lo be returnedto the REGISTRAR ACADEMIC UNIVERSITY OF LONDON SENATE HOUSE, W.C.I. Repod Wb the Examiners
*
ß';ý --,
ET "' P. APPROXIMATE DIVISIDNOF 2, : -TECTOIRATE --) OF 19'16, -T -NE: /,, THE DERV ISHES AND SH 9PFT ý -THE ,, S-kc-- AL
Low
-iAtTr,,
3zr-\
DIF :h\IHNI
IL
ý+ATýj6.4 ar)
ck
WE-" IL
Mki-F-S.
Am OU
M
UD
t;
ý---j
147A4
A:,
291
CHAPTER V
THE END OF THE DERVISH PERIOD AND SUBSEQUENT SEARCH FOR AN ALTERNATM
Following Hoskins the
prepared
Dervish
a death
to
based
was inýa the
troops,
then
one battalion
with
on the
Taleh
whereas*it
the
other
of Dervish
remote
tionary,
to
to
this
of
part
the', despatch force
If provide
the at
to
destroy
latter'plan least
of
not
to
Dervish
reinforcing Protectorates a raid
making
a total and his
that the that
an
followers some
R. A. F.;
scheme
organised
movement
was preferred2
Der-
collapse
Ogaden or
and well
Dervish
3 squadronss
movement
'The alternative
country.
the
The
action.
guarantee
lead
a big
and Galadi.
and disperse
scatter
and make for'the the
consider-
however,
The Sayyid
movement. fort
the
of
observed,
would
scale
the
involved
he could
fort,
the
vacate
envisaged
all.
that
of
K. A. R. and then
Hoskins
was possible
operation
might
fort.
from
vishes
that
disposal
in
Wardair lines
position,
the
of
dealing
main Dervish
of Jiladi,
the
at
for
of
the
to be held
assumption
weakened
gravity
methods
with
two alternative
on the
very
the
was believed
believed
those
were
Protectorate,
The Sayyid fort
Taleh
forts
advocated
first,
movement.
the
The other
Hoskins
of
in
strength
the
to
visit
and recommending
the
to be residing
able
brief
1919-1925.
a memorandum assessing
problem
blow
force.
his
POLICY,
Britain
once and for would
3 battalions,
1. C. O. 535/54 Gen. Hoskins to W.O. 23/11/1918.
expedi-
have
21'ý` K. A. R.;
2 Indian
Hotchkiss
infantry
an Indian
guns with
and 1 general
radius
the
side,
would
transport
hospital
and 5 companies 2 saddles.
with
The actual latter
being
plan
column
striking
while
blocked
by subsidiary
all
to
asked at
a need for
if
then
Obbia.,
Dervish
escape
columns Western the
part
Ibid.
of
to
the
with
and Galkayu
through
those
together
taking
with
Protectorate, Ethiopian the
to be stationed
form at
main
Ain
-
were. being
escape
was to be blocked Las Dureh were
the
and
to be their
landing
troops
same place their
in
Sultan
Ali
and
terri-
Kenedid
of
was to be soli-
Sayyid, against
possible
while
a number
of
swung in the
raiding co-operation
of 5000 or Jigjiga
the
from
corridors,
force,
expeditionary the
the
operate
so arose.
Badwein
and Galadi.
be required,
2.
the
of
south
soldiers
doing
tribeso
pro-British
troops
on bad terms
to block
cited
that
Set in
a wireless,
the British
permitting
effect
from
by way of
the
of
The Italians
assistance
complete
event
of
advancing
1 stationary
the
Aladi
columns.
installing
Illig,
tory
avenues
possible
spontaneously. render
the
1 motor
alia,,
Corps,
at Taleh
strike
administrative
vans;
in
attack
was to
by 2 columns
and captured Las Khorai,
of
adopted
Valley,
inter
Camel Transport
plan
should
On the
40 Ford
company;
of 200 miles
sets
require,
16
I company
unit;
set.
wireless
expedition
ambulance
cavalry
5 pack wireless
and miners;
sappers
6 warships;
battalions;
parties subsidiary from
the
Bagheri was also
so Ethiopian
and Harar
of
for
the
in to
ýf
purpose
of blocking
and the
airforce
blockading
those
then
would
the
avenues
the
complete
and bombing
coast
The navy
escape.
of
by
network
Dervish
res-
positionss
pectively. The colonial scheme for to
that
the
did
which
There
solution. idea
total
because
the
hold
out
Italian
issue
the
of
and Ethiopian
movement a final
for
however,
the
prefer
Dervish
hopes
strong
were misgivingss
soliciting
of
distruction
not
to
was disposed
office
the
regarding co-operation
was likely
"to raise international sorts all of undesirable in the whole camquestions which might result Moreover, it is problemapaign being shelved. to judge from the tical state of present Ethiopia and our-experience coof Italian the Mullah in the past against operation be of would really whether such co-operation " from the military any value point of view. 3
schemes were taken up' by the War, Office.,,
Hoskins' the
Office
Colonial
dations
submitted
thought
as were
the
problem,
hopes"and
Somaliland the
of
administration
that'.,
as soon as the
problem,
would
be tackled
during
acting
the
C abinet
as though
was disturbed
to
had been
meeting
of
that
war periods
encouraged
Chancellor
I
Ibid.
the
hesitation
heard
shattered
.Offile -e and I the
war was over..
the
the
discuss
which
Colonial'
through
without
he had never learn
'the
All
administration.
believe
Yet
met to
Cabinet
and reached. 'a decision
expectations'
Somaliland
and recommen-
necessary.
1919 the
In January Somaliland
such. remarks
and
the
the
to
Dervish'
or delay. of Exchequero Dervish
problemo
293 "there appeared to be a possibility General Hoskins becoming involved " in Somalilandj, operations and the
Foreign
Office,
to his
rallying
of in military
side,
renounced
any fflikelihood, way. '$ The War Office
of
armounced
our being that
it
involved too
in
had
"no intention of allowing ourselves to military in committed operations of the world" 4 The War Office, sociate
itself
from
the
justifying
its
anticipated
any
to be that part
decision
operationso
to
dis-
stated
that "the Council have carefully the considered by General Hoskins scheme outlined ...... that military and are of the opinion results by the despatch could only be obtained against the Mullah of a properly equipped expedition In view of the of considerable magnitude to general situation, particularly with regard the demobilization of the armies in Palestine the and Mesopotamia, which will necessitate full for many months employment of all shipping to comep the Council that it are of the opinion be difficult to carry will out such operations In addition to the above consideraat present. tions there would appear to be a certain element Somaof uncertainty as to the future of British liland, that Italian and it is understood aspirations Abyssinian combined with the unfavourable situation might preclude effective co-operation " from those quarters. 5 Machtig
predictedo
"this decision will to the Commissioner
adding
sop that
and correctly it
be a bitter
disappointment
that
4. C. O. 535/55 "Extract from the draft minutes of a meeting held at 10 Downing Street, on Fridayo January 24th 19190 " on the Somaliland situation.
5. C. O. 535/58 W-0. to C. O. 25/l/1919
No. M.0.2
23D "from the purely Somaliland point of view the impossibility with the Mullah once of dealing " to for be is greatly and regretted. all now 6 The Colonial
by the
advanced With
Office
to
regard
was not
opponents the
requirements
arranged
under that
replied to
the
the
what
could
ambitious
scale.
the
about
Ethiopian the
was of would
that
Hoskinst
the
circumstances, had been proposed
With
to
regard
the
and desirability
and Italian
co-operation..
be useful
if
that,
scheme entailed
though
not
Colonial
Office
0
doubts
tectorate,
doubts of the
the
about
Colonial
Office
The possibility parts not
of ruled
out,
of
hinterland
of
and Milner
6. C. O. 535/5-4, Minute 23/11/1918. 7. C. O. 535/58 Minute No. M. 0.2Ibid.
the
on a less expressed
enlisting
Colonial
Office
such a co-operation
future
was confident
"it is surely out of the Italians should be given land. "8
the
of
available.,
entertained
the
amounted
overthrow
"neither be regarded can really and we ourselves pointed out to " that both are undesirable. 7 On the
be
as could
by operations
feasibility
opinion
expedition.
by Hoskins
the
whereas
be accomplished
excuses
anticipated
on such a scale
maximum possible,
Dervishes
the
of
argument
military
by the
convinced
the
of Machtig by Machtig
Pro-
that
non-productive waso howevero
Protectorate
made it
the
of
that the question the whole of Somali-
ceding
the
as essential, the War Office
clear
to
the
Italians
on Gen. Hoskins
to W.O.
on W.O. to C. O. 25/l/1919'-
that the
he was disposed coastal area, if
to cede British Somaliland, that Italy thought really
- except such a As it
concession would appease her colonial appetite. turned out, Italy's the interests which were in Jibuti French were unwilling'to than in the part with - rather Orlando Somaliland. Consequentlyo arid parts of British declined Milnerts offer, remarked that and later ttit appears that there is nothing to hope for, in except the rectification of the borders North Africa; the cession of a part of British Somaliland, which it would be a great mistake to accept, for without it would bring Jibuti No us burdens and not benefits mandates .... In sum, the colonial queswere assigned us. is Italy* tion, importance-to of the highest itself in betrayal". about to resolve 9 Italy had if only-it would have accepted Milner's offer the cession This Protectorate. envisaged of the entire to the sea and a number would have given Italy an outlet of valuable
ports on the The territorial
Somali
coast.
controversy
the
between
European
was, thus, expansionist unleashed mainly by Italyts in northern Africa. Her ambitions policies embraced British Somaliland, Kasala in Kismayuj French S-omaliland, Jubaland, the Sudanj, Libyxand Ethiopia. These objectives, which came "Maximum Programme" to be popularly known--as Italy's were , powers
based
on the
belief
sions faded
German territories would be -a factor Allied which powers, to claim territorial conces-
the
out between. the the right give Italy Unfortunately, elsewhere.
parcelled would
that
for
Italys
her
expectations a term-, coined
under the fire-. of-self-determination, by the Allied powers towards the end of the war and at the Peace Conference. generally accepted by the majority in placing the ex-German territories It resulted under the 9. Robert
Hesss-*Italy.
and Africa:
Colonial-,
Ambitions
in
the
(1963) 125. The Vol. in J. A. H. World, War" First p. quota-IV Direzione Colonieo Generale delle Ministero. is taken'from tion Truppe Politici dei'6ervizi Affari degli relativi alle e Italiana Programma-massimo e RroEramma minimo coloniali, -Africa Possedimentl Itallani di SistemazYo--nedei orientEl-e nelXAfrica Senato di Giovanni TiFo-grafia-del e settentrionale,, T3ardi,, 1917-1920.. ' __Roma,, Letter'No. '5959 from-the, P. -399-400. Rome, -'30/5/1919. to the Prime Minister., Minister of Colonies,
OJ.. "1 L
mandate robbed the
the
of Italy
course
League the
of
but,
Italy
found
even then,
siderable
In it
sidered
to be absolutely
justice
and of
Italians
by so doing,
the
of her
curtail
new developher for
remained list
necessary
case
to use in
acceptance of
to
on the
European
their
argued
light
Somaliland
time,
of
the
the
necessary
British
length
the
for
campaigning
of
and,
she had intended
pretext
"Maximum Programme". ments..
of Nationso
of what in
balance
the
programme a conshe con-
interests
of power.
of
The
as follows:
"If we wish that the peace which follows the terrible be just, present conflict shall equitable and lasting and shall correspond to the high ethical ends for which President Wilson has declared himself, it is necessary for us to foresee future dis. -i and avoid all in order agreements among the Allies of today, that these may remain allies of tomorrow .... In order to reach this ends the most efficacious impossible means is that of rendering any clash of interest even between friendly and allied the establishpowers., and this may be through having clearly ment of colonial possessions defined boundaries As France., in the ... Algiers in the Mediterpossession of Morocco, ranean., and as England possesses a vast unbroken beginning zone alsd, with Egypt and extending (thanks to the English conquest of German East Africa) interruption to Cape Colony without thus it is that Italy only right also ; **0* hould* as well as her allies, secure for herself an analogous, sound colonial position 10
Memorandum'on her claims in Africa, 10. C-Os 535/57 Italian n. d. (Encl. in P. O. to C. O. 4/i/1918). Italy's demand-for territorial of the concessions was based on her interpretation London Treaty. of April 26th 1915.. which preceded Italy's Article Powers. entry into the war on the side of-the Allied 13 of the above treaty reads., "In, the event of France and Great Britain augmenting their-colonial possessions at the commay claim some equitable expense of Germany in her favour of in the adjustment particularly pensations, between the Italian questions concerning the frontiers Somaliland and Libya and the neighof Eritrea, colonies (see Great France Britain" bouring colonies and of in Africa, (London). 1941, Hollis, Italy Christopher 64. p.
rlý
the
Thus.,
question
issue
was a contentious resolved
of State
Orlando,
the
British
Somaliland
Italian
sovereignty in
concessions than
Italy
haunted in
for
Italian
Prime
Jubaland.
the war
end of
British
managed to
Minister,
to
himself
This
driving
forget with
plus
persuade all
about
her
full
accepting
some territorial less
was considerably
and a feeling
eventually
the
and was not
Colonies,
Kismayu, 11
Somaliland
when Milner,
and content
of resentment to
invade
Ethiopia
1935. As was the the
politics, tion
put
the
matter
so far found
as the himself
local
trend
characteristic
Cabinet's
ment was concerned.
11.
the
over
of British
the
at
had expected,
her,
future
1919,
October
until
Secretary
the
of
decision
to
so far
rest
This
over
in, a particularly
the
as the
was,, however,
administration
of Somaliland Dervish
ques-
British
Govern-
far
from
the
was concerned. embarrassing
case
Archer
position
the Robert Hess "Italy Colonial Ambitions'in and Africa: World War" in J. A. H. Vol. 105-12 First IV (1963'Lpp. Milner was strongly opposed to the idea of ceding the the coast British Somaliland, for he considered whole-of in the Horn interests to be vital for Britain's strategic became Secretary Milner of State. for the of Africa. into the Colonial in January 1919, bringing colonies the experience Office and distin-, of a long., varied He graduated both at home and abroad. guished career Bar in 1881. to-the from Oxford in 1876 and was called to the Chancellor He became a private of the secretary in in 1887 and thenUnder Secretary Exchequer of Finance South Africa'and to 1892. He went-to, Egypt froma889 style., of administration made a name with his unorthodox to be his team came popularly which of young officers, and known as the. "Kindergarten". -In 1916 he becamea minister then War Cabinet I Lloyd-George's and portfolio'in without for War in 1918. -Minister
ri, 0
-,
.ja to
having tribes.
give
a convincing
and especially 9 not
was still had earlier
prepared
to believe
led
that -
resolved
British
by a resurgence
.1
On the
of 25th
and destroying
Corps
set
out
five
days
later
east
of Burao.
the
of
of
their
the
for
top
hideouts,
the
Camel Corps
suffered
the
Plain.
contact
with
as soon as the fire.
killing
looted
months
in
of
Camel Corps
The Camel the
the
raiders north-
thick
Camel Corps
bush
was well
replied
which
drove
the
250 of
their
men and hundreds
were
stock
casualties
the
35 miles
The Camel Corps
fire
Thus
was looting
which
Soral
cover
move-
wum reinforced
example,
Ok Pass,
took
The survivors
animals.
to get 12
early
on the
of
Dervish
the
force
and gained
and machine-gun
their
during
had been
war was over.
effort
He
movement.
the
of
direction
a Dervish
rifle
of
and the
12.
raids
fire
southwards,
or
Dervish
property
as to why Britain
decision.
in this
The Dervishes
range
rifle
out
at
its
efforts
of
pro-British
so he himself
in his
of February,
the
Dervish
as soon as the
pursuit
opening
and caves,
with
in
the
destruction
reverse
was informed
stock
within
destroy
the
to
Archer's
at Burao
to
to relent
not
Government
1919.
the Warsengeli,
be undertaken
ment would Archer
to
them - for
on assured
to
explanation
chased
was all of
Dervishes
and, driven
recaptured.
two deaths
The
and a dozen
that felt 1ý , _&. "there of this can be no doubt as,, the importance the Derthe of activities action upon successful in the Proeffect vishes and as to its general indeed, tectorate. It is very satisfactory and the in the important engagement most easily " Berris. Shimber Protectorate since 1.3
so wounded.
Moyse Bartlett,
The Colonial
The Kingfs
13. C. O. 535/55 Minute 4/3/1919.
Office
African
by Machtig
Rifles
on C-0-535/55
op. cit.
Archer
421-423. p.
to C. O.
0
Whereas Archer
was,
regarded
the
need for.
taking
Dervishes
the
than
the in
the
ing
to
take
further
the
cross
Sultan terms
could
border
effectively
the
their
administered
the
by the
man who could of policy.
Dervishes not
Ina at
Ali
speaks
undue decid-
of, Britain
retreat
easily
the
Alter-
Mijjertein,
and not
was still
the
Moreovero
Italians. Shirreh,
that-time.,
with
without
which
upon to
be relied Jardine
latter
territory
of the Warsengeli, with
The Warsengeli
territory.
make peace with
into
administration
could
Dervish-held
for
Except
differences
event
measuresj, -they
into
they
natively,
the
In ý
reprisals.
south
their the
them
so easy
was not
was non-existent.
hands with
of the
to rescue
British
to
part
the Warsengeli.
resolve
the
Archer
easy for
task
urgent
celebrate.
the western
his
with
country
punitive
to
which
over
Camel Corps
raids,
and join
of British
risk
the
so desired,
Dervishes
against
at Las Khorai,
garrison
they
action
tribes-in
dealing
the Warsengeli if
the
was relatively
Dervish
came to
Indian
could,
line
it
by sending
sporadic
when it
a finality
he
same view2
emphasised
and decisive
pro-British
Protectorate from
as one which
prompt
Whereas placate
obviously2
episode
rather
of the
though
was the pursue-a,
on bad
sort
of
consistent
of him as onewho
-,
"has the face of a fox and his, face does not ,belie him. He has a genius for crafty " intrigue.
14
14.
Jardine,
The Mad Mullah
of Somaliland,
op.
cit.
p., 256.
3a3 Thus,, Britaints by the
secure
on whether
relieve
them of
the
back
war the
to his
the
further
leading
on his
with
to
tribes
were
their
claims
the
settlement
of
to Berbera,
the
where
Ina
Ali
front.
and his,
Baran,
some_,15 miles
west.
of
party
Dervish
Archer
in
raids
described
the
to
British,
coast he was
1919,
in
the
of
two of
each other.
As
turned
to
to
out
he
spare,
and returned Las
behind
outlying
fort
on
of Musha Haled,
mountains, the
Dervish fort,
The Jiladi Warsengeli,
position
was
settlement
official
of
Kassim
elders
had his
on the
the
where
at Bunder
some 18 miles
got, a view away.
likely
February
was prepared
the
future.
Mijjertein-Warsengeli
a junior
Trom
prompt
Warsengeli
and disputes
Shirreh
take
in
KasSim,
against
Musha Haled,
Archer
board
to
to
the
at
testimony
Archer
them
allies.
and the
claims
than
powers
via
Dervish
the
years
not-too-distant
officials
to give
to
to win
was more than
and counter-claims
his
delegated
the
Bunder
the
permanence
had been rebuffed Britain
The meeting
invited
hard
the Warsengeli
2nd February,
consume more time
Khorai,
of
completing
on the
convened
closing
in
and from
and disputes.
claims
the
made a stop-over
way to
a view
During
inaction
to meet Italian
scheduled
pledge
seek alternative
Archer while
his
overtures
Dervishes
confidence
them to
fulfil
expected
prolonged
the
undermine
they
the
its
could
his
though
for
had been working
but
because
Warsengeli,
depended
Dervishes.
Sayyid
against
Thus,
Archer
cause,
principally aation
the war,
end of
largely
of
among the
position
of
fort the
lay
at
spring-
further
the Warsengeli
9flri
"precarious as they
in
the
extreme". without /stock
their
graze
could
15
The area
within
harassment
which
was extremely
limited. "The situation
the Warsengeli
in
"
country..
Archer,
noted
"calls for full and early attention, and partiUp to so now that the war is ended. cularly attributing now I have been able to temporize, to carry for our failure out the operations to unforseen developthe destruction of Jiladi and the ments arising out of the war; ...... by difficulties of the moment were appreciated the Warsengeli themselves. But the time has now come when they expect some amelioration of this the to their lot only alternative .... against step that I can see, if no offensive the Mullah is to be carried out, is the removal en bloc from this country. of the Warsengeli Have to be helped by They would subsequently "16 grant. a government Office
The Colonial comment on this its
ruling,
ing
to
the
east
Archer
perated. Shirreh
of
him,,
warning
stimulate
Warsengeli.
up on the
their
at
to
revert-
coastal
impressing the
with
were
exasAli
the
settlement,
terms
that
his
the
Mijjertein
into
fresh
the
by the
importance
Mijjertein,
15. C. O. 535/55 Archer tq C. O. 11311919. 16. Ibid.
strip
upon him the
same timeo
later,
Mijjertein
and summoned Ina
the
A month
was
plight
by the
Las Khorai
complying
in
the Warsengeli
south,
revisited
a view
with
and urgency
might
to
made
the Warsengeli Confronted
to
had already no point
evidently,
Meanwhile
and bottled
bases
Dervish
was,
bad to worse.
from
growing to
issue.
the
even bother
not
The Cabinet
despatch.
and there
did
of
failure raids
to
do so
against
who had
the
3 -0 despaired
apparently law
of Warsengeli
their
Warsengeli
at Las Khorais
reported
hostile
British
but
feuds
between
different
Summers,
then
to
internal
the
to
Flemming
Shirreh
Shirreh
being
the
thus
of
main
Governor,
acting
as being
to
Sultan
of
the
Ali
himself to
authority
Summers felt
strength.
Le
summons, Ina
British
of
and arrest
and barricaded
putting
only
the Warsen-
authorised
Las Khorai
the
of
not
engineer
sections
to Musha Haled
fort,
test
serious
Ali
On receipt
retired the
Ina
summon the
him on arrival.
inside
the
hands and looted large quantities of the 17 Le Fleming., Commanding officer Captain stock.
into
geli.
took
co-operation,
a
that
"the moment had come, in fact, when we had to enforce and vindicate our orders either if necessary with force, or our authority, admit that we were unable to do so'"18 At this
juncture
towards
the
with the
Sayyid
but
him, garrison
the
the
move came too
at Musha Haled
with
the
into
sent
exile
and Kabarega
in
to making
a new alliance On the
later.
a protracted
after
bodyguard,
him to Berbera.
shipped
Asante
and,
to make rapprochements
made a swoop on the
at Las Khorai
Sultan's
began
a view
with
fort
was
Sultan
19 the
the
arrested Towards Seychellesp
the
19. Ibid.
confrontation Sultan
joining
of Bunyoro.
August
Sultan's
and
end of August
17- C-0- 535/56 Summers to C. O. 5/9/191918. Ibid.
17th
he
Prempeh
of
.JJj
In October Khorai
to
arrest
of their
his
the
assess
inability
the
to provide
against
external
nothing
of his'im
dently,
cost
the of Ina
removal
tigation
in
the
to
hads
feuds
say
evi-
base of his
the
into
the Warsengeli Ali
people ino
involvement
of Gerard
after
people
to his
internal
the
The latter's
Shirreh.
and eroded
person
the
of
security
of.,
him popularity
a new sultan,,
Ali
and his
Summers manouvred
support.
he formed
majority
sufficient
enemies,
to
of the Warsengeli
The-impression
was that
to Las
visit
another
paid
reaction
Sultan.
two days tour
had welcomed
Archer
accepting
Shirreh,
who
was "very aged and cannot head. " 20 Summing up the
outcome
the whole
of
a figure-
be more than
Summers
operations
reported.. "I do not anticipate diffithat any serious tribe from the Warsengeli culties will arise whose chief requirements at the moment appear to be the establishment of peace with their and protection strong Mijjertein neighbours. " from the Dervishes. 21 Thus., by taking Shirreh,
prompt
the British
had been brewing.
of
the
of
rather
than
the Warsengeli A number-of
Not
British.
larity
that
in
Ina
Ali
that
of
Shirrehp
rebellion
he was at
least
a factor
after time
these
his
was the
arrest.
on bad terms
with
20. C. O. 535/56 Summers to C. O. 24/lo/1919. 21. Ibid.
necessitating'
had worked
which
Ali
which
a crisis
country,
factors
Ina
against
action averted
successfully
handling.
careful
and decisive
in
personal
favo -ur unpopu-
brought
relief
Then the
fact
the
Sayyid
and
30) the
Mijjertein
meant that
their
either he could Kharai into
active
hands
the
of
September Britaints tinuous
chapter) geli for
dealing
were
fort
and the
country
towards
question
as to
settled.
Italy
interested Berbera, sea.
22
opposed
22.
factors
the
to Italy's
Zeila
question.,
pro-British
tribesp
to
end of
future
had not the
and Bulhar. noted#
opening
the Warsen-
stressed
the
but
in
Colonial to
need These
independentp the
Septemberp
for
aspirant
the
was not but
Protectoratep
'
was definitely
Protectorate
She wanted
urgent
quite
First,
only
last
movement.
Ethiopia
Protectorate
the
in
designs
the
The con-
situation
been the
the
in
the
the
Protectorate.
the
have fallen
in
1919.
of
acquiring
to ceding
of Las
(discussed
the Dervish
expansionist
As already
farthest
point
Dervish
which
blow
the
of
in
the
a turning
by two simultaneousp
episodes
hostile
the
at Wardair
a death
troops he would
which
unsatisfactory
were
reinforced
acquisition
of
Thus the
Dervishes.
over
harassment Dervish
beyond
1919 marked
position
seek and obtain
by the British
go when pursued
the
not
or refuge.
support
was Musha Haled,
of the
he could
only
was herself
particularly an outlet Office Italyp
to
the
was decidedly Ethiopia
or
C. O. 535/57 F. O. Memorandum on Italian aspirations., n. d. (Encl. designs Ethiopiats in F. O. to C. O. 18/6/1919) known to Zeila Berbera, Bulhar made were and over by Kantibar Gabru., an Ethiopian Thesiger Who official European capito various delegation led an Ethiopian to seek the support tals and sympathy of European Italian on Ethiopian against encroachments countries territory.
1.
and this
any otheraspirant, put
across
did
nots
by Milner
at the
apparently,
her
press
a potential
prey
but
persistance
caused
to the British
Ethiopia
Peace Conference.
was herself Italyts
was categorically
position
Goverment.
in -
any case
she
European
imperialism
-
considerable
difficulty
claims
for
had found
The Admiralty
it
to
necessary
"emphasize the importance posiof the strategic tion of British Somaliland, of and particularly Berbera, future in connection with the probable The importance sources of supply of oil. of the possessing ample sources of supply of oil fuel of the future territorys British canon 1'2, not be over-estimated. The settlement of the over the future of the controversy Protectorate hitherto
in
September
by the War. Office
advanced
to despatch
reluctance
the
one of
eliminated
in
pretexts its
justifying force
an expeditionary
to Somali-
land. The second her
reconsider was the
transfer
quarters
from the
under
episode
earlier
position
by the Taleh
guard
of
Summers reported
the
Dervish
the
some 20 to 30 Dervish
question
main head-
their
of
leaving
to Jiladi,
former
fort
riflemen.
family and stock and practimoved men and war material 1 -1
had two implications.
