IDB 225 Morphology I Dr. Aygül UÇAR
22 December 2011 Asst. Prof.
Practice Exercises in Morphology 1) Morphemes A single word may be composed of one or more morphemes. Say how many morphemes are there in the following words.
1. boy 1. boy 1
6. desirability
3
2. desire
1
7. gentlemanliness
4
3. boyish 3. boyish
2
8. undesirability undesirabili ty
4
4. desirable
2
9. ungentlemanliness ungentlemanlines s
5
5. boyishness 5. boyishness
3
10. antidisestablishmentarianism antidisestabli shmentarianism
7
2) Free and Bound Morphemes List the morphemes in each word below, and state whether each morpheme is free (F) or bound (B).
1. creating 2. seaward 3. wastage 4. incomplete 5. modernize
{create} (F) + {ing} (B) {un} (B) + {health} (F) + {y} (B) 6. unhealthy {sea} (F) + {ward} (F) 7. waiter {wait} (F) + {er} (B) {waste} (F) + {age} (B) {re} (B) + {consider} (F) 8. reconsider {in} (B) + {complete} (F) {key} (F) + {s} (B) 9. keys {modern} (F) {ize} (B) { er} (B) 10. astronomer {astro} (B) + {nomy} (B) + {er}
3) Derivational and Inflectional Affixes For each word below, indicate whether the word is morphologically simple (S), includes an inflectional inflectional affix (I), or includes a derivational affix (D).
1. rider 2. colder 3. silver 4. lens S 5. legs I
D I S
6. reader 7. redder 8. radish D 9. redness D 10. rotation
D I S
4) Stems and Affixes Separate the affixes from the stems in the following words:
1. train/s
4. predetermine predetermine/ ed
2. succeed /ed
5. retroactive 1
7. instructional instructional
3. light/er
6. confusion/s
5) Word Trees For each word below, draw a word tree. Then state whether it has inflectional affixes, derivational affixes, or both.
1. shipper 2. disobey 3. resettled 4. anticlimaxes 5. unemployment 6. bookworm 6. bookworm
7. simply 8. jumping 9. digitizes 10. activated 11. confrontational confrontati onal 12. tax collector collector
6) Compound / Affixes Study the following passage and then answer the questions below. Take your examples from the passage.
The dogs swam ahead, fatuously important; the foals, nodding solemnly, swayed along behind up to their necks: sunlight sparkled on the calm water, which further downstream where the river narrowed broke into furious little waves, swirling and eddying close inshore against black rocks, giving an effect of wildness, almost of rapids; low over their heads an ecstatic lightning of strange birds manoeuvred, looping-the-loop and immelmanning at unbelievable speed, aerobatic as new-born dragonflies. The opposite shore was thickly wooded. (Malcom Lowry, Under the Volcano) Volcano) (immelmanning – – (n) (n) an aircraft manoeuvre used to gain height while reversing the direction of flight. It consists of a halfloop followed by a half roll.)
(a) Identify 3 compound words. For each one, name the grammatical category of the compound, and the grammatical category of the elements that compose it. (Example: watertight is an adjective, made up of noun + adjective.) adjective.) sunlight (N+N); downstream (P+N); newborn (A+A); dragonfly (N+N) (b) Divide the following words into their component morphemes, labeling each morpheme F (free), I (inflectional), (inflectional), or D (derivational): unbelievable un (D) + believe (F) + able (D)
dragonflies dragon (F) + fly (F) + es (I)
(c) What is the function of the suffix – suffix – ly ly in the words fatuously, solemnly, and thickly? To make adverb (d) Identify two other words containing (different) derivational suffixes, name the grammatical category of the stem to which the suffix is attached, and the grammatical category of the derived word. s in foals foals and waves, waves, and that of the suffix-ed (e) Describe the function of the suffix – suffix- ed in swayed and sparkled . 2
-s : plural marker -ed: past tense marker (f) Comment on the past tense forms swam and broke. Internal change
7) Compounds Compounds are often frequent in modern technical areas where new vocabulary is being created. Find the compounds in the following passage: Free Talker Nokia 610 Car Kit The (cell phone)stays by your side -- instead of your ear -- with Nokia's ((hands-free)(Bluetooth system)). An unobtrusive dash-mounted screen provides the same information as your cell-phone display, and you can effortlessly (download)(contact info)from your phone. A small ((console-mounted) (control unit))with three intuitive buttons and a dial is but one way to manage calls and messages, which sound off through your car's speakers: Choose to use Nokia's decent ( voice-recognition (software)) and neither hand has to leave the wheel. $300; www.nokia.com . CNN Business (http://www.business2.com/b2/web/articles/0,17863,695018,00.html)
