that would mean there were two things to hold on to. That is why MasterCh'eng said only to hold the mind fast. To hold fast means that the master is present." ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 96:6a) 47. One who is serious is naturally vacuous88. and tranquil. But vacuity and tranquillity cannot be calledseriousness. Master Chou89. considers tranquillity to be fundamental, primarily because he wants people's mindsto be tranquil and calm and he wants people to be their own master. Master Ch'eng, on the otherhand, is afraid that if people merely seek tranquillity they will not have anything to do with things andaffairs. He therefore talks about seriousness. If one is serious, one is naturally vacuous and tranquil. (Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 94:20a)
If one is serious there will be no idle, impure thoughts and one will naturally be vacuous and tranquil.( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:19b) 48. The first concern of the student should of course be with his mind and his will. But some people want todiscard all sensation and consciousness, and that would be to "abandon sageliness and discard wisdom."90.Others want to discard all thought, because they fear that it is confusing and disturbing. Then they would haveto sit in meditation and enter into calmness.91. Suppose here is a clear mirror. It is ____________________ 86. As Mao Hsing-lai has pointed out ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 4:17a), the word chih here does not mean"knowledge" but the "consciousness of the mind." Yi Hwang ( Chŏng Yŏp, Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, 4:10a-b), offersthe extraordinary explanation that chih [to know] means "not to know" in colloquial Chinese. Thus thesentence means that we do not know where to adhere. Kim Changsaeng ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi in the Sagyesŏnsaeng chŏnsŏ, 19:12b) repeats this interpretation. Yi Hwang is right, however, that in the originalsource, the Ishu, 15:7a, there is the word ju following the word chih; but this does not affect the meaning ofthe sentence, since ho and ju-ho both mean "how." 87. Book of Mencius, 6A:8. 88. Absolutely pure and peaceful, and not disturbed by incoming impressions. 89. Chou Lien-hsi. See above, ch. 1, sec. 1. 90. Lao Tzu, ch. 19. 91.
As Zen Buddhists do. -143its normal nature to reflect all things. It is difficult not to have it reflect them. Similarly, the human mindcannot but interact with the myriad things, and it is difficult not to have it engaged in thinking. If one wants toavoid confusion and disturbance, his mind must have a master. What can be its master? Seriousness andseriousness only. With a master, the mind will be vacuous and if it is vacuous92. depravity cannot enter into it.Without a master, the mind will be filled. To be filled means that external things will seize it. If one's mind lacks a master, depravity from outside will come in to fill it. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,96:6b) Generally speaking, one's mind cannot be devoted to two things. When it is devoted to one thing, other thingscannot come in, for that thing will be its master. If a thing is its master it is free from the trouble of confusedand disturbing thought. How much more so if seriousness is the master! Seriousness means concentration onone thing, and concentration on one thing means not to get away from it. Now let us ponder deeply themeaning of concentration on one thing. If not concentrated, the mind will become divided. As to not daring tobe deceitful, or disrespectful, and "not doing anything shameful in the recesses of one's own house."93. all theseare matters of seriousness. Not to get away from a thing means not to leave it. For example, when you sit here, just sit here anddon't think of going outside. When you stand in front of the door, don't think of going to anotherplace. ( Ibid., 7b) Not to be deceitful concerns the internal life. Not to be disrespectful concerns the external life. Andnot to do anything shameful in the recesses of one's own house concerns both the internal andexternal life. ( Mao Hsing- lai , Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 4:18b) 49. "To be grave and austere"94. is not the way to be serious, but in order to achieve seriousness one must startwith this.
Seriousness exists inside, whereas gravity and austerity are expressed outside. However, no one canbe serious in his mind while he is careless and easy-going in his appearance. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu luchi-chieh, 4:14) 50. Shun diligently practiced virtue.95. How can one practice virtue before coming into contact with things? Byholding on to seriousness ____________________ 92. See above, n. 88. 93. Book of Odes, no. 256. 94. Book of Rites, "Meaning of Sacrifices" ( SPPY, 14:8b). Cf Legge, tr., Li Ki, 11, 216. 95. Book of Mencius, 7A:25. Mencius said those who rise at cockcrow and diligently practice virtue are in thecompany of Emperor Shun. -144as fundamental; this is already the practice of virtue. From this point of view, the way of the sage does notmean to be silent and no more.96. There is no interruption in the operation of the Principle of Nature, and there is also no interruptionin the sage's determination to practice virtue. Although one has not yet come into contact with things,if one is alert and firmly regards seriousness as fundamental so that the Principle of Nature operatesin his mind, that is diligence. To be earnest without interruption is to practice virtue. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:21 a) 51. QUESTION: When one is at leisure, is it all right for his body to be negligent if his mind is not slack?
ANSWER: Is there anyone who sits like a basket97. whose mind is not slack? Lü Ta-lin98. came from Kou-shih99. in the middle of June. I peeped at him when he was at leisure and found that he was always sittingformally with dignity. He was earnest and sincere indeed. A student must be respectful and serious but shouldnot be rigid. If rigid, the respect and seriousness will not last long. 52. QUESTION: Although one has many thoughts and deliberations, if they arise in connection with properthings, are they not harmless? ANSWER: For example, regarding respect as fundamental when one is in ancestral temples, regarding gravityas fundamental when one is in court, and regarding sternness as fundamental when one is in the army are suchcases as you have described. But if thoughts arise at an inappropriate time, are confused, and lack propermeasure and degree, they are evil even if they arise in connection with proper things. 53. SU CHI-MING100. ASKED: Is it all right to seek equilibrium before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow,and joy are aroused? ANSWER: No. To think of seeking it before the feelings of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are aroused is, afterall, a thought, and thought is an aroused state. (Thought is the same as pleasure, anger, sorrow, ____________________ 100. Pupil (fl.1093) of the Ch'eng brothers, who first studied under Chang Tsai. His private name was Ping. Hebecame a professor of the national university and an official but was eventually banished to South Chinabecause his recommendations offended those in power. For his biography and teachings, see the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 9:1a-2b; the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 31:llb-12a; and the Sung shih, 428:3a. 96. There is moral effort even in tranquillity.
97. Sitting with legs spread out and hands resting on them, thus looking like a basket. 98. See above, ch. 2, n. 138. 99. A former county in the present Yen-shih County area, Honan Province. -145and joy.)101. As soon as it is aroused, the state may be described as harmony but not as equilibrium.102. FURTHER QUESTION: Academician Lü103. said that one should seek in the state before the feelings arearoused. What do you think? ANSWER: If it means to preserve and nourish oneself before the feelings are aroused, that is all right. But if itmeans to seek equilibrium in the state before the feelings are aroused, that is incorrect. FURTHER QUESTION: A student should of course exert effort to discipline himself as the feelings are aroused.How should he apply his effort before the feelings are aroused? ANSWER: How can we seek anything before the feelings are aroused? The only thing to do is to cultivateoneself every day. After a sufficient period of time, the feelings will naturally attain due measure and degreewhen they are aroused. QUESTION: At the moment of equilibrium, is it true that the ear hears nothing and the eye sees nothing? ANSWER: Although the ear hears nothing and the eye sees nothing, nevertheless the principle of hearing andseeing must be already there before hearing and seeing are possible. Suppose you, sir, describe the condition oftranquillity.
Although the ear hears nothing and the eye sees nothing, there must always be the master inside tocontrol them before they can see or hear nothing. It is not that they are always let alone or that theyare by nature empty and silent. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:9a-b) SU PING SAID: One cannot say that there is anything.104. But naturally one is conscious of something. THE TEACHER SAID: Since there is consciousness, there is activity. How can it be said to be tranquillity?When people explain the sentence. "In the fu hexagram we see the mind of Heaven and ____________________ 101. Original note in the I-shu, 18:14b. 102. Pak I-gon ( Kŭnsarok sŏgaŭi, 4:7a) says that there must be some mistake in the recorded saying for,according to the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1, only when the feelings are aroused and each and every feelingattains due measure and degree can the state be described as harmony. He is technically correct. But Ch'engI was contrasting the states before and after the feelings are aroused, rather than the various degrees towhich the feelings are aroused. 103. Lü Ta-lin. See above, ch. 2, n. 138. 104. Chu Hsi thinks ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:9a) that "there's nothing" in the text should read "there is something."As Mao Hsing-lai has pointed out ( Chinssu lu chi-chu, 4:21b), in the Ts'ui-yen (1:6a) the text does read"there is something." Yanada Katsunobu's interpretation ( Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shōsetsu, p. 541) isright. 105.
Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 24, fu [to return]. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 233. -146Earth,"105 they all say that in the state of perfect tranquillity we can see the mind of Heaven and Earth.106. Thisis wrong. The line at the bottom of the hexagram fu indicates activity.107. How can we say that it istranquillity? The state before the feelings are aroused does not mean a state completely dark without anyawareness. How can that be said to be tranquil? However, although consciousness is active, this doesnot gainsay the fact that it can remain unaroused. But pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy are different. (Ibid., 10a) SOMEONE ASKED: Then perhaps we should seek tranquillity in activity. Is that right? ANSWER: That is all right, but it is most difficult to do. Buddhists most often talk about calmness. The Sage,however, talked about resting or abiding, as in the teaching, "As a ruler, one should abide in humanity. As aminister, one should abide in reverence."108. The hexagram ken in the Book of Changes explains the meaningof stopping or resting. It says, "Resting in one's resting point is resting in one's proper place."109. Most peopleare unable to rest. For all things are complete in man. When things happen, one's mind is successively arousedin accordance with the things it considers to be important. When it considers a particular thing as important,it is aroused as a result of that thing. If one can leave things as they are, one's mind will naturally not bearoused. All things are complete in man. If he is impartial and responds to things as they come and does soproperly, he will be resting in his proper place. If he is partial, his inclinations will be affected bythings. This is why most people are unable to rest. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 2:22a) SOMEONE ASKED: Sir, do you think the state before the feelings are aroused is active or tranquil?
ANSWER: It is all right to describe it as tranquil, but there must be something in it. This is where the difficultycomes in. It is best that the student first hold fast to seriousness.110. If he is serious, he will understand all this. Someone asked, "If something is in the state of tranquillity, does this mean that the state embodiesthe principle of pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy although the feelings have not been expressed ?" ____________________ 106. This is the theory of Wang Pi, in his commentary on the hexagram. 107. See above, sec. 2. 108. Great Learning, ch. 3. 109. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 52, ken [to stop]. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 256. 110. As Yanada Katsunobu has noted ( Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shōsetsu, p. 544), although interpretations ofli-hui vary, here it means "to hold fast to." -147Chu Hsi answered, "The feelings result when the mind is affected, like reflections in a mirror. Beforethe mirror reflects things, how can there be any reflection?" Question: "In that case, is the thing in the state of tranquillity like the light in the mirror?"
Answer: "You are nearly correct. But it is only something similar to it. The thing in tranquillity isnothing but consciousness, that is all." Question: "But Ch'eng I said that as soon as there is consciousness, there is activity." Answer: "In saying this, he went too far. If we say that we are conscious of this or that, as in knowingcold or warmth, that is to be conscious of something. But when there is no consciousness of anythingbut only consciousness, what harm is done to the state of tranquillity? To sit in meditation does notmean to go to sleep." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:10b- 11a) Question: "When Master Ch'eng said that there must be something in the state of tranquillity, is thatthe same as what you may mean by the consciousness not being beclouded?" Answer: "It merely means that in the state of tranquillity principle is there and that the mind is not alump like something dead." ( Ibid., 11a) "There must be something" means that there must be a master to hold fast the mind so it will notsuffer the defects of emptiness or becloudedness. But one must not overdo it. This is where thedifficulty comes in. ( Chang Pohsing , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:25b) The difficulty is the difficulty of understanding. ( Sawada Takeoka, Kinshi roku setsuryaku, 4:29b) SOMEONE ASKED: How does one make an effort to be serious? ANSWER: There is nothing better than concentrating on one thing. CHI-MING SAID: I often suffer from unsettled thoughts. Before one thing is over, other things appear in greatconfusion. What can be done? ANSWER: This is no good. Fundamentally this is due to insincerity. You must practice. When you practice tothe point of being able to concentrate on one thing, you will be all right. Whether in thought or in the handlingof affairs, we must seek concentration.
54. One can judge by his sleep whether his learning is profound or shallow. If in his sleep or dreams he isrestless, it means his mind is not settled and his effort to preserve his mind is not firm. 55. QUESTION: When one's mind is attached to something that is good and he dreams about it, is that notharmless? ANSWER: Although the thing is good, nevertheless the mind is -148aroused. There is no harm if one dreams of something which is an omen. Otherwise, the mind is arousederroneously. Omens refer to fortune and misfortune. When they are revealed in dreams, it means that the mind isacting according to the principle of influence and response. There is no harm in this. But if onedreams for no particular reason, it is all due to the mind's erroneous activity. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu luchi-chieh 4:18) One's mind must be calm. It should think only when it is directed to do so. But people today let their mindsoperate without direction. QUESTION: Who directs the mind? ANSWER: When the mind directs the mind, it is all right. To let the mind operate without direction is to loseit. "Is it not a defect to say that the mind directs the mind?" Chu Hsi answered, "No defect. The idea is that the mind must have a master." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:12a) When one holds fast to the mind, it will remain within him. If one loses it and does not know where tofind it, it will drift as it pleases. To have the mind direct the mind is not to have two minds. It merelymeans that the mind as substance directs the mind as function. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,4:18) 56. "Hold the will firm and never do violence to the vital force."111. This is a mutual nourishment of the internal and the external life.
Asked about the difference between the will and the vital force, Chu Hsi said, "Let us talk aboutgladness and anger. Here is a thing. We should examine it to see whether it should make us glad orangry. If it is proper for us to be glad, then we should be glad, and if it is proper for us to be angry,then we should be angry. This is to hold the will firm. But if we are excessively glad and continue to beso or excessively angry and continue to be so, our vital force will become violent. This is to do violenceto the vital force." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 52:7b-sa) In the work of nourishing the vital force, both the internal and the external life must be mutuallycultivated to the limit. Do not rely on holding the will and think that everything will be all right. If thevital force is not peaceful, the will will not be at ease. ( Ibid., 8a) To hold the will firm is to hold fast internally, and not to do violence to the vital force is not to bereckless externally. As one holds fast internally, one's vital force will be completely preserved, and asone is not reckless externally, one's will will become stronger. Therefore the internal and the externallife mutually nourish each other. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:18) ____________________ 111. Book of Mencius, 2A:2. For vital force (ch'i), see below, p. 360. -14957. QUESTION: Does the saying, "Express in words and tones,"112. not mean that we should make an effort atour speech? ANSWER: We must cultivate ourselves internally. Then our speech will naturally be in accord with principle.However, we should make an effort to be careful in speech and not to express ourselves erroneously. 58. The Teacher said to Chang I,113."My physical endowment was very slight. By the time I was thirty, it hadgradually become stronger. It was not fully developed until I was forty or fifty. I am now seventy- two.Compared to what I was during my prime, my tendons and bones are not any weaker."
Chang I said, "Is it not true that because your endowment was slight you have taken great care of yourself?" The Teacher remained silent for some time and then said, "To me to neglect one's life and submit to selfishdesires is a great shame." 59. Generally speaking, if one cannot calmly hold on to his mind, it is entirely because of his lack of humanity. The man of humanity is completely identified with the Principle of Nature. His mind is preserved andnot lost. It is not necessary for him to exert special effort to hold it and it is naturally at ease whereverit rests and remains calm. If one fails to hold on to it calmly, this shows that principle cannotovercome his desires and that his mind has been seized by material things. Therefore Master Ch'engconsiders the failure to be due to the absence of humanity. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,4:28a) 60. MASTER I-CH'UAN SAID: The extension of knowledge depends on nourishing our knowing faculty, and tonourish our knowing faculty there is nothing better than having few desires. 61. When one's mind is calm, his words are careful and leisurely. When one's mind is not calm, his words areflippant and rash. 62. MASTER MING-TAO [ CH'ENG HAO] SAID: Man has 404 troubles,' 114. none of which is under hiscontrol. As to the mind, it must be made to come under one's own control. ____________________ 112. Analects, 8:4. 113. See above, ch. 2, n. 175. 114.
According to the Buddhists, each of the Four Elements of the universe, Earth, Water, Fire, and Wind, hasone hundred troubles. These, plus the four elements, make 404. -15063. Hsieh Hsien-tao115. was with Master Ming-tao in Fu-kou.116. One day Ming-tao told him, "You peopleaccompany me here and only learn the way to talk. Therefore in your learning your minds and words do notcorrespond. Why not practice?" When he was asked what to practice, he said, "Suppose you sit in meditation.Whenever I-ch'uan saw people sit in meditation, he praised them as skillful in learning." One day Ch'eng Hao said, "You gentlemen here only learn my words. Why not earnestly practice?" Thegentlemen said, "We have nothing to practice." Ch'eng Hao said, "When there is nothing to put intopractice, go and sit in meditation. For while sitting in meditation, we can cultivate our original mindand become calm to some degree. Although we are still not free from chasing after material things,when we come to an awakening, we can collect and concentrate our mind and then there will be asolution" ( Chu Hsi , Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:12a-b) 64. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [ CHANG TSAI] SAID: In the beginning of learning, the important thing to know isthe difference between having nothing in one's mind contrary to humanity for three months and doing so for aday or a month at the most,117. the one being internal and comparable to the host, while the other is externaland comparable to the guest. We must exert our mind and will earnestly and gradually to the point where wecannot stop even if we wanted to. Anything beyond this does not depend on us. Not to have anything contrary to humanity means that humanity is inside the person and is the hostor master. But it is not entirely at home and sometimes leaves him. To achieve humanity for a day ora month means that humanity is outside of the person and is a guest. Although it sometimes comesin, it does not stay long. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 31:8b)
What is beyond the ability to have for three months nothing contrary to humanity is a quality belonging to onewho is great and completely transformed so that he is humanity itself. It is not something to be achieved witheffort. Therefore it is said that it does not depend on us. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 4:19) 65. One's mind is seldom clear but most of the time is confused. When it is clear, one's vision is clear and hishearing intelligent, and his ____________________ 115. See above, ch. 2, n. 85. 116. A county located in modern Honan Province. Ch'eng Hao was the magistrate of Fu-kou from 1078 to 1080. 117. Analects, 6:5. Confucius said that for three months his pupil Yen Hui had nothing in his mind contrary tohumanity, whereas others could achieve this state only for a day or a month. -151four limbs are naturally respectful and careful without any rigid control. The opposite is true when the mind isconfused. Why is this? It is because in the exercise of the mind one is not yet masterful so that there are manywandering thoughts and few unwavering thoughts. As long as one has not gotten rid of the mind formed byhabits and customs, the mind in its genuine aspect will not be complete. Someone asked, "Is there any difference between wandering thoughts and the mind formed by habitsand customs?" Chu Hsi answered, "There is a difference. Wandering thoughts are vague and drifting, while the mindformed by habits and customs is the mind in which
habits and influences of the past are dominant.The mind in its genuine aspect is the mind of moral principles." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:24a) One must also be strong. If too weak, he is likely to be unable to establish himself. There are those who bynature are neither glad nor angry. They must also be strong. When one is strong, he will firmly hold on to hisposition without yielding and advance toward the Way with courage. Compared to others, I am in fact morecourageous.118. 66. Making fun either in action or in words is harmful to what we are doing. Our will will also be dissipated byour vital force. Not to make fun is a way to control the vital force. 67. When one starts to rectify his mind, he should regard his own mind as a stern teacher. Then he will becautious in all his actions. If he can firmly hold on to this for a year or two, his mind will naturally be rectified. 68. One's mind becomes brilliant and intelligent only after it is calm. If it changes all the time and is not calm,where can brilliance and intelligence be found? Generally, the Book of Changes considers the hexagram ken [tostop]119. as expressing the principle of resting. If one rests properly, one becomes brilliant and intelligent.Therefore in the Great Learning it is said that only after being calm can one [be tranquil, have peaceful repose,and finally] deliberate.120. If one's mind is unsettled, there is no way by which it can be brilliant or intelligent. ____________________ 118. In some editions, this section is separated into two. In some of these cases, sees. 54 and 55 are combined inorder to maintain the same number (70) of sections in the chapter. 119. Hexagram no. 52. See next section. 120.
The text of the Great Learning. -152Brilliance and intelligence result if the mind is tranquil and calm. Still water can reflect, but runningwater cannot. The principle is the same. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 4:20) 69. "When one's actions and resting all take place at the proper time, his way of procedure is brilliant andintelligent."121. The student must time his actions and resting properly and then his way will not be becloudedbut clear and brilliant. People today study for a long time and do not seem to achieve any progress. This isprecisely because they do not know when to act or to rest. When one sees others fuss around [he follows them]although what they do has nothing to do with him. As a result his study is neglected. From the point of view ofthe doctrine of the Sage, he will simply continue like this to the end of his life. Can that be called brilliant orintelligent? 70. Earnestness, sincerity, vacuity, and tranquillity are the foundation of humanity.122. Not to be flippant orfaulty means to be earnest and sincere. When the mind is not obstructed or obscured, it will be vacuous andtranquil. It is difficult to understand humanity suddenly. In order to understand it, one must cultivate the Wayfor a long time and practice it concretely, and only then can he appreciate the meaning of humanity. Forhumanity must be well cultivated. ____________________ 121. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 52, ken. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 256. 122. Meaning the foundation of the practice of humanity, according to Mao Hsinglai , Chin-ssu lu chi-chu,4:27b. -153-
V: CORRECTING MISTAKES, IMPROVING ONESELF, SELF-DISCIPLINE, AND RETURNING TO PROPRIETY YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: On Self-discipline. 41 sections. In this chapter the effort topractice what one has learned is discussed. Having clearly investigated principles and having deeplypreserved one's mind and richly nourished one's nature, one is about to extend one's understandingand cultivation into personal practice. At this point one should devote the utmost effort to self-discipline. 1. MASTER LIEN-HSI [CHOU TUN-I] SAID: "The superior man is active and vigilant and is unceasing in hissincerity." But he must "restrain his wrath and repress his desires,""move toward good," and "correct hismistakes"1. before he can achieve his objective.2. Among the functions of ch'ien [Heaven] none is better than toachieve this,3. and the greatness of sun [decrease] and i [increase] does not go beyond this. The thought of theSage is deep indeed!4. "Good fortune, evil fortune, occasion for repentance, and reason for regret all arise fromactivity."5. Alas! Good fortune is only one out of four. Should we not be careful about activity? 2. MASTER LIEN-HSI SAID: Mencius said, "For nourishing the mind there is nothing better than to have fewdesires."6. I say that to nourish the mind one should not stop at having few desires and preserving his mind.One should have fewer and fewer desires until there is none. Without desires, sincerity will be established andintelligence ____________________ 1. These quotations are from the Book of Changes, commentaries on hexagrams no. 1 (ch'ien), no. 41 (sun),and no. 42 (i). Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, pp. 410, 317, and 319, respectively. To restrain and to repressare activities of decreasing, characteristic of the hexagram sun, and to move and to correct are activities ofincreasing, characteristic of the hexagram i.
2. The state of sincerity. 3. Read ch'i [that] as mo [none], according to Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 94:44a. 4. Confucius, author of the quotation, uses the ideas of the three hexagrams to teach people how to achievesincerity. 5. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 1. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 380. 6. Book of Mencius, 7B:35. -154will be penetrating. One whose sincerity is established is a worthy, and one whose intelligence is penetrating isa sage. Chou Lien-hsi said that one should have fewer and fewer desires until there is none, for he was afraidthat people thought it was enough to have few desires. Therefore he said that it is not enough only tohave few desires but one must get to the point of having no desire at all. But the task of having nodesire depends on one's ability to have few desires. No one but the sage can reach the point of havingno desire. Question: "What about the word 'desire'?" Answer: "Its meaning varies. Having few desires refers to those desires that are improper, such asselfish desires. As to the desire for food when hungry and the desire for drink when thirsty, how canone be without them? But they must also be proper." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 94:45a)
The word "establish" is light. It merely means something like establishing one's character at thirty.The word "intelligence" refers to one's understanding, as in knowing the mandate of Heaven [at fifty]and greater achievements.7. (Ibid.) 3. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: When Yen Yüan asked about the details of disciplining oneself andreturning to propriety, the Master said, "Do not look at what is contrary to propriety, do not listen to what iscontrary to propriety, do not speak what is contrary to propriety, and do not make any movement which iscontrary to propriety."8. These four things are functions of the body. What comes from within has its responseoutside. To control the external is to nourish the internal. "What comes from within has its response outside" means that looking, listening, speaking, andmovement all proceed from the mind. "To control the external is to nourish the internal" means theeffort to overcome any selfish desires in them. The first sentence explains the principle and the secondthe task. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 41:19a) Yen Yüan said, "May I put your saying into practice?"9. This is why his virtue advanced toward the state of thesage. The later generations who want to learn to be sages should always keep this in mind and not forget it. Ihave therefore written the following admonitions to caution myself: Admonition on Seeing: The mind is originally vacuous. It responds to things without leaving any observable trace. ____________________ 7. Referring to Confucius. See the Analects, 2:4. 8. Analects, 12: 1.
9. Ibid. -155There are essentials in controlling it, The foremost of which is the regulation of its seeing. If obscurations of selfish desires multiply before one's eyes, One's mind will be lured away. Control its external activities So its internal state will be secured. Discipline yourself and return to propriety. After a long time, you will be sincere. Admonition on Hearing: The normal nature which man possesses Is originally the nature endowed by Heaven. If one is tempted by the knowledge of external things and is overcome by material desires, He will lose the good nature he has received. Eminent are those who are the first to understand. They know on what to rest and are calm.10. Guard against depravity and preserve sincerity.11. Do not listen to what is contrary to propriety. Admonition on Speech: The activities of the human mind
Are expressed through words. If in one's expression he allows no rashness or falsehood, He will be tranquil and concentrated within. More especially, words are a turning point That can lead to hostility or amity.12. Good and evil fortune, and glory and shame, Are all invited by them. When they are defective by being light-hearted, they will be heedless. And when they are defective by being too many, they will be fragmentary. To lose control of oneself is to violate the principle of things. What one does to others will be done to him. ____________________ 10. Referring to the text of the Great Learning. 11. Referring to the Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven; male]. Cf. Legge, tr., YiKing, p. 410. 12. In the Book of History, "Counsels of the Great Yü," it is said, "It is the mouth which sends forth what isgood or gives rise to war." See Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 63. -156-
Do not say anything contrary to propriety. Respectfully obey the injunction of the Sage.
Admonition on Action:
Wise men know the subtle, incipient, activating force of things And therefore are sincere in their thoughts. Resolute scholars exert themselves in their actions And hold fast to [their minds] in whatever they do. He who follows principles will enjoy peace and abundance. He who follows desires will be in danger. Do not forget this for a moment. Conduct yourself with apprehension and caution. If one's cultivation matches one's originally good nature, In the end he will be the same as the sages and worthies.
4. The text of the lowest, undivided line of the fu [to return] hexagram says, "It shows its subject returning after not having gone very far and there is no occasion for repentance. There will be great fortune."13.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "Yang is the way of the superior man. Therefore to return means to return to the good. The first line in the hexagram means to return at the earliest opportunity, and that is to return before having gone very far. One must have lost his way before he returns. Unless one has lost his way, how can there be any return to speak of? If he
returns when he has not strayed too far, he will not get to the point of requiring repentance. Hence there will be good fortune.
" Yen Tzu avoided mistakes before they appeared, and Confucius praised him as being near the Way,14. for he never got to the point of requiring repentance. Since he avoided mistakes before they appeared, how could he repent? But since he was unable to 'hit upon what is right without effort,'15. or to 'follow his heart's desires without transgressing moral principles,'16. this means he made mistakes. But he was intelligent and strong. Therefore, whenever he did anything wrong.
____________________ 13. Book of Changes, commentary on fu. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 108. This Yang or positive line, which is undivided, is below the five Yin or passive lines, which are divided, and thus means that Yang is beginning to return.
14. Ibid., "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 392. 15. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 20. 16. Analects, 2:4. -157he never failed to realize it. Having realized it, he never failed to correct it right away.17. Thus he never reached the point requiring repentance. This is to return after not having gone very far. The way of learning is none other than to change one's ways immediately and follow the good as soon as one realizes that one has done something wrong."
5. The text of the topmost, undivided line of the hexagram chin [forwardness] says, "The topmost line shows one advancing his horns. But he uses them only to punish the rebellious people of his own city. The action is severe but there will be good fortune and no error. Nevertheless it is deficient in the way of correctness."18.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "In governing oneself, the stronger one is, the more firmly will he adhere to the Way, and the farther he advances, the more quickly will he reform and do good. If one applies the characteristics of the topmost line to govern oneself, although he suffers from being severe, there will be good fortune and no error. Although severity is not the way of peace and harmony, it is effective for governing oneself. However, although it is effective in governing oneself, the fact remains that it is not a virtue of equilibrium and harmony. Therefore it is deficient in the way of correctness."
6. The meaning of the hexagram sun [decrease]19. is to reduce mistakes so as to abide in the Mean and to reduce what is superficial and secondary so as to abide in the substantial and the fundamental. All the harm in the world comes from the superiority of the secondary. Lofty buildings and richly ornamented walls20. grow out of houses for shelter.21. Pools of wine and forests of meat grow out of daily drink and food. Harshness and ruthlessness grow out of the proper punishment of criminals. And the excessive use of troops to prolong war grows out of legitimate expeditions. All human desires grow out of nourishing and sustaining life. But when these fundamental needs are carried too far, they are harmful. When ancient kings regulated our fundamental needs, they did so according to the Principle of Nature, but when
____________________ 17. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, p. 392.
18. Ibid., commentary on hexagram no. 35, chin. Cf. Legge, p. 132. The topmost line I's a yang line, strong and advancing.
19.Hexagram no. 41. 20.Which are superficial and secondary. 21.Which are essential and fundamental. -158people of later generations succumb to things that are secondary, it is because of their selfish desires. The meaning of the hexagram sun is to reduce selfish desires and to return to the Principle of Nature, that is all.
7. The text of the commentary on the fifth, undivided line of the hexagram kuai [to break through] says, "The line shows [inferior men like] a bed of purslane,22. which ought to be uprooted with the utmost determination. The action of [the subject of the line having such determination] is in harmony with his central position, which leads to no error."23. Its commentary says, "If his action is in harmony with his central position, there will be no error. But his standing in the due Mean is not yet clearly displayed."24.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "Only when one has rectified his mind and made his will sincere can he practice the principle of the Mean and correctness to the highest degree, so that his goodness is abundant and brilliantly displayed. In the fifth line [yang] the subject wants to be intimate with something undesirable [yin] but decides to avoid it only because moral principles prohibit it. Although in his external action he does not violate the principle of the Mean and correctness and is therefore free from error,
nevertheless he cannot be said to be brilliant or great in the practice of the principle of the Mean. For as soon as the human mind has any selfish desire, it departs from the Way. In teaching people by means of this hexagram, Confucius has a very deep purpose indeed."
8. The meaning of the hexagram chieh [restraint]25. is that just as one is pleased, one stops.
The chieh hexagram consists of the trigram tui [pleasure] at the bottom and the trigram k'an [pit] at the top. Pleasure is delight and a pit is symbolic of danger. In view of danger, one should stop.
____________________ 22.Whether this refers to one plant or two different plants is a moot point. See Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 72:25b, and Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 5:7b. 23. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 43. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 153. 24. Ibid., commentary on the fifth line. Cf. Legge, tr., pp. 320-21. In this hexagram the fifth line from the bottom, being yang and in the dominant position, is correct, but it is attracted to the sixth line, which is yin and divided and would lead to error. There should be the determination to get rid of this attraction. Purslane takes a long time to dry up, because it is full of yin.
In the text this whole paragraph appears before the last sentence of the section, with the word "Therefore" preceding "in teaching people Most editions use the present arrangement.
25.Chieh is the 60th hexagram in the Book of Changes. See Legge, tr., pp. 19798, 262, 342-43. -159When one is pleased, one is easily lured away. The meaning of the hexagram chieh is that as soon asone is pleased, one should stop. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:6) Because of pleasure, there is a tendency to go forward. But as there is danger ahead, it is impossible todo so. Therefore the hexagram has the meaning of stopping or restraint. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,73:22a) 9. The second, undivided line from the bottom of the hexagram chieh indicates that the restraint isincorrect.26. Restraint should be characterized by the correctness of the Mean that is strong. Restraining anger,suppressing selfish desires, and reducing excess are cases in point. Stinginess, which is restraint inexpenditure, and timidity, which is restraint in action, are cases of incorrect restraint. 10. Only the man of humanity can be free from aggressiveness, pride, resentment, and greed. He who has thesedefects but is able to suppress them and does not practice them may be said to have done what is difficult, buthe cannot be called a man of humanity. When Yüan Hsien27. asked him about this, Confucius answered andsaid that the man had done what was difficult but that he did not know whether it was to be regarded ashumanity. This is the profound way in which the Sage enlightened and taught people. To master oneself is like capturing a thief in the house. If one kills the thief, there will be no moretrouble. But if one has aggressiveness, pride, resentment, and greed and merely suppresses them sothat they cannot be expressed, it is
like locking up the thief in the house so that he cannot go out tocommit any crime. After all, he is still hidden there. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 44:3b) 11. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: Moral principles and passions caused by an external28.stimulus always try to overcome each other. The difference between a superior man and an inferior man ____________________ 26. The line is a yang line, undivided, and is therefore strong. But it occupies the second position, which isweak. Therefore it is incorrect. 27. Confucius' pupil. See the Analects, 14:2. This section is practically a paraphrase of Confucius' answer. 28. K'o-ch'i, literally "material force in the capacity of a guest." Interpretations differ. To Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 5:9a) it is blood and vital force, which are not the original condition of man's mind ornature. Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 5:10a) thinks it is the human mind which is liable tomistakes as against the moral mind which is refined. To Sakurada Komon ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 5:23a) itis the force of carelessness, rashness, pride, and neglect. According to Sawada Takeoka ( Kinshi rokusetsuryaku, 5:9b) it denotes desires for food, clothing, etc., which come from the outside, like a guest.Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 233), Akitzuki Kazutsugu ( Kinshi roku, p. 186), and InoueTetsujlrō ( Kinshi roku, 5:7) all interpret it as selfish desires which are not original with human nature butare like visiting guests. -160depends on the degree to which moral principles and passions caused by an external stimulus increase ordecrease. If moral principles reach a higher degree, we naturally know that passions are being dissipated andare gradually
being reduced. When they have been completely dissipated, one becomes a great worthy. Moral principles are original with one's nature and destiny, while passions caused by an externalstimulus arise from one's physical form and material force. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:7) 12. [ CH'ENG I] Someone remarked, "All people know [the excellence of] peacefulness, softness, gentleness, andliberality, but when things happen, they become abrupt and harsh." The Teacher said, "This is because one's will does not overcome the vital force, but, on the contrary, the vitalforce disturbs the mind."29. When one is unable to hold the will firm, the vital force will operate, and he will therefore often beabrupt and harsh. On the other hand, if one is able to hold the will firm, he will not be overcome bythe vital force. When things happen, he will naturally be at ease. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu,5:4a) 13. [ CH'ENG I] People cannot get rid of deliberative thoughts merely because they are not willing to part withthem, and therefore lack strong, moving power.30. Deliberative thoughts are selfish ideas and cunning that are cumulative. They cannot be discardedbecause the mind is attached to them and is not willing to part with them. Therefore one lacks strong,moving power. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 5:4a) 14. [ CH'ENG HAO] It is difficult to control anger. It is also difficult to control fear. If one masters himself, hecan control his anger, and if he understands principle, he can control his fear. Someone asked, "I often have fear. How can I get rid of it?" Chu Hsi answered, "You must make your own effort and see whether a thing should be feared or not.In the I-shu, it is said, 'It is difficult to control anger. It is also difficult to control fear. If one mastershimself, he can control his anger, and if he understands principle, he can control his fear.' If accordingto
principle one sees clearly, what fear is there?" ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 120:3b) ____________________ 29. According to the I-shu, 17:3b, this is Ch'eng I's saying. 30. For "strong, moving power," see the Book of Mencius, 2A:2. According to the I-shu, 15:2a, this is Ch'eng I'ssaying. -16115. In explaining the saying, "Stones in the yonder hills can polish jade,"31.Yao-fu32. said, "Jade is a gentle andsmooth thing. If two pieces of jade are used to polish each other, neither will be polished. It is necessary to get ahard and rough thing to polish them. Take the case of a superior man associating with an inferior man. As theinferior man encroaches upon him, he will cultivate and examine himself, become cautious toward the inferiorman and avoid him, stimulate his own mind and harden his nature, improve himself in order to prevent anyfuture trouble33.. Then the principle of the saying will become clear."34. 16. Some of us are afraid of sharp things. This situation cannot be allowed to go on. We must overcome thisfear. Always35. place sharp things in the room. We must overcome this fear with reason. Sharp things do notnecessarily pierce people. Why be afraid? Someone was afraid of sharp things. Ch'eng Hao taught him always to put sharp things in his room.After he had grown used to seeing them, he would not be afraid any more. All efforts at self-masteryshould follow the same pattern. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:8) The trouble of imagination is generally like this. Sharp things do not pierce people by themselves.There was something wrong with someone's eyes and he
thought sharp things were coming to piercehim. Ch'eng I talked about this matter in greater detail elsewhere.36. Someone had trouble with his eyes and was always seeing a lion. Ch'eng I taught him to try to catchthe lion whenever it appeared. So that person always tried to catch it. He tried again and again butcaught nothing. From then on he saw the lion no more. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:12b) 17. MASTER MING-TAO SAID: How can a person who criticizes the mistakes of his superiors and inferiors butexcuses himself be qualified to do what his position and lot require him to do?37. ____________________ 31. Book of Odes, no. 185. 32. Courtesy name of Shao Yung. For him, see above, p. xxxii. 33. Book of Mencius, 6B:15. 34. Shao Yung's comments are not found in any of his works. Ch'eng Hao probably heard from him personally.According to both Mao Hsing-lai ( Chz'n- ssu lu chi-chu, 5:9b) and Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chichieh,5:10a), the comments are Shao Yung's quoted by Ch'eng Hao. It is interesting to note that in the wholeChin-ssu lu this is the only place where Shao Yung is quoted and that this section contains his words only. 35. The word shuai has been understood by many Japanese commentators and all Japanese translators tomean "generally" or "all." This has been followed by Father Olaf Graf, Djin si lu, II, 411. But, as Chang Po-hsing has pointed out ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:10b), Yeh Ts'ai understands it to mean "always.
36. Referring to the following story in the Wai-shu, 11:4b. 37. Higashi Masatsumi ( Kinshi roku sankō, p. 770) has suggested that Ch'eng Hao had his political opponent,Wang An-shih (see below, ch. 9, n. 55), in mind. -16218. It is most difficult to give up one's own way to follow that of others.38. The self is one's own. Even if onesacrifices it with bitter resolution, I am afraid he still holds on to himself firmly and follows others only lightly. 19. The nine virtues are excellent.39. 20. When hungry we eat and when thirsty we drink. In the winter we wear fur and in the summer, linen.40. Ifwe attach the slightest element of greed to these things, we will be failing in the duties prescribed by Heaven. Someone asked, "Why are to eat when hungry, to drink when thirsty, to wear fur in the winter, and towear linen in the summer called duties prescribed by Heaven?" Chu Hsi answered, "Heaven teaches us to behave this way. When hungry we eat and when thirsty wedrink. We follow our natural desires. But it is wrong to let these desires go to extremes. Heaven hastaught us only to eat when hungry and drink when thirsty. When has Heaven taught us to satisfy ourdesires for food and drink to the extreme?" ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:13a) 21. Once I said that I no longer loved to hunt. Chou Mao-shu [Chou Tun-i] said, "Why lightly say so? The desireis merely suppressed and not aroused. Once stimulated, it will be active as before." Twelve years later, when Isaw someone hunt, I realized that in fact I had not given up the desire for hunting. ( Master Ming-tao loved tohunt when he was sixteen and seventeen. Twelve years later, when he returned home toward the end of the yearand saw some people hunting in the country, he was delighted, without realizing it.)41.
22. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: Generally speaking, because man possesses a body, he is selfish. Nowonder it is difficult for him to be completely identified with the Way. ____________________ 38. As did Emperor Shun. See the Book of Mencius, 2A:8. 39. According to the Book of History, "Counsels of Kao-yao," the nine virtues are: affability combined withdignity, mildness combined with firmness, bluntness combined with respectfulness, aptness for governmentcombined with seriousness, docility combined with boldness, straightforwardness combined withgentleness, easiness combined with integrity, strength combined with sincerity, and valor combined withrighteousness. See James Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 71. 40. Paraphrasing Han Ya, "Yüan- tao," Han Ch'ang-li ch'üan-chi, 11:3b. 41. Original note in the I-shu, 7:1a. -16323. One should criticize one's own mistakes but should not retain the sense of guilt in the mind forever. 24. To have selfish desires does not mean that we need to be submerged in desires. Merely to have the intentionis already desire. 25. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: Tzu-lu42. may well be said to be a teacher for a hundredgenerations. (When people told him about his mistake, he was delighted.)43.
26. [ CH'ENG I] QUESTION: When people talk too fast, is that not due to nervousness?44. ANSWER: This is also something that requires practice. When one practices until one naturally speaks slowly,his physical nature45. Will be transformed. One's learning becomes effective only when one's physical naturehas been transformed.46. 27. QUESTION, "What is the meaning of Yen Hui's not transferring his anger and not repeating his mistake?47. In the Recorded Conversations there is your theory that when one is angered at a person, he should nottransfer that anger to another person. Is the theory correct?"48. Master I-ch'uan said, "Yes." "That is very easy. Why should Yen Tzu alone do it?" "Simply because the idea is crudely expressed in the Recorded Conversations you gentlemen say that it is easyto do. But is it not really most difficult? One must understand why one should not transfer his anger. Take thecase of Shun's execution of the four criminals. The fact of anger stems from the four criminals. Did Shun haveany personal feeling or selfish desire in the matter?49. The anger comes from ____________________ 42. Confucius' pupil, 542-480 B.C., whose family name was Chung and private name, Yu. He was noted forcourage. 43. Original note in I-shu, 3:6b. The note is a quotation from the Book of Mencius, 2A:8. 44. Literally, the vital force's not being calm. 45.
In the Confucian tradition, basic nature is good, whereas physical nature may or may not be good. It isphysical nature that leads to imbalance and evil. 46. According to the I-shu, 18:7a, this is Ch'eng I's saying. 47. Analects, 6:2. 48. The saying is no longer extant. It was probably a comment on the passage in the Analects, 6:2, but it is nolonger found in the Ching shuo, 6:6a-8a, which contains Ch'eng's comments on book 6 of the Analects. ChuHsi repeats the theory in his commentary on the Analects, 6:2 ( Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 3). 49. See above, ch. 4, sec. 27. -164the fact that those people committed acts for which there should have been anger. Fundamentally there is noanger in the sage's mind. It is like a bright mirror. When a good thing comes, it reflects it as good, and when anevil thing comes, it reflects it as evil. When has the mirror either like or dislike? There are of course people inthe world who, when angry with their families, show their anger in the market place.50. But suppose one isangry at a certain person. When he speaks to that person, can he refrain from showing his anger in his face?Some people can be angry at one person but not at another. When one can control himself to this degree, hehas already understood moral principles very well. As to the sage, he acts in accordance with things and has noanger at all. Is this not most difficult? The superior man makes things serve him, but the inferior man is a slaveto things. Nowadays when people51. see something that is an occasion for joy or anger, they throw in theirshare to help it along. What toil this is! But the mind of the sage is like still water."
28. One's first act is to see. If one looks at what is contrary to propriety, then, as the saying goes, whenever heopens his eye, he makes a mistake. Hearing comes next, then speaking, and then movement,52. in their propersequence. If one can master himself, his mind will be broad and his heart generous, and his body will becomebig and be at ease. Looking up, he will have no occasion for shame before Heaven, and, below, he will have nooccasion to blush before men. We can understand how happy he will be. But if he interrupts his selfmastery fora moment, he will starve.53. 29. The sage demands very much from his influence on others and very little from other people's response tohim. Between oneself and others, as there is influence, there is response. But first one must have aninfluence on others before they can respond to him. If one merely demands that others respond to himand makes no demand on himself as to the way in which he influences others, he will be consideringwhat is fundamental to be unimportant and expecting much from what is secondary. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:14a-b) ____________________ 50. Tso chuan, Duke Chao, 19th. See James Legge, tr., Ch'un Ts'ew, with the Tso Chuen, p. 674. 51. This word appears in the I-shu, 18:22a. 52. Cf. above, sec. 3. 53. His moral nature will be in want. -165-
30. After scholar Hsieh54. had not seen I-ch'uan for a year, he went to see him. I-ch'uan asked, "We have notseen each other for a year. What have you accomplished?" Hsieh replied, "I only got rid of bragging." "Why?" "As I went over the matter carefully, I found that all troubles came from it. One can make progress only after hehas suppressed this defect." I-ch'uan nodded. Thereupon he told like-minded friends in the room, "In his learning this man inquiresearnestly and reflects on what is at hand."55. 31. Ssu-shu56. was scolding a servant. I-ch'uan said, "Why don't you stimulate your mind and harden yournature?"57. Ssu-shu was ashamed and thanked him. If one stimulates his mind and hardens his nature, he will be regarding moral principles asfundamental. The ignorance of servants will be excused and one's own inconvenience will beoverlooked. One will realize that there are many things in the world to disturb us and that we will notenjoy complete physical comfort as we desire it. One's mind will be calm and his anger will disappear.( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:15a) 32. [ CH'ENG HAO] "When we see a worthy, we should think of becoming his equal."58. He who exerts himselfwill become such a person.59."When we see an unworthy man, we should inwardly examine ourselves."60. Foreverything is in us.61. By "Everything is in us" is meant that as we turn to examine ourselves we shall find that the evil thatis in others is also in us. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 5:6b) 33. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TASI] SAID: Stillness and purity characterize the original state of materialforce. Attack and seizure characterize it when it becomes desires [upon contact with things]. The relationbetween the mouth and the stomach on the one hand and food on the
other, and between the nose and tongueon the one hand and smell and taste on the other, are all cases of physical nature's attacking ____________________ 54. Hsieh Liang-tso. See above, ch. 2, n. 85. 55. Quoting the Analects, 19:6. 56. See above, ch. 2, n. 175. 57. Book of Mencius, 6B:15. 58. Analects, 4:17. 59. Quoting the Book of Mencius, 3A:1. 60. Analects, 4:17. 61. According to the Wai-shu, 2:1b, this is Ch'eng Hao's utterance. -166and seizing. He who understands virtue will have a sufficient amount, that is all. He will not allow sensualdesires to be a burden to his mind, the small to injure the great, or the secondary to destroy the fundamental.
Stillness and purity means that before material force comes into contact with things it is still andpure. This is the original state of material force. To attack and seize is like the eye's desire for colorand the ear's desire for sound. These are desires of material force. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:24a) 34. If one removes even the slightest evil, goodness will become his nature. If he fails to detect evil completely,although his nature is good, it will become impure. 35. Because one hates inhumanity, he will never fail to realize it whenever he does anything wrong.62. But if onemerely loves humanity but does not hate inhumanity,63. he will be acting without understanding and doing sohabitually without examination.64. One who hates inhumanity will examine himself very carefully, and if he does anything wrong, he willsurely know it. If he merely knows that one should love humanity but not that one should hateinhumanity, he will perhaps not be able to examine his habitual deeds or understand his own action.Although he has the desire to love humanity, in the end he will fall into inhumanity without realizingit. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:12) Therefore, merely to do good does not necessarily mean to fulfill righteousness and merely to be correct doesnot mean to fulfill humanity. Only when one loves humanity and hates inhumanity can the principles ofhumanity and righteousness be fulfilled. 36.Those who want to be responsible should realize that not all the people in the world can be wrong. Whenone's learning reaches the point of not blaming others, it is perfect. 37. When one's mind, although deeply devoted to the Way, is suddenly distracted by other thoughts, that isbecause of material force.65. If ____________________ 62. Quoting the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 392.
63. Loving humanity and hating inhumanity are taught in the Analects, 4:6. 64. Quoting the Book of Mencius, 7A:5. 65. Working against the Principle of Nature which is inherent in man. -167one is bound by old habits and cannot free oneself from them, it is after all no good, for then one will merelytake delight in those old habits. The ancients desired to have friends, musical instruments,66. and books, andalways kept their minds in them. The Sage alone knew that one derives the most benefit from friends. He wastherefore delighted when friends came.67. The benefit of friends is that they study and learn together and urge each other to do good. Thefunction of lutes is to harmonize one's feelings. And books impart knowledge about the words anddeeds of past sages and worthies. If one is engaged with these day and night, his mind will benourished and the desire which one often harbors to abandon one's mind or to do evil will never arise.Of the three, friendship is the most beneficial. Therefore one should be delighted when friends comefrom afar. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:13) 38. Correct the fault of flippancy and be cautious against laziness. Being flippant, one cannot be serious and earnest in self-cultivation, and being lazy, one cannot stirhimself to action and achievement. These are two great defects in the way of learning. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 5:16b) 39. "It has long been difficult for humanity to be fulfilled. All men err in what they love."68. For everyone hasselfish desires which are directly contrary to learning. Therefore the student must have few desires. 40. The superior man does not have to avoid the words of others, considering them as too soft or too weak.69.There is a proper measure in looking. One can
look up or down. When one looks up, he feels superior, and whenhe looks down, his heart becomes mild. That was why in looking at the ruler of a state one should not tookabove or below the belt around his waist.70. The student must first of all get rid of his ____________________ 66. Specifically, seven-stringed and twenty-five-stringed lutes. 67. Comment on the Analects, 1:1, in which Confucius remarked that it is a great delight to have friends comefrom afar. 68. Book of Rites, "Record of Example" (SPPY, 17:4a). Cf. James Legge, tr., Li Ki, II, 335. 69. All Japanese translators have taken the sentence to mean avoiding the criticisms of others and purposelyacting in a soft and weak way. This is contrary to the whole theme of the section, which is advice againststrong, rash action, Chang Po-hsing is correct in commenting that "the words of others should bestrengthened" ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 5:18a) and Shih Huang is correct in saying that "the superior manshould not avoid the words of others as too soft or too weak and become snobbish and proud" ( Wu-tzuchin-ssu lu fa-ming, 5:17b). 70. Book of Rites, "Summary of Ceremonies" (SPPY, 1:9a). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 118. -168-
passions caused by an external stimulus.71. If one is too strong in his action, he will not be willing to improvehimself. "How imposing is the manner of Chang.72. It is difficult to practice humanity with him."73. One always uses his eyes and one's mind can be seen in them. Try to look up or down. Whether one is respectfulor proud is bound to be seen in the way he looks. The reason why we want to look down is to make our mindsmild. If our minds are mild, when we hear other people's words we will be respectful and believe in them. We want friends not for pleasure or comfort but to assist us in the practice of humanity. Nowadays whenpeople make friends they choose to associate with those who know well how to be submissive. They walkshoulder to shoulder and hold hands, believing they feel as one person. But if one word goes wrong, theybecome angry at each other. It is desirable that friends be humble toward each other and never get tired ofdoing so. Therefore, if friends who regard reverence as fundamental intimately associate with each other everyday, good results will soon be achieved. Confucius once said, "I observe that he [a youth in a village] occupies the seat [of a grown-up] and walksshoulder to shoulder with the elders [instead of following them]. He is not seeking improvement but wants toaccomplish [adulthood] quickly."74. This being the case, the student must first of all be mild and gentle. Beingmild and gentle, he can advance in learning. The Book of Odes says, Mildness and reverence Are the foundation of virtue.75. For there is much advantage in them. 41. Since the training of children is neglected today, people from childhood on are proud, lazy, and spoiled. Asthey grow up, they become even more wicked. Because they have never performed the duties of younger people,they consider their parents as separated from them and refuse to submit to them. The root
of this trouble isalways present. It will grow according to circumstances and will remain ____________________ 71. K'o-ch'i, literally "material force in the capacity of a guest." Here it specifically means "pride." See above, n.28. 72. Tzu-chang ( 503-c. 450 B.C.), Confucius' pupil. 73. Analects, 19:16. 74. Analects, 14:47. 75. Ode no. 256. -169unchanged until their death. As young people they will not be happy with sweeping the floor and answeringquestions. As friends they cannot be humble toward their associates. As government officials they cannot bowto other officials. And as prime ministers they cannot bow to men of virtue in the world. In extreme cases theywill follow their selfish desires, and all moral principles will be destroyed. All this because the root of the troubleis not removed and will grow according to the place one lives in and the people he associates with. One mustget rid of this trouble in everything. Then moral principles will always win. -170VI: THE WAY TO REGULATE
THE FAMILY YEH TS' AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: The Way of the Family. 22 sections. In this chapter the way to regulate the family is discussed. As one has achieved self-discipline, he can apply the effort to the family and it can thereby be regulated.
1. MASTIER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: The duty of young people is to study literature and the arts when they have any energy to spare after the performance of moral duties.1. If they do not perform their duties, and study literature2. and art first, their learning is not for their own improvement.
2. Mencius said, "It will be all right to serve one's parents as Tseng Tzu served his."3. Mencius never considered Tseng Tzu's filial piety to be excessive. For whatever a son can personally do should be done.
3. "In dealing with the troubles caused by one's mother, one should not be too firm."4. In dealing with his mother, the son should help her with mildness and gentleness so she will be in accord with righteousness. If he disobeys her and the matter fails, it will be his fault.
Is there not a way to obey with ease? If one goes forward with his strength and abruptly resists or defies her, the kindness and love
____________________ 1.Paraphrasing the Analects, 1:6. 2.According to Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 6:1), wen here means "poetry, history, the Six Arts." The phrase does not mean the Book of Odes, the Book of History, and the Six Arts (ceremonies, music, archery, carriage
driving, writing, and mathematics), as understood by him, Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 6:1a), Yanada Katsunobu ( Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shōsetsu, p. 622), Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 251), Father Graf ( Djin-sï lu, III, 355), and others, but the Six Classics including the Book of Odes and the Book of History, as understood by Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 6:1a). See above, Introduction, n. 8. 3.According to the Book of Mencius, 4A:19, Tseng Tzu always served his father with wine and meat. If any was left, he would ask to whom it should be given. If his father asked if there was any more, he would always answer, "There is." The point is that he always wanted to carry out his father's will. 4. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 18, ku [trouble]. The lower trigram is sun [yielding], symbolic of obedience. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 95.
-171between mother and son will be hurt. That will be great harm indeed. How can he get into her heart andchange her? The way lies in going backward, bending his will to obey, and following his mother so that herpersonal life will be correct and matters well managed. The way for strong ministers to serve weak rulers issimilar to this. 4. The third, undivided line from the bottom of the hexagram ku [trouble] is a yang line. It occupies theposition of strength but deviates from the Mean.5. This is the mistake of excessive strength, and therefore theremay be some small occasions for repentance.6. However, it is in the body of the trigram sun [yielding] andthere is obedience after all. To obey is the foundation of serving parents. Furthermore, its position is correct.7.Therefore there will not be any great error. However, if there are small occasions for repentance, it shows thatone is not skillful in serving parents.
This is to say that in dealing with the troubles caused by one's father one should not be too strong butshould also regard obedience as fundamental. Obedience is the foundation of serving parents. Thethird line is too strong and deviates from the Mean, and is therefore not free from the defects ofresistance and defiance. But its body sun is correct, and... can compensate for its deviation from theMean. Thus it is mistaken and yet it is not. Although there will be small occasions for repentancethere will be no great error. But those who are skillful in serving parents will be soft in their voice andsubmissive in their spirit, happy and gentle in appearance, and without the slightest feeling ofdefiance. If one is too strong and has small occasions for repentance, he is not excellent in serving hisparents. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 6:3a) 5. To be correct in human relations and to be earnest in ties of affection are the ways to regulate the family. Someone asked, "If we want to be correct in human relations, ties of affection may be hurt, and if wewant to be earnest in ties of affection, they may deviate from human relations. What can be done?" Chu Hsi answered, "Earnestness in ties of affection must be realized within correct human relations.When people are earnest in ties of affection, ____________________ 5. The third line from the bottom is a position of strength but here it is part of the trigram sun, which issymbolic of weakness. 6. The third, undivided line from the bottom of the hexagram indicates the son dealing in strength with thetroubles caused by his father, and the text of the hexagram says that there may be some small occasions forrepentance, but there will not be any great error. 7.
Since a strong line occupies a strong position. -172they are all right if they do not err in human relations." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 72:18a)
6. In family relationships, parents and children usually overcome correct principles with affection and supplant righteousness with kindness. Only strong and resolute people can avoid sacrificing correct principles for the sake of personal affection. Therefore in the hexagram chia-jen [family],8. essentially speaking, strength is considered good.
7. The text of the topmost, undivided line of the hexagram chia-jen [family] says that in regulating the family, there must be sternness. In addition, Confucius warns us that we must first of all be stern with ourselves.9. If one does not apply sternness first to himself, people will complain and will not submit.
8. The text of the second lowest, undivided line of the kuei-mei [marriage of a maiden] hexagram10. says that correctness and tranquillity should be maintained.11. This principle is not out of accord with the normal and correct relationship between husband and wife. People today consider indecent liberties and improper intimacies as normal and therefore consider correctness and tranquillity as abnormal, without realizing that these are the normal and lasting ways of the relationship between husband and wife.
Tranquillity and correctness are the ways to enable husband and wife to live together for a long time, whereas indecent liberties and improper intimacies result in disrespect and cause husband and wife to drift apart. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 6:3)
9. Most people today are careful in choosing sons-in-law but careless in selecting daughters-in-law. Actually the character of sons-in-law is easy to see but that of daughters-in-law is difficult to know. The choice of a daughter-inlaw is very important. Why should it be neglected?
Male persons are usually outside the home. Their character can easily be seen in their speech and their dealing with others. Female persons confine themselves to their own private quarters. It is difficult to know their character.
____________________ 10. The 54th hexagram, kneimei, in the Book of Changes.
11.Cf. Legge, tr., p. 182. 8. The 37th hexagram chiajen, in the Book of Changes.