Warsengeli
that
the
to
Britain
that
development
abilitycf
encouraged
over
Dervishes
"the Mullah with fighting cally all to Jiladi"'24 This
which
the
Dervish
the
fact
23.
C. O. 535/57 Admiralty to C. O. 20/5/1919)-o
24.
C. O. 535/56
to
Dervish
front
the
First, raids
was aggravated
had moved further
to F. O. 15/5/1919
Summers to C. O. 30/9/1919.
vulner-
(Encl.
by
north.
in
F. O.
311 On the tage
hand,
other
from
the
on initiating
easier
to
Taleh.
Berbera
than
Britain
could
Jiladi Taleh
the
line
hitherto
In
areas.
more vulnerable themselves
the
coast
whereas the
to the
Dervish
placed
in
the
in
and that
hazard
have
would This
would a
of maintaining and the
remote
new Dervish
con-
position the
depredations,
Dervishes
position
a more vulnerable
of his
and
that
turnp
Warsengeli
for
to Machtigp
According
strategists.
be to'operate
Las Khorai
travel.
to
be much
would
would
and Las Khorai
rendered
transfer
Sayyid's
less
experiencedo
short,
military
meant,
with
between
at Jiladi
the British
to both
distance
short
risks,
centration
nearer
and this
of communication
military
the
is,
than
from Berbera
advancing
reduce
is
it
it
Jiladi
Britain
should
operations.,
use sea planes
a comparatively
were
against
was an advan-
that,
in
of view
point offensive
operate
against
move to Jiladi
Dervish
British
decide
troops
the
to Jiladi
headquarters
"shows extreme importance and urgency for dealing once and situation with the Dervish for all unless we are to embark upon a scheme for the permanent of our garristrengthening involvingo apart from sons on the coast, increased and continuous anything else, "25 military expenditure. between
A new meeting Minister
and the
Somaliland
developments.
On the
that
a full-scale
and the hold
25.
Ibid.
question
in
October
and the
of warships
Minute
Exchequer the
light
1919 it
Air
Ministry
and aircraft
by Machtig.
to
was held
was announced
were in
Prime
of new
was to be sent
expedition
Admiralty
a number
of
the
8th
the
Office,,
Colonial
Chancellor
the
discuss
the
to
Somaliland
duly
readiness
asked for
to
despatch
to
Somaliland.
At the letter its
to copies
letter
the
end of Decembero Archer
Dervishes
by aircraft in
stated,
the
and ordered in
the
a
addressed distribution
of
territories.
Dervish
The
as follows:
part,
"This letter Wali (repis sent by the British resentative) of of the Somali to the Dervishes the Mullah, by British It is carried officers far and fly the birds'in the air, who, like fast the the The day destruction of of ..... Mullah and hi. % power is at hand. He is a tyrant the country who has destroyed and this will. be avenged. " The letter render
then
of
Dervish
not
for
did
they
not
to avoid
wanted to
apply
the
British of the
leaders
(safe "aman" to I leaders and your give no These men have deserved the punishconduct). ment they will a reward for get and I offer " their capture. 26 "aman" the did listed 36 to Dervishes some whom
apply
and put
1,000
for the
leaders three
Rs.
5,000
his
teenage
sons.
rank
and file
of
was a complete
weeks in vain, "the Mullahts the Dervishes. attack*" 27
head of
on the
a price from
ranging
alienate their
this
if
sur-
unconditional
movement:
leaders, Rs.
Dervishes
but
reprisals,
Archer
the
on to demand the
went
for
the
Sayyid
Archer's the
effort
and,
reported
remains position seem unconscious
to to
movement from
Dervish
failure,
Archer
each of the
after
waiting
that unchanged and of the impending
26.
Calling Letter C. O. 53V41 volume 3. upon Dervishes (Encl. Archer., 30/1-2/1919 b to surrender etc: signed. in Archer to C. 0 1/1/1920T.
27.
C. O. 534/41
Archer
to c. o.
8/1/1920.
jij
One other
precautionary
deemed it
necessary
to take
expedition
was to
Mahmud of
the
at their
were
Mijjertein lowest
the
before
the
enlist
measure
Archer
which
launching of
Sultan
with
the
co-operation
whose relations
of
the Osman
Sayyid
ebb:
"Now as there is a strong friendship between us, (i. the Wadad is the common and e. the Sayyid) letter to tell enemy, I send you this you my The British news and to invite your help .... Government have sent me many aeroplanes and we have made the Camel Corps very strong. So my intention is to strike the Mullah and his Dervishes at Jiladi on the 21st of this month .... We shall smash them as we did at Shimber Berris the And Sultan, Mullah now, may escape . 6.. ... from us with a few men and try to find refuge in And in this your country. case he is in your hands, and you will the British Governrender if you turn out your soldiers to ment service kill him .... And you can tell or capture your in money pay large rewards people that I will for the capture or death of the son of Abdullah Hassan and his Maccadams (sic) 28 A few weeks the
Sultan
later,
Archer
at Bunder
Kassim,
was agreed
strategy
1920.
his
to meet
representative
and a solid
alliance
and
upon.
The expedition of January
sent
was launched
in
operations
were
The air
the
latter
R. Gordon whose assignment
bomb the
forts
was to be the which
were
consisted
forces,
to of (a)
overall co-operate the
of
the
airforce.
the
troops
ground
The expedition
following
One flight spare
(b)
with
was to
The Governor
and stock.
officer-in-charge
the
under
put
command of Group-Captain Dervish
part
His
of
aeroplanes(D.
H. 9)
with
six
guns. MajestYlt
ships,
("Odin"..
"Chio"
and
"Ark
Royal".
28. C. O. 534/41 Archer to Sultan Archer to C. O. 6/2/1920).
Mahmud 8/1/1920
(Encl.
in
£
t)
(c)
Somaliland
(d)
6th
(e)
Battalion,
Grenadiers,
lst/101st
M
An irregular
Somali
levy,
(9)
300 illaloes
(i. e.
scouts).
forts
1,500
bothhlhoitred e forts
as having
"practically The Camel Corps from
Eil
from
Las Khorai,
24th,
Afweina
killing
flight.
Archer
Jiladi
and drove
was the
the
pursuit
on the
spotted
the
Afweina,
Taleh.
captured
the
out
Sayyid. for
making
The K. A. R. troopss
the
30th
fleeing
January. Dervish
were
same day it
had reached
was learned
Danan (Lat.
Camel Corps -pursued En route,
of the
fleeing
clashed
with
the
small
up their
On the
the
aeroplanes
to
party
a range
Dervish
29. C. O. 535/41 Archer
the of
east
of Eil
on-two
parties.
On
stampeded.
main Dervish
party
and the
at Gud Anod the could
The
100 feet.
47 49')
Long.
them.. arriving Camel Corps
31st
stock the
that
and,
heels
took
10 7'.
Dervishes,
whom
amongst
Camel Corps
and their
scattered
survivors
to, their
took
on the
occupied
Dervisheso
party
and the
south,
Camel Corps
remaining
The Dervish
the
see the
next
fresh
tracks
occasions,, ' actually In
to C. O. 24/1/1920.
the
29
moving
of Baran
fort
and putting
the
later,
"
moving
meanwhiles
were,
Dervish
and bombed them from
Dervishes
day.
levy
tribal
towards
days
reported
bombardments.
by aerial
some 70 Dervishes Four
were
been
destroyed
and the
strong
and Medishe
of Jiladi
and bombed on 21st January.
reco
700 strong
400 rifles.
Army,
The Dervish
the
the
at 700 strong totalling
and 2nd Battalions
Indian
to
Camel Corps
meantime,
the
) i. j
warships the
continued
maintenance
ferent
bases
the
of
"Odin"
"Cliot' and
against
a small
6th
February,
two of the
fort
4 cwt.
disembarked fort
at
before
being
by high
explosive
escape
and take
to
the
The Sayyid fort of
on the the
was believed
vish
forts.
It
or
height
stone..
top;
the
feet
high.
most
covering
and room for
with
walls
the
defenders
by a good
formidable
of
the
Der-
walls
of
were built
base and--6 feet
were not
Taleh
enclosure
3 covering
less
were
the
Jiladi.
from
The blockhouses at
garrison
a few managed to
of a main walled
consisted
14 feet
the
accompanied
who had fled
to be the
500 yards
to have. entered
was reported
and strength.
12 to
The Dervish
2nd February,
contin-
to within
some 200 of
by 13 blockhouses,
surmounted
30.
a dozen
The attacking
shell and only 31 bush. -
Dervishes
fort
Gun.
noticed.
killed
in
operation
at Galibaburj,
Sanak and advanced
and attacked;
great
warships,
an isolated
Field
was surrounded
number
dif-
30
force.
out
and with
between
expeditionary
Dervish
coast
communication
carried
and a 12-pounder
Taleh
the
Iýh"mall town of Sanak. - This coastal , was armed with 31 Lewis guns2 2 maxim guns
force
of the
of
from
so miles
gent
patrol
of wireless
On the
naval
the
with
than
at
50 to
the-. 60
the fortifications inside were wells 32. The fort was bombed. -on the stock.
There
C. O. 534/42 Archer to C. O., "Despatch of 1920". 15/5/1920. operations
relating
to
field
31. Ibid. 32. R. Hess, "The Mad Mullah Vo 5o (1964) p. 429.
of Northern
Somalia".
in J. A. H.,
1
4th
February flew
machines it
set
and then low,
on fire
Camel Corps (Lat.
Abdul
incendiary
with
and the
tribal
British
officials
at Gaolo
desert.
the
fort
for
making
to guard
sent Corps the
the
on the
evening
away in
and ride to be the
and his
occupants
were
protracted
contact and,
with
after
tured
a Dervish
and engaged while party
was captured Camel Corps
force
of
and their pursuit
family
Sayyidts
which
Dervish rifles was called
its
prisoner
after
a
dayp the
Camel
Garrowei
riflemen. and stock off
and the
Th(ygained
party
away.,
them and capwas overtaken
party
was wiped
was travelling
out, the
with
On the
and clashed
The latter were
number
23 miles
and sent. to Berbera.
reached
The
escaping.
overpowered
The Dervish
fort
was presumed
Dervishes.
Dervish
the
of
of
at Hulin,
party
Another
at Bihen.
th
fleeing
engagement,
stock.
following
or taken
at
and spotted
This
direction.
Camel
arrived
come out
The following the
pursue
a short
their
horsemen
killed
either
February
was
the
of
arrival
9th
personal
engagement.
began to
the
to
a view
of 200 strong
same day and a big
that
was attacked
Corps
of
to
plan
The Camel Corps
a northerly
Sayyid
the
the
informed
with
levy
pending
80 70 to Dervish of
a party
the
fort,
son,
second
Sayyidts night
A tribal
and the K. A. R. troops.
scene
fort
the
very
to
march
father,
the
of
that
Ogaden.
at Kurtimo
Sayyidts
his
the
Meanwhileo
converged
the
and then
position
and began their
February,
day the
latter
bombs.
Rahman, who had deserted
Taleh
the
levy
47 35')
8th
On the
On the
machine-gunned
8 381o Long.
Teleh.
6th.
the
were
llth,
with put
a small to
captured.
On the
expedition
declared
flight 12th
the
as at
v.
3-3
an end.
had eluded
The Sayyid
to have made for
the
There
is
Bagheri
and written
the on -
frontationx
and especially
Jaamac Cumar Ciise,
on the
for
instance,
Ogaden. both -
literature
oral
1920 Anglo-Dervish
of the
events
the
in
country
of Somali
plenty
and was believed
capture
clashes
at Taleh.
relates
the
Taleh
conSheikh story
as follows:
then
"Sayyid Mohammad reached the place with a small the other forces group of his army, but before fighters of the jihad reached it., the enemy the forts on all surrounded and took position The sides of it except the east side .... But bullets down upon them as rain.... rained it did not take long before the Sayyid ordered the enemy the Dervishes to evacuate it before And he blew the trumcould get hold of them. the pets and beat the drums proclaiming " retreat .. 34; he describes the Sayyid's escape in the following
manner: "he went out through a narrow opening in the fort. The enemy saw him and opened fire on him. The Sayyid rode on the back of his horse, from its as swift as an arrow which is released bow ... 91' 35
One Somali by the
spotted tured
Somali
by them had it
between
the
the
vent that,
death
account Somali
much the
recognized
high
Sheikh
35.
Ibid.
been for
might
F. S. Carosellio Tarikh
conspiracy
al
to pre-, is
--It
have"been
and other
and, accepted-him
Jaamac Ciise,
have been cap-
possible
the. Sayyid.
Sayyid
the Sayyid was
a previous
do everything of
that
and would
handedness
See also 3,3. Ibid. p. 248-275. 34.
not
or capture
of-his
contends
soldiers.
to
soldiers
however
elder
claimed
dreaded
excesses,
as a-holy
man.
Ferro
e Fuoco
Sumal,
op.
cit.
on
the Thus..
op.
cit.
p.
121.
no,, Som&li, *as
preparedto,
damnatiori-. by -Personally
Sayyid
m6Lking -.the
behindýthe-'Ipurported
otheiý-motiVe, said
condemnhimself
Somali,
to have, been'theirl*reluctan'cd;
seeTthe-endýbf--the',
Dervish
the,, movement- placed
movement. --The
is
conspiracy
near-end-of
"like-; the , that., the,., end of, ý.the-Sayyidlsý
beginning,
ýmark(the
in ýthepost-
position tribes
Sayyid's moveadmini-
cof,..an-, active-Briýish,
in which, -^all the, Somali-ý--
stration
The
'
,a'martyr.
i*the Somali-, -in"a* dilemma,, ) aeadingt-
ýwere,,,,aware
ment-would.
--In--ý
on'refleictionjito
them, to ponder (about'! their, likely, . Dervish7-period. --. ýThd",pro-British followers,
ý,to, eternalr.
their. ýof
regardless
-
by -:British: t wou14 be, affected _iallegýance_n, taxation,. European. 'educationý andsuch-as, proselytization., -Thus,, --it-Is -believedý -that
previous. policies Christian
drew. near-J, - a, substantial as,,ýthe, 'end of !Dervish, -the -era-, trib. es, -gave only half -.. n. section of the, -pro-British'. heart. ed:ýsupport ý,to, --the-,British it.; is 'Ithought i, ýnLastly;,, that.., the., Ishaak,
the
supportersi-of,
of the jobs
who, had,, hither.
Dervish
not
by the
created
Many of
them were
scouts,,
escorts
Dervish
employed
and carriers
assumption
of
rý
conflict
during
'F,
I.
the
see
-I
the
time
ý end
ito,. -lose
-spies,,
administration
the
the
circumBritish.
messengers., of hostilities, would
render
36- Whatever-was-the-degree.
'o f ýommitment' -,of, the-, Britisii--soldiersto "-4
to
with
soldiers,,
'a pe'a'ce'f'ul
most-of-these-posts-unnecessary.
'-t
keen
ha'd, 'h-e-ld--'in", th'e special,. they" !
and privileges
the
were
movemento,.ýfor,, they. were-bound-
stances
but
British,
td beemtheý; staunchest,,
the, destruction,
of
ý'
the; Somali Academy 36., MusaýGalaal., Alis, interviewedý. p -at, -ý 'ý. Mc;jýddi'6hii oii'ý'7th-Aug'-ust-'1974, *----, "ýý'ý'-"ýý-ý; -,
L. J .
the
Dervish
and., so far soldiers
the
movement,, as the
British
the
played
to Halin
and from
Adadero. Sayyid
After
Baria
Tahroo
from
a day's
proceeded
there
Sayyid
Abdi
where
Sheik,
Mahdi Mohammad, Abdul 70 Dervish
about
to
ceeded about
his
is
his
within
described
and arrived
by his
struggle
the
Sheikh
at Gorahai
to
on or
by the
settle
among had country
as 'To*.. land populated accursed,, a no-man's fanatical for Ogaden tribes, and a refuge laws and malcontents from the surrounding " territories. 38
The British their
the
attributed
to
the
as a result
of
operations
incurred
and
pro-
party
when conditions 37 The Bagheri
following.
such as
notables
received
and he decided
and
March the
in
Abbas Musa., Yusuf
was cordially
clansmen,,
them., and resume his improved
fort
The Sayyid
Dervish
From Galadi
riflemen.
the Wardair
21st.
Bagheri.,
Aziz.,
at
of Adaderoo
Early
of
the
arriving
he was re-joined
and other
fled
east
placeo
journeyo west
south
north
latter
the Haud.
via
Galadi
the
at
southward
some 18 miles
reached
brother,
rest
on his
to Damot,
to have
believed
is
Sayyid
to Godumel, 6 miles
there
Somali
of them.
expected
the
as plannedv
the
were concerned,
part
From Taleh,
proceeded
operations
demoralization the
aerial
rapid
success
which bombardment
the of
by out-
of Dervishes their
"A narrative 37. C. 0.535/69 of movements of the Mullah from death. " Compiled by the gth February-1920 until-his (Encl. in Archer to headquarters at Burao. Military C. O. 24/6/1922. 38.
Jardine,
The Mad Mullah
of
Somaliland
op.
cit.
p.
285.
This
positions. the
Dervishes.
was a new method Jardine
of warfare
baffled
which
that
claims
"when the six machines were seen approaching., the Mullah was at a loss to know what they Anxiously he inquired might be. of his the advisers some, with orientalts native *. *. they were the penchant for flattery, suggested chariots of Allah come to take the Mullah up to heaven. A certain that they Turk suggested invention were a Turkish from Stamboul come to tell the Mullah of the Sultan's in the victory great war. " 39 This
account
be nothing
might
cation
but
there
plexed
the
Dervishes
is
Although blow,
severe The fact
its
that
source
of the
self
to the area
that.,
by pointing demise
in
Archerts
in
of his
to
Sayyid
It
hopelessness terms.
Bagheri
countryp
upon him-
himself
the
of his
plight
an
Archer's
on his
belief
of his
people
the
Sayyid
persuade
struggle letter
up
be given
was based
he would
The latter's
became a
took
to give
a
unharmed.
of autonomy.
Sayyid
movement,
the
he would
qt'-which
the
escape
Archer
and a measure
out
heart.
new followersp
the British.
return
per-
movement had been dealt
refuge
the
fabri-
warfare
aerial
had managed to
was untactful.
appreciate-the.
accept
Sayyid's
inducing
settlement
strategy
to
the
for
of
first
and the
the
to be recruiting
British
for
that
a humorous
and made them lose
he was given
anxiety task
no doubt
leader
and was reported
more than
and then went
as
f ollows: "You are a, SomaUWadad. I the represent, ý British Government who have just beaten in war the German and the Turkish Your strength people. is thus not the same. Every and our strength f man s hand is against you for the wrong you have done. On one side there is Osman Mahmud, on the
39. Ibid
p. 266.
32 They are your other there is Ali Kenedid. You cannot go to them. In Abyssinia enemies. Lij Yasu has gone, and Ras Tafari, who is my friend., You, Wadads are in his place. rules now a fugitive and your people are in my hands. You have lost your leaders and your stock and Your women and children, and everyyour forts thing you* possess If you yourself will .... then I to me, as have your people, surrender I will will give you "aman" .... give you a 40 days, For place wheýe you can. live .... "40 therefore, I make you this offer. I by the Sayyidts was surprised and disappointed
Archer reply
demonstrated
which
determination of the
to die
British.
his
cool
a fugitive
The Sayyid
and a
stubborness rather
than
a servant
wrote:
"These words are from the man who is oppressed,, Ibn Abdillah Hassan, to the oppressor without have You say that the Dervishes cause .... become weak and I am alone without following, all my people having run away ... many have been killed and that you have caught all my habbabak (confidants), relativeso and family, and that you have beaten the Turks and the Germans .... to what you And to this I reply: have said about the Dervishes growing weak, I God is can say nothing, neither yes nor no. Almighty to confer and if He desires power or to weaken it, You say it is for him to do so. I say: To this some my people have run away. of my people have run away, and some will I die. You say you have never leave me until killed that statement many of my people: also I cannot contest You say you have or deny. beaten the Turks and the Germans: it, is not for "return then to into that You say me enter .... to my family": in this there is something as first the In even a fool would appreciate .... (sic) in the you have never, place and middle done me any good. You should have offered me And now if what you say is some consolation. then let true and you want to offer me terms, the. people, ****"41 me be myself-among Two months selected
later
three,
Archer, prominent
devised, Sheikhs,
another with
strategy. a, high
40. C. O. 534/41 A cher to MohammedAbdulla (Encl. in ArcRerto. C. O. t-20/2/1920)
He
reputation,,
Hassan,
17/2/1920
41. C. O. 534/41 Mohammedbin Abdulla, Hassan to Archer (Encl-. in Archer to C. O. 9/4/1920)
n. d.
1) Ad
both
in
Somaliland
and seven Akils, the
Archer's
terms
was headed Salihiya also
the for
his
by Sheikh
Tarika,
Ismail,
and his
The delegation, by panic,
instant
death
informed
tributed
their
to
property
The delegation which
inter
stated,
The terms
alia.
and what the
British degree for
remained
of his
following
This
autonomy
stirring
Sayyid
would
the
included
a place
of
in
residential
but
the
provided
letter
Sayyid he did
have his
property
stock., returned
for
himself
the western would
would not
that
suggestion
area
feelings.
family
heirs.
residence
of
up anti-British
members of his
dis-
families
Archerts
it
that,,
letter under my signature, you this terms of peace in case you wish to of 21 years and live:, in immunity the You have tasted of your days. You will do well to try the war. of comfort. "4,
accept
jurisdiction
camp.
fate
respective
should
Protectorate.
Sayyidts
ultimate
with
to
as follows:
by Archer
offered
Sayyid
their
took
"I have sent offering you end a quarrel for the rest bitterness of consolations
the
of this
was
be put
would
members of their
out,
Ishaak, 42 same Tarika.
assignments
the
at
arrival
was so convinced set
they
the
Ismail
the
its
of
in
sheikh
in
teacher
upon their
him
The delegation
was Sheikh
that
following
of
offering
a prominent
believing
as soon as they
to
a view
deputy
on being
gripped
duty
rehabilitation.
known religious
a well
Everybody
Ogaden with
zealo
religious
them the
and assigned
into
Sayyid
their
for
and abroado
be under
be. allowed
use that
of
part
a
freedom the
Above alls
and the captured 44 The delegation to him.
42. Jardine The Mad of S 43. Ibid. p. 0 -292-2 44. Archer, Personal and Historical Administrator African op. cit.
op. 01t.
Memoirs p. 108
of
P.
P-W.
an East
I---? .2
tj
set
out
Gorahai well
in
early wheres
received
Shinileh.
April
to
and conducted
which
period
the
at certain
times
thoroughly
castigated
them'for
Europeans,
the
sent
Archerts the
offer that
effect
terms
feathers
of
goo ostriches
destroyed
during
piastres,
20oOOO dollars,
diamonds obviously, about
and 1,000
He replied
be accepted
which,
of
These conditions
of
the
to 910,000, were 30*000-
forts.. scent,
to
the British
allegedlys
of his
to Archer,
if
amounting
20 boxes
pearls.
revival
empty handed.
to him.
bombardment
unacceptable
a possible 45 heightened.
45.
the
with
complicity
them back
would
anger
Having
others.
to pay him a compensation
undertook the
the
camp at
showed extreme
their
was unacceptable
were
seven dramatic
there
at
camp at
they
Sayyid's
Sayyid
and courtesy
Sayyid
the
spent
Dervish
beliefo
to general
contrary
The delegation
days during
the
and reached
ýLo
5 boxes
of
were*
and his'anxiety
Dervish
movement were
Jardine Mad The Mullah Somaliland'op. P-'2193. cit-, of i Jardine s-account at the Sayyid s of what transpired The camp is at variance with Sheikh Jaamac's story. almost ", in the very former, based is whose account on (i. the Sayyid depicts words" e. of the delegation)s was as one who was verging on madness and whose health the Sayyid to Jardines in very poor shape. According Sheikh used obscene language, was rude and unstable. Jaamac, on the other hand, quotes the perfectly sane to the speech which the Sayyid addressed and fiery to the British them for being loyal deleýation, chiding the fruits to the in invade reap of country order who your being and to suck your blood without your-countryo Tarikh see Sheikh Jaamac Cumar Ciise, aware of it" fi-lp. 123). usur .... op. cit. al-Sumal
2 Towards raid
the
against
Yunis.
and shattered
what
killed
arriving
Sayyid,
at Imi,
the
epidemics Sayyid
Imi
at
31000 riflemeno
after
who had started
himself
January
1921.
Dervish
movement was complete. to
hards_moved
farther
46.
Archer, African
the
sometime his
With
surrendered
the
Dervish
their
stock
Shogap
via
Unfortunately
march.
recruiting
new followers
by small-pox
and influenza
the the population, and claimed 46 is Hassan Abdille Muhammad victim. as a
to have died
of
The
decimated
thought
parts
up the
and seized
southwardso
2 days'
at Gorra
morale.
rounded
of Dervishes
area was attacked
which
of their
remained
The Sayyid-fled
Habr
by surprise
Dervishes
little
a number
and rifles.
the
the
band of the
tribal
a
engineered
Mohammed Bullalehp
by Haji
led
and his
took
totalling
stock,
for
Dervishes,
The raid
raiders,
end of May, Archer
(hyena),
Waraba
alias
the
death
Ethiopian
Ogaden,
south out
between the
November
disintegration
Some of
the
of reach
Personal and Historical Administrator, op. cit.
the
ofýthe survivors
and the
authorities into
1920 and
die-
more inhospitable of
the
Ethiopian
Memoirs p. 112.
of
and
an East
r)
British
The Dervish left
existence, the
big
movemento
some important
Protectorate.
many lives
'13 Ad ii
47
Goverments.
of
the
sums of the British
tion
alone
cost
04,000.
harder
to determine.
eluded
death
The real
or capture
for
fact
these
only
but -
is
lives
in
loss
of
The last
money.
the
all
its
not
claimed
and the British
payer's
Secondly,
of
on the history
struggle
Somali tax
21 years
after marks
The Sayyid's
both -
%ý
that
years
the
also expedi-
much
Sayyid
underlined
the
strength
47.
The Habr Yunis raid and the small-pox evidently epidemic the Sayyid's hope of ever being able to resume shattered the jihad. He died a very bitter man. His feelings in one of his last were revealed poems, part of which went as follows:
and craftiness
Even if I had failed flown for me between
of his
movement,
jo get a flag that Here and Nairobi,
2.
Have I failed to get honour victories as well as defeats
3.
Even if luxuriant camels)
4.
Have I"failed to get a riding raid to war with success?
I had failed with grass, to graze,
etc .
would
in Paradises (in war)?
be
and
(region), to get the Ciid (for the Nogal my and
had failed to get Even if-I me sympathy and acknowledge me, to get Have I failed to. see the Prophetts
and the
Godts face?
beast
to mount and
people who would show their kinship with mercy
41 (the and
gift)
the British
relative
weakness
of
torate.
