Complete Grammar for First Certificate in English.pdf

Complete Grammar For First Certificate in English

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A Publication by Andrea V. @ Palaber

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TABLE OF CONTENTS: The Present Tenses…………………..…..…..….……..4 Tenses…………………..…..…..….……..4 The Past Tenses…………………………..…….….……23 Tenses…………………………..…….….……23 The Future Tenses……………………………………...37 Tenses……………………………………...37 The Conditional Sentences………………….…...... Sentences ………………….…...... 49 The Passive Sentences……….………………..….....69 Sentences……….………………..….....69 Gerund or Infinit Infinitive? ive? ……….……….………..……….84 Modal Verbs ……….………………..…………….….....97 Reported Speech ……….…………….……………….113 Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs ………….……….124 The Sentence Structure ……….…………………….156 Irregular Verbs ……….…………………………..…….179 Spelling ……….……………………………………….....184 Pronouns and Determiners ……….…….………….194 Prepositions ……….……………………………...…….214 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS: The Present Tenses…………………..…..…..….……..4 Tenses…………………..…..…..….……..4 The Past Tenses…………………………..…….….……23 Tenses…………………………..…….….……23 The Future Tenses……………………………………...37 Tenses……………………………………...37 The Conditional Sentences………………….…...... Sentences ………………….…...... 49 The Passive Sentences……….………………..….....69 Sentences……….………………..….....69 Gerund or Infinit Infinitive? ive? ……….……….………..……….84 Modal Verbs ……….………………..…………….….....97 Reported Speech ……….…………….……………….113 Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs ………….……….124 The Sentence Structure ……….…………………….156 Irregular Verbs ……….…………………………..…….179 Spelling ……….……………………………………….....184 Pronouns and Determiners ……….…….………….194 Prepositions ……….……………………………...…….214 3

The Present Tenses Speaking about the present

Do you know how many present tenses exist in the English language?

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Complete Grammar for FCE

The Present Simple 1. Permanent Truths and facts We use the present simple to talk about permanent truths and facts facts..

For example: Water boils at at 100 degrees. Cats have four four legs. The sun rises on the east 2. Situations in the present We use the present simple to talk about situations in the present. For example:

I work in in a bank. Peter lives in in London. She likes cats. cats. 5


3. Regular, repeated activity We use the present simple to talk about a regular, repeated activity. For example: I get up at 7am. She works from 9am to 5pm. We use adverbs to say how often we do things:

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbial phrases of frequency

always usually normally / generally often / frequently sometimes / occasionally seldom hardly ever/rarely never

on Mondays every day once a month twice a week every year in the afternoons at nights

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4. Referring to the future We use the present simple to refer to the future , especially to talk about timetables. For example: The plane arrives at 10 am. The concert starts at 9pm. The bus leaves at 4.15pm. 5. Clauses of time and condition We use the present simple in clauses of time and conditions referring to a point in the future. It is used after: when, if, unless, before, after, until, as soon as, whenever, etc . For example: I will give him the book when I see him. If it rains , we will say at home. As soon as we arrive home, I will make dinner.

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6. Observations and declarations We use the present simple to talk about observations and declarations. We use state verbs to express sentiments, states and thoughts (not activities). For example: I hope he arrives on time. Jonathan likes chocolate. I agree with you. 7. Instructions We can use the present simple to give instructions.

For example: You heat the oil and fry the meat. You turn left at the second street. You mix the flour with the sugar.

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8. Sports Commentaries, news headlines We use the present simple in sports commentaries and newspaper headlines. For example: Ronaldo passes the ball to Beckham. And Smith takes the ball and hands it to Frank. Ford dismisses 500 workers.

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The Present Continuous 1. Actions in progress We use the present continuous to talk about actions which are happening at the moment of speaking. For example: Peter is watching TV at the moment. We are cooking dinner in the kitchen. What is happening in the street 2. Temporary actions in the present We use the present continuous to talk about temporary actions or situations in the present period. We often use following adverbials: today, this week, this year, these days, etc to refer to a period around now.