9.In his comment on the line. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, pp. 138 and 313. -173Furthermore, taking a daughter-in-law in marriage is to continue the family line. Some ancientpeople predicted whether a family would prosper or decline on the basis of the virtuous or viciouscharacter of the daughter-in-law. The
matter is of utmost importance. Should the choice beneglected? ( Chang Pohsing , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 6:4a) 10. When one's parents have passed away, he should be doubly sorrowful on his birthday. How can he have theheart to give a banquet and amuse himself with musical entertainment? If both parents are still living, that willbe all right. From the day a child is born, parents go through a period of hardship in bringing him up. If theparents are gone, the anniversary should be the day on which the son remembers them very keenlyand is sorrowful that they are gone. How can one have the heart to give a banquet with elaboratemusical entertainment for guests in order to gain happiness for himself? If both parents are stillliving, it is perhaps all right to take advantage of the day to amuse them and to make them happy. (Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 6:4a) 11. QUESTION: In the "Biographical Account"12. it is said that "fully developing one's nature until one's destinyis fulfilled is necessarily based on filial piety and brotherly respect."13. How can filial piety and brotherlyrespect fully develop one's nature until his destiny is fulfilled? ANSWER: Later generations have considered nature and destiny as separate from filial piety and brotherlyrespect, but they form only one system. Fully developing one's nature until destiny is fulfilled can be achieved inthe very acts of filial piety and brotherly respect. Nature is what man has received from Heaven and destiny is what Heaven has endowed him with.When these are demonstrated in human affairs, they become the way to serve parents and follow theelder brother, and are called filial piety and brotherly respect. They all form one system. To practicefilial piety and brotherly respect to the fullest extent is to develop nature fully until destiny is fulfilled.( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 6:4b) Even sweeping the floor and answering questions belong to the same system as fully developing nature untildestiny is fulfilled. They are not distinguished as fundamental or secondary, or as refined or coarse. But latergenerations who
talk about nature and destiny have treated them as something different, high above andremote from daily life. ____________________ 12. The "Biographical Account" of Ch'eng Hao, written by Ch'eng I, in the Ich'uan wen-chi, 7:1a-7a. 13. I-ch'uan wen-chi, 7:6a. Ch'eng I is expressing Ch'eng Hao's idea. -174Hence filial piety and brotherly respect were mentioned in order to explain the system by means of what isclose to daily life. Sweeping the floor and answering questions are coarse and simple things, but in principle they formthe same system as fully developing nature until destiny is fulfilled. Although nature and destiny arefundamental while sweeping and answering are secondary, the fundamental is embodied in thesecondary and the secondary penetrates through the fundamental. They are not sharply distinguishedas fundamental and secondary. Although nature and destiny are refined while sweeping andanswering are coarse, the refined must be revealed in the coarse and the coarse is transmittedthrough the refined. They are not sharply distinguished as the refined and the coarse. ( Ibid., 5a) It is not that today there are no people who practice filial piety or brotherly respect. The reason why they havefailed to develop their nature fully until their destiny is fulfilled is that they practice filial piety and brotherlyrespect without understanding them. 12. QUESTION: Ti-wu Lun14. had a different attitude toward his son's sickness from that toward his nephew'ssickness, and he confessed that it was selfishness.15. Why? ANSWER: It does not matter whether he slept peacefully or not. The fact that he did not get up in one case butgot up ten times in the other shows selfishness.
Love between father and son is essentially a matter ofimpartiality. To attach any personal idea to it is selfish. We do not know the facts in Ti-wu Lun's case. If his brother's son was sick and was not attended to, ifhe got up ten times he was not selfish. And if his own son was sick but was attended to, even if he didnot get up he was not selfish. We do not know the situation today. Master Ch'eng was using the caseto discuss general principles, rather than Ti-wu himself. ( Satō Issai, Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 6) If one is concerned with his son's sickness, why not get up to see him? Ti-wu Lun did not because hewas afraid that others would criticize him as selfish. He was equally concerned with his nephew'ssickness. Why did he have to get up ten times? He did so because he wanted to show his impartiality.This fear of criticism and this attempt to show impartiality are selfish desires. The love betweenfather and son is an ultimate of human relations ____________________ 14. The courtesy name of Ti-wu (fl. 76-88) was Po-yü. He was a prefect and later, during the reign of EmperorChang (r. 76-88), minister of public works. He died in his eighties. For his biography see the Hou-Han shu,71:1a-9a. 15. According to the Hou-Han shu, 71:9a, someone asked Ti-wu Lun if he had any selfishness. He answered,"Once my brother's son was sick. I got up ten times during the night to see him. Then I retired and sleptpeacefully. When my son was sick, although I did not get up to see him, I could not sleep at all during thenight. Can this be called unselfishness?" -175and the Principle of Nature. To attach the slightest personal idea to it and to manipulate things isselfish and is out of accord with the impartiality of one who is completely identified with the Principleof Nature. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,. 6:5b)
FURTHER QUESTION: Should there be any difference between one's treatment of his own son and histreatment of his brother's son? ANSWER: When the Sage instituted social regulations, he said, "The sons of brothers are the same."16. Thatmeans one should treat his brother's son as his own. FURTHER QUESTION: By nature one attaches more importance to his own son and less importance to hisbrother's son. It seems there should be some difference. Is that right? ANSWER: It seems so because people today look at the matter from the selfish point of view. Confucius said,"The relation between father and son is rooted in nature."17. This was said only in relation to filial piety andtherefore he said that the relation between father and son is rooted in nature. But are the relations betweenruler and minister, elder and younger brothers, guest and host, and friends not rooted in nature also? Simplybecause people today take these relations too lightly they have not traced their source and therefore they thinkthere should be a difference. How much difference is there between one's own son and his brother's son? Theyare both the offspring of one's parents. Brothers are called hand and foot simply because they have separatebodies. Because of this fact, most people love their own sons differently from their brother's sons. This is a greatmistake. FURTHER QUESTION: Confucius regarded Kung-yeh Ch'ang as inferior to Nan Yung and therefore gave hisbrother's daughter to Nan Yung in marriage and his own daughter to Kung-yeh Ch'ang.18. Why? ANSWER: This is to judge the Sage by one's own selfish mind. Anyone who avoids suspicion is internallydeficient.19. The Sage was perfectly impartial. Why should he have to avoid suspicion? In giving one's daughterin marriage, one seeks a match according to her qualifications. If, as we may suppose, one's brother's daughteris not very beautiful, one must select a young man of corresponding quality to match her, and if one's owndaughter is beautiful, he must select a ____________________
16. Book of Rites, "T'an-kung," pt. 1 ( SPPY, 2:16b). Cf. James Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 147. 17. Book of Filial Piety, ch. 9. 18. Both were Confucius' pupils. See the Analects, 5:1. 19. Having failed to understand and practice moral principles, he is therefore afraid of criticism. -176young man of good talents to match her. Why should one avoid any suspicion? In the case of Confucius, it mayhave been that the ages of the daughters and the pupils did not match or that the marriages took place atdifferent times. We do not know any of these facts. To think that Confucius did what he did in order to avoidsuspicion is greatly mistaken. Even a worthy does not do things in order to avoid suspicion. How much lessdoes a sage!20. When Master Ch'eng referred to the difference in age and the difference in dates of marriage, he didso as one way of answering someone's question. It does not mean that these were the actual facts.Probably both pupils were good enough men to be entrusted with the daughters. Perhaps he sawKung-yeh Ch'ang first and gave his own daughter in marriage, and later saw that Nan Yung was also agood man and gave his brother's daughter in marriage to him. Judging from Master Ch'eng'sexplanation, perhaps Confucius' daughter, being older, was married first and his brother's daughterlater. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 28:1b) 13. QUESTION: According to principle, it seems that one should not marry a widow. What do you think?
ANSWER: Correct. Marriage is a match. If one takes someone who has lost her integrity to be his own match, itmeans he himself has lost his integrity. FURTHER QUESTION: In some cases the widows are all alone, poor, and with no one to depend on. May theyremarry? ANSWER: This theory has come about only because people of later generations are afraid of starving to death.But to starve to death is a very small matter. To lose one's integrity, however, is a very serious matter.21 A married woman should follow only one husband throughout her life. To marry again is to loseintegrity. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 6:5-6) The injunction not to marry a widow is intended for a superior man. How can an inferior man of thestreet be expected not to do so? Some people think that Master Ch'eng's words are extreme, but theyare not. They express only a common principle. If a woman sacrifices her integrity because of fear ofhunger, how different is she from the minister who surrenders to the enemy because of fear of battle?When a widow remarries, she is ashamed. If one does a thing knowing it to be shameful, what else willhe not do? ( Wang Fu, Tu Chin-ssu lu, p. 35a) ____________________ 20. Chu Hsi questioned whether this section should be included in the book. See below, "On the Chin-ssu lu andIts Commentaries," p. 324. 21 In his Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh (6:7b), Chang Po-hsing has substituted for this section another passage fromthe I-shu, 18:45a, on loving one's brothers. He has -17714. [ CH'ENG HAO] To leave parents or children who are sick in bed to a quack doctor is tantamount to havingno parental affection or filial piety. In serving parents, one should know something about medicine.22.
15. [ CH'ENG I] At his father's funeral, Master Ch'eng asked Chou Kungshu23. to take charge of receiving theguests. A guest wanted wine. When Kung-shu told the Teacher, the Teacher said, "Do not lead people to dowrong."24. According to ceremony, neither wine nor meat should be served at a funeral. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 6:7a) 16. In most cases employing a wet-nurse25. is unavoidable. If the mother is unable to feed her child, someonemust be employed. However, it is wrong to kill another mother's child as a result of feeding one's own child.26.If a wetnurse is absolutely necessary, employ two so that the milk for two babies can be used to feed three. Inthat case, any eventuality can be taken care of. If one of the wetnurses becomes sick or even dies, there will beno harm to one's own child and one will not be killing another person's child as a result of feeding one's own.The only thing is that it is expensive to employ two. [But if only one is employed and she dies] and somethingshould happen to her child, what greater harm can there be? Unavoidable cases are those like the mother's being too old or sick. People today unnecessarily employwet-nurses. They are definitely wrong. ( Mao Hsing-lai , Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 6:7b) ____________________ 21 given no explanation for the substitution. Since Ch'eng I's doctrine that a widow should starve to deathrather than remarry is too radical even for conservative Confucianists, there is no doubt that Chang Po-hsing thought It wise to delete this objectionable section. In their attacks on traditional Confucianism,twentieth- century intellectual rebels and social reformers have seized upon this doctrine of Ch'eng I's astypical of the ruthless Confucian suppression of women. 22. According to the Wai-shu, 12:7a, this Is Ch'eng Hao's saying.
23. The courtesy name of Chou Hsing-ch' (fl. 1090). He was a pupil of the Ch'eng brothers and a "presentedscholar' of 1086. He later served as a collator In the imperial library. For accounts of him, see the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 14:5a-b, and the Sung- Yüan hsüeh-an, 32:1a-2a. 24. For Chu Hsi 's thanks to Lü Tsu-ch'ien for advice on the selection of this section, see below, "The Chin-ssu luand Its Commentaries," p. 235. 25. She was not a servant as Nakamura Tekisai thinks ( Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 261) and the word "buy"does not really mean to "purchase both the wetnurse and her child" as Katō Jōken thinks ( Gendai goyakukinshi roku, p. 217). It merely means to employ. 26. Assuming that the wet-nurse had only enough milk for her employer's child and therefore neglected her ownchild. -17817. My late father27. was a chief officer of the first rank.28. His private name was Hsiang and his courtesy namePo-wen [1006-90]. Over the years he obtained five hereditary positions due an official's son and gave them todescendants of his brothers. When he gave orphaned girls in the community in marriage, he always did hisbest. He gave away his official remuneration to support poor relatives. His brother's wife, whose maiden namewas Liu, became a widow, and he supported and took care of her wholeheartedly. When her son-in-law died, hewelcomed my cousin, supported and provided her son with an education, and treated him like his own son andnephew. Later, when my cousin's own daughter also became a widow, fearing that my cousin was deeplygrieved, he took the widowed daughter home and gave her in marriage. At that time his official position wasminor and his remuneration
slight. He denied himself in order to be charitable to others. People felt that he didwhat was difficult for others to do. Someone asked, "Taking the widowed grandniece home and giving her in marriage seems tocontradict the teaching that a widow should not remarry. How about it?" Chu Hsi answered, "Generally speaking, that should be the case. But people cannot follow thatabsolutely." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:13a) Father was kindhearted and altruistic but at the same time firm and decisive. In his daily associations with theyoung and the lowly, he was always careful lest he hurt them. But if they violated any moral principle, he wouldnot give in. Not a day passed when he did not inquire whether those who served him were adequately fed andclothed. He married Miss Hou.29. My mother was known for filial piety and respectfulness in serving her parents-in-law.She and father treated each other with full respect as guests are treated. Grateful for her help at home, fathertreated her with even greater reverence. But mother conducted herself with humility and obedience. Even insmall matters, she never made decisions alone but always asked father before she did anything. She washumane, altruistic, liberal, and earnest. She cared for and loved the children of my father's concubines just asshe did her own. My father's cousin's son became an orphan when very young, and she regarded him as herown. ____________________ 27. In this biography Ch'eng I called his father "sir" or "the gentleman" and his mother "madame." I have used"father" and "mother" instead. 28. During the Sung dynasty, this was an honorary position with a salary but uo official duties. Previously theduty of a chief officer had been to deliberate on state matters.
29. Daughter of Hou Tao-chi, a magistrate and a native of T'ai-yüan Prefecture in modern Shansi. -179She was skillful in ruling the family. She was not stern, but correct. She did not like to beat servants but,instead, looked upon little servants as her own children. If we children should scold them, she would alwaysadmonish us, saying, "Although people differ in noble and humble stations, they are people just the same.When you grow up, can you do the same thing?"30. Whenever father got angry, she always gently explained thematter to him. But if we children were wrong, she would not cover up. She often said, "Children becomeunworthy because a mother covers up their wrongdoings so the father is unaware of them." Mother had six sons. Only two are still living.31. Her love and affection for us were of the highest degree. But inteaching us she would not give in a bit. When we were only several years old, sometimes we stumbled when wewalked. People in the family would rush forward to hold us, for fear we might cry. Mother would always scoldus with a loud voice and say, "If you had walked gently, would you have stumbled?" Food was always served usby her side. If we swallowed the sauces, as we often did, she would immediately shout and stop us, saying, "Ifyou seek to satisfy your desires when you are young, what will you do when you grow up?" Even when we gaveorders to others, we were not allowed to scold in harsh language. Consequently my brother and I are notparticular in our food and clothing, and do not scold people in harsh language. It is not that we are this way bynature but that we were taught to be like this. When we quarreled with others, even though we were right, shewould not take sides with us. She said, "The trouble is that one cannot bend and not that one cannot stretchout." When we were somewhat older, we were always told to keep company with good teachers and friends.Although we were poor, whenever someone wanted to invite a guest, she would gladly make preparations for it. When mother was seven or eight, she read an ancient poem, which says,
Women do not go out of doors at night. If they do, they carry a lighted candle.32. From then on, she never went outside the gate of her living quarters after dark. As she grew up, she lovedliterature but did not engage in ____________________ 30. Which the little sons presumably had accused the servants of failing to do. 31. Ch'eng Hao and Ch'eng I. The other four died young. 32. This is a paraphrase of the Book of Rites, "Regulations for Domestic Life" ( SPPY, 8:17a). Cf Legge, tr., Li Ki,I, 455. -180flowery compositions. She considered it vastly wrong for present-day women to pass around literarycompositions, notes, and letters. In all collections of Ch'eng I's literary works, this biography comes first but here it is placed at the endof the quotations from him. The reason is that it deals with the regulation of the family in a summaryway. All the principles of serving superiors, caring for inferiors, harmony with relatives, and charitytoward the lonely are present. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 6:10a) 18. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] ONCE SAID: Can serving parents and sacrificing to ancestors be leftto someone else?33. To serve parents is to fulfill the duties of a son and to offer sacrifices is to express one's sincerity. Can these twothings be performed by someone else? In serving parents one must do it personally so that he can do his best tomake his parents happy in their daily life, and in sacrificing to ancestors one must do it
personally before hecan feel as if the ancestors were present so that their faces could be seen and their breath could be heard. (Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 6:10b) 19. Shun served his parents well but they were on occasions still not delighted because his father was obstinateand his mother was insincere.34. They were absolutely unreasonable. But when parents have the nature of anaverage person and their love and hate do not violate principle, the son should obey them. He should do his bestto entertain his parents' dear friends so as to please his parents. He should do his best to prepare for the serviceof his parents' guests, without figuring whether he can afford it. However, in supporting parents one must notlet them know that one is straining one's effort and resources. If they should became aware of the difficulty,they would not feel happy. 20. The ode "Mountain Torrent" says, Brothers Should be good to each other But should not imitate each other.35. This is to say that brothers should help each other to do good and not just imitate each other. To imitate is todo the same thing. The trouble ____________________ 33. For Chu Hsi's thanks to Lü Tsu-ch'ien for advice on the choice of this section, see below, "The Chin-ssu luand Its Commentaries," p. 235. 34. Book of History, "Canon of Yao." Cf. James Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 26. 35. Book of Odes, no. 189.
-181with our common feeling is that when our favors are not returned, we stop them. Consequently kindness cannotlast long. Do not follow the lead of others. Just do your own favor. Someone asked, "'Brothers should be good to each other but should not imitate each other.' To whatdoes the poem refer?" Chu Hsi answered, "It means they should not imitate each other's wrong doing. Suppose the olderbrother is respectful toward his younger brother but the younger brother is not reverent toward theolder brother. Should the older brother imitate his brother's lack of reverence and stop beingrespectful? The older brother should be respectful to the highest degree." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-let,81:23a) 21. "One who has not studied the 'Chou-nan' and the 'Shao-nan 136. is like one who stands with his face rightagainst the wall."37. I have thought hard about these words and feel they are truly correct. If in our conduct wedo not start with what is dealt with in these poems, we will be up against a block and cannot go on. For thematters dealt with are the nearest and the most intimate things. We must therefore start with them. The odes all deal with matters of personal cultivation and the regulation of the family. To stand withone's face against the wall means that one cannot see anything in the place nearest to one and cannotgo a step further. ( Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 9, comment on the Analects, 17:10) Personal cultivation and the regulation of the family are the nearest things. If even before one goesoutdoors one cannot understand these things, it is like standing before a wall. One sees nothing andcannot move forward at all. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 47:9b) 22. When servants first come, their original idea is to be respectful with serious effort. If directed and taughtwith greater and greater care, they will become increasingly careful. If they become indolent, they will castaway their original mind and thus form a habit which will become their second nature. For the same reason,when officials serve in an orderly government, their
virtue will advance every day, but if they serve in a chaoticgovernment, their virtue will decline every day. It depends on whether they can learn anything from theirsuperiors. To use greater and greater care in directing and teaching servants means to approach them withgravity and control them in the proper manner so they will not become indolent. It does not meanmerely to emphasize sternness. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 6:5a) ____________________ 36. See above, ch. 3, n. 58. 37. Analects, 17:10. -182VII: ON SERVING OR NOT SERVING IN THEGOVERNMENT, ADVANCING OR WITHDRAWING,AND ACCEPTING OR DECLINING OFFICE YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: On Serving or Not Serving in the Government. 39 sections.In this chapter the principle of serving or not serving in the government is discussed. As one'spersonal life has been cultivated and his family has been regulated, he may serve in the government.However, whether one advances or not and whether one accepts or declines an office, one shouldfollow righteousness alone. This is a point that should be carefully examined. 1. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: A worthy in a humble position1. should not go forward himself toseek office. If he does, he will never be trusted. This is why ancient worthies always waited for the ruler to invitethem with the utmost respect and in the best manner before they went to serve. This was not because theyregarded themselves as important, but because "unless
the ruler honors virtue and delights in moral principlesto this extent, it is not worth while having anything to do with him."2. 2. When a superior man is waiting for the opportune time, he holds on to himself peacefully and quietly.Although he is waiting, he remains at ease as if he were to wait all his life. This is why he can apply theprinciple of constancy.3. If one shows any interest, even though he does not advance to offer his services, he willnot be at ease with that principle. 3. "The pi [to associate] hexagram indicates that there will be good fortune. Let the subject of divinationreexamine himself as to whether his virtue is outstanding, lasting, and correct. If so, there will be no error."4. ____________________ 1. Not serving in the government. 2. Book of Mencius, 2B:2. 3. To wait for the opportune time. 4. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 8, pi. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, pp. 73-74. -183Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "When people associate and become intimate with each other, they must follow the proper way. If they follow the wrong way, there will be occasions for repentance and that is an error. Therefore one must investigate as if by divination to decide if the person to be associated with is good, and if so, associate with him. If the virtue of the associated parties concerned is outstanding, lasting, and correct, there will be no error. 'Outstanding' means possessing the proper principle of a ruler,
'lasting' means to be permanent, and 'correct' means to follow the right principle. When the superior becomes associated with an inferior, he should possess these three qualities, and when the inferior follows the superior, he should seek them in the ruler. Then there will be no error."
4. The text of the lowest, undivided line of the hexagram lü [to walk] says, "The lowest line shows its subject walking his accustomed path. If he goes forward, there will be no error."5.
Master Ch'eng's commentary says, "If one is not at ease with his usual poverty and humble station, his advance will be motivated by greed and solicitous desire. He wants to do away with his poverty and humble station but not to do anything positive. After he has achieved his advancement, he will surely be extremely arrogant. Therefore, if he goes forward, there will be error. The worthy walks his accustomed path with ease. He is happy with his situation. And his advance will be to do something positive. Therefore, if he achieves his advancement, there will be positive action and all will be good. If one's desire to seek honored station and the desire to practice the Way are at war inside him, how can he walk his accustomed path with ease?"
5. When the great man is obstructed,6. he upholds his integrity and does not mix with bad people. Although he is obstructed from attaining his proper station, the Way flourishes. Therefore it is said, "The great man, though obstructed, will flourish."7. If one personally flourishes without following the Way, it is the Way that is obstructed.
6. In following anything, if one is correct, he will get away from what is depraved, but if he follows what is wrong, he will lose what is right.
____________________ 5. Book of Changes, text of
hexagram no. 10, lü Cf. Legge, tr., p. 79. 6.Given no chance to serve in the government. 7.Commentary on hexagram no. 12, p'i [obstructed]. -184He can never have both. If the second-lowest, divided line of the hexagram sui [to follow] is attached to the lowest line, it will lose the fifth. Therefore the commentary says, "He cannot be with both at the same time."8. This is to admonish people that in following correctness one should concentrate on it.
The first yang, undivided line at the bottom, symbolizes a little boy, while the fifth line from the bottom, also a yang line and undivided, symbolizes an adult. The lowest line is near to the second line. Although the fifth line directly responds to the second line,9. it is far away. The second line is a yin line, divided and weak. It does not see principle clearly and does not hold itself firmly. Furthermore, its weak nature is unstable and cannot hold itself. If it were to be intimate with any line, it is inevitable that it would ignore the fifth line, which is far away, and incline to the lowest line, which is near. It cannot be with both at the same time. This is the symbolism of the hexagram. Master Ch'eng used this to admonish people to choose what is correct and concentrate on it. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 7:3a-b)
7. What the superior man regards as adornment, popular society regards as a shame, but what popular society regards as honorable, the superior man regards as lowly. Therefore it is said, "One adorns his feet. He discards a carriage and walks on foot."10.
Popular society considers power and position as glory but the superior man considers moral principles as honorable. Therefore he prefers to discard the carriage, the use of which is contrary to moral principles, and is contented with walking on foot. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 7:1b)
8. The text of the topmost, undivided line of the hexagram ku [trouble] says, "One does not serve kings or lords, but attends to his own affairs in a lofty spirit."11. Its commentary says, "He does not serve kings or lords, but his aim may be a model to others."12.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "There are many ways for scholars to be lofty. Some embrace virtue, have no opportunity to serve, and maintain themselves with great purity. Some understand the principles of where to stop and contentment, and retire to preserve
____________________ 10. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 22, p'i [adornment]. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 104. 11. Book of Changes, text of
the 18th hexagram, ku. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 96. 12.Cf. Legge, tr., p. 291. 8. Book of Changes, commen
tary on hexagram no. 17, sui. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 289.
9.In the system of the hexagrams, the first and fourth lines respond to each other, as do the second and the fifth, and the third and the sixth. A weak, divided line responds to a strong, undivided line, and vice versa, but two undivided lines or two divided lines do not respond to each other. -185themselves. Some weigh their lots and capacities and are contented to remain unknown. Some maintain themselves with obvious independence, disdain affairs of the world, and live alone with personal purity. In these various situations the aims may be great or small and the principles may be right or wrong. Nevertheless, all these scholars attend to their affairs in a lofty spirit. When the commentary says that the aim may be a model, it means that, whether the person advances or retires, he is in accordance with the Way."
Someone asked, "What is the difference between those who know the principle of where to stop and be contented... and those who weigh their lots and capacities...?"
Chu Hsi answered, "Knowing where to stop and be contented concerns what one can do. Weighing one's lot and capacities concerns what one cannot do." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 70:31a)
In my humble opinion, those who embrace virtue have big aims and follow a correct principle. Those who live alone with personal purity have small aims and follow a wrong principle. Those who know where to stop and to be contented and those who weigh their capacities and lots have smaller aims than those who embrace virtue. ( Kaibara Ekken, Kinshi roku bikō, 7:3a-b)
9. In the hexagram t'un [to retire], yin begins to grow. The superior man, knowing how subtle and incipient forces work, will of course warn himself of
the danger. However, the sage will not discard right away his ideas of doing something. Therefore we have the instructions to "act according to the time," for "to a small extent it will be advantageous to be firm."13.
The t'un hexagram consists of the trigram ken [to stop] at the bottom and the trigram ch'ien [Heaven] on top. The two yin forces14. begin to grow. One should of course warn himself. But the ch'ien is strong and on top, and the second highest and second lowest lines are in the correct, middle positions and respond to each other.15. Under these circumstances a superior man can still go forward and backward according to the time and does not always have to retire. Although he will not be entirely correct, he will fortunately be correct to some extent. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 7:3-4)
When sages and worthies know that the Way is being destroyed in the world, can they remain seated, watching the chaos, and refuse to save the world? They will happily devote their efforts to the world
____________________ 13. Book of Changes, commen
tary on hexagram no. 33, t'un. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 240. 14.Negative cosmic forces represented by the undivided lines. 15.The weak line in the second position, which is weak, responds to the strong line in the fifth position, which is strong. -186before its chaos reaches the ultimate point, strengthen what is weak on their side, and make it difficult for the opposite side to advance. If it should be possible to accomplish an easy peace, even Confucius and Mencius would
consider it worth doing. What Wang Yün16. did for the Han dynasty and what Hsieh An17. did for the Chin dynasty are examples.
10. The lowest, undivided line of the hexagram ming-i [brightness injured] indicates that, although the fact of the situation is not yet obvious, one's position is very dangerous.18. Unless one possesses the intelligence to see how subtle and incipient forces work, one cannot avoid it.19. As one avoids the situation, how can the world not doubt him and blame him? But the superior man does not hesitate to go away from the situation because of the blame of the world. If he waits for the public completely to understand him, he will already be damaged and cannot get away.
11. The lowest, divided line of the hexagram chin [forwardness] indicates that one is in a lowly position and is beginning to advance.20. How can one be trusted by his superior right away? If he is not trusted, he should rest in the principle of the Mean and maintain his position, be relaxed, liberal in spirit and generous in mind, and not anxious for the superior's trust. If he is too anxious, either he will be hasty and thus lose his integrity or, if disappointed, become angry and thus hurt the principle by which he should serve. Therefore it is said, "Whether he advances or keeps back, let him be correct and there will be good fortune. If he is not trusted, let him be generous in mind and there will be no error."21.
____________________ 16.When Tung Cho (d. 192) plotted to usurp the throne of Han, Wang Yün ( 137-92), who rendered great assistance to the emperor, was minister of public works. He arranged to have Tung Cho assassinated. For his biography, see the Hou-Han shu, 50:1a-2a. 17.In 383, when Chin was invaded by the king of Ch'in, Hsieh An ( 320-85) was the defending general. As minister of civil personnel, he was loyal and did
much to restore peace for the Chin. For his biography see the Chin shu, 79:2b-6b. See also below, ch. 10, n. 64. 18.The ming-i hexagram, no.
36 in the Book of Changes, consists of the trigram li [brightness and separateness], symbol of fire, at the bottom and the trigram k'un, symbol of earth, on top. As the brightness of fire is covered by earth, the light is damaged, symbolizing the damage of a superior man by the ruler. 19.To withdraw from government service. 20.The lowest line of the
chin hexagram, no. 35 in the Book of Changes, is a divided line, suggesting that both the ability and the position for advancement are weak. One should therefore hold on to the position and wait. 21.The text on the line. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 132. -187However, the Sage was afraid that later generations did not understand the meaning of liberality andgenerosity, and that those in position failing in their duties might consider themselves as being generous. Hetherefore especially said that the lowest line indicates that if one is generous there will be no error, for at thebeginning of advancement he has not yet been appointed to an official position. If, while occupying an officialposition, one is not trusted by his superior so that he fails in his duties, he should not remain for a single day.However, situations differ. Whether one should remain in his position for long or retire quickly, he should do soaccording to the current situation. There are probably omens to tell him ahead of time. 12. When two people are united incorrectly, they can never remain together for long. If they are unitedaccording to the correct principle, they will never part in the end. Therefore the man of virtue follows principleand acts easily
and naturally, while the man of wisdom knows how the subtle and incipient forces work andholds his position firmly. To follow principle and act easily and naturally means to do what is proper according to the situationand not purposely to seek contact with one's superior. To know the subtle and incipient forces andhold one's position firmly means to know the subtlety of things and not to seek a union carelessly. (Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 7:2b) 13. At the time of difficulty, if the superior man has done his best to prevent it but cannot avoid it, that is hisfate. He should investigate his fate to the utmost in order to fulfill his aim. When he knows that according tofate the situation should be so, his mind will not be disturbed by poverty, obstacles, or calamity. He will merelyact according to what is right. If he does not know his fate, he will be afraid when he encounters danger ordifficulty and stumble when he suffers poverty, and what he holds on to will be lost. How can he fulfill his aimto do good? Ch'eng I interpreted chih-ming to mean to investigate fate to the utmost. Although this interpretationis possible, in the Analects22. the term generally means to give up one's life. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,73:1b) 14.The wife of a poor scholar and the minister of a weak country should each be contented with what is correctand no more. If they ____________________ 22. Analects, 19:1. -188choose to follow popular tendencies [toward glory and power], their evil will be so great that they will not be tolerated in the world.
In a position of difficulty one should be contented with what is correct and not choose to follow popular tendencies. If one remains firm in the bitter life and
is contented with what is correct, these tendencies will never win over moral principles. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 7:7b)
15. The third, undivided line of the hexagram ching [well] indicates that the well has been cleared out but is not used.23. It indicates that men with talents and wisdom are not being used and that they feel sad because they are disappointed. The line is a strong one but does not occupy a central position, and therefore its subject is anxious to be active. He is different from the one who "when called to office, will be active, and when not called to office, will rest in retirement."24.
The third, undivided line is a strong, yang line and occupies the highest position in the lower trigram. This means that as far as the well is concerned, it has been cleared and can be used. But the line does not occupy the fifth position,25. and therefore the well is not used. The line occupies a strong position but not the central one. The subject is anxious to be active. Therefore he is sad. He is different from sages and worthies who become active or retire according to whether they are called to office. They remain peaceful and do not let the matter trouble their minds. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi- chieh, 7:6)
16. The second, divided line of the ko [change] hexagram26. is in the central position27. and is correct.28. It is therefore neither partial nor obscured. Being enlightened, 29. it can fully realize facts and principles. Responding to the line above30. it is powerful. Its substance being gentle,31. there will be no opposition. The time is ripe. The position is secured. And the ability is adequate. The conditions for making a change are the best possible. But it is necessary to wait to have the confidence of superiors and inferiors. Therefore "the subject of the line makes his changes after some time has passed." 32. People with the
____________________ 23.Paraphrasing the text on
this line in the Book of Changes. Ching Is hexagram no. 48. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 165. 24. Analects, 7:10. 25.The center of the upper trigram. 26.Hexagram no. 49, in the
Book of Changes. 27.In the middle of the trigram. 28.The line is divided and weak, occupying the second position which is weak. 29.The lower trigram is li, symbol of fire. It is characterized by wisdom. 30.The weak line in the second position responds to the strong line in the fifth position. 31.A weak line in a weak position. 32. Book of Changes, text of the hexagram on the line. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 168. -189ability and virtue of the second line should go forward to put their principles into practice. There will be good fortune and no error. If they do not go forward, they will lose the opportunity to do so, and that would be an error.
As it is time for the change, the time is ripe. As the position responds to the above, it is secured. And being enlightened and of gentle substance, one's ability is adequate. These are the best conditions in which to make the change.
But one should wait to have the confidence of superiors and inferiors before making the change. Therefore the text says, "The subject of the line makes his change after some time has passed." This is in order to be most careful. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 7:6)
17. The caldron, being full of things, is symbolic of a man of ability and undertaking. He should be careful about where he is inclined to go. If he is not careful about where he goes, he will fall into unrighteousness. Therefore it is said, "The caldron is full of things. Let the subject of the line be careful where he goes."33.
18. When a scholar is in a high position, his duty is to save his ruler from making mistakes and not to follow him in wrong doing. When a scholar is in a low position, sometimes he should save the ruler, sometimes follow the ruler, and sometimes follow the ruler only after he has failed to save him.
To save means to save the ruler from defects, and to follow means to follow his mistakes. One in a high position should not sit and look at his ruler's mistakes without doing anything. But it may not be within the duty or ability of one in a low position to save the ruler. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 7:3a)
19. "In his thoughts the superior man does not get away from his position."34. By position is meant one's function or lot. All things have their proper places. If they are well adjusted in their places, they will rest happy. If one stops when he should go on, remains in the position for long when he should leave quickly, or is excessive or insufficient in what he does, he is getting away from his position. How farther astray are those who go beyond their lot or occupy wrong positions!
____________________ 33. Book of Changes, commen
tary on hexagram no. 50, ting [caldron]. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 329. The second, undivided line is a strong line and is in the middle of the lower trigram, thus symbolizing substantiality. 34. Book of Changes, commen
tary on hexagram no. 52, ken [to stop]. Cf Legge, tr., p. 331. See also the Analects, 14:28. -19020. It is difficult for what one abides in to last long or to last to the end. Therefore some give up their moral integrity in old age, some lose their principles at the end, and some abandon their work after a long time. These are common troubles among men. The topmost, undivided line of the hexagram ken indicates that the subject is maintaining his earnestness to the end.35. This is the principle of abiding at its best. Therefore it is said, "There is good fortune in his earnestness in abiding."36.
21. The text of the lowest, undivided line of the hexagram chung-fu [central sincerity] says, "There will be good fortune in estimating."37. Its commentary says, "There has been no change of mind."38.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "When one begins to have confidence in others, his mind has not yet been influenced by selfish desires. If his confidence is estimated at this point, the estimate will be correct. Therefore there will be good fortune. After his mind has followed his selfish desires, it will change. Any estimation then will be incorrect."
22. A worthy knows only righteousness. To him fate is included in it. People below the average deal with righteousness in the light of fate.
Fate refers to obscurity or prominence, and longevity or brevity of life. It originates from our physical nature and involves the principle of necessity. Righteousness refers to right and wrong, and whether or not a thing should be done. It is based on the Principle of Nature and involves the correctness of what should be done. The worthy knows only what should be done according to righteousness. Fate is already included in it. People below average are not capable of truly knowing righteousness and acting naturally and easily according to it. However, they know their fate has been fixed and dare not transgress the bounds of righteousness to seek foolishly beyond their lot. Hence "they deal with righteousness in the light of fate." ( Yeh Ts'ai , Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 7:8)
As it has been said, "When we seek in the proper way but whether we get what we seek depends on fate, that means seeking is of no use to getting."39. In that case, people know that according to their fate it is useless for them to seek and consequently they decide not to seek. As to the worthy, he seeks according to the proper way and gets the
____________________ 35.The topmost, undivided line, by being strong and at the top, indicates that its rest is firm and ultimate. 36. Book of Changes, commentary on the line. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 332. 37. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 61, chung-fu. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 200.
38. Ibid. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 343. 39. Book of Mencius, 7A: 3. -191thing he seeks through righteousness. For him it is not necessary to talk about fate.40. 23. There is only one way to handle one's difficulty or danger. After he has done all he can do, he should calmlyleave it alone. When something happens, some people constantly think about it and are not willing to leave italone. What use is it after all? If they do not know how to handle it and to leave it alone, that means they knowneither righteousness nor fate. When one faces difficulty or danger, one should examine the proper way of handling it. This isrighteousness. After he has done his best in handling it, he should be contented with it. Whether hesucceeds or fails, and whether he is fortunate or unfortunate, is beyond his control. This is fate. Whensomething happens and one cannot handle it, that means he does not know righteousness. Or if afterhe has handled the matter he cannot leave it alone, that means he does not understand fate. ( YehTs'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 7:9) 24. A pupil41. was a student at the national university. He wanted to return to his native district to take thecivil service examinations. When he was asked the reason, he answered, "The people of Ts'ai seldom read theTai chi [Book of rites of the Elder Tai]. There will be an advantage to me when the examinations are graded."The Teacher said, "This very idea of yours will prevent you from entering into the Way of Yao and Shun. Tzu-kung42. was a man of great learning. When was he absorbed in matters of money as if he were lost? But he wasnot unconcerned about having little or plenty. Now poverty or wealth depend on fate. As he was concerned withthem, it is clear that he did not believe in the Way. This is why the Sage said he did not accept the decree ofHeaven.43. One who aims at the Way must get rid of such
____________________ 40. Both Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 7:10b) and Sawada Takeoka ( Kinshi roku setsuryaku, 7:9a)say that according to the I-shu this is Ch'eng Hao's saying. I do not know their basis for this assertion. Inthe I-shu, 2A:4b, the passage is not explicitly assigned to either Ch'eng I or Ch'eng Hao. It is grouped withothers under the general chapter heading, "Conversations of the Two Masters," without specifying which. 41. This was Hsieh Liang-tso, a native of Ts'ai (in present Honan Province). For him see above, ch. 2, n. 85.Higashi Masatsumi ( Kinshi roku sankō, p. 779) has suggested that his identity was concealed by therecorder out of courtesy. This pupil has also been identified as Yu Tso but, as Mao Hsing- lai has pointedout ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 7:10b), this is wrong. 42. He was famous for his business ability. 43. Ming means "decree of Heaven," "fate," "mandate," "destiny," etc. In the Analects, 11:18, Confucius says thatTzu-kung did not accept the decree of Heaven and yet his wealth accumulated. -192ideas as yours before it will be possible for him to talk about entering into the Way."44. 25. When one has the ambition to "hear the Way in the morning and die in the evening content,"45. he will notbe satisfied for a single day with anything with which he should not be satisfied. He cannot be satisfied with itfor a single moment, let alone a day. For example, Tseng Tzu insisted on having his mat changed.46. Only thenwas he satisfied.
The Way is the self-evident principle of things. If one has heard the Way, he will be in accord with itand will die content without any regret. ( Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 2, comment on the Analects,4:8) Someone asked, "Suppose Tseng Tzu had not had the mat changed, would you consider him to haveheard the Way or not?" Chu Hsi answered, "It does not matter whether he had the mat changed or not. What matters iswhether in his daily life he had heard [and applied] the Way. If he had heard the Way and by chancesomething could not be taken care of at the moment of death, that could not be helped." "If he had really heard the Way, he would not tolerate anything like that at the moment of death. [Isthat correct?]" "What happens at that moment is a great event in life. Since he had seen the Way, he naturally wouldnot tolerate anything like that." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 26:21 a-b) People are not able to feel this way simply because they do not understand true principles. Understanding trueprinciples means truly understanding right and wrong. There is something unintelligible about Ch'eng I's theory of true principle. The phrase "trulyunderstood to be right or wrong" is probably a mistake on the part of the recorder of theconversation. Some words must be missing before the word "understand." Principle is principle andunderstanding is understanding. There is true principle in everything. Man should understand it in atrue way. Someone asked, "Principle is in things whereas understanding is in man. Is that correct ?" ____________________ 44. In the I-shu, 4:1a, there is a note saying that when Ch'eng Hao was a magistrate of Fu-kou (see above, ch. 4,sec. 63), both Ch'eng I and Hsieh
Liangtso accompanied him. When Hsieh was about to return to his nativedistrict for the examinations, Ch'eng I asked him why he did not want to take the examinations in thenational university. Hsieh took Ch'eng I's advice and passed the examinations at the national university. 45. Analects, 4:8. 46. When Tseng Tzu discovered a moment before he died that the mat he was lying on was one for a greatofficial, he insisted on replacing it with one proper to his station. See the Li chi, "T'an-kung" (SPPY, 2:6a).Cf. James Legge , tr., Li Ki, I, 128. See also below, ch. 14, sec. 3. -193Chu Hsi answered, "That is right." ( Ibid., 20b; also 97:22b) True principles and true understanding are different. Here they are spoken of as one. There must besome mistake in the recording. There are true principles and we should understand them truly. Ifone's understanding is firm and correct, that is true. If one's understanding is not correct, it will be awaste of time. ( Ibid., 97:22b; also 26:20b) When true principles are realized in one's own mind, they are different. If one merely hears them or talks aboutthem, he does not truly understand them in his mind. If he does understand them, he will not be satisfied withthat with which he should not be satisfied. In one's life there are certain things one generally will not do, although in certain situations he may. Take ascholar-knight, for example. Suppose you tell him to break in and steal. He will not do it even if you threaten tokill him, but in other things he may not be so resolute. As to those who read books, they all know how toexpound rules of conduct and moral principles. Take, for example, the great lords and high officials. They areall able to discourse on external things like carriages and ceremonial caps. But when they have to choosebetween benefit and harm, they do not know how to follow moral
principles but instead follow after honor andwealth. In these cases, we can only say that they do not truly understand principles. All people avoid the dangerof falling into water or fire, because they truly understand it. If one has the feeling of "shrinking from evil whenhe sees it as if he is shrinking from boiling water,"47. then his understanding will be different from theordinary. Once there was a man who had been harmed by a tiger. When people talk about tigers, even a small boy knowsthat a tiger is fearful. But no one's response could compare to that of the one who had been harmed by a tiger.He had a frightened expression and his fear was absolutely sincere because he truly understood. One who achieves true understanding in his mind is a virtuous person. He does not need to exert any effort. Astudent, however, needs to exert effort. Some ancients sacrifice their lives. How could they do so unless theytruly understood? They must have truly understood that life is neither as important as righteousness nor assatisfactory as death. Therefore they "sacrificed their lives to fulfill humanity."48. All they did was toaccomplish what is right. ____________________ 47. Analects, 16:11. 48. Ibid., 15:8. -19426. The difference Mencius made between Shun and Chih49. is purely that between righteousness and profit.50.This means that the difference between them is not very much. It is but an iota. The difference between righteousness and profit is only that between impartiality and selfishness. As soon aswe depart from righteousness, we will be talking about profit. Merely to calculate is to be concerned withadvantage and disadvantage. Unless there are advantage and disadvantage what need is
there to calculate? It isnatural for people to be concerned with advantage and disadvantage, and all people avoid disadvantage and goafter advantage. But the sage does not consider advantage and disadvantage. He only considers whetheraccording to righteousness he should or should not do a thing. In this way fate is included.51. Ch'eng I substitutes the idea of righteousness for goodness in the Book of Mencius because goodnessis general whereas righteousness is concrete. Furthermore, it is a most suitable contrast to profit. (Sawada Takeoka, Kinshi roku setsuryaku, 7:12a) 27. Generally speaking, we Confucian scholars dare not expect to cultivate the Way deeply.52. What we expectto achieve is that our preservation of mind will be correct, that we shall he able to distinguish good and evil,and that we shall have a sense of integrity and shame. There are many such people, and they inevitably improvestep by step. 28. CHAO CHING-P'ING53. ASKED: "The Master seldom talked about profit."54. What kind of profit was it? THE TEACHER SAID: It was not only profit in the sense of money. Any idea of profit to oneself is wrong. Forexample, if in doing anything one seeks to make it safe and convenient for himself, that is motivated by thesense of profit. To a sage, righteousness is profit. Whenever he is at ease with righteousness, there is profit forhim. The learning of the Buddhists is based on profit. It is therefore wrong. ____________________ 49. A robber of Confucius' time. 50. According to Mencius, Sage- EmperorShun busied himself for the sake of goodness whereas Chih workedearnestly for profit. ( Book of Mencius, 7A:25) 51.
For a comment on why this section is placed here instead of in ch. 2, see below, "On the Chin-ssu lu and ItsCommentaries," p. 326. 52. To the point of being at home with It and finding it on the left and right, as described in the Book ofMencius, 4B: 14. 53. Nothing is known of him. 54. Analects, 9:1. -195Someone asked, "Master Ch'eng said that whenever a sage is at ease with righteousness, there is profitfor him. The sage is at ease simply because he does what should be done. Is that correct?" Chu Hsi answered, "Yes. When everything fulfills its lot, that is profit. When the ruler attains to whatit is to be a ruler, the minister attains to what it is to be a minister, the father attains to what it is tobe a father, and the son attains to what it is to be a son, what greater profit is there?" ( Chu Hsi , ChuTzu yülei, 96:13b) 29. QUESTION: Hsing Ch'i55. followed you for a long time. I believe that on the whole he was ignorant.56. Laterhe became extremely desperate. What do you think?57. THE TEACHER SAID: It is not correct to say that he was completely ignorant. Simply because he has not beenable to overcome his selfish mind with moral principles has he become like this. 30. Hsieh Chih58. was going to the capital59. from Szechuan. When he passed through Lo-yang he went to callon Master Ch'eng. The Master asked him, "Where are you going?" "I am going to take the examination to become a teacher," he answered.
The Teacher remained silent. Chih asked, "What do you think?" The Teacher said, "Once I bought a servant and wanted to give her an examination. Her mother became angryand would not permit it. She said, 'My daughter is not something to be examined.' Now you seek to become ateacher by taking an examination. You will surely be ridiculed by this old woman." Thereupon Chih gave up hisjourney. 31. When the Teacher was lecturer to the emperor,60. he did not apply for his salary. The several gentlemen61.finally sent an official dispatch to the department of revenues to inquire why his salary had not been paid.62.The department asked him for the record of his salaries in ____________________ 55. Hsing Shu. For him see above, ch. 4, sec. 11. 56. He failed to absorb Ch'eng I's teaching, according to Chang Po-hsing, Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 7:15a. 57. According to the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 14:6a, this is Hsieh Liang-tso's question. 58. Hsieh (fl. 1080) was Ch'eng I's pupil. Having obtained the "presented scholar" degree in the Yüan-fengperiod ( 1078-85), he served in various official positions culminating in a professorship at the nationaluniversity. 59. K'ai-feng in Honan Province. 60.
In 1086. 61. Ssu-ma Kuang, who was then a minister, Prime Minister Lü Kung-chao ( 1018-89), and others. 62. Ch'eng I was then borrowing money to live. The gentlemen at first thought that his salary was insufficientand only later discovered that he had not been paid. -196previous official positions. The Teacher said, "I entered government service directly from the farm63. and haveno record of previous salaries." (According to traditional practice, when a person serves in the capital for thefirst time, it is up to him to petition for the payment of salary. The Teacher did not make the request, feelingthat since the government had invited him to serve, it was up to the government to have "the storekeeper tocontinue to send grain and the master of the kitchen to send meat.")64. Thereupon the department of revenueswas instructed to issue a certificate of record of salary. The Teacher also abstained from petitioning for a title of honor for his wife. Fan Ch'un-fu65. asked the reason.The Teacher said, "I entered government service directly from the farm. At that time I declined appointmentthree times before I accepted the order.66. Is there any reason why I should peitition for a title of honor for mywife now?" "Nowadays people beg for special grants of honor. According to moral principle should that not be done?Everyone thinks that if one is entitled to it there is no harm in asking." The Teacher said, "The trouble is that today scholars and officials are accustomed to begging. They beg at everyturn." "How about asking for titles of honor for one's father or grandfather?" "This is a substantially different matter."
When he was asked repeatedly to explain, he merely said, "It requires a long explanation. Let us talk about itsome other time." I have thought over why it requires a long explanation. Latterday people merely send in petitions.That is begging. They do so to get official positions, and do so for everything. In ancient times, men oftalents and virtue were raised to government positions. At that time the bestowing and granting ofhonors was done by the government itself. What need was there to beg? I believe this was MasterCh'eng's idea. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 97:17a) A title of honor for one's parents and a title of honor for one's wife are ____________________ 63. Meaning that he was a plain citizen when he accepted the appointment. 64. Original note in the I-shu, 19:9a. The quotation is from the Book of Mencius, 5B:6. Kaneko Sōsan (Kinshiroku teiyō) thinks that the quotation from Mencius was not Ch'eng I's own idea but that of the recorder ofthe section. 65. See above, ch. 3, sec. 69. 66. In the extra second month of 1086 Ch'eng I, then fifty-four years of age, was appointed to be collator in theimperial library, a position which he declined. Thereupon the empress dowager personally told him that hewas to be appointed court lecturer. He declined this also. In the third month, at the recommendation ofSsu-ma Kuang, he was appointed court lecturer. He sent in a petition asking to be excused, but finallyaccepted when this petition was turned down. -197-
substantially different. It is excellent sentiment for a son to seek prominence and glory for his parents. It isincorrect to say that he should not make the request. However, if we say that one should request--well, in thecase of Master Ch'eng, he was specially invited to serve and his case was therefore different from ordinarycases. This was why it was difficult for him to explain. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 7:13) 32. In the Han dynasty, when virtuous and able men were selected through a written examination,67. these menwere still recommended by others. Take Kung-sun Hung, for example. He went to answer the questions onlyafter he had been strongly urged to do so.68. As to virtuous men of later generations, they have sought foropportunity and recommended themselves. It is commendable if they really intend to answer the questions ofthe emperor and frankly express their opinions on world events. If they aim at wealth and honor, they will bearrogant and undisciplined if successful and sad and dissolute if disappointed. 33. MASTER I-CH'UAN SAID: People often say that I do not teach students to study for the civil serviceexaminations. When have I refrained from teaching students to study for them? If one does not study andexpects to pass the examinations, he is depending on the Principle of Nature69. and not making any personaleffort. However, it is enough to be qualified to pass the examinations. If, in addition to that, one makesexhaustive efforts to find ways and means to be sure to pass them, he is deluded.70. 34. QUESTION: "When one's family is poor and his parents are old, in taking the examinations in order to finda government position, he ____________________ 67. Written questions on various state policies from the emperor were to be answered by candidates, whoseanswers were graded. The better scholars among the examinees were appointed to government positions. 68.
In 140 B.C., when Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he invited men of virtue and literary ability to serve inthe government. Kung-sun Hung ( 200-121 B.C.), then sixty years of age, was appointed professor of thenational university. When he was asked to be an emissary to the Hs'ung-nus, who occupied modernMongolia, he declined and, pleading illness, returned home. In 130 B.C., when the emperor invited men ofvirtue and literary ability to take an examination and answer questions on state policies, Kung-sun's nativestate strongly recommended him. After repeated urging, he went, took the examination, and ranked firstamong more than a hundred scholars. He was again appointed professor at the national university. Later, inthe middle of the Yüan-shuo period ( 128-123 B.C.), he became prime minister and was made a marquis.For his biography, see the Shih chi, ch. 112, and the Han shu, ch. 58. 69. To work in his favor. Chŏng Yŏp ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, 7:8b) interprets this to mean Heaven rather than thePrinciple of Nature (or Principle of Heaven). 70. This and the following two sections were probably chosen at the suggestion of Chang Ch'in-fu. See below,"On the Chin-ssu lu and Its Commentaries," p. 324. -198cannot help worrying about success or failure. How can he avoid such worry?" MASTER I-CH'UAN SAID: "He worries simply because his will71. has not overcome his passions. If his willovercomes his passions, he will naturally be free from such worry. When one's family is poor and his parents arepoor, he should become an official and earn his emolument. But whether he succeeds in doing so depends onfate." "That is all right as far as oneself is concerned. How about one's parents."
"What concerns oneself and what concerns one's parents are the same. If one does not succeed what can he doabout his fate? Confucius said, 'Without knowing one's fate, it is impossible to be a superior man.'72. If onedoes not know his fate, he will try to escape from difficulty and danger. Whenever there is gain or loss, he willbe moved. And whenever he sees any gain, he will rush toward it. How can he be a superior man?" 35. Someone said that preparation for the civil service examinations interferes with one's effort at real learning.This is not the case. If one spends ten days each month in preparing for the examinations, he can devote theremaining days to true learning. However, if one's mind is not devoted to one thing,73. it will be devoted toanother.74. Therefore the danger of preparing for the examinations is not that it hurts one's effort at truelearning but that it destroys one's will to study. Someone asked about the harm preparing for civil service examinations does to one's effort atlearning. Chu Hsi said, "Master Ch'eng said that... if one spent ten days in a month preparing for theexaminations, there were still twenty days for study. If one's will to learn is shaken by the preparation,there will be no cure for him." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 13-23b) Preparation for the examinations does not harm one's study. When did our elders abstain from takingthe examinations? There is harm because the minds of people today are not fixed. Since they areconcerned about success or failure in the examinations, they feel quite differently aboutunderstanding the written word. ( Ibid., 24a) 36. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID: The glory of hereditary emolument is intended by kings toselect men of achievement and ____________________ 71. The will to abide by moral principles. e 72.
Analects, 20:3. Ming means "fate," "destiny," "the decree of Heaven," "the mandate of Heaven," etc. 73. Real study. 74. Recitation of the Classics, writing flowery compositions, etc. in preparation for the examinations. -199honor men of virtue, to love them and to treat them generously, so as to show that imperial kindness isunlimited.75. The descendants should be happy in their positions and earnest in their efforts in order to dotheir duties and fulfill their responsibility. They should strengthen their integrity and avoid taking advantages,so as to continue the good heritage of their families. But descendants of lords and great officials of recent timeshave gone so far as to lower themselves to the level of commoners, trying to be skillful in poetry76. in order tosell themselves to those in charge of civil service examinations. They do not realize that seeking an officialposition is incompatible with moral principles. On the contrary they look down upon those who followprinciples77. as incompetent. They do not realize that hereditary privileges are a glory.78. On the contrary theyconsider a hollow fame 79. as a good way to continue the accomplishment of their ancestors. What is really intheir minds? 37. If one does not depend on the strength of others or consider making use of what others have, he will not bemindful of their power.80. One is bothered by the power and possessions of others because he depends on them. If he does notdepend on their power or make use of what they have, he will respect himself and regard the powerand possessions of others as of little importance. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 7:15) 38. People often say they can be content with poverty and humble station. In reality they are merely helplessand know of no way out and their ability is too small for them to do anything. If they could make any move,they would not
remain content. Only when one truly realizes that moral principles are more enjoyable than theachievement of wealth or the fulfillment of material desires can he remain content. 39. A great trouble with the world is that people are afraid of being laughed at. They are afraid that others willridicule them if they do not keep horses and carriages, if they eat crude food or wear poor ____________________ 75. In the Sung dynasty sons and grandsons of officials of high rank were granted the hereditary privilege ofbecoming officials as a recognition of their ancestors' achievement. The sons and grandsons did not have totake the civil service examinations. 76. To be correct in the use of tones and to avoid certain literary defects. 77. By accepting the hereditary privilege instead of taking the examinations. 78. Because they were granted in recognition of one's ancestors' meritorious deeds. 79. In passing the examination and obtaining the degrees. 80. This is a comment on the Book of Mencius, 7A: 8. -200clothing, or if they are poor and humble in station. They do not realize that one should live if according toprinciple he should live, and die if according to
principle he should die. One should have no regret if today heowns a great deal81. and tomorrow has to throw it away, or if today he is in a position of wealth and honor andtomorrow will starve. He simply does what is right.82. ____________________ 81. Literally, "10,000 measures of grain." 82. This sentence is a quotation from the Book of Mencius, 4B:11. -201VIII: ON THE PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNING THE STATE AND BRINGING PEACE TO THE WORLD YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: The Substance of Government.25 sections. In this chapter the way of government is discussed. When one has understood the principle of taking or not taking office, he should always study and understand the essentials of the way of government so that when the opportunity suddenly comes for him to apply his principle, he can put it into practice.
1. MASTER LIEN-HSI [CHOU TUN-I] SAID: There is a foundation for the government of the world. It is the ruler's person. There is a model for the government of the world. It is the family. The foundation must be correct. To make the foundation correct, there is no other way than to make the heart sincere. The model must be good. In order for the model to be good, there is no other way than to maintain harmony among kin. It is difficult to govern a family whereas it is easy to govern the world, for the family is near while the world is distant. If members of the family are separated, the cause surely lies with women. This is why the hexagram k'uei [to part] follows the hexagram
chia-jen [family], for "When two women live together, their wills move in different directions."1. This was why Yao,2. having put his empire in order, gave his two daughters in marriage to Shun3. in order to test him and see whether the throne should be given to him. Thus it is that, in order to see how a ruler governs his empire, we observe the government of his family. In order to see how he governs his family, we observe how he governs himself. To be correct in one's person means to be sincere in one's heart. And to be sincere in one's heart means to turn back from evil activities. Evil activities represent falsehood. When one turns back from falsehood, there will be no more falsehood in him.
____________________ 1. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 38, k'uei. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 243. In the Book of Changes the hexagram chia-jen is no. 37.
2.Legendary sage-emperor of the 3d millennium B.C. 3.Literally " Wei-Jui," two rivers in Kansu Province. Shun came from their junction. -202Being free from it, one becomes sincere. This is the reason why the hexagram wu-wang [absence of falsehood] comes after the hexagram fu [to return]. And it is said, "The ancient kings made their regulations in complete accordance with the season, thereby nourishing all things."4. How profound!