The fact
that
the
interior
hard
in
to
spirit
lived
itself
in
the
exist
defending
the
generations, of the
be expended rule
Sayyid, in
their
which
Dervishes
the
even with
to
and money continued to make their
effort
colonial
acceptable.
the
cially
and bitter in
their
which
Ishaak,
they they
themselves
rank African
interests
of Chief
Native
the
Haji
in
Jamadar,
and was appointed
Musa Farah
and was promoted
the
to
year
the
rank
Consewith
outstanding
who rose
to
held
highest
the by an
the British in
to
the
the
Coast
of Ressaldor
he became the Native
the
and surrounded
He joined
Somali
serving
married
The most
1891 he returned
in
also
areass
1884 as a constable
In
at Aden.
on them not
respects.
abroad
Assistant.,
long
cash reserves
urban
luxuries.
Protectorate.
administration
The following
in
property
urban
but
Sayyid,
substantial
women, travelled
with
depended
in many other
accumulated
was a certain
in
the
espe-
from-the
beneficiaries
The British
bought
most beautiful
the
fighting
colonial
example
were
actively
the British,,
who had supported
conflict.
quently,
Force
for
post-Dervish
that,
lives
desperate
the
to
result
British
The Somali
only
the
the
Thus,
of resistance with
Dervish
and ideas
some principles
legacy
the
movement
1920$ and manifested
of
events
which-is
Dervish
organization,
movement had stood.
bequeathed
death
the
credit
the
although
as a united
on after
original
Somali
Moreover,
to his
Protec-
to-ýevaauate
the British
1910 was a point
to dispute.
ceased
he forced
the
in
position
Police
Protectorate
mounted
Police
major
on 1905.
Political
Agent,
0 4
and then
Chief
Native
was receiving compared
favourably
European
staff.
Honour,
a grant
the
with In
of
annum - and this
of Z208 per
a salary
a Sword of
in
2,000
and Rs.
junior
of the
salaries
1905 he was awarded land
A
By 1916 he
1907.
in
Assistant
r) -1 4.
recognition
of his "conspicuous sound judgement ability, "48 loyalty unswerving
In 1916 he was awarded the Imperial a further
Rs. 2,000.
Service Order and their described often
The British
as "enlightened"
collaborators "backward".
and
and their
opponents as
Yet, the Dervishes despised and loathed the "Gaal-la-Joog" tribes, to them pro-British as referring 49 (servants of the infidel). lasting
legacies
scholarly
which are highly
the British
It
was generally
of
the
bring
culty, colonies. not ment,
only but
of
Government
the
behind
was also
in
line
other
colonies burden
relief
administration.
the
disappearance diffi-
further
without
Protectorate
a financial
48. C. O. 535/42 Archer
local
with
would,
Protectorate
brought
Dervishes
that,
British
The'Somaliland lagging
the
and the
believed the
Sayyid,,
respected for
standard.
The overthrow to
workso in
were the Dervish literary
the form of poetry, their
of the Sayyid's
but by no means least,
Last,
with
the
other
waso by comparison, in to
terms the
of
develop-
Treasury
which
to C. O. 20/3/1916.
49. Musa Galaal Alip interviewed Mogadishu, 7th August 1974.
at the Somali Academy,
11 1) 1) ed j t)
had to pay annual deficit
chronic
Dervish tion
to initiate
the
licences, from ture.
The Treasury,
was happy it
in
to
turn,
customs
would
sources
make the
The following Protectorate's
YEAR
and telegraphs.
figures financial
Protectorate revenue
and harbour
port
dues,
- Yet..
revenue by expendi-
outstripped give
a general
position
picture
EXPENDITURE (Z)
REVENUE (;e) 4o. ooo
125,624
1917-1918
42., 000
115,853
1918-1919
54,498
147,328
for
estimates
a grant-in-aid
for
1920-1921, of Z107,939.
of
: _50
1916-1917
In the
the
administra-
its
derived
was always
end of
revenue-earning
and other
receipts, fees
see the
the more than
the British
expected
The Protectorate
court
these
budget.
taxation
which,
self-reliant. from
its
for
period,
projects
the
in
department,
any other
to make up for
grants-in-aid
the
Governor5l
He however$
applied explained
50. C. O. 535/56 Report on the Somaliland Blue Book for 1918-1919, by D. Jardine,,, Secretary to the Administration., 3/11/1919. 51. C. O. 535/56 Estimates of Revenue and Expenditure, for 1920-1921. the Protectorate The title of the officer administering to Governor in October was changed from Commissioner by the increased 1919. terriThe change was necessitated tory under British fall and the anticipated administration an event which was to add the hitherto of the Sayyid, territory by Dervish-held to that already administered the British. The change was, in effect,, a formal repudiation administration, of the policy and of coastal the acceptance responsibility of the greater of the whole Protectorate. governing
9
J2)
that..
"so far as can be foreseen, this for request the a grant-in-aid of Z108,000 constitutes highest demand it should ever be necessary to Protectorate; for, make for this with the improved military situation which is confidently in the near future, anticipated our military commitments should be reduced, while the local revenue is capable of considerable by the impending development expansion of the Daga Shabel oil fields and other potential mineral resources, as well as by the diversion trade to the Protectorate, of Abyssinian on which it is proposed to concentrate effort " next year. 52 the
For tectorate,
the
a definite
shift
military were
to
of
in
for
the
the
for,
the the
removal
the
question
of
revenue,
regarded
the
measures
such as direct
measures
provoked
time
as premature
the
from projects
troops 53
and
On the
administration
evidently
for
radical
taxation. Treasury
showed
education,
garrison forces.
security
local
of
being
the
Pro-
year
A number
of
the
attention
important
most
of
financial
Protectorate's
of the
reduction
history
1920-21
administration.
services,
a general
time
estimates
civil
provided
medical
first
initiating The omission
of
such
to
"urge that the question Somaliland of bringing line with the other East African Protecinto by the imposition torates of some form of taxation direct of the natives should receive " earnest consideration. 54 on the tion
Protectorate's
was considered
was through
52.
Ibid.
53.
Ibid.
54.535/64
Western
Treasury
scale
of
to be the
most
urgent
education
that
the
to C. O. 27/10/1921.
prioritieso andývital.
British
hoped
educaIt to
new values
plant
among those
especially Catholic
Mission
without
success.
1910 no other
who had followed
had tried Since
to
the
or
even encourage
European
of
the
Dervish
the
for
applied in
August
to
the
1919 but
idea.
Office,
the
Mission
in
initiate
In anticipation the
movemento its
same Mission
Berbera
mission
was firmly
Office
a second
The
education
been made to
education.
Colonial
Parkinson,
the
of
and
Sayyid.
western
closure
to re-open
permission
Somali, the
initiate
had hitherto
attempt
end of
among the
and attitudes
the
in
clerk
opposed Colonial
that
minuted
"there is no reason that I know of for departing from the present arrangement whereby all from British Somalimissionaries are excluded land. " 55 The existing number
the
there
education
schools
studying were
the
of
three and the
the
such
in
third
at Berbera,
A majority
the
schools
all
The average
was confined On the
the
coast
another
receiving
a subsidy
attendance
in
1919
and 37 at Zeila.
16 at Bulhar
boys were
the
in
scattered
one at Berbera,
Zeila,
at
a large
of
and Arabia.
schools,
was 72 pupils
traders.
were
these
Koran
administration.
of
consisted
which
The curriculum
at Bulhar from
of
of Koranic
interior. to
form
sons of
Indian
and Arab
56 In
1918 Archer
paid
a visit
to, the
Sudan and
was "greatly sending
impressed with. a few specially
the desirability Somalis, selected
of
Minute by Parkinson on Fr- F. Card Bourne, 55.535/57 to P. O. 18/8/1919 Bishop of Westminster, Catholic (Encl. in F. O. to C. O. 25/8/1919). 56. C. O. 535/56 Report on the Somaliland Blue Book for 3/11/1919. 1.918-1919, by D. Jardine,
the
sons of notables Gordon College" in
fact
he took
the
admission
six
years.,
the
Colonial
the
same time,
6 Somali
Office for
to meet part
of
described
in
the
and the
Treasury
of the
the
Colonial
boys
left
what
came to be accepted
initiate
the
arguing
grant
the
Khartoum,
such a time
until
the
as the
schools for
estimates
establishment
of
set
of 9200 per
in
to
a number
was 58 idea,,
sanction of Somali
a precedent ate's
policy
Protectorate.
1920-1921
a Goverment
of
be possible
might
the
annum
The project
Protector as it
at
applyingo
persuaded
and this
up to
informed
"excellent as an
year,
for
lasting
He then
scheme.
office
following
Government In
for
the
a course
accomplij
was successfully
Thus,
to
fait
for
cost
sum.
education
for
the
to negotiate
visit
a government
this
of
boys
to
country,
930 per head.
and costing
for
of his
advantage
of
this
in ; 57
Archer
secondary
provided schoolp
that "the time has come when the local demand for facilities in the country educational can no longer be ignored hope to vie eventually .... departrecruit our clerical and subordinate from the school.. which mental establishment, be beneficial to the natives will of the Pro" tectorate interests in the of economy. and
59
He asked experimental
appointment
for
an initial stages
of
grant including,
a headmaster.
57. C. O. 535/52 Archer
to
of 91,000 as a first
Douglas
cover step,
Jardineo
the the
then
to C. O. 11/7/1918.
58. C. O. 535/52 Minute by Robinsono lst clerk in the Colonial-Officeo on-Archer to C. O. 11/7/1918. 59. C. O. 535/56 Estimates 1920-1921.
of Revenue and Expenditure
for
3 2 tS Secretary
the
of
a detailed
to to
intended
this
Government
the
medical
the
the
Somali
clerks,
Works,
educational
educational
boys with
wireless
department,
project.
scheme was to
a view
the
assistants
turning
dressers
operatorss
headmen in
agricultural
on to prepare
went
proposed
plan,
train
out
Public
for
plan
According
Administration,
department
in of
etc.
"The most intelligent boys who could probably the whole course, complete would be drafted "60 into the graded clerical staff. It
that
was suggested
Arithmetic, typing., paid
Accountingo
by the to
was recommendedo football
Arabic,
to be exempted. was to
include
and hockey.
Koramic
fees those
while
of English,
consist
School
parents
headmaster
an English
under
should
Geography,
well-to-do
pay were
especially
course
and hygiene.
gardening
afford
the
studieso to be
were
who could
Physical English
not
education, games,
The school
was to be
who must be
"a graduate of an English university,, anxious and able to promote the physical education of the boys and to organise their games, and preloyally to the non-Christian pared to subscribe vt insisted upon. policy 61 Jardine's tion
in
the
Colonial
because
the
Dervish
educational Office,
Schools
in
superseded
by E. R. J. the
but
was not
movement had not
The scheme was later recommended
scheme got
Sudan,
Hussey,
yet
a warm recep-
taken
new one
Inspector
who was-regarde-d'as
once
been overthrown.
by an entirely Chief
up at
a better
of expert
"Outline 6"0.535/56 of the scheme to establishing a Govern(Encl. Berbera", Jardine, by, D. 25/6/1919 ment school at in Estimates of. Revenue and'Expenditure for 1920-1921). 61. Ibid.
tj than
Jardine
education
on the
question
in Muslim
Archer's
his
to the
visit
recommendations
Protectorates
on
invitation. Hussey's
educational
He was at
extensive. the
Hussey's
countries.
were made following
European
establishing
of
objective
of
the
one with
scheme was elaborate
and
Archer
that
educational
in
advocating
programme
be
should
"the production and literate of a responsible type of Somali, into whom the proper ideas have been inculcated training in his early It is fully both home and realised at -oo* abroad that one of the chief of our objects colonial administration should be gradually to guide the various races and peoples under our control along the path of real progressp and to teach them to take a more intelligent interest in their own affairs *"62 These-ideas the
the
eflected
Sudan educational
system
became Governor-General pace by advocating
guiding
of
the
was,, founded.
the
Sudan in
establishment
upon which
principles
Wingate
who
1902 had set
the
of
"a carefully by considered system .... devising the aspirasome means of guiding tions best of native youth into channels adopted by the evolution of individual character and racial progress and - most important in of all encouraging moral instruction and religious requires which , a sense of duty, integrity,, and unswerving "63 loyalty in public relations. and private James Currie shared
Wingatets
realization
62.
63.
who became Director
of
enthusiasm these
goals
of Education
and made strides by establishing
in
1900
towards a number
C. O. 535/62 Memorandum by E. R. J. Hussey on the in Somaliland, Western education of introducing (Encl. in Archer to C. O. 23/12/1920). Development Educational Mohamed Omer Beshir, 1969 p. 28 (i. e. ingate 18 -1956, (Oxford) This book is based on Beshirts the author). 1966. Thesis for-Oxford,
the of
question 5/12/1920
in the Sudan, is quoted by B. Litt.
It
outstanding.
was in
that
and optimism
However,
land.
jaf the
tion
Gordon College
of which
schoolso
Hussey the
the
hitherto
educational
the
of
for
which
which
in
Somali-
Sudan administrathe
were
founders.
in
aimed,
Sudanese
contrary
by its
cherished
policy
most
enthusiasm
task
education
results
produced
of
his
approached
of Europe=
merits
expectations
Thus.. the
same spirit
enthusiasm
was damped when it to
the
the
was probably
1918,
at
producing "not merely clerks and artisans, and administrators" officers 064 gave way to
a systematic
educated
Sudanese
imposing
strict
of nationalist
tical
violence
of
in
1924 - which
In
short,
the
the
Sir were
as conceived
classo
the
advocated
which
64.
let
Protectorate was already
the
the
educated from
like
the
Wingate,
expressed educational in
suffered
to
Educational M. 0. Beshir, P. 76. op. cit.
in
turning
Office
the
Somali-
The Treasury
process.
financing
in
The
Colonial for
of
system
was shaken. the
out
confidence
educational
system the
class.
opponents
British
in
of poli-
by the
had produced
alone
opposed
outbreak
the
Governor-General,
far
system,
loyalty",
by people originally
land
to
schools.
in
lay
alia,,,
attributed
Consequently,
enthusiasm about
inter the
educational
rule.
and the
of
and in
the
of
attitude
Lee Stack,
number
sector
curricula of
movements
"unswerving
educated
change
demonstrated -
assassination
the
of
administrative on the
this
surge
British
the
control
behind
The reason
men of
in
curtailment
but
any development
Development
in
the
Sudan,
3 in
projects rebuffing
Somaliland,
educational 65 approval.
Treasury
The most included
the
a favourable
be discussed
- as will
subsequent
found
important
appointment
Husseyts -
later when
proposals
the
for
Hussey's
scheme
headmaster
who
of
type
and
submitted
features
of
for
climate
of
would "endeavour-to become the friend the pupils under his charge. to implant in vour and foster English public school spirit., foundation* characters on that
In
to
addition
dary
the
school,
scheme,
the
establishment
Koranic
be placed
under
headmaster
of
increased,
and their
besides
Arabic
Arithmetic the
basis
schools.
the
and would
would
of
competitive
Hussey
then
to
their
With
the
include, as
re-organizationo as Vernacular
guaranteed
secondary
examination claimed
number to
be re-designated subsidy
the
of the
such subjects
this
seconto
according
diversified
studies,
have their
Admission
Government
supervision
school,
curriculum
and Koranic
the
would,
general
Government
schools
increased. the
schools
and Geography.
Koranic
schools
the
of
ofand'father He should endeathe the school up and build "66
in
and be on
school
would
the
vernacular
that
"the Somali are certainly to the far more alive to be derived from education and more advantages for its development than the majority anxious of the native races of Africa 67,
65.
loss of interest Ibid. Chapter V discusses Britain's development educational of the Sudan as a result-of disturbances of 1923-1924. political
66.
C. O. 535/62 Memorandum by E. R. J. Hussey on the Western education in-Somaliland, of introducing (Encl. in Archer to C. O. 23/12/1920).
67.
Ibid.
in the
question 5/12/1920
306 Hussey's Colonial
Office
the
problem
the
as sound and "astonishingly
and described
but
complete",
in
memorandum was recommended
to be that
was stated
"Somaliland finances arep of course, chronically bad it is to be hoped that greatly we shall .... be able to persuade the Treasury to let us carry through hopes a scheme which holds out such fair " of promising results. 68 With the
Z3,397,
for
to
foundation at
began
estimates
of
the
Treasury
to
return
to Sudan,
Gordon
College,
secondary
the
him the
most
fluency
in
and the
fact
Arabic,
two years'
with
14th
use in his remark
68.
proposed
Somaliland
Pro-
supposedly
made
post
were his in
the
Sudan
Richardson
of books
in France during the war, days, was an associate arrived
and other
work.
This
Minute
by Machtig.
development
69. C. O. 535/65 Archer
in
material provoked
that
Ibid.
at
he had
February
a supply
the
on his
the
of
of
the
a teacher
which
experience
"commanded a battalion and, in his university blue. "69 On the
then
credentials
and the
Hussey,
Schools,
for
Protecto-
for
waiting
item,
of
Office,
re-organisation
of headmaster
candidate his
the
headmaster
Richardson,
and Inspector
suitable
that
the
Colonial
scheme was earmarked
the
Without
post
Richardson's
the
school,
or reject
selected
In
Husseyts
pay of
schools.
for
school
tectorate.
the
secondary
approve
the
to move fast.
1921-22
cover
4 Koranic
least
from
encouragement
administration
rate's for
this
to C. O. 2/2*1921.
the
Protectorate
he intended-to Machtig
to
() 101
301
"this appointment should not have been made As it pending a decision on the estimates. is, we can leave it to the local authorities to find a way out. " 70 The Treasuryts
decision,
was a blow
arrival,
item
education
that
sources
of revenue,
held
abeyance.
scheme,
the
proposal
to
tion
unless
of
(Z7., 200).
able asters state tration
development together
Thus,
slashed
the
re-orientation
and political
the
education
with
following
as being
was regarded Twenty
years
of the
the
construe-
schemes
key to
their plus
number
of people
of destitution
that,
by the
end of
the
agri-
material the
unfavourdis-
natural
a great
of relief
key to
Somali,
and recurrent
a number
the
forces
had reduced
was running
the
to be the
of warfare..
conditions
items:
boring
security
was held
education
be
should
(95POOO)o water for
new
projects
(C1,000).
agriculture
and new barracks 71
geographical
the
on the
estimates
had devised
all
encourage
regeneration.
the
from
The
administration.
Protectorate
Treasury
Whereas
culture
local
the
a new hospital
(93,000)
moral
the
was slashed
grounds
in
to
Richardson's
a month after
coming
to
such a
19190 the
camps on the
adminiscoastal
towns. "Somalilandts more tangible and no decent ff cations. 72
twenty nothing war left years' Ford Cars than a few ramshackle means of communiroads or other
70. C. O. *535/65 Minute by Machtig Governor, to C. O. 11/3/1921. 71- C. O. 535/67 Treasury
on Lawrence,
Acting
to C. O. 11/3/1921.
72. I. M. Lewiss A Modern History P. 101.
of Somaliland,,
op. cit.
Ju
Initiative taken
by
the
a number vation
of
the
in
important
an extensive
culti-
using his
During
ploughs. impressed
was
1920.,
end of
and barley,
home-made
being
agricultural
in
growing
the
the
advising carrying
one for
by
this
His
of cereals. Somali
out
experiments
purchased
and loaned
out
already
of new crops.
ploughs
be
should
farmers
on the
decision
and
for
above
a
item
has
been noted.
for,
pay towardso
any to
administration In
measures. prepared warned
to
or
at
initiate
experiment the
least
Colonial
73- C. O. 535/61 Archer
the
Protectorate
make a substantial
development
November
that
insistence
The Treasuryts should
a variety
several
involve
would
of cultivation
to progressive
The Treasury's
qualified
duties
main
with
was that
fee.
of a West
appointment
in modern methods
suggestion
small
the
who was specially
officer
The other
but
was
that
noting
Indian
tion
began
wheat,
Archer
the
Towards
Hargeisa
interior,
agriculture
"a splendid has been made and I consider start it to be incumbent to administration on this its power the encourage in every way within pursuit of agriculture among the Somali as., it will rapidly apart from other considerationso lead to a general of a more settled adoption " mode of life. 73 then proceeded to make a number of suggestions, the
Archer
in
of
themselves.
constructed
development,
most
improvement
(millet),
jowari
of
of
Somali people
ingeniously tour
the
towards
forced
projects,
1920
Archer
reported
with
a form
of
of
the
revenue-earning
unpopular
Office
contribu-
the
that
he was
direct-taxation, dangers
to C. O. 6/10/1920.
pertaining
9 .1 f) 1 ij 43
to
this
measure.
was the
first
territory,
Archer's
its
kind
as neither
the
of
it
attempted of
74
in
taxation
their
annual
tributes
based
on the
rationale
taxes
collect
each tribal
raising
the
fixed
Archer
the
he would
take
their
The part
of
be paid Somali to
small
levy
operated
a fee
of on-the
a number
75.
as
who
of-businesses
be unaffected.
proposed for
Protectorate. Lallje
on their
entirely
which
included a fee would the
for
of poll-tax
Hajeebhoy.
74. C. O. 535/62 Archer
duties
customs
people
would
of rifles
the
taxation
reluctantly
of
measures
introduction
residents
the
dia
on imported-foodstuffs.
agriculture
registration
Somali
traditional of
who lived
population
revenue-earning
and the
failure
section
livelihood
and subsistance
annual
the
increase
the
for
make sense to the to
principle,
of
responsible
to
for
the
would
idea
the
also
proposed
depended
The other
but
was
impossible
was it
only
of
This
section.
the
only
stock
not
form
the
take
of
hit
the
was to
event
would
The kind
collectively
a step
had
Italians
territories.
individuals,
in
by 15% at Berbera, it
that.,
tribute,
was similar, 75 In the system.
the
nor
taxation
direct
Somali-inhabited
entire
each tribal
section
as it
scheme,
French
for
from
holding
the
by Archer
fixed
to
in
respective
proposed
for
proposal
He also
non-
proposed
Company which
at Berbera
and in
Aden.
to C. O. 29/11/1920.
The Dia system was a custom by which each tribal for the payment responsible was collectively section of a dispute arising of camels towards the settlement individual an member of crime committed-by a out of that tribal a member or members of against section for example,, In the case of murder, section. another the dia was 100 camels for a man and 50 camels for a woman.
34-D On the
expenditure
by reducing
the
side
Protectorate
of the
forces
security
to make a saving
intended
Archer
to
the minimum as soon as the conditions for doing so were 76 favourable. Even with all there was these proposals, no prospect
to
expected
the in
Protectorate
a foreseeable
within
This
the
of
fall
futureo
to no more than
was a comparatively Treasury
view
tion
in
would
the
mineral
refuse
Z50jOOO per
to
especially
sanction,
and commercial
hopefully,
which,
by the
cherished
was 77 annum.
grant-in-aid
figure
small
not
the hopes
of
the
but
budget
its
balancing
local
administrathe
of
potentials
Protectorate. In December Archer the
administrative to
sheikhs
discuss
his
their
for
strategy
the
officers, tax
of
summoned a conference and the
Akils
proposals
implementation.
and devise He later
leading a
reported
the proposals had, on the wholep been "fairly well 78 to put the scheme into received ,,. and so he intended that
effect of
the
argued
delay
without
scheme were that
the
contravention to
the
instead
of
the
the
of
Islamic
impoverished
imposing
the
76. C. O. 535/62 Archer
The only from
representatives
taxation
of
already
or hesitation.
tax
the
would
Somali. proposals
Burao
besides
Somalio
law,
opponents who
being
a
cause hardships
They suggested on the
that,
people,
to C. O. 29/11/1920.
77. Ibid. 78. C. O. 535/62 Memorandum by Archer on the proceedings 29th Conference CommissionePs the District of of November 1920p held at Berbera, 23/12/1920. .
0.4
1 314 Archer the
introduce
should
administration
would
coming
into
system
commended itself
with
the
it
which
against
it
revenue
than
those
Archer
on the the
insisted
on the
it
scheme,
engage in
in
those
the
of
not
less
affect
areas.
It
conference tribute
system,
representatives
was
tributes was to fall 0 the administration while which
introducing
felt
to the
in
the
Akils,
cases
bring
the
ease
he was inclined
urban
during
a trial
Conference,
measure,
with
Zariba
relative
and would
of the Burao
of the
the
it,
would
trade
Thus,
evade.
the
implement
that
voice
question
of rifles, of the
to
on giving
shoulders
for
which
on everything
Whereas
to Archer
The onus of collecting
support
On the
79
sale.
tribute
dissident
hushed.
for
grounds
not
easy to
and the
gave
towns
scheme under
a fee
collect
was possible
who did
was also
"Zariba"
the
necessitated
compulsory
while
coercion.
registration the
recognising
expediency
that
"compulsory registration might lead of rifles to a measure of distrust in the native mind, to be better and it was thought not to press t180 the matter the moment .... at present On their of
exaggerated
new tax
measures.,
after
sonally
the
the
reports
by angry
stoned only
to
return
District
the
Akils
found
had been circulating
At Hargeisa mobs.
intervened
interior
the
The situation Commissioner
and, promised
to
Akils
that
C) regarding
were heckled
came under of Hargeisa investigate
79. Ibid. 80.
Ibid.
beginning
of
1921 the
the and
control had pertheir
grievances., At the
a lot
administration
92 the
announced as proposed was
decision
to
implement
the
by Archer
and
endorsed
by the
stressed,
part
the
of
and by
far
Hergeisa
harshero
that
the
the
infidels
(men of
by
Archer
the
on the policy
alternative, in
a general were
to
violation and
It
Reaction
that
by Muslims
excommunication
came to
introduce
the of
eternal
uprising by
stirred
to
who announced
a blatant
- was
decided
feelings
religion)
Conference.
taxation.
of
anti-tax
of. taxes
payment
punishable
to
scheme
refusal
any
the
so hostile
was The
that
with
methods
imminent.
Wadads
comply
administration
and Burao
seemed the
the
same time,
to
people
lead
would
the
at
taxation
the
people
Europeans
Islamic
-
laws, 81
damnation.
that
conclusion
"direct tribal in full payment can be-enforced by without any chance of failure or opposition the formation proceeding at once with of a battalion One in Aden small air-force ...... be stationed should at Sheikh as a temporary measure. " 82 Archer's aim
taxation to
was
raise
implementation the
the
against of
of
the
not
the
offset
for
the
and
so
guarantee
the
C. O. 535/62 the District 23/12/1920.
elements,
punitive ultimate
tax
on punitive and Ando
the
cost
and
security
targets
but the
required
money
that
Protectorate
liabilities,
air-force.
81. Mss. AFR 891-907, 82.
main
scheme
recalcitant
proposed by
Its
taxpayer's
a non-productive
could
self-defeating.
financial
of
British
was
revenue
Britain's
alleviate
of
scheme
the even
incurred
expenditure action establishment then,
Archer
as a result
measures he hoped
the
to
would
be
achieve.
op. cit.