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For example: I am working from home these days. (but normally I work in the office) These days Peter is living in London. (but his home is in York) She is studying at university. (but she is not studying at this very moment) 3. Situations in the process of changing We use the present continuous to talk about situations which are changing. We often use the following verbs: get, become, change, rise, increase, grow, fall, improve, begin, start For example: The prices are rising . Is your English improving ? We are getting tired.

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4. Planned future actions We use the present continuous to refer to planned future actions , especially with verbs which express movement. For example: She is flying to New York on Wednesday. We are driving to France next week. Peter is travelling to the UK next month. 5. Repeated actions We use the present continuous to talk about repeated actions, especially if we are irritated or want to criticise. We often use: always, constantly, continually or never. For example: You are always talking on the phone! He is constantly inviting his friends to the pub. He is always coming late to work.

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The Present Perfect 1. Relationship between past and present We use the present perfect when: - there is a connection between the past and the present: I have read this book. (so I know it) we give new information: I have broken the vase. (so it is broken) to talk about things people have done or experienced and the exact time is not important and the action can be repeated: He has travelled to several countries. (not important when) 3. With adverbials We use the present perfect with adverbials which show a connection between the past and the present: already, yet, still, just, so far, up to now, ever, never, recently 13


For example: I have already finished the project. Peter has lived in London and New York so far. She has just completed her degree. Have you ever been to New York? I have never eaten a frog. 3. With time reference We use the present perfect to talk about a period of time which started in the past and continuing into the present (and perhaps beyond). We often use: today, this + morning/afternoon/week/year , etc. For example: I ’ve travelled a lot. (in my life and can do it again) I have taken two exams this week . (the week is not finished) She has written three emails this morning . (the morning is not finished)

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4. In clauses of time and condition We use the present perfect simple to refer to a future action which will be completed. For example: I will send you an email after I have finished my homework. Can you give me a ring when you have arrived to the hotel? Once you have found your passport, you can travel again. 5. With since, for, how long We use the present perfect simple to describe how long an activity is if the activity started in the past and continues to the present or into the future. We use: since, for and how long For example: I have lived in Beijing for 6 months. He has worked for Microsoft since 1996. How long have you had this car? 15


6. With superlatives We can use the present perfect simple with superlatives to say that something we experience is the best/worst, first, etc that has happened to us so far. For example: It’s the best cake I have ever eaten . It’s the most expensive holiday I have ever had . It’s the first time I have been here. 7. For or since? We use for to say how long an activity is (period of time). We use since to say when an activity started. For example: For = duration three months a day five years two hours a while some time

Since = point in time 1999 June last week Christmas I met you the first day 16


The Present Perfect Continuous 1. Use and meaning We use the present perfect continuous to talk about actions which started in the past and continue up to the present or beyond. The present perfect emphasizes the duration and continuity of the action. For example: She has been studying for three hours. I have been working as a teacher for over ten years.

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2.For and since We can use the present perfect continuous with for and since. For example: I have been learning English for two years . She has been wearing glasses since she was a child . Joe has been watching TV for hours . 3. Present perfect simple or continuous? Simple To focus on the result of an activity:

Continuous To focus on the activity:

•

•

I’ve read the book. (finished reading it)

I’ve been reading this book since the morning. (still reading it)

To focus on how many times an activity has happened:

•

She has worked for three companies.

She’s been working here for five years.