If one's heart is not sincere, his personal life cannot be correct. If kin are not harmonious, the family cannot be regulated. Those who are near are difficult
to handle, whereas those who are distant are easily managed. . . . The k'uei hexagram consists of the tui [pleasure] trigram
at the bottom and the li [separateness] trigram
on top. The tui trigram represents the young woman while the li trigram represents the woman at middle age.5. It is in the nature of the yin or weaker sex to be agreeable and pleasant outwardly but jealous inwardly. Therefore, when they live together, they do not agree. ( Chu Hsi, commentary on the T'ung-shu, ch. 32) 2. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] ONCE SAID TO EMPEROR SHEN-TSUNG [r. 1068-85]: To achieve the correctness of the Principle of Nature and to fulfill the ultimate of human relations is the Way of Yao and Shun, whereas to exercise one's selfish mind and to depend on a partial application of humanity and righteousness is the way of the despot. The road of the true king is as smooth as a whetstone.6. It is based on human feelings and revealed in the principles of propriety and righteousness. One proceeds along it straightforwardly as on a highway, without swerving or detour. A despot, however, rocks and turns in a winding path and in the end it is impossible for him to enter upon the Way of Yao and Shun. Therefore, if one sincerely aims at the kingly way, one will become a true king. But if one pretends to be humane and righteous in order to be a despot, one becomes despotic. The two ways are quite different. One must clearly examine their starting point. As it is said in the Book of Changes, "An infinitesimal mistake in the beginning will lead to an infinite mistake at the end."7. One must not fail to examine the starting point. If Your Majesty will examine the words of ancient sages, realize that the Way of Yao and Shun is all complete in yourself, examine yourself and be sincere, and extend this to reach all the four seas [which surrounded China], the next ten thousand generations will be very fortunate indeed.
____________________ 4. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 25, wu-wang. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 299. 5.The tui trigram ends with a yin (divided) line, symbolic of the young woman, while the li trigram has the yin (divided) line in the middle, symbolic of the woman at middle age. 6.Paraphrasing the Book of Odes, no. 203. 7. I-wei t'ung-kua-jen, pt. 2, 5b. -203In the second year of the Hsi-ning period [ 1069], the Teacher was appointed undersecretary of theheir apparent in the left secretariat and concurrently a censor-at-large in the censorate. He presenteda memorial which begins with the activities of the true king and the despot, the difference betweenthe Principle of Nature and human desires, and the distinction between pure and impure standardsof human relations. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 8:2) 3. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: In handling affairs today there are three things that must begiven first priority, namely, making up the mind, delegating responsibility, and searching for virtuous men totake the responsibility. Although the ruler accepts excellent advice and has an array of good policies, if he doesnot make up his mind, will he pay attention to them and put them into practice? Although he wishes to putthem into practice, if he does not delegate responsibility to his ministers, who can take over the policies andexecute them? Although the ruler and ministers are united in mind, if those in position are not men of virtue,can they apply those policies to the world? These three things are the base, while their proper application inactual affairs is the function. Among the three, making up the mind is the most fundamental. Making up the mind means to be perfectly sincere and single- minded, to consider practicing the Way as one'sown responsibility, to regard the
teachings of sages as definitely reliable, to look upon the governmentmeasures of the ancient kings as definitely practicable, not to follow rigidly the advice of those nearby8. nor beinfluenced or fooled by popular opinion, but to be determined to bring about a world order like that of theThree Dynasties.9. Someone asked, "Why did Master Ch'eng merely urge the ruler to regard the teachings of sages asdefinitely reliable . . . and to bring about a world order like that of the Three Dynasties?" Chu Hsi answered, "He could not help putting it that way. In talking to students, we can only teachthem to act according to the teachings of sages. When after making some effort they realizesomething within themselves, ____________________ 8. Chin-kuei in Chinese. Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 8) understands it In the sense of "recentregulations," and many Japanese annotators have followed him. But, as Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshiroku, 8:4a) has pointed out, the expression is derived from the Kuo-yü, 1:5a, where it Is said that ministersnear by [chin] did their best to ignore [kuei] the ruler. The ruler is also urged not to ignore the opinions ofthe common people. Ch'eng I is here advocating independent judgment instead. 9. The Hsia, the Shang, and the Chou. This was written in 1065, when Ch'eng I was thirty-three. It is part of amemorial written for his father to present to the emperor. These and other recommendations in thememorial were not implemented. -204they will naturally understand what it really is to be a sage. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 93:10b)
4. The text of the fifth, undivided line of the pi [to associate] hexagram says, "It clearly shows its way ofassociation. The king pursues his game in three directions and allows all animals before him to escape."10. Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "In associating with the people of the empire, the ruler should clearly showhis way of association. To be sincere in his treatment of others, to do to others what he would want to havedone to himself, to initiate governmental measures and extend humanity so the people of the empire will bebenefited by his kindness, and the like are ways in which the ruler associates with the people of the empire. Inthis way, who in the world would not associate with and become intimate with their superior? But if he showsoff his small kindnesses and violates principle to solicit praise, with the hope that his subjects will associatewith him, his way is narrow indeed. How can he succeed in getting the people of the empire to associate withhim? The true king clearly shows his way of association, and people of the empire naturally come to beassociated with him. As they come, he cares for them. Of course he will not bestow small benefits to solicit theirassociation. As in the case of hunting in three directions, he will not pursue those animals that escape but willtake those that come to him. This is the greatness of the kingly way. For this reason, his people feel grand andhappy, without realizing why they are so. "This is not only the way for a ruler to associate with the people of his empire. It is also the way for people toassociate with each other in general. Take the case of the minister's association with the ruler. To demonstratehis loyalty and sincerity to the utmost and to use his ability and energy to the limit are the means to show hisway of association with the ruler. Whether the ruler uses him or not is up to the ruler. He should not try toplease and flatter the ruler to seek his association. The same is true of friends. One should cultivate his person,make his will sincere, and wait. Whether others will be intimate with him is up to them. He should not resort tofine words and an insinuating appearance, go off the way to follow them, or carelessly agree with them to seektheir association. The same principle is true in the association with fellow members of one's community,relatives, ____________________
10. Book of Changes, comment on hexagram no. 8, pi. According to ancient ceremonies, the emperorsurrounded his game only in three directions so that the animals had a chance to escape in the fourth. Seethe Li chi, "Royal Regulations" (SPPY, 4:7a), or James Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 220. -205and the multitude. This is the principle of pursuing in three directions and allowing animals in the front to escape."
5. In ancient times, from lords and great officers down, every man's position matched his merits. He occupied his position for life, for it fulfilled his lot. If his position was not up to his merit, the ruler would promote him. A scholar would pursue his learning. When his learning was complete, the ruler would look for him. In no case would one manipulate for himself. Farmers, artisans, and merchants were diligent at their work, and they lived simply. Therefore each man's mind was fixed and settled, and it was possible for the world to be united in one mind. In later generations, from the common people to the great lords, people turn their minds to glory and honor every day. Farmers, artisans, and merchants turn their minds to wealth and extravagance every day. Millions and millions of people, each with his own mind, compete for wealth. The world is thus in great confusion. How can there be unity? It is hard to see how the world can fail to become chaotic.
6. The text of the second, undivided line of the hexagram t'ai [peace] says, "Embrace the uncultivated. It is necessary to cross the river without a boat."11.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "It is natural with men that, if rulers take things easy and are careless, government will be remiss. Consequently, measures and systems will be neglected and the numerous affairs of the state
will be out of order. In order to govern, one must possess the capacity to embrace the uncultivated and the unclean. One's administration will then operate at a comfortable pace and will be careful and thorough. Defects will be remedied and things will be taken care of. And the people will be happy with the ruler. If one lacks the capacity to embrace extensively but is instead cross and irascible, he will also lack profound thinking and will have the trouble of being violent. Before his great defects have been removed, his immediate trouble will arise. Therefore it is important to embrace the uncultivated.
"From antiquity on, periods of great peace inevitably have been followed by gradual decline. That was due to the fact that rulers were
____________________ 11. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 11, t'ai. Cf Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 81.
-206accustomed to ease and comfort, and followed routine. Naturally, unless rulers are strong and determined, andhave the assistance of great heroes, they cannot arouse themselves, stand out, and go forward to carry outreforms. Therefore it is said that it is necessary to cross the river without a boat. "Someone raises the question that whereas earlier one was urged to embrace the uncultivated, which means tobe tolerant and lenient, now one is urged to cross the river without a boat, which means to arouse oneself toreform, and that the two seem to contradict each other. He does not realize that what the sages and worthiesdo is to apply their strength and determination in an allembracing spirit."
7. The text of the kuan [to observe] hexagram says: "After the worshiper has washed his hands but has not yetpresented his offerings, he shows sincerity and reverence."12. Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "The king, being high above, is the model of the world. He must be asextremely grave and serious13. as the worshiper who has just washed his hands, and as careful not to allow hissincerity to dissipate to any degree as the worshiper who has presented offerings. The whole world will then beextremely sincere with him and reverently look up to him." 8. In the world, whether it is a case of the country or the family or a case of the ten thousand things, the reasonwhy they are not in harmonious union is that something has set them apart. If they are not set apart, they willbe in union. Even in the production of heaven and earth and the completion of all things, only union can lead tosuccess. Whenever union is not achieved, it is because something has set them apart. When there is separationor cause for hatred between ruler and minister, between father and son, or among relatives or friends, it isusually because some slander or evil has set them apart. Remove this separation and unite them, and they willbe in harmony in all respects, and, furthermore, will be in proper order. The symbolism of the hexagram shih-ho [biting and uniting]14. is that union is the great function of putting the world in order. ____________________ 12. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 20, kuan. Cf. Legge, p. 99. 13. According to the I chuan, 2:18b, these are Hu Yüan's words. Most probably Ch'eng I heard this when he wasHu's pupil at the national university. The same idea is expressed in Hu Chou-i k'ou-i (Oral explanations ofthe Book of Changes), 4:6b. 14.
Hexagram no. 21 in the Book of Changes, symbolizing union by means of biting through the food that isbetween the jaws. -2079. The text of the fifth, divided line of the ta-ch'u [great accumulation] hexagram says, "Take away the force of the hog's teeth. There will be good fortune."15.
Master Ch'eng I's commentaty says, "There is control among things and there is an objective in human affairs. When a sage gets hold of the essential of things and affairs, he will look upon the minds of millions and millions of people as one. When he tells them to go, they will proceed. When he tells them to stop, they will halt. In this way he exerts no effort and yet his empire is governed. His operation is similar to taking away the force of the hog's teeth.
"A hog is a strong and fierce animal. If one tries to control its teeth by force, one will have to work hard and still will not be able to stop its fierceness. But if one removes its tendency to use its teeth, although the teeth remain, its fierceness will stop by itself. A superior man follows the principle of taking away the force of the hog's teeth. He knows that the evil of the world cannot be suppressed by force. Therefore he examines its subtle origin, gets hold of its essential element, and stops up its source. Consequently, although he relies on no severe punishment, evil will stop by itself.
"Take, for example, stopping robbery. People have desires. When they see some gain, they will be moved. If they have not been educated but are driven by hunger and cold, even if punishments and executions are daily applied to them, how can that overcome the desire for gain on the part of millions and millions of people? The sage, however, knows the way to stop those desires. He prefers neither power nor punishment, but promotes governmental measures and education which enable his people to have the occupations of agriculture
and sericulture and to understand the principles of integrity and shame. Even if you were to reward them for it, they would not steal."16.
10. The text of the chieh [to remove] hexagram says, "Advantage will be found in the southwest. If there is no need to go further, there will be good fortune in turning back. If it is still necessary to go on, there will be good fortune in doing so early."17.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says, "The southwest is the direction
____________________ 15. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 26, ta-ch'u. Cf. Legge, p. 113.
16.Quoting the Analects, 12:18. 17. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 40, chieh. Cf. Legge, p. 144. -208of the trigram k'un [earth]18.. The body of k'un is extensive, large, level, and simple. When the distress of theworld has just been removed and people have just started to get rid of their suffering, they should not begoverned with harsh and stringent measures, but instead they should be aided with broad, large, and simpleones. Only then will the measures be suitable. After the distress has been removed, there will be peace. Thatmeans there is no need to go further. The way of government should now be restored and cultivated.Regulations should be made correct and systems should be made clear, and the government of enlightenedkings of the past should be
reintroduced. This means to turn back, that is, to return to the correct principle. "In ancient times, when sage-kings saved people from distress and restored order, at first there was no time tolaunch governmental measures. As the situation became settled, they were then able to institute measures thatcould last for a long time. From the Han dynasty [ 206 B.C.-A.D. 220] down, however, there was no attempt todo anything after chaos was removed but merely an effort to maintain the status quo. As a result, goodgovernment was not accomplished, for rulers did not know the principle of returning. The sentence, 'If it is stillnecessary to go on, there will be good fortune in doing so early,' means that it will be good fortune to removeearly whatever should be removed. If anything that should be removed but has not yet been removed is noteliminated early, it will thrive again. If anything that thrives again is not taken care of early, it will graduallybecome bigger. Therefore there will be good fortune if it is attended to early." 11. As there are things, there are their specific principles.19. As a father, one should abide in deep love. As a son,one should abide in filial piety. And as a minister, one should abide in reverenc.20. All things and affairs havetheir own abiding points. When people succeed in abiding in their proper abiding points, they will becontented and happy. If they fail to do so, they will be rebellious. The reason why a sage-ruler can smoothlygovern the world is not that he can invent the principles for them. He only enables them to abide in theirproper abiding points. ____________________ 18. According to the diagram of the Eight Trigrams attributed to King Wen, the k'un trigram occupies thesouthwestern position. See Ibid., "Remarks on the Trigrams," ch. 5 ( Legge, p. 425). 19. Quoting the Book of Odes, no. 260.
20. As taught in the Great Learning, ch. 3. -20912. The principle of the tui [pleasure] hexagram is to please in the correct way.21. To obey the Principle of Heaven [Nature] above and to respond to people's hearts below is the correct and the best way to please. If one should violate the Way to seek people's praise,22. it is to please carelessly. To violate the Way is to disobey Heaven, and to seek praise is not to respond to the people. It is but to please carelessly for the time being, and is not the correct way of the superior man. The superior man's way of pleasing the people is like the benefactions of Heaven and Earth. The people feel them in their hearts and will never get tired of being pleased with him and submitting to him.
13. Things in the world will retreat if they do not advance. They cannot remain still. In the chi-chi [already accomplished] hexagram, the course no longer advances but has to come to a stop.23. But nothing stops forever. For a thing to stop means that its decline and chaos are approaching, for its course is exhausted.24. Under this situation what can a sage do? The answer is that the sage alone can handle the abnormal situation in an expedient manner before the course reaches its limit so that it will not be exhausted; Yao and Shun are good examples.25. This is the reason the course continues to its natural end without disorder.
14. The purpose of setting up a ruler of the people is for him to support and maintain them. The way to do so is to value their energy very highly. When their energy is full, their livelihood will be obtained. When their livelihood is obtained, education and culture will prevail and customs will become excellent. Therefore, in the administration of a government, the important thing is the people's energy. The Spring and Autumn Annals26. has recorded the cases where the people's energy was expended. In the cases where the undertakings were untimely or violated righteousness, they were, of course, wrong. Those
____________________ 21.See the Book of Changes, hexagram no. 58, tui ( Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 261). 22.This is a quotation from the Book of History, "Counsels of the Great Yü." Cf. Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 55. 23. In hexagram no. 63, chi- chi, all the six divided and undivided lines are in their proper places so that all purposes are accomplished. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 265.
24.The text of the hexagram says, "To stop means chaos, for the course is exhausted." Cf. Legge, tr., ibid. 25.It looked as if good government was approaching the end when their sons, who normally would have succeeded to the thrones, proved to be unworthy. Yao and Shun handled the situation in an expedient manner and transmitted their thrones to other men who were virtuous, instead of to their sons. 26.For this Classic, see above, ch. 3, n. 128. -210cases that were both timely and righteous have also been recorded to show that putting the people to labor is aserious matter.27. If rulers of later generations understand this principle, they will be careful with the people'senergy.28. However, there were cases in which the people's energy was greatly utilized which nonetheless have not beenrecorded. In this the Sage's idea of teaching people is very deep indeed. Duke Hsi [r. 659- 626 B.C.] repairedthe state college and rebuilt the temples of the state.29. Not that the people's energy was not put to use. Thesecases are not recorded because the two activities
were the great events of returning to the past and restoringwhat has been neglected. These are the first things in governing the state. Using the people's energy for thesepurposes is correct. When a ruler understands this principle, he knows the order in which things are to be doneand their relative importance. 15. What is concerned in everything from managing the self and regulating the family to bringing peace to theworld is moral principles of government. What is concerned in everything from instituting fundamental laws ofgovernment, differentiating and rectifying the various offices of government, and starting various activitiesaccording to the seasons, to creating institutions and establishing systems, thus covering all the affairs of theworld, is methods of government. The way in which the sage governs the world consists of these two itemsalone. Moral principles are the foundation of government, while methods are the instruments ofgovernment. Neither should be overemphasized or neglected. However, the foundation must first beestablished; only then can instruments be employed. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 8:10) 16. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: Ancient kings governed the world with moral principles,whereas later generations have merely controlled the world with laws and orders. ____________________ 27. Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 8:10) has given as an example of untimely activity Duke Yin's (r. 722-710B.C.) having a wall built around the city in the summer of his 7th year, when people should have beenengaged in farming; as an example of timely activity, Duke Huan's (r. 711-692 B.C.) having a wall built inthe winter of his 16th year; as an example of unrighteous activity, Duke Chuang's (r. 693-660 B.C.) havingthe pillars of a temple painted red instead of the proper color black in order to dazzle his young wife whowas about to visit the temple in his 27th year; as an example of righteous activity,
Duke Chuang's having areception house built for the king's daughter in his first year. See the Tso chuan, sections for the yearsindicated. 28. In most editions this sentence is omitted. 29. For these activities, see the Book of Odes, nos. 299 and 300. -21117. In government administration there must be laws and regulations.30. The first piece of business is toappoint the various officers.31. The reading of moral admonitions by local officials,32. the leveling of prices, andthe careful check of weights and balances must not be omitted. Only when people are affectionate to theirparents can they be affectionate to others beyond their parents.33. Chung-kung34. said, "How do I know themen of virtue and talent so that I may raise them to office?" Confucius said, "Raise to office those whom youknow. As to those whom you do not know, will others neglect them?"35. From this we can see how small Chung-kung was in the exercise of his mind and how great the Sage was in the exercise of his. Extend this principleand we will realize that one thought is enough to ruin a country and one thought is enough to uplift a countryto prosperity.36. The difference lies in whether one is impartial or selfish. Chung-kung was worried because it was impossible to know all the virtuous and talented men of thetime. Hence Confucius gave him this answer. ( Chu Hsi , Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 3, comment on theAnalects, 13:2) Chung-kung wanted to raise the men of virtue and talent throughout the world on the basis of oneperson's knowledge. He therefore thought there were not enough such men. The Grand Master,however, wanted the men of virtue and talent throughout the world to raise all other such men.Therefore he knew there were plenty. Such is the difference between the selfish and the impartialexercise of the mind. When this difference is extended to the extreme,
it can lead to ruining thecountry in one case and to uplifting the country in the other. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 8:11) Someone said, " MasterCh'eng said that by looking at Chung-kung and the Sage we know how great orsmall they were in the exercise of their minds. From this we know that joyfully taking example fromothers to practice virtue was how Shun became a sage.37. If in everything one wants to have his ownwishes, he is truly a selfish inferior man." Chu Hsi said, "From this we can see how small or great sages and worthies are in the exercise of theirminds. Chung-kung said what he said simply because his knowledge was not very broad. The capacityof one's mind is originally great. It becomes small because of selfishness. When the mind becomesextremely beclouded and obstinate, it can ruin a country." ( Chu Hsi , Chu Tzu yü-lei, 43:2b) ____________________ 30. Wen-chang, according to Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:13b), means refinements of the variousgovernmental measures. 31. Quoting the Analects, 13:2. 32. Customarily officers read from various sources and gave moral lessons on New Year's Day and during otherfestivals. 33. Paraphrasing the Book of Rites, "The Evolution of Rites" (sppy, 7:la). Cf. James Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 365. 34. Confucius' pupil.
35. Analects, 13:2. 36. Paraphrasing Ibid., 13:15. 37. See the Book of Mencius, 2A:8. -212Someone asked, "Is it not true that Chung-kung wanted to raise men of talent himself whereas theSage wanted everyone to do so?" Chu Hsi answered, " Chung-kung was merely shortsighted. Being shortsighted, he fell into selfishness.Students have raised doubts because Master Ch'eng went to the extreme in talking about uplifting orruining a country. But he merely meant that it would be true if the principle was extended [to apply togoverning a country]." ( Ibid., 2:a-b) 18. [ CH'ENG I] The way of government may be discussed from the aspect of its fundamentals or from theaspect of its practical affairs. From the aspect of its fundamentals, it is nothing but "rectifying what is wrong inthe ruler's mind"38. and "rectifying one's mind in order to rectify the minds of the officials at court, andrectifying the minds of the officials at court in order to rectify the minds of the various officers."39. From theaspect of its practical affairs, nothing needs to be done if the ruler does not want to save the country. If hewants to save his country, he must effect changes. A great change will yield great benefit and a small changewill yield small benefit.40. 19. [ CH'ENG I] Although the T'ang dynasty [ 618-907] may be described as peaceful, nevertheless it still had abarbarian atmosphere. The Three Bonds41. were incorrect and the proper relations between the ruler and theminister, between the father and the son, and between the husband and the wife disappeared. All thisoriginated with T'ai-tsung [r. 627-49].42. Consequently, the young people of later generations could not beused.43. The ruler no longer
fulfilled the function of a ruler and the minister no longer fulfilled the function of aminister.44. As a result, regional commanders no longer came to court and powerful ministers were defiant. Asthe situation degenerated, there came the chaos of the succeeding Five Dynasties [ 907-60].45. ____________________ 38. Book of Mencius, 4A:20. 39. Tung Chung-shu's words in the Han shu, 56:6b. 40. According to the original source, the I-shu, 15:17a, this is Ch'eng I's saying. 41. Those binding the ruler to the minister, the father to the son, and the husband to the wife, with the ruler,the father, and the husband as the standards. 42. He had his imperial concubines serve his father. 43. In the Yeh Ts'a' text, there is the word chih [to stop, desist] preceding the word shih [to employ, to enable,so that], making the two sentences into one to read "could not desist [from immoral practices], so that theruler..." But as Yi Ik has pointed out ( Kansarok chilsŏ, ch. 8), the word chih is not found in the originalsource, the I-shu, 18:40b. Furthermore, he has added, the original source gives the examples of twoemperors who "used" certain people who rebelled. 44. A number of princes throughout the T'ang dynasty rebelled.
45. The Later Liang ( 907-23), Later T'ang ( 923-36), Later Chin ( 936-47), Later Han ( 947-50), and LaterChou ( 951-60). -213The government of the Han dynasty was superior to that of the T'ang. While in the Han the basic bonds werecorrect and in the T'ang the various governmental measures were carried out, in this dynasty46. the basicbonds are correct but the various governmental measures have not been completely carried oUt.47. 20. [ CH'ENG HAO] If teachers cultivate the people's good mind, evil will naturally disappear. If rulers lead thepeople with reverence and deference, rivalry will naturally stop. 21. MASTER MING-TAO SAID: There must be the ideas expressed in the "Kuan-sui" [Hark! the fish hawk],and the "Lin-chih" [The feet of the unicorn],48. before the laws49. and systems of the Chou kuan [Offices ofChou]50. can be put into practice. The "Kuan-sui" and the "Lin-chih" are both poems in the first section of the Book of Odes. King Wen'sconsorts possessed the virtues of ladylike reserve and modesty, and therefore court poets wrote the"Kuan-sui" poem to praise them. The descendants of King Wen possessed the nature of love andearnestness, and therefore poets composed the "Lin-chih" poem to compare them with the virtuousanimal. The offices of Chou were the six offices described in the Rites of Chou, and laws and systemsmean regulations and institutions of music and ceremonies. To influence people with virtue is thefoundation of government, while laws and systems are the instruments of government. When both areapplied to help each other, government will flourish. But there must first be the idea before the lawscan be put into practice. Otherwise, if there are selfish desires inside, it will be impossible to try topractice humanity and righteousness outside. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chinssu lu chi-chieh, 8:15a-16b)
Mencius said, "Virtue alone is not sufficient for the exercise of government, and laws cannot operateby themselves."51. Master Ch'eng once said, "In government administration there must be laws andregulations. The careful check of weights and balances, the reading of moral admonitions, and theleveling of prices must not be omitted."52. He also said, "There must be the ideas expressed in the'Kuan-sui' and the 'Lin-chih' before the laws and systems of the Chou kuan can be put into practice."He was talking about Mencius' doctrine. ( Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 7, comment on the Book ofMencius, 4A:1) Someone asked, "There must be the ideas of the 'Kuan-sui' and the ____________________ 46. The Sung. 47. In the I-shu, 18:40b, this is Ch'eng I's saying. 48. Titles of odes nos. 1 and 11 in the Book of Odes. See below, ch. 11, sec. 8. 49. Fa means both "method" and "law." 50. For this Classic, see above, ch. 3, n. 154. 51. Book of Mencius, 4A: 1. 52. See above, sec. 17.
-214'Lin-chih' before the laws and systems of the Chou kuan can be put into practice. Does this merelymean that there must be sincerity of the will so one can always be trusted?" Chu Hsi answered, "Beginning with the small and intimate life with one's wife, one must accumulateand spread his overflowing influence so that not a single person or a single thing in the world canescape it. Only then can one put into practice the laws and systems of the Chou kuan." ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 96:13b-14a) 22. [ CH'ENG I] "If the ruler is humane, all will be humane. If the ruler is righteous, all will be righteous."53.Whether the world is peaceful or chaotic depends on whether the ruler is humane or not. If he departs fromhumanity and becomes wrong, whatever arises from his mind will be harmful to his government.54. IS itnecessary to wait till he has it acted out? Mencius saw the king of Ch'i three times and did not mention governmental affairs. His pupils were puzzled.Mencius said, "I first of all attack his evil mind."55. Only when the mind is correct can affairs of the world beput in order. When there are mistakes in government or wrong appointments to government positions, theruler who knows them will correct them and the straightforward minister will admonish the ruler. When theevil mind has been retained, if there is only a single mistake, the situation can be saved and the mistakecorrected. But there can be no salvation from the many mistakes that will follow. To rectify what is wrong inthe ruler's mind so that it is always correct --who but the great man can do it?56. 23. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID: When [ Confucius] talked about ruling a country of athousand chariots,57. he did not mention ceremonies, music, punishment, or governmental measures, butinstead said, "Be economical in expenditure and love the people. Employ the people at the proper seasons."58.He meant that, if this is done, laws will operate. Otherwise, laws cannot operate by themselves. Ceremonies,music, punishment, and governmental measures are but specific items of systems.
____________________ 53. Book of Mencius, 4A:20. 54. Ibid., 2A:2. 55. This story is told in the Hsün Tzu, ch. 27 (SPTK, 19:13a), where the king is identified as King Hsüan (r. 342-324 B.C.). 56. Paraphrasing the Book of Mencius, 4A:20. In the original source, the Waishu, 6:10a, this is given as Ch'engI's saying. 57. A country of a duke, which had the capacity of a thousand military chariots. 58. Analects, 1:5. -21524. When laws are established and obeyed, virtue will continue for long and our heritage will be great.59. Thelicentious songs of the state of Cheng and the talk of clever people could make the ruler lose whatever moralprinciples he held on to. Therefore [ Confucius wanted rulers to] banish the songs and keep far away from theclever talkers.60. 25. In reply to Fan Sun-chih's61. letter Master Heng-ch'ü said, "Rulers consider the learning of the Way and themethods of government as two different things. This is something that has given us concern from ancient timeson. Suppose Confucius and Mencius were alive today, would you say that they would extend what they hadlearned and apply it to the world or would they reluctantly apply what they did not care to do to the world?
When the learning of the Way and the methods of government are divorced, both of them will bewrong. If Confucius and Mencius were alive today, they certainly would extend what they had learnedand apply it to the world, and they certainly would not consider the methods of government to benone of their business and reluctantly apply them to the world. ( Yeh Ts'al, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,8:14) "Generally speaking, rulers and prime ministers regard being parents to the world as the kingly way. If theycannot extend this parental mind to the people, can their way be called the kingly way? What is called theparental mind is not merely shown in words. It must regard the people within the four seas as its own children.If all within the four seas are treated like one's own children, the methods of government will certainly notconsist of a poverty of kindness as in the cases of the Ch'in [ 221-206 B.C.] and the Han or a pretense ofpracticing humanity and righteousness as in the cases of the Five Despots.62. Please tell the officers at court: 'Itis not enough to remonstrate with a ruler for the wrong employment of ministers, or to blame him for themistakes in government.'63. If they can enable their ruler to love the people in the world as his infants, thevirtue of his rule will be daily renewed, people presented to serve the government ____________________ 59. Paraphrasing the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 1. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 349. 60. Analects, 15:10. 61. See above, ch. 2, sec. 91. His letter is no longer extant. 62.
These despots were: Duke Huan of Ch'i (r. 685-643 B.C.), Duke Wen of Chin (r. 636-628 B.C.), Duke Mu ofCh' in (r. 659-619 B.C.), King Chuang of Ch'u (r. 613-589 B.C.), and Duke Hsiang of Sung (r. 650-635 B.C.). 63. Book of Mencius, 4A:20. -216will be talented scholars, the way ot ancient Rings and emperors wil be fulfilled without going astray, and boththe learning of the Way and the methods of government will be achieved without a divided mind." This is to say that learning and the methods of government cannot be separated. If separated, bothwill become wrong. The learning of Confucius and Mencius is the same as their achievements. Tomanifest the clear character is fundamental and to give new life to the people is secondary.64. But thefundamental and the secondary are basically one thread that runs through all. When there is the totalsubstance, there will surely be the great functioning. Only when the ruler possesses the character ofHeaven can he practice the kingly way. If rulers and prime ministers regard being parents to theworld as the kingly way, they will love the people as infants. They will regulate the land system andreduce taxes in order to make them rich and will promote education and make clear ceremonies andmoral principles in order to teach them. They will not repeat the cruelty and the poverty of kindnessof the Ch'in and the Han or the Five Despots' manipulation for profit under the pretense of practicingrighteousness. If the mind of sincerity and love is earnestly and compassionately realized, the virtue ofgovernment will be daily renewed and those in office will all be talented scholars. There are not twominds, one for today's method of government and the other for everyday learning. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lufa-ming, 8:14b) ____________________ 64.
According to the text of the Great Learning, the way of learning to be great includes these two things. -217IX: SYSTEMS AND INSTITUTIONS YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: The Methods of Government. 27 sections. In this chapter, themethods of government are discussed. Although the fundamentals of government are established, theinstruments of government must not be wanting. If any of the ceremonies, music, laws, and governmentalmeasures is inadequate, it will be impossible to achieve complete success in government. 1. MASTER LIEN-HSI [CHOU TUN-I] SAID: In ancient times, sage-kings instituted ceremonies andpromoted moral education. They rectified the Three Bonds1. and put in order the Nine Categories.2.Consequently, all people were in perfect harmony and all things were in concord. Thereupon the sagekingscreated music to give expression to the winds coming from the eight directions3. and to appease the feelings ofthe people. This is the reason why the sound of music is calm and not hurtful, and is harmonious without beinglicentious. As it enters the ear and affects the heart, everyone becomes calm and peaceful. Because of calmness,one's desires will be appeased, and because of harmony, one's impetuousness will disappear. Peace, calmness,and moderation -- these are the heights of virtue. As the world is transformed and brought to completion,4.government reaches its perfection. ____________________ 1. See above, ch. 8, n. 41. 2. The first category is the Five Agents or Five Elements; namely, Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and Earth. Thesecond is the Five Activities: appearance, speech, seeing, hearing, and thinking. The third is the EightGovernmental Offices: those of food, commodities, sacrifices, public works, education, justice, the
receptionof guests, and the army. The fourth is the Five Arrangements of Time: the year; the month; the day; thestars, planets, and zodiacal signs; and the calendaric calculations. The fifth is the Supreme Standardestablished by the sovereign. The sixth is the Three Virtues: correctness and uprightness, stronggovernment, and weak government. The seventh is the Examination of Doubts, as in divination and thecalculation of the passage of events. The eighth is the General Verification, that is, checking governmentalmeasures against natural phenomena. The ninth is the Five Blessings: longevity, wealth, physical andmental health, the cultivation of excellent virtue, and an end crowning a good life. These are outlined in theBook of History, "Great Norm." Cf. James Legge, tr., Shoo King, pp. 324-43. 3. People's sentiments. 4. According to Chu Hsi's commentary on Chou Tun-i T'ung-shu, ch. 17, chung [middle] should read ch'eng[to complete]. -218This is what is meant by moral principles which match Heaven and Earth and which are the ultimate standardof the ancients.5. Later generations have neglected ceremonies. Their governmental measures and laws have been in disorder.Rulers have indulged their material desires without restraint, and consequently the people below them havesuffered bitterly. Rulers claimed that ancient music is not worth listening to and replaced it by or changed itinto modern music, which is seductive, licentious, depressive, and complaining. It arouses desires andincreases bitterness without end. Therefore there have been cases of people destroying their rulers, castingaway their fathers, taking life lightly, and ruining human relations, and it has been impossible to put an end tosuch atrocities. Alas! Ancient music appeased the heart but modern music enhances desires. Ancient musicspread civilizing influence but modern music increases discontent. To hope for
perfect government withoutrestoring ancient ceremonies and changing modern music is to be far off the mark. 2. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID TO THE EMPEROR: The foundation of government is tomake public morals and customs correct and to get virtuous and talented men to serve. The first thing to do ispolitely to order the virtuous scholars among close attendants, and all officers, to search wholeheartedly forthose whose moral characters and achievements are adequate as examples and teachers, and then for thosewho are eager to learn and have good ability and fine character. Invite them, appoint them, and have themcourteously sent to the capital where they will gather. Let them discuss correct learning with each other frommorning to evening. The moral principles to be taught must be based on human relations and must make clearthe principles of things. The teaching, from the elementary training of sweeping the floor and answeringquestions on up, must consist in the cultivation of filial piety, brotherly respect, loyalty, and faithfulness, as wellas proper behavior and the qualities derived from ceremonies and music. There must be a proper pace andorder in inducing, leading, arousing, and gradually shaping the students and in bringing their character tocompletion. The essential training should be the way of choosing the good and cultivating the self until thewhole world is transformed and brought to perfection so that all people from the ordinary person up canbecome sages. Those whose learning and conduct completely ____________________ 5. Paraphrasing the Lao Tzu, ch. 68. -219fulfill this standard are people of perfect virtue. Select students of ability and intelligence, who are capable ofadvancing toward the good, to study under them every day. Choose graduates of brilliant learning and highvirtue to be professors at the national university and send the rest to teach in various parts of the country.
In selecting students, let county schools promote them to prefecture schools, and let prefecture schools presentthem, as though presenting guests, to the national university. Let them come together and be taught there.Each year the superior graduates will be recommended to the government for service. All scholars are to be chosen to serve on the basis of their correct and pure character, their filial piety andbrotherly respect demonstrated at home, their sense of integrity, shame, propriety, and humility, theirintelligence and scholarship, and their understanding of the principles of government.6. If scholars are chosen this way, they will understand principle and they will be suitable for service. Based ontheir own persons, their influence will be extended throughout the world. This method of choosing scholars isquite different from that of later generations which relies on flowery compositions and memorization of theClassics. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:3) 3. Master Ming-tao discussed ten points: namely, teachers, the Six Offices,7. boundaries, communityrelations, the presentation of scholars, military service, food supply, the Four Peoples,8. natural resources(which concerned the office in charge of preserving mountains and rivers),9. and the distinctions andquantities (ranks and differentiations with regard to carriages, dresses, and utensils in capping ceremonies,weddings, funerals, and religious sacrifices).10. He said, "Regardless of past or present, and times of peace or chaos, when the principles of people's livelihoodcome to an end, the system of ancient sagekings may be changed. If later generations can practice the systemfully, there will be great peace, and if they practice it partly, there will be small peace. This has been clearlydemonstrated generation after generation. Merely to adhere rigidly to the past and ____________________ 10. In some editions, excerpts on each of these ten points from the Ming- tao wellchi, 2:6b-7b, have beenadded as notes.
6. This informal memorial was presented to the emperor in 1068 when Ch'eng was a censor-at-large. 7. For these see above, ch. 3, n. 154. 8. The Four Peoples are the scholars, the farmers, the artisans, and the merchants. 9. This and the next insertion are Chu Hsi's notes. -220not to know how to apply the system to the present, to wish to follow the name of the system but to sacrifice itsreality: this is the view of vulgar scholars. How can they be qualified to talk about the way of government?However, if it is said that human sentiments and customs today are all different from those of the past and thatno trace of the system of ancient kings can now be seen, so that it is better to do what is convenient for themoment and not to engage in anything lofty, such a theory, I am afraid, is something that will not lead to greataccomplishments and it is something that can not remove great troubles today."11. These ten points concern managing the country and governing the people. The functions of teachers are toteach and to lead. They are indispensable to all, from the emperor down to the common people, for they enablethem to perfect their virtues and accomplish their tasks. The Six Offices are the offices of heaven, earth, andthe four seasons, which have been in existence since the time of the Two Emperors and the Three Kings.12.They are to discharge separately the various duties of government. By boundaries is meant the delineation offiefs and plantations as well as water courses and marshes. They set the patterns for the division anddelineation of land into squares13. to give
the people a fixed livelihood. Community relations refer to therelations of communities of five, 25, 100, 2,500, and 12,500 families within the extensive city limit andcommunities of 100 and 12,500 families outside the city limit.14. The purpose is to make them friendly,peaceful, and easy to govern. The presentation of scholars means to educate able young men in the schools, topromote them from counties to prefectures, and from prefectures, sending them like guests to the nationaluniversity, so that human relations will be clarified and the whole world will be transformed and perfected.Military service means to train farmers as military reserves, and to offer military training as preparation forany emergency but not to be haughty with military force, to harm the people, or to waste the national strength,which would result in great trouble. In food supply for the people, keep one out of three portions, or three out ofnine, as reserve; equalize land and maintain a substantial reserve to prepare for the time of need. The FourPeoples are the scholar, the farmer, the artisan, and the merchant, each with his regular occupation. Money isto be kept in circulation. Idle and lazy people are to be warned. In providing work for the people, thefundamental is to be emphasized while the secondary is to be reduced, so that food and clothing for the peoplecan easily be provided. Natural resources are to be protected through constant prohibition and to be enrichedall the time so that they will last long, their ____________________ 11. This memorial was presented to the emperor in 1069 when Ch'eng was undersecretary of the heir apparentin the left secretariat and concurrently censor-at-large. 12. See above, ch. 3, sec. 47. 13. See below, n. 71. 14.
These are merely some examples of ancient communities. Five families make a hamlet, five hamlets make aprecinct, five precincts make a village, five villages make a neighborhood, five neighborhoods make a town,and five towns make a district. -221supply will be plentiful, and the wealth produced from them will be abundant. With reference to distinctionsand quantities, carriages, dresses, and utensils in capping ceremonies, weddings, funerals, and religioussacrifices are differentiated according to rank. This is to distinguish the high from the low and to fix the mindsof the people so they will regulate themselves and will not dare overstep. All these ten points are importantmatters in government. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:4a) 4.Master I-ch'uan [Ch'eng I] presented a memorial to the emperor which says: "During the Three Dynasties,15.a ruler always had a grand preceptor, a grand protector, and a grand tutor.16. The grand preceptor led andtaught him. The grand tutor helped him to advance in virtue. And the grand protector protected his health.17.Later generations lack a foundation for their actions. They know how to look for the way of government but donot know how to correct their rulers. They know how to admonish their rulers for their mistakes but not how tocultivate their virtue. The way of helping the ruler to advance in virtue has of course already been neglected,while the method of protecting the ruler's health does not exist at all. In your humble servant's opinion, the wayto help the ruler advance in virtue is to prevent him from seeing and hearing the wrong things and to check hisexcessive desires, and the way to protect his health is to provide him with suitable things for his daily life andto make him always cautious and careful. Now that the offices of the grand protector and the grand tutor areno longer established, these duties have fallen on the expositor of the office for Classics. I beg Your Majesty tolet the expositor know what you say, what you do, how you dress, and what you eat in the palace. In case of anyplayful acts like cutting the leaf of a paint tree,18. the expositor may remonstrate with you and advise you as thematter arises. If your Majesty should fail to follow the proper methods of cultivating or nourishing yourself, hewill advise you and stop you immediately." (In the I-
shu [Surviving Works] it is also said, "I once said to theemperor, 'I wish Your Majesty would spend much time during the day in associating with virtuous scholars andgreat officers ____________________ 15. The Hsia, the Shang, and the Chou. 16. They were called the Three Ministers. 17. Paraphrasing the Han shu, 48:17b. 18. When King Ch'eng (r. 1104- 1068 B.C.) was a boy and was playing with his younger brother, he cut a leaf ofthe paint (t'ung) tree in the shape of the jade baton which used to be conferred upon feudal princes by theemperor, and said that with it he was enfeoffing the younger brother. When Shih-i, an official who wasregarded as a sage, heard of it, he said that a king should not say anything as a joke. At his request, the fiefwas made official. For this story see the Lü-shih ch'un-ch'iu, ch. 18, sec. 2 (SPPY, 18:3b), the Shuo-yüan,1:6a-b, and the Shih chi, 39: 1b. -222and little time with eunuchs and ladies of the palace. This is the way to cultivate one's physical nature and todevelop one's moral character.'")19. 5.Master I-ch'uan's report on the thorough investigation of the regulations of the three-school system20. says:"In the [present] traditional system, not a month passes without some private or public examination andpromotion.21. A school is a place where moral principles should be given priority. Now students are told tocompete every month, which is certainly not the way to educate or cultivate them. I beg to substitute class workfor the examinations.
If the work is deficient, let the instructor call the students in and teach them, but thereshould be no more examinations to determine the rank of students. Set up a hall for honoring the worthy andinvite virtuous scholars throughout the country to come. Erect a hall for guests and for model officials. Adoptways and means to examine the conduct of scholar- officials." ____________________ 19. Original note in the text. This passage Is not now found in the I-shu but appears with some variations in theWen-chi, 2:2b. It is also quoted in Chu Hsi's Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 11, comment on the Book of Mencius,6A:9. This informal memorial was presented to the emperor In 1086. Ch'eng Hao had been appointed juniorexpositor in waiting earlier in the year. It was the second of his three Informal memorials. Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:4) was wrong in saying that it was the first. 20. Many commentators and translators are confused over the three-school system. Some, like Miyake Shōsai (Kinshi roku hikki, ch. 9), Chiba Jūsal ( Kinshi roku kōgi, ch. 9), Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimōkukai, p. 336), Kondō and Iimajima ( Kinshi roku kōgi), and Hayashi Taisuke ( Kinshi roku, p. 274), saythat these refer to the national university, the law school, and the military school. Some, like SakuradaKomon ( Kinshi roku tekisetsu, 9:32b) and Hsiung Kang-ta ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:1a), think they werethe national university, the privy school, and the military school. This is followed by Father Graf ( Djin-sï lu,III, 423-24), except that he has mistakenly given the college of literature instead of the national university.Others, notably Sata Issal ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 9), who is aware of this explanation, but does notknow the origin of the theory and does not accept it, and Akitzuki Kazutzugu ( Kinshi roku, p. 270),understand them as the county school, the prefectural school, and the national university. Asami Keisai (Kinshi roku shisetsu), Ochiai Tōtei ( Kinshi roku kōgi, ch. 9), and Sawada Takeoka ( Kinshi rokusetsuryaku, 9:7b), and others think they are the same as the
three residences mentioned below. YanadaKatsunobu ( Kinshi roku, p. 775) even says that they are the hall for honoring the worthy, the guest hall, andthe hall for model officials mentioned below. Yi Hwang (quoted by Kim Changsaeng , Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, in theSagye sŏnsaeng chŏnsŏ, 19:32b) thinks they are the divisions of the national university under thedirectorate of education, and Kel Hyakunen ( Kinshi roku yoshi, ch. 9) thinks they are merely three schools.If one consults Ch'eng I's report in full in the Wen-chi, 3:1a-b, one will find that the three-school system isdiscussed under the three heads of the national university, the law school, and the military school, in threeconsecutive paragraphs. 21. "Private examination" means an examination given by an instructor who did not need to secure previouspermission from above, whereas a public examination required such permission. For promotions, see thefollowing note. -223He also said:"In the Yüan-feng period [ 1078-85], a system to entice students with benefits was instituted. Thequota for students in the national university has reached five hundred. Those who come run about on the road,neglect the support of their parents, and forget the affection of their brothers. They come and go and stay awayfrom home. Man's mind has become increasingly careless and the scholar's way of behavior has becomeincreasingly frivolous. I recommend that a quota of one hundred be kept, and that the other four hundred bedistributed among those prefectures whose quota is small. Then scholars will naturally be happy in their nativedistricts, cultivate their feelings of filial piety and love, and stop their desires to drift and wander. Socialcustoms should also become more genuine and sincere." He further said: "The system of filling the quota in the three residences through promotion22. is intended toexamine the literary products and the external deeds of the students. This is the function of governmentofficials and not an educational institution's way of cultivating the talented or selecting the gifted.
To examine their literary products without looking into their solid substance and to observe their externaldeeds without looking into their minds are not the way to cultivate talent or to select the gifted. ( Yeh Ts'ai,Chin-ssu lu chichieh, 9:6) "The way the government enforces regulations is to extend them all the way down. Officials merely have tofollow them and cannot have any initiative. Consequently things are done by lower officials who can thuscontrol their superiors. This is why later generations have not been well governed. "Someone may say, 'If qualified men are found to become officials and their assistants, government will begood. But if the wrong people have been chosen, it is better to take great care to prevent trouble, and the statusquo may still be preserved.' He does not realize that when ancient kings made regulations, they depended ongood men to make them work. I have never heard that they made regulations with the ____________________ 22. This concerns the national university. Students sent from the various districts were first housed in the"outer residence." They were examined each month in a private examination, and those who passed werepromoted to the "inner residence." Once a year, students in the "inner residence" were examined in a publicexamination, and those who passed were promoted to the "upper residence." Every other year thesestudents were examined publicly and those who passed were appointed to governmental positions. For adescription of the system, see the Sung shih, ch. 157. -224assumption that no qualified person would be found to enforce them. If officials and their assistants are not theright men, they will be ignorant of the principles of education, and will merely adhere to the meaningless letterand follow intricate regulations. Will they really be capable of developing talent?"23.
6.[Ch'eng I's] biographical account of Master Ming-tao says: "When the Master was magistrate of Chin-ch'engin Che-chou,24. whenever citizens came to the capital to see him on business, he always told them about thevirtues of filial piety, brotherly respect, loyalty, and faithfulness, and how to serve one's parents when at homeand serve one's elders when abroad. In accordance with the distances of the communities, he organized theminto units of five families and twenty-five families, to enable them to help each other in physical labor and tocome to each other's relief in case of difficulty, and to make it impossible for the treacherous and wicked tohide in their midst. In cases of the orphaned, desolate, and deformed, he assigned their relatives and fellowmembers of the community the responsibility to see to it that they would not be without a place to go. Whentravelers passing through his district became sick, they were all taken care of. All communities had a school.When he had time, he personally went there to invite elders to come and talk to him. He personally correctedthe punctuation of the books which the children read. If teachers were not good, he had them replaced. Heselected the talented among the young people, gathered them together, and had them educated. When peopleof the communities formed an organization, he drew up regulations for them that made clear anddistinguished between good and evil so the people might be encouraged to do good and be ashamed to do evil." 7. The text of the hexagram ts'ui [to collect] says: "The king will go to his ancestral temple."25. Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "The multitude are many in number, and yet they can be united to look upto the king. No ____________________ 23. On the twelfth day of the fifth month of the first year of the Yüan-yu period ( 1086), as junior expositor inwaiting, Ch'eng I was appointed with several others to study the three-school system started by Wang An-shih. (For Wang, see below, n. 55.) The minister of rites, contending that the existing system was goodenough, rejected his recommendation as unsound and said that Ch'eng I should not be allowed to stay in thegovernment.
24. A prefecture, now Chin-ch'eng County, Shansi Province. Ch'eng Hao was magistrate from 1065 to 1068. 25. Book of Changes, hexagram no. 45. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 156. -225one knows the direction in which the human mind goes, but its sincerity and reverence can be fully extended.Spiritual beings are unfathomable, but they can be made to come and be influenced. "There is more than one way to collect the minds of the world and to unify and control them, and the best is togo to the imperial ancestral temple. Therefore, among the ways in which the true king unites the people, goingto the imperial ancestral temple is the best. People are not the same in their inclinations and disinclinations, but they all look up to spiritualbeings. The human mind goes out and comes in at no definite time, but in serving spiritual beings itis naturally sincere and reverent to the highest degree. This means that, while people's minds may bescattered, they are united in religious sacrifices. We look for spiritual beings but do not see them. Welisten for them but do not hear them. But when we fast and purify ourselves and put on the richestdresses to perform sacrifices to them, they seem to be present like the spread of flowing water.26.They can be made to come and be influenced. This means that, while spiritual beings wander and arescattered, they often come together in the ancestral temple. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:8) Rites in the ancestral temple are ways to collect the spirit of one person. Since the sacrifices to heavenand earth are extended throughout the world, they are the way to collect the spirit of the entire world.( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:a-b) "The principle of showing gratitude to one's ancestors through sacrificial rites is rooted in the human mind.Sages instituted the rites merely to bring virtue
to perfection. Even the wolf and the otter can performsacrificial rites.27. It is their nature that makes them do so." 8. In ancient times, frontier guards returned home after two years of service. A group would start for thenorthern frontier at the end of spring.28. In the following year another group would arrive in the summer tosubstitute for them. The first group would stay to prepare for the autumn defense, and would start for home atthe end of the eleventh month.29. In the middle of spring30. in the following year, a third group of guards wouldbe dispatched.31. Thus each year in autumn ____________________ 26. Paraphrasing the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 16. 27. According to the Book of Rites, "Monthly Orders" (SPPY, 5:2a, 20b; Legge, tr., Li Ki, II, 251 and 292), theotter performs sacrifices to fish in the first month of spring and the wolf sacrifices to animals in the lastmonth of autumn. They eat only part of their prey and move around what is left in a rather ceremoniousmanner. Moralistic Confucianists have taken this to mean that they are performing religious rites. 28. Arriving there in the summer. 29. Arriving home early in the following year, and thus being absent from home for almost two years. 30. In the original source, the Ching shuo, 3:19b, following this there is the phrase, "until the end of spring." 31.
Arriving in the summer before the second company left. -226and the beginning of winter there would be two groups of frontier guards on the border.32 This is the system ofautumn defense today. 9. The sage ruler was in accord with the seasons in everything he did. This was why he closed the frontier passon the winter solstice.33 10. As for Han Hsin,34 the more soldiers he had, the better he could handle them. This was so simply becausehe made the differentiation in ranks and the number of troops on various levels very clear. Ranks refer to the hierarchy under one's control and number refers to the number of troops. Whenthese are clear, there will be system and order in the mutual dealings between superiors and inferiors.Those under control may increase in number, but those in control remain few. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu luchi-chieh, 9:8) 11. MASTER I-CH'UAN SAID: To govern people there must be a system. It will not do merely to be stern.Suppose there is a commander of ten thousand soldiers who can make a thousand people have their meals atregular hours. How many people can do so? It has been said that when an alarm spread through his camp atnight, Ya-fu lay still and did not get Up.35 It was good for him not to get up. But nonetheless why was there analarm at night? After all, his leadership, was not perfect. 12. In order to control the minds of the people, unify one's kin, and enrich social customs so that people will notforget their origin, it is ____________________ 32 .Autumn defense required a double force because the northern tribes could not endure the summer heatand fought better in the autumn. Besides, bows and arrows worked more efficiently because of the weather. 33
.On this day the yang force begins to rise but is still weak. Merchants should rest instead of traveling. 34 . Han Hsin (d. 196 B.C.) at first followed Hsiang Yü ( 232-202 B.C.), king of Ch'u. Later he fled to joinHsiang Yü's opponent, king of Han, who made him a general. After the king of Han overcame Hsiang Yüand established the Han dynasty, he made Han Hsin prince of Ch'i in 203 B.C. and then prince of Ch'u ayear later. In 196 B.C., while the new emperor was suppressing a rebellion, Han was executed by order of theempress because he was plotting a revolt. For his biography, see the Shih chi, 92:1a-21b ( Burton Watson,tr., Records of the Grand Historian of China, I, 208-32) and the Han shu, 34:1a-13b. Once Han remarked tothe emperor, "Your Majesty can only command ten thousand soldiers." When he was asked how many hecould command, he answered, "The more the better." See the Shih chi, 92:18a ( Watson, Records, I, 229)and the Han shu, 34:12b. 35 . Chou Ya-fu (d. 143 B.C.) was ordered by Emperor Ching (r. 156-141 B.C.) to suppress the rebellion of theseven princes. When an alarm spread through his army camp and reached his own tent, he lay still and didnot get up. Order was soon restored. See the Han shu, 40:28a and the Shih chi, 57:9a ( Watson, Records, I,436). -227necessary to clarify genealogy, group members of the clan together, and institute a system of heads of descent.(This work should be done year by year.)36 In ancient times, the eldest son and the eldest grandson of a feudal lord successively became rulers.His younger sons could not sacrifice to him as the head of their descent. Each of them thereforeestablished himself as the head of his own branch. His descendants throughout a hundred generationsregarded him as the head of their descent. This is called the great branch of descent.
Members of theclan, even outside of five generations, wore mourning dresses for him for three months. His younger sons in turn established their own small branches of descent. These were four in number.Among these descendants the eldest son who continued the ancestry from his great-great-grandfatherdown became the head of the branch that included all his third cousins. The eldest son who continuedthe ancestry from his great-grandfather down became the head of the branch that included all hissecond cousins. The eldest son who continued the ancestry from his grandfather down became thehead of the branch that included all his first cousins. And the eldest son who continued the ancestry ofhis father became the head of the branch that included all his brothers. Each person was thus amember of four branches. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chichieh, 9:9) If a ruler wants to control the minds of the people and unify the feeling of love among the kin in orderto enrich the influence of social customs so that people will not forget their origin, he must clarify thegenealogical records so that the branches of descent may become clear, group members of the clantogether, and institute a system of heads of descent. Then everyone will honor his ancestors. Each willhave a place to belong to and his feelings and ideas will not wander aimlessly. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:11 a) Since in later generations the feudal system has not continued to operate, the sytem of younger sonsbecoming heads of descent and their descendants forming separate branches has been workable onlyamong those with hereditary official positions. Among the common people, because many generationshave elapsed, it is difficult for this system to work. At present in some cases the head of the greatbranch is asked to head up the ancestral sacrifices. But there is no way to maintain the practice.Because of poverty the head of the great branch may leave no posterity or he may be traveling afar orhe may be a wicked person and therefore not qualified to be the head of his branch. Thus the practicecannot be maintained for long. The only thing to do is to establish an ancestral temple and to makethe genealogy clear so that people know how to honor their ancestors and group members of the clantogether. In that case, although the system of heads of descent may not be
operating, there will still beorder. Kin will not be scattered and social customs will be enriched. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 9:4b) ____________________ 36 .Original note in the I-shu, 6:46. -22813.If the system of heads of descent were destroyed, people would not know their origin. The result would bethat they would drift and wander in all directions. Very often there would still be relatives but they would notrecognize them. Now let one or two families of high officials try the system. The system must be such that it canbe firmly adhered to. Let the practice resemble that of the T'ang dynasty, that is, establishing ancestral templesand halls of fasting.37 In addition, ancestral property must not be divided but must be put in charge of oneperson. 14. In the family regulations, there should be a provision for a monthly meeting to get the kin together. In thepast the Wei family had an arrangement of clan banquets under blossoming trees.38 They should serve as amodel. Whenever relatives come from afar, there should also be such a banquet. On auspicious andinauspicious occasions and at weddings and the like, kinsmen should so much the more participate in suchrites, so that the feeling of blood relationship circulates among them. The reason blood relatives graduallybecome less and less intimate is that they do not see each other often enough and have gotten out of touch. 15. Cappings, weddings, funerals, and sacrifices are important ceremonies, a fact people today generally do notunderstand. The wolf and the otter both know how to show gratitude to their ancestors,39 but today thefamilies of officials mostly neglect doing so. It is exceedingly wrong to be generous in serving one's parents butsparing in sacrificing to one's ancestors.
I once worked on the essentials of the Six Ceremonies.40 According to these, each family should have anancestral temple. (The common people should have halls with ancestral portraits rather than temples.)41 ____________________ 37 .According to the T'ang system, halls of fasting were built outside the east gate of the wall surrounding thetemple. 38 .According to Wang Ying-lin (1223- 96), K'un-hsüeh chi-wen, 18:8a, nothing is known of Wei except that hewas an assistant departmental chief. Ts'en Ts'an (715-70) wrote a poem about his banquets. See Ts'en Ts'an,Ts'en Chiachou shih, 2:1a. For a partial translation of the poem, see W. J. B. Fletcher, Gems of ChineseVerses, p. 153. Kondō and Iimajima (Kinshi roku kōgi) have offered no evidence for their assertion that theblossoming tree was a cherry tree. 39 .See above, sec. 7. 40 .Cappings, weddings, funerals, sacrifices, community feasting, and formal interviews. Only part of his workon these ceremonies has survived. It constitutes ch. 6 of his Wen-chi. 41 .All passages In parentheses in this section are Ch'eng I's own notes, slightly modified and supplemented byChu Hsi. -229In the temple there should be tablets. (The great-great-grandfather and those above him should be sacrificed toin the grand temple. The form of the tablets may be found in my Wen-chi.42 Today people sacrifice to ancestralportraits.