Memorandum by Archer on the proceedings Commissioner's Conference op. cit.,
of
j '.1 :)
Machtig
that
remarked
"the imposition lead to now would of tribute trouble. As a matter we cannot supply of fact forces to ensure that adequate such trouble as be promptly would arise would put down, but be it would even if we had them available, doubtful into to turn the Protectorate policy in order to collect Z30,000 a "bear-garden" The proposal worth of revenue. must therefore be regarded be as inexpedient and should " 83 dropped. With
regard
ing
customs
to
Archerts
duties.,
alternative
Machtig
for
proposal to
objected
increas-
idea
the
Of because the drastic increase partly proposed is clearly hard very and partly on the poor because it the same situation as may produce by the unrest Z30,000 regards as raising "84 direct taxation. Milner
expressed
similar
views,
that
remarking
"I am strongly of opposed to the introduction to tribute likely it appears proposed since formalead to general I do not regard unrest. tion of a Protectorate or the air-force from troops despatch suggested of British Aden as practicable conditions under present be I consider that measures should -oeo dropped as regards alternative suggestion to customs* relating 85 It between land
the
is
Protectorate
and that
the
Northern
Ishaak
Frontier
levels:
highest
Somali
were
83. Ibid. Ibid.
taken
tribe
tax
was the
and the originally
Minute Minute
African placed
the
note
by the
District).
European
second
to
taken
attitude
particularly
84.
interesting
in
Somali by the
in -
tax in
in
was the
the
latter
by Machtig. by Machtig.
85. C. O. 535/65 Milner
to Archer 3/2/1921.
Community
(excluding
Asian
highest.,
Somali-
the
Somali
Kenya
Taxation
contrast
sharp
-
the
Keny, was on three tax
was the
lowest.
The
class
the
91
so-called
native
status,
demanding
implied
payment
partially
but -
grade
they
to be classified
of higher
1919 defined
them as non-natives
higher
as well
hitherto change
in
taxation This
the
Somali
for
minated
about
in
tax
Somali
Uganda and Tanganyika. the
Ishaak
in
the
uprising
A letter
British
native
Asiatic
of
grade.
status
and the
nearly
and it
was also
Somaliland
a
among the
The agitations
scales.
a general
the
scale
of agitation
of their
of
them to pay
19360 howevers
a new sliding
deal
were
and facilities
In
in
also
Ordinance
and permitted
Somali
restoration
higher
Exemption
Asians.
a great
which
aspirations
privileges
in
the
placed
the
attendant
the
law resulted
which
brought
as enjoy
for
reserved
Their
Somali
this
resented
as Asians,
taxes.
when the
achieved
taxes
later
spread
culto to
addressed
Protectorate.
It
i
went as follows:
"We are in a very bad condition and treated in respect very severely of the tax, and some have been issued against regulations us. Because we agreed to pay yearly the same taxes as theIndians and Asiatics and now * we are ordered to pay the same taxes as slaves, "86 as if we are the natives of Africa. It in
diaspora
be observed.
will did
not
regard
ment of their'religious in
86.
terms
of
the
They,
principles. fostered
racial-grades
Somali
as an infringe-
taxation
colonial
the
that
-therefore,
instead,
and enhanced
saw it by the
by an Ishaak trader A letter in Moshi to-a group of Ishaak elders in Burao, as quoted by Dr. R. Turton in an article "The Ishaak Somali Kenya 1936-1941", Affairs, in African P. 325-346.1
Diaspora Vol.
73,
and poll No.
tax
292 (JulY
agitation 1974)
in
11
3 LJ colonial of
the
the
with
entailed
Somaliland
fairly
homogeneous
racial
categorization
Nevertheless,
Somali
this
middle
lines
and those
It
nationalism
tory,
of action
from
Somali With the
schemess
view
their
of
decided
in
the
the to
residents
86. ibid.
drop
the
the
this
of
contra-
cause*
and
actually
on many other
stand to
two
taxation
British
their
of Archer's
collapse
Treasuryts
failure
different
same and they
opposition
in
contradic-
the
regarded the
of
the
introduction
Roman script.
In February
stiffened.
to
in
that
although
a common and joint
such as in
of written
they
as being
method.,
managed to take issues,
it,
Somali
conditions
Somaliland
seem to be aware
not
by the
fundamentally
regard
being
similar
or
and essentially
with
hand,
expressions
that,
The
tensions.
the
in in
is
different.,
did
Far
even their
those
point
took
diction.
this
taken
action
identify even though
other
attendant
was expressed
communities
they
on the
was because
from
The surprising
schemes,
of
bottom
of taxation.
terms
at home were both
different
lines
in
its
to
Asians,
experience
with
nationalism.
ways.
not
the
at
aspired the
class,
sacrifice
did
were
Somali
Protectorate,
the
Kenya were
Africans
the
greater
British
diaspora
the
hierarchy,
racial
themselves this
Since
system.
attitude
towards
1920 Archer
of his
for
Somaliland
reported
that,
in
schemes he had also
taxation
pr oposal
revenue-earning
taxing
and businessmen
because
it
"proceeded with "86' taxation.
independently
the
could
non-Somali not
be
of Somali
P, 4-0
Consequently aid
the Treasury
was asked, to
to 9110,500
amounting
for
The Protectorate's
year.
the
approve
1921-1922
financial
the
from
revenue
a grant-in-
receipt
customs
to amount to Z45,000 and other sources was estimated 87 less. 986,00o of the estimated was to expenditure defray
a deficit Z30,000
year,
incurred
during
the
previous
was to make up for
the
failure
direct
taxation
scheme,
Indian
soldiers
whose removal,
Archer,
was found
unsettled
and 92,500 taxation
abandonment
of
The balance
was intended
whose demise
projects
has already
in
disagreeable.,
found
and this
the the
light
of
attitude
the
the by the
non-Somali.
those
for
the corridors 88
development
of
the
Treasury
of
the
Treasury that
him to propose
prompted
by
proposed
for
proposals
the
of
was necessitated
to provide
been merttioned. Churchill
the
in
financial
retaining
originally
impracticable
situation, the
was for
910,000
or
#a strong to the letter should be written Treasury cutting with regard to the arbitrary It89 of these votes .... This
tug-of-war
by Archer,
to
was superseded the
that
effect
should
be amalgamated
former
as being "too lacking stand on its
87. C. O. 535/65 Archer
with
by a new idea, the
Aden,
Somaliland for
Protectorate
he regarded
and too
in resources own. "90
initiated
small
the
to
to C. O. 13/2/1921.
88. Ibid. 89. C. O. 535/65 Churchillts 13/2/1921. 90. C. O. 535/68 Archer
minute
to Fiddes
on Archer
21/2/1921.
to C. O.
C' f
In any case., linked
Somaliland
through
division,
history
a long
identity.
and religious tive
trade,
and Aden were
Thus,
so Archerts
inextricably
already of cultural
the
contact administra-
prevailing
was artificial
wents
argument
and unrealistic. "Aden is already his (i. e. Somali) metropoliso his trading Aden and Somaliland are centre; Meat supplies, inter-dependent. commercially skins etc. from Somaliland go to Aden and all food supplies to Somaliland come from Aden. If Aden becomes the headquarterso dual manage"91 disappear. ment expenses will Archer's from
met with
proposal
hostility
outright
Machtig: "it would seem that as a result of the rejection of his ill-conceived for direct proposals (a taxation to Somalis, he has leapt quite of that the financial erroneous) posiconclusion tion of Somaliland is desperate and necessitates the amalgamation and Aden, and, of Somaliland taking this he arranges as his starting point, his view to fit his theory without considering the very serious or even mentioniný objections t difficulties. and 92
Some of that
the
Somaliland
already
system
conditions by changing
proposed
that
the whole
towards
All
this
Machtig
91.
Ibid.
92.
Ibid.
Minute
by Machtig.
93.
Ibid.
Minute
by Machtig.
the
"larger
had
an adminito the
be destroyed
and character could
Office of
would
were
Abyssinian
Colonial
and meaningful
structure II
the
amalgamation
establishment
was unique
At any rate, that
to
and that
of Somaliland.
Goverment. supposing
to Aden,
made progress
strative
the
was more linked
than
problem"93
to
objections
find
of
the
no basis
for
"the new arrangements to the of Somaliland
decrease will Exchequer
In March
was invited
amalgamation
proposals
the Middle
at
had been summoned to
which the
conflicting
Gulf
between
95 Mecca.
to
claims Ibn
Saud of
When the
scheme,
Persia
94
power
things, the
Persian
Hussein
of
in
and Sheriff question
came up for
to
the
was inclined
his
Conference
among other
legitimate
cost
to defend
East
discuss.,
Somaliland
Churchill
cussion., tion
1921 Archer
the
support
dis-
amalgama-
that
saying
"considerable advantages could be gained and by integrating Aden and economies effected "96 British Somaliland. Churchill
then
financial
and political
set
On his
scheme.
light
of
the
Committee's
to press
for
the
findings,
insurmountable
Colonial
matters
Office
as the
advantages
and in
the
amal-
the
decided
not
of
India
to-be
is
contribution its
investigationso of
Office derived
94.
Ibid.
95.
Mss.
AFR.
96.
C. O.
535/65
Churchill's
minute
97.
C. O. 535/68 21/2/1921.
Churchill's
minute-on
Minute
in
Churchill
differences
and the
technical,
proposals
"till India's financial fl settled. 97 The Committee had, in the course
the
involved
to London,
return
amalgamation
the
study
implications
gamation
discovered
to
up a committee
opinion
between
on such crucial from
amalgamation
by Machtig.
S. 605
OP-cit-
p. 4-7on Archer
to
C. O.
Archer
to
Fiddes
13/2/1921
Ila and on the the
two offices.
that
view
The India
to accept
reluctant
the
administering
on the
shoulders
embraced his
nearly
other
by failure
the
fortunes
Jibuti.
During
the
Somali
Jibuti of
it
outstanding It
culture.
Governor
turn,,
19th
in
was,
the Yemen. century
Zeilats
half
unleashed
of the
scramble were
it
19th-century
between
recognized
whose aspirations with
having
went
her
European at
and Islamic
in
superiors the
Somali
coast
was short
ruler
The
the
and,
ofitrade
pattern lived
but
the
During
the
second
town. became a target until
Britain's
Conference
of
Jibuti
or as one
in
powers
over
world
decline
had been frustrated.. claims
Berbera
governor.
on unabated.
the Berlin
on
the Yemen and the
to his
com-
by
influence
learning
established.
the
the
to revive
began to
conquered
Egypt. 's reign
and resources
efforts
than
trade,
townts
fortunes
the
The
outside
accountable
disrupted
and government.
the
of
the
when Egypt
by so doing.,
decline
of
was a dependency appoint
obstinacy.
of, Arab rather
known to
centres
or dis-
had been usurped
stages
was Zeila
of Mokha used to
the
and
to be vexed
attempting
which
early
was best
which
the
the
appear
policies Archer
life.
Treasury's
was in
of Zeila
coast,
not
engaged
which
administration
mercial
did
and the
preoccupation
alternative
of Somali
aspect
of
recalcitant,
alone
for
search
Summers,
successor,
heartened
of
every
the
India.
of
The post-Dervish
burden
the
let
a non-productiveo
taking
scheme,
thrust
would
by each of
wasp on the whole.,
office
amalgamation
such a measure
territory
to be paid
amount of contribution
claims
1885ý
contented recognized.
of
'France, herself
French
4 11
C)
policy
in Jibuti
was,
policy
in
or indeed
Zeila,
While
coast.
a relatively
France
it
Ethiopiao
with
Berbera wholep her
the
at
on the
hinterland
tribes
was connected
the
with
Begiming expended
to revive
attempt Jibuti's Zeila
trade.
traders
might
customs
duties
effort Zeila
Zeila
but
Treasury's one major Jibuti
were
to
Jibutits parsimony
railway
made their
to channel
the
lowest
relatively
high.
and expand
the
over block
93
in
and effort
and
Archer
Jibuti
so that where
He also
facilities
Rayne's
efforts
remained
unrivalled.
Somaliland
P. 5-6.
the the
made an
trading
which
the
to keep
commercial
for
Raynes
and usurp
minimum
to Rayne's
98. MSS. AFR. S. 605 op. cit.
business
facilities
the
in
the
was an asset
commer-
D. C. of Zeilas
away from
position
The
their
with
he persuaded the
of Jibuti
of Zeila.
of Zeila
some improvement
stumbling
rise
of
by railway.
had been neglected.
in
resulted
the
supplied
fortunes
be attracted
to modernize which
Thus,
along
1919,
Firstly, duties
customs
development
of resources
the
at'v-% on the
was also
decline
interior
link
the
began well
to
in
had all
with deal
a great
but
corresponding
was both
line
concentrated
capital
at Zeila
which
only
coast.
which
transactions
to Jibuti
invest
hitherto commercial
a railway
of Zeila
Somali
by the
was matched
cial
to
reluctant
towns
not
Somali
Jibuti,
a prosperous
as building
expense
Britain's
any town on the
into
Britain
from
to convert
town,
as far
going
different
in
strove
obscure
centre)
however,
life
projects
schemes while Rayne could
of
of The was the find
no
35.1. at Zeila.
equivalent
the
immediate
additional
hinterland
fact,
of
and the
to
only
town was,
of wonder
to
the
to
lie
in
was thought
reason
while the
Zeila
That
water.
as a commercial
a source
land
was endowed with
of abundant
survive
of Zeila
of waterless
of Jibuti
attraction
had continued matter
60 miles
to more than
stretched
hinterland
the
Moreover,
as a
administration the
"conservative in clinging habits of the natives to what has always been their spurred by port., " Commissioner. the District continual effort of 99 Another considerable years
was the
energy
Britain
to pay adequate
lishing
a sound and viable
already
done for
the
sions.
The only
administrative
a body of government the
with
to the
than
in
British
and hated
to
The Akil
citizens.
that..
by the
their
the
ordinary
while
their
was a great
Dervish
Somali
the
but,
citizens
and
and the
ordi-
disappointment
Akils
despised
even more serious
of them used to loyalty
was
charged
policies
system
were
importance
who were
the British
pay lip
service remained
and sympathies
kinsmen'. The administration
the
of
Akils,
posses-
colonial
other
government
only
estab-
as she had
between
not
a good number
the British
with
that
need for
the
feature
implementing
of
as intermediaries
acting nary
duty
to
of her
agents,
for
impossible
administration
majority
Twenty
administration.
virtually
attention
expended
administration
internal
had made it
of warfare
the
in which
area
period,
Sheikhs..
of
been left
while-the
largely
Indian
had,
justice
Penal
in
the
all
through
hands
Code,, which
of
the
was
to the Estimates 99. c. O. 879/121 Correspondence relating for 1925-1926. of Revenue and Expenditure
3ý
to be the
supposed existed
loopholes the
stressed
importance
of
various
been impossible
to
In
the
introduction
the
brutal
to
support
both
despatches
it
the
divided
for
premature was not
the
to
permission
legisla-
administrative
the weight
exert
justice,
of
the
of
had hitherto
it
Archer
punishment
in
a number
Conference
and in
The Colonial
among the
introduction
of
of Akils
the
on
in
its
subsequent felt
Akils,
capital
punishment
which
were
strongly
the
that,,
in
time
was
punishment,
Summers sought
capital
cases
especially
Office
opinion
impose
those
argued
the
proposed
murders,
Archer
1924 that
until
the
in which
Although
to London.
the
of
field
proposal,
at
He
system. important
of
and pre-meditated
the
Commissioners'
do so.
roads.
opposed
District
initiating
areas
of capital
caravan
view
those
ild
Protectorateo
administrative
need to
J
out what he considered
aspects
urgent
in
administration
the
pointed
the
the
and of
involved
During
in
to regulate
life,
law of the
1920 Archer
of
to be the
tion
in name.
only
Conference
basic
')
and
and acquired in
cases
involving
"murder of particular brut -ality or wantonness be supported when I have no doubt that I shall by a considerable volume of opinion among the themselves. " natives 100 The other departments by, the re-organizaaffected, tional the
phase
of
Camel Corps,
ment.
In
dealing
with
addition.,
the the
period
included
department
and the
post-Dervish Customs a number
such matters
of, ordinances
as the
chewing
were
of kat,
the
Police,
game departenacted
101
the
100. C. O. 535/74 Summersto C. O. 11/4/1924. 101. Kat is a type of narcotic plant whose leaves are chewed in It has some parts of northern Africa and the Arab world. a stimulating effect and, if chewed in great quantities, be harmful to health.
exclusion
of alien
schemes for trative
widows
Camel Corps
was the
deserving
sure
most
Shortly
after
Inspector
General
of
tectorate
for
purpose
Camel Corps tion. the
the
tuted
the
foreign
impressed
by the
condition
of
of
in
to be tackled with
the
was Archer's
this
recommending reduce
the
vote.
This
result
of
soldiers. step
Protectoratets
the
force.
anti-tax
and clothing,
the
the
Somali
and standard
such as in
a full-time
earlier
signal-
to do away
proposal
this
for
rationale expedient on the
expenditure
at
issue
significant
The original
agitations
the
Intelligence
Another
was that
be placed
should
the
102. C. O. 535/65 Col. Hawthorn, Inspector K. A. %p to Summers 26/5/1921 (Encl. 7/5/1921). C .0-
I
who constiHe was also
had been temporarily
proposal
in
commending
and the functioning of the 102 The most important recom-
and that
Indian
Pro-
the way
with
quality
be appointed.
should
the
Somaliland
the
of responsibilityo
department,
Officer
the
the
reorganiza-
soldiers
programme,
that
made were
the
necessary,
Indian in
training
Department.
positions
ling
if
to
a visit
satisfaction
of
element
the mea-
Dervisheso
and administeredo
and health
Intelligence
of the
inspecting
of
arms., equipment
discipline
mendations
fall
general
presence
of
examination.
and recommending,
the
particular
adminis-
administrative
significant
the
was organized
pension
other
re-organization
the K. A. R. paid
He expressed force
the
some detailed
Protectorate,
and several
and orphans, Of these,
matters.
the
from
vagrants
would military
suspended beginning
as a of
General of the in Summers to
35: 1921j, but
conditions
considered
to have
the
Inspector
reduction
improved
decided
administration
the
middle
the
to
the
on the
year.,
that
the
issue.
Hawthorn
to the
K. A. R. was opposed
forces
the
of
extent
to
to revert
General..
of
by the
were,
proposed
that
grounds
"the present composition of the Corps is a furnish the suitable one, as the Indians more phlegmatic element which tones down the naturally temperament excitable of the Somali. "
103
He then that,
since
an integral to
changed Kings
the and -
recommended the
force
part
of
the
African
the
"7th
In October
the
Indian
of
the
reserve. force
be mounted
and the
with
this
(Somaliland
proposing
and their
into third
3 companies, dismounted.
the
title
its
of the
quettion
replacement
suggested
the
removal 55 men
with
division
of
two of which
the
would
He contended
that,
reorganization,
"an annualýk be effected economy of Z3PO70 will as well as a triennial saving of approximately Z3,420 in special on account of expenditure recruitment and disbandment of the Indian Company. t' 105 that were it not for the Summers pointed out, however, pressing
103.
Ibid.
104.
Ibid.
need to
effect
-
Camel Corps)
Camel Corps,
He also
reorganized
have
should
the
soldiers
concurred
and purposes,
Summers revived
of the
of
intents
all
K. A. R. it
Battalion 104 .,,
Rifles
reorganization
for
was,
Office
Colonial
some economy., he would
105. C. O. 535/66 Summersto C. O. 19/10/1921.
have
-C U ei
to retain
preferred
the
Indian
soldiers:
"the need, however, and I have thereexists fore put forward a scheme for re-organization which I now consider may be adopted without the strength forces reducing of the local below a minimum safetyo but in doing so I that that I consider wish to make it clear the scheme embodies the minimum of safety time. " at the present lo6 , Summers proposed to put his scheme into effect during the
first
half
thereafter
would projects that
1922,
of
feel
and hoped
inclined
to
had been turned
which
Summerst
that
the
Treasury a number
sanction
Machtig
down.
of
remarked
proposals
"represent a very satisfactory they will secure a very **.. in expenditure"., 107
arrangement useful saving
and Read added that Itno one is better than Summers to qualified kind, advise in a matter of this and I think that we should accept his views. "108 On his 1921,
Archer
the
scheme for
the
to make the
sufficient of
the
schemes which increases
in
to renew
disappointments.
the
of
he hoped Treasury
with
to
realize
change
its
year,
Archer
superseded
those
of Summers.
duties
lo6.
Ibid.
107-
Ibid.
Minute
108.
Minute
by Read.
calculated
by Machtig.
viable, The,
Summers'
Camel Corps
following
customs
end of
economically
disatisfaction
saving
the
towards
Protectorate
reorganization
that
leave
determination
earlier
had expressed
Treasury
January
the
making
notwithstanding
grounds
his
announced
for
efforts
from
return
the on was not
attitude.
came up with
In fresh
He introduced
to bring
in
some
35C Z13., 000 additional rate for
10% of the Protectorate's 109 Ethiopia.. He described of
"reduce annually and of ultimately "in
the
his
as being
objective
to
the grants-in-aid from some Z80,000 to Z25., 000", recurring, making
the
course
of
the next necessity
Protectorate
was convinced
of the
Somali
make a direct
contribution
Protectorate
a transit
on goods bound
rates
Archer
the
initiated
He also
revenue.
but
self-supporting 110 few years-"
towards
the
enough to
was realistic
the
of making
revenue
of
that
admit
"the Somali have expressed themselves unwilling to contribute taxation to by any means of direct the cost of the Government; and, in the present I see no means of-compelling state of affairs, the compliance of a nomadic peopleo who for a greater part of the year wander far afield to across our frontiers and would be likely to remain there, outside our jurisdiction., " avoid taxation. ill With a view to making progress towards the stated
Archer
objectives,
administrative
proposed
establishment.
reductions
in
the
He wrote,
"I advocate no withdrawal change or drastic policy, no undoing of the work of the past, great reduction of staff and military establishments., and an administration conducPed lines political which adequatelybeet purely needs of the country *"112 At this
time
forces1was
the
average
over Z70sooo,
109. C. O. 535/69 Archer 110.
C. O. 535 Archer
111.
Ibid.
112.
Ibid.
annual
expenditure
on the
of but on the
armed
of which the Camel Corps claimed
to C. O. 13/1/1922-
to C. O. 12/l/1922.
"
Z43.,911 and the Police tional In
scheme was intended
defence
forces,
of the
Archer
the British
in
the
than
to cut
proposed
Somaliland.
Protectorate
twenty
with
by more than
for
was,
security
record
along Capt.
half.
by a majority
instanceo
of
of
service
who had worked
Gibb,
as an administrative
years,
reorganiza-
of the
reduction
administrators in
this
to be supported
claimed
and experience
Archer's
921,764.113
officer quoted
for
more
as having
that
stated
"the present although system of administrations in many wayss is very expensive satisfactory ands in my opinion, to a country with a more suited future than to Somaliland it would appear .... unwise to expend large sums of money on an expensive administration when our only object, is to keep the Somalis from which at present fighting and looting each other.. could be The Mullah's achieved by much cheaper methods. Dervishes having ceased to exist, a military "114 force in the country is urmecessary. Major is
Rayne,
also
also
quoted
speaking
as having
with said
twenty
years
experiencep
that
"In the first instance the present I consider in broke down when it failed, administration December last year, to institute the principle taxation to face the have of direct we .... that hard fact, and to make the best of it, the revenue resources are country of this " limited strictly exhausted. and very easily 115 These views
were
the Camel Corps stated
re-inforced since
1906.
by Lawrence He is
reported
that
113.
Ibid.
114.
Ibid.
(Gibb
115.
Ibid.
(Rayne as quoted
as quoted
who had, served
by Archer). by Archer).
as having
in
"it is no longer necessary to keep a large, I mobile force in the country should .... like to see a skeleton brought administration into being harden the must officials .... their hearts, ignore much, and be careful not to be persuaded to take up petty if cases.
116
The right
course
to Archer,
according
of action,
"is the to occupy, clearly not administer from the interior We cannot country. withdraw to those without arising out results similar but we can very of the previous evacuation, sensibly curtail our liabilities 117 He proposed
the
to
prevailing
into
to
revert
military
the
annually,,
and
Constabulary
of no more than
scheme to
lead
to
whereby
policy
forces
and police
one establishment
estimated
the
be merged
would
He
540 rifles.
a saving
940,000
of over
"in a few years it is fairly safe to predict that the revenue and expenditure in Somaliland "118 balance f, 100, annually. should at about p A month had barely of
these
proposals took
tectorate tion.
At the
to London when the
a drastic
at
reflection
and internal
change,
Sheikh
and had persuaded their
attitude
were now prepared originally
116.
Ibid.
117.
Ibid.
118.
Ibid.
to
proposed
(Lawrence
accept
of
a majority
towards the
by Archer.
as quoted
of Somali
they
discussion,
the
the
taxation
taxation The latter
by Archer).
Pro-
direc-
unexpected
him that,
and informed
met Archer
changed,
a number
submission of
politics
and altogether
end of January
the
after
elapsed
elders
after
much
had themselves the
people issue.
to They
scheme as reported
that
5 "the Mullahs who had previously opponents now seemed to be the "iig of this step. In view Office the
of this
to postpone
curtailment
of
Archer
attributed
Somali
to
the
in
elderst
word
whether
their
of the
ordinary
of
that
face
at
views
1910.
tour
of prescribing
of
to
bother
of
was
for took
to
attitude
the
for
Protectorate targets
for
the
ascertain majority he
enthusiasm,
conspicuous
tax
it
payment
Archer
not
of
evacuate
preference
former.
the
part
the
more than
the
specific
for
The Somali,
their
the
With
people.
on the intended
Britain
represented
Colonial
proposals
attitude
and did
value
the
requested
establishment.
explained avoid
been the chief chief supporters
of his
withdrawal
to
order
the each
section. As part
to revive
meeting,
taxation
against
two of
on the the
24th
to
the
toim
proposals.
the to
advice
February
taxation
the
and
he addressed
itinerary,
Akils
a group demonstrate
The D. C.
of Archer
of
of
death
891-907 AFR. MSS. 119. po 2. 120. MSS. AFR- 552 p. 113-115.
his
end of
to the
went
to
armed Somali Archer's
Gibb,
set
and Rayne to meet,
the I demonstrators.,
admonish, probably 120 Rayne dead. escaped shot
At the
against Burao,
a meeting
and explained
scheme.
Government
and instigated
countryside proceed
of his
at Burao
elders
decision the
change
which
began a country-wide
of
administrative
British
a factor
latter
tribal
the
suspicion
dreaded
purpose
endorsement
as she had done in
taxes,
the
Archer
the
this
their
interior
claimed, of
development,
L)
out
and
and was instantly
narrowly,,
as he followed
C, 6
') 11 0
Gibb
in
to restrain
an attempt
Company "B"
of
the
with
to
dispersing
a view
however,
mutinied his
Recounting
him. then
Camel Corps, the
Rayne collected
open fire
to
and refused
The Company,
crowd.
angry
at Burao,
stationed
into
the
crowd.