•

To focus on how long an activity is:

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State Verbs 1. General description Most verbs in English are dynamic. They can describe habits or actions in progress. Dynamic verbs have simple and continuous forms. For example: Habit: I often travel abroad. Action in progress: I am watching television at the moment. State has no beginning or end, they describe states, not actions. Some verbs are always stative: belong, want Some verbs can have state or dynamic uses: weigh/weighing 2. Feelings and perceptions Feelings: Like, love, prefer, hate, dislike, care, hope, admit Perception: Feel, hear, notice, see, smell, sound, taste 19


We normally use these verbs in the simple tenses: Do you see that woman in the park? I love cats. We often use can with see, hear , smell and taste: I can smell something (at the moment) Can you hear the music? 3. Wants Wants and needs: want, need, wish, depend on, weigh, come from, cost I wish you good luck. The room needs cleaning. She wants to sleep. 4. Existence and possession Existence: be, exist Possession: belong to, own, owe, have, possess Appearance: appear, seem, resemble, look She is tall. Who does this pen belong to ? It appears to be difficult. 20


5. Thinking and believing Knowledge: forget, realise, understand, know, remember Opinion: believe, doubt, imagine, suppose, think, expect, agree, mean, deserve If we want to say “have an opinion”, we can use think: I think he is a nice person. Other examples: She doesn’t understand your words. I know Peter well. I doubt he would like your idea.

6. Compositions and connections Compositions: consist of, contain, have Connection: come from, concern, cost, fit, suit The presentation consists of five parts. Maggie comes from Canada. My friend has a Ferrari.

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7. Change in meaning Some verbs can have a dynamic or state form with a change in meaning. I think you are right. holiday. (opinion)

I am thinking about my (consider)

I can see you. manager tomorrow. (see with my eyes)

I am seeing the bank

This cake tastes good. cake. (has a good taste)

I was just tasting the

You look good. (seem)

(meeting)

(testing) What are you looking at? (look with eyes)

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The Past Tenses Speaking about the past

VISUAL HERE

Do you know how many past tenses exist in the English language?

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The Past Simple 1. Completed past actions We use the past simple to talk about completed actions and events in the past which are not connected to the present. For example: We travelled to London by bus. Peter finished his studies last year. Jane bought some bread and then walked home. 2. Past habits We use the past simple to talk about habits or repeated actions in the past. For example: When I was young, I always spent the holidays with my grandparents. I went to work by bus when I worked in France. She went to lots of concerts. 24


3. Past situations at a concrete past time We use the past simple to talk about actions or events at a concrete past time or period of time. For example: I got up at 7am. She worked from 9am to 5pm. We met in 1995. 4. With for and ago We use the past simple to refer to completed action in the past with ago. We use for to express the duration of a past action. For example: The plane arrived 10 minutes ago . Joe lived in Peru 10 years ago . The journey lasted for two hours. I stayed in a hotel for five days. 25


5. With when We use the past simple to ask questions with when or what time. For example:

What time did you arrive home? When did you start working here? When did you meet your wife? 6. With adverbials We can use the past simple with adverbials which refer to the past. We use: last week/month/year yesterday, earlier today, this week a year/three days/ a few months ago at two o’clock, in 2003

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The Past Continuous 1. Actions in progress in the past We use the past continuous to talk about an action which was in progress in the past at a specified time. We often use all to emphasize continuity: all night, all day, al evening, etc. For example: We were watching movies all night . I was working all day. She was living in Paris in 1998. 2. Actions happening at the same time We use the past continuous to express that two or more actions were in progress at the same time. We often use while.

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For example:

While Peter was playing on the computer, Julie was reading a book. Jack was jogging and Peter was weightlifting . I was writing emails while the cake was baking in the oven. 3. Actions interrupted by another action We use the past continuous to express that an action in progress was interrupted by another action. We use the past simple for the action which interrupts. We often use the following words: when, as, just as, while. For example: We were having dinner when the phone rang . While I was walking home, I met Fred. Just as she was leaving the office, the boss turned up.

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4. Repeated past actions We use the past continuous to talk about repeated past actions. We often use always, all the time, constantly and continually to express criticism. For example: When she was young, she was always playing music at night. He was talking all the time. Jack was always wearing a scarf. 5. Unfulfilled plans We use the past continuous to talk about unfulfilled plans. We use: plan, hope, want, intend, to be going to, etc. For example: I was hoping to meet my friends at the weekend but they were too busy. She was planning to go on holiday but she didn’t have money. Peter was wanting to phone his mum but he didn’t have time. 29


6. Polite questions We can use the past continuous for polite questions. For example: I was wondering if you could help me. I was thinking that you might be able to help me. I was hoping you could do something for me. 7. Background information We can use the past continuous to give background information. For example: It was getting dark and she was preparing dinner. We were walking in town when the sun was setting . Peter was going home and the sun was shining .