8) Morphological Analysis Esperanto Esperanto is an artificial language that was invented by Ludwig Zamenhof in 1887. It was designed to be easy to learn and is based largely on the languages of western Europe. It is now primarily spoken in France, although it may also be found in eastern Asia, South America and eastern Europe. There are now between 200-2,000 native speakers and about 2,000,000 people worldwide speak it as a second language. Examine the following data from Esperanto and then answer the questions below:
1. bono „goodness‟ 2. instrua „instructive‟ 3. malfacila „difficult‟ 4. patrino „mother‟ 5. instruisto „teacher‟ 6. porti „to carry‟ 7. facila „easy‟ 8. patro „father‟ 9. portisto „porter‟ 10. instrui „to instruct‟
11. portistino „female porter‟ 12. pura „pure‟ 13. malbone „badly‟ 14. facile „easily‟ 15. bona „good‟ 16. malgranda „small‟ 17. bone „well‟ 18. facilo „easiness‟ 19. granda „big‟ 20. instruo „instruction‟
A. What are the morphemes that correspond to the following lexical categories and concepts? {-o} {-e} i. Nouns iv. Adverbs {-ino} ii. Verbs {-i}(infinitive) v. Feminine iii. Adjectives {-a} vi. The opposite (not…) {mal} B. Translate the following English words and phrases into Esperanto. puro i. “purity” ii. “bad”
malbona 3
iii. “female teacher”
intruistino
4
5
9) Word-formation processes This task is all about reconstructing the word-formation 'stories' of the lexemes in bold print. Identify for each of the stories in (1 a-g) the corresponding sequence of word-formation processes from the set in ( 1 A-G). C (1) a. rap music > rap > to rap > rapper D b. rehabilitation > rehab > to rehab c. vacuum cleaner > to vacuum-clean > to vacuum F A d. campaign > to campaign > campaigner G e. tailor-fit > to tailor-fit E f. breathalyser> to breathalyse B g. brunch> to brunch
(1) A. conversion – derivation B. blend – conversion C. compounding – clipping – conversion – derivation D. derivation – clipping – conversion E. blend – back-formation F. compounding – back-formation – clipping G. compounding – conversion
10) Word-formation processes The words in column 2 have been created from the corresponding word in column 1. Indicate the word formation process responsible for the creation of each word in column 2. Column 1
Column 2
Word Formation Process
1
automation
automate
backformation
2
humid
humidifier
affixation
3
stagnation, inflation
stagflation
blending
4
love, seat
loveseat
compounding
5
énvelope
envélope
conversion (with stress)
6
typographical error
typo
clipping
7
aerobics, marathon
aerobathion
blending
8
act
deactivate
affixation
9
curve, ball
curve ball
compounding
10
perambulator
pram
clipping
11
(a) comb
comb (your hair)
conversion (no stress)
12
beef, buffalo
beefalo
blending
13
random access memory
RAM
acronym
14
megabyte
meg
clipping
15
teleprinter, exchange
telex
blending
6
11. Minor Processes of Word Formation
1. Identify the process of word formation responsible for each of the following words. Try to determine the process before you consult a dictionary, though it may be necessary for you to do so. (a)
curio
clipping > curio(sity)
(b)
(to) laze
backformation > lazy
(c)
(to) network
conversionN > V
(d)
(to) cohere
backformation> coherence
(e)
(a) sitcom
clipping> situation comedy
(f)
(the) muppets
blending> marionette puppets
(g)
what-not
phrasalcompound
(h)
margarine
clipping> (oleo)margarine
(i)
dystopia
false morphological division : dis+utopia> u/topia
(j)
serendipity
literarycoinage
(k)
diesel
communization/ coinage >Rudolp Diesel
(l)
(a) ha-ha
reduplication
(m)
(to) make up
phrasalverb
(n) (o)
(to) total (the) hereafter
conversion compounding, conversion >Prt + Prt> N
(p)
amphetamine
acronym
(q)
(a) construct
conversion V> N
(r)
(the) chunnel
blending ch(annel) + (t)unnell
(s).....guesstimate
blending >gu(ess) + estimate or guess + (es)timate
(t)
canary
communization / coinage > Canary Islands
(u)
brain-gain
reduplication
(v)
boojum
(w)
gaffe-slack
(x)
psycho
(y)
walkie-talkie
root creation (used by physicist N. David Mermin following creation by Lewis Carroll
reduplication clipping>psycho(path) reduplication, diminutive, conversion (z)
bonfire
compound
Boojum is a geometric pattern on the surface of one of the phases of superfluid helium-3.