Rayne wrote:
experience
"I glanced down the machine gun and saw it was shooting over the tops of the high trees under to the tried I the get stood. which riflemen it I ordered gun myself but could not do so. ignored to be depressed but the team quietly my orders. " 121 The death of Gibb and the behaviour of the Camel Corps
disheartened
doubts
as to
the
of the
soundness
British
feelings
the British
their
freedom,
soldiers their
in
and religion. the
situations
kinsmen
were
proposal
a reduction
but
the
question
ment of serious
troops
foreign thought.
tended
property about
that
the
Der-
to
Not
confirmed. the
the
antiat hostile
interfere
with
Above all,
the
the
only
security
of1maintaining
the
still
were
demanded the
which
in
local
for
of
reliability
of
the
The events
Somali
which
for
also
the
that
which
responsible
policies
doubts
earlier
policy
had to be discarded.
had demonstrated
Burao
serious
and caused
The belief
movement had been solely
vish
of
office
Colonial
had advocated.
administration
to
the
Somali
suppression was Archer's forces
abandoned., ele-
a substantial
Protectorate
was given
122
121.
C. O. 535/69 Rayne to Archer to C. O. 26/3/1922).
122.
Archer, African
25/2/1922
Memoirs Peýsonal and Historical Administratorp p. 135-1,35.
(Encl.
in
Archer
of An East
A
C'l
t! Before the Burao was to
take
such measures
and mutiny
from
from
but
Aden,
troop
however,
uprising,
not
reinforcements.
as an isolated contented meeting
for
the
"had any intention 5th
of Burao
March,
town.
two aeroplanes to
necessary to regard
the
acquire
the
uprising
of 3,000
. and gave them a weekts
the
of
indicate
of complying Archer
camels
to him the
expiry
that
He then
same
perpetrators
ultimatum
the
the
of
period
ultimatum,
and
bombardment
aerial that
reported
at the
and,
the Rer Segulleh
with
ordered
he held
section
disturbances,
to
124
uprising
by a handful of a dis123 the Habr Yunis. He convened a
By the
were no signs
on the
it
and surrender
murder.
there
of
for
concern
the
prevent
of
engineered
to pay a fine
capture
Gibb's
think
implications immediate
He sent
the Rer Sergulleh,
of
responsible
time,
as would
He tended
incident
section
ultimatum
Archerfs
spreading. did
long-term
the
assessing
the
"effect demonstration of aeroplane on the has been electrical country and it is unlikely troops from Aden .... now that I shall require The Habr Yunis sections have come in and undertaken to pay without demur the Goverment fine of 3sOOO camels. " 125 The aerial
raids
on Burao
and demoralization. on the
raids of
the
Dervish
effectiveness
mended the
permanent
Archer, African
extensive
material
They were reminiscent positions of
the
retention
123. C. O. 535/69 Archer 124.
caused
two years aerial of
raids,
the
of
aerial In view
earlier. Archer
two aircraft
damage
recomin
the
to C. O. 27/2/1922.
Personal and Historical Administrator op. cit.
Memoirs p. 136.
125- C. O. 535/69 Archer to C. O. 6/3/1922.
of An East
aGk.
Protectorate
to
Government
uprising
the
received the
Air
that
for the
favourably
Air
Ministry
of
it
and referred
In June,
Archer
had authorized,
retention
instituted
implications
appropriate
the
future.
to
was duly
until
two aircraft
in
the
127 Archer
for
Camel Corps,
On the the
incident
safeguarding
situation.
to
a commission
the Burao
of
steps
a similar
the
against any anti126 The Colonial Office
endorsement.
the
notice,
Protectorate.
the
in
as a threat
recommendation
Ministry
informed further
be used
,,
into
and to recommend a recurrence
against
of the
question
Commission
inquire
came to
the
loyalty
of of
conclusion
that '"the troops were reluctant to fire on the townsto show that mally people and there is evidence of them were down in town in the course of the morning. " 128 Thus,
the
without
Somali
the
to
citizens With
could
Commission to
cases,
such
tribal
section
raiders
in
as the
proposals.
degree
to which
upon under
soldiers
Government
orders
only
recapture
another
and
Mijjertein.
of
stock
in
beating
the
Somali
similar
Somali
the
from
tax
that
concluded
as
the
be relied
enforce
such
to
the
administration,
had conspiredvLth
the
oppose
regard
and should
trusted
the
of
and some Akils
soldiers
ordinary
knowledge
soldiers
circumstanceso coulo4be
in
exceptional
looted back
The Commission
by
one
external was
of
the
126.
Ibid.
127.
C. O. 535/69
128.
C. O. 535/69 "The findings of the Court of In5uiry "B to-investigate the behaviour Company appointed of (Encl. 25/4/1922 in Archer to C. O. 7/5/1922).
c. o.
to Archer
15/6/1922.
1 U 4:
however,
opinion., upon if
it
that
came to
generally
the
out
support
punitive
action a large
which
Commission
against number
of
the
troops,
of outside
were
take
would
with-
strong from
sections
of
soldiers
troops,
Somali
a combination the
which
a
that
unlikely
be relied
not
or Sheikh who may be to disobedience or
agitator the people " 129
thought
could
policies
or to arresting
unpopular
was also
soldiers those
enforcing
"religious inciting violence. It
Somali
The
recruited.
were
observed:, "We are of the opinion that the Somali troops from a foreign without support garrison cannot be entirely replied upon for every kind of they may be called service upon to perform It be that the Somali should remembered e.. * today and a tribesof the Corps is a soldier man tomorrow. " 130 In the light Archer of the Commissionfs reporto fresh
came up with
forces
security the
permanent
troops
in
and Burao. land
He then
the
Archer's office
for
service
recommendations and immediate
implementation. gent
of the
129.
Ibid.
that,
at Hergeisa for
Indians.
when and if were welcomed
the
K. A. R. Nyasaland
130. MSS. AFR. S-552 op. cit.
reserves
the in
necessity the
was given
end of
the
troops
p. 116.
Nyasa-
He also
some 200 Somali
of
the
120 foreign
preference
authorization
Towards lst
his
of
He recommended
to be stationed
expresses
recruitment
be calledupon
reorganization
than
less
of not
failing
or,
the
administration.
Protectorateo
soldiers
proposed
and the retention
the
for
proposals
year, arrived
Colonial for
their
a continto
to arose.
C! A
the
constitute
foreign
recommended
The most crucial he should
whether
the Burao
the
Camel
scheme revived
progress
towards Archer
the
far
and Berbera, the
tackle
was of
from
of having
idea
the
to be making
and were reported of quotas
collection
made his
to
scheme on account
initiated
taxation
them.
taxation
Hargeisa
had actually
Archer
for
issue
drop his
incident.
revolting,
for
prescribed
clear:
position
"It will be as well to say at once that the incidents lamentable as it is, cannot be into to interfere allowed with the carxying effect measures now under of the revenual farther In fact I report and go might .... have presented say that what might previously (i. difficulty this in district some e. Burao) is now completely easy and assured for the bubble of Rer Sagulleh is independence " pricked. 132 Archer was determined to go by the assurance given
Thus,
by various follow
tribal
The only
suit.
the
tax
Hargeisa
Z3,500
per were
the
targets
tion.
and Burao
collect
judgment,
let
was one of pessimism.
a downward
Z1.000
each.
in
Colonial
alone Machtig
Ibid.
132.
C. O. 535/69
Archer
would
the
to
direction each sec-
a new target
allocated
Berbera,
the
for
on fixed
Office
proposed
remarked,
to C. O. 26/3/1922.
line
of
Makhir
and the
Zeila
117.
131.
p.
in
were
Burao
he was prepared
figures,
annum each while to
that
concession
he had earlier
The feeling Archerts
hoping
sections,
make was to revise
coast
of
131
corps.
of
element
towards of
action,
36"') "it remains to be seen to what extent these special promised under the contributions., impulse of fear of immediate consequences of if be and, withdrawal,, paid will actually It would not be continued. paid once, will them by military measures. Pay to enforce However., all action has been taken already by the Governor and we can only await " results. 133 busy By the end of June Archer was already touring
the
Protectorate threatening,
and sometimes tax
Towards
measures.
to
a view
with the
encouraging,
to comply
people
his that
he reported
end of August
the
with
"In Hargeisa villages, and the surrounding the Awal the Habr of most and nearly all Aidegallah have conformed to the measure the amount have paid and of revenue .... in full due either or in greater of tribute Burao are but Yunis the Habr of part .... doing in definite and open oppositiono .
their utmost '134 comply*,
He had already of
two of the
ment's
found most
men had managed to
minating
position,
in
of the
had met with
himself
found
having
to decide Choosing
have been a risky
Minute
either the
undertaking
to
sent
cul-
opposition
stiff
in
wanted
into
border
of 5 Habr Yunis
Archer
arrest
Govern-
and the
had failed the
the
attempt
opponents
across
shooting
mob or capitulate. would
escape
to
not to
The 150 Camel Corps
arrest the
others
necessary
outspoken
territory. their
effect
it
The effort
measures.
Ethiopian
to induce
men-135 difficult
a particularly to confront former'line in
that,
by Machtig.
133.
Ibid.
134.
C. O. 535/70
Archer
to C. O. 23/8/1922.
135-
C. O. 535/70
Archer
to C. O. 23/8/1922.
the of
angry
action
not'only
were
1 ex 3vi)
troops
the
general
at his
action.
the
loss
of prestige
capitulation
of his
as his
the
Archer
announced
take
leave ing,
no date
punitive the
turbulent
course besides
ghastly;
have
would
Archer of
a
encouraged
found
a previous
Summers had already
incurred,
a way out announce-
been earmarked
and he was to be transferred
to Uganda.
had yet
changes,
to
the
action
Protectorate
thus,
steps.
of
Colonial
have probably
advantage
that
effect
event
that
censured
moment would
by taking
the the
also
the British
more daring
successor
Although
to
take
in
was equally which
that
at
dilemma
ment to
but
placep
Capitulation
mob to
inadequate
have most certainly
would
of
the
taking
uprising
Office
disposal
good in burden
to Summers,
situation
these he did
not
intend
he was due to
them since
against
whole
for that
protesters
for the
shifted
been fixed
a few days
time.
dealing
with
left
Septem-
of
Archer
in
Havthe
136 ber.
Machtig
Archer
found
ventilated
this
no sympathy
in
the
Colonial
Office.
as follows:
feeling
"I am afraid it looks as though Sir G. Archer has let down the Secretary of State and his to thank own successor, and that he has himself and loss of s; = for the difficult position " he has incurred. which prestige 137 '
Not during vario*us
the
least
post-Dervish
ways of
Two strategies
of
the
Protectorate's was the
period
tapping
the
were
adopted:
136. Annual Colonial
Report
preoccupations
countryts Firstly
for
of
exploration natural the
resources.
administration
1922 No. 1193 p. 2.
137. C. O. 535/70 Ar"cher to C. O. 23/8/22r Machtig.
Minute
by
36,01,
tried
to get
the
the
Treasury
the
administration
to
were made to in various
Colonial sanction
in
Protectorate,
and applied line
a railway
in the
in
in
capital
aims
was in
within
it
Although railway of
in
into Archer
liquidation. expressed
.. 139. F. O. 371/11574,
hope and
Corporation
its
and the
to
strength the
inception By the
at Z454,202 139 in
interest
scheme he was sceptical
about
Cor-
end of
1924
and two
the
Cor-
the
He was., he contended,
"Prospectus Bentick
the
Mismanagemento
trouble. stood
bank-
mines;
foundation,
its
its
of
and
Thesiger,
the
of
a
and grants;
had expressed
sapped
balance
the'project.
138. F. O. 371/3495: 14/4/1919.
Although
role
a year
trade
charters
to be a failure.
debit went
1919 with
embraced
prospects
deep financial
Corporation's later
out
Hargeisa.
and working
Ababa,
and over-ambition
that
extent
Addis
of the
constructing
via
April
of concessions,
a major
turned
planning
feasibility
and its
bright
played
Corporation
porationts
invest
and Jigjigaj
expeditions 138 construction.
Minister
had actually
years
efforts
for
a concession
prospecting
confidence
the
for
had been founded
and railway
poration
projects
resources
unexploited
Berbera
acquisition
organizing
the
to
companies
supposed
of Lls005,000
investment;
poor
the
between
The Corporation
British
whatever
Towards the end of 1919 projects. N11 took a Corporation company known a:ýAbyssinian
keen interest
ing
for
persuading
ando secondlyo
conceive private
in
side
prospecting
a private
capital
its
expenditure
might
encourage
to
Office
of Abyssinian
to Chamberlain
Corporation" 31/5/1926.
eb i
IG . -, ffpremature He preferredo Hargeisa Burao
and open to
instead,
and Berbera
the to
preliminary
arrangements
The Foreign
Office
feasibility, view
of
the
The matter
road
alone
was subsequently Legation
Archer
to
for
charge
of
the
Legation,
operations.
the in
in
project
141
Ethiopia.
issue,
the
to undertake
same area line.
a railway
railway
June 1920 when
until
Ababa revived
the
the
as to the
doubts
Corporation for
of
proposed
of
closed
the
contract
on earmarked
the
situation
at Addis
invite
construction
earlier
expressed
Dab-
as part
anti-Dervish
about
political
between
a road
the Berbera-El
profitability,
unsettled
the British urging
the
for
whose views
let
of
construction
been constructed
had been sought,
project
some objection.,,
supplement
had just
one which
140
a they
which
then
Dodds,
in
that,
explained
"as soon as they (i. e. the corporation) established themselves here they came up against to the difficulties at Jibuti owing .... of obstructive and very short sighted policy the French. The Corporation cast around for The obvious of using " solution. alternative Somali port as a means of communica" British "142 tion with Abyssinia itself. presented The Colonial tion
of whether
Corporation favour
the
of granting
it
Office
was proper
desired the
road contract
was divided and wise contract. to
the
over
the
to grant Machtig
ques-
the was in
Corporation
because
Archer''to 140. C. O. 535/57
C. O. 21/12/1919.
141. C. O. 535/57 F. O. to C. O. 5/12/1919. 142. C. O. 535/60 D. H. Dodds to Archer Archer to C. O. 18/6/1920). I
2/6/1920
(Encl.
in .
3G3 "it is most essential for the future prosperity that as much encouragement of the Protectorate be afforded as can reasonably should be given to the development resources of of commercial Somaliland. The financial situation at present " does not warrant lavish expenditure. 143 Read, ting
on the
to
as the
that
felt
from Berbera
a road
likely
hand,
other
the
to
cost
of construc-
border
Ethiopia
was not
910,000,
exceed
"It would seem better Governthat the Somaliland than this itself rather ment should construct the group concesby giving complicate matters small outlay sions for a comparatively -"144 The Corporationts blow
severe financial
at
interests the
problems
end of
the
forced
it
The following a long
prepared which
to
livestock
it
for
the the
In addition, of
a Veterinary
breaks
of
methods
mineral to put
wealth its
to
Officer
of curing
of
faith
the
to, the
beef,
with
more overseas
the
the
Ibid.
Minute
by Machtig.
144.
Ibid.
Minute
by Read.
145.
C. O. 535/65
Somali
145
appointment out-
recurrent
of
exploitation
rumoured
143.
and hides.
skins
the
of
in modern
and skins.
Protectorateo
in. the
finding
as advise
hides
their,
With
improvement
recommended
deal
as well
regard
that
of
mutton,
administration
epidemics
With
form
ways in
be exploited.
should
the
Somaliland
a
administration
different
was suggested
take
should
suffered Corporation's
Somaliland
memorandum proposing resources
markets
when the
year
the
year
countryfs
industry
Protectorate
the
to retract.
the
regard the
in
the
the
supposed
administration
existence
Summers to C. O. 20/5/1921.
of
an oil
tended field
at Daga Shebelli, In
the
middle
of
Petroleum
for
to prospect Government
this
XW'Arcy area$ the
Company spent
only
there
year
and difficult.
a new prospecting
Hajeebhoy
Lalje
concession
was,
same year
Persian
Petroleum rights
prospecting miles of
ten
in
the
the
years.
concession
and the
exemption
years.
The crown
Companyts
rocks
as to make mining
both
the
demands,
middle
over 150
was granted
not its
cancellation.
agents
in
were
and the
of
The
the
AngloCompany
the
terms
insisting
on having
the whole
Protectorate,
any royalty
reluctant
negotiations
to Messrs.
on to
The Company considered
payment
following
20., 000 square
covering
over
the
unprofi-
gave the
The concession
rights
that in
Aden.
was shoved
an area
The
once and in June 149 In October
up at
to be inadequate,
from
the
of
was based
concession
of prospecting
monopoly
and the
taken
Company.
survey 147
discovery
disappointing
Company which
1924 Summers recommended of the
In
a
Daga Shabelli
the
month's in
concession
however,
Protectorate.
so limited
were
to
and sent
tle
the
by faults 148
so shattered
table
in
several
end up with
fields
oil
area
to
same time
At the
was appointed elsewhere
a concession
and acquired
field.
oil
geologist
more minerals
for
dtArcy
Anglo-Persian
the
renamed
Company) applied
of Berbera.
south-east
company., the
1920 a private
Company (later
Exploration
for
to the
30 miles
146
for
to accede which
up to to
ensued
a
ten
the as a
146. Ibid. 147. C. O. 535/65 Archer
to C. O., 11/1/1921.
on behalf of the DtArcy Company, 148. C. O. 535/65 D. K. Willie, (Encl. in Summers to C. O. -25/4/1921). 21/4/1921 Summers, to
15/3/1924. to C. O. Summers 535/73 O. C. 149. 150. C. O. 535/73, Memorandum of a meeting between the Crown Agents Petroleum Company, for the Colonies and the Anglo-Persian 14/lo/1924.
371 of these
result
Kittermaster
differences
were
The hunt on hand-in-hand
for
After
geologist.
by the
oil the
with
Farquharson,
the
resources
of
such importance
capital.
He remained
geologist,
some mineral 151 visited.
in
to prospect
ture
from
fibre
the
Somaliland for
and oil.
He threw
a big
prise that
the
Moss had left
It
efforts
post-Dervish of the
Protectorate to
attempts due to
the
resources
tap
the
that
the
153. C. O. 535/76 Su=ers
oreo enter-
to Somaliland gold or lead
natural
supposed
as to
exaggerated.
151. C. O. 535/75 Far quharson, C. O. 13/5/1924. ., 152. C. O. 535/75 Kittermaster
a
the
by and largeo
taxation.
expectations
had been grossly
Frank
and
that,
direct
yet
1925 Summers reported
than
were no more successful
introduce fact
to
lead
into
he would return for or prospect
be observed
will
he had not
goldo
capital
country
"did not suppose to examine fibre ore ... ell 153
existence
prospectors
coal,,
In April
all.
the
as well as manufac152 the Among plants.
fibrous
sum of
no of
scene and acquired
firdwere
minerals
found
investment
of
areas
minerals
local to
it
those
in
Moss hoped
and lost
howevers
1925 an individual
concession
Protectorate,
as to warrant
hopbful,
on the
Moss., appeared
the
to having
confessed
resources
Early
of
Government's
the
of
tour
went
companies
private
explorations
an-extensive
of
1925.
Summers in
who succeeded
to
bequeathed
eventually
Goverment
This the
resources the
was largely amount
Moreover,
Geologisto
to C. O. 23/2/1925.
to C. O. 12/4/1925.
of the
to
Treasury's
parsimony
trationts
programmes,
improvement
block
was a stumbling in
especially
of communications
the
to
adminis-
to the
respect
and promotion
of
small
industries. The only and 1925 was in the
ddaling fied
the
field
in
them could
veterinary
was free
to boycott
the hides
This
the
unless
Somaliland
was taken
threat
merchants
by a quali-
signed
that
certifying
anthrax.
Towards
documents
produce
officer
from
Somaliland
1920
services.
of veterinary
from
originating
between
importance
of
1923 the U. S. A. threatened
end of
and skins
achievement
stock
seriously,
for a "should the Government it of the U. S. A. find to impose necessary such an embargo on skins it would to cause a very check both severe
other
the
export
With
the
revenue
the
chief
torate.
In
to 957,605 the
following
threat could
example,
the
total
they
year revenue
by the not
of
for
Protectorates
were the
the
receipts
of 982,607.156
source
and skins$
of
contributed
be overemphasized.
Hides
commodities
revenue
U. S. A. to boycott
scheme and
principal
customs
amounted and in
to the
Thus the
gravity
hides
Somaliland
Summers explained
Summers to C. O. 21/11/1923.
154.
C. O. 534/72
155.
Annual
Colonial
Report
for
1923 No.
1226.
156.
Annual
Colonial
Report
for
1924 No.
1271.
the
Protec-
of 978,541,155 Z60,955
"154
country.
taxation
duties. the
of
revenue-earning 1923,
of
this
Protectorate's
customs
commodities
out
tectorate's
trade
of Archer's the
measuress
important
most
failure
was to remain
of revenue being
and import
Proof
the
and skins the
position
to the
Colonial
Veterinary
qualified to
Office
the
Treasury,
year
the Veterinary
take
up his
him.
epidemic
first
in
cattle
Sheikh.
was to
Corps
and during
he founded
closed which efforts of
the
in
his
was then
made since
being
a
to
staff
assist
rinderpest
the
of
of
it
the
of
in
up,
two
of Cocksedgets
both
in
and hides.
the
duty
of
and then
health
That
the
their
improvements
Officer. the
with
the
with
connection with
was
stagnation
The success
skins
Camel
successs
of a Veterinary
unpleasant
157. C. O. 535/73 Treasury
observed
mares with
policy
159
to grappling
stirred
low
of
officers
satisfaction
appointment
was of
an outstanding
action
their
situation
he only
by improvement
and quality
Summers had the
delicate
the
pursued.
In addition lems,
year
though
no further
the
to
arrived
Anthrax
of 35 Somali
a stud
underlined
following
establish
the
with
disease.
with
was demonstrated animals
to
depart-
the
Cocksedgeo
a small
deal
first
1932 as a result
U. S. A. took threat
the
The stud,
stallions.
latter
73% of the already wiped out nearly 158 By the end of the year., Cocksedge
In co-operation
once.
Bryan
and recruit
had managed to contain incidence
.
a
were made
In February
He was authorized
task
which'had
157
Officero
department
His
December 1923 the
proposal
duties.
veterinary
Representations
Officer.
and in the
ment endorsed
need to have
the
and stressed
economic
tackling left,
prob-
the
by Archer.
to C. O. 3/12/1923.
History 158. MSS. AFR- S. 144 "The Veterinary of the Somali1924-196o" by E. F. Peck, formerly land Protectoratep in the British Somaliland ProtecOfficer Veterinary It is found in Rhodes House, Oxford. torate, P-3. 159. Ibid.
P. 3-4.
The ruthlessness
been cruel
the
He came to
He took
the
(eater
Ba'one" only
the
of
as
Somali
Archer
from
over
of the
and gravity
anti-British
Summers not
1922 and began his
of October
implications
"Garr
disrespectful
also 160
and religion.
customs middle
but
remember
the
with
of
nickname
The Somali
shoulders).
having
he dealt
which
won Summers the
elements of
with
in
the
into
investigations
situation.
political
that
conclusion
"under the instigation Mullah's of certain , to the tax had developed on a reliopposition combined effort gious basis and serious in Burao, Berbera and appeared to be certain A definite Districts. Hargeisa revolt was by Archerts which proclamation prevented final decision the deferred, until my arrival, The are people as to Government policy .... that they have successunder the impression " the fully Government. resisted 161 He advocated the
strong
arms or, whole Yunis first
idea
the
Colonial
of
which
sections alternative
Protectorate
severe
the
would 20 Ford
it
was decided
cars to
existing
forces
action
to
the
the
in
the
two infantry
with If the
Habr
the If
uprising.
6 aeroplanes. and limit
of
the
need to be reinforced
of
on abandoning
punishment
had engineered
was taken,
battalions, hand,
the
taxation,
by force
proposals
insisted
Office
either
recommending
measures, taxation
of Archer's
enforcement if
punitive
on the
punishment
other of
160.
Ali Hersi Sheikh Ali Ibrahim Sheikh Interview and with is former The Hargeisa. aged about Awaid, 5/9/1974 at Department to the District of 75 and is the advisor the is latter law. The Islamic same about Justice on I Summer Sheikh. of governs style age and a respected during with a an interview ing was again described 9/9/1974. The the Berbera on at group of elders (aged Buluke Hassan Aadan 1. Haji. about elders were 80); 2. Oliyood Ahmed Farah (about 80). born at Berbera (about Kawdan Ali 3.. Muhammad AR.; K. the and served in 60). born at Berbera and a former member of the Somali Youth League in the 1950s.
161.
C. O. 535/70
Summers to C. O. 27/10/1922.
Pý P%j
j 4, Habr Yunis
certain bring
j infantry
in
neither
the
of
the
it
sections, battalion,
two proposed
itself
to
argued
Summers,
be necessary to 162 if and 2 aeroplanes. would
Colonial
lines it
Office,
to reduce
the
of
action
commended
be necessary,
would
administrationts
commit-
ments'and, ffat any rate, to " tain areas. 163 Summers'
first
Colonial
Office
was dismissed
proposal
and,
amounted, on the
certain
same time
more warmly
the
Summerst to
practice.,
grounds
sections
dropping
received. in
hand
off
in
as it out of the question a new war with vengeance.
of punishing the
at
some time,
certhe
as being
"altogether be beginning The idea
for
evacuate
partial
the
of
taxation
third
would " 164
Habr Yunis
scheme,
which
alternative
withdrawal
was
was rejected
that
"our experience of the years of coastal concentration failurex which proved a disastrous memory, that it is impossible remain such a vivid to tending to deprecate too strongly any proposal "165 evacuation. partial was duly
The Treasury posed
alternative
preference terms
of
162.
Ibid.
lines
was pointed expenditure
of
action,
out.
It
and did
163. Ibid. 164.
Ibid.
Minute
by Machtig.
165.
Ibid.