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The Past Perfect 1. Comparing past events We use the past perfect when we want to emphasize that one past event happened before another past event. The action which happened first uses the past perfect. For example: When I arrived at the station, the train had left . (the train left before I arrived) 2. With when If we want to emphasize that one action happened before another, we can use when + past simple. For example:

When she arrived at the party, everyone had left . (past simple) (past perfect) = everyone left before she arrived 31


3. With time expressions We can use the past perfect with time expressions to express that the action in the past perfect happened before the action in the past simple. We can use: when, before, after, as soon as, by the time, the moment, immediately , till, until, etc. For example: When I had finished the project, I called my boss. As soon as they had arrived to the hotel, they went to bed. She didn’t know how funny he was, until she had met him. 4. With adverbs We can use the past perfect with the following adverbs: just, already, never and ever . For example: Peter had already begun cooked dinner, when his wife arrived. She had just completed her first book, when the editor contacted her. 32


5. As the equivalent of the present perfect We can use the past perfect as an equivalent of the present perfect when we are looking back from the past. For example: It was 2003 and she had just arrived to New York. He had worked for T&T Co. for 5 years when he was promoted. 6. With reported speech We use the past perfect in reported speech when the original sentence was in the past simple or in the present perfect. From past simple to past perfect: ‘I went to the cinema three times last week.’, he said He said that he had gone to the cinema three times the week before. From present perfect to past perfect: ‘ Have you ever been to New Zealand?’, she asked. She asked if I had ever been to New Zealand. 33


7. With if, wish and if only We use the past perfect in subordinate clauses to express an unreal past situation. For example: I wish you had told me about the problem. If you had told me about the problem, I could have helped you. If only she had sent me an email. I would rather we had gone home on time. 8.Past simple or past perfect? In most cases, we can use either the past simple or the past perfect. The past perfect is used to show which action happened first when it is important. For example: After I finished work , I went home. = After I had finished work , I went home. However, we must always use the past perfect when we talk about unreal past situations (see previous slide).

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The Past Perfect Continuous 1.Use and meaning We use the past perfect continuous to emphasize the duration of an activity in the past. For example: When I arrived home, Jane had been cooking for an hour. He was tired because he had been playing computer games all night.

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2. With reported speech We use the past perfect continuous in reported speech: the present perfect continuous and the past continuous become past perfect continuous. For example: “I was walking in the park when I met her.” he said He said that he had been walking in the park when he had met her. “I have been living here since 1985.” he claimed. He claimed that he had been living there since 1985.

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The Future Tenses Speaking about the future

Do you know how many future tenses exist in the English language? Well, yes, there are 4 future tenses, but we can talk about the future in more than 4 ways. Find out in the following unit. 37


The Future Simple 1. Facts or predictions We use the future simple to express facts about the future which do not depend on the speaker. For example: Peter will be 28 years old in December. The elections will take place next year. We can also make predictions about the future which are not definite or arranged. For example: It will rain tomorrow. (weather forecast) Real Madrid will win the match again. (I think) 2. Intentions and promises We use the future simple to talk about intentions and promises or decisions made at the time of speaking.

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For example: Ok, I will buy you an ice cream. (promise) I’ll have a cappuccino, please. (decision) I will travel to New York one day. (intention) 3. Threats We can use the future simple to express threats. For example: Leave me alone or I will call the police! You will regret this! 4. Requests The future simple can also express requests. For example:

Will you, please, open the door for me? Will you help me with the project, please?