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2. The words in column A have been created from the corresponding words in column B. Indicate the word formation process responsible for the creation of each word in column A. Column A
Column B
(a) (b)
stagflation nostril
blending stagnation + inflation nosu + thyrl 'hole' (in Old English) compound
(c)
bookie
(d)
van
(e)
Amerindian
(f)
CD
(g)
RAM
random access memory
acronym
(h)
televise
television
backformation
(i)
xerox
xeroxography
clipping, coinage
(j)
telathon
television + marathon
blending, false morphological analysis
(k)
sci-fi
science fiction
clipping
(l)
elect
election
backformation
(m)
deli
delicatessen
(n)
scuba
(o)
scavenge scavenger hazardous material
bookmaker
clipping, diminutive
caravan
clipping
American Indian
blending
compact disc
initialism
clipping, false morphological analysis (delicat+essen)
self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
acronym backformation (p)
hazmat
clipping
12. Inflectional Affixes
For each of the bold words in the passage from Wallace Stegner's "The Dump Ground" below, label the inflectional suffix: pres = present tense compr = comparative degree past = past tense supl = superlative degree prsprt = present participle poss
= possessive case
pstprt = past participle
= plural number
pl
The place fascinated us, as it should (past) have. For this was the kitchen midden of all the civilization we knew. It gave us the most (supl) tantalizing glimpses into our neighbors' (pl, poss) lives and our own; it provided an aesthetic distance from which to know ourselves (pl). The town dump was our poetry and our history. We took (past) it home with us by the wagonload, bringing (prsprt) back into town the things the town had used (pstprt) and thrown away. Some little part of what we gathered (past), mainly bottles, we managed to bring back to usefulness, but most of our gleanings we left lying (prsprt) around barn or attic or cellar until in some renewed (pstprt) fury of spring cleanup our families (pl) carted them off to the dump again, to be rescued and briefly treasured by some other boy. Occasionally
something we really valued with a passion was snatched from us in horror and returned (pstprt) at once. That happened to the mounted head of a white mountain goat, somebody's(poss) trophy from old times and the far Rocky Mountains, that I brought (past) home one day. My mother took one look and discovered that his beard was full of moths. 8
I remember (pres) that goat; I regret him yet. Poetry is seldom useful, but always memorable. If I were a sociologist anxious to study in detail the life of any community I would (past) go very early to its (poss) refuse piles. For a community may be as well judged (pstprt) by what it throws away - what it has to throw away and what it chooses (pres) to - as by any other evidence. For whole civilizations we sometimes have nomore (compr) of the poetry and little more of the history than this (from Wolf Willow 1955: 35-36). 13. Writing Morphemic Rules
1. Examine the following past tense forms in English: hated
pulled
roared
walked
raided
opened
hugged
pushed
faded
groomed
robbed
missed
fitted
mowed
bruised
hoped
mated
cried
loaded
paid
loved judged
fetched
laughed
(a)
Determine the allomorphs of this inflectional suffix.[əd], [d], [t]
(b)
Determine the conditioning environments for each of the allomorphs. The [əd] allomorph follows roots ending in [t] or [d]; The [d] allomorph follows roots ending in voiceless obstruents; The [t] allomorph follows roots ending in voiced stops and fricatives, liquids, nasals and vowels.
(c)
Decide on the underlying (or "elsewhere") form of this morpheme from which the other allomorphs are derived. For what reasons did you choose this particular form as the base? The underlying elsewhere form is likely to be [d] since it is found after the greatest variety of sounds. In addition, it is easy to derive the other allomorphs from it by natural phonological processes: schwa insertion to break up a cluster of two alveolar stops will yield [əd] and voice assimilation will yield [t].
(d)
Write a morphemic rule. {past} [əd] / after alveolar stops
(e) sang
[t]
/ after voiceless consonants
[d]
/ elsewhere
Consider the following past tense forms. How are they conditioned? How are they realized? bought fought
cut put
went
rang
were
9
They are grammatically conditioned. Some are realized by a vowel change (sing / sang; ring / rang), some by a vowel change plus an inflectional ending (bring / brought; fight / fought), some by a zero morph (cut / cut; put / put) and some by a different form (supletion – gor / went; be / was, were).