Minute
by Machtig.
not
informed
of
and the
the
Colonial
was relatively involve
three
risks
cheap
proOffice's in
pertaining
to partial not
to release
prepared
but
no choice his
to
for
funds
Consequently,,
measures.
with
The Treasury
withdrawal.
the
proposed
Colonial
for
recommendation
the
act
punitive
in
with
accordance This
withdrawal.
partial
was
was left
Office
Summers to
authorize
it -
was adamant
was to be
withdrawal
"accompanied by an announcement that administration will be resumed when circumstances permit. This
announcement
blackmail; the
the
Somali,
in
of
their
Colonial
1910,
shown stubborn
the
Colonial
tour of
the
September
To Summerst removed,
Oadweina
the
for
but
might
policy
test
the
about to
road
a view
the
and Adadleh.
had
they
which
to preventing
tour
by
the
impact
the
news,
intentions
the
of
had erected troops
British
the
surpriseo
to
residents they
elements. road
to Hargeisao
convinced
him that
166. C. O. 535/70 C. O. to Summers 28/11/1922. 167. C. O. 535/70 Summers to C. O. 12/12/1922.
the
of
attitude
the anti-tax
him to proceed His
and of
peoplets
blocks
and indeed
enabling
soften
authorized
troops
to Burao to punish
reliefo
continua-
also
assessing
he instructed
with
the
to make one more
to
a view
Nyasaland
the
that
opposition.
circulationo
to remove
from proceeding
were
the
new developments,
Hargeisa
plead
to which
policies
with
As a first
British.
since
of
in hot
already
the
interior
arrival
only
Summers decided
Officeo
the
of
not
implementing
Before
as a
act
of British
repercussions
administration
to various
attitude
hitherto
the
to
seems to have hoped
Office
would
an effective
intended
evidently.,,
remembering
withdrawal tion
was,
"166
blocks BuraoO the
167
37 the
of
attitude
considerably
changed
was inclined
and that
people,
in
and,
to modify
his
the
of
the
light
earlier
had
Camel Corps, of
this
he
change,
proposals;
"I believe that it may not be necessary to carry out the withdrawal of the administration from the Burao and Hargeisa Districts I .... have ordered the representatives of the tribes to meet me here (i. e. Berbera) on the 18th this December .... On the results-of meeting, " depend. much will 168 was held
The meeting a number
announced most
important
Archer's
taxation
from
the
had rejected.
their
surrender
severe
entail were
of rifles
tribes tribal nerable
Yunis
revenue
the
since section to
depredations
Summers' while
the
was intended.,
so he
the
which
they
the
Habr
of
Adadleh
have
would
which
to
incident
a monthts
time.
among the
matter
from
attempt
to
other
tribes
make that the
of tribal
better-armed
dis arm sections remained
surrender The
and tactless.
or insufficiency
and did
the
regarding
unrealistic
absence
could
customs
in
the'sections
arms was a crucial
of
substitute
proposals
The ultimatum
was particularly
possession
Thus,
with.
the
The
complyo he warned them, would 169 Neither of the two orders
to
part
to
take.
the
to him within
punishment.
complied
step
for
rifles
on their
Failure
This
ordered
responsible
to
an increase
taxation
original
He also
he held
Yunis
taxes.
to make up for
explained, accrued
he had decided
scheme with
and Zariba
duties
he intended
of measures
was that
and Summers
as scheduled
of
Somali
arms in section
169. C. O. 535/70 Summers to C. O. 19/12/1922.
vul-
sections. the
Habr
armed was bound
168. Ibid.
a
to
be resisted
to
the
than
to
convince
likely the
aim of
British
the
was to
stances
the
support
and sympathy
been well
Habr Yunis
disposed
the
Summers decided Nevertheless,
applied
for,
measures On the
28th the
columns, from
force
tion
of the
of
rifles
to of
Camel Corps from Burao
in
two
pony troops
lasting
over
Abdulla
a week,
Isaac
the
allegedly
three
170
Habr Yunis.
and the
on the
1923., he
punitive
moved out
action
worth
property
disarmament
take
the
The operation
uprising.
the
end of January
sections
who were
circum-
had hitherto
this
enforce
the
punishment
those
ultimate
policies.
to
a combined
Habr Yunis
Adadleh
confiscation the
In
inflicted the
the
main body
Hargeisa.
the
of
January
colonial
was more
the
gained
which
permission
selected
In
easily
tribes
towards
and received,
against
have
not
measure that
them.
disarm
those
of
the
tribes
other
could
to
order.
Moreover,
utmost.
ring
culminated times
the
value
secleaders the
in
of
demanded.
originally
"'The operation in secrecy, was executed so that the tribes villages were taken by surprise throughout the situation the succumbed .... is generally improving country and there is no danger of incurring in carrying resistance on the administration of the tribes 171 Machtig
the
described "very
Four
months
later
tion
against
the
170.
C. O. 535/70 Machtig.
outcome
satisfactory
as in
every
Summers organized Ogad Omer section
sence" *172 another
which
Ibid.
Minute
Summers to C. O. 23/1/1923-
by Machtig.
opera-
was believed
171. C. O. 535/72 Summers to C. O. 16/2/1923. 172.
punitive
Minute
to
by
375 have played
a big
Ogad Omer, like dispersed
in
part
the
Abdulla
Isaaco
and dispossessed
Machtig
this
observed,
the
engineering
of
time
was taken-by
plenty
their
of
The
uprising.
Burprise, stock.
that
"the serious state of affairs which arose after the incident at Adadleh is now at an end, with the result that the Governor will have a free hand to deal with the Dolbahanta on the Italian " frontier. 173 The turmoil in
Italy's
Somaliland in
only
to bring
the
colony,
hitherto
under
Steps
towards
Italy
appointed
Mijjertein.
In
authority in
ever
Obbia
1912 the
there
a permanent
nominal
colonies
in
in
direct
Italian
administration. uprisings
the
until were
by force
De Vecchi,
of
to her
De Vecchits
throughout
the
north
the
of to
was
Italyts" Fascist
a policy
of
and whereA
penetration.
by profession,
policies
colony
advent
colonial
primary
and,
residence
measureso
the
the
as well
arms whenever
a soldier
to be the
in
operated
committed
1923 and declared
rule
the
these
pro-
and Southern
administrative
Even with
was resistance
colony
to
as 1908 when
two northern
law which
as applicable
new Governor, the
basic
jurisdiction
as farback
of
Sultanates
of her
administration.
the
The Fascists
her
Italian
the
remained
subduing
went
was rooted
parts
for
at Alula.
Italy.
northern
a Commissioner
later,
established
frontier
Italian
effective direction
was declared
two years
era
this
namely,
south
Italian
attempt
name, under
vinces,
on the
arrived
establishment of his
concern provoked
and he., in
173. C. O. 535/72 summers to C. O. 2/5/1923.
of
turno
widespread ruthlessly
Minute
by Machtig.
3erC)vA',
ý
them.
suppressed
One area
in which
De Vecchi
was the
southern
Mijjertein
Kenedid
had built
resistance Ali
Sultan force
with
1921,
for
which
gained factor
which
Italian
Ali
out
Kenedid
at Gorahai
where
and well
armed
prompted
the
Foreign
to have
ambassador
in
London
Ogaden country,
Office
the
In
raids.
was reported the
stiffest
country
widespread
in
the
met with
up a big
he carried
exampleo
a foothold
the
174
to
a to
complain
that
11 His Majestyfs Government while recognize .... the difficulty the nomadic Somali of controlling they are reluctantly tribes, to concompelled that the failure in sider of the authorities Somaliland to restrain Italian Ali Kenedid of from allowing his followers the Dlijjertein to occupy Gorahai and other places and to raid tribe in British the Dolbahanta Somaliland is to cause the very difficulties likely on the that both Governments frontier are armious to avoid oooo*lf 175 on Summers had addressed
Earlier terms
to
the
Italian
Governor,
a letter
in
couched
similar
that,
stating
"I have the honour to inform Your Excellency have been made by that two further raids Mijjertein and other followers of Ali Kenedid this Dolbahanta Protectorate the of on .... lost 900 camels, they (i. e. the Dolbahanta) 1,000 herds of cattle and-many sheep and goats. karias The looted were burnt and 12 Dolbahanta killed 176 in SomaliThus, by the time of De Vecchits arrival land,
Ali
neighbouring
Kenedid tribes.
was a real There
Hesso Italian
menace to
174. 175.
879/123 to F. O. q. c. 8. No. 31/12/1921
176.
C. O. 535/66 Summers to (Encl. 25/10/1921 land
Italian
peace
fear,
was growing
Colonialism
Robert
the
in
in
Somalia
Ambassador
in
of
the
fact,
Chap.
VI.
London
the Governor of Italian Somaliin Summers to C. O. 27/10/1921).
38, he might
that British
to
rise
the
representations
to
by threats,
led
punctuated
of British
administrations The objective
this
of
Italy, to
which
a Joint
meeting
out
held
on the British
to be a fiasco.
that
their
between
Somaliland
in
the 1922.
to be to regarding people and
possibles between our
side
the
of
blamed
The British
occasionally
meeting
was said if
Sayyid.
were
and Italian
"arrive at a settlement, claims and counter-claims Ali Kenedid ... 0" 178 The meeting,
as the
same power
177
the
border,
turned
Italians
saying
co-operation f1seems to have been singularly The valueless. two Italian Commissioners from Obbia arrived they expressed themselves without witnesses; to take or produce any evidence, in unwilling that they had full in the statements confidence (envoys) Ali Kenedid's 2 Naibs of who had been sent with them 179 -I
Archer
believed
committing they Ali
did
that
the
themselves
to
not
this
with
any binding
sufficient
point
had avoided
delegates
power
to make him comply.
Kenedid
agreed
possess
Italian
or influence
Summers,
of view,
adding
because
resolutions
then
in
over Londonp
that
"I am inclined that the unhelpful to think they adopted was meant to disguise attitude the fact that they had little or no control over Ali Kenedid . 991118o Whoever the
was responsible
whole
exercise
for
the
underlined
A. full Orizzonti
178.
C-O-. 535/69
Archer
absence
to C. O. 19/3/1922.
179. Ibid. Ibid.
the
of
the of
meeting,
good
will
his Vecchits De own workp see period, account of (Milan) 1935. d'Impero: Cinque Anni, in Somalia
177.
180.
failure
Minute
by Summers.
82, between
the
British the
emphasised Mijjertein.
and Italian
weak position is
This
administrations the
of
Italians
De Veachi
what
and over
the
was determined
to
rectify. In. February to Ali to
Kenedid, to
submit the
with
forces.
launched middle
forcing
Summers to
Valleys
to maintain
warring
factions
assist
Dervish fears another
about
ensued
Protectorateo
British to
Kenedid
which
the
as well
Ain
and Nogal
as prevent territory
British
the
end of
nine
letters
the
as a
and this
against
the
factop
Mohammed Abdullah
181. C. O. 535/74 1924 (Encl.
the
resis-
Protectorate
tribes
within
them to 183 Italians.
urging the
of Lij confirmed
of Ali
possibility
Kenedid
to various
and beyond,
struggle
Ali
year
omens to
was reminiscent
style days,
the
more threatening
him in his
Kenedid's
the
Protectorate
British
the
troops
using
Ali
against
law and order
the
182
when he addressed the
towards
disturbances
into
was
men who were 181 by force. The
operations
despatch
from
Towards brought
Kenedid
young
Italians
border
the
across
tance
the
he was
which
a confrontation
Ali
by the
1924 and the
spilled
ground.
or risk
Although
their
of
an ultimatum
to make a rapprochement
to resist
Italians
battle
rule
he was overruled
determined
the
Italian
inclined
Italians,
in
the
issued
him one month. within
giving
Italian
reportedly
1924 De Vecchi
Yasuls
and the
Summerst
Kenedid
Ali
earlier
becoming
Hassan.
Report for January Intelligence in Summers to C. O. 19/4/1924).
182. MSS. AFR. S-552 op. cit. 183. C. O. 535/74 Kittermaster
to C. O. 20/10/1924.
and February
331 Fortunately
Kenedid's
overtures
recipients
and his
faded.
Italyts
fully
for
the
the
beginning than
1924,
of
the
against
Mahmud from by the
the
British
Ali
cost the
the
handed
the
ing unity
what
into
were
defeated
unpopularity
small
in
of Kenedid, view
to
stantial
he would
avoiding section
Meanwhile,
in
momentum,
Ali
Kenedid
was even-
185 . the
Italian
next
a clash of his
people
dis-
was divided
Sultanate
dawned on him that,
with
exploit-
and the
units
be the
among
Kenedid
1925 and his
an end as soon as it
action
popularity
Isman Mahmud's honeymoon with to
of his
of Ali
people.
administrative
This
subjects.
gaining
of
individual
prosecution.
members of his
and
position
as a gesture
of his
Isman
south
messages
them a certain
remained
the Mijjertein
the
Kenedid's
and,
for
operations
personal
of
tually
to
over
young militant
from
He sent
Italians
Italians
Kenedid
De Vecchits
Ali
rather
by Sultan
Pressed
and desperate. to
by the
wanted
the West,
by the
were..
each other
by De Vecchi
north,
became hopeless
bona fide.,
Italians.
Sultan
Mijjerteins
southern
184
their
soon
under O
against
Ali
had success-
two sections
grappling
from
rapprochement
the
in
subjects
Mijjertein;
Kenedidts
that
results
his
with
northern
Italians,
interest
divide-and-rule
of
Ali
the
and
little
popularity
Isman Mahmud,, from with
British
stimulated
policy
alienated
the
the
with
west
184. MSS. AFR. S-552 op. cit.
185. C. O. 535/76 Lawrence to C. O. 13/3/1925.
came
the
victim.
Italians,
further
Italians
he led
With
fall a
a sub-
and established
ti U
a base in
Dervish
an old
the British
within
Governor.,
fort
at Baran
Protectorate.
sought
which
was well
Lawrences
and acquired
then
to
permission
acting Isman
evict
Mahmud and his people from Baran, and this he did 186 1925. Lawrence accused the Italians of having gated,
least
or at
tz7-move to Baran charges
between
relations
to the
settle
paid
stock
in Berbera
the
Baran
this
concerned, main. source
on the of
the
So long
signing as Italy
187. Ibid.
AM.
of
done*. tribes,
so far for
In
Agreement.
was still
S. 552 op. cit.
to graze the
by way of
Italians
compensa-
compensation
as the British the
time
of
And this with
was were
being,
and the
the
Italians.
Agreement
months
was inevitable. her
a
law and order of three
a matter
embroiled
the British
turn,
the Berbera
within
was
agreement
Mijjertein
and maintenance
shattered the
of
themselves
hope of making
the
of
This
least
between
restoration
borderwere'
186. MS.
at
of conflict
the
the
enable
and 34 rifles.
settled,
to was called 187 The meet-
and an agreement
withdrawal
and,
their
strained
provisions
the British
insti-
and counter
disputes.
August
14ad always
month,
Britaints
charges
a new meeting
immediate
6,000
following
for
in
so as to
as they
some Rs.
basis
that
and many other
to pay to
the
subsequent
The most important
from
promised
consent
June
Isman Mahmud.'s,
to,
two administrations
extent
one for
troops
tion,
the
quarrel
drawn up.
their
and the
the
ing was held
included
given
tacit
in
resistant
C) 8,
elements, the
border.
Baran,
Italians.
tion
to
r6percussions
The British
Mahmud from the
the
so would
had mercilessly
throwing
him into
1925 the
submission
Kittermaster
who had already
the
operations,
proposed
to patrol
Camel Corps feared
in British
have
the
escalated Italian
Sultan's
forces
of December. fled
with
bera
where
In February
The Sultan's up the
struggle
was defeated With
his
and forced the more or
to
of
the
border
in
the
last
1917 for with
the
chapter, purpose
Ras Tafari
flee
from
year
his of
the the
end Sultan
at Ber189
asylum prisoner.
In
The
and took
1927,
he too
territory. the
Mijjertein
complete-190 on the
from
and Ethiopian
French
As already
settled.
had gone to Addis
Archer
of reaching
on the
be
would 188
towards
surrender
conquest
les;,
was far
to
Italians.
Italian
The situation
which
following
refused
the
against
flight, was,
country
however,
son,
fact,
and decisive.
him a virtual
kept
in
Britain.
swift
of
send the
was,
300 men and sought
of
the British
the
Italians
Mahmud might
and routed
of
to
something
were
attacked
a following
Sultan
and involved
operations
an expedi-
by the
It
of
him by force.
destroy
areas.
tribes,
conflict
were
sent
necessary
that
Somaliland
by some British
supported
it
Sultan
hands
the
latter
or
border
the
into
been warned
found
across
evicted
him back
In November
force
reverberate
F3
border
188. C. O. 535/76 Kittermaster
mentioned Ababa in
some negotiated
problems.
sides
agreement
The mission
had
to C. O. 21/11/1925.
189. MSS. AFR. S*552 op. cit. 190. Robert Hess, Italian Chapter VI.
Colonialism
in Somalia
op. cit.
3811"o failed.
This
resigned
attitude,
led
judge,
could
of
the British there
against
what he regarded
looted part
tribes
Archer
the
which
blame
negotiated
and agreed
protests
border.
that
no steps
position
of
the
of
to the
the boundary, 191 He laid
crossed the
fact
exact
a round
he was referring
re-crossed
to mark the
his
a
as she
violation
occasionally
been taken
come to
as Ethiopian
on the
adopt
so far
revived
By this
and then
stock of
1919,
borders.
Ethiopian
to
Ethiopia
In August
to
no hope,
being
inducing
table.
international
Government
had hitherto
the
boundary
upon by Rodd and Mackonnen
in
as 1897.
Summers wrote: "I consider that it is most desirable that the border should be marked by some means such as cairns of stones or beacons situated at intertherefore I vals along the frontier would .... for a ask that H. M. Government should arrange to carry commission out this work at an early date. "192 The idea
was commended by Machtig
to be inopportune place the
the
for
political
financial
despicable
the
kind
situation
position form.
hung over
this
the
of
Above all,
future at
was then
and subsequently
shelved
Somaliland
administrators
Ethiopia's
general
at
suspicion
unsettled
mark
question and this
rather
unwise.
revived
different of European
Ibid
193.
Ibid.
Minute
by Machtig.
would 193
a most still have The issue
by various
times. motives
191. C. O. 535/55 Summersto C. O. 23/8/1919. 192.
first and
was in
Protectorate a big
was thought
In the
was still
made demarcation
time
time
the
of work.
of Ethiopia, that
but
Owing to after
387 the war, demarcation proposed not
and the
Treasuryts
reluctance
- an essentially demarcation
undertaken
until
of the
to
non-productive
the
Protectoratets
1930s.
spend money on project boundaries
the was
visq j CHAPTER VI
HAROLD KITTERMASTER"S GOVERNORSHIP: SOMALILANDtS COLONIAL HISTORY
THE TWILIGHT OF BRITISH
(1926-1931)-
The untimely 1925 left
a power vacuum which
the
from
years
of
most
Lawrence, in
service
but
he was considered
Governor
and Archer's Lawrence's
able.
in
career
officer Britain's
and in
served
ad'District
the
strained
and Archer
found
it
removal
of Lawrence.
from
the
and 1919.
He returned
take
part
operations different
in
the
were
at
the
administrative
Somaliland
to British
and
and Commanding officer
to recommend the to
Protectorate latter
station
operations. stayed
capacities
the
Consulate
between-1915 in
Somaliland
to British
of
him and Archer
necessary
Lawrence
Northern
for
Resident
anti-Dervish over,
After
The following
between
Relations
He stayed
as an
to England.
Commissioner
of Harar.
Protectorate
1910 he found
1914 he returned
Camel Corps.
back
as far
in
Assistant
he was appointed
of
been favour-
went
interior
from, the
the poli-
post
K. A. R. Somaliland.
and returned
redundant
Nigeria,
the
Battalion,
withdrawal
himself year
6th
the
the
for
Somaliland to
twenty
Somaliland
on him had not
reports
as 1905 when he was posted in
man in junior
too
the
of
was., admittedlys
and knowledgeable
experienced
tics,
Protectorate
disposal of nearly
a record
with
the
the
at
filled
be easily
not
could
then
manpower resources
Protectorate.
Summers in November
of Gerald
death
1920 to
When the on and served
and finally
in
succeeded
i
Kittermaster
in In
the
death
the
circumstances Office
Protectorate.
vaal
Education transfer
caused
Kittermaster
to
the
Africa
Commissioner
sequently
promoted
to
District
officer-in-charge
Frontier
the
post
British
Somaliland
He succeeded Honduras
his
been involved
fact
his
the Northern He held
the to
Administration. to
1926 and was transferred
found
the
footing
him a sharp
'Glingilit
keen interest-in
than
work,
in
career his
This
Somaliland The
predecessors.
o1l'*Summers and nick-
contrast
(the
campaigns.
his
off
had
Kittermaster
anti-Dervish
started
on a more favourable
named him
the
to
predecessors,
in
seems to have
Somali
year.
1915,
1932.
Unlike not
of
as Secretary
Summers in
in
in
1921 when he was transferred
until
Trans-
He was sub-
1908.
in
following
the
of
as an
Commissioner
and was appointed District
in
Protectorate
District
a
1902 and 1907 before
between
East
sudden
Governorship
had served
Assistant
latter
to the
scene,
Department
by Summerts
Kittermastero
appointed
new man on the
the
his
1932.
Colonial
relatively
3891
active sharp
of
on, account
one)',
over, the-
vigilance
tours. machinery and, frequent, _country-wide COVtCt that the The Somali b=d not helpeý feeling
administrative
excessive
ruthlessness
and'Archer
had'dealt
the
1.
callousness
they
with
which-people
like
with'-the'anti-British had-shown
towards
Summers
elements, the
Somali
and in
Interview with Ahmed Hassan Ibrahim and Mahmud Ahmed Ali at Hargeisa on 26th August 1974.
had been motivated
general., humiliation the
the
hands
suffered
2
injury
Constabulary
but
the
and the
was he a witness
so much disgrace
that
he was forced
torate
undignified
in
a most
Somali
in
the Somali
the
could
British
not
as they
predecessors.
On the
Colonial
Office
open mind
since,
to
finances
or
Dervish
colonial
haunted
by a sense
stration
experienced
period
of
had already
approach
revealed
On the
the
of
one-hand..
have
same motives =iaSUA8.11" his
problems
the
by the with
an
he had made no promises future of
Hence,
shortcomings.
the
of view
point
Somaliland
personal
experimentation
Protec-
wasp thus,
be trusted
response
policies.
the
leave
him
I
the
to
Archer,
of
to
Dul
at brought
policies
he could
other,
the
about
Archer,
to him the
believed
about
between
humiliation
Government.
unlike
and no predictions
from
attribute
and sentiments
had
As for
of Kittermaster
many ways both
and of
example,
manner.
The appointment fortunate
at
confrontation
to Britaints
own post-Dervish
the
incurred
Dervishes.
his
also
for
Summers,
during
for
vengeance
had personally
officers
Dervishes.
physical
only
Madoba,
the
of
Corfield's not
two
by sheer
with Somali
of the
the
Protectorate's
people
to
he was not
failure
likely his
whenever Moreover2
various attitude
the
the
colonial towards
postto
be
adminiprevious
policies colonial
Interview Ali, with Musa Galaal at the Somali Academy., %_2L.Mogadishu, on 7th August 1974; and with Ahmad Hassan Ibrahim and Mahmud Ahmed Ali at Hargeisa on 26th August 1974. These informants Kittermaster's attributed popularity the Somali to the fact that he was a new man with on the scene, and thus did not bear the Somali any grudge.
and the
rule., lessons. cally
British
had,
The hope
attitude
the
of
budgets
been
years,
from his
while
to have
the
bitter
in
his
completion
and the an oil
concession.
projects
bequeathed
had not
which
meetings the
in
for
further
the
final
to
appoint
by the board
the
March
first
its
Government
preliminary
3
being
Protectorate
exploration the that
as its
of
party
it
3- C. O. 535/84/38ol2
had
issued
Crown Agents
and
was con-
one of
following
the
1930 to
yearl
Company proceeded
Marriot
a team
Office
Colonial
was appointed on the
representative
in the
of
the
the
H. F.
The Company sent
the
later,
effect
this
to
and the
Mr.
a series
agreement
of
was signed,
directors,
to
the
July
In
directors.
agreement.
the
most
measure
After
between
1927 and submitted
the
of
previous
revenue
only
of
grant
was one of
a setback.
draft
amendemtns.
British
surveyors
the
suffered
agreement
of
months
the
and correspondence
Company,
cluded
the
yet
the
him by the
to
encourage
Crown Agents
the
Company for This
indeed,
and,
seems
was to
between
Petroleum
prospecting
administration,
preceding
politics
concern
negotiations
Anglo-Persian
important
career
the
of
Somaliland
pressing
the
of
Kittermaster's
favour.
Kittermasterts the
ensuing
Protectoratets
experience in
new
economi-
and the
the
short,
neutrality
weighed
Protectorate
discardedo
In
learnt
processp
towards
Treasury
was no secret.
benefitted
the the
of making
had long
viable
in
of
provisions of
and
engineers
carry
oil
fields,
the
disappointing
and,
out
some
some eight report
found
Croim Agents to C. O. 8/6/1928.
to
CD
C) t9
t1no oil field size of sufficient in the continuance operations of The concession,
ipso
handful of
the
supposed the
Towards
rate.
1926,
name of Cooperp
Englishman
by the
British
Somaliland
Mica
to prospect
Then in April
1928,
man based
in Addis
manufacture
salt
his
in
quantities with
having
insurmountable
but
this
announced the from
her
other
5. Colonial
the
Report
tariffs
of
the world.
for
too
Sanford
him to
forced
initial
for
This up Indian
Indian
to recom-
India
dealt
1355.
and
a deathblow
markets
example,
salt
originating
that
to Crown Agents
1926 No.
was
problem
consideration,
on salt
for
met
Fund.
under
stiff
H. F. Marriot
sufficient
Colonial
of
opening
abandoned
was prepared
policy
was inconceivable,
4.535/91/38258
discover
His
was still
hope of
Cooper
eventually
1931.
protectionist
parts
to Sanfordfs salt.
from
expedient
introduction
It
in
conces-
previous
or garret.
Kittermaster
mend him f or a loan While
to
odds which
concession
one of capital,
the
failed
beryl
of mica,
abandon his
Like
two came to nothing.
1927 after
to
a concession
acquired
a
business-
a British
Sanfordo
Zeila.
at
these
sionaires,
Ababa,
the
formed
and acquired 5 and garret.
beryl
mica,
Colonel
an enter-
Limited
Syndicate for
Protecto-
instanceo
for
end of
prising
concession
of the
wealth
mineral
the hope
cherished
who still
by a
greeted
was also
period
of new prospectors
tapping
t4
lapsed.
facto,,
Kittermaster's
to warrant the country-
for
his
he would
26/9/1930.
39]; stand
competition
to receive
automatically being
a dependency
plans
were for
With
Indian
in view but
the
the
of
to give
import
and Ethiopian
up the
conditions
of
directed
the
The latter
disappointing abolish
the
for
campaigned in
the
of
retention
Protectorate.
position, the
the
the
Department two extra
reluctance.,
to Archer's
wealth
Colonial
of
the
Office
had a mind to
of Farquharson, addition
successfully the
geologist,
to his
Thus,
of Agriculture.
Protec-
yielded
Kittermaster
He became in
Director
be recalleds
will
investigations
but
altogether
post
of agriculture
response
mineral
the
results,
it
to
Treasury
Kittermaster
those
were
as a direct
geologist's
the
the
the
ameliorate
to which
department,
ý= the
When the
to
putting
attention
and to
questions
Two areas
strain.
optimism
torate.
without
people
turned
administration
schemes intended
had been established expressed
and
had no choice
Sanford
administrative
considerable
and, geology.
6
company.
to him,
closed
markets
Kittermaster's
of various
severe
to a French
salt
a
project.
initiation
another
to grant
decision
of capitals
to minor
attention
Aden
Sanford's
Furthermore,
of her
shortage
who were
treatmento
by Ethiopiats
Henceforth, its
merchants
preferential
India.
of
shattered
monopoly the
Aden salt
with
in
original early
1927,
with a staff of Agriculture was established 7 its The Treasury, notwithstanding assistants.
was prepared
to
endorse
6. C. O. 5ý5/90/38238 N. Webster London to C. O. 5/6/193o.
an estimated
(Col.