Sometimes the likeness bears no resemblance to the ancestor. In such cases, the sacrifice is made notto the ancestor but to someone else. This is most inappropriate.) In the sacrifice on the first of the month,always offer fresh food. (The food is eaten only after it has been offered to the ancestors.) Use the second monthof each season for seasonal sacrifices. (These sacrifices stop with the great-great-grandfather. Those withoutdescendants should be sacrificed to before other altars.) In the winter solstice, sacrifice should be made to thefirst ancestor. (The winter solstice is the beginning of yang and the first ancestor is the progenitor of all. Notablet is necessary but an altar is to be set up for him in the proper place in the temple and is sacrificed toalong with one's deceased parents.) In the first day of spring, sacrifice is made to the early ancestors. (Thebeginning of spring is the time when all living things begin. By early ancestors is meant those between the firstancestor and the great-greatgrandfather, rather than any particular person. There need not be any tablet toeither but two altars are to be set up, and they are to be sacrificed to separately from one's deceased parents.)In the autumn, sacrifice is offered to one's deceased father. (The autumn is the time when things arecompleted.) On his death anniversary, his tablet is to be moved to the central hall and to be sacrificed to there. Seasonal sacrifices mean the sacrifices in the four seasons. The way of heaven changes every threemonths. As the times change, it is man's natural feeling to think of his ancestors. Therefore sacrificesshould be offered in the four seasons. The second month is chosen because it is the middle of theseason. The winter solstice is the time when the material force of yang begins. The first ancestor is thebeginning of the life of descendants. To offer sacrifice at this time is to signify the desire to showgratitude to one's origin and to return to one's origin. In the beginning of spring the vital force ofliving things in the universe is growing. Sacrifices to the ancestors between the first ancestor and thegreat-great-grandfather should take place at this time in order to express the idea of unceasingproduction and reproduction. The autumn is the time when the ten thousand things in the universeare brought to full development. One's own person comes from one's father. Choosing this particulartime to offer sacrifice to one's deceased father suggests the idea that all treasures are now completeand reminds one of his
____________________ 42 . Wen-chi, 6:6a-b. -230father's kindness in nourishing him and bringing him up. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,9:12b) In observing the rites of sacrificing to the dead, one should be more generous than in serving the living. If afamily can observe these several items, even its children can be made gradually to understand moral principles. 16. The saying "Select the burial place by divination"43 means to foretell whether the location is good or not. Ifit is, the spirit of the deceased will be at peace and his descendants will thrive. How can a place be consideredgood? If the color of the soil is bright and rich and plants flourish there, they are evidence that the location isgood. But superstitious people are deluded. They would choose a location according to the direction of thegrave or according to whether the day of burial is auspicious or not. In extreme cases, they would not eventhink of serving the dead but would be mindful purely of the benefits to the descendants. This is especiallycontrary to the filial son's purpose in laying his deceased parent to rest. However, one must be careful andavoid five dangers. One must be sure that the location will not become part of a road in the future, that it willnot be included in a suburb, that it will not become part of a ditch or a pool, that it will not be taken away bypowerful people, and that it will not become part of a farm. (One edition mentions these five dangers: [Avoidbecoming part of] (1) a suburb, (2) a ditch or a pool, (3) or a road. (4) Avoid a village. (5) And be far fromkilns.)44 17. CHENG-SHU45 SAID: In our family we do not use Buddhist rites in funerals. In Lo-yang one or two familiesalso understand [the errors of Buddhism and do not use its rites]. 18. Since there are no heads of descent today, there are no ministers at court who have come from familiesnoted for generations. If the system of heads of
descent is established, people will know how to honor theirancestors and take their origins seriously. As they take their origins seriously, the power of the court willnaturally be highly respected.46 ____________________ 43 . Book of Filial Piety, ch. 18. Cf. Mary Lelia Makra, tr., The Hsiao Ching, p. 39. 44 .Original note in the I-ch'uan wen-chi, 6:2b. 45 .Ch'eng I's courtesy name. 46 . Since the eldest son would inherit a minister's emolument. -231In ancient times young people followed their elders but now elders follow young people, because they do notknow their origins. Take the case of Kao-tsu of the Han dynasty. When he wanted to occupy the capital ofP'ei,47 he merely wrote its elders a message on silk and they led their young people to submit to him.48 Or takethe case of Ssu-ma Hsiang-ju.49 When he was sent to Shu,50 he also sent a letter admonishing its elders, andonly then did the young people obey their orders and follow him.51 Only when there is a distinction between thesuperior and the inferior, and between the high and the low, can there be obedience without disorder. How canthis be achieved without a system to show where people belong? Furthermore, it is according to the Principle of Nature that there should be a system of the head of descent. Itis like a tree. There must be the main trunk which shoots straight up from the root, and there must also bebranches. It is also like water. No matter how far the water has flowed, it must have its main
source, and theremust also be branches. This is a natural tendency. There are also cases where branches extend to become maintrunks. Therefore it is said, "In ancient times, the emperor established the kingdom and the feudal lords set uptheir own branches of descent."52 The emperor was the head of the empire. He could therefore set up feudal states, give feudal lordsterritory, and order them to worship their ancestors. A feudal lord was the head of a state. Althoughhe was not the head of descent, he could set up a branch of descent, build ancestral temples, anddeclare himself the head of sacrifical rites. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:12) 19. In his description of Master Ming-tao, Hsing Ho-shu53 says: "The Master understood in silence why thegovernments of Emperors Yao, Shun, and the kings of the Three Dynasties were extensive, great, and far-reaching, and why 'their influence flew abroad above and below, like that of Heaven and Earth.'54 As to thefounding of ceremonial and musical institutions and the establishment of social customs, down to the methodsof directing army movements and mapping strategy, he studied all of them and in each case reached thehighest ____________________ 47 .A county in modern Kiangsu Province. 48 .See the Han shu, 1:5b. According to the record, the message was shot over the wall of the city. See HomerH. Dubs, tr., History of the Former Han Dynasty, I, 38-39. 49 .See above, ch. 2, sec. 57. 50 .A district in the modern Ch'eng-tu area, Szechuan Province.
51 .See the Han shu, 57B:1a. 52 .The source of the saying is unknown. The second half appears in the Han shu, 67:13b. 53 .See above, ch. 4, sec. 11. 54 . Book of Mencius, 7A:13. -232excellence. With regard to foreign relations, notably the conditions of barbarians outside; the precarious or safeconditions of mountains, rivers, and roads leading to them, and the essentials of the defense of border towns,building towns for the population and barracks for troops, scouting the enemy, holding him in check, andsetting up a ring of protection, he investigated and knew all about them. He was extremely careful, thorough,and experienced in official decisions and records. The Master may indeed be said to be a scholar of wideattainment and a man of perfect ability." 20. Chieh-fu55 said that laws are comparable to the "eighty percent script."56 This is his insight.57 Wang should have said merely "eighty percent." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:14a) Laws are like the "eighty percent script" because they are deficient as a means of educating andtransforming people. ( Ibid.) "Laws" here means the Hsing-t'ung (Systematic edition of the law code). This is a very goodbook. I believe it has been handed down from dynasty to dynasty. In the [Later] Choudynasty [ 951-62] Emperor Shih-tsung [r. 954- 59] ordered Tou [d. 966] to annotate it. . . .The laws in the Hsing-t'ung are close to
ancient laws. Therefore it is equated with the"eighty percent script." ( Ibid., 128:19b) "This is his insight" means that he realized that laws are specific and clear. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:16a) Question: "By eighty percent does Wang mean that laws are not a hundred percent far-reaching?" ____________________ 55 .Courtesy name of Wang An-shih (1021-86), an outstanding and most unorthodox Neo-Confucianist. As theprime minister from 1069 to 1074, he instituted radical reforms like graduated taxes, price regulation,commodity control, cheap credit to small entrepreneurs, a joint-guarantee system, and cavalry militia.Because of bitter opposition from conservative NeoConfucianists he was demoted to the position of senioracademician. He became prime minister again in 1075 but, encountering further opposition and having lostthe favor of the emperor, Shen-tsung, he was forced to resign and was demoted to become a regionalcommandant in Kiangsi. In the following year he was made a duke. Later he became an assistant to aminister. When the new emperor, Che-tsung (r. 1086-1100), ascended the throne, Wang was appointedminister of the army. Both Ch'eng Hao and Ch'eng I strongly opposed him, but here Ch'eng I approved hiscomment on law. For Wang's biography, see the Sung shih, ch. 327, and for an account of his life and teachings, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, ch. 98. For accounts in English, see H. R. Williamson, Wang An-shih, Chinese Statesmanand Educationalist of the Sung Dynasty, and James C. T. Liu , Reforms in Sung China: Wang An-shih(1021-1086). 56 .A form of script consisting of twenty percent of the "bronze style," which is characterized by curved lines,and eighty percent of the "seal style," which is characterized by angular strokes.
57 .For the inclusion of this section at the suggestion of Lü Tsu-ch'ien, see below, "On the Chin-ssu lu and ItsCommentaries," p. 325. -233Answer: "Laws are to clarify regulations and to prohibit wrongdoing. They are, after all, of some helpin teaching and transforming people. But fundamentally they are deficient to some extent; that is all.The eighty percent represents their good points, the twenty percent their deficiency. The comment,'This is his insight,' is praise, not criticism." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu wen-chi, 58:35a) The "eighty percent script" is a mixture of the "bronze style" and the "seal style," so called because it containstwenty percent of the "bronze style" and eighty percent of the "seal style." Wang An-shih considered the lawcode to be equivalent to the "eighty percent script" because he thought that the present law code contains onlytwenty percent of ancient law. He was criticizing the present law code for its departure from ancient law. In myopinion, his idea was different from that expressed in the commentary.58 ( Satō Issai, Kinshi roku rangaisho,ch. 9) 21. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID: Sages employed military strategy and army regulations withgreat reluctance. Such techniques are found in the records of the Three Kings59 and in the documents of thevarious dynasties. Only a resolute scholar and a man of humanity can see far ahead and know thefundamentals, are always prepared, and dare not neglect anything. The resolute scholar and the man of humanity have a sense of responsibility toward the world andworry lest the world should suffer. They therefore pay attention to military affairs also. Chang Tsaiwas fond of military craft when he was young. He may be said to be one who is always prepared anddoes not neglect anything. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 9:7b)
22. If mutilation can be substituted in some cases for capital punishment today, the death sentence will be lessreadily applied. Besides, we should remember that people have been disorganized for a long time.60 There were five forms of physical punishment, namely, tattooing the face, cutting off the nose,amputation of the feet, castration, and execution. The former four were abolished at the time ofEmperor Wen [r. 179-157 B.C.]. Some say that castration was not abolished. It is Chang Tsai's desireto substitute the four former physical punishments for capital punishment in lighter cases. Besides, itshould be remembered that people's minds have been dissipated for long and must be organized andprotected with ____________________ 58 .This refers to Yeh Ts'ai's commentary ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:13). In this case Yeh said nothing himselfbut quoted Chu Hsi's comment, the last one quoted above. 59 .See above, ch. 3, n. 91. 60 .This is an allusion to the Analects, 19:19, where it is said that, the rulers having failed in their duties, thepeople consequently have been socially and morally disorganized. -234thorough moral education and influence. It is not enough to reduce punishment and to be lenient inthe application of the death sentence. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 9:13) 23. In his biographical account of Master Heng-ch'ü, Lü Yü-shu61 said: "With noble spirit, the Master aimed atthe government of the Three Dynasties. He expressed the opinion that for governing people the urgent task hasalways been to define the boundaries of land. He once said, 'A benevolent
government must begin by layingdown the boundaries.62 If the rich and the poor are not leveled off and people are not educated or supportedproperly, whatever the government hopes for is on a flimsy foundation. People who complain that redefiningboundaries is difficult to carry out have always said that it could be done only if rich people's land was takenaway. But if the system of laying down the boundaries is carried out, many people will be pleased with it. If it ishandled in an expert way, in a few years' time the ancient system63 can be restored without punishing a singleperson. The trouble is that rulers have not tried it.' Thereupon he added, 'Even if it cannot be practicedthroughout the country, it can be still demonstrated in one community.'64 He planned to discuss with otherscholars the ancient system and to buy a piece of land to divide into a number of squares. For the governmentabove, there would then be no loss in revenues or labor service. Privately the scheme would lay the correctboundaries, separate families into hamlets, institute a system of revenue collection, build up an extensive foodreserve, promote education, bring social customs to perfection, save people from natural calamities, pacifythem when they encountered human miseries, and emphasize the fundamental while subordinating thesecondary.65 In this way the system left to us by ancient kings could be extended and be shown to bepracticable today. However, he had no chance to fulfill what he had hoped to do." Question: " Chang Tsai said that, if it is handled in an expert way, in a few years' time the ancientsystem can be restored without punishing a single person. What will the situation be if the 'well-field'system is practiced today?" ____________________ 61 .See above, ch. 2, n. 138. 62 .Quoting the Book of Mencius, 3A: 3. 63
.The "well-field" system. See below, sec. 26. 64 .Similar opinions are expressed in his Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:6b-7b. 65 . Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimō kukai, p. 356) and other Japanese commentators take thefundamental to mean agriculture and the secondary to mean handicraft and commerce, but UtsunomiyaTon'an ( Gotō kinshi roku, 9:18b) is correct in saying that the fundamental and secondary refer to things ingeneral and not to any particular occupation. -235Answer: "When one lectures one can say what he likes. But one must wait for an opportunity beforeone can put the system into practice. Only after a period of great chaos when the population has beenreduced [almost] to nothing and all the land has reverted to the government can the land beredistributed to the people." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:24a) 24. When Master Heng-ch'ü was magistrate of Yün-yen,66 he generally considered emphasis on fundamentalsand promoting good customs as the first things in government. On the first day of each month he held a feastin the hall of the capital building to which elders of the community were invited. He personally poured wine forthem so people could understand the idea of supporting and serving the old. He also took the opportunity toinquire about the citizens' difficulties and told them how to educate their young. The emphasis on fundamentals includes such things as the encouragement of filial piety and brotherlyrespect. Yielding the way and the like are examples of good customs. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 9:71a) 25. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü SAID: In ancient times, "there were the eastern living compound, the western livingcompound, the southern living compound, and the northern living compound. People lived in differentcompounds but from a common treasury."67 This custom can also be practiced today. The ancients looked farahead. From our point of view, living in separate
compounds seems to lack intimacy, but in reality only in thisway can relatives live intimately together for long. In a family of several tens or a hundred people, naturally notall can have the same food or wear the same clothing. Furthermore, "To have separate compounds is to enablethe son to express his special, affection for his father and at the same time avoid making public his partiality. Ifa son has no special affection toward his father, he is not a true son."68 The ancients surely tried to fulfillhuman feelings in a most accommodating way. If people lived together, there would be uncles around. Howcould a son show special affection to his father alone and how could the father accept it? In the case of anofficial of ____________________ 66 .A county in the Yen-an area of modern Shensi Province. Chang was appointed magistrate in 1057 after hehad received the "presented scholar" degree. 67 . I-li, "Funeral Costumes" ( SPPY, 11:6a). Cf. John Steele, tr., The I-Li, or Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial,II, 17. The original word for "living compound" is chü [living] but Chang changed it to kung [hall or palace]to avoid the possibility that i-chü [separate- living] would be mistaken to mean living separately, that is,living as separate families, instead of merely living in separate compounds. 68 Ibid. The first sentence is a paraphrase. -236the lowest rank69 and those above him, the father and son should live in separate compounds. The higher theofficial position, the stricter should this separation be. Living in separate compounds is like the custom of sons'taking turns at living in certain apartments today. It is not the same as living as separate families.70
26. In governing a country without adopting the "well-field" system71 one will never achieve equalization ofland. The road to Chou was smooth simply because it was level.72 27. The "well-field" system will not be stabilized until feudalism is restored. If the "well-field" system is to be practiced, there must be feudalism so that each feudal state managesits own. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 108:2a) Feudalism and the "well-field" system were institutions of sage-kings. They were systems to make theworld public. How dare I consider them to be wrong? However, I am afraid they are difficult to putinto practice today. Even if they were put into practice, there would be many unexpected defects. (Ibid., 3a) In feudalism, if the rulers are bad, since they succeed one another from generation to generation, theycannot be gotten rid of. In the prefecture and county system, if prefects and magistrates are no good,they will be gone in two or three years when their terms are up, and then good officials can take theirplace. ( Ibid., 2b) When Master Ch'eng I was young, he repeatedly insisted on the "well- field" and feudal systems. In hislater years, however, he said they were difficult to enforce. This can be seen in the conversationsrecorded by Ch'ang Ch'ientao.73 I believe Master Ch'eng, having become well experienced in humanaffairs, realized that circumstances were such that the systems could not be put into practice. ( Ibid.,97:16b) ____________________ 69 .An official of the ninth grade. 70 .Each having its own finances. The last three sentences also appear in the Ch'eng brothers' I-shu, 2B:8a. 71
.There has been a persistent tradition among Confucianists that the "wellfield" system was practiced in theearly Chou dynasty. In this system a plot of land was divided into nine squares, thus resembling the Chinesecharacter for a well. A "well" was one li (about a third of a mile) square. Each square consisted of 100 mou(an ancient mou was 3/5 of a modern mou, and 6.6 modern mou equal an acre). Each of eight familieswould be given a square as its private land. The eight families would jointly cultivate the central square forthe government. Modern scholars have seriously questioned whether the system was ever practiced to anyextent. 72 .This is an allusion to the Book of Odes, no. 203, where it is said that the road to the capital of Chou waslevel (p'ing, also meaning "equal"). "The road to Chou" can also mean the way of government of the Choudynasty. 73 . I-shu, 25:sa. Ch'ang was Ch'eng's pupil. His private name was Ta-yin and his courtesy name was Ch'ien-tao. He was a native of Lo-yang. -237X: METHODS OF HANDLING AFFAIRS YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: Governmental Affairs. 64 Sections. This chapter discussesgovernment and the handling of affairs. When principles of government have been apprehended andthe way of government is understood, they can be applied to actual governing. All the ways ofoccupying one's position, doing one's duties, serving superiors, being kind and sympathetic toinferiors, treating colleagues, selecting the virtuous and competent to serve, and dealing with theworld are provided for here. 1. In his memorial presented to the empress dowager,1. Master I-ch'uan [ Ch'eng I] said: "'When one strikes abell in anger, it sounds fierce. When one strikes it in sorrow, it sounds distressing.'2. This is because one'ssincerity affects others and thus is penetrating. The same is true when one has something to say to others. Thisis why the ancients fasted before going to
speak to the ruler. Your servant has twice come and presented hisopinions. In each case he dared not refrain from fasting first, thinking deeply, and preserving his sincerity,hoping thereby to affect Your Majesty's mind. If one runs around with his official duties, is distracted by allsorts of thoughts and deliberations, and waits till he comes before the sovereign and then tries to speak in thebest manner, he will influence him only with his tongue. Is that not shallow?" 2. In answering someone's letter showing him the draft of a memorial, Ich'uan said: "It seems to me, Sir, thatyour idea is to emphasize the fear of disorder. I wish you had instead considered loving the people as the firststep. It is all right to talk emphatically about the hunger and starvation of the people, thus arousing the ruler'ssense of pity, and then express the fear that the people may become bandits and rebels. This should be done notonly according to the basic principle of advising the ruler but also because of the actual circumstances. You areseeking money to save the lives of the people. If you ask for it on the ____________________ 1. In 1086. 2. K'ung Tzu chia-yü, ch. 4, sec. 15 (SPTK, 4:3a-b). -238basis of humanity and love, the ruler will naturally take money lightly and take the people seriously. But if youfrighten the ruler with the consideration of possible benefits and possible harm, he will hold on to the moneyfor his own protection. In ancient times, when a ruler gained the humble peasants, he gained the empire.3. Inlater generations, rulers controlled the people with military power and attracted them with money, consideringgathering wealth as the way to maintain the country, and loving the people as something far off the mark. Theonly thing to do is to move the ruler with sincerity and thus
hope to arouse his [originally good] mind whichcannot bear the suffering of the people." 3. When Ming-tao was a magistrate, what he did for the people often seemed to them to have been forbiddenby law. But he did not violate the law very much by what he did, nor were people greatly shocked. We cannotsay that he fulfilled his ambition, but in achieving some good he was far superior to officials of today. Althoughpeople felt strange, they did not consider him as grossly wrong. If they had thought he was grossly wrong, theywould have been greatly shocked. If one does things in perfect sincerity and gives up only if people will nottolerate him, what is the objection? 4. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: [Even in the case of]4. an official of the lowest rank, if heharbors in his mind love for the people, he will surely be helpful to them. 5. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: By observing the phenomenon of heaven and water moving awayfrom each other,5. the superior man knows that, human feelings being what they are, there are bound to belitigations. Therefore, whatever he does, he plans from the beginning. If litigations are cut off at their verybeginning, they cannot develop. The meaning of planning from the beginning is extensive. Careful choice ofacquaintances, being clear about understanding of contracts, and the like are examples. 6. According to the text of the second-lowest, undivided line of the shih [army] hexagram, if the head of thearmy depends on acting on ____________________ 3. Quoting the Book of Mencius, 7B:14. 4. Interpretation according to Chang Po-hsing , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:3b. 5.
Referring to the Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 6, sung [contention]. Cf. James Legge, tr.,Yi King, p. 274. -239his own responsibility, he will err in the way of being a subordinate, but if he does not act on his own responsibility, he will never succeed. Therefore, if he can achieve the Mean, there will be good fortune.6. Generally speaking, in the way of running an army, if both power and affability are applied, there will be good fortune.
7. Some famous but mediocre scholar7. says that the state of Lu paid sacrifice to the Duke of Chou in accordance with the ceremonies and music reserved for the emperor8. because he succeeded in doing what ministers could not have done and therefore he could be sacrificed to with the ceremonies and music for which ministers were not qualified. They do not understand the principle of being a minister. The Duke of Chou occupied his position and therefore did his duty. Whatever can be done in a certain position should be done. The Duke of Chou merely fulfilled his duty.
8. The text of the third-lowest, undivided line of the ta-yu [great possession] hexagram says: "A feudal prince presents his offering to the emperor. An inferior man would be unequal [to such a duty]."9.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "When the third line [symbol of a feudal prince] is at the time of great possession, the prince occupies the position of a feudal lord and enjoys great wealth and prosperity. He should offer his abundant possessions to the emperor, for what he possesses is possessed by the emperor. This is a common principle for the minister. When an inferior man is in such a situation, he will monopolize all the wealth as his own. He is ignorant of the way of becoming a public servant himself and offering the
wealth to the sovereign. Therefore it is said that the inferior man is unequal [to such a duty]."
9. People usually follow their loved ones. According to the feelings of ordinary people, when they love someone they will see his good points, and when they dislike someone they will see his mistakes. People
____________________ 6. For this idea in the Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 7, shih, see Legge, tr., Yi King, pp. 72, 275.
7.According to Chŏng Yŏp ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, 10:1b), this was what Wang Anshih said In his commentary on the "Palace in the Brilliant Hall" chapter of the Book of Rites. Wang's comment is no longer extant. 8.The fact of this sacrifice is recorded in the Book of Rites, "Palace in the Brilliant Hall" (SPPY, 9:19a). See Legge, tr., Li Ki, II, 32. 9. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 14, ta-yu. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 88.
-240mostly take the words of their wives and sons even though the words are wrong, whereas the words of those whom they dislike are considered wrong even if the words are right. But to follow a person simply because one loves
him means that the association is based on personal feelings. How can this be in accord with correct principle? Therefore the text of the lowest, undivided line of the sui [to follow] hexagram says, "One will achieve merit if one goes beyond his own gate to find associates."10.
10.The commentary on the fifth, undivided line of the sui hexagram says: "One who is sincere in fostering excellence will enjoy good fortune. His position is correct and is in the center."11.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "In the sui hexagram, achieving the Mean is considered to be good. In following people, one must avoid deviating from the Mean. When one is delighted in what one is following, one may not realize that he has deviated from the Mean."12.
11. The text of the fourth, divided line of the k'an [pit] hexagram says: "Present a bottle of wine and two bowls of rice in earthenware. Offer what is simple and true through an opening. In the end there will be no error."13.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "This means that the minister wins his ruler's heart in the excellent ways of loyalty and faithfulness. It is only by way of what the ruler understands that the minister can get his own ideas into him.
"A bottle of wine and two bowls of rice. And the utensils are made of earth. These are the simplest of materials."14. These are the excellent means of loyalty and faithfulness. The opening [window] is where the light [understanding] comes through. Loyalty and faithfulness are the foundation of offering what is simple and true. However, although one possesses sincerity, if one does not approach a man by way of what he understands, one cannot get one's ideas into him. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:5)
"One's mind is darkened in some respects and enlightened in others. Where it is enlightened, there is understanding. One should
____________________ 10. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 17, sui. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 289.
11. Book of Changes, commentary on the sui hexagram. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 289. In the system of Change, the fifth I me is a yang position and is also the middle of the upper trigram. The yang line here is therefore both correct and central. 12.In the text, this section comes before the preceding section. 13. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 29, k'an. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 119.
14. Ch'eng I, I chuan, 2:51b. -241speak to his ruler by way of what he understands, and thus easily win his confidence. This is why it is said that one should 'offer what is simple and true through an opening.' If one can do so, even at the time of danger and difficulty, there will in the end be no error.
"Suppose the ruler's mind is obscured by sensual pleasure. It is precisely because it is obscured that he is given to sensual pleasure. Although one may vigorously denounce the wrong of sensual pleasure, what can he do as long as his ruler does not realize it? One must start with what is not obscured in the ruler's mind and go on to include sensual pleasure. One can then awaken his mind. From ancient times on, there has been none who could successfully remonstrate with his ruler without utilizing what the ruler could understand. Therefore those who are blunt in exposing others' faults and are too forceful generally invite stubborn resistance, whereas those who are warm and gentle in expression and clear in thought can usually put their ideas across.
"This is not only true in admonishing the ruler; it is also true in educating others. In educating others one must proceed along the lines where people are competent. One's competence consists in one's understanding. To enter his mind through what he understands and go on to include the rest is what Mencius called the way of perfecting others' virtue and developing their talents."15.
12. The text of the lowest, divided line of the heng [constancy] hexagram says: "If one strongly desires constancy, there will be misfortune even if one does so correctly."16. Its commentary says: "The misfortune of the strong desire for constancy arises from the strong desire at the very beginning."17.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "The first, divided line occupies the lowest position of the hexagram. Its correct response is the fourth from the bottom.18. The fourth line occupies a high position with strength.19. But it is separated from the first by the second and the third. Thus the desire of the fourth line to respond to the first is different from the regular pattern. Yet the first line seeks strongly to respond to the fourth. This shows that it understands constancy but not variation."
____________________ 15. Book of Mencius, 7A:40. 16. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 32, heng. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 125.
17.Cf. Legge, tr., p. 307. 18.For the response of lines, see above, ch. 7, n. 9. 19.It being an undivided line, symbolic of yang. -242The first and the fourth respond to each other in position, and the divided [first] and the undivided [fourth] respond to each other in character. Here the principle of response is constant. But this constancy is changed by the fact that the two lines are separated by the second and the third.
In a situation of constancy, the subject of the lowest line understands only constancy but not variation, seeks too deeply, and thus ends up in misfortune and repentance. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:6)
"Those who expect much from old acquaintances and end up in repentance or error all have strong desires for constancy."
13. The text of the third, undivided line of the t'un [to retire] hexagram says: "If one lingers and does not retire, there will be distress and peril. But there would be good fortune if he did so in nourishing a servant or a concubine."20.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "Personal kindness growing out of lingering affection is the way to care for inferiors and women. Therefore there will be good fortune if it is employed to care for one's servant or concubine. However, a superior man would not treat an inferior man in this way."
In the way of ruling over inferiors, when an inferior should be dismissed, one should not be lenient because of affection. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:b)
The superior man and the inferior man should not face each other and should not associate with each other. But a servant or a concubine is in the family all the time. If there is nothing to bind them, they will haughtily leave. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 72:13a)
14.The commentary on hexagram k'uei [to part] says:"The superior man, while in general agreement, can also differ."21.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "In dealing with the world, the sage and the worthy are always agreed where the constant principle of Heaven22. is concerned, but on matters where common folks are in agreement, they sometimes differ. One who cannot be in general agreement with others disturbs constancy and violates principle. One who cannot be different alone is a follower of popular society and a habitual wrongdoer. The important thing is to be able to differ while in general agreement."
Take the choice of location. A superior man will choose one that will bring good fortune. This is where he agrees with all. But he is unlike the common
____________________ 20. Book of Changes, hexagram no. 33, t'un. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 128.
21. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 38, k'uei. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 314. 22.The phrase in the original source, the I chuan, 3:25a, is "principle of man." -243folks who aim solely at wealth and honor and thus confuse their objectives. This is where he is different. Or take scholars. They all participate in the civil service examinations. This is where they agree. But the superior man does not compromise his learning to please the world. This is where he is different. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 72:19a)
15. The meaning of the lowest, undivided line of the k'uei [to part] hexagram is this: Although [the superior man] should associate with people of the same character,23. yet there are many inferior men associated with him. If, when it is time to part, he rejects them and cuts them off, would not almost the entire world regard him as an enemy? He would then fail in the principles of tolerance and broadness, and this is a way to misfortune and error. How can he influence bad people and enable them to be united with him? Therefore it is necessary to "meet with bad people. There will be no error."24.
Ancient sage-kings could transform the wicked and make them good, and turn enemies into ministers and subjects, because they did not cut them off.
16. The meaning of the second-lowest, undivided line of the k'uei hexagram is this: At the time when people tend to part from each other, the ruler is not yet in agreement with the minister. The virtuous minister below should do all he can and be completely sincere, hoping that the ruler will believe in him and agree with him. He should try to influence the ruler with perfect sincerity, support him with all effort, make moral principles clear to him so his knowledge may be extended, and stop his obscuration and delusion so his will may become sincere. All these are special, obliging efforts to seek his agreement. To chance to meet him is not to seek to please him in any devious way, and a lane is not an evil, crooked path.25. Therefore the commentary says, "The chance to meet the lord in a lane is not to deviate from the proper course."26.
17. The text of the second-lowest, undivided line of the sun [decrease] hexagram says: "Increase [the virtue of others] without decreasing one's own."27.
____________________ 23. In the hexagram k'uei, the lowest line and the fourth line respond to each other. As they are both yang lines, they symbolize an association of similar characters.
24. Book of Changes, text of hexagram k'uei. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 139. 25.Read yu [by] as ch'ü [crooked], according to the original source, the I chuan, 3:26b.
26.Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 314. 27. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 41, sun. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 147.
-244Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "If one can avoid decreasing one's strength and correctness, one can then increase those of the superior. That will really increase them. But if one loses his strength and correctness and resorts to pleasing the ruler with softness, that is just the way to decrease [his virtue]. There are stupid people in the world who, though without any evil mind, know only how to spend all their energy to obey their superior, thinking that that is loyalty. They simply do not understand the principle of increasing [the virtue of the superior] without decreasing one's own."
18. The text of the lowest, undivided line of the i [increase] hexagram says: "There will be a great advantage in assuming an important undertaking. If great fortune is obtained, there will be no error."28. Its commentary says, "If great fortune is obtained, there will be no error, for a person in an inferior position should not assume an important undertaking."29.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "A person in an inferior position should not assume an important undertaking. An important undertaking is a serious one. If it is delegated to him by the superior, he will bear a great responsibility, and should try to accomplish such an important undertaking and obtain great fortune, and then there will be no error on his part. If he can obtain great fortune, the superior who gave him the responsibility will be considered to know him well and himself will be considered to be equal to the task he has assumed. Otherwise both will be wrong."30.
19. If a change is not very beneficial, it is to be regretted. How much more so if a change is harmful! That is why the ancients were serious about making a change.
20. The text of the third-lowest, undivided line of the chien [gradual advancement] hexagram says: "It will be advantageous to resist the enemy."31.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "When the superior man associates with the inferior man, he conducts himself correctly. This is not only to preserve himself but also to prevent the inferior man
____________________ 28. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 42, i. Cf. Legge, tr., pp. 149-50. 29.Cf. Legge, tr., p. 319. 30.For Chu Hsi's reluctant inclusion of this section, see below, "On the Chinssu lu and Its Commentaries," p. 325. 31. Text of hexagram no. 53, chien. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 179.
-245from falling into evil. Thus they preserve each other with correct principles and the inferior man's evil will be stopped."
21. The text of the lowest, divided line of the lü [travel] hexagram says: "The traveler is meanly occupied. This is how he brings calamity on himself."32.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "When a person with low ambition, who is already in a difficult position in his travel, is mean and petty to the limit, he is bringing disgrace and calamity on himself."
22. When a traveler is too stubborn and regards himself highly, that is the way to bring difficulty and calamity on himself.
23. The text of the topmost, divided line of the tui [pleasure] hexagram says; "The topmost line shows the pleasure of its subject in attracting others."33. Its commentary says: "His [virtue] is not yet brilliant."34.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "Pleasure has reached the limit, and yet new effort is made to increase it. Although one's desire for pleasure does not stop, since in both fact and principle the matter is already over, there is really no more pleasure to be had. When a thing is at its height, it is brilliant. But when it has reached its limit, although effort is made to force it to grow, it will be most meaningless. How can it be brilliant?"35.
24. The commentary on the chung-fu [central sincerity] hexagram says: "A superior man deliberates about cases of litigation to delay the infliction of death."36.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "In deliberating about cases of litigation, the superior man extends his sincerity to the utmost. When he imposes a death
sentence, he does so with the highest degree of pity. One should extend his sincerity to the limit in all things, and the most important is the deliberation of litigation to delay the infliction of death."
____________________ 32. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 56, lü. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 187.
33. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 58, tui. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 192.
34.Cf. Legge, tr., p. 340. 35.The topmost line of the hexagram is a weak, divided line. It tends to go on and over the limit. 36. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 61, chungfu. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 343.
-24625. Sometimes one may go beyond the Mean in order to be in harmony with the proper situation. But one should not go too far. For example, one may be overrespectful to some extent in behavior, oversorrowful at funerals, and
overthrifty in expenditure. It will be wrong to go too far. The reason for going beyond the Mean to a small extent is to be in harmony with the proper situation. If one is in harmony with the proper situation, he will enjoy good fortune.
26. The way to guard against the inferior man is first of all to be correct oneself.
If one is correct himself, although the inferior man is treacherous and tricky, there will be no chance for him. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:10)
27. The Duke of Chou was perfectly impartial and unselfish. He advanced and withdrew according to the Way and was not beclouded by the desire for profit. In conducting himself he seriously and humbly harbored in his mind the sense of respect and awe. In preserving his sincerity he was open and easy and without any worry. This is why even in a situation of danger and perplexity he never lost his sageness. The Book of Odes says,
The Duke is humble and very handsome. His red shoes move comfortably and leisurely.37.
28. To investigate and to search are the important business of the imperial delegate.
To investigate what the hidden feelings of the people are and to search for virtuous and able prospective officials are the two important items of business for the official dispatched from the capital. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:10)
29. Master Ming-tao [Ch'eng Hao] was talking with Wu Shih-li38. about the mistakes of Chieh-fu's39. doctrines. He said to Shih-li: "Please, on my behalf, tell Chieh-fu everything. I dare not regard myself to be right. If he has anything to say I shall be glad to discuss
____________________ 37.Ode no. 160. 38.His courtesy name was An-chung. He was a native of Hangchow. In the earliest part of the reign of Emperor Hui-tsung (r. 1101-25), he was an assistant executive in K'ai-feng Prefecture. Later he was prefect of Su-chou (present Su County, Anhui Province) and died in office. For his biography see the Sung shih, 347:4b-5b, and for a short account of him see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 6:7a. 39. Wang An-shih. See above, ch. 9, sec. 20. -247it back and forth with him. This concerns the universal principle of the world which is neither his nor mine. Ifit can be sifted clearly, even if it does no good to Chieh-fu, it will surely do good to me." 30. When T'ien-ch'i40. was superintendent of bamboo groves he always used the service of a corporal of whomhe was very fond. When the corporal was about to be replaced, he personally saw the corporal steal somebamboo shoots. Thereupon he subjected him to the full prescribed punishment.41. Having done that, he treatedthe corporal as usual without harboring anything in his mind. Such was his moral greatness.42. 31. In his conversation [ Ch'eng Hao] happened upon the subject of "One who was about to speak but hesitatedand stopped."43. He said: "If one should speak, even if it is to demand someone's head,44. he must speak (asChing K'o
demanded of Fan Yü-ch'i).45. He must speak in such a way that his speech sounds firm anddecisive.46. What one should speak about should be in accord with principle. The case of Fan Yü-ch'i is not inaccord with principle. Master Ch'eng referred to it simply to show that one should speak even if it ismost difficult to do so. ( Chu Hsi, Lun-yü huo-wen, 19:6b) 32. One must learn through handling actual affairs. According to [the commentary on] the ku [trouble]hexagram, the superior man is ____________________ 40. Courtesy name of Chang Chien. See above, ch. 4, sec. 21. 41. According to Gonoi Ranshū ( Ranshū Sensei kinshi roku kimon, p. 2, p. 42a) the punishment was a beatingof 100 strokes. 42. According to the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 6:15a, Chang and his family would not eat bamboo shoots because hedid not believe in cutting off incipient growth. 43. A quotation from Han Yü, Han Ch'ang-li ch'üan-chi, 19:14b. 44. Typical of his unconventional interpretation, Satō Issai says ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 10) that thedemand is not for someone's head but for the head (origin) of the subject under discussion. Thisinterpretation ignores the story referred to by Ch'eng Hao himself. 45. Ch'eng Hao's own note. Fan was a general of Ch'in who deserted to Yen and became a retainer of its crownprince. The king of Ch'in set a price on his head.
Ching K'o (d. 227 B.C.), also a retainer of the prince, andan expert swordsman, was ordered by the prince to assassinate the king of Ch'in. Thereupon he spoke toFan, saying that if he could have Fan's head to present to the king of Ch'in, the king would surely recievehim and he would then have a chance to stab the king at close range. Fan hated the king so much that hewas willing to sacrifice himself to have the king killed. He therefore obligingly committed suicide. (See theShih chi, 86:21b.) Ching K'o approached the king with his weapon concealed in his sleeve. But, as he wasunrolling a map to show the king, his weapon was exposed. He attempted to stab the king but missed him.After some struggle, Ching K'o was killed. 46. Quoting the Analects, 19:9. -248devoted to helping the people and nourishing his own virtue.47. But one must know [how to do these things]before accomplishing them. "Why must he read books before he can be considered to have learned?"48. To learn through handling affairs means to investigate the principle of things in the process ofhandling them. To help the people is the way to govern them and to nourish virtue is to cultivate one'sown person. Both of these things refer to action. Therefore it is said that one must know beforeaccomplishing them. "One must know" refers to "learning through handling actual affairs." ( MaoHsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 10:15a) 33. The Teacher [ Ch'eng 1] saw a student hurrying. He asked him the reason. The student answered, "I want tofinish many49. items of business." The Teacher said, "I am not averse to handling human affairs, but, sir, when have I been in such a hurry asyou?"50. 34. [CH'ENG HAO] An-ting's51. pupils usually knew how to study antiquity52. and love the people.Consequently, what difficulty would they have in governing?53.
35. A STUDENT SAID: As I associate with people, if I do not tell them when I see their mistakes I do not feelat ease in my mind. But if I tell them and they do not accept what I say, what can I do? [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: You would not be loyal if you associated with people and would not tell them theirmistakes. One must see to it that his sincerity is effective before he speaks. In that case, as he speaks, otherswill believe him. [THE TEACHER] FURTHER SAID: The way to urge others to do good must consist in showing moresincerity than necessary and saying fewer words than needed. In that case, it will be beneficial to others andthere will be no disgrace to oneself.54. 36. One must not use tricks to avoid his duty. ____________________ 47. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 18, ku. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 290. 48. Analects, 11:24. 49. Chi-ch'u is the same as chi-hsü, meaning "many." 50. According to the I-shu, 3:5a, this is Ch'eng I's saying. 51. An-ting was the honorific name of Hu Yüan. For Hu see above, ch. 3, n. 118. 52. To learn the principles and art of government. 53.
This saying is ascribed to Ch'eng I in the Hsiao-hsüeh, 6:9b. 54. In the original source, the I-shu, 4:5a, the last paragraph is an independent passage. -24937. "When you live in a country, do not criticize its high officials."55. This principle is excellent. When Tzu-lu asked Confucius whether according to ceremony it was proper for a great official of Luto carry a cane while inspecting an army, Confucius did not give an answer. Tzu-lu thought there wassomething Confucius did not know. Therefore Tzu-kung told Tzu-lu this . . . . It is all right to discuss aprinciple generally, but not all right to discuss a particular person.56. ( Mao Hsing-lai , Chin-ssu luchi-chieh, 10:16a) 38. It is most difficult to "be careful about small things."57. 39. If one wants to assume great responsibility, one must be sincere. 40. In speaking to anyone, if one's principle is overwhelming, one will make the matter clear to him. If one isirascible,58. one will arouse anger. 41. It is not right to live in the present and yet not be contented with the laws and orders of the present. As togovernment, either one should do nothing or, if he does anything, he should handle matters in the proper waywithin the present laws and regulations; only then can he be right. If he had to make changes before he coulddo anything, how could he be right? Those who are not contented with present laws mean those in subordinate positions. ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 96:14a) Ch'eng Hao was magistrate59. at the time when laws and orders were very complicated. He did notfollow the majority by observing the letter and avoiding duty, and he did not mind doing what wasforbidden by law. This was how he handled things in the proper way within the present laws andregulations. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 10:5b)
42. Regional supervising commissioners today mostly do not work together with prefects and magistrates. Theyonly watch and spy on ____________________ 55. K'ung Tzu chia-yü, sec. 43 ( SPTK, 10:17a). This saying is also quoted in the Hsün Tzu, ch. 29 ( SPTK,20:12a). 56. Acoording to the K'ung Tzu chia-yü sec. 43, when Tzu-lu asked whether according to ceremony it wasproper for a great official of Lu to carry a cane while inspecting an army, Confucius said that he did notknow. But when Tzukung asked whether, generally speaking, it was proper to carry a cane while inspectingan army, Confucius said that it was not. 57. Book of History, "Charge to the Duke of Pi." Cf. James Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 572. The word ch'in here isto be understood to mean "caution" instead of "diligence." 58. In the original source, the I-shu, 11:11 a, ch'i-fen [irascible] reads ch'i-sheng [material force overwhelming]. 59. See above, sec. 3. -250the prefects and magistrates, and the prefects and magistrates only want to conceal things from thecommissioners. It would be better for them to extend their sincerity and govern together with the prefects andmagistrates. If the prefects and magistrates are deficient in any way, teach them if they can be taught andsupervise them if they can be supervised. If they disobey, select one
or two very bad ones and dismiss them soothers may be duly warned. That will be all right. 43. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: People dislike having many things to do. Some even regretthis. Although there are many things in the world, they are all human affairs. If we do not handle them, whomshall we ask to handle them? 44. [CH'ENG HAO] It is easy to sacrifice oneself when one is indignant, but it is difficult to die in a leisurelymanner for righteousness.60. To be leisurely means to be slow. If one does not have an excellent understanding of moral principles,one has to think again and again, for if he is confused by a consideration of advantage anddisadvantage, he will have 'regrets. This is why it is difficult. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:14a) 45. Someone advised the Teacher [ Ch'eng 1] to observe extra rules of propriety in order to be intimate withthose in high position. The Teacher said, "Why do you not urge me to observe fully the rules of proprietyinstead of urging me to observe extra rules? When one has fully observed the rules of propriety, one stops. Whyshould one do anything extra?" One stops when one has fully observed the rules of propriety. This is to do what one should doaccording to one's position so that nothing will be wanting. To do something extra is to go beyondone's position. ( Mao Hsing-lai , Chinssu lu chi-chu, 10:17b) In the association of men there are rules of propriety that should be observed. To observe some extrarules because one wants to be intimate with those in high position is to flatter. Would I-ch'uan bewilling to do that? ( Chang Pohsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:17a) In matters of rules of propriety, the Mean is highly valued. When one urges another to observe therules fully, one does so because one fears that he might not do enough. But when one urges another todo something extra, he is urging him to go beyond the Mean. Why should he do anything extra? (Shih Huang, Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 10:16b)
____________________ 60. According to the I-shu, 11:11a, this is Ch'eng Hao's saying. -25146. SOMEONE ASKED: A keeper of records is assistant to the magistrate. What if the magistrate does notfollow him when the keeper of records wants to do something? [THE TEACHER] SAID: He should influence the magistrate with sincerity. At present magistrates andkeepers of records do not get along simply because they insist on their own selfish ideas. The magistrate is thehead of a county. If the keeper of records can serve him as the father or elder brother should be served, claim allmistakes as his own but make sure to credit the magistrate with all good points, with such increasing sincerity,how can he fail to influence him? This section agrees with section 42 above. Whether it is the superior employing the inferior or theinferior serving the superior, the foundation of both is sincerity. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu,10:6a) 47. QUESTION: In discussions people are mostly inclined to consider themselves as correct and show nodisposition to be broad-minded. Is this because their vital force is not at ease? ANSWER: Of course their vital force is not at ease, but it is also because of their narrow-mindedness. One'scapacity grows with understanding. There are also people whose understanding is high but whose capacity hasnot grown. In these cases, their understanding is really not perfect. Generally speaking, people can do certainthings by force but cannot increase their capacity to understand by force. Now, some people have the capacityof two pints or 10 pints, some of 64 pints or a 100 pints, and some of 640 pints.61. Some have the capacity ofrivers. The capacity of a river is large indeed, but it has shores. As it has shores, it is sometimes full. Only thecapacity of Heaven and Earth cannot be filled. Therefore the sage represents the capacity of Heaven and
Earth.The capacity of the sage is the Way, whereas the capacity of ordinary people is limited because it is endowed byHeaven. What is endowed by Heaven has quantity and is necessarily limited. Generally speaking, a man of sixfeet has the capacity of only so much strength. It is impossible that his capacity will never reach the limit evenif he wishes it will not. Take the case of Teng I who occupied the position [of the head] of the ThreeMinisters.62. He was then seventy years old and he took it very well. When he conquered Shu63. and thusachieved ____________________ 61. These were all ancient standard of measures. A Chinese pint is equal to works. 31.6 cubic inches. 62. Teng 1 ( 197-264) held the position of grand commander, a position equivalent to that of prime minister,minister education, and minister of public See the Wei chih, 28:24a. 63. A kingdom in West China with its capital in Cheng-tu. -252merit, he was affected.64. When Hsieh An learned that Hsieh Hsiian had defeated Fu Chien, he was playingchess with a guest and showed no sign of joy when the news reached him. But when he went home, he broke theteeth of his footgear.65. To force anything will fail in the end. Or take people who are very drunk. They are more respectful than before. The fact that they are so shows thatthey are affected. Although they differ from the unrestrained, their being affected by wine is the same. Or takethe sons of high officials. The higher their social stations, the humbler they are. The very fact that they arehumble shows that they are affected. Although they differ from those who are proud, their being affected byposition is the same.
But those who understand the Way naturally possess a great capacity. They succeed inwhat they do without any artificial effort. There are people today whose viewpoints are inferior simply becausetheir capacity to understand is inadequate. 48. As soon as one has the intention of becoming impartial, that is selfishness. In the past there was someonewho was in charge of examinations to select officials. He would not handle the qualification of his sons andjuniors. This is selfishness. The selection of officials is a matter of the court. The right of other people to advance in or retire fromgovernment is not one's own. When one's juniors should be checked for qualification and one avoidsthe duty, that is to avoid suspicion. Unwittingly he regards the selection as a matter of personal favor.This is selfishness. From this we can understand the principle of perfect impartiality. ( Yeh Ts'ai,Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:15) Many say that, while in ancient times it was possible to practice honesty and refrain from avoiding suspicion, itis impossible to do so in later generations. The fact is that what is lacking is the right man, ____________________ 64. As the chief general of the Wei dynasty ( 220-65), he advanced into Ch'eng-tu in 263. In the tenth monththe emperor of Han surrendered, thus ending the Han dynasty. Teng was very proud of it. According to hisbiography in the Wei chih, 28:23a, he said to people, "Gentlemen, you are what you are today because ofme." In the twelfth month he was made the grand commander. 65. Hsieh An was Hsieh Hsilan's ( 343-88) uncle. When Fu Chien, who reigned as king of the Former Ch'indynasty ( 351-94) from 357 to 384, was approaching the capital of Chin, Hsieh An was appointedcommander in chief to resist him. In 383 his nephew under his command defeated Fu Chien. According tothe Chin shu, 79:4b, "after he read the dispatch reporting the victory, he left it on
the bench and showed noexpression of joy. When his guest asked him, he leisurely said, 'My young people have defeated the enemy.'After the game. he returned to his room. When he crossed the threshold, he was so happy that heunconsciously broke the teeth of his footgear. Such was the way he artificially suppressed his feelings so asto appear calm." For more information on him, see above, ch. 7, n. 15. -253not the right time. (Thereupon he told the stories of Ch'eng Shao- shih's having charge of selection and ofCh'eng Hao's recommendation of talents.)66. 49. Chiln-shih [Ssu-ma Kuang]67. once asked the Teacher, "I want to appoint a policy reviewing officer. Whocan be one?" The Teacher said, "If originally you had asked me about qualifications in general, it would have been all right.Now that you have asked me this way, even if I know someone, how can I mention him?" Chün-shih said, "What you say would come from your mouth and enter into my ear, that is all. What harm isthere?" The Teacher remained silent to the end. Question: "Why did Ch'eng I not answer Ssu-ma Kuang's question about the policy reviewing officer?" Answer: "Of course he should not have had anything to do with it. If the two people had any official business,they should have handled it officially. If officials came to ask him [personally], it would be correct for him not toanswer. The questioner would already be wrong." "Was that to avoid suspicion?" "No. The original question was wrong. The case was different from one of avoiding suspicion." ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 96:14a-b) It is all right to discuss qualifications in general. But the selection of personnel for offices is the duty of theprime minister. It is not something in which people in lower positions should participate. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssulu chi-chieh, 10:16)
To answer would be to recommend someone as a personal favor. ( Chang Pohsing , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,10:20a) There must be a reason why the Teacher remained silent to the end. If one practices the principle of perfectimpartiality with the mind of perfect impartiality, even if one were to recommend a person, what harm wouldthere be? The only thing to fear is that the person recommended is not the right one. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tzuchin-ssu lu fa-ming, 10:19a) Since Ch'eng I said that even if he knew someone he could not mention him, it sounds as if he had someone inmind, perhaps himself. This is why he remained silent to the end. Shih Huang said that Ch'eng I did not sayanything because he did know the right man. I am afraid that was not the case. ( Satō Issai, Kinshi rokurangaisho, ch. 10)68 ____________________ 66. Or'ginal note in the I-shu, 18:8b. Ch'eng Shao-shih was Ch'eng I's greatgreat-grandfather. He was oncevice- minister of the army department. In 890 he was in charge of the examination to select scholars. Ch'eng Hao was once asked by Emperor Shen-tsung to recommend people. He recommended several dozens,headed by his uncle Chang Tsai and his younger brother Ch'eng 1. 67. See above, ch. 4, n. 44. 68 Satō Issai both misread Shih Huang and misunderstood Ch'eng I's attitude toward government service.Ch'eng I never recommended himself -25450. THE TEACHER SAID: Han Ch'ih-kuo's69. conviction of what is right is most exceptional. One day he,Fan I-sou,70. and I were sailing in a boat in the
West Lake of Ying-ch'ang.71. Soon a military officer inattendance72. said that an official had presented a letter asking to see the great councilor.73. I thought therewas some important official business. But it turned out that the visitor wanted a recommendation. I said, "Agreat councilor occupying an official position does not look for people to serve. Instead, he makes people lookfor him. What is the explanation?" I-sou said, "You are too particular. It is an ordinary thing to seek arecommendation." I said, "No. People come because those who did not come to ask were not givenrecommendations while those who came were." Han Wei was convinced.74. 51. Following his conversation on a certain subject, the Teacher said: "Today in serving in the government one cannot even do the first thing. An official approved apetition to the office of the regional governor. I did not sign it. The directorate of education is ofcourse like the censorate or a department. These are offices directly under the court.75 If officialsoutside the capital have any business, they ____________________ 69. The private name of Ch'ih-kuo (d. 1098) was Wei. He refused to take the civil service examinations becausehis father was a high official. When Emperor Shen-tsung was a prince, Han served under him as an adviser.When Shentsung became emperor, Han was appointed an academician of the Han-lin Academy. Later hebecame the prefect of K'ai-feng (in modern Honan Province). When Che-tsung ascended the throne in 1086,Han was appointed vice-minister of the chancellery. For his biography, see the Sung shih, 315:9a16a, andfor a short account of him, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 19:5b-6b. 70. The courtesy name of Fan (d. 1106) was Shun-li. Son of Fan Chung-yen (see below, ch. 14, n. 95), he wassuccessively a prefect, a policy reviewing officer, and an academician. For his biography, see the Sung shih,314:11b-14b. 71.
In present K'ai-feng. 72. The term k'o-chiang does not mean "a guest about to" or "a guest presently," as Nakai Chikusan ( Kinshiroku hyōki) thought. According to Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 84:13b), he was a commander of a district,with great power. Nakamura Shasai ( Kinshi roku kōsetsu, 10:12b) has suggested that he might have been aguest who chose to be not a civil officer but a general, but has added that since someone stated that in theTs'ui-yen it is said that he was in charge of visits, he might have been a prime minister's subordinate. Thisreference is not found in the present Ts'uiyen. Kaneko Sōsan ( Kinshi roku teiyō), Miyake Taitō ( Kinshiroku shūkai sesshō, ch. 31), and Ōsawa Teisai ( Kinshi roku hikki) definitely stated that he was in charge ofvisits. The latter said that in the Chu Tzu yü-lei, ch. 97, it is so stated, but I have not been able to find thestatement there. Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 10:21a) says that k'o-chiang was so called because hewas in charge of receiving guests (k'o). 73. Referring to Han, who was then vice-minister of the chancellery, with great power. This incident took placein 1086. 74. This incident is also related in the I-shu, 21A:3b, with some variation in words. 75 In 1087-90 Ch'eng I was head of the directorate of education in the western capital, namely, Lo-yang. Theregional governor, literally "the regional distribu -255should petition these offices. Why should these offices petition officials outside instead? This situation hasdeveloped because previously people only calculated advantages and disadvantages without reckoning what wasproper.
We must see why the Sage insisted on the rectification of names. We shall then see that, if names arenot rectified, even ceremonies and music will not flourish.76. Naturally [this tendency] cannot be stopped." 52. A student should understand human affairs. Affairs in the world are similar to those in a family. Either I orsomeone else will have to handle them. Either this or that person has to handle them. 53. "If a man does not think far ahead he will find trouble near at hand."77. One's thoughts should go beyondthe matter at hand. Going beyond the matter at hand means to think far ahead. For example, one should not make planscarelessly or plan for only immediate convenience. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 10:22b) 54. The Sage was always slow in reproaching people. This shows that he merely wanted things to be correct andhad no intention of exposing people's mistakes or evil deeds. 55. MASTER I-CH'UAN SAID: There is only one thing today that prefects and magistrates cannot do,namely, regulating people's production.78. There are many things within the law and regulations that can bedone. The only trouble is that people do not do them. 56. When Master Ming-tao [Ch'eng Hao] was a magistrate, wherever he sat, he wrote the words, "Look on thepeople as if they were wounded."79. He often said, "I often feel ashamed when I see these words." 57. Whenever I-ch'uan [ Ch'eng I] saw people criticizing the shortcomings of others, he said, "Suppose you pickout their good points." ____________________ 75 tion commissioner," had charge of food, border defense, bandit suppression, etc., in a "circuit" with anumber of pre- fectures. 76.
Analects, 13:3. 77. Analects, 15:11. 78. This refers to the "well- field" system. See above, ch. 9, sec. 26. 79. Book of Mencius, 4B:20. That is, with kindness and compassion. -25658. [CH'ENG HAO] Liu An-li80. said, "When Wang Ching Kung81. was in power, many people stronglyattacked his new regulations and edicts of reform. Master Ming-tao was once summoned to the hall of thesecretariat for a discussion.82. Ching Kung was angry at someone who was expressing a [critical] opinion, andfaced him with a stern countenance. The Teacher leisurely said, "These are public affairs and not a privatediscussion in a family. I wish you, sir, would listen with a calm disposition." Ching Kung was ashamed. 59. Liu An-li asked how to govern the people. Master Ming-tao said, "Enable them to express their feelingsfully." Liu asked about managing officials. [ Ming-tao] said, "Make yourself correct so as to influence people." 60. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID: It is easy to be a superior but difficult to be asubordinate. But if one does not know how to be a subordinate, he will not be able to use his subordinates, forthen he will not know completely their sincerity or insincerity. Generally speaking, in order to use people, oneshould first have been used. If one has the experience, one can use people. 61. The text of the k'an [pit] hexagram says that, as the mind is penetrating, one's action will be of highvalue.83. Danger may build up outside, but if one faces it with a penetrating mind and without perplexity, onewill succeed even under great difficulty and achieve merit as one proceeds. Now, water drops
from a mountainten thousand feet high. If it has to fall, it simply falls, ignoring all impediment in the front.84. One should actaccording to moral principles only. For this reason, one's mind is penetrating. ____________________ 80. His private name was Li-chih (fl. 1085). Orphaned when he was a young child, he grew up in Ch'eng I'sfamily, early became his pupil, and married a cousin of his. For an account of Liu, see the Su-ng-Yüanhsüeh-an, 30:2a-b, or the ILo yüan-yüan lu, 14:1b. 81. Wang An-shih, who was given the title of State Duke of Ching. For him, see above, ch. 9, sec. 20. 82. According to the system of the Sung dynasty, the prime minister held his meetings and received guests inthis hall. In 1069 Wang was prime minister and Ch'eng Hao was undersecretary of the heir apparent andconcurrently a censor-at-large. 83. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 29. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 118. 84. Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 10:24b) has punctuated the sentence after "impediment" and changed"in the front" to read "with danger in the front," thus making the next sentence read, "With danger in thefront, one should act according to moral principles only." -25762. People cannot do what they themselves [consider to be right] because they are lazy if the thing is difficult to do and shy if the thing is unconventional though easy. Only if one's mind is broad will he not mind people's criticism or
ridicule. His objective will be moral principles only. As he looks around the world,85. nothing will be able to alter his course. As he does [what is right], however, people will not necessarily blame him. Precisely if moral principles in oneself are not dominant, [there will be] the defects of laziness and shyness.86. If [these defects] decline, [moral principles] will increase. If they do not decline, they will always remain. Then one's thoughts will be restrained and narrow, and nothing can be done.