(f)
How do you account for the following variants: learned/learnt, dreamed/dreamt, burned/burnt ? These forms are in free variation.
2. Consider the following words: illegal
ineligible
irrelevant
intolerant
impossible
insecure
impatient
(a)
inactive
imbalance
indeterminate
immature
illogical
irregular
infamous
imbalance
injury
ingrate
immoral
injudicious incongruous
Determine the allomorphs of this derivational prefix. The allomorphs appear to be il-, ir-, im- and i n- . Note, however, that il - and ir - are both pronounced [ı], im - is pronounced [ım], in- is pronounced [ın] (in intolerant , insecure , , etc.) but [ıŋ] in ingrate and incongruous . infamous
(b)
Determine the conditioning factors for each of the allomorphs. The [ı] allomorph is conditioned by a following liquid (as initial sound of the root), the [ım] allomorph by a following bilabial, the [ıŋ] by a following velar stop, and [ın] by a following vowel, or labiodental, alveolar, or alveopalatal consonants.
(c)
Decide on the underlying (or "elsewhere") form of this morpheme from which the other allomorphs are derived. Justify the base form. [ın] appears to be the underlying form since it is found in the greatest variety of environments and is the form from which the other forms can be derived most easily: [ım] and [ıŋ] by assimilation in place of articulation to the place of the following sound (with no change in manner of articulation), and [ı] by loss of the nasal.
(d)
Write a morphemic rule. {IN} [ı] / before liquids
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[ım] / before labials [ıŋ] / before velars [ın] / elsewhere
(e)
State the meaning of the morpheme. The meaning is „not‟
(f)
Why are the forms ignoble and ignominious, which presumably contain the same prefix, a problem? Try to account for this problem. (Hint: Look up the etymologies of these words.) The word ignoble comes from Latin gnōbilis „noble‟ (which later lost its initial consonants to give nōbilis, hence noble ). When in- was combined with gnobilis, the first n dropped out, giving English ignoble. The g is thus part of the root, not part of the prefix. The word ignominious comes from Latin nōmen„name‟; it acquired a g by mistaken analogy with gnōsco, a process called “contamination”.
3. Consider the following words: collect
cohabit
collide
correct
coalesce
corrode
connect
collate
confess
11
commute
commend
cohere
combat
contend
coexist
compute
consent
coincide
compare
(a)
condemn
Determine the allomorphs of this derivational prefix. The orthography is a bit misleading. The allomorphs seem to be col -, cor -, con -, co - and com -. However, the phonological forms are actually [k ǝ ], [k ǝ n], [koʊ ] and [k ǝ m] since the [l] in -, the [r] in cor -, the [n] in con - before alveolar nasal, and the [m] in com - before the bilabial col nasal is actually part of the root.
(b)
Write a morphemic rule, specifying the underlying form, allomorphs, and conditioning environments. {CON} [k ǝ ] / before liquids and nasals [k ǝ n] / before dentals (alveolars and labiodentals) [k ǝ m] / before bilabial stops [koʊ ] / before vowels and [h] It is rather difficult to know which is the “elsewhere” form in this case. Historically, the com- [kom] form is original. If it is considered the underlying form, the [k ǝ n] form is derived by assimilation in place of articulation to the following stop with vowel reduction, the [k ǝ ] form by reduction of the vowel and loss of the [m] before liquids and nasals, and the [koʊ ] form by loss of the [m] and vowel shift.
(c)
State the meaning of the morpheme, if possible.
The meaning is either associative „with, together‟ as in compare , cohabit , coexist , collect etc. or intensive „completely‟ as in correct , contend , corrode etc.
4. Consider the following pairs of words: sign
signature
design
designation
resign
resignation 12
(a)
What is the root allomorphy exhibited by all of the forms? In all of the words, the final syllable in the unsuffixed form is [aın] and the same syllable in the suffixed form [ıgn].
(b)
Write a morphemic rule for the first set of words. {SIGN}
[sıgn] / - derivational suffix [saın] / elsewhere
14. Derivational Prefixes and Suffixes
1. Sort the prefixes in the words below into the following seven categories according to meaning: a.
Time
b.
Number
c.
Place
d.
Degree
e.
Privative
f.
Negative, and
g.