Sanfordts
7. C. O. 830/1 Report on the Somaliland Agricultural Department for 1927 and 1928. Geological
sum of
Agent in and
(a
for
Z1,715
the
sum, Z961 was to cover was to cover
the
experiments .
the
department. of the
salaries
travelling
Of this Z476
staff;
and L200 was for
expenses
8
Hargeisa department
of the
establishment
as the
was chosen as the
as well It
and experiments.
for
centre
was hoped
headquarters major
of
the
demonstrations
that
11as results of improved methods become evident, disthe less sophisticated at greater natives tances from the station be influenced., and will than their people more by the experience own of by Europeans. " 9 by The administration and even surprised, was encouraged, the
positive
response Within
schemes. Hargeisa
The whole
blow
during
suffered
the
of rainfall of the
project, second
will
half
drought
a serious
can be recalled
plots
to give
staff
in
Somali
provide
to
Somali
the
of a few monthso
a matter
were grabbing
agricultural tion.
of the
of
land
new agricultural the
people
and inviting
advice
on methods
however,
was dealt
in
the
of cultivaa shattering
of 1927 when the
Protectorate
which very few parallels 10 table history. The following for
a general
picture
of the
gravity.
situation
Ibid.
9. Ibid. 10. Interview with Dahir Afqarshe at the Somali Academy, Mogadishu, on 3rd August 1974; and also with Mohamed Haji Hussein., at the Somali Academy Mogadishu, on 4th Report for August 1974. The Somaliland Intelligence describes the March to June 1928 (C. O. 535/86/38078) drought as "the worst drought on record".
CC) Oj CA r-i
t-
M ON
L0
o
Lc\
o M
8 H Uý (A -i c7N r-I
Co
CD
m
(M
0
t-
OD Ln
u; rý :; r-i
\.0
H
ri
CO
r-I
N
0ý co
(NJ 110
ON Lrl\
ON n
1; H
Cý r-I
c; C\j
r-I
r-I
n
s3 .
21
Oj 01%
t -,C\j A CM
Id zt N ON r-4
CD
03
v
0
0 C) 9)
1r-i
le
cm
Co r-i
C)
0
Cd
Cd
02 0 Cd
0
0
>
cd bo -ri ;4 W
. 1-4
tko
0
; -, C3
10
39-b The drought absolute
heaviest
in
Toljaala
where
the
cows,
the
the
cross
scanty
toll
death
forced
and from
that
into
It
the
was not
Protectorate
later,
considerably,
the
programme. was appointed
conditions
of
the
of charge,
and cow peas to
drought,
large
stock
was
20% of
of
the
the
of
the
energy
In July
of
in
following
the
first
rains.
the
of
the
by locusts
had improved
DepartMent
an Inspector
year
to mitigate
groundnuts
engaged-a
great
of Kittermaster's
and Geological 1928 No.
the
distributeds
sorghum,,
too
its
resume
administration of
of
agricultural
to
this
order
search
the
1929 conditions
and resources
C. O. 830/1 Agricultural and 1928. Report for Colonial Report for Colonial
in
administration
and,
drought,
was invaded
remained of
the
of
April
until
quantities 13 farmers.
The Veterinary
I
open several
80% or'more
to
of
experienced
the
of Gardens
13.
to
and Habr
territory
Protectorate
allowing
agricultural
12.
people
in
10% to
hardships
Ethiopian
destroyed what little 12 By the middle projects.
11.
to
of
on the Guban and the 11 About half stock. of the
their
which
deal
amounted
by the
border
grazing.
Two months
free
The'loss
among the Warsengeli
60% of
about
Habr Awal were
year
administration
Protectorate.
east the
number
The Habr Awal who lived lost
Golis
the
a great
the
sheep and goats,
camels.
to
forcing
poverty, camps in
relief
reduced
1451.
1929 No. 1479.
Report
for
1927
Ok
In view
administration.
of the
potential
mineral livestock
in
of the
the
the
Protectorateo the
economy of
hopes
shattered
the
in
importance
Protectorate
could
of
not
be over-emphasized. "The real capital conwealth of the population sists solely and the moment drought of stock, becomes sufficiently the severe to affect breeding is the capital of the country stock, reduced. " 14 the spread fight putting up a determined against
Besides of animal
epidemics
introduced
administration health
the
of
example,
dip
a cattle
substantial
number
to make use of
by the
for
veterinary of
the
that
to how it
and put could
considered
be improved.
to be commercially
and ponies.
14. Colonial
forward
Report
the
was reported demand for
had to make These memorandum
and comprehensive
the
a number Animals important
impor-
on the
he dwelt
The memorandum then
for
dip
more dips.
for
the
economy of of
suggestions
which
could
were set
a
reluctant
administration
in which industry
first
but
and by 1930 the
three
a long
officer
15,
the
constructing in
were
howevero
use,,
livestock
Protectorate,
15.
at
Somali
In 1929,
schemes culminated
goats
the
was so widespread
a new outlay
tance
at Hargeisa
a "fair
to have received dips
was established
of
it.
1927., for
In
products.
the
improving
of
modern methods
and their
animals
the
and rinderpest,
such as anthrax
be
sheep,
out
as
cattle,
to consider
1927 No. 1390.
The MSS. AFS. S. 141 (in Rhodes House, Oxford): Protectorate 1924History Veterinary of Somaliland Veterinary Officer, 1960 by E. F. Peck, formerly Somaliland.
39S (a)
how to
increase
the head of
mentioned
animals
(b)
permanent
grazing
areas
(c)
some organized
that
the
is
by providing
greater 16 produce.
The value
Cocksedge's
memorandum,
markets
to
increasing
the
in
lay
wells
the
products
skinso
so his
for
African
the
sheep and goatso
of
above
permanent
of marketing
returned
be found
could
of
possibility
system
value
of the
stock
according
to
for
new
which
Somaliland.
outside
"I believe., " he wrote, "I am correct in saying that the value of the skins can be enhanced if the propaganda and teaching of new methods of skinning are more energetically and curing " carried on. 17 In
the
commercial
demand for
and advocated
an extensive
because
Somali
towards
of
their
full
was equally of the
exploitation
in Aden and Jibuti,
products
use of bullocks-for
The commercialization
problematical the
the
and their
cattle
Cocksedge
of cattlep
He advocated
optimistic.
tion.
value
of the the
cultiva-
camel was,
howeverp
attitudes
conservative
of
camels:
"but it must be borne in mind that the camel food in the form of milk and is also at provides for the the moment the usual method of transport " the interior. into native and caravans 18 Turning increase with
in
the
permanent
to
the
number wells,
of
task
,
of
stimulating
livestock
Cocksedge
a steadY
and of providing
urged
the
them
administration
16. C. O. 535/93/38527 Memorandum by Major T. A. B. Cocksedge, Officer. - on ways of increasing the Veterinary animal 31/l/1931. products, 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid.
399 to
learn
from
the
catastrophe
had found
unprepared
to cope with the
exacerbated
In
none.
the
the
advice
and this
situation, Somali
This
totally had
who looked
a recurrence
of
to
but
and encouragement
to avoid
order
1927 drought.
administration
of the
plight for
administration
of the
experience
the
received
a similar
situa-
tion., "it is possible that artificial water-holes foro in the large grazing could be arranged If such watering areas such as the Haud .... foro the head of places could be arranged stock that the country could carry could be increased to double, in the most certainly the sheep. Secondly, productive animal, energetic on propaganda should be carried to try and impress the natives with the fact that it is better to grow sheep and than it is to grow camels cattle 19 The memorandum was appreciated Office,
which
expressed in
administration which With
were regard
external the
preparedness
implementing
feasible
those
and realistic
to Cocksedge's
markets
Colonial
its
on Animal
the
to
assist
Colonial the
recommendations the
recommendation
be sought,
Office
in
in
circumstances. that
more
Advisor
Montgomery,
the
Health,
observed
to
that
"the demands of Egypt appear especially worthy of inquiry, as owing to the diminution there of the garrison at Aden, the requirements " have been materially reduced. He went
on to recommend the
establishment
of
internal
markets "so that animals can be and animal products market places. sold and bought at, established The existence, markets will., of established inter reduce the spread of disease alia,
19. Ibid.
409 trade system. which is encouraged by itinerant Established markets would also lead to price by the Government and reduce the control by speculative exploitation of villagers traders and brokers*' 20 The Colonial out
of the
Treasury
to meet the
of husbandry
a variety
and a further
Rs.
Cocksedge
Sudan for
the
land
purpose
flooded
with
Sudan and other Egyptian
borne
animals
Egypt
animals
Egyptts and animal
countries
quarantine bound
for
Egypt
Somalithe
were
markets
from
products
More-
Africa. that
stipulated had to
the
and returned
in northern
rules
of
for
July
sea-
all
the
through
enter
In
and the
Egypt
possibilities
in
21
more dips.
countries
empty handed.
month,
over.,
those
He visited
products.
already
there being no quarantine at Alexandria., 22 the This would have involved at Suez.
quarantine facilities Protectorate
in
introduce
a long tried,
administration to
in
Somali,
the willing
to visit
exploring
of
1,000
of demonstrating
constructing
was authorized
up new markets
following
the
for
to
Rs.
squeeze
expenses
techniques
1,000
additiono
opening
managed to
Office
without
quarantine
the whole idea 23 dropped.
of
success,
opening
up a new markets
Ibid.
21.
MSS. AFR. S* 141 The Veterinary Protectorate op. cit.
22.535/93/38527
persuade
Egypt
and consequentlyp in Egypt
was
by Montgomery.
20.
minute
to
at Suez,
services
The
journey.
and expensive
Kittermaster
History
of
the
Somaliland
to C. O. 11/8/1931.
(High Commissioner Percy Loraine 3338/16 Cairo) 23.535/93/J i4/11/1931 (Encl. in P. O. to C. O. 25/11/1931). F. O. to
40 Cocksedge's lishment
of'permanent
a new idea
not
in
need to provide
the
into
Protectorate taken
the whole
The commission
water
routes.
need to
launch
water,
appoirbad
in
the
one for
for
the
as a preliminary 24 programme.
drilling
After the
sanctioned carry
out
step
the
usual
funds
for
an extensive
with
permanent
water in to
Commission
a number the
of recommendationsp of permanent
provision
and on the
areas
had then of
the
sub-artesian water-
proposed
the
employment
and intensive
the
stressed
procrastination, the
The
and recommend a solution.
presence for
was
consideration
a special
main grazing
The commission tests
Protectorate.
problem
being
estab-
animals
the
serious
had come up with
resources
caravan
into
water
important
most
of
the
for
places
history
when Kittermaster
look
the
the
was first
resources 1927,
watering
the
regarding
recommendation
of
Treasury to
an engineer into
investigation
the
possibilities
and requirements
for
the
commencement
of
a water-boring
and conservation
scheme.
ýThe engineer
started the
his
March
early
Development
Colonial
same year 26th
work
for
a detailed
in
to
1930 and submitted'his'report Advisory study.
Committee This
in March
Committee
sat
of
the
on'the
and was "impressed'with the'thoroughness'with which'the, has been preparedo of report and are satisfied the proposals the-desirability which of adopting " it contains. 25
24.
c. o. 830/1 Geological
25.
Colonial Development Advisory C. O. 535/89/38217 Committee to the Under Secretary of State for the 29/3/1930Colonies
Report on the Somaliland Department op. cit.
Agricultural
and
A free
totalling
grant
tectorate
from
water-boring by the
the
Colonial
In
lorry
tion
commenced in the
mid-1931
water-boring
drilling
it
making
himself
seriously
the
first
the
Protectorate
80,9000 acres
with
and took
Their
many parts
them the
relative
inspired
them with
in
their
education
Protectorate These Khartoum
26.
Ibid.
27.
Colonial
28. Colonial
the
the
world their
of
to
a determination On their
scale
to be the
was considered for
of
posts
beyond
graduates
the
the
adminiscontact to
had revealed and
country agitate.
most
for
change
and urgent
crucial
was high
level
became the
to
returned in
1928
of prioritieso
It
Protectorate.
advanced
of
Sudan and their
the
backwardness
own country.
requirement
in
addressed
beginning
College
up clerical
experience
from
people
Kittermaster
of Gordon
graduates
the
for
possible
At the
was education.
Somali
tration.
to which
problem
had
operations
and conservation
to put nearly administration 28 irrigation for cultivation. The other
opera-
operations 27 By afterwards.
Protectorate under
gave a six-
1930 and the
two months
Boraxna and Hargeisa,
reached
the
for
in October
at Zeila
earnest
Committee
equipment
at Berbera
arrived
the
26
scheme.
The necessary
#24
Pro-
as recommended
programme the
the
Fund for
Development
addition,
to the
to
was awarded
and conservation
engineer.
wheeled
Z16,000
40
of'Koranic
vanguard
I 1524.
Report
for
1930 No.
Report
for
1931 No. 1570.
time
the schools.,
of protest
-
inLi j they
what
against
saw as Britain's
They brought
country.
Kittermaster question
found
notwithstanding
the
attitude.
Somalils, the
being
Protectorate the
Koranic
appreciated, of
the
Western the
on education
graduates
their
wardness
of
for
state
of
but
idea
of making
their
country
while
others
any education
other
than
were that
the the
lines
He believed
to be the
most
of
education
in
the
unique
of
grievances
Somali
the
backresponsible to
the
development
of
opposed
even prepared
introduction
along
type
not
odd
Kittermaster
were
provided
scheme organized this
the
they
four
educational
towards
a contribution
He advocated
the
held
since
affairs
to 930p this
the
witho
alone
expenditure
the 30
towns..
against
country,
annual
towards
coastal
let
Treasury's.
by the of
to have
Koranic
an educational
a reformatory
suitable
the the
in
education
amounted
subsidy
on the
Khartoum
school.
to bear
to re-open
necessary
and even sympathised
this
their
of pressure
By 1928 the
Goverment's
schools
it
introducing
of
Protectorate,
of
deal
a great
of
29
on Kittermaster.
whole
neglect
school.
and realistic
circumstances
of
Somali-
land. "I am inclined"., "to the opinion that he'wrote., is the best line of developa reformatory-school My idea is to start school a reformatory ment .... in, be Hargeisa given would which-instruction at at
29.
Interview and Mahmud Ahmed with Ahmed Hassan Ibrahim by many Somali as the is regarded The latter , Ali. "father Somaliland. in British of education"
30.
C. O. 535/85/38052
Kittermaster
to C. O. 14/4/1928.
40, T ac
Agriculture A and in technical education. certain amount of clerical would education it might be found possible it also go with .... to enlarge the scope of this school by admitting " thereto to boys attend. who might wish other 31 He estimated for
the
since
ness
to
the
need
it
of
have
this
Somali
to
to
the
have
volume
of
been
the
introduction
Protectorate juveniles
of
Colonial
Office
where it
was thrown
to
it
would
out.
"to introduce of reformatory a bad thing. feeling that of providing in Somaliland.
saying
country,
and yet dis-
was beyond to
introduce
to
do was, The merits hitherto
the
of
resistance
type combat
of
education
the
growing
areas.
Committee
on Native
The Committee
felt
to
the
Education that
by Somali the for way education for criminals would be schools There was, however, a strong something should be done by way for education some opportunities " 32
31.
Ibid.
32.
Ibid. Minute by Vischer, Advisory Office Committee Tropical Africa.
Secretary on Native
the
The
education.
scheme was submitted
Advisory
to
unwilling-
circumvent
European
suffice
expressed
by force.
a reformatory
urban
Kittermaster's
their
anticipated,
was that in
had
be justified
Somali
would
amounted
education
of
the
having
Z2,000
What he proposed
educate
of
in
would
and indeed
advantage the
kind
means.
scheme would
encountered,
for
this
foul
or
Somali
education
administration
less,
or
other
European
of
proposal
the
of
of having
by fair
outlay
Kittermaster's
a majority
the
more
an initial
scheme.
that
pute,
that
to the Colonial in Education
4013, The feeling to
of
would to
ought
it.
without
European
Britain
an alternative
from
hands
Office.
Machtig
to Hussey's the
and the
Colonial
Office's
the
of
adoption
of
its
revival
this
Colonial attention
education
down on the
passed
the
of
had turned
the,
for
initiative
memorandum on Somaliland
He proposed
With
worse.
those
or do
merits
programme
to
the
The free The Somali
on its
educational
called
Treasury
economy.
it.
scheme,
of Kittermaster
be disastrous
would
crime.
be none the
would
devising the
with
education
of Kittermaster's
rejection
which
education
it
come to respect
never
accept
was that
Committee
European
associate
citizens
the
of
grounds
1920 of
memorandum
recommendation:
"we might be able to overcome Treasury objections but we have to bring the Governor into it as well Education as the Advisory Committee. ", _3 Committee took advantage The Advisory Education of Kittermaster's on the
26th
During
the
1929., it
in
presence
sitting
education
educational
programme 054
separate
The Committee existing
Koranic
of
the
from
recommended
schools
a meeting
he was invited.
Committee to
decided
was unanimously
reformatory
the
and convened
1929 to which
September second
London
on 17th
keep the
idea
October of
any Government
the. improvement
of
at Berbera
'33. C. O. 535/85/38052 Kittermaster Minute by Machtig.
to C. O. 14/4/1928.
34. C. O. 535/85/38052 Extract from Minutes of the meeting Education, 17/10/1929. Committee Advisory the on of
406 f1so that boys College would " present. 35 It
thought
was also
vernacular
In
light
in
charge
these
of
intended
to
Education
implement
Government
to
made specific
proposals
on how he
policy
those
approved
increase
Koranic
schools
the
schools
metic, would the
he meant
schools
attendance. for
would
reading be the
an annual
that,
besides
have to
for
have
to have
grant
above would
qualify
schools
would,
those
of Z9.
each annually for
the
which
Inspector
would
with
recitation such
their
a
a high
with
the
This
In addition,
enrolment,
30 pupils with-40
and steady qualify
were
pupils
annum.
granto,
Korans
as arith-
or more was to
L27 each per of
subjects
a subsidy.
and those
on top
the
of
curriculum.
20 pupils
with
receive'Z18
dized
in
qualification
A school
or initiate
some practical
include
and writing,
would
Advisory
that
"the boys are acquiring knowledge". 37 By this
by the
to
by a Government
himself
satisfying
schools. on
to
to be inspected
agree
Koranic
36
Kittermaster,
He proposed
subsidies
training
developments
the
Committee.
for
the
of
the Gordon than at
one or two
establish
a programme
to Somaliland.,
return
view
with
teachers
the
to
possible
schools
religious
going from there to be less handicapped
to
and
The subsi-
receive
free
35 -9^ - Ibid. 36. Ibid. 37. c. o. 8.30/3 Education Department, Somaliland Protectorate Annual Report for 1938. The Department of Education was in 1938. This was the first report of the established Department.
40 '61, supplies
of
programme
stationary
and other for
was earmarked
equipment
Z250 per
38
annum in
The whole the
first
so that
stage,
t'if the people appear inclined to work with the Goverment in these schools, I shall feel to go on to the second step in encouraged development i. e. the establishing of the basis existing school in Berbera on a better by the provision buildings of better and a " better staff. 39 The second expansion
stage of
of
the
development
would
to
include
curriculum
geography,
English,
Physical
Services.
Selected
boys who would
ability Khartoum.
would 4o
Vischer.,
the
commended theseproposals,
the
engender
historyo
Education
further
receive
also
hygiene,
and Social
show exceptional at Aden or
education
Secretary
of
describing
the
Committee,
them as
Itwise and, very sound If the Governor .... bring Koranic can successfully schools under is the case in_ý. effective supervision as the Sudan -. he will have laid a sure foundation for all future developments educational "41 in the Protectorate. The Treasury the laid
first the
stage plan the
attending
agreed
the
of
programme,
the
before
two Koranic
parents schools
average
attendance
at
between
70 and 90,
he offered
on condition
they
to
each of
promised
to
the
sanction
the
funds
and Kittermaster of
the
two schools
them the introduce
duly then
children
at Berbera.
for
Since was
maximum subsidy new subjects
38. Ibid. 39- C.'O. 535/85/38052
Kittermaster
40. Ibid. 41. Ibid.
Minute
by Vischer.
the
to C. O. 26/11/1929.
into
0S the
The offer
curriculum.
Kittermaster be poor This but
was informed
was a serious
in
elsewhere
the
-2
they
to receive
Protectorate,
enthusiasm
inspected.
T.
the
there
of Koranic
Office,
The
offer
1930.
and Throughout lack
was a general
educational
scheme,
schools
to
a view test.
his
July
response
Koranic
- with
required
same as from
42
enthusiasm
four
Sheikh the
to
preferred
a favourable
of
and a
to be
refused
L_. Rowan., an Assistant
Colonial
and
and subservient.
accepted
in Kittermaster's number
in
passed
however,
substantial
rich
He visited
relief,
the
Somali
for
and 2 at
much to his
schools,
look
country.
assessi nlihether
the
to
down,
to Kittermaster's
setback
at Burao
the
to being
he was determined
began
that
and independent
schools
was turned
Principal
Clerk
that
observed
ttit is evident from the Governorfs despatches that the second step in this scheme - the development of the Goverment school at Berbera Any hurry would be cannot yet be considered. fatal. The main trouble is evidently. that the Somali are either to take unable or unwilling steps on their own*"43 Kittermaster
was,
and the
pace, quently
financial
take
remaining
part
the
of
to
down his
slow
programme
was subse-
shelved. All
there
instructed
accordinglyo
hopes
position
of of
finding the
as would
left reduce
42. C. O. 353/94/38465 Kittermaster 43. Ibid.
Minute by Rowan.
for
the, ailing
having
Protectorate
seemed no alternative such measures
a cure
for
the British to
the
bare
faded, but
to
minimum
to C. O., 8/5/1931.
I"") 'Uj
the
financial
the
of
figures
the
of maintaining
costs
is
problem
of revenue
Protectorate.
The gravity by the
illustrated
following
and expenditure.
/
Year
(9)
Revenue
1924-25
82.8o6
150s564
1925-26
89., 057
167., 955
1926-27
90. -569
149,125
1927-28
157,478
198,628
1928-29
101*541
207so67
1929-30
105004
199., 027
The exceptionally the
1927-28
result sell
the
of large
death
and 1929-30
numbers
toll
Thus,
1928-29
financial
Z121,875 1925-26
years
relatively
high
was caused
by--the,
item
claimed,
1928-29, drought received
Z7,7ý4,
of
camps were
As the
Somali
displayed
963,419
for
-to
recovered a great
from deal
the of
for The
financial
year 'This
ýmeasures..
the
the
and
1927-28
years
and
the'1927
of
effects
The Protectorate
in May-, 1930, and a good number down before
to
respectively.
to. disappear.
clo'Sed
high
and-967,716
relief
By 1930 the
were-beginning good
famine
and Z24,000
respectively.
famine
they
cost
1927-28
the-1927-28
for
the
respectively.
years,
expenditure
rains
to
compared
to
people
and skins
for
amountedo
financial
and 1926-27
the
Secondlyo
receipts
customs
and Z79,577
forced
stock.
as a
came about
added more hides
stock
the
market.
years
which
during
realized
revenue
financial
their
of
the
of
high
drought
severe
(P,)
Expenditure
the
shock
of
enthusiasm
end of the in
the
of
the
year.
drought., trade
and in
41 f) ý industries.
local
This
opening
consider
first
the
which
Protectorate.
The need for was given
the
Besides
economic
losing
gradually
Archer's
period,
ordinary
citizens
taxation
schemes.
Akils
Archer's
loyally, the
In
self-enrichment.
totalled
well
Akils
Z5,000'per
was as follows
by the
71.
It'was
estimated
that
end of
to
the
serve insults
Somali
and insti-
the
as a means
of,. the
Akils
The distribution 1930.
79; Erigavo there
during
oppose his
whole.,
salaries
annum. '
16, Burao 72; Hargeisa
District: Zeilah
over
1930 the
45
the
with
incurred
by the
1930.
revealed
to
On the
policy
administration.
of
who tried
people.
of
of Akils
system
back
frequently
Savings
was
them conspired
Those Akils
from
Britain
was clearly
had come to be regarded
tution
the
behind
her
end of
instrument
when many of
administration
of
the
the
class
Somaliland
the
the
in
basic
of
emerging
to reconsider
towards
to
establishment
British
Britain
confidence
The unreliability
ostracization
the
the
considerations,
had been their
which
in
thought
serious
for
provided
bank
savings 44
the
1930 he promulgated
In June
Bank Ordinance
bank for
a savings
of businessmen.
Kittermaster
encouraged
of
Berbera
45 and
was: one Akil
for
every'10000
44.
Reports from Annual-Colonial These figures. wereýobtained Reports The following Protectorate. for the Somaliland 1355; for 1926 No". Report Colonial consulted: were Report for Report for 1927 No. 1390; Colonial Colonial Report for 1929 No. 1479; Colonial 1928 No. 1451; Colonial Report for 1931 No. Report for 1930 No. 1524; and Colonial 1571.
45.
by the Egyptians during their The Akil system was initiated in the 19th century. The Akils administration short were Somali elders by the administration to individual selected act as Government Agents.
people.
411 "In spite representation of this one of the most for me to receive is for the common requests Akils in appointment of additional practice .... to listen is prepared to no individual readily orders or advice except from a very near rela" tive ... 46 Kittermaster the
of Akils
number
broadened
and his
advocated
the
political
units.
recommended so that
dia
ment of
Lastly,
He also as viable
groups
the
of
number
the
by the
be accompanied
should
is
each Akil
of
headmen should
appoint-
serve
increase we shall merely our pay roll, 47
Kittermaster
of District case,
to 3 for
uneasiness
in
Treasury's
attitude
from every
proposals
London
expenditure
scrutinized.
There The
became
a bone
Treasury,
over was
every
protest.
it
2 for
on a
coincided the
with of
had
any
item
between latter
46. C. O. 535/922ý38-508Kittermaster
to
number
a growing The
Somaliland.
to
for the
the
as was then
stiffer be
scrupulously
passed
Estimates
the
of
progressively
authorized
contention
provoking
increase
future
becoming
was hardly
instead
each district 48
district.
Protectoratets of
the
recommended
officers
These
the
of
The dia
"otherwise of diminish
and
dia
of
basis
voluntary
the
the
The reduction
headmen.
reduction
increased.
of
he recommended,
Akils,
power base
the
responsibility
recognition
a drastic
1928,
Colonial
write
without for Office
a example, and
as follows:
to C. O. 24/11/1930.
47. Ibid. 48. "The Development of the Somali", Journal of the African Societyo 31,1932, p. 234-2440-by H. Kittermast. er.
"1- 1.
ti, (i. e. The Lord Commissioners They of ... the Treasury) that the military realize is unavoidably increased by the expenditure but relief of the Nyasaland contingent .... in a year burdened by such charges it would be desired, generally and would indeed be in other imperative, to curtail expenditure directions **0*"49 Kittermaster's tion
were not
Treasury Office
its
decided to
to
the
Committee
was taken
up by the
Committee
for of
turning
point
Protectorate.
the
Deputy
Director
of Plans
Inspector
General Chief
of
General
Staff,
Foreign
Office;
Treasury;
1931.
the
K. A. R.;
the
of
Air
Mr.
Staff;
Air
State
Mr.
Assistant
at
Suba
to be a of
the
John in
Colonial
the
Cunningham,, Walkero
Brigadier
Burnetto
Vice-Marshal Hainingo
Col.