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5. Hopes and expectations We can use the future simple to talk about hopes and expectations. It is used with verbs: expect, hope, think, assume, doubt, suppose, believe, I’m sure, I wonder, etc and with adverbs: probably, hopefully, perhaps, possibly, etc. For example: I hope he will arrive on time. Hopefully the plane will not be delayed . Do you think he will phone ? 6. Weather forecasts We use the future simple in weather forecasts to predict the weather. For example: Tomorrow will be rainy . The snow will continue tomorrow. It will be sunny and dry over the next few days.

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7. Offers and suggestions We use ‘shall’ to express offers and suggestions. For example:

Shall we have a pizza? (suggestions) Shall I wash up the dishes for you? (offer) Where shall we go on holidays? (asking for suggestion) 8. Use of shall We don’t use shall very often in modern English. It is usually used to express offers and suggestions in the first person singular (I) and plural (we) in questions.

Shall I make you a cup of tea? The negative of shall is shan’t (= shall not). We can also use shall to express strong determination. I shall tell him the truth! 41


The Future Continuous 1. Actions in progress in the future We use the future continuous to describe an action in progress in the future. For example: I will be having dinner at 6pm . (around 6pm) We will be watching football in the evening. (all night) 2. Planned future actions We use the future continuous to describe planned actions or arrangements in the future. For example:

I will be meeting my friends at the weekend. We will be staying in a hotel while we are in New York.

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3. Routine actions We can describe routine actions and repeated, regular events. For example: I’ ll be working Friday evening. (as normal) I’ ll be seeing him tomorrow so I can tell him the news. 4. Polite questions We can use the future continuous in polite questions instead of the future simple (will). Questions with the future continuous are more polite or casual. For example:

Will you be meeting him tomorrow? Will you be helping out with the decorations?

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5. Assumptions about the present •

We can use the future continuous to express assumptions about the present.

• •

• •

For example: They will be landing in Tokyo now. It’s 7 o’clock, she will be going home now.

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The Future Perfect 1. Completed actions in the future We use the future perfect to describe an action which will be completed in the future. It is common to use by + a time reference: by January, by 2035, by next month, by the time you arrive. For example: I will have cleaned the whole house by the time your parents arrive. We will have arrived by 4pm. They will have built the bridge by next year.

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2. With for We often use ‘for’ with the future continuous to talk about the duration of a future activity. For example: By next month, I will have lived here for two years . They will have been married for 40 years by the end of this year. 3. Assumptions We can use the future perfect to express assumptions about the past or the present. For example: As you will have heard , we will be changing office. (I am quite confident that you have heard it) He will have woken up by now – it’s 10 o’clock.

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The Future Perfect Continuous 1. Use and meaning We use the future perfect continuous to talk about the duration of an activity or event. It is usually necessary to mention a time reference. For example: She will have been working for this company for 6 years in August. I will have been studying Spanish for ten years .

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2. With for We usually use ‘for’ to express the duration of a future activity. For example: She will have been living abroad for 3 years by the end of next months. They will have been seeing each other for 2 months . 3. An activity leading up to a future time We use the future perfect continuous to describe an activity which leads up to another future activity. For example: When you arrive, I will have been cooking for hours. She will be tired when you see her because she will have been working hard.

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The Conditionals Hypothising

We are going to learn how to talk about present, past and future hypothesis.

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The Zero Conditional 1. Form The zero conditional is formed with: main clause

if clause

present tense

present tense

Ice melts You get sick

if you heat it. if you eat too much.

if clause

main clause

present tense

present tense

If you heat ice, If you eat too much

if melts. you get sick.

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2. Meaning We use the zero conditional to talk about general truth and facts. For example: I always take a taxi if it rains . If you freeze water, it becomes ice. 3. Other forms The zero conditional can also be formed with ‘when’ instead of ‘if’. For example:

When it rains, the weather turns cold. I always order a takeaway when I work late.

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The First Conditional 1. Form The main way of forming the first conditional is: Main clause

If Clause

Future simple “will”

Present simple

I will stay at home

If it rains tomorrow.