Size
Each category has two prefixes. After you have classified the prefixes, use a dictionary to identify whether the prefix is native English, Latin, or Greek in origin. postdate
maladjusted
macrocosm
forewarn
bifocal
outdoor
hyperactivity
demilitarize
megawatt
defrost
polyglot
nonentity
disclose
foreshadow
macroeconomics malpractice
polygon
bisexual
postelection
subway
disarm
megalosaur
nonsmoker outhouse
ultraconservative hyperthyroidism subfloor
a) Time foreshadow
ultraviolet
post- postdate, postelection
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fore-
forewarn,
b) Number
-
bipoly-
bifocal, bisexual polyglot, polygon
c) Place
-
outsub-
outdoor, outhouse subway, subfloor
d) Degree
-
hyperultra-
hyperactivity, hyperthyroidism ultraviolet, ultraconservative
e) Privative
-
dedis-
demilitarize, defrost disclose, disarm
f) Negative
-
nonmal-
nonentity, nonsmoker maladjusted, malpractice
g) Size
-
megamacro-
megawatt, megalosour macrocosm, macroeconomics
English: fore-, outLatin: post-, bi-, sub-, ultra-, de-, dis-, non-, malGreek: poly-, hyper-, mega-, macro-
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2. Sort the suffixes in the words below according to their class-changing function. The categories include the following: a) N > N -dom kingdom, stardom -ster gangster, mobster -(ic)ian politician, rhetorician b) V > N -al -ant -ure
refusal, trial inhabitant, participant seizure, closure
c) A > N -th -ism -hood
warmth, width conservatism, idealism falsehood, likelihood
d) N/A > V -en -ate
broaden, straighten facilitate, vaccinate
e) N > A -ic -less -ish
historic, syntactic friendless, penniless selfish, boyish
f)
V>A -ory -less
advisory, contradictory tireless, thankless
g) N/A >Adv -wise stepwise, clockwise -fold twofold, manifold (There are two examples of each suffix.) broaden participant
syntactic falsehood
width closure
idealism straighten
rhetorician
clockwise
refusal
vaccinate
gangster
stardom
warmth
tireless
twofold
trial
accidental
selfish
advisory
likelihood
friendless
politician
conservatism
mobster
kingdom
facilitate
inhabitant
contradictory
boyish
seizure
manifold
stepwise
thankless
global
historic
penniless
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3. (a) Can you think of a reason why -en may attach to some adjectives, but not to others, as shown below? blacken broaden stiffen ripen deafen
tighten
soften
loosen
*thinen
*longen
*slimen
*nearen
*slowen
*narrowen
*highen
*holyen
*noblen
The reason here is phonological: -en may attach only to monosyllabic adjectives ending in obstruents (stops & fricatives) not to those ending in vowels, nasals or liquids.
(b) Can you think of a reason why -ed may attach to some nouns, but not to others, as shown below? brown-haired
kind-hearted
low-spirited
left-handed
narrow-minded
strong-headed
*brown-coated
*heavy-pursed
*long-skirted
*one-childed
*two-catted
*silly-hatted
The reason here is semantic: -en may attach only to adjectives denoting inalienable possession (things that are possessed intrinsically) and not to those denoting alienable possession (things that may
be separated from the possesor). 4. Which is the proper derivation of unknowledgeable? Explain.
(a)
(b)
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(c)
(a) is incorrect. Un- does not attach to nouns; it produces the nonword of English *unknowledge.
(b) is correct. Every stage in the derivation produces a word of English.
(c) is incorrect. Because while un- does attach to verbs, this also produces the nonword of English *unknowledge.