Past scholars of moral courage risked death to do things. What they did may not be in perfect accord with righteousness. But they could not have done what they did without resolute determination. If one understands moral principles, why should he not do [what he himself considers to be right]?
63. The text of the lowest, divided line of the kou [meeting] hexagram says, "A weak pig will surely keep jumping about."87. When the pig is still weak, it cannot yet be active, but since it is absolutely intent on jumping about, it will do so actively when there is a chance. For example, in managing eunuchs, Li Te-yü88. knew only that they kept quiet and submitted to his power but was not aware of the fact that they never lost the intention of carrying out their designs. If one misses even a little bit in examining a situation, he will lose his chance.
64. One can benefit from teaching young boys. They keep one busy so one will not be going in and out. This is the first benefit. In teaching others, one goes over the lesson again and again and thus understands the meaning himself. This is the second benefit. In front of boys, one
____________________ 85.Another interpretation: "Among all the things he sees in the world."
86.The sentence may be treated as a conjunctive clause, thus: "Precisely if moral principles in oneself do not dominate [or overcome] the defects of laziness and shyness." This is what Mao Hsing-lai has done ( Chin-ssu lu chichu, 10:25a). 87. Book of Changes, text of
hexagram no. 44, kou. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 155. 88. Li Te-yü ( 787-849) was a good prime minister under Emperor Wu-tsung (r. 841-46). As a result of palace intrigue, he was banished to Ai-chou Prefecture in modern Kuangtung Province to be in charge of population records. -258must be correct in attire and serious in expressions. This is the third benefit. One dares not be lazy for fear thatone might spoil the talents of others. This is the fourth benefit.89. ____________________ 89. Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 10:19) said that this section should go at the end of chapter 11, which is onteaching. Yin Hui-i has actually shifted it there ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 11: 11a-b). But asMao Hsing- lai has pointed out ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 10:26b), Yeh is wrong because this section deals notwith the way to teach boys but with the way to cultivate oneself through teaching boys. -259XI: THE WAY TO TEACH YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: On Teaching. 21 sections. This chapter discusses the way ofteaching. When the superior man goes forward in public life, he will promote the Way to enlighten theworld. When he retires to
private life, he will illuminate the Way to make his pupils virtuous. This iswhat is called "getting the most talented people to teach and nourish them" [ Book of Mencius,7A:20]. This is the same as "renovating the people" [ Great Learning, ch. 2]. 1. MASTER LIEN-HSI [CHOU TUN-I] SAID: Righteousness, uprightness, decisiveness, strictness, andfirmness of action are examples of strength that is good, and fierceness, narrow-mindedness, and violence areexamples of strength that is evil. Kindness, mildness, and humility are examples of weakness that is good, andsoftness, indecision, and perverseness are examples of weakness that is evil. Only the Mean brings harmony.The Mean is the principle of regularity, the universally recognized law of morality, and is that to which the sageis devoted. Therefore the sage institutes education so as to enable people to transform their evil by themselves,to arrive at the Mean and to rest there. Strength and weakness are of course the great difference between yin and yang, and in each of themthere is further the division of yin and yang to differentiate good and evil. Evil is, of course, notcorrect, but good is not necessarily in accord with the Mean. ( Chu Hsi, Commentary on the T'ungshu, ch. 7) When evil has been transformed, both strength and weakness will be good. One will then have thevirtues of strictness, kindness, and mildness, and not the defects of violence and softness. When theMean is attained, whether one is strict or kind and mild, he will always be in accord with the principleof regularity and there will be no one-sidedness of going too far or not far enough. (Ibid.) 2. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: In bringing up children, the ancients taught them as soon asthey could eat or speak.1. In the method ____________________ 1.
According to the Book of Rites, "Regulations for Domestic Life" (SPPY, 8:28b; James Legge, tr., Li Ki, II,476-77), when a child was able to take its own food, it was taught to use its right hand, and when it was ableto -260of great2. learning, the first thing is to prevent evil before it starts.3. When a person is young, he is not masterof his own knowledge or thought. Proverbs and sound doctrines should be spread before him every day.Although he does not yet understand, let their fragrance and sound surround him so his ears and mind can befilled with them. In time he will get used to them as if he had originally had them. Even if someone tries todelude him with other ideas, they will not be able to penetrate him. But if there has been no prevention, whenhe grows older selfish ideas and unbalanced desires will grow within and arguments from many mouths willdrill from the outside, and it will be impossible for him to be pure and perfect. 3. The text of the topmost, undivided line of the kuan [to observe] hexagram says:"The subjectobserves his own character. If he is indeed a superior man, there will be no error."4. Its commentary says, "Heobserves his own character, for he cannot yet let his mind be at rest."5. Master Ch'eng I's commentary says:"Although the superior man does not occupy an official position, since people watch his character and use it astheir standard, he should carefully examine his own character so he will never fail to be a superior man. Peoplethen will not be disappointed but will be transformed by him. One should not be complacently carefree and donothing because he does not occupy an official position." 4. The Way of the Sage is comparable to Heaven. It is very far from the understanding of ordinary people.Having been very intimate with him, his pupils knew all the more that it was lofty and far away. However, if itseemed to be beyond approach, the pupils' desire toward it would slacken. Therefore, in teaching people, theSage always stooped to suit them. In serving superiors and attending to the duties to the dead, he dared notrefrain from exerting himself.6. This is the regular behavior of a superior man. As to "not to let
wine cause himtrouble,"7. that is something especially simple8. with him. But he put ____________________ 1. speak, it was taught, if a boy, to respond boldly and clearly and, if a girl, gently and obediently. 2. Kim Chang-saeng says ( Konsarok sŏgŭi, in the Sagye sōnsaeng chōnsō, 20:21b) that ta-hsüeh (greatlearning) should have been hsiao-hsüeh (elementary education). The emendation is quite unnecessary. 3. Book of Rites, "Record of Learning" (SPPY, 11:3b). See Legge, tr., II, 86. 4. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 20, kuan. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 100. 5. Ibid., p. 292. 6. As Confucius said of himself in the Analects, 9:15. 7. Ibid. 8. Or "easy." Literally, "near at hand." -261-
himself into these situations, not only to enable those with low capacity to aspire and make an effort to matchhim but also in order that those with great talents would not dare to neglect what is simple and easy. 5. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: People worrying about their young who are flippant buttalented should teach them only to study the Classics and recite books, and not to write essays. Flippant but talented people are lax in self-restraint and like to indulge and dissipate themselves inthings. If they are taught to study the Classics and recite books, their minds will be quiet and theirdispositions will be calm. If they are taught to write essays, they will have a chance to apply theirtalent and they will become more talented but more flippant. ( Yeh Ts'ai , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 11:3) Most things young people enjoy will destroy their purpose. As to calligraphy and composition, they are the mostordinary things for the scholar. But if one is totally given to their enjoyment, one will naturally lose his purpose.People like Wang Hsi-chih, Yü Shih-nan, Yen Chen-ch'ing, and Liu Kung-ch'üan9. were really good men, that istrue. But have you seen a good calligrapher who understands the Way? If throughout life one's energy isdevoted to this one thing, it will not only waste his time but will prevent understanding the Way. From this weknow that he will lose his purpose.10. 6. When Hu An-ting11. was in Hu-chou,12. he set up a hall to study the way of government.13. When studentswanted to understand the way of government, the matter would be discussed here, the discussion includingsuch things as governing the people, managing the army, river conservation, and mathematics. He once saidthat Liu I was an ____________________ 10. In the original source, the I-shu, 1:6a, this section forms two independent passages. 11.
Honorific name of Hu Yijan, who taught in Hu-chou. See above, ch. 3, n. 118. 12. A prefecture in the Wu-hsing County area of Chekiang Province. 13. He set aside two halls, the Hall for the Meaning of Classics and the Hall for Handling Affairs. The latter ismeant here. 9. Yü Shih-nan's ( 558-638) honorific name was Yung-hsing. During the reign of T'ai-tsung (r. 627-49) of theT'ang dynasty, he was an academician in charge of the library. Yen Chen-ch'ing ( 709-85) was once aminister of the department of civil personnel. Wang Hsi-chih ( 321-79) was a lieutenant general and prefectin K'uai-chi, a prefecture in present southeastern Chekiang Province, and is often called Lieutenant GeneralWang. Liu Kung-ch'üan ( 778-865) was a general policy adviser and in that capacity was a frequentattendant on the emperor. All four were famous calligraphers, Wang being the greatest. -262expert in river conservation, repeatedly served in the government, and in all cases achieved merit in riverconservation.14. 7. In setting up a doctrine, one wants it to contain much hidden meaning so that those who understand virtuewill not get tired of it and those without virtue will not be misled. Those who understand virtue will explore its meaning and will not get tired, while those withoutvirtue will hold on to the doctrine and will not be misled. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 11:3) To get tired means to get tired of the unnecessary details, and to be misled means to be misled by thesuperfluous. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 11:5b)
8 In teaching people, if no interest is aroused, the people will surely not enjoy their study. Suppose we want toteach people songs and dances. Songs like the 300 odes were all composed by the ancients. Odes like the "Kuan-sui" [Hark! the fish hawk]15. are the starting point of the regulation of the family. Therefore the ancients usedthem in the community and in the country so people could hear them every day. But these poems are brief andobscure in expression and not easily understood by people today. I want to write some poems generallyinstructing boys to attend to the duties of sprinkling, sweeping, answering questions, and serving elders,16. andlet them sing these morning and evening. This should be of some help. 9. Tzu-hou [Chang Tsai] teaches his students ceremonies. This is excellent, for that will enable the students tohave something to hold on to from the beginning.17. 10.[ CH'ENG I] If any principle which he does not yet understand is discussed with a student, not only will hefail to penetrate deeply what he has heard, but he will despise the principle.18. ____________________ 14. Liu's ( 1017-86) courtesy name was Chih-chung, and he was a native of Foochow. As a youth he learned riverconservation from Hu Yüan. About 1070, when an expert was needed for the bureau of river conservation,he was selected for his knowledge of conditions in the southwest. For his biography, see the Sung shih,334:8b-9a. 15. This is ode no. 1 in the Book of Odes. It is a love song, but Confucianists have interpreted it to mean thevirtuous relationship between husband and wife, considering the poem as celebrating the virtue of Sage-KingWen's bride. See below, ch. 14, sec. 8. 16. First items in a boy's education.
17. Cf. above, ch. 2, sec. 96. 18. This is Ch'eng I's saying according to the I-shu, 3:4a. -26311. [ CH'ENG HAO] In the dance and in archery, one's sincerity can be seen. The ancients taught people for noother reason than to enable them to perfect themselves. In sprinkling, sweeping, and answering questions, onecan reach the level of the activities of the sage. One must be sincere in dancing before he can keep time and be sincere in shooting before he can hitthe mark. ( Chiang Yung, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 11:2b) People can be taught sincerity in sprinkling and sweeping the floor and in answering questions. Assincerity becomes perfect, these activities become those of the sage. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,11:4) 12. Starting with showing a young child at all times what is correct19. is the very means of teaching people theactivities of the sage. 13. First things should be transmitted first, whereas things that should come later should be delayed.20. Inteaching people, the superior man follows a certain order. He first transmits what is small and near at handand then teaches people what is great and distant. It does not mean that he first transmits what is small andnear at hand and then refrains from teaching the great and the distant. 14. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: Explaining books orally is certainly not the intention of theancients, for it would make people superficial. A student should think deeply and accumulate his thoughts, andcultivate himself leisurely so he may find things out for himself. Now a book may be explained in one day. Thisis merely to teach people to be superficial. Take the case of reciting and explaining books behind a curtain inthe Han dynasty.
That was probably not quite the same as the oral explanation of books [of today].21. 15. In ancient times, boys entered primary school at eight and college at fifteen.22. Those whose talents could bedeveloped were selected and gathered in the college, whereas the inferior ones were returned to the farm, forscholars and farmers did not exchange occupations. Having ____________________ 19. As taught in the Book of Rites, "Summary of Ceremonies," pt. I (SPPY, 1:5a). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 69-70. 20. Literally, one "could be idle about it." This question is discussed in the Analects, 19:12. 21. The reference is to Tung Chung- shu, who, according to the Han shu, 56:1a, lectured and recited behind acurtain. Some pupils never saw his face. For Tung, see above, ch. 2, sec. 40. 22. A primary school was a local school. The larger the community, the higher the grade of the school. Thecollege was a state institution. -264entered college, one would not work on the farm. Thus scholars and farmers were completely differentiated. As to support in college, there was no worry about sons of officials. But even sons of commoners, as soon as theyentered college, were sure to be supported [by the state]. Scholars in ancient times entered college at fifteenand did not begin to serve in the government until the age of forty. In the intervening twenty-five years, sincethere was no profit for them to chase after, their
purpose was clear. They would necessarily go after the goodand in this way their virtue would be perfected. People of later generations have from childhood the intentionof chasing after profit. How can they tend toward the good? Therefore the ancients would not allow people toserve in the government until they were forty, for only then were their minds settled. It would do no harmmerely to earn a living. But the temptation of wealth from emolument is most harmful. (When support isassured, one's mind will be settled on study.)23. I do not know on what basis Master Ch'eng said this. In ancient times, in teaching the young, elders insmall communities24. would sit in front of the school and watch them come and leave. They came toschool at a definite time. Having finished their lessons, they would withdraw to study at home. Whenthey were promoted [to college], they also went at a definite time. They farmed in the spring andsummer and studied the rest of the time. I have never heard that the government had to supportthem. A family was given a hundred mou in the first place. And now more food had to be provided forstudents! Where did they get all this food? ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 84:14b) 16.There is much talent in the world. Only because the Way does not clearly prevail in the world can it not bedeveloped fully. Now, the ancients were "stimulated by poetry, established by the rules of propriety, andperfected by music."25. How can people today do this? The odes26. were to the ancients like songs to peopletoday. Even children in the alleys heard and understood them. That was why the ancients were able to bestimulated. In later generations even venerable teachers and experienced scholars cannot understand themeanings of the odes. How can students be expected to do so? Consequently, people cannot be stimulated bythe odes. As ancient rules of propriety have been abolished, human relations have become obscure to the ____________________ 23. Original note in the I-shu, 15:18a. 24.
Literally, communities of five or twenty-five families. 25. Analects, 8:8. 26. Specifically referring to those in the Book of Odes. -265point that in the management of the home there is neither system nor standard. Consequently, people cannotbe established by the rules of propriety. The ancients had singing to nourish their nature and feelings, scalesand notes to nourish their ears, and dancing to nourish their blood. Today there is none of these. Consequently,people cannot be perfected by music. It was easy to develop talent fully in ancient times but it is difficult today. 17. In teaching people, Confucius"would not enlighten those who are not eager to learn, nor arouse those whoare not anxious to give an explanation themselves."27. For if one arouses them without waiting for them tobecome eager to learn and anxious to give an explanation themselves, their knowledge will not be firm. But ifone waits for them to be eager and anxious before arousing them, they will learn irresistibly like the rush ofwater. A student must think deeply. If he has thought deeply but cannot understand, it will then be all right totell him. In the case of a beginner, one must tell him; otherwise, not only will he not understand, but he will be preventedfrom wanting to ask questions. 18. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID:"To be respectful, reverent, inclined to restraint, andyielding in order to illustrate the rules of propriety,"28. is humanity to the highest degree and the ultimate ofthe principle of love. If one does not make an effort to illustrate the rules of propriety, he will not be able to leadothers or make the Way great, and his teaching will fail.
19. The "Record of Learning" says, "[Teachers today] push their students on with no regard for whether whatthey have learned is well settled or not. In using people they do not follow the path of sincerity. And in teachingthem they do not fully develop their talents."29. If one pushes his students on before what they have learned iswell settled, or tells them more before they have understood what they have already been told, that will merelyget them into complications. Not to develop their talents fully, not to care for the settlement of what ____________________ 27. Analects, 7:8. 28. Book of Rites, "Summary of Ceremonies," pt. I (SPPY, 1:2b). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 64. 29. Book of Rites, "Record of Learning" (SPPY, 11:3a-b). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, II, 86. -266has been learned, and not to follow the path of sincerity are all wrong ways of doing things. It is most difficultto teach others. Only when one fully develops their talents will one not harm them. Be sure they can absorbbefore telling them anything. The brilliance of the Sage was just like that of the cook cutting up a bullock. He knew all the openings andcavities. Each time he applied his chopper, a part was cut off and dropped to the ground. Thus the bullock fellto pieces.30. Man's talent is full of possibilities, but because a teacher does not use him with sincerity, thistalent is not fully developed. If one uses people reluctantly, can that be done with sincerity?
20. In ancient times a child was already able to be serious about things. When an elder held him by his hand,31.he held the elder's hand with both of his, and when he was asked a question, he covered his mouth with hishand while he answered.32. As soon as one is not serious about things, he will not be loyal or faithful. Therefore,in teaching children, let them first be quiet, careful, respectful, and reverent. 21. Mencius said, "It is not enough to remonstrate with the government officials, nor is it enough to criticizethe governmental measures. It is only the great man who can rectify what is wrong in the ruler's mind."33. Notonly the mind of the ruler. In the intercourse with friends and associates, though their opinions may differ fromone's own and one does not care to take issue with them, yet if one puts their minds right so that they canreturn to correctness, is that not some help? ____________________ 30. This story is told in the Chuang Tzu, ch. 3 ( NHCC, 2:3b-4a). Cf. Herbert A. Giles , tr., Chuang Tzu, p. 49. 31. Both Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 11:10a) and Shih Huang ( Wutzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming, 11:11a)punctuated the sentences to read, "able to be reverent toward the elders. When they held...." But as MaoHsing-lai says ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 11:12b), this is a mistake. 32. This is taught in the Book of Rites, "Summary of Ceremonies," pt. I (SPPY, 1:5a-b). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, I,70. 33. Book of Mencius, 4A:20. -267-
XII: CORRECTING MISTAKES AND THE DEFECTS OF THE HUMAN MIND YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: Caution. 33 sections. In this chapter the principle of caution is discussed. In self-cultivation and in governing others one should always be cautious and alert. Otherwise, selfish desires will easily sprout. Good will decline daily and evil will be accumulated daily.
1. MASTER LIEN-HSI [CHOU TUN-I] SAID : Chung Yu1. was happy to hear about his mistakes and his good reputation was unlimited. Nowadays when people have faults, they do not like others to correct them. It is as though a man should hide his illness and avoid a physician. He would rather destroy his life than awake. How lamentable!
2. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID : As one daily accumulates his virtue and goodness, his blessing and emolument will daily reach a higher degree. When one's virtue surpasses one's emolument, although he is prominent, the prominence is not excessive. From ancient times on, there has never been one who is [undeservedly] prominent2. who does not err in the Way and be ruined.
3. Man's attitude toward the pleasure of comfort is one of liking; therefore he is slow in giving it up. In the end he cannot help indulging it. The second, divided line of the yü [comfort] hexagram3. shows that its subject keeps itself in the position of centrality and correctness. He is "as firm as a rock."4. He gives up [comfort] quickly, without waiting for the end of the day.5. Therefore he is firm and correct and there will be good fortune.
____________________
1. Tzu-lu. See above, ch. 5, sec. 25. 2.Meaning that his emolument surpasses his virtue. 3. Book of Changes, hexagram no. 16, yü. In both the component trigrams, the second, divided line is in the middle.
4. Ibid., text of the second, divided line. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 91. 5.In commenting on the yü hexagram, it is said in the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2. ch. 5 (Legge, tr., p. 392), that the superior man sees the incipient force of things and acts accordingly without waiting for the end of the day. -268When one is in a comfortable situation, one should not be satisfied nor, moreover, remain so for long. If one remains in that situation for long, one will be drowned by it. The subject indicated by the second line may be said to have acted as soon as he saw the incipient force. Because he is central and correct, he is firm in what he holds on to, can clearly see things early, and gives up [comfort] quickly.
4. There are many ways in which a ruler can bring ruin to his state, but the pleasure of comfort is the most common.
5. In cautioning himself, the sage always does it at the height of things. If one does not know how to be cautious at the height of things, he will therefore be accustomed to security and wealth, and pride and extravagance will appear. He will enjoy laxity and indulgence, and regulations and standards will
collapse. He will forget calamity and chaos, and their roots will sprout. Therefore he will be absorbed and will not be aware that disorder has come.
6. The third, divided line of the fu [to return] hexagram is weak but hasty, occupies the ultimate position of activity, returns again and again, and cannot be firm.
The fu hexagram consists of the chen [to arouse] trigram at the bottom and the k'un [earth] trigram on top. Its third, divided line from the bottom is a yin line but occupies a yang position.6. It is neither in the middle of a trigram nor in the correct position. Therefore it is weak and hasty. The last line of chen symbolizes activity. Thus its attempt to return to the good is hasty and active. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 12:2b)
It is highly desirable for the return to be secure and firm. To return and fail repeatedly means that one is not secure in his return. To return to the good and then to lose it repeatedly is the way to danger. The Sage opens the way for people to change toward the good, approves their return, and points out the danger of repeated failure. Therefore he said, "The position is dangerous. But there will be no error."7. One should not be prohibited from returning because he has failed repeatedly. To fail repeatedly is to be in danger, but what error is there in returning repeatedly? The mistake lies in the failure and not in returning.
____________________ 6.The third line from the bottom is a strong position, which should have been occupied by an undivided line.
7. Book of Changes, text of the third, divided line of hexagram no. 24, fu. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 108. -269(Liu Chih-fu said, "If one returns repeatedly without stop, one will finally be deceived by returning itself.")8.
7. When one is absolutely parted from others, he becomes quarrelsome and offensive, and it will be difficult for him and others to be united. When one's strength reaches its height, he will be hasty, violent, and ignorant. When one's brightness reaches its height, he will become overscrutinizing and suspicious. The topmost, undivided line of the k'uei [to part] hexagram has a correct response from the third, divided line.9. In reality it is not isolated. But, its capacity and nature being what they are, it parts itself from others and becomes isolated.
The k'uei hexagram consists of the li [brightness] trigram on top and the t'ui [pleasure] trigram at the bottom. The position of the topmost line is at the end of the k'uei hexagram. Hence it symbolizes absolute separation. An undivided line is yang and strong. A strong line on top means that strength has reached its height. The li trigram symbolizes brightness. Brightness on top means brightness at its height. Collectively speaking, the line happens to occupy the position of quarrel, offense, and difficult union. In addition, this position is occupied by one who is hasty, violent, ignorant, overscrutinizing, and suspicious. Therefore, although the topmost line originally has a correct response from the third and is in reality not isolated, nevertheless, because the third is restricted by two yang lines, it cannot go and be united with the topmost line. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 12:3b)
Suppose there is a man with relatives and associates who is himself very suspicious. He erroneously creates many situations of conflict and separation. Although he lives in the midst of blood relatives and associates, he is always isolated and alone.
8. The text of the third, divided line of the chieh [to remove] hexagram says, "For one to carry a burden and ride in a carriage is to invite
____________________ 8. Liu's saying is found in the Wai-shu, 4:1b. Chu Hsi included it here. In Yeh Ts'ai Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh ( 12:3), this is treated not as a note but as part of the text and is indented. Liu Hsüan (fl. 1090), whose courtesy name was Chih-fu, was a pupil of the Ch'eng brothers. Eventually he became a professor at the national university. For his biography see the Sung-shih, 428:1a-b, the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 30:1a-2a, or the I-Lo yüan-yüan lu, 8:1a-4a.
9.The weak line in the third position from the bottom, which is weak, responds to the strong line in the topmost or sixth position, which is strong. The response is correct when the third responds to the sixth and a weak line responds to a strong one. See above, ch. 7, n. 9. -270robbers. However firm and correct he may be, there will be cause for regret."10.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "If an inferior man assumes, as if stealing it, a prominent position, although he may make an effort to do the
correct thing, nevertheless, his physical nature is inferior and is basically not the material for a high position. In the end it will be regrettable."
Carrying a burden is the activity of an inferior man, whereas a carriage is a vehicle for the superior man. Here carrying a burden and riding a carriage symbolize the inferior man's usurping a prominent position. It is correct to make an effort to do the right thing. But if a yin and weak line with an inferior physical nature falsely assumes the top position of the lower trigram, it will not be secured. Therefore there will be regret. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 12:3)
[QUESTION]: If he can be greatly correct, will that do?
ANSWER: A person characterized by yin and weakness cannot be greatly correct. If he could, he would have been transformed to be a superior man.
9. The text of the topmost, undivided line of the i [increase] hexagram says: "None will contribute to his increase, and some will attack him."11.
Master Ch'eng's commentary says: "Principle is the most public thing in the world, and profit is desired by all. If one is impartial in his mind and does not err in correct principle, he will share profit with all and encroach upon none. People will also want to share [profit] with him. But if one loves profit too anxiously, is deceived by selfishness, and seeks his own benefit at the expense of others, others will also vigorously compete with him. Therefore none will contribute to his increase and some will attack him."
10 The text of the third, undivided line of the ken [to stop] hexagram says: "The subject stops at the waist, thus separating his ribs from his body below. The situation is perilous, and his mind is greatly disturbed."12.
Master Ch'eng I's commentary says: "In the principle of where to
____________________ 10. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 40, chieh. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 145.
11. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 42, i. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 150. "His" and "him" refer to the subject of the line.
12. Book of Changes, text of hexagram no. 52, ken. Cf. Legge, tr., p. 176.
-271stop, being proper is highly valued. If one cannot go or stop at the proper time but is absolutely rigid, he will beso firm and strong that in dealing with others he will be in conflict with them and offend them, and will becompletely cut off from things. The danger will be great indeed. When a person stops stubbornly
at one corner,and the whole world cannot deal with him in the proper way, difficulties, obstruction, anger, and fear will turnhis mind into fiery turmoil. How can it be at ease or relaxed? The sentence, 'The situation is perilous, and hismind is greatly disturbed,' describes the situation of its uneasiness and its turmoil." 11. Generally speaking, if one acts because of pleasure, how can he avoid being incorrect? 12. Between man and woman, there is an order of superiority and inferiority, and between husband and wife,there is the principle of who leads and who follows. This is a constant principle. If people are influenced byfeelings, give free rein to desires, and act because of pleasure, a man will be driven by desires and lose hischaracter of strength, and a woman will be accustomed to pleasure and forget her duty of obedience.Consequently, there will be misfortune and neither will be benefited. 13. Even as a sage, Shun still "feared a man with clever words and an ingratiating appearance."13. Such is theextent to which pleasure can deceive people, can easily overwhelm them, and is to be feared. 14. To regulate the rivers and watercourses is a great responsibility in the world. Unless one possesses aperfectly impartial mind, can give up his own wishes to follow others, and listens to all the opinions of theworld, he cannot succeed. How much less can one who disobeys orders14. and tries to injure his kin .15 ____________________ 13. Confucius said that such a man is seldom a man of humanity( Analects, 1:3). In the Book of History,"Counsels of Kao-yao" ( Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 70), the sage is Emperor Yao instead of Emperor Shun.Furthermore, the book says, "Being wise and intelligent, why should he fear such a man?" The quotation isclearly out of context. 14.
Ch'eng I ( Ching shuo, 2:5b) understood the orders (ming) to mean the "correct principle." He has beenfollowed by Yeh Ts'ai and other commentators. But Chu Hsi understood it to mean governmental orders (Chu Tzu yü-lei, 78:18a). Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 12:6b) thinks Chu Hsi is correct. 15 According to the Book of History, "Canon of Yao" ( Legge, tr., Shoo King, pp. 24-25), when Yao wanted aperson to regulate the rivers and watercourses, -272Although Kun did not accomplish his task in nine years, nevertheless what he had managed was certainlyunmatched by others. But because he achieved merit in good order, his self-confidence became increasinglystrong. He was all the more quarrelsome and offensive and wanted to injure his kin. He was unable to hearpublic opinion and people were alienated from him. Consequently, his evil became increasingly obvious andfinally he could not accomplish his task. 15. A superior man "straightens his internal life with seriousness."16. Although Wei-sheng Kao's crookednesswas small, the harm he did was great.17. 16. A man with passions has no strength, whereas a man of strength will not yield to passions. 17. "The mistakes of men follow the group to which they belong."18. A superior man is often mistaken in beingliberal, while an inferior man is often mistaken in being stingy. The superior man is excessive19. in love, whilethe inferior man suffers20. from ruthlessness. 18. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID : To have a proud bearing toward others because of one'swealth and honorable position is, of course, not good. To have a proud bearing toward others because of one'slearning will do no small harm either.
19. One who regards anticipating things as wisdom will quickly get to the point of "anticipating attempts todeceive him" and "predicting his being distrusted."21. ____________________ 15 someone recommended Kun. Yao refused, for he said that Kun disobeyed orders and sought to destroy hiskin. When he was urged to try Kun, Yao consented and told him to go ahead, but after nine years Kun hadnot yet accomplished the task. 16. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 2, k'un [Earth]. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 420. 17. Confucius said, "Who says that Wei-sheng Kao is upright? When someone begged more vinegar of him, hebegged it of a neighbor and gave it to the man" ( Analects, 5:23). Wei-sheng Kao, a native of Lu, had areputation for uprightness. 18. Analects, 4:7. 19. The word kuo means both "a mistake" and "going too far." 20. In the collated edition of Chiang Yung , Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 12:2b, following certain editions of the Chin-ssulu, the word shang [suffers from] is replaced by the word kuo, thus making the clause to read: "The inferiorman is excessive [or mistaken] in ruthlessness." 21.
Analects, 14:33. -27320. People want every external thing that serves them to be good but they do not want their own bodies andminds to be good. While they wait for these external things to become good, their own bodies and minds,without their realizing it, have already become no good. 21. People are blind to the Principle of Nature simply because they are confused by desires. Chuang Tzu said,"Those who indulge in many desires have very little of the secret of Nature."22. His words are quite true. 22. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID : If one is experienced in doing tricky things for a long time, atricky mind will surely grow in him. For as he experiences the thing, he surely enjoys it in his mind.23. Since heenjoys it, that amounts to sowing the seed. 23. One who has the defect of suspicion has the beginning of suspicion in his mind before anything happens.One who grabs things has the beginning of grabbing things in his mind to start with. Both are defects. 24. To compare things or affairs to see which is big and which is small will lead to the defect of "bending a footto make eight feet24. straight."25. Whether things are big or small, they should be guided by principle only. There are some who want tofinish them carelessly or accomplish them quickly. They say that by bending the Way a little they canstraighten it a good deal, and by harming righteousness a little they can obtain extensive benefit.They will then take the risks of doing this. Their original intention is merely to make a comparisonbetween the big and the small, but at last they will bend a foot to straighten eight feet. This will leadto a trouble that is beyond words. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 12:7) Things may be big or small but principle is neither big or small. A student should devote himselfcompletely to principle in all things in the world, whether big or small. If one makes a comparison tosee which is big and which
is small, his mind will neglect the small and be anxious about the big. Hewill direct his attention to things and neglect principle. Therefore ____________________ 22. Chuang Tzu, ch. 6 (NHCC, 3:3b). Cf. Herbert Giles, tr., Chuang Tzu, p. 72. Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,12:6) and many other commentators simply equated t'ien-chi [secret of Nature] with the Principle ofNature. Chiang Yung ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 12:2b), however, thinks that it is the incipient activating force ofthe Principle of Nature. 23. Cf. Chuang Tzu's saying, "Those with tricky devices will surely do tricky things, and those who do trickythings will surely have a tricky mind" ( Chuang Tzu, ch. 12 [NHCC, 5:12b]; Giles, tr., p. 124). 24. A hsün was a measure of eight Chinese feet. 25. Quoting the Book of Mencius, 3B:1. -274he will degenerate into bending one foot to straighten eight feet. ( Sakurada Kōmon , Kinshi rokutekisetsu, 12:51a) 25.A small man or a small-minded man26. should not be regarded as small. They are not originally evil. All commentators have treated this passage as a general statement. It hardly makes sense. Forexample, in the Great Learning it is said, "When the inferior man is alone and leisurely, there is nolimit to which he does not go in his evil deeds."27. How can he be considered as not evil? Furthermore,why should he be mentioned together with the small-minded man? Scholars are merely accustomedto [contrasting the inferior man and the superior man] and have
not examined [the contextualmeaning of hsiao-jen here]. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 12:8b) Master Ch'eng words are simply based on what are called an inferior man and a small-minded man inthe Book of Mencius, 2B:12. By small is meant a small or shallow capacity of understanding. For YinShih had not heard the great Way of the superior man and had formed his opinion only on what hehad seen. But he had no bad intention. That is why it is said that he was not originally evil. ( Ibid.) 26. Although one may be public-spirited in all things, if he does a thing according to his personal wishes, thatis selfishness. 27. Being an official destroys one's purpose. We do not need to talk about an official who aims at wealth and honor. If an official is driven backand forth between the good and the bad or between loss and gain, his purpose will be disturbed by thepersonal feelings of joy and anger, and love and hate. Or if he devotes his mind to accomplishmentand merits, his purpose will fall into cunning in making plans and manipulation. One who becomesan official before his moral character is mature will always destroy his purpose. This is something astudent should examine carefully. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 12:7) What Yeh Ts'ai said refers to those whose moral character is not yet mature. If one has alwaysunderstood moral principles and has always been firm in his moral practice, and becomes an officialafter his learning has ____________________ 26. Mencius went a thousand I (a li is about one third of a mile) to see the king of Ch'i. When the king wouldnot use him, he left, but not until after lingering for three more days. Yin Shih, a native of Ch'i, accused himof coming all the way for his own benefit and leaving only because of a personal disappointment. WhenMencius was told of this, he said that he came because he thought the king was capable of being a good one,that he lingered because he did not give
up hope, and that he was not like a "small-minded man" who, whena ruler failed to accept his advice, would get angry and passionately leave at once. Upon being told ofMencius' words, Yin Shih said that he himself was a "small man" indeed. "Small man" is hsiao-jen inChinese, which also means the inferior man who is the opposite of the superior man. 27. Great Learning, ch. 6. -275become excellent, he will do whatever should be done and will not be corrupted by profit or deterredby danger. He can act according to his purpose whether his position is high or low. What can destroyhis purpose? If it can be destroyed, it is not worth being called "purpose." ( Chang Po-hsing, Chinssulu chi-chieh, 12:8b-9a ) "Master Ch'eng said that being an official destroys one's purpose. Some say that that is because onewill then be influenced by wealth and honor. My humble opinion is that more than this is meant.When a talented man has become an official and comes to some difficult situation, he may feel heshould make some accommodation in accordance with the situation. Very soon he will fall into thecondition of complying with convention at any time. This would be different from his originalpurpose. This is what is meant by destroying one's purpose. I wonder if this is really the origin ofMaster Cheng's idea. Furthermore, if someone has to be an official and acquires this defect, what isthe remedy? I dare to beg you to instruct me." "Your explanation of destroying the purpose is correct. The way to remedy the defect is to examinethings as they come along and carefully weigh which is important and which is not. The differencemay be very subtle, but one must watch very closely." (Letter from Chao Chih-tao [fl. 1193]28. and ChuHsi reply, Chu Tzu wen-chi, 59:44b-45a) 28. Pride means that one's vital force is full, whereas stinginess means that one's vital force isdeficient. When one is stingy about money, he will feel
deficient whether he is dealing with money or athing. To him all things will seem deficient, and he will always feel something wanting. The Teacher [ Chu Hsi] said, "A student came and asked, 'I-ch'uan said that pride means that one'svital force is full, whereas stinginess means that one's vital force is deficient. When there is fullness,there is no deficiency, and when there is deficiency, there is no fullness. Why is it that [Confucius]said, "proud and stingy"?'29. Suppose you discuss the matter and see." Po-feng30. replied, "Fullness refers to doing something to others, whereas deficiency refers to keepingsomething for oneself. Take a rough example. If one is vigorous in doing wrong to others, he will betimid in improving himself, and if he is clear about criticizing others, he will excuse himselfindiscriminately. Both pride and stinginess come from the same root of trouble." The Teacher said, "Suppose someone understands the meaning of a passage. If he is stingy and isunwilling to explain it to others, that means he wants to be proud toward others. Stinginess cannot bepracticed without pride and pride cannot be practiced without stinginess." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,35:31b) ____________________ 28. His private name was Shih-hsia and his courtesy name Chih-tao. A friend of Chu Hsi's, he was a magistrate. 29. Analects, 8:11. 30. Courtesy name of Wu Pi-ta (fl. 1196), Chu Hsi's pupil, who recorded the conversations of 1188-89. -276-
29. People ignorant of the Way are like drunkards. While they are drunk, they will do anything. When theybecome sober, they will feel ashamed. Before people know what learning is, they regard themselves as perfect.After they know, they will recall what they previously did and will be ashamed and even afraid. 30. [CH'ENG HAO] Hsing Ch'i31. said: "Let us daily examine ourselves on three points."32. Master Ming-tao said: "How pitiable! What do you do the rest of the time?" Hsing Ch'i was wrong in imitatingthe teaching of examining oneself on three points. It can be seen that he had not made a real effort.Furthermore, he often tried to please people by saying something. Therefore Ming-tao reproached him. Hsing said: "There is nothing to be said." Ming-tao said: "If there is nothing to be said, do you have to say so in so many words?" Tseng Tzu's learning of triple examination does not mean that every day one examines himself on only threethings and overlooks the rest. The main thing is to be vigilant all day. ( Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh,12:9b) 31. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID : If a student neglects propriety and righteousness, hewill stuff himself with food all day and do nothing. He will be like a low-class person and his concerns will notgo beyond clothing, food, and the pleasures of feasting and travel. 32. The songs of Cheng and Wei33. were very sad. They caused people's thoughts to be stagnant and madepeople lazy. Consequently, the people's sense of pride and their licentious desires were aroused. Even rare andprecious things would not have been so greatly influential in the beginning as these songs were. As a resultpeople came to love them tremendously. Therefore Confucius said that they had to be banished.34. After all, theSage was familiar with these songs, but he was not influenced by such things. ____________________
31. Hsing Shu. See above, ch. 4, n. 13. 32. Tseng Tzu (see above, ch. 2, sec. 26) said that he daily examined himself on three points: whether incounseling others he had not been loyal; whether in intercourse with his friends he had not been faithful;and whether he had not repeated again and again and practiced the instructions of his teacher. See theAnalects, 1:4. 33. States in Confucius' time. 34. Analects, 15:10. -27733. Mencius talked about returning to the unchanging standard purposely after he had [criticized] the goody-goody people of the village 35. because the goody-goody people of the village do not first of all establish thefundamentals.36. They originally intend to do nothing particular,37. but only watch and follow others, whomthey do not wish to offend. They do this all their lives. ____________________ 35. Book of Mencius, 7B:37. 36. Such qualities as filial piety, brotherly respect, loyalty, and faithfulness. 37.
Some editions have tso [shame] instead of tso [to do], making the phrase read, "basically having no sense ofshame." -278XIII: SIFTING THE HETERODOXICAL DOCTRINES YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: Sifting the Heterodoxical Schools. 14 sections. This chapteris to sift the heterodoxical doctrines. Although the learning of the superior man has been achieved,the heterodoxical doctrines may not be allowed to go without clear sifting. If the slightest amount isnot clearly sifted, it will do the human mind very much harm. 1. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: The harm of Yang Chu and Mo Ti is greater than that of ShenTzu and Han Tzu,1. and the harm of the Buddha and Lao Tzu is greater than that of Yang and Mo. Yang Chu'segoism bears some vague resemblance to the doctrine of righteousness, while Mo Tzu's universal love bearssome vague resemblance to humanity.2. Shen Tzu and Han Tzu are shallow and ____________________ 1. For Yang Chu and Mo Tzu, see above, ch. 1, sec. 29. Shen Tzu was Shen Puhai (d. 337 B.C.), a Legalist whoemphasized statecraft. He was a prime minister of the Han state. His work, called Shen Tzu, is no longerextant, and quoted passages in various works may or may not be authentic. Han Tzu was Han Fei (d. 233B.C.), a pupil of Hsün Tzu (see below, ch. 14, sec. 5). A prince of Han, he was disappointed because hisadvice was not accepted in his own state. When Ch'in attacked Han, in desperation the king of Han senthim to Ch'in to negotiate. The king of Ch'in liked him, but because of Intrigue against him by Li Ssu (d. 208B.C.), once his fellow pupil, he was urged to commit suicide, and did so. He was the most outstandingLegalist, synthesizing the three tendencies in the Legalist School, namely, those of emphasizing
power,statecraft, and law. See The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu, tr. by W. K. Liao. 2. In many editions of the Chin-ssu lu the words "righteousness" and "humanity" are interchanged. It is mostillogical to say that Yang Chu's egoism resembles universal love and Mo Tzu's doctrine of universal loveresembles righteousness which makes distinctions In human relations. In Chu Hsi's commentary on theBook of Mencius, 3B:9, where he quotes this passage, the two sentences conform to the text. Furthermore,in his conversation on the passage (see below), the pertinent parts of the passage are quoted and alsoconform to the text. Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 13:1b), Shih Huang ( Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming,13:1b), and Chiang Yung ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 13:1a) are correct in following the text. In Chang Pohsing (Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 13:1b), the two words are interchanged but in his commentary Chang has noted thatin one edition the two words are not, which "makes much smoother reading." In Yeh Ts'ai ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 13:1), the two words are Interchanged, and he comments, " Yang Chu may be said to be selfish andnot humane. Nevertheless his doctrine still bears a vague resemblance to the doctrine of humanity which isfree from desires. Mo Tzu's universal love may be said to be reckless and devoid of righteousness.Nevertheless it still bears a vague resemblance to the doctrine of righteousness which is free fromselfishness." Yeh Ts'ai has been -279vulgar, and obviously so. Therefore Mencius attacked only Yang and Mo,3. for they delude the world to thehighest degree. Question: It is easy to see why Mo Tzu's doctrine of universal love bears some vague resemblance tohumanity. But how does Yang Chu's egoism bear some vague resemblance to righteousness? Chu Hsi answered: Yang Chu's doctrine does not seem to resemble righteousness. His is entirely thedoctrine of Lao Tzu. All he wanted was to be free and roam leisurely outside the material world,merely preserving himself
complete. He did not care for people who devoted themselves to the affairsof the world. He cared only for himself. He wanted the distinction between himself and others to beclear and neat, one not interfering with the other. To a very small extent, this resembles the doctrineof righteousness [which makes clear distinctions about functions in different human relations]. Atbottom there is no resemblance. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 55:15a) The words of the Buddha and Lao Tzu are somewhat reasonable. In this they cannot be matched by Yang andMo. This is why they are very much more harmful. Their harmful teachings have been exposed by Mencius.This is why the road is now open and wide.4. 2. MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG 1] SAID: Confucianists should devote their minds deeply to the correct Wayand permit no mistakes. Mistakes begin very subtly, but at the end there will be no hope. For example, "Shih5.goes too far and Shang6. does not go far ____________________ 2. followed by most Japanese commentators, and by his translator, Father Graf ( Djin-sï lu, II, 701, and III,491). But Yeh Ts'ai has simply followed a corrupted text and his effort to remove the contradiction is mostillogical and arbitrary. As Kim Chang-saeng has noted ( Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi, in the Sagye sŏnsaeng chŏnsŏ,20:6b), the two words should not be interchanged and Yeh Ts'ai's comments are based on a mistake. In hiscolloquial translation of the Chin-ssu lu, Katō Jōken ( Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p. 347) has conformed tothe text. It is curious that in the original source, the I-shu, 13:1a, the two words are interchanged, that is, "humanity"is used to describe Yang Chu and "righteousness," Mo Tzu. Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku 13:12a),Nakai Chikusan ( Kinshi roku setsu, ch. 13), and Yanada Katsunobu ( Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shōsetsu,p. 965) say that in the Erh- Ch'eng ch'üan-shu, of which the I-shu is a part, the two words are notinterchanged. I have not been able to find an edition of the Erh-Ch'eng ch'üan-shu that
confirms theirassertion. The edition they saw may no longer be extant. In the I-shu, 15:21b, Ch'eng I said that Yang Chu'sdoctrine is also one of righteousness and Mo Tzu's is one of humanity. This statement corroborates thestatement under discussion. Most probably the interchange In the I-shu, 13:1a, was mistakenly made in anearly edition of the Chin-ssu lu, and this mistake was overlooked by Yeh Ts'ai. In later editions of the Erh-Ch'eng ch'üan shu and the I-shu, the interchange was made to conform to the corrupted edition of theChin-ssu lu. 3. Book of Mencius, 3B:9. 4. Yang Hsiung said, "In ancient times, Yang and Mo blocked the way. After Mencius eloquently exposed theirfallacies, the road became open and wide" ( Fa-yen, 2:4b). 5. Private name of Confucius' pupil, Tzu-chang ( 503-c. 450 B.C.). 6. Private name of Tzu-hsia. See above, ch. 2, n. 124. -280enough."7. With regard to the Sage's Way of the Mean, Shih was merely mistaken in being too liberal andShang in not going far enough. But liberality will gradually lead to universal love and not going far enough willsimply lead to egoism. In this case both going too far and not going far enough have their origin inConfucianism, but they will end up in the practices of Yang and Mo. Actually, Yang and Mo did not go so far asto deny the special relationships with the father and the ruler.8. But, as Mencius calculated, they would end upthis way. For their mistakes would surely reach this point. 3. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: There is nothing outside the Way, and there is no Way outsideof things. Thus within heaven and earth
there is nowhere without the Way. Right in the relation of father andson, affection is the way, and right in the relation between ruler and minister, seriousness9. is the way. Fromthese relations to those of being husband and wife, elder and younger, and friends, there is no activity that isnot the Way. This is why "The Way cannot be separated from us for a moment."10. This being the case, torenounce human relations and to do away with the Four Elements11. is to deviate very far from the Way.Therefore the superior man in dealing with the world is not for anything or against anything. He followsrighteousness as the standard.12. If one is for or against anything, there will be a distinction between him andthe Way and that would not be Heaven and Earth in their completeness. In the learning of the Buddhists thereis seriousness to straighten the internal life but no righteousness to square the external life.13. Therefore thosewho are rigid become like dry wood and those who are relaxed end up in recklessness. This is why Buddhism isnarrow. Our Way is different. It is to follow our nature, that is all. The Sage has fully explained this principle inthe Book of Changes.14. HE FURTHER SAID: In Buddhism there is the principle of awakening. Thus the Buddhists can straighten theinternal life with seriousness. ____________________ 10. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1. 11. Earth, Water, Fire, and Wind. The Buddhists try to do away with these basic elements of the universe. 12. Analects, 4:10. 13. Book of Changes, commentary on hexagram no. 2, k'un [Earth], teaches both. Cf. James Legge, tr., Yi King,p. 420.
14. Book of Changes, "Remarks on Certain Trigrams," chs. 1-2. Cf. Legge, tr., pp. 422-23. 7. Analects, 11:15. 8. As Mencius accused them of doing ( Book of Mencius, 3B:9). 9. Yen in Chinese. A note in the original source, the I-shu, 4:4b, says, "One edition has ching," which means"seriousness" or "reverence." -281But they lack righteousness to square the external life. Essentially the fundamentals of their straightening of theinternal life are also wrong.15. [ Yang Tao-fu]16. asked, "In the I-shu it is said that the Buddhists have seriousness to straighten theinternal life but no righteousness to square the external life. I am not satisfied with it." The Teacher [ Chu Hsi] smiled and said, "The other day T'ung Fei-ch'ing17. was talking about justthat. He thought the great fundamentals of the Buddhists are the same as those of us Confucianists,and they differ from us only in secondary matters. I told him that their fundamentals are preciselydifferent from ours. Thereupon I looked up the Chin-ssu lu and found the passage, 'In Buddhism thereis the principle of awakening. Thus the Buddhists may be said to be able to straighten the internal lifewith seriousness. But they lack righteousness to square the external life. Essentially, the fundamentalsof their straightening of the internal life are also wrong.' This conversation was recorded in itsentirety at the time. The preceding one was not recorded in its entirety." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,126:21a)
Question: In what sense do the Buddhists have seriousness to straighten the internal life? Answer: They have some enlightenment, which enables them to be serious to straighten their internallife. But they differ from us Confucianists. They are fundamentally impatient, and therefore want todo away with everything. We Confucianists treat existing things as existent and nonexisting things asnonexistent. All we want is that when we handle things we shall manage them in the correct way. (Ibid., 96:14b) 4. The Buddhists are fundamentally afraid of life and death and are selfish. Is theirs the way for all? Theydevote themselves only to penetration on the transcendental level, not to learning on the empirical level. Thisbeing the case, can their penetration on the transcendental level be right? Their two levels are basicallydisconnected. Whatever is separated is not the Way. Simply because [the Buddhists] have no righteousness to square the external life, even theirseriousness to straighten the internal life is incorrect. Master Ch'eng said, "They devote themselvesonly to penetration on the transcendental level, not to learning on the empirical level. This being thecase, can their penetration on the transcendental level be right?" He meant the same. ( Chu Hsi, ChuTzu yü-lei, 126:21a) They devote themselves to higher penetration because they seek awakening and enlightenment. Theyhave no learning on the empirical level because they discard human affairs. We investigate theprinciple of each and every thing ____________________ 15. This paragraph is an original note in the text ( Chin-ssu lu, 13:1b). In Yeh Ts'ai's Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 13:3,however, this is part of the text but indented. 16. Chu Hsi's pupil, whose courtesy name was Chung-ssu. He recorded the conversations after 1189.
17. Another pupil, whose private name was Po-yü and courtesy name Fel-ch'ing. He recorded the conversationsof 1190. -282to the utmost because we want every thing to be right and not wrong. Now the Buddhists discardeverything and seek only enlightenment in the mind; therefore it is asked, "Can that be right?" Thusthey seek principle outside of things. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 13:5a) Mencius said, "He who exerts his mind to the utmost knows his nature."18. It is true that the Buddhists knowthe mind and understand nature, but of preserving the mind and nourishing nature they know nothing. Ofcourse they say that they renounce the family to attend to their own virtue in solitude. This shows they aredeficient in the substance of the Way. The Way is based on human relations. Since they desert the family, they are greatly deficient in thesubstance of the Way. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 13:4) Someone said, "The Buddhist doctrine of hells and the like is meant for people with low intelligence so they willbe scared and do good." The Teacher said, "Even when one's perfect sincerity penetrates Heaven and Earth, one cannot transform allthe people. How can one expect to transform them by setting up a false doctrine?" 5. A student should forthwith get as far away from Buddhist doctrines as from licentious songs and beautifulwomen. Otherwise they will soon infiltrate him. When Yen Yüan19. asked how to conduct a government, havingtold him the activities of the Two Emperors and the Three Kings,20. Confucius also warned him to banish thesongs of Cheng and keep far away from clever talkers, saying, "The songs of Cheng are licentious and clevertalkers are dangerous."21. The cleverness of the clever talkers concerns only themselves, but they are dangerousto others simply because they can exert an influence on them. That is why they are dangerous. As to Yü's words,"Why fear a man of
clever words and an ingratiating appearance?,"22. when we say that we need to fear a manof clever words and an ingratiating appearance23. we merely mean that even if we are cautious about them, wemay not get away from them. About Buddhist doctrines, it is all ____________________ 18. Book of Mencius, 7A: 1. 19. See above, ch. 1, sec. 30. 20. See above, ch. 3, n. 91. 21. Analects, 15:10. 22. Book of History, "Counsels of Kao Yao," Cf. Legge, tr., Shoo King, p. 70. See above, ch. 2, n. 216. 23. The repetition of the phrase, "a man of clever words and an ingratiating appearance," does not occur insome editions and most commentaries, but is in the original source, the I-shu, 2A:9b. -283the more unnecessary to say that we should be cautious at all times. After we have gained self-confidence, theycannot confuse us. 6. The reason why it is said that all things form one body is that all have this principle simply because they allhave come from it. "Change means production and reproduction."24. In production, once a thing is produced,it
possesses this principle complete. Man can extend this principle to others, but because their material force[with which they are endowed] is dark, things cannot do so. But we must not say that they do not shareprinciple with others. Simply because of selfishness, man thinks in terms of his own person, and thereforebelittles principle. If he lets go this person of his and views it the same way as he views all things, how much25.joy26. would there be! Because the Buddhists do not know this, they think in terms of the self. As they cannotcope with it, they become disgusted and want to get rid of all sense perception, and because the source of theirmind is not calm, they want to be like dry wood and dead ashes. But this is impossible. It is possible only indeath. The Buddhists say all that because in reality they love their own persons and cannot let go. They are like thoseworms that carry things on their backs which are already unable to bear their load and heap still more thingson their bodies, or like a man who jumps into a river holding a rock and, although its weight makes him sinkdeeper, never thinks of letting the rock go but merely resents its weight. 7. Someone advocating the method of directing the vital force27. asked the Teacher, "Do you also have amethod?" Answer: "I have worn linen in the summer and fur in the winter. I have eaten when I was hungry and drunkwhen thirsty.28. And I have restrained my desires and calmed my mind and vital force.29. That is all." ____________________ 24. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 356. 25. Ta-hsiao-ta is a Sung period colloquialism meaning "so much." 26.
Mao Hsing-lai ( Chin-ssu lu chichu, 13:7b) has punctuated and interpreted this sentence to read, "They[ancient sages and worthies] let go their own persons and viewed them in the same way as they viewed allthings. How much joy did they have!" Mao said that the idea here is to reiterate the idea of forming onebody with all things which is expressed above. 27. A Taoist technique of directing one's vital force so that it will circulate unimpeded, and of exhaling the oldand inhaling the new. It is one of the Taoist techniques for prolonging life. 28. Quoting Han Yü, "Yüan-tao," Han Ch'ang-li ch'üan-chi, 11:3b. 29. Quoting the Book of Rites, "Monthly Orders" (SPPY, 5:13a). Cf. James Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 275. -2848. The Buddhists do not understand yin and yang, day and night, life and death, or past and present. How canit be said that their metaphysics is the same as that of the Sage? 9. [ CH'ENG I] If one tries to investigate all the Buddhist doctrines in order to accept or reject them, before hehas done that, he will already have been converted to be a Buddhist. But let us take a look at Buddhism fromthe point of view of facts. Since they have set up such doctrines, what is in their mind? It is certainly difficult totake a look at their mind but not at its expression in facts. As there is this mind, there will be the fact[corresponding to it]. When Wang T'ung said that "the mind and fact have long been sharply differentiated,"30.he was talking nonsense. Therefore it is none better to determine, on the basis of facts, that the Buddhistdoctrines are not in accord with those of the Sage. We already have in our Way whatever is correct in them.Whatever is incorrect will of course be rejected. It is simple and easy to stand firm this way.31.
10. [ CH'ENG I] QUESTION: About the theory of immortals--are there such beings? ANSWER: If you mean such things as people ascending to heaven in clear daylight, there is none. But if youmean people living in mountain forests to preserve their physical form and imbibing energy to prolong life,then there are. It is like fire in a stove. If it is placed in the wind, it will be easily blown out. But if it is placed ina tightly closed room, it will not be easily blown out. This is in accordance with principle. FURTHER QUESTION: Yang Tzu said, "The sage does not learn from immortals, for their art is not a normalone."32. Can sages practice the art of immortals? ANSWER: An immortal is a thief in the world. If he does not steal the secret of creation, how can he extend lifeforever? If sages cared to do it, the Duke of Chou and Confucius would have done it.33. 11. [ CH'ENG I] Hsieh Hsien-tao34. mentioned one similarity after another between Buddhist and Confuciandoctrines, and asked ____________________ 30. Chung-shuo, 5:1b. For Wang T'ung, see above, ch. 3, n. 50. 31. In the I-shu, 15:10a, this saying is ascribed to Ch'eng 1. 32. Yang Hsiung, Fa-yen, 12:4b-5a. 33. According to the I-shu, 18:10a, this is Ch'eng I's saying. 34. Hsieh Liang-tso. See above, ch. 2, n. 85.