If clause

Main clause

Present simple

Future simple “will

If it rains tomorrow,

I will stay at home.

2. Meaning We use the first conditional to talk about events which we feel are possible. For example:

If the sun shines tomorrow, I will go to the park. She will be very happy if she hears the news. If you play games all night, you will be tired in the morning. 52


3. With modal verbs We can use the first conditional with modal verbs to add an extra meaning. The extra meaning is always related to the meaning of the modal verb. The modal verb can be: may, might, can, could, should, ought to, must . For example: If you eat your sandwich, you can play with your friends. If you want a pet, you should be more responsible. If you can talk to him today, will you give him my regards? 4. If clause with other tenses Depending on the meaning we want to express, we can use the following tenses in the if clause: present continuous, present perfect simple and present perfect continuous. For example: If you are coming to the party, you will have to wear a suit. If she has received your letter, she will reply soon. If Jim has been cleaning the house, he will be very tired tonight. 53


5. Main clause with other tenses It is also possible to use the following tenses in the main clause: ‘be going to’, future continuous and future perfect. For example: If I finish work early, I am going to watch my favourite film. She will be sleeping all night if she gets very tired. If he goes to Botswana, he will have visited 52 countries in the world. We can use the imperative in conditional sentences. 6. With the imperative For example: If you have a problem, please phone me . However, we can replace the if word with and or or. Affirmative sentences: If you finish early, go home. Finish early and go home.


Negative sentences: If you don’t stop shouting, I’ll call the police. Stop shouting or I’ll call the police. 7. If + should We can use should in the if clause to make the meaning more polite or less likely to happen. For example:

If I should see him, I will tell him the news. If I should go to the concert, I’d better get ready now. If you should happen to find a mobile phone, it’s mine.

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The Second Conditional 1. Form We form the second conditional the following way: Main clause

If clause

Would + infinitive

Past simple

I would buy a sports car

If I won the lottery.

If clause

Main clause

Past simple

Would + infinitive

If I won the lottery,

I would buy a sports car.

2. Meaning We use the second conditional to talk about imaginary or improbable situations. For example:

If you had more time, would you stay longer? If I had a hot air balloon, I would fly around the world. If she didn’t like her job, she wouldn’t work here. 56


3. If clause + modals / past continuous In the if clause, we can use the past continuous, could or was/were to. For example: If I were to travel round the world, I would start in New York. If you could change your name, what would you choose? If we were driving too fast, the police would arrest us. 4. Main clause + modals In the main clause we can use the modals could and might. For example: If we finished work early, we could go out in the evening. If we had time, we might meet up with out friends.

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The Third Conditional 1. Form We form the third conditional the following way: Main clause

If clause

Would have + participle

Past perfect (continuous)

I would have visited you You would have passed the test

If I had had the time. If you hadn’t been partying.

If clause

Main clause

Past perfect (continuous)

Would have + participle

If I had had the time, If you hadn’t been partying,

I would have visited you You would have passed the test.

2. Meaning We use the third conditional to talk about which did not happen. With the third conditional, we express how we would like to change the past. For example: If I had won the lottery last week, I would have bought that sports car. (But I didn’t win the lottery so I didn’t buy that sports car.) 58


3. Main clause + modals It is possible to use or instead of would in the main clause of the conditional sentence. For example: He

to the party if he

He

lots of friends if he

to the

party . 4. If clause + could We can use in the if-clause of the conditional sentence. For example: If I

to New York yesterday, I would have seen the carnival.

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The Mixed Conditional 1. Types We can create mixed conditional sentences by mixing the if-clause from one type of conditional sentence with the main clause of another type of conditional sentence. For example: 1st If I go to the party tonight,

2nd If I had more money,

3rd If I had studied harder when I was young,

2nd I wouldn’t wear a suit.

3rd I would have ordered a pizza.

2nd I would speak Spanish now.

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Complete Grammar for First Certificate in English.pdf

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