15. Compounding
1. Identify the syntactic pattern in each of the following compounds and express it in a lexical rule. Example: gravedigger N + V + -er> N
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(a)
hovercraft
V+N > N
(b)
dairyman
N+N > N
(c)
bath-towel
N+N >N
(d)
goldfish
N +N > N
(e)
inroads
Prt + N + -s > N
(f)
bystander
Prt + V + er > N
(g)
setback
V + Prt > N (conversion)
(h)
meltdown
V + Prt > N (conversion)
(i)
blackout
V + Prt > N (conversion)
(j)
stand-in
V + Prt > N (conversion)
(k)
turnout
V + Prt > N (conversion)
(l)
money-hungry
N+A>A
(m) dugout
V + en + Prt > N (conversion)
(n)
hardhearted
A + N + ed > A
(o)
homesick
N+A>A
(p)
proofread
N+V>V
(q)
overqualified
Prt + V + en > V / A
(r)
overachieve
Prt + V + > V
(s)
badmouth
A + N > V (conversion)
(t)
redhead
A +N > N
(u)
birth control
N+N/V>N/V
(v)
breakfast
V+N>N
(w)
thoroughgoing
A + V + ing > A
(x)
quick-change
A + V > A (conversion)
(y)
lukewarm
A+A>A
(z)
law-abiding
N + V + ing > A
(aa) far-reaching
A + V + ing > A
(bb) homemade
N + V + en > A
(cc) clean-cut
A + V + en > A
(dd) fighter-bomber
V + er + V + er > N
(ee) earthenware
N + en + N > N
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(ff) driver's seat
V + er + „s + N > N
(gg) baking powder
V + ing + N > N
(hh) drip-coffee
V+N>N
(ii)
wisecrack
A+V>V+N
(jj)
snowplow
N+V/N>V/N
2. The following words are compounds which also include derivational affixes. Analyze the words, identifying the roots and their parts of speech, as well all the affixes and their function as nominalizer, verbalizer, adjectivalizer, or adverbializer. Example: housekeeper - verb) + -er (nominalizer) (a)
house (root - noun) + keep (root
flightworthiness flight (root-noun) + worth (root-noun) + -y (adjectivalizer) + -ness (nominalizer)
(b)
chatterbox chat (root-verb) + -er (nominalizer) + box (root-noun)
(c)
owner-occupied own (root-verb) + -er (nominalizer) + occupy (root-verb) + -en (past participle / adjectivalizer
(d)
freedom-loving free (root-adjective) + -dom (nominalizer) + love (root-verb) + -ing (present participle / adjectivalizer
(e)
handicraft hand (root-noun) + -y (adjectivalizer) + craft (root+noun)
(f)
broken-hearted break (root-verb) + -en (past participle / adjectivalizer) + heart (root-noun) + -ed ( adjectivalizer)
(g)
safety-tested safe (root-adjective) + ty (nominalizer) + test (root-verb) +-ed (past participle / adjectivalizer)
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(h)
worldly-wise world (root-noun) + -ly (adjectivalizer) + wise (root-adjective)
(i)
(j)
antiaircraft anti (prefix) + air (root-noun) + craft (root-noun) machine-readable machine (root-noun) + read (root-verb) able (suffix- adjectivalizer)
(k)
chartered accountant charter (root-noun) + -ed (suffixadjectivalizer) + account (root-verb + -ant) + suffic+ noinalizer)
3.
(a)
Look at the following set of words naming berries. The second half of each is the recognizable root berry. Can you analyze these as compounds?
blueberry strawberry
blackberry raspberry
cranberry
marianberry
loganberry
Does a more recent formation such as cranapple provide evidence for or against these forms as compounds? , blackberry : the first parts of these compounds are clearly the morphemes {BLUE} Blueberry and {BLACK }. : the first part of this compound is straw, but it is uncertain whether this is the Strawberry morpheme {STRAW}; the form apparently does not have its usual meaning here. : the first part of this compound is rasp , which is not a recognizable morpheme of Raspberry English (it is not the verb rasp „to scrap‟, which is pronounced [ræsp], not [ræz]). : the first part of this compound is cran , which is also not a clearly recognizable Cranberry morpheme of English. , marianberry : the first parts of these compounds appear to be brand names. Loganberry (There are various theories to account for the meaning of straw in strawberry, that it, for example, refers to the yellow flecks on strawberries, or to the use of straw in strawberry fields. Also, cran is sometimes related to crane ; either the birds are thought to eat cranberries or the blossoms resemble the heads of cranes.) If we treat forms such as raspberry and cranberry as true compounds analogous to blueberry and blackberry, then rasp and cran exist in only one word and are semantically rather opaque.
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Recent formations such as cranapple suggest that cran is becoming a recognizable morpheme, though it might be better to analyze such forms as blends since it still lacks an identifiable meaning.
(b) A problem of morphological analysis arises for forms such as the following: fish-monger broadcaster gossip-monger sportscaster scandal-monger
newscaster
ironmonger war-monger Are these forms compounds? Although historically monger is an independent form (deriving from Latin mangō „to peddle, deal‟), it rarely occurs independently today. Therefore, would we be better to consider it a bound form, a suffix? The form caster never occurs independently. It appears that sportscaster and newscaster are blends based on broadcaster.
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