-285Master I-ch'uan about them. The Master said, "Although there are many similarities like these, simply becausetheir foundation is wrong, everything of theirs is wrong." 12. MASTER HENG-CH'Ü [CHANG TSAI] SAID: The Buddhists have false ideas about our Heaven-endowednature and do not know how to shape and bring into completion the functioning of Heaven.35. On the contrary,they regard such small things as the Six Sense Organs36. to be the causes of the universe. They cannotthoroughly understand these things, and consequently falsely assert that heaven, earth, the sun, and the moonare illusory and false. They confine the function [of Heaven] to such a small thing as the individual person, andsubmerge their purpose in such a big thing as empty space. This is why, whether they speak of things big orsmall, they drift and wander and fail to achieve the Mean. In their mistake about the great, they regard a speckof dust or a mustard seed as equivalent to the Six Directions.37. In their being obscured about the small, theylook upon the human world as a dream or an illusion. Can they be said to have investigated principle to theutmost? If they do not know principle, can they be said to have fully developed their nature? Can they be said toknow every thing? They regard a speck of dust or a mustard seed as the Six Directions because they say thatHeaven and Earth are limited. They regard the human world as a dream or an illusion because theirunderstanding cannot investigate the origin of the human world. 13. The Book of Changes does not discuss being or nonbeing.38. Doctrines of being and nonbeing are the vulgarviews of the various philosophers. Questioned about Heng-ch'ü's saying that doctrines of being and nonbeing are the vulgar views of thevarious philosophers, Chu Hsi said, "Nonbeing means the nonexistence of a thing but the existence ofits principle. Since there is the principle, there is being. But Lao Tzu said that things come from beingand being comes from nonbeing.39. Even principle is considered nonexistent. This is wrong." ( ChuHsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:25b) The Book of Changes does not discuss being or nonbeing. Lao Tzu said that being comes fromnonbeing. He is wrong. ( Ibid., 125:12a)
____________________ 35. That is, the operation of the Way. 36. The eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. 37. North, east, south, west, above, and below. 38. For this translation, see below, "On Translating Certain Chinese Philosophical Terms, "p. 368. 39. Lao Tzu, ch. 40. -28614. In trying to understand spirits, Buddhists say that beings with consciousness die and are reborn in cycles.Buddhists are therefore tired of suffering and seek to escape from it. Can they be said to understand spiritualbeings? They consider human life as a delusion. Can they be said to understand man? Heaven and man form aunity, but they accept one40. and reject the other.41. Can they be said to understand Heaven? What Confuciusand Mencius called Heaven, they call the Path. "The wandering away of the spirit42. becomes change,"43. butthe deluded 44. Buddhists call this transmigration. They just don't think. In a system of great learning, one must first of all understand the character of Heaven. Knowing the characterof Heaven, one knows the sage and spiritual beings. Now the essential conclusion of the ultimate thesis of theBuddhists is, necessarily, that life, death, and transmigration cannot be avoided unless one attains the Way.Can they be said to understand the Way? (One who understands knows what is due to one's righteous acts andwhat is due to one's
fate. He equalizes life and death and to him Heaven and man are one. He only knowsmorning and night and comprehends yin and yang and enters into them without making any distinctionbetween them.)45. Since the Buddhist doctrine spread in China like fire, many Confucianists, who have not been able to lookthrough the gate of the school of the Sage, have already been attracted to it and drowned in it together with theBuddhists. They consider Buddhism as the great Way. Consequently, its vulgarism has extended throughout theworld, so that good and bad people, the intelligent and the stupid, men and women, and servants all havebecome accustomed to believing in it. Even if brilliant talents have occasionally appeared, from youth they havebeen submerged in those things which their ears and eyes are ____________________ 40. The ultimate nature of Heaven. 41. Human affairs. 42. Material force. 43. As it disintegrates. See the Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 1, ch. 4. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p.353. 44. The text ( Chin-ssu lu, 13:4a) has huo [deluded]. This conforms to the original source, the Chang Tzuch'üan-shu, 3:22a. Chiang Yung ( Chin-ssu lu chichieh, 13:4b), Shih Huang ( Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming,13:11 a), and even Chou Kung-shu ( Fen-lei Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 13:5a) have all correctly followed theoriginal source. In Yeh Ts'ai text ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 13:8), however, another huo [someone] is used, andhe has been followed by most
Japanese commentators and annotators ( Utsunomiya Ton'an , Gōtō kinshiroku, 13:12b; Yanada Katsunobu, Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shōsetsu, p. 995; Inoue Tetsujirō, Kinshi roku,13:8; Katō Jōken, Gendai goyaku kinshi roku, p. 358; to mention a few) and by Yeh Ts'ai's translator,Father Graf ( Djin-sï lu, II, 722). Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimo kukai, p. 440) is correct in usinghuo [deluded]. Interestingly enough, Akitzuki Kazutsugu ( Kinshi roku, p. 358), who has followed Nakamurain his colloquial translation, has used huo [someone]. 45. This passage in parentheses is an original note in the Cheng-meng, ch. 17. -287comfortably used to, and as they have grown up, they have followed the teachings admired by famous butmediocre scholars. As a result, they have remained in the dark and have been driven along. For this reason theysay that one can become a sage without cultivating oneself, and that one can know the great Way withoutstudy. Thus, before understanding the mind of the Sage, they have already concluded that the manifestation ofhis mind in historical facts need not be investigated, and, before understanding the purpose of the superiorman, they have already concluded that it is not necessary to devote oneself to the concrete expressions of thatmind. This is why human relations have not been clearly understood, the principle of things has not beenclearly comprehended, government has been neglected, and morality has become a chaos. Strange doctrines fillthe ear. From above, there have been no rules of propriety to prevent their treachery. From below, there hasbeen no study to examine their defects. For a long time, one-sided, extravagant, depraved, and evasivedoctrines have arisen together. For 1,50046. years they have all come from the Buddhist school. Naturally,unless one is independent and fearless, has singleness and refinement of mind, is self-confident, and possessestalent far superior to others, how can he stand erect in this situation to contrast Buddhism and Confucianismand see which is right and which is wrong, and which is wise and which is unwise? ____________________
46. The text has "already 500." This is clearly a mistake because the original source, the Cheng-meng, ch. 17 (Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 3:22b), has "1,500." Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 13) calculated that fromthe introduction of Buddhism in A.D. 65 to the year of Chang Tsai's death, there had been 1,015 years andsaid that Chang Tsai was therefore wrong. He did not allow for the possibility of a misprint or of ChangTsai's using a round number, regardless of exaggeration. According to Chinese tradition, Buddhism wasofficially welcomed into China in A.D. 67. -288XIV: ON THE DISPOSITIONS OF SAGES AND WORTHIES YEH TS'AI'S TITLE AND DESCRIPTION: Observing the Sages and Worthies. 26 sections. In this chapterthe orthodox system successively transmitted by sages and worthies is discussed, supplemented by discussionon the various philosophers. Starting with Emperors Yao and Shun, and through Kings Yü, Wen, and Wu, andthe Duke of Chou, the orthodox system of the Way was successively transmitted to Confucius. Confuciustransmitted it to Yen Tzu and Tseng Tzu. Tseng Tzu transmitted it to Tzu-ssu, Tzu-ssu transmitted it toMencius, with whom the transmission terminated. Since then there have been Hsün Ch'ing of Ch'u, MaoCh'ang, Tung Chung-shu, Yang Hsiung, and Chu-ko Liang in the Han dynasty, Wang T'ung in the Sui, and HanYü in the T'ang. Although they were not capable of continuing the tradition of the Way, nevertheless theirwords and deeds are helpful to the education of the world and should be studied. When it came to this [Sung]dynasty, there was a rebirth of humanistic culture. Master Chou took the lead and the two Masters Ch'eng andMaster Chang extended it. Thus the Doctrine of the Sage became prominent once more and the orthodoxsystem of the Way was revived and continued. For this reason, these various philosophers are included in thediscussion.
1. MASTER MING-TAO [CH'ENG HAO] SAID: Yao and Shun were beyond comparison. When it came toT'ang and Wu,1. they were different. Mencius said that [ Yao and Shun] "were what they were by nature"whereas [ T'ang and Wu] "returned to their nature."2. From ancient times on, no one had said this. Menciusalone made the distinction. We know therefore that Yao and Shun were born with the knowledge [of virtue],whereas T'ang and Wu learned and acquired the ability to practice it. The character of King Wen3. resembledthat of Yao and Shun, while that of Yü4. resembled that of T'ang and Wu. Essentially they were all sages. Being what one is by nature means to have been born with the knowledge [of virtue] and to be able topractice it naturally and easily. The nature of such a person is completely merged with him and isperfect. He does not ____________________ 1. See above, ch. 3, n. 91. 2. Book of Mencius, 7B:33. 3. Founder of the Chou dynasty. 4. Founder of the Hsia dynasty. See above, ch. 2, n. 216. -289need to learn or to practice beforehand. To return to one's [originally good] nature means to acquirethe knowledge through learning and to practice [virtue] for its advantage. Such a person cultivates hispersonal life and practices the Way, and thus returns to his nature. King Wen, "without awareness orknowledge, followed the principle of the Lord."5. This is due to the nature of his inborn knowledge. Yüwas diligent and thrifty, and was
neither proud nor boasting.6. Generally speaking, he was able tobecome so because he had learned. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 14:1) 2. Chung-ni [Confucius] is comparable to the prime force of origination, Yen Tzu7. is comparable to the spiritof life in the spring. And in Mencius even the spirit of annihilation of autumn is fully revealed. The Grand Master was a great sage by nature. He was like the prime force of origination thatcirculates everywhere, undifferentiated and extensive. It has neither any limit nor any defect. Yen Tzuwas second to the Sage in character. He was like unlimited spring sunlight which arouses and makesall things grow, the head of the four seasons, and the chief quality of goodness.8. Mencius was alsosecond to the Sage in character. He was strong and bold. And he argued clearly.9. He had a greatsense of order and was stern. Therefore in him even the spirit of annihilation of autumn is fullyrevealed. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi chieh, 14:1) Chung-ni embraced everything. In teaching us the lesson of "not objecting to anything as if he werestupid,"10.Yen Tzu showed later generations a disposition of natural harmony, which will silently transform us.Mencius, however, clearly showed his ability, for, the time in which he lived being what it was, he could nothelp it. The Grand Master's Way was complete and his virtue perfect, and therefore he embraced everything.Yen Tzu never objected, as if he were stupid, to what Confucius told him. Thus he was completelyidentified with the character of the Sage. Later generations can imagine his dispostion of naturalharmony, which is completed in silence and is true without the need of saying a word about it.Mencius exercised his brilliant ability, soaring above others. This was because during the WarringStates period [ 403-222 B.C.] the way of the world steadily declined and heterodoxical doctrinesincreasingly spread like fire. In addition, there was no king above who actually headed the alliance offeudal lords. Therefore Mencius could not help defending the Way as sternly, and arguing as clearly,as he did. ( Ibid., 2) ____________________
10. Analects, 2:9. 5. Book of Odes, no. 241, describing the virtue of King Wen. 6. So described in the Book of History, "Counsels of the Great Yü." Cf. James Legge , tr., Shoo King, p. 60. 7. See above, ch. 1, sec. 30. 8. In the Book of Changes, commentary on the first hexagram, ch'ien, it is said that origination is the chiefquality of goodness. See Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 408. 9. In his attack on perverse doctrine. See the Book of Mencius, 3B:9. -290Someone asked about Yen Tzu's being comparable to the spirit of life of spring and the fact that eventhe spirit of annihilation of autumn was completely revealed in Mencius. Chu Hsi said, " Chung-niembraced everything. Yen Tzu engaged in revealing the spirit of life of spring. For example, he said hewished 'never to boast of my good qualities and never to brag about the trouble I have taken.'11. Hadhe not revealed even this intention of his, he would have been like Confucius." ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yülei, 96:14b) Yen Tzu wished never to boast of his good qualities and never to brag about the trouble he had taken.This means he still had the intention and only wished he had not. Thus half of the considerationconcerned himself. Confucius,
however, was completely free from any consideration of himself. He wasnot aware what he himself was and what others were. ( Ibid., 29:25b) QUESTION: Concerning the remark, "Mencius clearly showed his ability, for, the time in which helived being what it was, he could not help it," Chihch'ing12. said, "Someone said that theinterpretation is not right. Mencius merely occasionally showed his ability. Another said that it wasthe custom during the Warring States period to show one's ability. Still another said that, as the wayof the world declined, Mencius could not help doing it." Which of the three interpretations is correct? ANSWER: Probably the interpretation in terms of custom is comparatively safer. Generally speaking,from the time of Yao and Shun to our own dynasty, each period is naturally different, each has its owndisposition. ( Ibid., 96:15a) Chung-ni was comparable to heaven and earth, Yen Tzu to gentle wind and felicitous clouds, and Mencius tothe condition of the high cliffs of Mount T'ai.13. This can be seen from their words. Chung-ni left no trace; Yen Tzu left a small amount. In Mencius, the traces are clearly visible. Compared with Confucius, Yen Tzu was still conscious of his good qualities and his labor. But in Confucius,there was no trace [of this self-consciousness] to be seen. ( Ibid., 29:20b) Confucius was quite clear and pure in disposition. Yen Tzu was quite happy and at ease. And Mencius wasquite a vigorous debater.14. 3. [CH'ENG I] Tseng Tzu15. passed on the Learning of the Sage. His potential character could not have beenpredicted. How do we know that he would not have become a sage? Take his words, "I want to die ____________________ 11. Ibid., 5:25. 12.
Courtesy name of Huang Kan ( 1152-1221), Chu Hsi's pupil and son- in-law. 13. Famous high mountain in Shantung Province. 14. In the original source, the I-shu, 5:1b, this paragraph is separate from the preceding paragraphs, treated asan independent passage. 15. See above, ch. 2, sec. 26. -291in the correct way."16. Never mind the literal meanings of the words. just look at his disposition. It wasexcellent, for his insight was on something fundamental. People of later generations may say fine words but,because they debase themselves by their dispositions, in the end they never approximate the Way.17. As Tseng Tzu understood the idea of the "one thread,"18. he had already inherited and transmittedthe Learning of the Sage. As to his words about changing the mat, "What do I want? I want only to diein the correct way, that is all," obviously he [could not have said so] if he was not one who enjoyed thegood without getting tired of it and who practiced the Principle of Nature naturally and easily. Heinsisted on returning to correctness when only one breath remained. This cannot be done offhandwith special effort. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 14:2) 4. [CH'ENG I] It is difficult to transmit the doctrines of the Classics. For instance, only a hundred years afterConfucius the transmission was already off the track.19. If there had not been Tzu-ssu20. and Mencius, theLearning of the Sage would have died out. When has the Way ever stopped operating? The only thing is thatpeople do not follow it. "It is not that there is no Way. Rather, Kings Yu and Li21. did not follow it."22. ____________________
16. When he was dying and discovered that the mat he was lying on was proper only for a high official, heinsisted on having it changed. See the Book of Rites, "T'an-kung," pt. 1 (SPPY, 2:6b). See also above, ch. 17,sec. 25. 17. Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi- chieh, 14:3a-7a) has assigned this section, and secs. 4-7, 9-13, and 15, toCh'eng Hao, although in the I-shu, 15:2b, they are definitely assigned to Ch'eng I. In the edition Yeh Ts'aiused, this and the preceding section form one section, thus making the total number of sections in thischapter 25, clearly a mistake. 18. Confucius once told him that there was one thread running through his doctrines. Tseng Tzu understood.When asked by other pupils to explain, he said that the Way of Confucius consisted of nothing butconscientiousness and altruism. See the Analects, 4:15. 19. Utsunomiya Ton'an ( Gōtō kinshi roku, 14:3b) says this means that the doctrine was transmitted to Tzu-hsia (see above, ch. 2, n. 124), who transmitted it to T'ien Tzu-fang, who transmitted it to Chuang Tzu. Thisis unfounded, and is not even supported by the Chuang Tzu, where another teacher of T'ien Tzu-fang (fl.400 B.C.), but not Tzu-hsia, is mentioned in ch. 21 ( NHCC, 7:29a; Giles, tr., Chuang Tzu, p. 199). Mostcommentators agree that "a hundred years after Confucius" refers to the time of Tzu-ssu. 20. Grandsoh ( 492- 431 B.C.) of Confucius. The Doctrine of the Mean has been traditionally attributed to him.In the Confucian tradition, it has been generally held that Confucius' doctrine was transmitted through Tzu-ssu to his pupil, Mencius. 21.
King Li (r. 878-842 B.C.) and King Yu (r. 781-771 B.C.) have been severely condemned by Confucianists fortheir wickedness. 22. Tung Chung-shu's words. See the Han shu, ch. 56 ( PNP, 56:4a). In the I-shu, 17:2b, this section is assignedto Ch'eng I. -2925.[CH'ENG I] Hsün Ch'ing's23. ability was great; his mistakes were many. Yang Hsiung's24. ability was small;his mistakes were few.25. Hsün Ch'ing had great ability and dared advocate strange doctrines such as the theories that humannature is evil26. and that Tzu-ssu and Mencius were wrong.27. His mistakes are many. Yang Hsiunghad small ability. He wrote the T'ai-hsüan [ching] [Classic of the supremely profound principle]28. toimitate the Book of Changes and the Fa-yen [Model sayings]29. to imitate the Analects. In bothcases, he imitated the surviving words of the former sages. His mistakes are few. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssulu chi-chieh, 14:3) I have said that Yang Hsiung was most useless. He was truly a stale scholar. When he was desperate,he gave himself to the cult30. of the Yellow Emperor and Lao Tzu.... Take his book, the Fa-yen. Itsdiscussions are neither clear nor conclusive. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 137:4a) 6. [CH'ENG I] Hsün Tzu is most partial and impure. By merely asserting that the original nature of man is evil,he had already lost the great foundation. Although Yang Tzu made few mistakes, since he himself did notunderstand human nature, what was the use of his talking about the Way?31. Don't read Yang Tzu. There is nothing good in what he said, and there is nothing concrete in his theories.Although Hsün Tzu made mistakes, what he said is really concrete. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 137:2b) ____________________ 23.
Hsün Tzu (fl. 298-238 B.C.). His family name was Hsün and his private name K'uang. His courtesy namewas Ch'ing. At fifty he first went to the state of Ch'i, where scholars congregated, among whom he was mosteminent, and there he spread his doctrines. He served three times as officer for the sacrificial wine offering,a position of high honor. When someone slandered him he went to Ch'u, where he became a magistrate.Later, when he became a teacher, Han Fei and Li Ssu (see above, ch. 13, n. 1) were among his pupils. For hisbiography, see the Shih chi, ch. 74. For his works, see H. H. Dubs, tr., The Works of Hsüntse. 24. Yang Hsiung ( 53 B.C.-A.D. 18) was an outstanding prose writer. He was at first an official in the Hancapital. After Wang Mang ( 45 B.C.-A.D. 23) usurped the throne, he served under him as a chief officer.Later he became a collator in the imperial library. For his biography, see the Han shu, ch. 87. 25. In the I-shu, 18:36b, this section is assigned to Ch'eng I. 26. See The Works of Hsüntse, ch. 23. 27. Ibid., ch. 6. 28. A book of 15 essays, which has not yet been translated into a Western language. For the translation ofhsüan, see below, "On Translating Certain Chinese Philosophical Terms," p. 365. 29. The Fa-yen consists of questions and answers on ethics, history, and other typically Confucian subjects, andto this extent is an imitation of the Analects. But, unlike the Analects, it has 13 chapters devoted to 13subjects. See "Yang
Hsiung's Fa-yen: WÖrter strenger Ermahnung," tr. by Erwin von Zach, SinologischeBeiträge, IV ( 1939), 1-74; and Le catechisme philosophique de Yang- Hiong-tsé, tr. by B. Belpaire. 30. A popular religion devoted chiefly to the search for immortality on earth. The Yellow Emperor was alegendary figure of high antiquity. 31. Yang Hsiung advocated the theory that human nature is a mixture of good and evil, thus challenging theorthodox Confucian theory that human nature is originally good. See the Fa-yen, ch. 3. In the I-shu, 19:11 b,this section is ascribed to Ch'eng I. -293QUESTION: Yang Hsiung said, "To study is to cultivate one's nature."32 For this reason I-ch'uan saidhe did not understand human nature. But it is said in the Doctrine of the Mean, "Cultivating theWay is called education."33. What do you say? ANSWER: One's nature cannot be cultivated. To try to cultivate it is similar to trying to pull up thecorn [to help it grow].34. ( Ibid., 62:16b) 7. [CH'ENG I] Tung Chung-shu35. said, "Rectify moral principles and do not seek profit. Illuminate the Wayand do not calculate on results."36. This is where Tung Tzu surpasses other philosophers.37. From the Spring and Autumn period [722-481 B.C.] on, the whole world has been running aftersuccess and profit. These words of Chung-shu's are the most honest and correct. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssulu chi-chieh, 14:3) Chung-shu's standard is very high. People of later generations are not equal to ancient people becausethey are not thorough in distinguishing between moral principles on the one hand and success andprofit on the other. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 137:12b)
8. Scholars of the Han dynasty like Mao Ch'ang38. and Tung Chungshu best understood the ideas of the Sageand the Worthy,39. but they did not see the Way very clearly. Next to them came Yang Hsiung, whose pattern isnarrow, however.40. QUESTION: On what basis did I-ch'uan select Mao Kung? ANSWER: I do not know Master Ch'eng's reason. In Mao's comments on the Book of Odes, however,there are several significant ones. For example, in the introduction to the "Kuan-sui,"41. he said thatwhen husband and wife attend to their separate functions, there will be affection between father andson; when there is affection between father and son, there will be reverence between ruler andminister; when there is reverence between ruler and minister, the court will be correct; and when thecourt is correct, the influence of the king will be complete. However, essentially he had few insights.The ____________________ 32 Fa-yen, 1:2b. 33. Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 1. 34. A reference to the Book of Mencius, 2A:2. 35. See above, ch. 2, sec. 40. 36. Han shu, 56:21b. This saying is also found in ch. 2, sec. 40, above. 37. According to the I-shu, 25:7a, this is Ch'eng I's saying.
38. Mao Ch'ang (fl. 145 B.C. ) was an erudite scholar under Prince Hsien (d. 131 B.C. ) of Ho-chien, and rose tobe a prefect. He was an expert on the Book of Odes, the version with his introductory comments becomingofficial after three other versions lost official favor, and being the only one transmitted through the agesdown to this day. For his biography, see the Han shu, 88:20b-21a, where he is mentioned only as Mao Kung,kung being an honorific like "sir." In the Hou-Han shu, 109B:1a, however, his private name Ch'ang ismentioned. 39. Confucius and Mencius. 40. Although in the original source, the I-shu, 1:5b, it is not indicated whether this is Ch'eng Hao's or Ch'eng I'ssaying, from Chu Hsi's comment below, it is clear that he and his pupils regarded it as Ch'eng I's. 41. See above, ch. 8, sec. 21, comment. -294only thing is that his disposition was generally good. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:15a) 9. [CH'ENG I] Lin Hsi42. said that Yang Hsiung remained in obscurity and lived on an official emolument.Simply because they saw the books he wrote, people since his time have wanted to regard him as good. Howcan he be regarded as good?43. Yang Tzu-yün44. lost his integrity by serving Wang Mang. He was already defective in importantmatters in life. Yet people still regarded him as one who remained obscure while living on an officialemolument. Such a person is one whose moral principles do not prevail and who goes along with thetimes by occupying a low position. Was Tzu-yün such a person? ( Chang Po-hsing , Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 14:5
10.[CH'ENG I] K'ung-ming45. had the intention of being an assistant of a true king, but he was not completelyidentified with the Way. A true king, like Heaven and Earth, has no selfish ideas. He would not commit an actof unrighteousness even if he could acquire an empire by doing so.46. K'ungming was determined to achievesuccess and to capture Liu Chang.47. A sage would rather not succeed. K'ung-ming should not have done it. ____________________ 42. A very influential official who rose to be minister of civil personnel. In the earlier part of the Shao-shengperiod ( 1094-97), he was a prefect of Ch'eng-tu (in modern Szechuan Province). He was behind thedismissal of a number of scholar-officials, including Ch'eng I, in the Yüan-yu period. Under Emperor Hui-tsung, he was an assistant in the department of the army. For his biography, see the Sung shih, 343:8a-9a. 43. According to the I-shu, 19:3b, this is Ch'eng I's saying. 44. Courtesy name of Yang Hsiung. 45. K'ung-ming ( Chu-ko Liang, 181 - 234) was a famous prime minister and strategist. In the last years of theHan dynasty, Liu Pei ( 162-223 ), other rebels, and the imperial military leader, Ts'ao Ts'ao ( 155-220 ), whohad political ambitions of his own, were engaged in a fierce struggle for power. Liu personally visited Chu-ko Liang on his farm to solicit and obtain his service. An outstanding strategist Chu-ko defeated Ts'ao Ts'ao,who was then the prime minister of Han, in a famous battle in 208. When Liu Pei was strong enough toestablish his own state of Shu in 221 and declared himself emperor, Chu-ko Liang was made his primeminister. For the next fifteen years, he continued to fight the two other rival states, the state of Wei,established by Ts'ao Ts'ao's son in the northeast, and the state of Wu in the southeast,
besides fightingbarbarian tribes in the southwest, until he died in the midst of a military operation. He became one of themost adored heroes in Chinese history and is immortalized in the famous novel, San-kuo chih yen-i, or TheRomance of the Three Kingdoms. 46. Quoting the Book of Mencius, 2A:2. 47. Liu Chang was governor of I-chou (in modern Szechuan). In 211 he extended an invitation to Liu Pei tocome to I-chou. Someone suggested to Liu Pei that he capture Liu Chang when he came to the meetingplace, but Liu Pei, realizing it was a wrong thing to do, refused. When the plotter was executed by LiuChang, however, Liu Pei, on the advice of Chu-ko Liang, moved toward I-chou and in 213 captured LiuChang and sent him into exile. See the Shu chih, 1:5b. -295Master Ch'eng said that K'ung-ming had the intention of being an assistant of a true king but he wasnot completely identified with the Way. What he said is absolutely correct. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,136:2a) Ts'ao Ts'ao controlled the Han court and was about to usurp power. In assisting the [future] first ruler[of Shu], K'ung-ming had the intention of destroying the wicked and restoring the Han dynasty.48.His plan was great and extensive and his motive was impartial and just. Thus he had the mind to be atrue king's assistant. But he was not completely identified with the kingly way. For the Way of thesage is like that of Heaven and Earth in their producing and nourishing all things, in which they haveno selfish ideas. Even if the sage could acquire an empire by committing a single unrighteous act, hewould not do so. The first ruler captured Liu Chang through treachery. K'ung-ming could not escapehis responsibility. For his aim was success and he did not mind committing an act ofunrighteousness. As for the sage, he could not bear to do it and he would rather not restore the Handynasty. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 14:4)
K'ung-ming captured Liu Chang because he wanted accomplishment and success. That was why hedid it. QUESTION: Should he rather have failed in his task? ANSWER: Yes. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 136:3a) In the case of Liu Piao's son, Tsung, since he was to be overcome by Ts'ao Kung,49. it would have been all rightto capture him in order to restore the rule of the imperial Liu family.50. 11.[CH'ENG I] Chu-ko Wu Hou51. has the disposition of a Confucian scholar.52. K'ung-ming's learning was not quite correct but his nature was good. He was upright in disposition. (Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:16a) K'ung-ming assisted the Han dynasty to exterminate the rebels. To him faithfulness and righteousnesswere fundamental. He was restrained in military operations, and impartial and sincere in treatingpeople. As to being intimate with virtuous ministers, keeping inferior men at a distance, being wise incounsel and careful and anxious in receiving good advice, he did the ____________________ 48. On the theory that Liu Pei was a descendant of an earlier Han emperor. 49. Ts'ao Ts'ao, "Kung" being an honorific. 50. Liu Piao ( 114-208 ), another imperial descendant, was governor of ChingChou (modern Hupeh andHunan). In 208 Liu Pei was under his protection. As Ts'ao Ts'ao was approaching Ching- Chou, Piao diedand his son Tsung was about to surrender. Although Chu-ko Liang urged Liu Pei to take over Ching- Chou,thus treating Liu Tsung as an enemy, Liu Pei refused, saying that he ould not bear to do such a thing, sinceLiu Piao had entrusted his son to
his care. Eventually Liu Tsung surrendered to Ts'ao Ts'ao. See the Hou-Han shu, 104B: 18b. In the I-shu, 24:2b, this section is assigned to Ch'eng 1. In the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 136:2a, itis mistakenly ascribed to Ch'eng Hao. 51. Wu Hou (military or heroic marquis) is Chu-ko Liang's posthumous title. 52. In the I-shu, 18:38a, this section is assigned to Ch'eng I. -296work of a great minister who corrects what is wrong in the ruler's mind. ( Yeh Ts'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 14:4) 12. [CH'ENG I] K'ung-ming was not far from [bringing about a state where] ceremonies and music [couldflourish].53. The foundation of ceremonies is order and that of music is harmony. In administering the affairs ofthe state, Chu-ko K'ung-ming was correct in everything. There was perfect order. People wereharmonious because they willingly submitted to him. Thus he was close to bringing about theflourishing of ceremonies and music. ( Yanada Katsunobu, Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shōsetsu, p.1019) K'ung-ming was rather coarse. If he had brought about the flourishing of ceremonies and music, theywould have been rather coarse. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 136:2a) 13.[CH'ENG I] Wen-chung Tzu was essentially a gentleman who lived in obscurity.54. People oftentimes gothold of his deliberations and then arbitrarily made a book out of them.55. There are some exceedingly wisesayings, which neither Hsün Tzu nor Yang Hsiung could have uttered.56. I am afraid Wen-chung Tzu's book is composed mostly of later additions. It is difficult to distinguishwhich part is authentic and which is spurious. Nevertheless, there are many good points.... Itsdiscussions on how the times have changed are extremely good. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 137:10b)
14. [CH'ENG HAO] Han Yü57. was after all an eminent scholar of recent times. Take what he says in the "Yüan-tao" [An inquiry on the Way].58. Although there are defects, nevertheless since the time of Mencius, ____________________ 53. In the I-shu, 24:3a, this passage is ascribed to Ch'eng I. 54. See above, ch. 3, sec. 28. 55. This is the Chung-shuo. 56. In the I-shu, 19:11a-b, this section is assigned to Ch'eng I. 57. Han's courtesy name was T'ui-chih and his posthumous title was Wen (Culture). He had the "presentedscholar" degree and served in many governmental posts, notably as professor of the national university,censor, assistant departmental chief, and divisional chief. He was demoted several times. As a result of hisprotest against the welcoming of Buddhist relics in 819, he was banished to Ch'ao- chou Prefecture inKuangtung Province, South China, where, it is said, he successfully told the crocodiles to leave the place. Inthe next year he was made director of education. Later he became viceminister in the ministry of the army,then censor, and finally vice- minister In the ministry of civil personnel. The most important Confucianthinker between the first century B.C. and the tenth century, he was also one of the most outstandingwriters in Chinese history. For his biography, see the Hsin T'ang shu, 176:1a-7b. 58.
Han Ch'ang-li ch'üan-chi, 11:1a-5a. This is the celebrated essay in which he defends the Confucian system ofhumanity and righteousness against Taoism and Buddhism and in which he enunciates his famous doctrineof humanity (jen) as universal love. -297who else has been able to pursue the important subject with so much profound insight? As to his decisiveremark, " Mencius is the purest of the pure,"59. and his further remark, " Hsün Tzu and Yang Hsiung areselective but not refined, and expressive but not thorough,60. if he had not pointed this out, who could havepassed such a clear judgment even after a thousand or more years? From ancient times on, few people have said things to the point. T'ui-chih "Yüan-tao" alone comesclose to it. He brought out the main principle. Master Ch'eng said that he had great insight and socould indeed pursue the subject like this. His ability was very great. Since at his time none wascapable of being his master, he looked very great indeed. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:16b) Although Han T'ui-chih realized that the functioning of the Way is as great as it is, nevertheless helacked concrete practice. From the beginning, all he wanted was to be an official. From the beginningto the end that alone was in his mind. ( Ibid., 137:9b) 15. [CH'ENG I] Basically, the pursuit of learning is for the purpose of cultivating one's virtue. Only then will onehave something to say. In his pursuit of learning, however, T'ui-chih reversed the order. Because he studiedliterature and every day sought to achieve something, he finally succeeded. For instance, he said, "Since thedeath of Mencius, there has been no one to transmit [the Learning of the sages]."61. Such an utterance isneither a repetition of someone else's before him nor made out of nothing. He must have had some insight. Ifhe had no insight, I do not know what transmission he was talking about.62. 16. [ON CHOU TUN-I] Chou Mao-shu's mind was free, pure, and unobstructed, like the breeze on a sunny dayand the clear moon.
The universal operation of the Principle of Nature is basically unobstructed. It will be much impededif there is any impurity in one's mind. Master Chou's mind was harmonious with the GreatUltimate.63. His mind was absolutely clear and was without any doubt about its activities. Truly hehad the joy of Confucius and Yen Tzu.64. Therefore his mind was free, pure, and unobstructed, with aclear, lofty, and extensive atmosphere like that of the breeze on a sunny day and the clear moon. If hehad had the slightest selfishness, how could this disposition have been attained? ( Chang Pohsing,Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 14:7b-8a) ____________________ 59. Han Ch'ang-li ch'üan-chi, 11:15a. 60. Ibid., 11:4b. 61. Ibid., 11:4b. 62. In the I-shu, 18:37a, this section is assigned to Ch'eng I. 63. See above, ch. 1, sec. 1. 64. See above, ch. 2, sec. 21. -298In his governmental administration he was careful and strict, and treated others like himself. He saw to it thathe was in complete accord with moral principles.65.
17. IN HIS BIOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT OF MASTER MING-TAO, MASTER I-CH'UAN [CH'ENG I] SAID: TheMaster not only possessed an unusual nature by endowment, but his own nourishment of it was in accordancewith the Way. He was as pure as pure gold, and as mild and lovable as excellent jade. He was liberal but notirregular. He maintained harmony with others but did not drift with them.66. His conscientiousness andsincerity penetrated metal and stone, and his filial piety and brotherly respect influenced spiritual beings. Asone looked at his countenance, one found that in dealing with people he was as warm as the spring sun. As onelistened to his words, one found that as they entered one's ear, they were as enriching as timely rain. He wasopen-minded. He saw penetratingly and made no discrimination between himself and others. As one tried tofathom his depth, one realized that it was as great as a boundless ocean. And as one appraised his virtue at itsbest, one found that even beautiful words could not describe it. In conducting himself, the Master was seriousin controlling himself internally and altruistic in his practice. Whenever he saw any good deed, he felt as if ithad issued from himself. He would not do to others what he did not wish others to do to him.67. He "dwelt inthe wide house" and "walked in the great paths."68. There was substance in his words and a proper measure inhis deeds.69. In his pursuit of learning, when he was fifteen or sixteen, the Master heard Chou Mao-shu of Ju-nan70. discussthe Way. He gave up forthwith the endeavor to prepare for civil service examinations and enthusiastically madeup his mind to seek the Way. As he did not know the essentials, he drifted among the different schools andwent in and out of the Taoist and Buddhist schools for almost ten years. Then he ____________________ 65. At the end of this section, there is a note in the text which says, "Supplement to the T'ung-shu." Actually,only the first passage comes from there. This passage appeared originally in Huang T'ing-chien (1045-1105)introduction to his collected poems. See the Yü-chang Huang Hsien-sheng wen-chi, 1:14a. The
secondpassage is from Chou's friend P'an Hsing-ssu's inscription on Chou's tomb. See the Chou Tzu ch'üan- shu,ch. 20, p. 399. The word cheng in this passage is chih in the original inscription, both words meaning"governmental administration." 66. This sentence is a quotation from the Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 10. 67. Paraphrasing the Analects, 12:2. 68. Book of Mencius, 3B:2. 69. Paraphrasing the Book of Rites, "The Black Robes" ( sppy, 17:17a). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, II, 360. 70. A county in modern Honan Province. -299returned to seek the Way in the Six Classics71. and found it there. He "understood the principles of themultitude of things and comprehended human relations."72. He knew that the development of one's nature tothe utmost and the fulfillment of one's destiny 73. must be based on filial piety and brotherly respect, and thatto investigate spirit to the utmost and to understand transformation,74. one must understand ceremonies andmusic. The remarks about filial piety and brotherly respect concern the mind, while those on ceremonies andmusic concern its function. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yu-lei, 96:16b)
QUESTION: The development of one's nature to the utmost and the fulfillment of one's destiny are thematters of the sage. Must they begin with filial piety and brotherly respect? ANSWER: Of course. FURTHER QUESTION: I-ch'uan said, "Fully developing one's nature until destiny is fulfilled can beachieved in the very act of filial piety and brotherly respect. It is not that there are no people in theworld who practice filial piety or brotherly respect. The reason why they have failed to develop theirnature fully until their destiny is fulfilled is that they practice filial piety and brotherly respect withoutunderstanding them."75. Though we say that destiny can be fulfilled in filial piety and brotherlyrespect, it seems that, in addition to these two, there are many more things to do. How can destiny befulfilled in filial piety and brotherly respect alone? ANSWER: To understand the principle of filial piety and brotherly respect is to know that theprinciple of developing one's nature to the utmost and. that of fulfilling one's destiny are not different.In one's practice, one must begin with filial piety and brotherly respect and keep extending further,and only then can he understand his nature and destiny. ( Ibid., 96:16b-17a) He sifted the heterodoxical doctrines which seem to be right, and he removed the delusions which had kept ahundred generations in the dark. From the Ch'in and Han dynasties on, none had reached the level of truth ashe had. He said that, after Mencius, the Learning of the Sage was no longer transmitted, and he took it as hisown responsibility to restore the cultural tradition. He said, "The Way has not been illuminated because the heterodoxical schools have harmed it. The harm theydid in the past was immediate and was easily known, but the harm now is deep and is difficult to sift. In thepast they deluded people at the opportune time ____________________ 71. See above, Introduction, n. 8.
72. Book of Mencius, 4B: 19. 73. Book of Changes, "Remarks on Certain Trigrams," ch. 1. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 422. 74. Ibid., "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf Legge, tr., p. 390. 75. I-shu, 18:32a. Cf. above, ch. 6, sec. 11. -300when the people were ignorant, but now they take advantage of their high intelligence to influence them. Theyclaim to have investigated spirit to the utmost and to have understood transformation, but they are notqualified to open up resources or accomplish great undertakings. They claim that their doctrines covereverything, but actually their doctrines have nothing to do with the principles of human relations. Theirdoctrines are extremely deep and extremely subtle, but they cannot be used to enter into the Way of Yao andShu n. The learning of the world either is superficial, vulgar, and obstinate or has fallen into the errors of theseschools. Since the Way has not been illuminated, perverse and strange doctrines have arisen in rivalry, havethrown mud at the ears and eyes of the people, and have submerged the world in dirt. Even people of greatability and bright intelligence have been tarnished by what they see and hear. They are as if drunk or in a deepdream without realizing that they are so. All this forms clusters of overgrowth and weeds in the correct pathand an obstruction to the gate of the Sage. We must clear them away before people can enter the Way." The Master intended to wake these people up when he advanced to public life and to illuminate the Way inwriting when he retired to private life. Unfortunately, he died early76. and had no chance to do so. The smallamount
of his refined and subtle sifting and analysis that is revealed to the world is merely what has beentransmitted by his students. There were many students in the Master's school. The Master's words were simple, easy, and easily understood.Both the worthy and the stupid benefited from them, as if all drank from the river, each to the limit of hiscapacity. In teaching people, from the extension of knowledge to knowing where to abide, from the sincerity ofthe will to bringing peace to the world, and from sprinkling and sweeping the floor and answering questions toinvestigating principle to the utmost and fully developing one's nature, the Master followed a definite order, forhe was afraid that students of the day would neglect what is near at hand and run after the remote, peep atwhat is lofty while they were on the low level, and consequently would easily regard themselves as superior, andin the end fail to accomplish anything. In his association with people, the Master was discriminating [about right and wrong] but never set himselfapart. When anything ____________________ 76. He died at the age of fifty-four. -301acted on him, he always responded. When he taught, people followed him easily. When he was angry atsomeone, that person would not complain. The stupid as well as the worthy, and the wicked as well as the good,were all pleased with him. Crafty and insincere people showed him sincerity, and violent and disrespectfulpeople extended him respect. Those who heard of his disposition heartily admired him, while those whopersonally witnessed his virtue were greatly attracted to him. Although inferior men often attacked himbecause of difference in convictions and because of selfish considerations of benefit and harm, yet, when theywithdrew and examined the matter in their own minds, none of them failed to regard the Master as a superiorman.
In the administration of government the Master was lenient in punishing evildoers. In handling chores he wasat ease. When laws and ordinances were numerous in number and frequent in succession, he never followed thecrowd or escaped responsibility by conforming to the letter of the law. When others were worried lest a thingmight be prohibited or handicapped by law, the Master did it freely. And when most people thought that amatter was extremely difficult, the Master did it naturally as the irresistible flow of water. Even when he washurried or startled, he never showed any expression of disturbance. When supervising commissioners wereoutdoing each other in supervision and investigation, they all treated the Master with liberality. They regardedwhatever he did in his political programs as a help. People can imitate the Master and do as he did about principles and details of laws and regulations, but whenit comes to the fact that when he led the people, the people followed him, and when he exerted influence on thepeople, the people became harmonious, and the fact that people responded to him without his asking and hadconfidence in him before he showed it to them, none can be equal to him. 18. MASTER MING-TAO [ CH'ENG HAO] SAID: Chou Mao-shu [Chou Tun-i] did not cut the grass growingoutside his window. When asked about it, he said, "[The feeling of the grass] and mine are the same." (WhenTzu-hou [Chang Tsai] heard the cry of a donkey, he said the same thing.)77. The point was that the donkey and Chang Tsai were at ease with themselves. ( Mao Hsing-lai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, 14:10a) This means to observe that the feeling for life in things and the feeling ____________________ 77. The parenthetical saying is an original note in the I-shu, 3:2a. -302for life in oneself penetrate each other. ( Shih Huang, Wu-tsu chin-ssu lu faming, 14:12a)
QUESTION: Master Chou did not cut the grass outside his window and said that its feeling and hisown feeling were the same. Was it because the grass is at ease with itself in its production andreproduction or did he wish to see in it the operation of the Principle of Nature? ANSWER: You do not have to go so far as to interpret it this way. You can realize the matter yourself.You must see wherein one's feelings and that of the grass are the same. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei,96:17b) Asked about Master Chou's not cutting the grass outside his window and his remark that its feeling oflife is the same as his own, Chu Hsi said, "He just happened to realize that the feeling of the grass andhis own feeling were harmonious." FURTHER QUESTION: About Heng-ch'ü's hearing the donkey's cry, was it his idea that theoriginative process of Nature became active by itself? ANSWER: Of course. But he also happened to see the donkey in this way. If we say that one's feelingand that of the grass are the same, shall we say that one's feeling and those of trees and leaves are notthe same? And if we that say one's feeling toward the donkey's cry and one's own call are the same,shall we say that a horse's cry and one's own call are not the same? ( Ibid.) 19. When Chang Tzu-hou heard that a prince was born, he was very happy. When he saw people die ofstarvation, his food no longer tasted good. PI-TA78. SAID: Things share the same material force and form one body. Only when one is absolutelyimpartial and is without any selfishness can one share their joy and sorrow without any interruption. CHU HSI SAID: This is of course true. But this is only half of the truth. To talk this way is reallyacademic, without truly understanding the matter. When have earth or trees been selfish? But theyare not concerned with other things. Man, however, fundamentally has this concern. That is why hecan be absolutely impartial without any selfishness and can embrace all things without interruption. (Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:18a)
QUESTION: All that Master Ch'eng said [in secs. 18-19] means that the mind of Heaven and Earth isto produce and that man and things have received it to be their minds. What Master Chou andMaster Chang did is humanity in action. [Is this right?] ANSWER: Generally correct. But do not just interpret them this way and go no further. One mustalways earnestly explore, get the real taste, and cultivate oneself accordingly. ( Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu well-chi, 58:36a) 20.Once Po-ch'un [ Ch'eng Hao] and Tzu-hou talked for a whole day in the Hsing-kuo Temple.79. Ch'eng Haosaid, "I do not know who in the past has discussed such things here." ____________________ 78. Wu Pi-ta. See above, ch. 12, n. 30. 79. In the capital, K'ai-feng (in modern Honan Province). Formerly called Hsiang- kuo Temple. -303Lü Hsi-che80. said, "Once I went for a leisurely visit with the two Ch'engs and other gentlemen. Oneday we gathered in the Hsiang-kuo Temple and talked about certain things in detail. Po-ch'unsuddenly said with a sigh, 'I do not know whether up to this time there have been any people whocame to this place and discussed these things.' For the atmosphere of this place is such that accordingto principle there should have been people like these gentlemen to discuss similar topics here." ( I-Loyüan-yüan lu, 7:2b) In the thousand generations in the past and the future, there is the same mind and there is the sameprinciple. Therefore there should have been similar people in the past discussing similar topics. (Chang Po-hsing, Chin-ssu lu chichieh, 14:14b)
21. [ON CH'ENG HAO] Hsieh Hsien-tao81. said, "When Ming-tao sat down, he was like an earthen figure, butwhen he associated with people, he was completely a sphere of peaceful disposition." 22. [ON THE CH'ENG BROTHERS] Hou Shih-sheng82. said, "Chu Kungshan83. visited Ming-tao at Ju.84.When he went home, he told people, 'I have sat in the midst of a spring breeze for a month.' When Yu85. andYang86. first went to see I-ch'uan, he sat with his eyes closed. The two gentlemen stood in attendance. When hewoke up, he looked at them and said, 'Are you gentlemen still here? It is late now. Please go and rest.' Whenthey went out, the snow outside the door was a foot deep." In dealing with people, Ming-tao was friendly and sincere. As a teacher, Ich'uan was strict anddignified. Both of their characters were shaped by their eminent virtue, although they differed in thefulfillment of their physical nature. Ming-tao was like Yen Tzu, while I-ch'uan was like Mencius. ( YehTs'ai, Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 14:10) ____________________ 80. Lü Hsi-che ( c.1036-c.1114) was the son of Lü Kung-chao (see above, ch. 7, n. 61) and a friend of the Ch'engbrothers and Chang Tsai. He was successively a junior expositor in waiting and a magistrate but waseventually dismissed because he was a member of one of the political factions being repressed. For hisbiography see the Sung shih, 336:23a-24a, and for an account of his life and teachings, see the Sung-Yüanhsüeh-an, 23:1a-5a. 81. See above, ch. 2, n. 85. 82. Courtesy name of Hou Chungliang (fl.1100), a pupil and a distant relative of the Ch'eng brothers. For shortaccounts of him, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 30:2b, and the I-L yüan-yüan lu, 12:10b-12a.
83. Courtesy name of Chu Kuang-t'ing (1037-94), another pupil of the Ch'engs. At the recommendation of Ssu-ma Kuang, he was made a policy monitor. One of his first recommendations was the abolition of Wang An-shih's reforms. He was then successively policy reviewing officer and an academician in charge of editingbooks and collecting lost texts. Later he was demoted to be a magistrate. For his biography, see theSungshih, 333:13b-15a, and for an account of his teachings, see the Sung-Yüan hsüeh-an, 30:3a-4a. 84. Ju-chou, present Lin-ju County, Honan Province. 85. Yu Tso. See above, ch. 2, n. 226. 86. Yang Shih. See above, ch. 2, n. 229. -30423.[ON CH'ENG HAO] Liu An-li87. said: "Master Ming-tao's moral nature was full and perfect. His dispositionof purity and peace was fully expressed in his countenance and on his back. Joyous, at ease, always treatingothers as he treated himself, he was happy all day. I followed the Master for thirty years and never noticed inhim any anger or harsh expressions." 24. [ON CH'ENG HAO] In his eulogy for Master Ming-tao, Lü Yü-shu88. said: "The Master possessed specialand outstanding ability and knew the essentials of great learning.89. He studied literature extensively and had afirm memory.90. He practiced what he learned and investigated things with effort, comprehended humanrelations and understood the principle of things,91. investigated to the utmost wherein one should abide.92.Consequently, his mind was completely free and without any doubt, and he clearly understood the substance ofthe Way. His achievement of the essentials was such that, although changing conditions affected him in manyways, he knew how to
respond to them endlessly with his mind, and although there are many principles in theworld, he knew how to examine himself and found that he was sufficient in them. His attainment of the onetruth was such that, although heterodoxical doctrines surrounded him, he was not altered, and if sages shouldrise up again, they would not change his words.93. His self-cultivation was so complete that he was thoroughlyimbued with the spirit of peacefulness, which was revealed in his voice and countenance. However, as onelooked at him, he was so lofty and deep that none could treat him with disrespect. When he came upon thingsto do, he did them with ease and leisure, and no sense of urgency. But at the same time he was sincere andearnest, and did not treat them carelessly. His sense of responsibility was so great that he was more concernedabout not achieving the objective of learning to be a sage than about achieving fame through any single gooddeed, and would rather consider it as his own defect if a single person was not benefited by him than consider ____________________ 87. See above, ch. 10, n. 80. 88. See above, ch. 2, n. 138. 89. As Satō Issai ( Kinshi roku rangaisho, ch. 14) has pointed out, the term tahsüeh here merely means greatlearning, and not the book Ta-hsïeh. Nakamura Tekisai ( Kinshi roku shimo kukai, p. 462) has understoodit to mean the book. In his translations, Father Graf ( Djin-sï lu, II, 761) has evidently followed Nakamura,Chang Po-hsing ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh. 14:15b) has also taken the term to mean the book. 90. Quoting the Book of Rites, "Summary of Ceremonies," pt. 1 ( sppy, 1:14a). Cf. Legge, tr., Li Ki, I, 86.
91. See above, n. 72. 92. Referring to the highest good. See the Great Learning, ch. 1. 93. Cf. Book of Mencius, 3B:9, and Doctrine of the Mean, ch. 29. -305any temporary benefit to others as his personal success. His conviction was so genuine that if he felt that hisbelief could be carried out, he would not lightly withdraw from government service for the sake of his ownpersonal purity, and if according to his principles he was satisfied with his situation, he would not be willing toaccept even a small position." 25. [ON CHANG TSAI] In his biographical account of Master Heng-ch'ü, Lil Yü-shu said: "At the time of themilitary operation during the K'ang-ting period,94. the Master was eighteen years old. Enthusiastically settinghis goal as success and fame, he presented a letter to Fan Wen-cheng Kung.95. The gentleman knew that he wasa promising young man and wished to make him a success. He reproached him, saying, 'A Confucian scholarhas his own teachings of the Sage.96. Why take up the military craft?' He therefore advised him to read theDoctrine of the Mean. The Master read it. Although he loved it, he was still not satisfied. Hence he searched invarious Buddhist and Taoist works. For years he thoroughly investigated their theories. When he realized thathe was finding nothing, he returned to seek in the Six Classics.97. In the earlier part of the Chia-yu period [1056-63], he met Ch'eng Po-ch'un [Ch'eng Hao] and Ch'eng Cheng-shu [Ch'eng I] in the capital and talked withthem about the fundamentals of the Learning of the Way. The Master had no more doubt and self-confidentlysaid, 'Our Way is self-sufficient. Why seek elsewhere?' Thereupon he rejected all the heterodoxical98 doctrinesand his thinking was now ____________________
94. In 1040, when China was resisting the Hsi-hsia, a half nomadic people in the northwest. Chang Tsai wasthen twenty- one, rather than eighteen. 95. His name was Chung-yen ( 989- 1052 ) and his posthumous title was Wencheng ( "Cultural and correct"),kung being an honorific like "sir." One of the most outstanding statesmen and literary men in Chinesehistory, he was prime minister in 1040. Among the many posts he held were those of collator of books,assistant chief in the department of civil personnel, vice-minister of revenue, academician, and vice-commissioner of military affairs. For several years he defended Shensi Province against the invasion of theHsi-hsia. For his biography see the Sung shih, 314: la-11a and for his life and ideas, see the Sung-Yüanhsüeh-an, 3:2b-sa. 96. Ming-chiao in Chinese, literally, "teaching about names," that is, teaching about names in human relations. 97. See above, Introduction, n. 8. 98 Ch'en Hang ( Chih-ssu lu pu-chu, 14:11b) says that it is made very clear in the "Recorded Sayings of Ch'engI" that the original word here is ch'i [his] rather than i [heterodoxical] and that the change was madebecause of what Ch'eng I said. Ch'en was thinking of the Wai-shu, 11:4a, where, in a reference to thebiographical account, the word ch'i indeed used. A footnote there says that there were two editions of thebiographical account, one with the word ch'i and the other with i, and that i was probably a latersubstitution. Mao Hsing-lai has noted ( Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 14:12b) that in one edition of the I-Lo yüanyüan lu (ch. 6), which contains the biographical -306-
pure and unadulterated. ( Yin Yen-ming99. said, "When Heng-ch'ü was in the capital, he lectured on the Bookof Changes while sitting on a tiger's fur. Many people listened to him. One evening the two Ch'eng Masterscame and discussed with him the Book of Changes. The next day Heng-ch'ü took away the fur and said, 'What Ihave been telling you gentlemen all violates the Way. There are the two Ch'engs who have recently arrived, whounderstand profoundly the principles of the Book of Changes. I am not their equal. You may follow them asyour teachers.'")100. "Late in his life, he sent a letter to the Ch'ung-well library101. reporting his illness and returned west to Heng-ch'ü.102. He would sit in a room in a dignified attitude for a whole day, with books on his left and on his right.Looking down, he would read them, and looking up, he would think. When he got something, he would commitit to memory, or get up at midnight, get a candle, and write it down. He never stopped for a moment in hisdetermination to seek the Way or in his careful thinking. Nor did he ever forget these things for a moment.When students asked him questions, he often told them the way to understand the rules of propriety, to fulfillone's nature, and to transform one's physical nature, 103. and told them not to stop learning until they wereequal to the sage. None who heard him went unmoved or failed to make some progress. Once he told his pupils,'In my pursuit of learning, after I have realized something in my mind, I employ words carefully. Only after Ihave correctly used the words do I pass judgment on a thing. Only after I have been free from mistakes in myjudgment do I feel free in my mind like the irresistible flow of water. The only way to "investigate the principleof things with care and refinement until we enter into their spirit,"104. is to be prepared.' "The Master was firm and resolute in nature. His virtue was eminent and his appearance dignified. But in hisassociation with people, he became more and more intimate with them as time went on. In regulating hisfamily and in dealing with others, his basic principle ____________________ 100.
This passage from the Wai-shu, 12:13a, is a note inserted by Chu Hsi in the Chin-ssu lu. 101. He was a collator. The letter was a customary polite form of resignation. 102. In 1072. Heng-ch'ü, in modern Mei County, Shensi Province, was his native place. 103. See above, ch. 2, secs. 80, 83, 94, and 100. 104. Book of Changes, "Appended Remarks," pt. 2, ch. 5. Cf. Legge, tr., Yi King, p. 390. 98 account, the word ch'i is used instead and thinks that i is therefore not the original word. However, in thiscase, ch'i and i connote the same thing, because Chang Tsai must have thought at the time that hisdoctrines were heterodoxical. 99. See above, ch. 2, n. 181. -307was to correct himself in order to influence others. If people had not believed him, he would examine himselfand set himself right but said nothing about the matter. Although some people might not understand his ideas,he would conduct himself naturally and easily without regret. Therefore, whether people knew him or not, theyall submitted to him when they heard of his disposition, and dared not do him the slightest wrong."
26. MASTER HENG-CH'ßC [ CHANG TSAI] SAID: When they were fourteen or fifteen, the two Ch'engs werealready free from105 [wrong ideas] and wanted to learn to be sages. ____________________ 105. Several editions of the Chin-ssu lu have jui-jan [zealously] instead of t'o-jan [free from]. It is more idiomaticto say "zealously." -308SOURCES OF SELECTIONS IN THE CHIN-SSU LU The 622 selections in the Chin-ssu lu were made from the works of four NeoConfucian philosophers. For theauthorship of these sources, and descriptions of them, see above, Introduction, and below, "On the Chin-ssu luand Its Commentaries." In each chapter, at the end of the first group of selections from a book Chu Hsimentioned its title. These titles are given below as Chu Hsi gave them. However, the original works containing anumber of passages are no longer extant. These passages had to be traced elsewhere. I have indicated inparentheses where the passages may now be found. Chu Hsi began each group of selections with "Master So-and-So said." Presumably all the following passages up to the next similar statement are sayings of thephilosopher mentioned. Where Chu Hsi said "Master So-and-So said," I have supplied the philosopher's namein parentheses after the section number. But in the case of the two Ch'eng brothers, there are many instances(e.g., ch. 3, secs. 47-48) in which, according to Chu Hsi, the saying belonged to one brother, although the I-shuand the Wai-shu may assign it either to him or to the other. In these instances, I have given in brackets thespecific attributions made by the I-shu or the Wai-shu.In mentioning sources, Chu Hsi merely gave the titles,without any chapter or page reference, except names of hexagrams. Japanese commentators and annotatorshave provided some chapter numbers, in many cases wrongly. Consequently, most chapter numbers and allpage numbers had to be traced. They are supplied below.
CHAPTER 1. Sec. 1. ( Chou Tun-i) "T'ai-chi-t'u shuo." Sec. 2. T'ung-shu, ch. 3. Sec. 3. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi. (Now in the I-shu, 25:3b.) Sec. 4. Wen-chi, 5:12a. Sec. 5. I chuan, 1: 1a, comment on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven]. Sec. 6. Ibid., 1:2b, comment on the same. Sec. 7. ibid., comment on the same. Sec. 8. ibid., 1:7b, comment on the same. Sec. 9. ibid., 2:31a-b, comment on hexagram no. 23, po [to peel]. -309-
Sec. 10. ibid., 2:33a, comment on hexagram no. 24, fu [to return]. Sec. 11. ibid., 2:34a, comment on the same. Sec. 12. ibid3:4a, comment on hexagram no. 31, hsien [influence]. Sec. 13. ibid., 3:6a, comment on hexagram no. 32, heng [constancy]. Sec. 14. ibid., 4:11b, comment on hexagram no. 49, ko [change]. Sec. 15. ibid., 4:20b, comment on hexagram no. 52, ken [to stop]. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 11, comment on the Book of Mencius, 6A:7.) Sec. 16. Ching shuo, 1:2a. Sec. 17. ibid., 6:2b. Sec. 18. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 1:2a.
Sec. 19. ibid., 1:3a-b. Sec. 20. ibid., 2A:2a-b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 21. ibid., 1:7b-8a. Sec. 22. ibid., 6:3a. Sec. 23. ibid., 11:3b. Sec. 24. ibid., 3:3a. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 3, comment on the Bookof Mencius, 2A:6.) Sec. 25. ibid., 11:3b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 26. ibid., 11: 11 a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 27. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 15:1b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 28. ibid., 15:4b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 29. ibid., 17:6a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 30. ibid., 18:24a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 31. ibid., 6:8b. Sec. 32. ibid., 15:8a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 33. ibid., 15:18b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 34. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 15:7b. Luti'eng I] Sec. 35. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 18:1a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 36. ibid., 18:2a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 37. ibid., 24:3a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 38. ibid., 22A:11a. [ Cheng I] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 5, comment on the Bookof Mencius, 3A:1.) Sec. 39. ibid., 18:17a. [ Ch'eng I]
Sec. 40. ibid., 19:4b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 41. ibid., 9:1a. Sec. 42. ibid., 21B:2a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 43. ( Chang Tsai) Cheng-meng, ch. 1. ( Chang Tsai, Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu 2:2b.) Sec. 44. ibid., ch. 1 (2:4b). Sec. 45. ibid., ch. 3 (2:11b). Sec. 46. ibid., ch. 1 (2:4a). Sec. 47. ibid., ch. 5 (2:16a). Sec. 48. ibid., ch. 6 (2:17b). Sec. 49. I shuo ( Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 11: 12b). Sec. 50. Yü-lu. (Now In the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:2a.) Sec. 51. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:2a.) CHAPTER II. Sec. 1. ( Chou Tun-i) T'ung-shu, ch. 10. Sec. 2. ibid., ch. 34. Sec. 3. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 4:1a-2a. Sec. 4. ( Ch'eng Hao) Wen-chi, 3:1a-b. Sec. 5. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 5:1a-b. Sec. 6. I chuan, 1:4b, comment on hexagram no. 1, ch'ien [Heaven]. Sec. 7. ibid., 1:12a, comment on hexagram no. 2, k'un [Earth]. Sec. 8. ibid., 2:35a-b, comment on hexagram no. 25, wu-wang [freedom from error].
Sec. 9. ibid., 2:39b, comment on hexagram no. 26, ta-ch'u [great accumulation]. -310-
Sec. 10. ibid., 3:2a, 3a-b, comment on hexagram no. 31, hsien [influence]. Sec. 11. ibid., 3:30a, comment on hexagram no. 39, chien (obstacle]. Sec. 12. ibid., 4:31b, comment on hexagram no. 55, feng [abundance]. Sec. 13. Ching shuo, 6:1a. Sec. 14. Ching shuo. (No longer found here but quoted in Chu Hsi, Lunyü chi-chu, ch. 7, comment on theAnalects, 14:25. Cf. the Wai-shu, 2:2b.) Sec. 15. "Shou-t'ieh." (Now in the I-ch'uan wen-chi, supplement, p. 3a.) Sec. 16. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 1:1b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 17. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 2A:1a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 18. ibid., 2A:5b, 3:2b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 19. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 2A:6a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 20. ibid., 2A:2b. Sec. 21. ibid. Sec. 22. ibid., 2A:6a-b. Sec. 23. ibid., 2A:8a. Sec. 24. ibid., 2A:15a. Sec. 25. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 3:1b. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 12,comment on the Book of Mencius, 6B:15.) Sec. 26. ibid., 3:2b. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chichu, ch. 6, comment on the Analects,11:17.)
Sec. 27. ibid., 3.1b. ( Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 28. ibid., 3:6b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 29. ibid., 5:1b. Sec. 30. ibid., 6:2a. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 11, comment on the Book of Mencius,6A:6.) Sec. 31. ibid., 5:1a. Sec. 32. ibid., 6:5b. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 3, comment on the Analects, 5:5; the firstsentence also in the Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 6, comment on the Analects, 11:25.) Sec. 33. ibid., 6:6a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 34. ibid., 5:2b. Sec. 35. ibid., 6:3a. Sec. 36. ibid., 7:3a. Sec. 37. ibid., 14:1b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 38. ibid., 15:10a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 39. ibid., 6:11a. Sec. 40. ibid., 9:3a. (Part of it also found in the Wai-shu, 8:1a.) Sec. 41. ibid., 11:4a. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 8, comment on the Bookof Mencius, 4B:14.) Sec. 42. ibid., 11: 10b. ( Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 43. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 11: 11b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 44. ibid., 11:12b. ( Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 45. ibid., 12:2a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 46. ibid., 14:1a. [ Ch'eng Hao]
Sec. 47. ibid., [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 10, comment on the Analects,19:6.) Sec. 48. ibid., 14:1a. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chichu, ch. 4, comment on theAnalects, 8:7.) Sec. 49. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 15:2a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 50. ibid., 15:6b. [ Ch'eng I] Ses. 51. ibid., 15:8b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 52. ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 53. ibid., 17:3a. [ Ch'eng I] (Also in Chang Tsai, Chang Tzu ch'üanshu, 7:1b, where the wording issomewhat different.) Sec. 54. ibid., 17:6a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 55. ibid. [ Ch'eng I] See. 56. ibid., 18:4b. ( Ch'eng I] Sec. 57. ibid., 18:42b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 58, ibid., 18:5b. [ Ch'eng 1] Sec. 59. ibid., 18:6a. [ Ch'eng 1] -311-
Sec. 60. ibid., 18:19a [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 61. ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 62. ibid., 18:28a. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chichu, ch. 6, comment on the Analects,12:20.) Sec. 63. ibid. , 22A:6a. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in the Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 3, comment on the Analects, 6:5.)
Sec. 64. ibid., 22A:12b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 65. ibid., 25:5b. ( Ch'eng I] Sec. 66. ibid., 25:7b. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in the Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 7, comment on the Analects, 14:25.) Sec. 67. ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 68. ( Ch'eng Hao) Wai-shu, 1:1a [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 69. ibid., 2:1b. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in the Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 4, comment on the Analects, 8:7.) Sec. 70. ibid. , 2:2b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 71. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 6:2a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 72. ibid., 6:2b. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Chung-yung chang-chü, ch. 20.) Sec. 73. ibid., 11:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 74. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 12:3b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 75. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 12:13b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 76. ibid., 12:16a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 77. ibid., 12:5b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 78. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 79. ( Chang Tsai) Cheng-meng, ch. 4. ( Chang Tsai, Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 2:14b.) Sec. 80. ibid., ch. 6 (2:18b-19a). Sec. 81. ibid., ch. 6 (2:19b). Sec. 82. ibid., ch. 6 (2:20b).
Sec. 83. ibid., ch. 7 (2:21a). Sec. 84. ibid., ch. 8 (2:24a). Sec. 85. ibid., ch. 6 (2:18a). Sec. 86. ibid., ch. 9 (3:3b). Sec. 87. ibid., ch. 11 (3:6a). Sec. 88. ibid., ch. 12 (3:9a). Sec. 89. ibid., ch. 17 (1:1a-6b, 3:23b-24a). Sec. 90. Wen-chi. (Actually this comes from the Cheng-meng, ch. 17 [ Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 3:23b].) Sec. 91. ibid. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:3a.) Sec. 92. ibid. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:3a-b.) Sec. 93. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:2b.) Sec. 94. ibid. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:3b) Sec. 95. ibid. (Now in the Yü-lu, pt. 2, p. 6b. Also preserved in the Chinssu lu and later included in theChang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:3b.) Sec. 96. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 12:7b, and the Yü-lu, pt. 3, p. 7a-b.) Sec. 97. I shuo ( Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 11:22a.) Sec. 98. Lun-yü shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:3b.) Sec. 99. Meng Tzu shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu,14:4a.)
See. 100. ibid. (Now in the Yü-lu, pt. 2, p. 6b, and the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:3a and 12:3a.) Sec. 101. Yü-lu. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 5:4a.) Sec. 102. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 5:6a.) Sec. 103. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 5:6b.) Sec. 104. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:1b.) Sec. 105. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:2a.) -312-
Sec. 106. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:6b.) Sec. 107. ibid. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:4a.) Sec. 108. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:1a.) Sec. 109. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6: 1b.) Sec. 110. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:2b.) Sec. 111. ibid(Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 7:4b. Also quoted in the Hsing-li ta-ch'üan, 43:18a.)
CHAPTER III. Sec. 1. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 5:7b. Sec. 2. ibid., 5:17a. Sec. 3. ibid., 5:4a. Sec. 4. I-shu, 2A:3a. Sec. 5. ibid., 2B:3a-b.
Sec. 6. ibid., 6:1a. Sec. 7. ibid., 15:12a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 8. ibid., 18:4b-5a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 9. ibid., 18:5b, 2A:22b. [ Ch'eng I (18:5b only)] Sec. 10. ibid., 18:4a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 11. ibid., 18:5b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 12. ibid., 18:8b; 17:6a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 13. ibid., 18:33a. [ Cheng I] Sec. 14. ibid., 22A:sa. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 15. I-shu. (No longer found here, but in the Wai-shu, 11:2b.) Sec. 16. ( Chang Tsai) Wen-chi. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 13:1a.) Sec. 17. ibid. (Now in the Yü-lu, pt. 1, p. 1b, and in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 12:1a.) Sec. 18. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:2b.) Sec. 19. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:3b.) Sec. 20. ibid. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:4a.) Sec. 21. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 7:3b; also in the Yü-lu, pt. 2, p. 7a. Part of it also found inthe Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 12:3a.) Sec. 22. Meng Tzu shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu,14:4a.) Sec. 23. ( Ch'eng I) I-shu, 22A:14a. Sec. 24. ibid.
Sec. 25. ibid., 18:17b-18a. Sec. 26. ibid., 18:18a. Sec. 27. ibid., 18:47b. (Also in Chang Tsai, Yü-lu, pt. 2, p. 9a, and the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 12:3b.) Sec. 28. ibid., 19:3b. Sec. 29. ibid. Sec. 30. ibid., 19:11a. Sec. 31. ibid., 22A:13b. Sec. 32. Wai-shu. (No longer found here. Cf. a saying in the Wai-shu, 6:1b.) Sec. 33. ibid. (No longer found here.) Sec. 34. I-shu, 22A:1a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 35. ibid., 18:18a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 36. ibid., 22A:2a. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:22b.) Sec. 37. ibid., 22A:6b. [Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:22a.) Sec. 38. ibid., 19:11a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 39. ibid., 25:5b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 40. ibid., 6:6b. Sec. 41. Wai-shu, 5:1b. Sec. 42. ibid., 12:16b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 43. ibid., 3:1a, and I-shu, 2A:21a.
Sec. 44. ( Ch'eng Hao) Wai-shu, 12:4b and 6a. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also in Hsieh Liang- tso , Shang-ts'ai yü-lu,pt. 1, 9a-b, and pt. 3, lb.) -313-
Sec. 45. ibid., 12:7a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 46. ibid., 1:2a-b. Sec. 47. I-shu, 24:1b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 48. ibid., 15:14a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 49. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi. (Now in the preface to the I chuan, p. 3a.) Sec. 50. ibid., 5:16a. Sec. 51. I chuan, 3:46b, comment on hexagram no. 43, kuai to break through]. Sec. 52. ibid., 2:40a, comment on hexagram no. 26, ta-ch'u [great accumulation]. Sec. 53. ibid., 4:19a, comment on hexagram no. 51, chen [to arouse]. Sec. 54. I-shu, 19:2a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 55. ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 56. ibid., 14:2a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 57. Wai-shu, 7:2b. Sec. 58. ibid., 5:1a. Sec. 59. ibid., 12:17b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 60. ibid., 11:6a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 61. Wen-chi. (Now in the Ching shuo, 4: 1 a-b.) Sec. 62. I-shu, 2A:4b-sa.
Sec. 63. ibid., 2A:4b. Sec. 64. ibid., 15:16a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 65. ibid., 15:16b, 22A:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 66. ibid., 18:37a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 67. ibid., 19:9a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 68. ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 69. Wai-shu, 12:17b. [ Ch'eng I]1 Sec. 70. ( Chang Tsai) I shuo ( Chang Tsai, Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 11: 31a). Sec. 71. Yü-lu. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 4:1b, 6b.) Sec. 72. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 4:7a.) Sec. 73. ibid. (Now In the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 4:7b.) Sec. 74. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:4a.) Sec. 75. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:4a. Part of it is also in the Yü-lu, Sec. 75. pt. 2, p. 7a.) Sec. 76. ibid. (Now In the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:5b-6a. Also quoted in Chu Hsi , Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:22b.) Sec. 77. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 7:2a. Also quoted in the Hsiao- hsüeh, 5:22b.) Sec. 78. ibid. (Preserved In the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:4a.)
CHAPTER IV.
Sec. 1. ( Chou Tun-1) T'ung-shu, ch. 20. Sec. 2. ( Ch'eng I) I chuan, 2:33a, comment on hexagram no. 24, fu [to return]. Sec. 3. ibid., 2:42a, comment on hexagram no. 27, i [nourishment]. Sec. 4. ibid., 2:43a, comment on the same. Sec. 5. ibid., 4:16b-17a, comment on hexagram no. 51, chen [to arouse]. Sec. 6. ibid., 4:20a, comment on hexagram no. 52, ken [to stop]. Sec. 7. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 1:3b. Sec. 8. ibid., 1:4a. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 11, comment on the Book of Mencius,6A:11.) Sec. 9. ibid., 1:5b. Sec. 10. ibid., 1: 6a. Sec. 11. ibid., 1:8a. Sec. 12. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 2A:2a. Sec. 13. ibid., 2A:1a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 14. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 2A:2a. Sec. 15. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 2A:5b-6a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 16. ibid., 2A: 16a. ____________________ 1 Mao Hsing-lai says ( Chin-ssu lu found in the Wai-shu, ch. 11, but I have chichu, 3:34b) that the passage isalso not been able to locate it there. -314-
See. 17. ibid., 2A: 21 b. Sec. 18. ibid., 2A:23b. Sec. 19. ibid., 2A:24b. Sec. 20. ibid. Sec. 21. ibid., 2B:3b-4a. Sec. 22. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 3:2a. [ Ch'eng Hao) Sec. 23. ( Ch'eng I) ibid ., 3:4b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 24. ibid., 3:sa. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 25. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 3:5b-6a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 26. ibid., 18:24b-25a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 27. ibid., 15:1b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 28. ibid., 5:2a. Sec. 29. ibid., 6:4a. Sec. 30. ibid., 6:1a. Sec. 31. ibid., 6:1a-b. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 7, comment on the Analects, 14:45.) Sec. 32. ibid., 6:3a Sec. 33. ibid., 6:10b. Sec. 34. ibid., 7:1a. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:17a.) Sec. 35. ibid., 5:1a. Sec. 36. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 11:2a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 37. ibid. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 38. ibid., 11:2b. [ Ch'eng Hao]
Sec. 39. ibid., 11:3a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 40. ibid., 15:1a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 41. ibid., 14:1b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 42. ibid., 6:2a. Sec. 43. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 15:4a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 44. ibid., 15:5a-b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 45. ibid., 15:6b. [ Ch'eng I] (Partly quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:17a.) Sec. 46. ibid., 15:7a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 47. ibid., 15:11a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 48. ibid., 15:19b-20a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 49. ibid., 15:21a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 50. ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 51. ibid., 18:7a-b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 52. ibid., 18:7b. ( Ch'eng I] Sec. 53. ibid., 18:14b-15b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 54. ibid., 18:16a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 55. ibid., 18:16a-b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 56. ibid., 18:18b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 57. ibid., 18:20a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 58. ibid., 21A:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 59. Wai-shu, 1:1b. Sec. 60. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 2:4a. [ Ch'eng I]
Sec. 61. ibid., 11:3b. Sec. 62. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 12:6b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 63. ibid., 12:9b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 64. ( Chang Tsai) Wen-chi. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:4a. Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 3, comment on the Analects, 6:5.) Sec. 65. Yü-lu. (The first part is now in his Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 7:1b. The second part has been preservedin the Chin-ssu lu and was later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:4a-b.) Sec. 66. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:7a.) Sec. 67. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:7a-b.) Sec. 68. I shuo. (Now found in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 9:32a.) Sec. 69. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 10:22b.) Sec. 70. Meng Tzu shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu,14:4b.) -315CHAPTER V. Sec. 1. ( Chou Tun-i) T'ung-shu, ch. 31. Sec. 2. "I-wen." (Now in the Chou Tzu ch'üan-shu, ch. 17, p. 334.) Sec. 3. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 4:4a-b. Sec. 4. I chuan, 2:33b, comment on hexagram no. 24, fu [to return]. Sec. 5. ibid., 3:17a, comment on hexagram no. 35, chin [forwardness]. Sec. 6. ibid., 3:37a, comment on hexagram no. 41, sun [decrease]. Sec. 7. ibid., 3:48a, comment on hexagram no. 43, kuai [to break through].
Sec. 8. ibid., 4:46b, comment on hexagram no. 60, chieh [restraint]. Sec. 9. ibid., 4:47b, comment on the same. Sec. 10. Ching shuo. (No longer found here. Cf. the I-shu, 9:4a.) Sec. 11. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 1:3b. Sec. 12. ibid., 17:3b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 13. ibid., 15:2a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 14. ibid., 1:8b. Sec. 15. ibid., 2A:16a-b. Sec. 16. ibid., 2B:2a. Sec. 17. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 5:1b. Sec. 18. ibid., 9:3a. Sec. 19. ibid., 7:2b. Sec. 20. ibid., 6:2b. Sec. 21. ibid., 7:1a. Sec. 22. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 3:6a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 23. ibid., 3:5b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 24. ibid., 15:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 25. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 3:6b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 26. ibid., 18:7a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 27. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 18:22a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 28. Wai-shu, 3:1b. Sec. 29. ibid., 7:1b. Sec. 30. ibid., 12:8a. [ Ch'eng I]
Sec. 31. ibid., 12:8a [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 32. ibid., 2:1b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 33. ( Chang Tsai) Cheng-meng, ch. 6 ( Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 2:18b). Sec. 34. ibid., ch. 6 (2:20b). Sec. 35. ibid., ch. 8 (2:25a). Sec. 36. ibid., ch. 8 (2:25b). Sec. 37. Lun-yü shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:4b.) Sec. 38. Yü-lu. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 5:8a.) Sec. 39. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:8a.) Sec. 40. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 5:6a-b. Part of this section is quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:14a-15b.) Sec. 41. ibid. (Most of the passage is now found in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 7:4a. Also quoted in Chu Hsi,Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:1a-b.)
CHAPTER VI. Sec. 1. ( Ch'eng I) Ching chieh. (Now in the Ching shuo, 6:la-b. Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch.1, comment on the Analects, 1:6.) Sec. 2. I chuan, 1:27b-28a, comment on hexagram no. 7, shih [army]. Sec. 3. ibid., 2:13b, comment on hexagram no. 18, ku [trouble]. Sec. 4. ibid., 2:14a, comment on the same. Sec. 5. ibid., 3:21a, comment on hexagram no. 37, chia-jen [family]. Sec. 6. ibid., 3:22b, comment on the same.
Sec. 7. ibid., 3:24a, comment on the same. Sec. 8. ibid., 4:29a, comment on hexagram no. 54, kuei-mei [marriage of a maiden]. Sec. 9. I-shu, 1:5b. Sec. 10. ibid., 6:7b. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsiieh, 5:11 b.) Sec. 11. ibid., 18:32a. [ Ch'eng I] -316-
Sec. 12. ibid., 18:38b-39a. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 3, comment on theAnalects, 5:1, and in the Hsiao-hsüeh, 6:19b.) Sec. 13. ibid., 22B:3a. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in the Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:13b.) Sec. 14. Wai-shu, 12:7a. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in the Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:8b, where the saying is attributedto Ch'eng 1.) Sec. 15. ibid., 7:1b. Sec. 16. ibid., 10:4a. Sec. 17. Wen-chi, 8:2a, 4b-sa, 6a-7b. Sec. 18. ( Chang Tsai) "Hsing-chuang." (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üanshu, 15:12b. Also quoted in theHsiao-hsüeh, 5:8b.) Sec. 19. Chi shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:4b. Alsoquoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:8a.) Sec. 20. Shih shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:4b-5a.Also quoted in the Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:15a.) Sec. 21. ibid. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:8a.)
Sec. 22. Yü-lu. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:8b.)
CHAPTER VII. Sec. 1. ( Ch'eng I) I chuan, 1:17a, comment on hexagram no. 4, meng [obscure]. Sec. 2. ibid., 1:21a, comment on hexagram no. 5, hsü [waiting]. Sec. 3. ibid., 1:29b, comment on hexagram no. 8, pi [to associate]. Sec. 4. ibid., 1:38a-b, comment on hexagram no. 10, lü [to walk]. Sec. 5. ibid., 1:45b, comment on hexagram no. 12, p'i [obstructed]. Sec. 6. ibid., 2:10a, comment on hexagram no. 17, sui [to follow]. Sec. 7. ibid., 2:27a, comment on hexagram no. 22, p'i [ornament]. Sec. 8. ibid., 2:14b-15a, comment on hexagram no. 18, ku [trouble]. Sec. 9. ibid., 3:9a, comment on hexagram no. 33, t'un [to retire]. Sec. 10. ibid., 3:18b, comment on hexagram no. 36, ming-i [brightness injured]. Sec. 11. ibid., 3:15a-b, comment on hexagram no. 35, chin [forwardness]. Sec. 12. ibid., 3:27a, comment on hexagram no. 38, k'uei [to part]. Sec. 13. ibid., 4:2a, comment on hexagram no. 47, k'un [confinement]. Sec. 14. ibid., 4:3b, comment on the same. Sec. 15. ibid., 4:7a, comment on hexagram no. 48, ching [well]. Sec. 16. ibid., 4:9b-10a, comment on hexagram no. 49, ko [change]. Sec. 17. ibid., 4:14a-b, comment on hexagram no. 50, ting [caldron]. Sec. 18. ibid., 4:21b, comment on hexagram no. 52, ken [to stop].
Sec. 19. ibid., 4:21a, comment on the same. Sec. 20. ibid., 4:22b, comment on the same. Sec. 21. ibid., 4:50a, comment on hexagram no. 61, chung-fu [central sincerity]. Sec. 22. I-shu, 2A:4b. Sec. 23. ibid., 2A:19a. Sec. 24. ibid., 4:1a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 25. ibid., 15:3b-4a. [ Ch'eng I] (Partly quoted in Chu Hsi, Lun-yü chi-chu, ch. 8, comment on theAnalects, 15:8.) Sec. 26. ibid., 17:2b. [ Ch'eng I] (Partly quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 13, comment on the Bookof Mencius, 7A:25.) Sec. 27. ibid., 17:2a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 28. ibid., 16:1a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 29. ibid., 19:11a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 30. ibid., 21A:2a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 31. ibid., 19:9a-b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 32. ibid., 1:5b. Sec. 33. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 18:3a-b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 34. ibid., 18:9b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 35. Wai-shu, 11:5a. Sec. 36. ( Chang Tsai) Wen-chi. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 13:3b.) Sec. 37. Meng Tzu shuo. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 3:5b. Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 10, comment on the Book of Mencius, 5B:3.)
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Sec. 38. Yü-lu. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 5:8a.) Sec. 39. ibid., (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 7:7a.)
CHAPTER VIII. Sec. 1. ( Chou Tun-i) T'ung-shu, ch. 32. Sec. 2. ( Ch'eng Hao) Wen-chi, 2:1a-b. Sec. 3. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 1:3a. Sec. 4. I chuan, 1:32a-b, comment on hexagram no. 8, pi [to associate]. Sec. 5. ibid., 1:38a, comment on hexagram no. 10, lü [to walk]. Sec. 6. ibid., 1:41b-42a, comment on hexagram no. 11, t'ai [peace]. Sec. 7. ibid., 2:18b, comment on hexagram no. 20, kuan [to observe]. Sec. 8. ibid., 2:21b-22a, comment on hexagram no. 21, shih-ho [biting and uniting]. Sec. 9. ibid., 2:41a-b, comment on hexagram no. 26, ta-ch'u [great accumulation]. Sec. 10. ibid., 3:32b-33a, comment on hexagram no. 40, chieh [to remove]. Sec. 11. ibid., 4:20b, comment on hexagram no. 52, ken [to stop]. Sec. 12. ibid., 4:40b, comment on hexagram no. 58, tui [pleasure]. Sec. 13. ibid., 4:55b, comment on hexagram no. 63, chi-chi [already accomplished]. Sec. 14. Ching shuo, 4:8b.
Sec. 15. ibid., 2:3b. Sec. 16. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 1:3a. Sec. 17. ibid., 11:12b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 18. ibid., 15:17a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 19. ibid., 18:40b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 20. Wai-shu, 11:2a. Sec. 21. ( Ch'eng Hao) ibid., 12:7a. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Meng Tzu chi-chu, ch. 7,comment on the Book of Mencius, 4A:1.) Sec. 22. ibid., 6: 10a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 23. ( Chang Tsai) Cheng-meng, ch. 13 ( Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 3:11 b). Sec. 24. ibid., ch. 11 (3:8a). Sec. 25. Wen-chi. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 13:1a-b.)
CHAPTER IX. Sec. 1. ( Chou Tun-i) T'ung-shu, ch. 17. Sec. 2. ( Ch'eng Hao) Wen-chi, 2:2b-3a. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiaohsüeh, 6:2b-3b.) Sec. 3. ibid., 2:6a. Sec. 4. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 2:3a. Sec. 5. ibid., 3:1a, 2b, 9b, 2a, 7b-8a. Sec. 6. ibid., 7:2b. Sec. 7. 1 chuan, 3:52a-b, comment on hexagram no. 45, ts'ui [to collect]. Sec. 8. Ching shuo, 3:19b.
Sec. 9. I-shu. (Now in the Wai-shu, 3:1a.) Sec. 10. I-shu, 7:3a. Sec. 11. ( Ch'eng I) ibid., 10:4a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 12. ibid., 6:4b. Sec. 13. ibid., 15:6b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 14. ibid., 1:5a-b. Sec. 15. ibid., 18:43b-44a. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiaohsüeh, 5:8b.) Sec. 16. I-shu. [ Ch'eng I] (Now in the Wen-chi, 6:2b.) Sec. 17. ibid., 10:4a. [ Ch'eng ü] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 6:7a.) Sec. 18. ibid., 18:44b-45a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 19. ibid., supplement, p. 4a. Sec. 20. Wai-shu, 10:3b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 21. ( Chang Tsai) Wen-chi. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:5a.) Sec. 22. ibid. Sec. 23. "Hsing-chuang." (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 15:13a-b.) Sec. 24. ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 15:11a-b.) -318Sec. 25. Chang Tsai, Yüeh shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:5a.) Sec. 26. Chang Tsai, Yü-lu. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 4:1a.)
Sec. 27. Ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 4:3a.)
CHAPTER X. Sec. 1. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 2:7b-8a. Sec. 2. Ibid., 5:6b. Sec. 3. Ibid., 5:9b. Sec. 4. ( Ch'eng Hao) Ibid., 7:2a. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:12a.) Sec. 5. ( Ch'eng I) I chuan, 1:24a, comment on hexagram no. 6, sung [contention]. Sec. 6. Ibid., 1:27b, comment on hexagram no. 7, shih [army]. Sec. 7. Ibid. Sec. 8. Ibid., 1:52a, comment on hexagram no. 14, ta-yu [great possession]. Sec. 9. Ibid., 2:9b, comment on hexagram no. 17, sui [to follow]. Sec. 10. Ibid., 2:11 a, comment on the same. Sec. 11. Ibid., 2:51b-52a, comment on hexagram no. 29, k'an [pit]. Sec. 12. Ibid., 3:6b, comment on hexagram no. 32, heng [constancy]. Sec. 13. Ibid., 3:10a, comment on hexagram no. 33, t'un [to retire]. Sec. 14. Ibid., 3:25a-b, comment on hexagram no. 38, k'uei [to part]. Sec. 15. Ibid., 3:25b, comment on the same. Sec. 16. Ibid., 3:26a-b, comment on the same. Sec. 17. Ibid., 3:38b, comment on hexagram no. 41, sun [decrease]. Sec. 18. Ibid., 3:41b-42a, comment on hexagram no. 42, i [increase].
Sec. 19. Ibid., 4:8b, comment on hexagram no. 49, ko [change]. Sec. 20. Ibid., 4:25a-b, comment on hexagram no. 53, chien [gradual advancement]. Sec. 21. Ibid., 4:35a-b, comment on hexagram no. 56, lü [travel]. Sec. 22. Ibid., 4:36a, comment on the same. Sec. 23. Ibid., 4:42b-43a, comment on hexagram no. 58, tui [pleasure]. Sec. 24. Ibid., 4:49b, comment on hexagram no. 61, chung-fu [central sincerity]. Sec. 25. Ibid., 4:52b, comment on hexagram no. 62, hsiao-kuo [slight excess]. Sec. 26. Ibid., 4:53b, comment on the same. Sec. 27. Ching shuo, 3:16a. Sec. 28. Ibid., 3:17a. Sec. 29. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 1:6b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 30. Ibid., 2A:25b. Sec. 31. Ibid., 3:2a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 32. Ibid. [Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 33. Ibid., 3:sa. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 34. Ibid., 4:3b. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 6:9b.) Sec. 35. Ibid., 4:4b-5a. Sec. 36. Ibid., 7:3a. Sec. 37. Ibid., 6:8b. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:12a.) Sec. 38. Ibid., 11:2a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 39. Ibid., 11:3a. [ Ch'eng Hao]
Sec. 40. Ibid., 11: 11a. [ Ch'eng Haol Sec. 41. Ibid., 2A:4a-b. Sec. 42. Ibid., 2A:4b. Sec. 43. ( Ch'eng I) Ibid., 15:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 44. Ibid., 11:11a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 45. Ibid., 17:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 46. Ibid., 18:3b. [ Ch'eng I] (Also quoted In Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:12a.) Sec. 47. Ibid., 18:8a-b. [ Ch'eng I] (Partly quoted in the Wai-shu, 10:4a.) Sec. 48. Ibid., 18:8b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 49. Ibid., 19:5b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 50. Ibid., 19: 10a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 51. Ibid., 19: 10b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 52. Ibid., 22B:4b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 53. Wai-shu, 2:1a. [ Ch'eng I] -319-
Sec. 54. Ibid., 7: 1b. Sec. 55. ( Ch'eng I) Ibid., 12: Ia. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 56. ( Ch'eng Hao) Ibid., 12:7b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 57. ( Ch'eng I) Ibid., 12:13a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 58. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, supplement, p. 1b. [ Ch'eng Hao]
Sec. 59. Ibid., p. 2a-b. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiaohsüeh, 5:12a.) Sec. 60. ( Chang Tsai) Wen-chi. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:1b.) Sec. 61. I shuo ( Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 9:35a and 12:9b), comment on hexagram no. 29, k'an [pit]. Sec. 62. Ibid. (10:5a), comment on hexagram no. 34, ta-chuang [great strength]. Sec. 63. Ibid. (10:14b and 12:9b), comment on hexagram no. 44, kou [meeting]. Sec. 64. Yü-lu. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:4a.)
CHAPTER XI. Sec. 1. ( Chou Tun-i) T'ung-shu, ch. 7. Sec. 2. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 2:6a-b. Sec. 3. I chuan, 2:21a, comment on hexagram no. 20, kuan [to observe]. Sec. 4. Ching shuo. (No longer found here but quoted in Chu Hsi, Lunyü chi-chu, ch. 4, comment on theAnalects, 7:23. Part of the passage is now also in the Ts'ui-yen, 2:4b.) Sec. 5. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 1:6a. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:12a.) Sec. 6. Ibid., 2A:4a. Sec. 7. Ibid., 2A:6a. Sec. 8. Ibid., 2A:6b. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:2a, where the saying is attributed to Ch'eng I.) Sec. 9. Ibid., 2A:8a.
Sec. 10. Ibid., 3:4a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 11. Ibid., 5:2b. Sec. 12. Ibid., 6:2a. Sec. 13. Ibid., 8:1b. Sec. 14. ( Ch'eng I) Ibid., 15:19b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 15. Ibid., 15:17b-18a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 16. Ibid., 18:14a-b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 17. Ibid., 18:20a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 18. ( Chang Tsai) Cheng-meng, ch. 9 (Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 3:3b). Sec. 19. Li chi shuo. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 12:9b-10a.) Sec. 20. Ibid. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 12:10a.) Sec. 21. Meng Tzu shuo. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 12:10a.)
CHAPTER XII. Sec. 1. ( Chou Tun-i) T'ung-shu, ch. 26. Sec. 2. ( Ch'eng I) 1 chuan, 1:42b, comment on hexagram no. 11, t'ai [peace]. Sec. 3. Ibid., 2:6a, comment on hexagram no. 16, yü [comfort]. Sec. 4. Ibid., 2:7b, comment on the same. Sec. 5. Ibid., 2:15b, comment on hexagram no. 19, lin [to arrive]. Sec. 6. Ibid., 2:34a, comment on hexagram no. 24, fu [to return]. Sec. 7. Ibid., 3:28a, comment on hexagram no. 38, k'uei [to part].
Sec. 8. Ibid., 3:34b, comment on hexagram no. 40, chieh [to remove]. Sec. 9. Ibid., 3:44a-b, comment on hexagram no. 42, i [increase]. Sec. 10. Ibid., 4:21b-22a, comment on hexagram no. 52, ken [to stop]. Sec. 11. Ibid., 4:27b, comment on hexagram no. 54, kuei-mei [marriage of a maiden]. Sec. 12. Ibid. Sec. 13. Ibid., 4:42b, comment on hexagram no. 58, tui [pleasure]. Sec. 14. Ching shuo, 2:6a-b. Sec. 15. Ibid., 6:5b. Sec. 16. Ibid., 6:5a. Sec. 17. Ibid., 6:4a. Sec. 18. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 1:3b. -320-
Sec. 19. Ibid., 1:6b. Sec. 20. Ibid., 1:7a-b. (Also quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:17b.) Sec. 21. Ibid., 2A:22a. Sec. 22. ( Ch'eng I) Ibid., 3:5a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 23. Ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 24. Ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 25. Ibid., 6:5a. Sec. 26. Ibid., 5:2a. Sec. 27. Ibid., 15:18a. [ Ch'eng I]
Sec. 28. Ibid., 18:29b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 29. Ibid. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 30. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu. [ Ch'eng Hao] (Now in the Wai-shu, 12:6ab. Cf. the I-shu, 3:3a.) Sec. 31. ( Chang Tsai) Cheng-meng, ch. 8 ( Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 2:25b-26a. Also quoted in Chu Hsi,Hsiao-hsüeh, 5:18b). Sec. 32. Li-yüeh shuo. (Preserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:5b.) Sec. 33. Meng Tzu shuo. (Preserved In the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu,14:5b.)
CHAPTER XIII. Sec. 1. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 13:1a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 2. ( Ch'eng I) Ibid., 17:2a-b. [ Ch'eng 1] Sec. 3. ( Ch'eng Hao) Ibid., 4:4b, 2A:9a. Sec. 4. Ibid., 13:1b, 2A:9b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 5. Ibid., 2A:9b. Sec. 6. Ibid., 2A:15b. Sec. 7. Ibid., 4:1b. Sec. 8. Ibid., 14:lb. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 9. Ibid., 15:10a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 10. Ibid., 18:10a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 11. ( Ch'eng I) Wai-shu, 12:5a. [ Ch'eng I]
Sec. 12. ( Chang Tsai) Cheng-meng, ch. 7 (Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 2:22b). Sec. 13. Ibid., ch. 14 (3:11b. Cf. 11:5a). Sec. 14. Ibid., ch. 17 (3:22a-b).
CHAPTER XIV. Sec. 1. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 2A:21a. Sec. 2. Ibid., 5:1a, 1b. Sec. 3. Ibid., 15:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 4. Ibid., 17:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 5. Ibid., 18:36b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 6. Ibid., 19:11 b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 7. Ibid., 25:7a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 8. Ibid., 1:5b. Sec. 9. Ibid., 19:3b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 10. Ibid., 24:2b. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 11. Ibid., 18:38a. [Ch'eng I] Sec. 12. Ibid., 24:3a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 13. Ibid., 19:11a-b. [ Cheng I] Sec. 14. Ibid., 1:3b-4a. Sec. 15. Ibid., 18:37a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 16. [ On Chou Tun-i] Supplement to the T'ung-shu. (Now in the Chou Tzu ch'üan-shu, ch. 19, p. 371,and ch. 20, p. 399.)
Sec. 17. ( Ch'eng I) Wen-chi, 7:6a-7a. (Partly quoted in Chu Hsi, Hsiaohsüeh, 6:4a.) Sec. 18. ( Ch'eng Hao) I-shu, 3:2a. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 19. Ibid. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 20. Ibid., 2A:10a. [ Ch'eng Hao] -321-
Sec. 21. [On Ch'eng Hao] Wai-shu, 12:5b. [ Ch'eng Hao] Sec. 22. [On the Ch'eng Brothers] Ibid., 12:7b-8a. [ Ch'eng I] Sec. 23. [On Ch'eng Hao] I-shu, supplement, p. 2a. Sec. 24. [On Ch'eng Hao] Ibid., p. 7a. Sec. 25. [On Chang Tsai] "Hsing-chuang" ( Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 15:11a, 12a-b). Sec. 26. ( Chang Tsai) Yü-lu. (Now in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 6:7a.) -322ON THE CHIN-SSU LU AND ITS COMMENTARIES
COMPILATION As stated in Chu Hsi's Preface, Lü Tsu-ch'ien visited him in 1175 and the two selected 622 passages from theworks of Chou Tun-i, Ch'eng Hao, Ch'eng I, and Chang Tsai to form the Chin-ssu lu in 14 chapters. Chu Hsi wasthen forty-six years old. Seven years before, he had compiled the Ho-nan Ch'engshih i-shu (Surviving works ofthe Ch'eng brothers). Three years before, he had written his Lun-yü ching-i (Essential meanings of theAnalects) and Meng
Tzu ching-i (Essential meanings of the Book of Mencius). And two years before, he hadwritten his commentaries on Chou Tun-i T'ai-chi-t'u shuo (Explanation of the diagram of the Great Ultimate)and T'ung-shu (Penetrating the Book of Changes). Thus for several years he had been deeply engaged in theelucidation and interpretation of the works of the four philosophers. For those who could not read these worksin their entirety, he and Lü made the anthology to serve as an introduction.1. Only those passages that concerna man's immediate, daily life were selected, and this is why the anthology is entitled Reflections on Things atHand.2. Also, since Chang Tsai used many colloquialisms extremely difficult to understand, only those sayingsof his that could be easily understood were included.3. Chu Hsi's statement in his Preface that the anthology was made in "[over] ten days" may suggest that it wasquickly done. Actually, the items were carefully weighed. Whether to include chapter 1 on the substance of theWay was seriously considered. According to Huang Kan (1152-1221), Chu Hsi's outstanding pupil, Chu Hsi atfirst did not want to include it, undoubtedly because its abstract character might lead to idle speculation onmetaphysics, but finally did so because otherwise ____________________ 1. See Chu Hsi Preface, the Chu Tzu wen-chi, 26:32b, and the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 105:4a. 2. See Chu Hsi Preface and the Chu Tzu wen-chi, 26:32b, 58:16a, and 64:37a. For an explanation of the title,see above, Introduction. 3. According to Chu Hsi, Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:1a. -323-
the following chapters would have had no foundation.4. There must have been objections from his pupils, too,for Huang himself remarked that the book had now become "Reflections on Things Far Away."5. Chu Hsirealized that the chapter was difficult to read, and that was why he talked the matter over with Lü and askedhim to say a few words about it.6. If one read this chapter alone, Chu Hsi added, the principles containedtherein would be isolated, that is, unrelated to daily life, and it would be much better to read the Analects andthe Book of Mencius, which are simple and straightforward.7. In 1175, after the anthology had been copied and made into a stitched volume, Chu Hsi expressed in a letter toLü the opinion that several sections, like 1:1 and 1:21, which had been deleted, should not be omitted; that 2:3,originally to have been the opening section of the book, was, after all, not about the substance of the Way andshould be placed in chapter 2; and that the sections on serving parents and dealing with the family, originallyincluded in chapter 9, came too late and should form a separate chapter preceding chapter 7, on serving in thegovernment. He sought Lü's reaction on these matters as well as on his own proposed addition of severalsections, especially sec. 6:12.8. In the following year he wrote Lü about the addition of several sections andabout shifting certain sections on the family to chapter 6, and asked for his approval.9. In 1178, at the requestof Chang Ch'in-fu, Chu Hsi added several sections on the civil service examinations.10. Thus the anthology didnot assume its final form until three or four years after its inception. During this time, considerable thoughthad been given by the compilers to the choice of the selections and their order.11. ____________________ 10. Ch'in-fu was a courtesy name of Chang Shih (1133-80). Probably 7:33-35. See the Chu Tzu wen-chi, 32:3band 34:4b. 11. In his Preface, dated 1175, Chu Hsi gave the total number of selections as 622. But in 1176 and 1178 headded a
4. Huang Mien-chai chi, 2:2a. 5. Ibid. 6. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 105:5a. The request was made in a letter dated 1175. See Chu Tzu wen-chi, 33:28b. 7. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 105:5a. Chu Hsi ( Chu Tzu yü-lei, 95:32b) said that Ch'eng Hao's saying, "A student shouldunderstand humanity," should be included in the Chin-ssu lu; but he did not do so because Lü objected (seebelow, nn. 18 and 19). Chu Hsi also said that Ch'eng I's saying, "One is already near the Way if one has thedesire to investigate things," which is recorded in pt. 2 of the Chaoshih k'o-yü (Chao's sayings when awayfrom home), is very good and should be included. The work referred to is by Chao Yüeh-chih ( 10591129).In its present form the book is not divided into parts, but the saying is found in a passage on p. 20b,although Ch'eng I's name is not mentioned. The whole passage is also found in the I-shu, 25:1a. Chu Hsi'sremark is found in the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 18:16a. Why the saying was not included in the Chin-ssu lu has notbeen explained by Chu Hsi. 8. Chu Tzu wen-chi, 33:28a-b. 9. Ibid., 33:34b-35a. -324THE ROLE OF LÜ TSU-CH'IEN IN THE COMPILATION
From the correspondence described above, it is clear that Lü's role in the compilation was by no means a minorone. Not only did Chu Hsi discuss matters with him as an equal. He thanked Lü for his comments on the twoselections on funeral rites.12. In three debatable cases, at least, Lü's decision prevailed. He refused to includethe whole passage from Chang Tsai's work in 1:49,13. and several selections on how civil service examinationshurt one's mind.14. but wanted 10:18 included against Chu Hsi's will,15. and Chu Hsi obliged. Lü oftenencouraged people to study Ch'eng I I-chuan and urged Chu Hsi to make selections from it. Chu Hsi at first didnot want to do so, with the excuse that the work is complete in itself. The real reason was that Chu Hsiconsidered it difficult to follow because it is too general and does not deal with practical affairs. But on Lü'sinsistence he made many selections from it.16. It was also at Lü's suggestion that 9:20 on law was added, forotherwise, Lü said, law would not be included in the work.17. On the other hand, Chu Hsi had wanted to includeCh'eng Hao's "On Understanding the Nature of Jen [Humanity]"18. but did not do so because Lü was afraidthat the reader might misunderstand the ideas in it.19. When Huang Kan said "the two Teachers jointlycompiled,"20. he was stating a fact. However, when Yeh Ts'ai, the first commentator, presented hiscommentary to the emperor,21. he mentioned Chu Hsi alone as the compiler, although in his Preface hementioned Chu and Lü together. Since his time, commentators and writers, with rare exceptions, haveconsidered the Chin-ssu lu as the work of Chu Hsi alone. Chinese commentators like Chang Po-hsing, MaoHsing-lai, and Shih Huang,22. have not men ____________________ 11 number of sections, and yet the total number remained the same. It is most likely that the number in the1175 Preface is a later adjustment. According to the Wen-hsien t'ung-k'ao, 210:9a, there were at first 619sections. Most probably, in the three or four years of compilation, additions and deletions were made.According to Wang Mou-hung ( Chu Tzu nien-p'u, p. 275), although it is said in one of the chronologicalbiographies of Chu Hsi that in 1190 he added a number of sections, this assertion is baseless.
12. Chu Tzu wen-chi, 33:35a. The two selections were possibly 6:15 and 6:18, but more probably two otherselections which were dropped later on. 13. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 98:6b. 14. Chu Tzu wen-chi, 54:25b. 15. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 123:7a. 16. See the Chu Tzu yü-lei, 67:6a, 8b, 18b; 105:5b; 119:10a; also see above, pp. xxxiv-xxxv. 17. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 96:14a. 18. I-shu, 2A:3a-b. 19. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 97:Sa-b. Chu Hsi himself also said ( ibid., p. 6a) that discussions in the essay are too broadand difficult to understand. 20. Huang Mien-chai chi, 2:3a. 21. The memorial presenting the commentary is found immediately preceding his Preface to it. For Yeh Ts'ai,see below, Chinese Commentaries, # 3.
22. See below, Chinese Commentaries, # 11, 13, and 15. -325tioned Lü at all in their prefaces. Nor have Japanese commentators, virtually all of whom have followed YehTs'ai. Among outstanding Chinese commentators, Chiang Yung23. was the only one who gave Chu and Lü equalcredit by mentioning them together. No wonder the editors of the Ssuk'u ch'üan-shu tsung-mu t'i-yao(Essentials of the complete catalogue of the Four Libraries), having pointed out the fact that the Sung shih(History of the Sung dynasty)24. mentions both Chu and Lü as compilers, complain that the partisan spiritamong Neo-Confucian scholars has led them to ignore Lü.25. There is no doubt that commentators have been unfair to Lü. The fact remains, however, that the initiative hadcome from Chu Hsi and it was he who took the lead throughout the work. Contemporary scholars discussedproblems of the book with Chu Hsi rather than with Lü.26. The one who wrote the Preface in 1175 after theanthology was completed was Chu Hsi and not Lü. Lü did not write one until a year later, and did so only at therequest of Chu Hsi,27. primarily to explain why chapter 1 was included. In view of all these facts, it would bejust as unfair to Chu Hsi to consider the two compilers as equal as it is to Lü to consider Chu Hsi as the onlycompiler. The thing to do is to regard the book as having been compiled by Chu Hsi with the close collaborationof Lü.
ORDER AND CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS Two things which the two compilers considered carefully were the contents and the order of the chapters.References have already been made to the proper places for certain sections. As Huang Kan has pointed out,several sections on humanity are included in chapter 128. while one is in chapter 2.29. The reason is that thosein chapter 1 deal with the characteristics of humanity, whereas the section in chapter 2 deals with the way topractice it. The distinction between righteousness and profit30. is taken up in chapter 7 rather
than in chapter2 because chapter 2 deals with the way of learning, whereas the distinction between righteousness and profitinvolves the choice of principles. Placing the sections on the Book of Odes and the Book of History in betweenthose on the Four Books31. seems irregular, but the sections ____________________ 23. Ibid., # 14. 24. Ch. 205, Bibliography, sec. 4, Confucianism. 25. Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu tsung-mu t'i- yao, p. 1901. 26. See above, n. 10, and below, Order and Contents of Chapters. 27. See the Chu Tzu wen-chi, 33:28b. 28. Secs. 11, 17, 20, 35, and 36. 29. Sec. 52. 30. Sec. 26. 31. Secs. 43-47 in ch. 3. -326-
are discussions on reading in general and not on the books as such. Section 21 in chapter 3 was repeated,32. butto Huang Kan it was neither illogical nor harmful because in each instance one particular part of the passagewas emphasized,33. All this may have been Huang's own opinion, but since he was one of the most outstandingamong Chu Hsi's pupils, it is safe to say that he reflected his teacher's ideas. As to the general pattern, there is of course a definite order. Chu Hsi said the first three or four chapters wereon moral cultivation and advancement of learning.34. About the whole book, Chu Hsi said that the fourteenchapters contained "the essentials of the student's search for the beginnings of things, exerting effort,conducting himself, and managing others, as well as the gist of understanding the heterodoxical schools andobserving the sages and worthies."35. More specifically, he said that "as an outline, chapter 1 deals with thesubstance of the Way, chapter 2 with the essentials of learning, chapter 3 with the investigation of things andthe investigation of principle to the utmost, chapter 4 with preserving one's mind and nourishing one's nature,chapter 5 with correcting mistakes, improving oneself, self-discipline, and returning to propriety, chapter 6with the way to regulate the family, chapter 7 with serving or not serving in the government, chapter 8 with theprinciples of governing the state and bringing peace to the world, chapter 9 with systems and institutions,chapter 10 with the way to handle affairs, chapter 11 with the way to teach, chapter 12 with correcting mistakesand the defects of the human mind, chapter 13 with sifting the heterodoxical schools, and chapter 14 with thedisposition of sages and worthies."36. As Mao Hsinglai37. and others have said, the objective is none otherthan that described in the Great Learning as the Three Items of "manifesting one's clear character,""renovating the life of the people," and "abiding in the highest good," and the Eight Steps of the investigation ofthings, the extension of knowledge, the rectification of the mind, making the will sincere, cultivating thepersonal life, regulating the family, ordering the state, and bringing peace to the world.38. But Chu Hsi's descriptions should not be taken rigidly. Unfortunately Yeh Ts'ai39 arbitrarily identified ChuHsi's first description with
____________________ 32. The repetition has been eliminated in later editions. See also ch. 3, n. 37. 33. Huang Mien-chai chi, 2:2b-3a. 34. Chu Tzu wen-chi, 58:5b. 35. Preface to the Chin-ssu lu. 36. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 105:4b. 37. Preface to his Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, p. la. 38. Text of the Great Learning. 39. See below, Chinese Commentaries, #3. -327the order of chapters. He equated the search for the beginning of things with chapter 1, exerting effort withchapters 2-4, conducting oneself with chapters 5-7, managing others with chapters 9-12, understanding theheterodoxical schools with chapter 13, and observing sages and worthies with chapter 14. It is difficult to seehow chapter 6, which is on the family, can be described as dealing with personal conduct, or how chapter 12,which is devoted to
correcting mistakes and correcting the defects of the human mind, is on managing othersrather than oneself. As a broad outline, this equation is not seriously wrong. But it inaugurated a tendency to treat the chapterarrangement rigidly. Many commentators have tried to make the Chin-ssu lu as systematic as possible. LiuShih-hsien,40. for example, thinks that the book begins with the search for the beginning of things, because, inthe pursuit of learning, there is nothing more important than knowing the direction; that knowing thedirection requires not only knowledge but also practice; that practice is first for one's own sake and then for thebenefit of others; that all of this is intended to enable one to stop evil and to abide by the correct principle; andthat therefore the book concludes with sifting the heterodoxical doctrines and observing sages and worthies.41.Much more farfetched is Chou Kung-shu's statement that chapter 10, on government, deals with the scholar'sactivity while in office and chapter 11, on education, deals with his activity after his retirement.42. Yin Huii,however, thinks that the chapter on education follows that on government probably because a scholar has noopportunity for governmental service and is therefore engaged in teaching.43. Chou even thought that withineach chapter there is a definite scheme. For example, he said that chapter 3 begins with a generalconsideration of methods of extending knowledge (secs. 1-22), continues with discussions on methods ofreading in general (secs. 23-33), and concludes with passages on methods of reading particular books which aretaken up in a particular order.44. If the scheme was so neat, however, why does the Doctrine of the Mean,45.for example, which ordinarily follows the Analects and the Book of Mencius, here follow the Book of Odes andthe Book of History instead? Yamazaki Ansai and ____________________ 40. See below, Chinese Commentaries, #8. 41. In his Preface to Chou Kung-shu Fen-lei chin-ssu lu chi-chieh.
42. See below, Chinese Commentaries, #8. 43. Yin Hui-i, Chien-yü Hsien-sheng wen-chi, 9:95. 44. Fen-lei chin-ssu lu chi-chieh, 3: 1a-b. 45. Sec. 48. -328his followers, especially Miyake Shōsai,46. have correlated the chapters with the Eight Steps in the GreatLearning, considering chapter 3-5 as being on cultivating the personal life, chapter 6 on regulating the family,and chapter 810 on ordering the state and bringing peace to the world. While in general this is correct, neitherall the Eight Steps nor all the fourteen chapters are accounted for, and Miyake Shōsai has to interpret chapter 7as a transition between the chapter on the family and that on the state.47. He regards all chapters as being tiedto the first. Self-discipline (ch. 5), for instance, is to eliminate the harms to the substance of the Way; observingthe sages and worthies (ch. 14) is to observe the substance of the Way in them, and so forth, although Chu Hsihas explicitly stated that the object of observation in chapter 14 is the disposition of sages and worthies. AndMiyake and Wang Fu48. have even asserted that the last sentence of each chapter was designed to lead to thefirst sentence of the next! Yamazaki Ansai's pupil's pupil, Wakabayashi Kansai, has gone a step further andreversed the order of chapters 4 and 5. He thinks that self-discipline (ch. 5) should precede preservation andnourishment (ch. 4) because, he says, preservation and nourishment cover both knowledge (ch. 3) and action(selfdiscipline).49. To him, chapter 1 on the substance of the Way means the original condition of sages andworthies and chapter 14 on sages and worthies means the substance of the Way possessed by man, and thus thefirst and last chapters bind the book in a unity which, he says, is the
unity of Heaven and man.50. His pupil,Ono Michihiro, has carried the oversystemization of the chapters further and arbitrarily correlated chapters 2-5 with the first five of the Eight Steps.51. All these attempts to pin down the nature of each chapter as narrowly as possible are definitely contrary to ChuHsi's intention, for he himself has declared that the book is a collection of miscellaneous sayings and no chaptershould be labeled as being on any particular thing. For instance, he said, chapter 10 should not be called"serving the ruler," for there is a section on teaching boys.52. In spite of Chu Hsi's injunction, however, his followers persisted in giving titles to the chapters. According toHuang Kan, the two com ____________________ 46. See above, p. xxxvi, and below, Japanese Commentaries, # 31. 47. Kinshi roku hikki. This scheme is repeated in Inaba Mokusai, Kinshi roku kōgi. 48. Tu Chin-ssu lu, p. 51b. 49. Kinshi roku kōgi: jushimuku. Taira Tsunenaga defended the original order and said that preservation andnourishment penetrate knowledge and action at both ends. 50. Ibid., p. 105. This theme is repeated in Ōsawa Teisai, Kinshi roku hikki. 51. Kinshi roku kōgi.
52. Chu Tzu yü-lei, 105:4b. The section referred to is sec. 64. -329pilers originally intended to have titles but finally decided against them. Thus early editions carried no titles.53.Sa Later, friends from Chin-hua,54. Huang said, used titles, either because they had heard the two Teacherstalk about them or had invented them themselves. He thought the titles should be deleted because they wereneither authentic nor good.55. It is generally held that Yeh Ts'ai was the first one to assign titles. But since YehTs'ai came from Fukien Province and did not present his commentary to the emperor until after Huang Kan'sdeath, someone had evidently used titles before. So far as surviving works are concerned, however, Yeh's titlesare the oldest.56. They are unsatisfactory. For example, his title for chapter 5 is "self-discipline," but thechapter deals with correcting mistakes, improving oneself, and returning to propriety, as well as with self-discipline. Unfortunately, his titles have been adopted by many Chinese and Japanese commentators, such asUtsunomiya Ton'an and Chang Po-hsing.57. Shih Huang58. has his own, which are much better. If for practicalpurposes titles should be supplied, it is far better to follow the examples of Mao Hsing-lai, Chiang Yung, andCh'en Hang59. and use Chu Hsi's own outline to provide them. This has been done in the present translation. SOURCES OF SELECTIONS It has already been mentioned that the selections are from the works of four philosophers. In the arrangementof the Chin-ssu lu, the compilers mention the title of the sources at the end of the selection or the first section ofa group of selections. Table 1, based on the titles cited by the compilers, shows that 622 selections have beenmade from 24 sources, as follows: Chou Tun-i: "T'ai-chi-t'u shuo" (Explanation of the diagram of the Great Ultimate) T'ung-shu (Penetrating the Book of Changes)
"T'ung-shu fu-lu" (Supplement to the T'ung-shu)
____________________ 53. Miyake Shōsai argues that since Chu Hsi wrote Lü to write something "after the list of contents" (Chu Tzuwen-chi, 33:28b), there must have been titles originally. Nakamura Shūsai ( Kinshi roku kōsetsu, 1a), hasrepeated the argument. Higashi Masatsumi has added ( Kinshi roku sankō, p. 688) that people like YehTs'ai later on accidentally omitted the list. But "the list of contents" may mean only the chapter numbers. 54. Lü Tsu-ch'ien's native place in present Chekiang Province. 55. Huang Mien-chai chi, 2:3a-b. 56. These titles have been translated and given as notes to the chapter headings above. 57. See below, Japanese Commentaries, # 27, and Chinese Commentaries, #11. 58. See below, Chinese Commentaries, # 15. 59. Ibid., # 13, 14, and 16. -330-
"I-wen" (Surviving literary work)
Ch'eng Hao: Ming-tao wen-chi (Collection of literary works by Ch'eng Hao)
Ch'eng I: I-ch'uan wen-chi (Collection of literary works by Ch'eng I) I chuan (Commentary on the Book of Changes) Ching shuo (Explanations of the Classics) "Shou-t'ieh" (A written note)
The two Ch'engs: I-shu (Surviving works) "I-shu fu-lu" (Supplement to the I-shu) Wai-shu (Additional works)
Chang Tsai: Heng-ch'ü wen-chi (Collection of literary works by Chang Tsai) Cheng-meng (Correcting youthful ignorance) Yü-lu (Recorded conversations) I shuo (Explanations of the Book of Changes) Meng Tzu shuo (Explanations of the Book of Mencius) Lun-yü shuo (Explanations of the Analects)
Shih shuo (Explanations of the Book of Odes) Li chi shuo (Explanations of the Book of Rites) Chi shuo (Explanations of the Record) Li-yüeh shuo (Explanations of ceremonies and music) Yüeh shuo (Explanations of music) "Hsing-chuang" (Biographical account)
Of these, Chang Tsai Li-yüeh shuo, Yüeh shuo, Li chi shuo, Lun-yü shuo, and Meng Tzu shuo are no longer tobe found, and the rest, except Chou Tun-i "T'ai-chi-t'u shuo" and T'ung-shu, and Chang Tsai's Cheng-meng,are incomplete. Since the "T'ung-shu fu-lu" is a supplement to the T'ung-shu and the "I-shu fu-lu" is asupplement to the I-shu, the 622 selections have actually been made from twenty- two sources, at least three ofwhich (the "T'ai-chi-t'u shuo," the "I-wen," and the "Shou-t'ieh") are very short pieces. We do not know if thelost works were also short. The table shows the specific number of selections in the different chapters from each of the 24 sources.60. Thetotal number of selections from the four philosophers is as follows: Chou Tun-i 12 Ch'eng Hao 162 Ch'eng I
338
Chang Tsai 110 ____________________ 60. For the specific source of each section, see above, "Sources of Selections in the Chin-ssu lu."
-331TABLE I Distribution by Chapter of Selections in the CHIN-SSU LU According toChu Hsi
Chapter 12
1 13
2 14
3 4 5 Total Grand
6
7
8
9
10
11
Total CHOU TUN-I "T'ai-chi-t'u shuo" -
1 -
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
T'ung-shu 1 1 1 -
2 -
9
1
1
-
-
1
1
-
"T'ung-shu fu lu" -
-
1
1
-
-
-
-
-
"I-wen" -
-
1
2
1
-
-
-
-
-
Ming-tao wen-chi -
1 -
4
-
-
-
-
1
2
I-shu 10 5 9
2 138
23
13
-
-
4
-
14
9
-
2
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
CH'ENG HAO
31 18
"I-shu fu-lu" 2 -
Wai-shu -
-
5 2
3 16
2 162
-
-
-
3
-
1
I-ch'uan wen-chi 2 4 1 -
2 1
6 22
-
1
1
-
1
3
I-shu 15 8 1
38 158
29
4
5
13
-
10
10
4
"I-shu fu-lu" -
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
1
Wai-shu 1 -
-
6 -
10 34
3
5
3
1
4
-
-
I chuan 12 -
11 -
7 -
3 106
5
6
7
21
10
1
22
2 -
16
338
1
1
-
2
1
2
CH'ENG I
21 -
-332-
Ching shuo 2 1 4 -
CHANG TSAI
Heng-ch'ü wen-chi 2 1 -
-
7 -
6 19
1
-
-
1
1
Cheng-meng 1 1
6 3
11 -
28
-
4
-
-
2
-
Yü-lu 2 -
11 1
8 35
3
4
1
2
-
2
1
-
I shuo -
1 -
1 -
1 8
2
-
-
-
-
-
3
Meng Tzu shuo 1 1
-
2 -
1 7
1
-
-
1
-
-
Lun-yü shuo -
-
1 -
2
-
1
-
-
-
-
Shih shuo -
-
2
-
-
2
-
-
-
-
Li chi shuo 2 -
-
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Chi shuo -
-
-
1
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
Li-yüeh shuo 1
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
Yüeh-shuo -
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
1
-
"Hsing-chuang" -
1
4
110
-
1
-
-
2
41
22
39
25
27
64
21
33
Total 51 14
111 26
78
70 622
-333Since Chu Hsi's time, however, during the copying and editing of the various works, some passages havedisappeared from them and are now found in other works. In all there are 11 such cases, all of them, except for2:95 and 3:61, pointed out by Mao Hsing-lai.61. Cited by Chu Hsi: 1:3
Now found in:
I-ch'uan wen-chi I-shu
2:90 Heng-ch'ü wen-chi
Cheng-meng
2:95 Heng-ch'ü wen-chi
Yü-lu
2:96 Heng-ch'ü wen-chi
Yü-lu
2:100 Meng Tzu shuo
Yü-lu
3:15 I-shu Wai-shu 3:17 Heng-ch'ü wen-chi
Yü-lu
3:61 I-ch'uan wen-chi Ching shuo 9:9
I-shu Wai-shu
9:16 I-shu I-ch'uan wen-chi 12:30 I-shu Wai-shu Mao Hsing-lai has also said that 2:53, originally from the I-shu, is now found in Chang Tsai Yü-lu. While truethat the complete selection appears in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 7:1b, it also appears in the I-shu (17:3a)except for the last sentence. If we ignore this case, the actual gain and loss of the works concerned and theactual selections from them are as given in Table Two.
TABLE 2 Loss Gain Net
Total of
Selections in Table
Total of
Present Selections Ch'eng I
I-ch'uan wen-chi --2
Ching shuo 0
+1
--1
+1
+1
16
17
The two Ch'engs I-shu --4
+1
--3
296
+3
50
53
--4
0
Wai-shu
0
+3
Chang Tsai Heng-ch'ü wen-chi
22
21
293
--4
19
15
Cheng-meng
0
+1
+1
Yü-lu 0
+4
35
39
--1
0
--1
473
473
+4
Meng Tzu shuo
--11 +11 0
28
29
7
6
Since a number of selections come from works no longer extant, the number of selections from thephilosophers' extant works is as follows: ____________________ 61. See his Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, pp. iia-ivb. -334Chou Tun-i 12 The twoCh'engs62.
495 Chang Tsai63. 99 In the case of the two Ch'engs, it is impossible to tell in all cases whether a selection from the I-shu, the "I-shufu-lu," or the Wai-shu is Ch'eng Hao's or Ch'eng I's saying. In the I-shu, chapters 11-14 contain Ch'eng Hao'ssayings and chapters 15-25, Ch'eng I's, but in the rest of the chapters and in the Waishu only in a smallnumber of cases is the speaker identified. The two brothers shared so many ideas that a saying may be that ofone or the other or of both. In the arrangement of the Chin-ssu lu, the compilers begin a group of selectionswith "MasterMing-tao says" or "MasterI-ch'uan says." It has been generally understood that all selectionsfollowing this introductory phrase are those of the brother mentioned. The totals for the Ch'eng brothers in theTable have been arrived at on this basis. But this calculation may be wrong, because it is quite possible that, inthe process of copying and editing, a number of "MasterSo-and-So says" have been misplaced or omitted fromthe Chin-ssu lu as we now have it. For instance, in chapter 14, sections 3-7, 9-13, and 15 are definitely Ch'eng I'ssayings, since they come from the I-shu, chapters 15-25. But in the present Chin-ssu-lu they follow theintroductory phrase, "MasterMing-tao says," thus making them Ch'eng Hao's sayings. It is not unlikely that"MasterI-ch'uan says" was originally at the head of section 3, which indicated not only sections 3-7, 9-13, and 15as those of Ch'eng I but also sections 8 and 14 which come from the I-shu, chapter 1, in which the speaker is notidentified. It is more accurate, therefore, to ascribe to one or the other of the brothers only those sayingsspecifically assigned in the I-shu or for which evidence can be provided.64. Calculated on this basis, the totalnumbers of selections definitely belonging to each brother are as given in Table 3. Thus the total number forCh'eng Hao would be from 67 (definite) to 162 (indicated by Chu Hsi), and for Ch'eng I it would be from 309 to338. In any case Ch'eng I is the most quoted and Chou Tun-i the least, as shown here: ____________________ 62.
Three of Ch'eng I's sayings (2:14; 5:10; 11:4) and two of the Ch'eng brothers' (3:32; 3:33) are from works nolonger extant. 63. Eleven of Chang Tsai's sayings (2:91; 2:92; 2:94; 2:107; 3:20; 3:78; 4:64; 4:65; 6:19; 9:21; 9:22) have beenpreserved in the Chin-ssu lu and later included in the Chang Tzu ch'üan-shu, 14:3a-5b. 64. See above, "Sources of Selections in the Chin-ssu lu." -335Ch'eng I
309-38
Ch'eng Hao 67-162 Chang Tsai 110 Chou Tun-i 12 622
TABLE 3 Ch'engHao Ming-tao wen-chi 4 I-shu65. 44 "I-shu fu-lu" Wai-shu66. 15
4
Total 67 Ch'eng I
I-ch'uan wen-chi 21
I-shu67. 143 "I-shu fu-lu"
1
Wai-shu68. 20 I chuan
106
Ching-shuo 17 "Shou-t'ieh"
1
Total 309 In all the above calculations, the fact that 2:53 from the I-shu (17:3a) is also found in Chang Tsai Yü-lu (7:1b) isignored, since it was selected by the compilers as Ch'eng I's saying and not as Chang Tsai's. If it is considered tobe Chang Tsai's saying, the total for the Yü-lu should be increased by one and the total for Chang Tsai shouldlikewise be increased by one. The fact that part of 12:6 is from the Wai-shu (4:1b) is also not included in thecalculation, since it is not an independent section but a note to 12:6.
EDITIONS
We are not sure at what stage the final choice of the 622 selections as we now have them was made. In the fallof 1175 a draft copy was prepared, which, Chu Hsi said, "looks pretty good."69. But in this draft ____________________ 65. In ch. 1, 4 selections; in ch. 2, 16; in ch. 3, 1; in ch. 4, 8; in ch. 5, 1; in ch. 8, 1; in ch. 10, 7; in ch. 13, 3; in ch.14, 3. 66. In ch. 2, 5 selections; in ch. 3, 2; in ch. 4, 2; in ch. 5, 1; in ch. 6, 1; in ch. 8, 1; in ch. 10, 1; in ch. 12, 1; in ch.14, 1. 67. In ch. 1, 14 selections; in ch. 2, 22; in ch. 3, 23; in ch. 4, 22; in ch. 5, 7; in ch. 6, 3; in ch. 7, 10; in ch. 8, 2; inch. 9, 5; in ch. 10, 10; in ch. 11, 5; in ch. 12, 6: in ch. 13, 3; in ch. 14, 11. 68. In ch. 2, 6 selections; in ch. 3, 4; in ch. 4, 1; in ch. 5, 2; in ch. 8, 1; in ch. 9, 1; in ch. 10, 3; in ch. 13, 1; in ch.14, 1. 69. Chu Tzu wen-chi, 33:28a. -336the chapter on the family had not yet become a separate one.70. Evidently during Chu Hsi's lifetime a numberof printed editions circulated. Chu Hsi referred to a "very good printed Copy"71. to editions in Fukien andChekiang provinces,72. and to one which contained several more sections than "the old version."73. He alsomentioned one edition printed in a certain bookstore in which additional sections at the end of the chaptershad been incorporated into the chapters themselves and several duplicated words had been eliminated.74. Inthe edition on which Huang Kan raised certain editorial questions ch. 3, sec.
21 was still repeated.75. Anotherpupil also raised certain questions, which are, however, philosophical rather than editorial.76. Since Chu Hsi'stime there have been many editions. In the early eighteenth century the version used by Yeh Ts'ai in hiscommentary was the current one. At present the most authentic version is that in the Chu Tzu i-shu (Survivingworks of Master Chu), which is a reprint of the Po-lu-tung edition printed in Chu Hsi's own time.77. Acomparison of this and Yeh Ts'ai's version shows that there are only minor differences, which do not affect themeanings of the passages concerned, except in one case, which is most likely a misprint in the Yeh Ts'aiversion.78.
CHINESE COMMENTARIES There have been more commentaries and annotations on the Chin- ssu lu than on any other work except theConfucian and Taoist classics. Reference has already been made to Teng Chiung's questions on the Chin-ssulu.79. These questions are not comments.80. However, ____________________ 70. Ibid., 33:28b. 71. Ibid., 33:29b. 72. Ibid., 32:3b. 73. Ibid., 58:21a. 74. Ibid., 60:10b
75. See above, nn. 31-32. 76. Questions by Teng Chiung, whose courtesy name was Wei-lao, on the meaning of 16 sections, and Chu Hsi'sanswers are found in the Chu Tzu wen-chi, 58:33a-36a. Some of these replies have been translated ascomments above, in 1:24, 28; 2:32, 34; 9:20; and 14:19. On other pupils' readings of the Chin-ssu lu, see theChu Tzu yü-lei, 114:10a, 12b; 115:8b; and 116:8a. 77. For the Chu Tzu i-shu version, see above, Translator's Note. 78. In Yeh's version, a note is missing from 1:38, a sentence missing from 3:21 and 8:14, and a phrase missingfrom 13:5; and variations of words are found in 2:25, 54; 9:18; 12:33; and 13:1, 14. These have been pointedout in footnotes, except for 9:18, where the variant has the same meaning. In none of these cases is themeaning of the passage concerned seriously affected. The exceptional case is 13:1, where the words"humanity" and "righteousness" are interchanged. For comments on this mistake, see above, ch. 13, n. 2. In13:14, the Chu Tzu i-shu version contains a misprint, whereas Yeh Ts'ai's version is correct. See also ch. 5, n.24. 79. See above, n. 76. 80. Gotō Shunzui ( Shushi, p. 212) says Teng was the author of "Questions and Answers on the Chin-ssu lu." Ido not know his authority for this statement. -337-
commentaries were written by at least two of Chu Hsi's pupils and at least three of his pupils' pupils. These,followed by those of later times in chronological order, are surveyed briefly below. 1. Ch'en Chih (fl. 1208). Chin-ssu lu tsa-wen (Miscellaneous questions on the Reflections on Things atHand), in one chapter. Ch'en was Chu Hsi's pupil. He was a native of Yung-chia County in present Chekiang Province, and his courtesyname was Ch'i-chih. He was honored as Master Ch'ien-shih. In political life he rose to be general policy adviser.The book has no particular order, nor is it divided into chapters. He merely selected certain sayings, in whole orin part, explained them, and added his own ideas. The edition used in this translation is the Japanese edition of 1666. 2. Yang Po-yen (fl. 1246). Chin-ssu lu yen-chu (The Reflections on Things at Hand elucidated andannotated). Yang, whose literary name was Yung-chai and courtesy name Yen-shu, was Chu Hsi's pupil. In the middle ofthe Ch'un-yu period ( 1241-52) he was head of the department of public works. Mao Hsing-lai said in 1661 thathis work was very rare and only book collectors had it. There were many quotations from Chu Hsi Ta-hsüehchang-chü (Commentary on the Great Learning), Chung-yung chang-chü (Commentary on the Doctrine ofthe Mean), Lun-yü chi-chu (Collected commentaries on the Analects), and Meng Tzu chi-chu (Collectedcommentaries on the Book of Mencius), but his own notes were few. Mao found them to be superficial.81. AsYamazaki Anzai said, Yang deserved the criticism of Wang Ch'i-chih.82. The commentary is presumably lost. 3. Yeh Ts'ai (fl. 1248). Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh (Collected explanations of the Reflections on Things at Hand),in 14 chapters. Yeh Ts'ai was an imperial librarian. He studied under Ch'en Ch'un ( 11531217), Chu Hsi's pupil.83. Thus he hadalmost direct access to Chu Hsi's teachings. In 1248, forty-eight years after Chu Hsi's death, he completed hiscommentary. It is now the earliest one in existence.
____________________ 81. Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, Introduction, 1a-b, 65b-66a. 82. Preface to his edition of the Kinshi roku. Wang Ch'i-shih was Wang Wei (d. 1644). His comment was madein his postscript to Yang's commentary. 83. A Japanese source says he was Chu Hsi's son-in-law (see Utsunomiya Ton'an , 1:6b). This is incorrect andprobably comes from a confusion between him and Chu Hsi's pupil and son-in-law Huang Kan. Yeh Ts'aiwas not one of Chu Hsi's three sons-in-law. See the Huang Mien-chai chi, 8:36b. -338The work is an explanation, paragraph by paragraph, of the ideas of the Chin-ssu lu, occasionally quoting ChuHsi. Many of its comments are useful, but Yeh sometimes misunderstood the text,84. failed to understandConfucian philosophy itself,85. and was even unaware of Chu Hsi's own ideas.86. This work is not mentioned inthe Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu tsung-mu t'i-yao. It has been so ignored by Chinese scholars that it is practicallyimpossible to find a Copy of it.87. For this reason, a Japanese edition must be consulted. The Kambun taikeiedition of 1916 edited by Inoue88. has been used because it is more easily available than others. It is popularwith many Japanese scholars89. and has been translated into German by Father Graf.90. 4. Hsiung Kang-ta (fl. 1216-50). Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh (Collected explanations of the Reflections on Thingsat Hand), in 14 chapters. Hsiung was a pupil of Chu Hsi's pupil, Huang Kan. Aside from quoting 23 times, mostly from Chu Hsi,sometimes from his pupils, and once from Yeh Ts'ai, he renders each sentence into very plain Chinese withoutany additional etymological, historical, or philosophical information. The rendering was
intended forelementary students. The Korean edition of probably 1488 in the Sonkei Kakku, Tokyo, has been used. 5. Ho Chi (1188-1268). Chin-ssu lu fa-hui (Amplification of the Reflections on Things at Hand). Ho Chi, whose courtesy name was Tzu-kung, who was honored as Master Peishan, and who came from thesame district (Chin-hua) as Lü Tsu-ch'ien, was also a pupil of Chu Hsi's pupil, Huang Kan. In the earlier part ofthe Hsiench'un period ( 1265-74) he was a collator in the bureau of history and concurrently a junior expositorin waiting. He lived to be eighty-one years old. The bibliographical section of the Sung shih lists his work butgives no number of chapters. According to Mao Hsing-lai,91. this work has long been lost. 6. Tai T'ing of the Sung dynasty (960-1279). Chin-ssu lu pu-chu (Supplementary annotation of theReflections on Things at Hand). He was a native of Lin-hai County in present Chekiang Province, ____________________ 84. For example, he understood the word chin in chin-kuei [advice of those near by] in 8:3 as "simple," and theword tso [to do] in 12:33 as "control." 85. See, for example, ch. 13, sec. 1. 86. See ch. 2, n. 10. 87. See introductory comment to Editions, above, and remarks on Yeh Ts'ai under Chŏng Yŏp, # 20. 88. See below, # 55.
89. See above, # 24, 27, 32, and 55. 90. See below, # 63. 91. Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, Introduction, p. 66a. -339and his courtesy name was Tzu-yüan. His dates are unknown. Yamazaki Ansai considered his work to be of thesame kind as that of Yeh Ts'ai.92. Evidently it was still extant in the seventeenth century. But there has been notrace of it since. 7. Liu Kuan (1270-1342). Chin-ssu lu kuang-chi (An extensive compilation of material on the Reflectionson Things at Hand), in three chapters. Liu Kuan's courtesy name was Tao-ch'uan. He was an academician in waiting. He and Huang Chin (d. 1340)were two of the Four Eminent Scholars of their time. The book was an annotation. Yamazaki Ansai's remark onTai T'ing also applied to Liu Kuan. The work is not listed in the bibliographical section of the Wen-hsien t'ung-k'ao (Encyclopedia of documents and institutions) or the Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu tsung-mu t'i-yao and ispresumably lost. Mao Hsing-lai mentioned Huang Chin as the author of the Chin-ssu lu kuangchi in three chapters and saidthat this is recorded in the Yüan shih (History of the Yüan dynasty).93. It is true that the work in threechapters is mentioned in a section devoted to Huang Chin in the Yüan shih.94. But Mao Hsing-lai hasoverlooked the facts that appended to the biography of Huang Chin in this section is the biography of Liu Kuanand that the Chin-ssu lu kuang chi is mentioned here as Liu Kuan's work. The confusion is a rare slip on Mao'spart. He is right, however, in stating that the work is no longer extant.
8. Chou Kung-shu, compiler, and Wu Mien-hsüeh, collator (both fl. 1420). Fen-lei chin-ssu lu chi-chieh (Collected explanations of the Reflections on Things at Hand classified), in 14 chapters. We know only the native places of the two, that Wu's courtesy name was Hsiao-yü, and that he wrote somebooks. Bearing Yeh Ts'ai's titles, the chapters consist of selections and their commentaries under varioustopics. In chapter 1, for example, there are the topics of the Great Ultimate, the Way of Heaven, yin and yang,Heaven and Earth, principles of things, humanity, nature and material force, the mind, sincerity, thefundamental and the secondary, and ten others. Comments consist mostly of Yeh Ts'ai's commentary but alsoinclude quotations from Chu Hsi, Huang Kan, and some others. The quota ____________________ 92. Preface to his edition of the Chin-ssu lu. 93. Chin-ssu lu chi-chu, Introduction, p. 66a. 94. Yüan shih, 181:11a. -340tions do not seem to have been carefully made. In the first eight chapters there are about thirty comments byChou Kung-shu himself, none of which is significant. Some parts of the text are mixed with the comments, andsome comments are mixed with the text. Thus the work is a jumble and more than deserves the roundcondemnation of Chiang Yung.95. Originally there was no section on Ch'eng I in chapter 14. In 1473 Chang Yüan-chen ( 1437-1506) and Ch'enWen-yao made it up with material from Chu Hsi's chronological biography of Ch'eng and republished it.
The edition used in this translation is that of 1473, evidently the original. In the second edition there is apreface by Liu Shih-hsien dated the seventeenth year of Chia-ching (1538). 9."Wang Tao-k'un." Chin-ssu lu piao-t'i shih-i (The Reflections on Things at Hand explained and providedwith headings), in 14 chapters. This work is found in the Cabinet Library in Tokyo, the only extant copy, I believe. It is a slight alteration of thepreceding work, adding or omitting a topic or two here and there and giving subject headings at the top of thepage. Chou's and Wu's names are not mentioned anywhere and, more amazingly, Liu's preface is reproduced infull with only a few slight changes, not in Liu's name but in Wang's. The date of Liu's preface is also omitted. I have not seen any reference anywhere to this work or to Wang's compilation of it. Wang (fl. 1547) was a highgovernment official and a literary man of excellent reputation. It is most unlikely that he stooped to virtualforgery. The paper and the style of print used for the preface are different from those for the rest of the book.Did someone substitute this preface in Wang's name for the original one? Who, then, was responsible for thework? 10. Wang Fu-chih (1619-92). Chin-ssu lu chieh (The Reflections on Things at Hand explained). Wang was an unorthodox and outstanding Neo-Confucian thinker. He wrote many works, some of which havebeen lost. A collection of his surviving works published in 1840-42 under the title Ch'uan-shan i-shu (Survivingworks of Wang Fu-chih) contains 41 titles in 288 chapters. The editors noted there that his commentary on theChin-ssu lu was no longer to be found. ____________________ 95. In the preface to his Chin-ssu lu chi-chu. -341-
11. Chang Po-hsing (1651-1725). Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh (Collected explanations of the Reflections on Thingsat Hand), in 14 chapters. Chang Po-hsing, whose courtesy name was Hsiao-hsien, was a prominent scholar of the Chu Hsi tradition andwas an ardent promoter of Chu Hsi's rationalistic philosophy. His followers numbered several thousand. Thenumber of volumes written or compiled by Chang exceeded that of any of his contemporaries. For twenty yearshe was a government official, rising to be minister of the department of rites. Using Yeh Ts'ai's titles with a slight modification for chapter 5, he elucidated and amplified the selections asChu Hsi understood them. The work was finished in 1710. Yin Hui-i ( 1691-1748) said Chang intentionallyomitted a little over 40 selections.96. These omissions were probably not intentional, since they mostly occur atthe end of the chapters concerned. They may have been omitted by copyists by mistake. In 1736 Yin restoredthem and added his own comments, which are based on Yeh Ts'ai's. He also shifted section 64 of chapter 10 tothe end of chapter 11. (For Chang's deliberate but unexplained substitution for chapter 6, section 13, see above,ch. 6, n. 21.) It is possible that the original selection was among those omitted by Chang and that Yin was theone who made the substitution. It is interesting to note that the Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu tsung-mu t'i-yao includesMao Hsing-lai's and Chiang Yung's commentaries on the Chin-ssu lu but not Chang Po-hsing's, listing insteadhis supplement to the Chin-ssu lu, which consists of selections from Chu Hsi and other Neo-Confucianists. Doesthis not imply that the editors of the T'i-yao thought that Chang's commentary was far inferior to those of Maoand Chiang? It is true so far as originality is concerned, but for lucid and faithful elaboration Chang'scommentary is unsurpassed. The edition used in this translation is that of the Cheng-i-t'ang ch'üan-shu (Complete library of the Hall ofRectifying the Way) of 1866. 12. Li Wen-chao (1672-1735). Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh (Collected explanations of the Reflections on Things atHand), in 14 chapters. Li's courtesy name was Yüan-lang and his literary name Heng-chai.
____________________ 96. Specifically 41, namely: 1:46-51; 2:89, 103-11; 3:9, 71-78; 4:68-70; 5:38- 41; 9:25-27; 12:32-33; and 13:11-14.For Yin's role, see his preface to the Chin-ssu lu chi-chieh and a later preface ( 1748) in his Chien-yü Hsien-sheng wen-chi, 2:8-9. The Ch'ing-ju hsüeh-an, 62:2a, lists among his works Chin-ssu lu chichieh in 10chapters. This is probably a reference to his editing of Chang's work. Yin's biography (no. 95 of the Ch'ingshih kao) makes no mention of this work. -342A very well-read scholar and an outstanding teacher, he had a large following. According to the Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu tsung-mu t'i-Yao,97. his commentary consists chiefly of quotations from Chu Hsi and, when necessary,from other Neo-Confucianists, with his own comments added here and there. An extensive search has failed tolocate this work. His preface, however, is found in the Ch'ing-ju hsüeh-an, 54:8b-9b. 13. Mao Hsing-lai ( 1678-1748). Chin-ssu lu chi-chu (Collected commentaries on the Reflections on Things atHand), in 14 chapters. In critical and complete collation of the text, adequate understanding of the source material, ampleinformation on historical and other data which have escaped the attention of other commentators,independent judgment, and original thought,98. Mao Hsing-lai's work ranks the highest of all. The Ssuk'uch'üan-shu tsung-mu t'i-yao says of it: "Since the Sung times, there have been several commentaries on ChuHsi's Chin-ssu lu. Yeh Ts'ai's alone has been popular up to this day. Hsing-lai was painfully aware that it iscrude and superficial, giving explanations when they are unnecessary, but omitting comments when somediscussion is in order. There are also mistakes in the text and in punctuation. He therefore collated the textagainst the complete works of Chou, Chang, and the two Ch'engs and the Sung dynasty and Yiian dynastyeditions of the Chin-ssu lu.... He collected further comments from various sources and added his own. Hisresearch on articles and systems, and
his textual criticism are especially thorough. The book was finished in1662. The postscript is dated 1676, fifteen years later. He virtually devoted his life to the work."99. Mao didindeed devote his whole life to the study of Chu Hsi's philosophy, but in his collected comments he quoted Handynasty Confucianists as well as Sung Neo-Confucianists. Thus he expressed in his commentary a spirit ofimpartiality lacking in other commentaries, which are all partial to Chu Hsi. It is no wonder that this work is included in the Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu chen-pen (Treasured works of the FourLibraries) series. 14. Chiang Yung ( 1681-1762). Chin-ssu lu chi-chu (Collected commentaries on the Reflections on Things atHand), in 14 chapters. Chiang, whose life was completely occupied with the study of Confucian classics, was the first to rely primarilyon Chu Hsi for the ____________________ 97. See p. 1959. 98. For example, see ch. 12, sec. 25. 99. See p. 1902. -343support and elucidation of the Chin-ssu lu, although Yeh Ts'ai, Korean commentators like Kim Chang-saengand Chŏng Yŏp, and Japanese commentators like Kaibara Ekken, Utsunomiya Ton'an, and Miyake Shōsai100.have quoted Chu Hsi. Being dissatisfied with Yeh Ts'ai's infrequent quotations of Chu Hsi and distressed overChou Kung-shu's101. mutilation of the text, he used the Chu Tzu i-shu edition and quoted Chu Hsi Chu Tzu yülei (Classified conversations of Master Chu) at great length, as well as Chu Hsi
Chu Tzu wen-chi (Collection ofliterary works by Master Chu) and his commentaries on the Analects, the Book of Mencius, the GreatLearning, and the Doctrine of the Mean. Only when these quotations were insufficient did he resort to YehTs'ai and others. When these were inadequate, he added his own opinions. Instead of using Yeh Ts'ai's chapterheadings, he used Chu Hsi's descriptions.102. The work was finished in 1742. Chiang Yung has done such an extensive search for and such a careful selection of appropriate quotations fromChu Hsi that it is virtually impossible to add to or subtract from his selections. Both for his use of Chu Hsi toexplain Chu Hsi's own anthology and for his thoroughness, his work has been highly regarded by Chinesescholars. The Ssu-pu pei-yao edition of 1934 has been used. 15. Shih Huang (fl. 1705). Wu-tzu chin-ssu lu fa-ming (Exposition of the Reflections on Things at Hand of theFive Philosophers), in 14 chapters. Wang Yu (fl. 1685) had added a selection of Chu Hsi's sayings from two anthologies (namely, Ch'iu Chün [1418-95] Chu Tzu hsüeh-ti [The objectives of Master Chu's learning] and Kao P'an-lung [1562-1612] Chu Tzu chieh-yao [The essentials of Master Chu's teachings] to the sayings of the four philosophers in the Chin-ssu lu, thusmaking his anthology one of five philosophers. After each section, Shih Huang explains its meaning andsignificance. In his explanations of Chu Hsi's sayings, he has added extensive quotations from the four mostoutstanding Ming dynasty NeoConfucianists for support or elaboration of Chu Hsi's ideas. Shih Huang's explanations are clear and faithful, and are almost as good as those by Chang Po-hsing.103. Hehas modified Yeh Ts'ai's chapter headings and has quoted him only occasionally. The 1705 edition has been used. ____________________ 100. See above, 3, and below, # 19, 20, 26, 27, and 31.
101. See above, # 8. 102. See above, Order and Contents of Chapters. 103. See above, # 11. -34416. Ch'en Hang ( 1785-1826). Chin-ssu lu pu-chu (Supplementary commentaries on the Reflections on Things atHand), in 14 chapters. A printed copy without publication facts. It is not mentioned in the Ssu-k'u ch'üan-shu tsung-mu t'i-yao andhas not been referred to in any work. It is doubtful if it exists in China. However, a copy is preserved in theroom for research in Chinese philosophy in the University of Tokyo. It is a collection of sayings chiefly from ChuHsi, but also drawing on about fifty other NeoConfucianists from Chu Hsi's contemporaries down to theseventeenth century. Most of these sayings are expressions of opinions on the subjects concerned rather thancomments on the passages. He also quotes from Chinese commentators, notably Yeh Ts'ai, Mao Hsing-lai,Chiang Yung, and Shih Huang,104. but, interestingly enough, not Chang Po-hsing.105. Ch'en and NakamuraShfisai106. are the only two commentators who have quoted Chu Hsi's collaborator, Lü Tsu-ch'ien. Ch'en hasmade a few comments of his own, but these have thrown no new light on the subjects discussed. 17. Wang Fu ( 1692-1759). Tu Chin-ssu lu (Notes from reading the Reflections on Things at Hand). Not dividedinto chapters. This is neither an annotation nor a commentary but consists of statements of Wang's own philosophy followingthe section order of the Chin-ssu lu. His comments show no special insight. This work, dated 1896, forms part of the Wang Shuang-ch'ih ts'ung-shu (Wang Fu series) of 1897.
KOREAN COMMENTARIES Korean commentators have faithfully followed Chu Hsi and have been critical of Yeh Ts'ai. Their contributionslie chiefly in explanations and elaborations. 18. Yi I (1536-84). Kŭnsarok kugyŏl (Oral explanations of the Reflections on Things at Hand). Yi I and YiHwang (1501-70) have been considered the two outstanding Confucianists in Korean history. This work hasbeen lost for a long time. Quotations are, however, found in other Korean commentaries. 19. Kim Chang-saeng (1548-1631). Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi (Doubts on the Reflections on Things at Hand removed), inunnumbered chapters. Chapter titles follow closely Yeh Ts'ai's descriptions of titles. Aside ____________________ 104. See above, # 3, 13, 14, and 15. 105. See above, # 11. 106. See below, # 39. -345from quotations from Chu Hsi (especially the Chu Tzu yü-lei), Yi Hwang, and Yi I, the commentary containschiefly explanations of terms, occasionally mentioning the sources of quotations or ideas. The edition used in this translation is that in the Sagye sŏnsaeng chŏnsŏ (Complete works of Master KimChang-saeng), chapters 17-20. Kim also wrote the Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained), which is adraft of the above. It is not found in Tōyō Bunko,
where some say it is preserved. The Daikanwa jiten107. says hewrote the Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi (Ideas of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained). This statement is probably amistake due to the similarity of pronunciation of ŭi (meanings) and ŭi (ideas). 20. Chŏng Yŏp (1563-1625). Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi (Doubts on the Reflections on Things at Hand removed), in 14chapters. Chŏng was a pupil of Yi I, a censor, and an imperial adviser. His commentary contains chiefly quotations fromChu Hsi, Ch'en Ch'un, Huang Kan, and other Neo-Confucianists that amplify or support the selections. He alsoincludes comments by Yi Hwang, Yi I, and Kim Chang-saeng. He annotates and comments on not only theselections but also Yeh Ts'ai's commentary, and his chief purpose seems to be to attack him. Again and againhe points out why Yeh Ts'ai was mistaken. In most cases, he is right. In 1:33, for example, Yeh Ts'aidistinguishes principle and the material force, which, Chŏng says (1:30b), is definitely contrary to Ch'eng I'sideas. Again, in his note to the title for chapter 2, Yeh Ts'ai says that, having honored the moral nature, onemust pursue inquiry and study. Chŏng has correctly pointed out that chapter I is not on honoring the moralnature but on the substance of the Way (2:1a). Curiously enough, he has used Yeh Ts'ai's titles, though they areunsatisfactory. Most of the comments are on Yeh Ts'ai's commentary and some of the selections have not been commented onat all. The selections are not in any particular order, and the comments are not of any special merit. The edition used in this translation is the one of 1629 in the Tenri Library, Japan. 21. Pak Chi-gye (1573-1635). Kŭnsarok ŭiŭi (Suspected meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand). I havenot been able to locate this work or to ascertain if it is still extant. ____________________ 107.
See XI, 490. -34622. Yi Ik ( 1683-1763). Kŭnsarok chilsŏ (Comments on the Reflections on Things at Hand hastily written),manuscript in 14 chapters without pagination, preserved in the National Library in Seoul. Chiefly an explanation of meanings and an elaboration, the work occasionally quotes Chu Hsi and criticizes YehTs'ai. Comments are often brief, and only occasionally on textual matters. There are no chapter headings. It isinteresting that Yi Ik (4:1 b) is the only commentator who has pointed out that the note in 12:6 is a quotationfrom the Wai-shu, ch. 4. 23. Pak I-gon (fl. 1850?). Kŭnsarok sŏgŭi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained), in 14chapters. The printed edition of 1933 has been used. There are comments on about 80 percent of the sections. Half of the comments are on Yeh Ts'ai's commentary.Pak wrote his commentary purposely to correct Yeh Ts'ai's interpretation. There are many quotations from ChuHsi and other Neo-Confucianists as well as Yi I and Kim Chang-saeng. Comments on the text are about equallydivided between philosophical discussions and philological explanations.
JAPANESE COMMENTARIES, ANNOTATIONS, ANDTRANSLATIONS Japanese works on the Chin-ssu lu far outnumber those in China or Korea. Although many earlier Japanesecommentators were critical of Yeh Ts'ai, his commentary as well as his chapter headings has been followed bymany Japanese writers. In later times it virtually became the standard. Chinese commentaries have hardlybeen referred to, and Korean commentaries almost not at all, in Japanese works. As philosophical discussions,textual studies, and elucidations, they cannot surpass the Chinese or Korean, but they are useful study aids,especially for punctuation and explanation of terms, since these are often absent in Chinese works.
24. Nakamura Tekisai (1629-1702). Kinshi roku shimō kukai (The Reflections on Things at Hand punctuatedand annotated for beginners), in 14 chapters. Clear explanation, paragraph after paragraph, including specific terms, in spoken Japanese, relying on YehTs'ai's interpretation. In many cases, while in other renderings into spoken Japanese (notably nos. 58-59 below)technical and obscure Chinese terms are simply repeated, Nakamura explains them. -347In my translation the Sentetsu icho kanseki kokujikai zensho (The surviving whole Chinese works of wise menof the past explained in Japanese) edition of 1910 is used. 25. ----- Kinshi roku shōsetsu (Excerpts from the Reflections on Things at Hand explained), in 14 chapters. Brief philosophical comments on most of the sections, quoting Chu Hsi in many places and also other Neo-Confucianists. Yeh Ts'ai and Shih Huang108. are also quoted. The manuscript, dated 1693, is preserved inMukyū Kai, Tokyo. 26. Kaibara Ekken (1630-1714). Kinshi roku bikō (Notes on the Reflections on Things at Hand for furtherinvestigation), in 14 chapters. Following each paragraph or section, he quotes Chu Hsi at length and many other Neo-Confucianists. To thesehe has added his own opinions and some explanations of terms. Since he was one of the leading Confucianistsin Japanese history, this work has become standard. Inoue109. quotes him frequently. The printed copy of 1668 in the former Ueno (now Diet) Library, Tokyo, is used. 27. Utsunomiya Ton'an (1634-1710). Gōtō kinshi roku (The Reflections on Things at Hand annotated), in 14chapters. The fullest annotation of the Chin-ssu lu and Yeh Ts'ai's commentary, quoting many works, including Chu HsiChu Tzu yü-lei, and tracing the
sources of many ideas, terms, and passages. In all these respects it isunsurpassed by other commentaries. Occasionally Utsunomiya makes his own comments following Yeh Ts'ai'scommentary, but these are not outstanding. 28. Muro Kyūsō ( 1658-1734). Kinshi roku dōtai kōgi (Meanings of chapter 1 of the Reflections on Things atHand explained). Good philosophical discussions with quotations from Chu Hsi. The undated manuscript is preserved in MukyūKai. 29. Satō Naokata (1650-1719). Kinshi roku hikki (Note on the Reflections on Things at Hand). One of his pupils recorded his comments on chapters 1-4 and another pupil recorded more comments onchapter 1. Not all sections are commented on, and very little attention is paid to the explanation of ____________________ 108. See above, # 3 and 15. 109. See below, # 55. -348terms. The comments are expressions of Sata's own philosophy rather than discussions on the Chin-ssu lu text. Satō Naokata, Asami Keisai, and Miyake Shōsai110. were the Three Eminent Scholars of the Yamazaki Ansaischool. The Hikki is part of the Onzō roku (Records in a treasure box), a manuscript preserved in Mukyū Kai. 30. Asami Keisai ( 1652-1711). Kinshi roku shisetsu (Our teacher's [ Asami's] explanations of the Reflections onThings at Hand), in 14 chapters.
Lengthy philosophical elaborations on the entire Chin-ssu lu recorded by one of Asami's pupils. The manuscriptis dated 1788, obviously a later copy or the original copy made from draft notes taken at Asami's lectures. Thereare two other manuscripts. One, entitled Kinshi roku dōtai kōgi (Meanings of chapter I of the Reflections onThings at Hand explained), was written by Wakabayashi111. in 1732 and includes explanations on thesupplement and the chapter headings. The other, on chapter I only, entitled Kinshi roku dōtai hikki (Notes onchapter I of the Reflections on Things at Hand), was written by another pupil in 1739. All three manuscriptsare in Mukyū Kai. 31. Miyake Shōsai ( 1662-1741). Kinshi roku hikki (Notes on the Reflections on Things at Hand). Comments are made on about a fourth of the Chin-ssu lu3 with emphasis on philological explanations ratherthan philosophical discussions. There are many quotations from Chu Hsi and some from others. Yeh Ts'ai'scomments are also quoted, often to be criticized. The manuscript, dated 1729, is preserved in Mukyū Kai. 32. Yanada Katsunobu ( 1672-1744). Kinshi roku shūkai bemmō shōsetsu (Detailed explanations of theCollected Explanations of the Reflections on Things at Hand for the benefit of beginners), in 14 chapters. After rendering the Chinese text into classical Japanese, Yanada fully explains, also in classical Japanese, YehTs'ai's commentary. Yanada often makes statements of his own, expressing independent judgments orcriticizing Yeh Ts'ai. The 1914 edition has been used. 33. Wakabayashi Kansai ( 1679-1732). Kinshi roku kōgi: jushimoku (Meanings of the fourteen chapterheadings of the Reflections on Things at Hand discussed). ____________________ 110.
See below, # 30 and 31 111. See below, # 33. -349An elaborate discussion of the meanings of the fourteen headings. Professor Yamazaki Michio112. hasannotated it and has added his own comments elaborating on Wakabayashi.113. The manuscript of this work is preserved in Mukyū Kai. A printed copy is in the Diet Library, Tokyo. It isreprinted in full in Yamazaki's work. 34. ----- Kinshi roku shisetsu kōgi (Our teacher's [ Wakabayashi's] explanations of the meanings of theReflections on Things at Hand), in 14 chapters. Long elaborations, following closely his teacher, Asami Keisai.114. The lectures were recorded by Asami's nephew but the manuscript is dated 1783. Another manuscript, writtenin 1833, is a composite record of lecture notes by Wakabayashi's pupils taken in 1719, 1725, and 1728. A thirdmanuscript is similar to the preceding one, though the length of the passages varies. It is a record of lecturesgiven at a different time. A fourth manuscript is an exact duplicate of the third. Also see above, p. x. 35. ----- Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained). This covers only chapters 10-12 and its date is not clear. It consists of long elaborations without quotationsfrom others. Another copy has a note at the end saying that the lectures ended in 1747. Since that was fifteenyears after Wakabayashi's death, someone has correctly added a note that the lecturer must have been someoneelse. The six manuscripts just described are in Mukyū Kai.
36. Miyake Taitō (fl. 1695). Kinshi roku shūkai sesshō (Humble notes on the collected commentaries on theReflections on Things at Hand), in 35 chapters. After rendering the passages into Japanese, Miyake fully explains them. Chu Hsi is often quoted, but there isnothing original in the work. The manuscript, which is not dated, is in Mukyū Kai. 37. Gonoi Ranshū ( 1697-1762). Kinshi roku kimon (Records of what was heard about the Reflections on Thingsat Hand), in 14 chapters. He explains each section in detail, quotes Chu Hsi, and expresses his own philosophy. However, new ideas arefew. ____________________ 112. See below, # 61. 113. See below, # 62. 114. See above, # 30. -350The undated manuscript is preserved in the Osaka Library, Japan. 38. Sawada Takeoka (fl. 1720), Kinshi roku setsuryaku (Brief explanations of the Reflections on Things atHand), in 14 chapters. The text is fully explained section by section, supported by ample quotations from Chu Hsi and other Neo-Confucianists. Sawada then adds his own opinions. Annotations of terms are also many and adequate.Sawada's , Kaibara Ekken's, U tsunomiya Ton'an's, and Satō Issai's115. works are the most useful Japanesecommentaries. The edition of 1720 in the Cabinet Library, Tokyo, is used.
39. Nakamura Shūsai ( 1719-99). Kinshi roku kōsetsu (Explanations of the Reflections on Things at Hand). Numerous notes by Nakamura Shūsai himself and his pupils written in a 1670 edition of the Chin-ssu lu whichwas edited by Yamazaki Ansai. The notes are both philological and philosophical, in some places quite original.Some of Yeh Ts'ai's116. comments are also annotated, sometimes critically. Chu Hsi and other Chinese andKorean Neo-Confucianists are quoted. Nakamura and Ch'en Hang were the only two commentators who quotedChu Hsi's collaborator, Lü Tsu-ch'ien. The work is owned by Professor Yamazaki Michio117. of Tokyo Gakugei University, who very kindly lent it tome. 40. Inaba Mokusai ( 1722-99). Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained), in14 chapters. Unnecessarily lengthy discussion with reference to many Japanese Confucian scholars. A unique aspect is thefrequent discussion of the Neo-Confucianist, Wang Yang-ming. Mokusai was Satō Naokata's118. pupil. This written copy of the lecture notes recorded by his pupils is dated1850 and is in Mukyū Kai. A printed copy dated 1790, also in Mukyū Kai, covers only chapter I and part ofchapter 2. 41. Nakai Chikusan ( 1730-1804). Kinshi roku setsu (The Reflections on Things at Hand explained), in 14chapters. Explanations of the importance of individual sections, with brief quotations from Chu Hsi and other Neo-Confucianists. Many sections are omitted. ____________________ 115. See above, # 26 and 27, and below, # 44. 116. See above, # 3.
117. See below, # 61. 118. See above, # 29. -351The undated manuscript is preserved in Mukyū Kai. 42. ----- Kinshi roku hyōki (Selected comments on the Reflections on Things at Hand). Comments on selected sections, with ample quotations from Chu Hsi and other Neo-Confucianists. There arevery few textual notes. The manuscript is also undated and is also in Mukyū Kai. 43. Ishitsuka Saikō ( 1766-1817), Makihara Naosuke (date unknown), et al. Kinshi roku shūsetsu (Collectedexplanations on the Reflections on Things at Hand), in 5 chapters, with an introduction dated 1815 by theirteacher, Koga Seiri ( 1750-1817). Comments on the idea of the entire Chin-ssu lu, rather lengthy on the first nine chapters but very brief on therest. Following a sentence or a section, passages from Neo-Confucianists, chiefly Chu Hsi, and JapaneseConfucianists, especially Yamazaki Ansai and Asami Keisai,119. are quoted. Occasionally Ishitsuka, who wrotethe preface dated 1815, makes his own comments. There are very few textual or philological notes. The manuscript is in Mukyū Kai. Inoue120. and other Japanese sources refer to a work by Koga Seiri of thesame title, with the same number of chapters. It is probably a wrong attribution based on the fact that hewrote the introduction. 44. Satō Issai ( 1722-1859). Kinshi roku rangaisho (Notes on the Reflections on Things at Hand), in threechapters.
This work is the record of his explanation of the Chin-ssu lu to his students in 1839. In his interpretations ofterms and sentences and in his punctuation, he often shows independent and unorthodox judgment.121. Hequotes not only from Chu Hsi but also from Wang Yang-ming and other Ming dynasty NeoConfucianists andadds his own opinions. And he also quotes frequently from Shih Huang,122. being among the very few Japanesecommentators who did so. Some of Yeh Ts'ai's comments are also commented on. The 1840 manuscript is preserved in Mukyū Kai. 45. Kei Hyakunen (d. 1831). Kinshi roku yoshi (An abundance of teachers on the Reflections on Things atHand), in 14 chapters. A printed copy dated 1843, in Mukyū Kai. Explanations of the text by sentence or section but nothing on theoriginal notes in the text. ____________________ 119. See above, # 30. 120. See below, # 55. 121. For example, in 10:31. 122. See above, # 15. -352No annotation on terms or tracing of sources. It does not deserve its title. 46. Sakurada Komon( 1774-1839). Kinshi roku tekisetsu (Important points of the Reflections on Things atHand explained), in 14 chapters. This is not an annotation but an explanation. Each section is fully explained.Besides Yeh Ts'ai, Sakurada quotes from Chu Hsi and other Chinese Neo-Confucianists,
as well as fromNakamura Tekisai, Kaibara Ekken, Miyake Shasai,123. and other Japanese commentators, and does nothesitate to differ from them. In his preface he says he adheres to Chu Hsi very closely and dares not deviatefrom him. The printed copy in the University of Education Library, Tokyo, has been consulted. 47. Abei Bōsan ( 1778-1845). Kinshi roku kummō shūso (Collected commentaries on the Reflections on Thingsat Hand for the instruction of beginners), in two chapters. Aside from explanations of terms, he quotes from Chu Hsi and many others in his commentary. Many of theSung dynasty Neo-Confucianists he quotes have seldom been quoted by other Japanese commentators. Herarely uses Yeh Ts'ai's comments, and when he does he often criticizes him. Abei Bōsan, who was Koga Seiri's pupil, died after he had finished commenting on the first two chapters of theChin-ssu lu. The Mukyū Kai printed copy of 1847 has been used. 48. Kaneko Sōsan ( 1789-1865). Kinshi roku teiyō (Essentials of the Reflections on Things at Hand), in 14chapters. Philosophical comments on most of the sections, quoting Chu Hsi, Yeh Ts'ai, and other Neo-Confucianists.There are occasional textual notes. The manuscript, written in 1846 under Kaneko's Chinese name Kin Saimin,is preserved at the Waseda University Library. 49. Ōsawa Teisai ( 1812-73). Kinshi roku hikki (Notes on the Reflections on Things at Hand), in two parts. Brief discussions in addition to explanations of terms, with occasional quotations from Chu Hsi and other Neo-Confucianists. This undated manuscript and the following are preserved in Mukyū Kai. 50. ----- Kinshi roku shōsetsu (Detailed explanations of the Reflections on Things at Hand), in seven chapters.
____________________ 123. See above, # 24, 26, and 31. -353This undated manuscript is ascribed to Ösawa but there is no internal evidence of authorship. Like ChiangYung,124. the compiler has placed selected passages from Chu Hsi's works after each section, but unlike ChiangYung, he has made no comment of his own. His selections from Chu Hsi are more extensive than those ofChiang Yung, but not so carefully made. The seven chapters are devoted solely to the second chapter of theChin-ssu lu. The rest of the work is missing.51. Anonymous. Kinshi roku fusetsu (Supplementary explanationsof the Reflections on Things at Hand), with no chapter divisions.This work also quotes from Chu Hsi after eachsection, but, unlike the preceding work, draws all its quotations from Chu Hsi Chu Tzu yülei alone. This isunique. The work covers the entire Chin-ssu lu. The compiler made no comment of his own. The manuscript isin Mukyū Kai.52. Miscellaneous manuscripts. For about a hundred and fifty years, Japanese Confucianists,especially followers of Yamazaki Ansai, lectured on the Chinssu lu, sometimes on only a chapter or two butmore often on the entire work. Students would record these lectures. When more than one student recordedthem, there would be more than one version of the record. In some cases followers decades later copied thelectures to study or to preserve. The more important ones have been listed above. Others, however, are mereelaborations which do not contribute anything significant. The following manuscripts belong to this category.In most cases, information on the lecturers or recorders is lacking. Unless otherwise indicated, the manuscriptsare all in Mukyū Kai. A. Ono Michihiro ( 1701-70). Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained), in14 chapters. No date. Another copy, dated 1764, covers only the chapter headings and chapter 2.
B. Taira Tsunenaga. Kinshi roku jushimoku kōgi (Meanings of the fourteen headings of the Reflections onThings at Hand explained). 1736. C. Naoshi Kōki, et al. Kinshi roku sakki (Notes on the Reflections on Things at Hand). 1765 On the preface,chapter headings, and chapter 1. ____________________ 124. See above, # 14. -354D. Ui Mokusai ( 1725-81). Kinshi roku kōgi (The Reflections on Things at Hand orally explained). 1781. Onchapters 1 and 3. Another manuscript, entitled Kinshi roku hikki (Notes on the Reflections on Things atHand), is undated and is on chapter I only. Still another manuscript, entitled Kinshi roku kōgi hikki(Lecture notes on the Reflections on Things at Hand), also undated, covers chapters 1-7. Mokusai was apupil of Kume Teisai ( 16991784). E. Koide Koretomo. Kinshi roku kaidoku hikki (Notes on the joint reading of the Reflections on Things atHand). Undated. Koide was Kume Teisai's pupil. F. Kunugihara Sessai (d. 1800). Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained),also entitled Kinshi roku shisetsu (Our teacher's [ Kume Teisai] explanations of the Reflections on Things atHand), in 14 chapters. No date. G. Yano Sentoku. Kinshi roku kokuji kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained inJapanese). 1788. A printed copy. On chapter I only. H. Nishiyori Bokusan ( 1741-98). Kinshi roku dōtai hikki (Notes on lectures on chapter 1 of the Reflections onThings at Hand). 1776. I. Hinohara Tansai. Kinshi roku hikki (Notes on the Reflections on Things at Hand). 1817. The notes go onlyas far as 2:89.
J. Anonymous. Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained). 1838. K. Ochiai Tōtei ( 1749-1841). Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained), in24 chapters. No date. Another copy, dated 1845, is on chapter 1 alone. L. Mimaki Sekiho ( 1773-1833). Kinshi roku kōgi(Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained).Undated. On chapter 2 up to see. 30. M. Chiba Jūsai. Kinshi roku kōgi (The Reflections on Things at Hand orally explained), in 14 chapters. 1845.On chapters 3-9 and 13. N. Kawashima Rissai. Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained). Undated,but prior to 1849. On the headings and chapter 1. O. Kondō and Iimajima. Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand explained), in twochapters. Simplest explanations of terms and a very small amount of discussion on chapters 8 and 9, recorded bytheir pupil, Mori Tatsu. There is -355-
nothing original. The manuscript, dated 1872, is preserved in the Keio University Library, Tokyo. Gikō et al. Kinshi roku rinkō sakki (Notes on a lecture series on the Reflections on Things at Hand). Nodate. Anonymous. Kinshi roku chihō kōgi (Meanings of chapter 9 of the Reflections on Things at Handexplained). No date. ----- Kinshi roku dōtai kōjo kōgi hikki (Lecture notes on chapter 1 and the postscript of the Reflections onThings at Hand). No date. 53. Works no longer available. Inoue has listed ( Kinshi roku, pp. 10-11) Ōtakasaka Shizan (1647-1713), Kinshiroku seigi (Correct meanings of the
Reflections on Things at Hand), eight chapters; Ogyū Kinkoku ( 170376),Kinshi roku kō (Investigation of the Reflections on Things at Hand), one chapter; Nakai Riken ( 1732-1817),Kinshi roku monsho (Recorded notes on the Reflections on Things at Hand), three chapters; Sakurada Saibi (17971876), Kinshi roku zakkai (Miscellaneous commentaries on the Reflections on Things at Hand), fivechapters; Ōno Chikuzui (fl. 1832), Kinshi roku keimō (Introduction to the Reflections on Things at Hand); andMishima Michitsune ( 1835-88), Kinshi roku kai (The Reflections on Things at Hand explained). Inoue hasgiven no further information on these works nor indication of having consulted them. None of thecommentators on or translators of the Chin-ssu lu has referred to any of them except, in some cases, byrepeating the titles. An extensive search for them in Japan has failed to locate them. 54. Naitō Chisō ( 1826-1902). Kinshi roku kōgi (Meanings of the Reflections on Things at Hand discussed), in14 chapters, Shina bungaku zensho (Complete works of Chinese literature), vol. 16, Tokyo, 1893. Explanation of the ideas rather than the textual meanings in classical Japanese without annotation orquotations. Professor Simada Kenji of Jinbum Kagaku Kenkyūsho, Kyoto, kindly lent me his copy. 55. Inoue Tetusjirō, ed. Kinshi roku, in 14 chapters. The Chin-ssu lu with Yeh Ts'ai's commentary. There is a short introduction on the authors and contents of theChin-ssu lu and a long list of Chinese and Japanese commentaries, with all Korean commentaries and someChinese and Japanese commentaries missing. Names -356are briefly identified and terms are succinctly defined. Yeh Ts'ai's commentary has here and there beensupplemented with quotations from Kaibara Ekken, Satō Issai,125. and others, or with Inoue's own remarks. The edition of the Kambun taikei (Great series of Chinese works) of 1916 has been used.
56. Higashi Masatsumi ( 1832-91). "Kinshi roku sankō" (An investigation on the Reflections on Things atHand), in two parts, in Omodaka Sensei zenshū (Complete works of Master Higashi Masatsumi), 1919, pp.687-818. Philosophical comments on about four fifths of the sections. Besides his own excellent comments, he quotesfrom many outstanding Sung and Ming NeoConfucianists, especially Wang Yang-ming, as well as from someChinese and Japanese commentators, not including Yeh Ts'ai. There are also some textual comments. 57. Katō Jōken, tr. Gendai goyaku kinshi roku (The Reflections on Things at Hand rendered intocontemporary spoken Japanese), in 14 chapters. Tokyo, 1924. The complete Chin-ssu lu in spoken Japanese without the Chinese text or explanatory notes. The text used fortranslation is Chiang Yung's Chin-ssu lu chi-chu of 1896. Following Chiang Yung, the chapter headings are ChuHsi's descriptions. The rendering is by and large reliable. 58. Hayashi Taisuke ( 1839-1916), tr. Kinshi roku, in 14 chapters. Tokyo, 1925. Chinese text with translation in colloquial Japanese. There are very few notes. The work is without specialmerit. 59. Iijima Tadao, tr. Gendai goyaku kinshi roku (The Reflections on Things at Hand rendered intocontemporary spoken Japanese), in 15 chapters. Tokyo, 1935. The 1939 edition has been used. Chapter 1 is an introduction. Chapters 2-14 are the 14 chapters of the Chinssu lu in spoken Japanese withoutthe Chinese text or notes. The eighth and ninth chapters of the Chin-ssu lu are combined into one chapter.About a fourth of the 622 sections is omitted. At the end of each section, the translator makes a generalcomment on its significance. Many mistakes have been made in the translation. ____________________ 125.
See above, # 26 and 44. -35760. Akitzuki Kazutzugu, tr. Kinshi roku, in 14 chapters. Tokyo, 1940. The Chinese text of each section isfollowed by its rendering into spoken Japanese, with notes explaining certain terms. Yeh Ts'ai's chapterheadings are used. The translation is generally correct. 61. Yamazaki Michio, Kinshi roku kōhon shakugi (Meanings of the text of the Reflections on Things at Handexplained), chapter 2. Tokyo, 1959. Annotation and explanation of chapter 2 of the Chin-ssu lu chiefly through quotations from Chiang Yung, SatōNaokata, Miyake Shōsai, and Ono Michihiro.126. Annotations and explanations of other chapters are to follow.We hope the excellent work will continue. 62. ----- Kinshi roku kenkyū: josetsu (Studies on the Reflections on Things at Hand: Introduction).Mimeographed, Tokyo, 1960. A reproduction of Wakabayashi Kansai Kinshi roku kōgi: jushimuku127. and a complete and full annotation ofit. At the end of each of the 14 sections, Yamazaki has added his own lengthy comments elaborating on thethemes. There are also biographies and accounts of the doctrines of Satō Naokata, Asami Keisai, and MiyakeShōsai,128. who represent the three branches of the Yamazaki Ansai school. This is an important contribution.(See above, p. xxxvi.)
WESTERN TRANSLATION There has been only one translation of the Chin-ssu lu into any Western language, and only one of itscommentaries has been translated. 63. Olaf Graf, O. S.B., tr. Dschu Hsi, Djin sï lu, die sungkonfuzianische Summa mit dem Kommentar des YäTsai. 3 vols. Mimeographed, Tokyo, Sophia University, 1953.
German translations of the Chin-ssu lu and Yeh Ts'ai's commentary129. in one volume in two parts, preceded bya volume of introduction on the text and doctrines of the Chin-ssu lu, its position in Neo-Confucianism, and itscomparison with Buddhism, Taoism, and Western philosophy, all of which are instructive and stimulating, andfollowed by a volume of numerous and helpful notes to the translation. ____________________ 126. See above, # 14, 29, 32, and 52a. 127. See above, # 33. 128. See above, # 29, 30, and 31. 129. See above, # 3. -358-