Skevington,
Walton,
by Sir
Admiralty;
Division,
out
were Capt.
attendants
East,
position
was chaired
dis-
the
namely
turned
of
for
The question
Middle
uncertain
Under-Secretary
War Office;
Mr.
the
the
Colonial
question
Defence.
This
hitherto
and among the
Office,
the
sub-committee,
concerning
The meeting
Shuckburgh.,
Deputy
relevant
September in
Somaliland Imperial
of
Questions
9th
meeting
the
administra-
tomke
enough
Consequently,
attitude. submit
the
re-organizing
far-reaching
considered
change
cussion
for
proposals
of
the
Petersono
Counsellor$
Principal
Secretaryp India
Secretary,
Office
and others. The chairman as being
to
find
described
a solution
Somaliland
Protectorate'which
an average
of 981,000
per
49. C. O. 879/122 Treasury
to
the the
of
problems
had already annum for
of'the
purpose
the
cost past
to C. O. 13/3/1928
the
meeting British
the'Treasury thirty
No. 71.
years;
,
41"
"the continuance of expenditure on this for any inadequate return, was difficult justify *50 The Treasury alternative
conceivable selves
in
the
denouncing
circ=stances
(b)
withdrawal
(C)
a policy
(d)
continuing
to
administration the
Somali
on the
action
of
that
four them-
presented
to the coast of development with
there
take
the status
quo
the Committee was unanimous in
to evacuation, unless
Committee
:-
evacuation
it,
the
to
courses
(a)
With regard
it
put
scale to
was some kind The possibility
over.
organized of giving
and then
was debated
self-Government
of
dismissed
that
grounds
nthere was no outstanding capable of personality taking The tribes., if left to themselvess charge. in former feuds and indulge would renew their The fighting inter-tribal scale. on an unlimited n be in fact, chaos. 51 result would, What about to
the
handing
League
alternative be ceded
France, -
obligation to
relations
with
Italy could
to
to
to be three Somaliland
or Ethiopia. be entered the
consider
any one of the, other
British
the'three
might
Howevers
before
any
Britain
though
it
into,
effect
or
power
colonial
some other
There-appeared
to which
countries
Protectorate
over
of Nations?
such transaction her
it
of
the
nationso
two or upon their
transfer
tkeof
upon Britaints
relations
with
50. C. O. 535/94/38567 Minutes of a meeting of the Sub-Committee 2 No. Imperial Defenceo held the Committee at of of Whitehall Gardens on 91911931. 51. Ibid.
411 as the
Ethiopia
favour
Somaliland
without
and Italy
being
either
Ethiopia
be possible
might
to
from -
otherwise deciding
to
Britain's
France
under
irreparable
to
to
to
so it
League
or
the
of
the
loss
two.
52
of
prestige suffer
was argued, of handing
of Nations
it
of Britain
Britain's
The possibility
the
Cunningham
would,
hand,
event
either
opposed
would
territorial -
the
any circumstances.
damage.
Protectorate
in
Britain
other
compensation
or Italy
there
Yet,
On the
return.
France
interests,
quo that
Protectorate
interests
and strategic
between
strategic
pro
was firmly
Office
Somaliland
quid
to
annex British
could
weak country.
obtain
cede the
The Foreign
Captain
in
inclined
friction
causing
a relatively
seemed to be no adequate demand from
which
country
or endangering
Ethiopia
was initially
The Committee
one another.
the
over by
was opposed
for
"it afforded no safeguard, as there was the mandatory to prevent power from nothing as a base-of, operations. using the coast line The alternative coastal the
Italyts drawal
of
past
the
the, way for was-more
than--likely
Ethiopia
as well,
52.
Ibid.
53.
Ibid.
54.
Ibid.
in
policies
coast,
Italy
but
experience,
expansionist to
of resuming rejected
was unanimously
administration
basis
choice,
to
it
the
in
Horn
was considered,, in, the'vacuum..
fill to
also
spark
as, involve.
off
Britain.
clashes 5,4
the
the
not light
on
only of
With-
simply
a development between
53 of
policy
of Africa.
would
"
Italy
pave that and
1 Should
Elaborating
development? dered.,
then,
Britain,
Shuckburgh
the
pursue this
on what
policy
option
of
engeni
that
contended
F-
"it was a policy that involved expenditure, scaleo in the sometimes on a considerable but it was stages of development; early that could be described as proexpenditure ductive in that its object was to place the territory on an economic basis that would 11 it to its way. own enable eventually pay 55 He regarded were
the
facto,
that
the
a policy
practical
of
the
the
policy
feature
salient
money was not
only of
money
the
situation
ands ipso
available
the
development
was outside
alternative
seemed to be to
already
Treasury's
on the
one if
ideal
range
of
politics. The last
with
the
But
available.
was simply
as the
policy
forced
attitude,
policy
namely,
by
Protectorate
Commenting
stagnation.
the
stagnation
of
upon the
continue
Treasury
expressed
the
that
view
"the policy was obviously not an ideal, one: but as there was no practicable alternative, to make the best of 't"'56 it was necessary
period
by adopting
henceforth. concern
It of
reduction The details.
55.
Ibid.
56.
Ibid. 16;4.
S1
the of
ended the
thus,
The Committee,
was then Colonial
Z30,000 of
stagnation
this
as the
announced office
from
the
exercise
of Kittermaster's
uncertainty policy the
that
was, to
to be pursued immediate
effect
Protectorate's will
be discussed
an annual budgets54 in
the
4i
next
chapter.
In
spite
internal
affairs
was not fact
faire
its
it
source part
of
the
very
the
the
rest,
this
the
its
reluctance
to
the
Somali
This
had a deleterious
effect the
however
a pretext,
action
arose. that
stances
ItAs the
for.
in
to commit taking
background
for with
seems, to have
prone
of
policies.
armed conflicts
discipline
for
Somali
was remarkable
inactivity
minoro
the
colonial
upon the
few incidents
a moment of
in which
contrary,
relatilve,
on the
During
experienced
Britain
were
had been the
post-Dervish
soldiers
on the
which
results
period
on'the
became the
inactivity
contrary
had hardly
involve
again.
the
turbulent
laissez
- which
was intended
to various period,
making
it
the
and anxiety.
the -
inactivity
say that
period
Camel Corps being
tension
produced
of what
Kittermaster's
ever
of
administration
responding
Corps,
period
administration
and Summerts
case:
Kittermaster's
One might
reverse
Archerts
were
danger.
of
Somali,,
policy
of the
attitude
in
few moments of
was the
of vigorous
administration
of
the
absence
apparent the
part
of
without
the
of
on the
interference
In
cl,
of
the
excesses
Camel when-
disciplinary
ofýthese-circum-
1927 ought, to be.,
examined. 1927 a small,
In January the tribe, their
Barkat'and, living-in
Ba Arsamao both the
Nogal
men and receivedo
conflict
sections,.
Valley.
by way of
occured of, the
The Barkat compensation,
between
Dolbahanta lost
two of
350 camels
417 Ba Arsama.
the
from
Yet
the
now the Ba Arsama who stood August,
the
Camel Corps
them into
searing
at Hudin
the
August.
the also
capture
in
lives
the
used by the
Camel Corps
the
of
with
gravity
was no resistance Camel Corps. restraint deterioration
in
The operation
left
Ba Arsama.
It
the
by the
Ba Arsama -
The. whole over
a-love
became the
issue
to
lack than
the
of
propor-
of
there
the
advancing
self-
a slight
Camel Corps.
on the
minds
rather
than
solved,
passed
the
in which
of
-' and paying,
parents
58. MSS. AFR. S'9'552.
of
the
after
another
form
local
belonging of
spotting
asýsecurity., girl.
this
a local
of
a suitor
bride, the
out
taste
his
to
200
and in
land
any case,
this
Rer Ahmad., made a point
camels
and 24th
23rd
Ba Arsama
Habr Awalo future
In
of
scene in
started
affair.,
against
of
the
the
feud.
A month had barely when Hargeisa
Camel Corps
of more than
other
discipline
exacerbated,
In
advance
cultivated
for
a bitter
to
It had been authorized. 58 Ba Arsama. The amount of
be anything
not
and the
feud.
The explanation
a limited
a view
was clearly
the
offered
could
Barkata
of
than
of
take
the
destruction
areas
In
arbitration.
on the
out
the
of more stock six
to
a setback,
Burao
was carried
extensive
claimed
of
was
way of peace.
to British
from
resulted
(huts),
force tion
It
the
Ba Arsama with
risks
was reinforced
Ba Arsama karias
gurgis
the
submission
to minimize
order
in
and it
continued
was authorized
against
action
punitive
feud
For
operation feud. dispute to
the
and booking
a number
of
some undisclosed
418 reasons.,
however,
the
bride
and the
his
claim
becoming
impatient
Rer Shirdone,
took
choice
girl
and they
took
from
suffered
their
the
Five
their
of
to Kittermasterts
borders
of
the
the
of
Italian
administration. to which
problem
expansionist
59. Ibid.
policies
their
killed.
59
that
and energy
we shall
outbursts
were
directed
pursued stock
to
of
is
the
the
find
main
was one major himselfo
addressed
1926 Kittermaster
Rer
of Kitterýnasterls
expansionism
for
the
admittedly, it
administration,
invading
at Hargeisa
of
were,
liti-
residential
by being
plenty
the
verdict
hands,
two days,
politics
which. called
losing
Commissioner's
for
but
Rer Ahmad
the
their
into
men were
Kittermaster
Early'in
the with
humiliation
the'sporadic-trans-frontier another
Commissioner
compensate
and,
Protectorate
resources
suitorts
The Habr Awal,
law
internal
concern
Habr Awal,
The Camel Corps
Burao
suitor,
The aggrieved
satisfied
and having
Whereas
heart.
District
another
karias,
captured.
problem
to
the
original
District
simultaneously.
Shirdone
focus
the
were not
Rer Ahmad and the
was reinforced
from
to
an absentee
the
of his
instructed
promptly
quarters,
for
was upheld.
The latter
gants.
waiting
breaking
case
however,
were,
the
the
of
who was apparently
to
to
steps
latter,
say nothing
the
no'further
man belonging
thereby
to
contract, party
with
a different
married
took
suitor
and
of violence
constant
were
vigilance.
reported
that
as much against
Italyts
4ts Ethiopia that
De Vecchils
veiled
the
that
effect
Italians
and the
Italian
the
Britain
ought
Mijjertein
from
territory.
This
was a formidable
and he duly
told
the
Colonial
believed
to
had the 6o borders.
Italian
end of 1926. try
It
was the
and prevent on British
fighting for
task
the
against
operations
towards
was announced
the
forward
towards
He also
the Mijjertein
against
of pushing
attitude
Mijjertein
Somaliland.
campaigns
objective
Britain's
to
British
as against
Kittermaster
that
Office
"the area to be watched is some 3,000 square You will that it is not possible miles. realize for me to comb out the villages over scattered this wea searching for armed men. "61 He regarded in
the
it
light
as his the
of
do was to
could patrol
certain
local
areas
the
of
Mijjertein
border
the
last
presence larly at
chapter,
were
of Sultan
embarrassing
a loss
reconciliatory
to
only
clashes
briefly tip
the
the
know how to meeting,
British
of
of him.
to be held
60.
For a study of De Vecchits Orizzonti d'Impero: Cinque
61.
C. O. 535/80/22012
Kittermaster
whenever
in
an iceberg.
The
became particuwhich
They proposed
at Aden between
period, Anni in
Ali
with
administration
dispose
to
discussed
Osman Mahmud at Berbera to
he
be captured.
Italy's
and Isman Mahmudo already
policy
that
Camel Corps
and disarmo
who might
The repercussionslof Kenedid
the
of
this
The best
conditions.
send a section
those
possible,
to modify
responsibility
the
see De Vecchi Somalia op. cit.
to C. O. 31/12/1926.
was a
42O Sultan
and the
British
Resident.
negotiating
Italians, 62 the
with
this
proposal,
Pour
into
Italians.
last
the
end of February
would
have none of this.
according
to
to
and if
a settlement taking sary.
come to
with
opera-
subjects, for
Italy
to negotiate
prepared might
consider
deem neces-
might
64
and put first
Italians
In
event
to
scribed
accept
try
courses
to negotiate
to his
and return
permanently
an interview
alternative
he could
settle the
held
to him three
was that
have
son.
however,
a problem
as they
the
their
announced
were
action
Kittermaster
the
than and his
British
by 63
Bogor).
The British,
the
the
was led
Sultan
were not
to
from
and his
Sultan,
such arbitrary
flight
anxious
still
about
continued
The Sultan
latter
the
they
an end.
the British, the
London
Mijjertein
the
of
was still
Osman (alias
Hersi
hands
as having
Office
in headlong
the
of
Mijjertein
were no less
tions
solveo
of the
son,
to wash their
Thuso at
Foreign
wave of the
The Italians
mediation
Embassy in
Italian
Osman Mahmud's
British
the
territory
This
Sultan
While
more bands
British
the
under
country
in British
of his
choosing
62. C. O. 535/80/22012
the
terms
Britaints
residential,
territory
area
latter
which
and his
Kittermaster
Sultan
with
Osman The
of action. a settlement or he might his
with option would
submission
with wish
to
followers.
he would
include
a pre-
to British
to C. O. 22/2/1927.
63. For a detailed study of Italy's military campaigns, (Italian Italia, Ministry Rome see of War Publication (RoQ,, 193 ); and C. Cesario La Somalia Italiana 1935., 87-178. P. 64. C. O. 535/80/22012
Kittermaster
to C. o. 16/3/1927.
4,21 surveillance.
The third
south
refuge
and seek
declare
himself
The Sultan
in
Kittermaster
to
his
of
among the
open revolt
promised
decision
hope
Sultan
of
effecting
and themselves
to
break
and thereby 65 Italians.
the
these
options
and inform
due course.
the
Italians
shattered between
reconciliation
by their
him
against
in
month
tribes
Ogaden
consider
The following Britaints
was for
alternative
to
announcement
the
the
effect
that "the Italian the Goverment do not agree with that the Consul at Aden should negotiate proposal in the Sultan. direct They see no advantage with in nothing further negotiations which could result amnesty and of a more than the offer of a full to that treatment of Obbia. similar of the Sultan the hope that Government The Italian expressed from the be kept at a distance the Sultan will "66 frontier. Kittermaster
be allowed
should impasse.
Using
take
would surprise, tion would they
the
might
Camel
up their three
cease
rich
grazing
area
whichwas
a partial
attempt
to
prescriptive
as a striking
bands
in
Mijjertein
and confine "an as right.
t*t67
force,
he
the
tribes,
them
them
to
the
area
to which
The opera-
so that
British
push
by
The first
militarily
be to
would
them.
objectives.
to
the
District
Erigavo
and disarm
be a threat
to
solution
Corps
the
recognized
of
he
the-stalemate..
a military
simultaneous
objective
grounds
view
stock
neutralize
second
in
Mijjertein
have
be to
to the
round
would
and the
that,
proposed
of
out
the
Baran-Taleh
Some Mijjertein
they
have
might
65. Ibid. 66. C. O. 535/80/22012 British Embassy in Rome to F. O. 5/4/1927 (Encl. in F. O. to C. O. 8/4/1927)67. C. O. 535/8/22012
Kittermaster
to C. O. 29/4/1927-
42 the
solve territory. tage
by deciding
problem Thirdly,
the
of
British
Kittermaster
operation
Mijjertein,
this
the
Italians
complain
against
proposed
to
saying
reply
blame
since they 68 subjects.
of
the
idea
action
tribes all side
the
of
handing their
border
over
respective to give
proposed
left
complaining
to
a lot
from
camels
the
Should
the
action,
Kittermaster
had only
themselves
Italians
in
to be desired;
In
pursued.
on either
collecting
was due to
Moreover,
withp
British
administration for
the
To begin the
to
their
about
hitherto
policy
the
of
due to
camels
compensation
the
advan-
Governor.
colonial
tribes.,
take
was sceptical
was responsible
whatever
to
to make, peace with
the
the
cases
they
by the
to
was contrary previous
that
1,000
of capturing
Italian
claim
Britain's
Office
proposed
into
Mijjertein.
had failed
The Colonial line
1,000
an outstanding
against
back
wanted
and seize
being
tribes
to drift
and
,
or from
the
reply
Kittermaster
the
event
of, their
-
"the Italians do not seem to be much interested in the Sultan - or ex-Sultan - and we should that we are trying to not give the impression "69 negotiations. arrange In
the
meantime..
no circumstances
to which people
Kittermaster
would
Sultan's
would
be asked
or forced
Minute
by Greene.
that, to
in leave
the
Italians
Kittermaster
he make a deal
replied
68. Ibid. 69. Ibid.
towards
attitude
In June 1927 he informed
was stiffening. under
the
that
with case,
Erigavo.
that
the
Italians,
the The
Sultan's
423 Sultan
might
be expelled
also
he wished,
go anywhere
to have scouts
several
two British incident
about 71
Mogadishu.
inside
miles
Towards
to use his
Mijjertein,
and the the
against
them an ultimatum
they the
would
the
stay
Camel Corps they
area,
hands
to
or
of
the
Italian
comply
the
with
on their
strength
Camel Corpso
the
to
soldiers
did
part.
Should
Mijjertein
of raiding
a group, of
Kittermaster
was not
to
to
the
prepared
that
reply to
only
a few
refusal
to
to
send
Taleh-Baran
themselves
their
amount
into
a show of send the
to
lay
down
The prospect was, one to which
resisters stoop.
country
he decided
resistance.
a passive
ready
firm
Kittermaster
were
passive
their
stationed
not
either
should
throwing
However,
ultimatum
arms and stage
even if Moving
amounted
drastic
to
gave him their were
the
He issued
they
return
was
with
Erigavo.
else
an
to
dealing
that
them.
raid
contended,
in
effect
they
where
fire,
rifle
month he took
away at El Laghodeh.
miles
their
the
The Mijjertein
origin.
in
Mijjertein
area
British
one incident
protested
discretion
to
reported
end of June Kittermaster
following
move to Taleh-Baran of
the
In
by Italian
Kittermaster
which
were
and harassed
border.
were wounded
authorized
action
the
was becoming
soldiers
border
the
crossed
scouts
District
The Italian
to
and ordered 70
District.
in Erigavo
explosive. frequently
Berbera
save Erigvao
The situation potentially
from
In
any case,
70.
C-0-
535/80/22012
Kittermaster
to C. O. 16/6/1927-
71-
C. O. 535/80/22012
Kittermaster
to C. O. 16/6/1927-
the
42 fear,
Mijjertein In
the
debt
Italians
the
and even reverse to
conditional to
amounting
400 rifles
especially
The Mijjertein thereby
1,000
and to
camels
to
their
wereo
that
concerning
the
to
back
drift
their
their
surrendering
outstanding
to
the
British unaccep-
evidently,
territory,
Italian
into
to
arms.
of
surrender
preference
how-
surrendering
ammunition
of
his
was,
to pay the
agreeing
conditions
began
to modify This
These
demonstrating
reprisals
decided
ultimatum.
400 bandoliers and
administration. table,
their
be disputed.
not
could
Kittermaster
circumstances,
attitude ever,
the
of
72
Italian
suffer
then
Kittermaster
arms.
reported, "I am now doubtful the Mijjertein still whether to left territory in British are in a position 400 1,000 I am certain pay camels or rifles. that if the suspicion of the of the good faith Italians the Mijjertein will can be dispelled " to their return wholesale country. 73
The decision to
to
return
He felt
Mahmud. It
was their
British
to'the
moral
and rebuff
the
in
and intimidate that
two months
Italian
the
73. Ibid.
Sultan
to bargain
strength Italian
efforts
by his
him.
It
after
the
was not
Kittermaster
return
the
to make him could
surprising,, of
declared
people.
which
with
the British
alone,
Osman
Protectorate
British
colony'th6"sultan
. 0.535/80/22012 C. 72.
to
and even betrayed
he was virtually
Now that
fore.,
presence
of the Mijjertein
was a blow
country abandoned
him the
had given
pulate
their
of the majority
submit. manithere-
the''Mijjertein his
acceptance
to C. O. 1/7/1927-
of
the
(a)
Italian
Hewas
of"the
to
reside
Italians
(b)
He was to
sultants
Sultan
to
the
in
Italians
the
frustrated
border.
were
and giving 75
of
the
at
large
in
the
It
was best 76 death.
to
leave
What needed Italy's
expansionist
Italyts
frontiers-deep
area
the
for
life*74 the
the
and a meeting was held
occasion
the
Italians
son,
in
not
from on the
think
his
to be watched which
diehards.
_ much of Bogor
movement
fighter.
die
a natural
was
more carefully had already
Ogaden,
This
pushed was a
605.
MSS. AFR.
75.
Ibid.
76.1.
M. Lewis The Modern History P. 99.
only
was still
of men or as, a tough
the
August.,
sultan
Bogor,
a band'of
him and let
policies
the
Isman Mahmud solved
with
did
into
turn
by escaping
militant
leader
the
British
74.
-S.
to
howevero
Sultan
of His
of his
rest
score
for
up to
Kittermaster
as a powerful
the
the
a subsidy
at El Laghodhe
the
himself
Erigairo
with
ceremonys
underway
of
problem.
Nevertheless, either
a big
arrangements
hopes
himself
to
were made to hand over
two administrations
the
claim
a diplomatic
at
IThe surrender part
for
surveillance
his
was anxious
arrangements
arrangements
Berbera
Mogadishu
into
to make preliminary between
the
under
and content
administration
Thus,
These were-
submission.
He was to renounce
submission
British.
his
in Mogadishu
live
Kittermasterts
While
for
of Mijjertein
sultanate (c)
terms
of Somalialop.
cit.
42v flagrant
of the
violation
agreements
in which
Ethiopiats
sovereignty.
considerable London.
In April
in
that the
meridian, 1894,
of
and Italian
the
Italy
to
repair
Laghodhe
defined the
is
by the
as well
as in
occupied
the
the to
close
Dervish 49th
the
Protocol
Anglo-Italian
boundary
eastern
Somaliland.
Kittermaster
between
British
was not
sure
49th
was on the British side or Italian 77 In meridian. view of this uncertainty,
he did
not
to
Italians.
the
example,
caused
El Laghodhe
whether of
Somaliland
and started El
line
as being
for
to respect
expansionism
in British
1927,
area.
had pledged Italy's
at El Laghodhe
wells fort
Italy
anxiety
Italo-Ethiopian
prevailing
it
consider
to make formal
advisable
Kittermaster
thought
notified
of Britain's
ever.,
to have
Italy
about
Italy's
claims
over
El
Laghodhe.
it
protests how-
necessaryo reservations did
He also
not
object "to the Italian there until its remaining party has been fixed that our right provided position to water there is not disputed" 78 to Kittermaster Office The Colonial authorized to
write
The Italian which
Laghodhe.
the
in
Goveýnor
nevertheless
Italians
sent
Mogadishu
sense
returned led
had no wish-. to
of
recommendation.
a non-committed
Kittermaster. exclude
his
scouts-to'El
that
to believe the British
In June-. the,. District_Co=issioner',
two British
replyo
Laghodhe'with
from
the
El
of, Erigavo the
evident
to C. O. 28/4/192777. C. O. 535/82/22359--Kittermaster Laghodhe. was, in fact,, on the Italian side of the boundary. 78. Ibid.
El
427 intention were
Italian
insulted
seized,
One of sent
testing
of
Kittermaster's ignored
to
afterwards karias
the
of
and that
the
against
some recalcitrant
These demarcating of
the
the
exact the
Royal
Engineers
border
area
strong
protests
underlined
boundary,
for
Officer
it
the
problems. to
Shortly
sealed. looted
some souththe
was inside
was directed 8o Once subjects.
incidents
of
simply
were
operation
Italian
sent
position
bated
the
other was 79
some 10 miles
situated that
border
more Kittermaster
soldiers
claiming
Italian
release thus,
was,
Italian
the
destination.
man's
fate
Warsengeli
of Baran,
east
the
-
treatment.
rough
while
an undisclosed
scoutts
a party
of
released
for
pleas
and the
to
and subjected
them was eventually
as a prisoner
The two men
attitudes.
to the
was the
boundary
line
Mogadishu. urgency very
uncertainty
which
Kittermaster
applied
to
Somaliland
proceed
of
exacerfor
a
-
f1with the necessary to satisfy instruments 49th the to the me as exact position of of meridian, or anyway the exact position essential points such as Baran and El Laghodhe "81 The response proposal
was favourable.
in
the
Colonial
Machtig
to
Office
remarked
the
that
"the idea of getting to verify a R. E. Officer 49th the position the meridian of points near is an attractive if he could one, especially be sent from Aden. Treasury would approval be required the and we should have to carry Foreign Office with us, as, if the Italians he can hardly are in occupation of El Laghodhe, "82 be sent there the Italians without notifying
79. C-0.535/82/22359
Kittermaster
80. Ibid. 81. Ibid. 82. Ibid.
Minute by Machtig.
to c. o. 11/6/1927-
428 the
Towards broke
their
Britain
silence
delimiting
the
the
effect
that
Anglo-Italian
they
Commission
be to re-examine to modifying
the
it
and fresh
watering
rights
the in
the
Anglo-Italian
as to
and British
spheres
of realistic
tribal With
regard
of
on the border
intentions
Protocol lines
light
define, of
the
local
to British
the
In
Italians,
with
of
the
a view condiand
opinion
the lay
of
1894 down rigid the
terms,
pending
the
a later
date. over
an The
grazing
general
claims
of
topographical
so much to
at
to
boundary.
traditional
influence,
boundaries
ques-
replied
to
and spirit
in
On the
question
tribes.
was not
which
appointment
according
boundary
whole
the
the
last
about
Italians
demarcate
should,
the
the
at
issues
of
welcome
to
evidence of
Italians,
boundary
would
Italians
complaints.
boundary
Commission
the
the
a number
persistent
of
tions
over
had raised
tion
aim of
end of June
Italian
delimitation
Baran-Taleh
area, "the Italian Government observe that it, -appears been have for centuries that those locations Mijjertein The Mijjertein. only as considered Mogal the Territory Taleh from of when retired Italian Mullah., the to protege. an was assigned died they resumed possession The Mullah having by held it forBaran., As locality. the was of Sultan that in 1925, year, Mijjertein and until had the old Mahmud, being sure of his rights, by the Mullah restored tower constructed "'"83
Lian ''Embassy in L Ondon to F. O. 83. C 0-'ý3ý/82/22359'jt The contro24/6/1927 (Encl. in-F. O. -to C. O. 7/7/1927). the the There kinds. two was of problem versy was of El Laghodhe theýexact, to, of, etc. position, as uncertainty There was also the to the 49th Meridian. in relation Taleh Baran, such as areas and whether of question territories to the 1894 British according admittedly Protocol, of the fresh should remain soo regardless the Mijjertein these claims regarding over evidence areas*,
429 Italy's let
interpretation the
alone
basis
for
criteria
took
and definite, sion
the
were
to
Protocol, advance
duty
of
to be to mark the
as a
to Britain.
unacceptable
that
view
and the
ought
Anglo-Italian
she proposed
demarcation,
The latter
the
of
the
Protocol
the
joint
was explicit boundary
boundary
line
Commis-
as stipulated
therein. The specific Anglo-Italian point the
Commission debate
of
urgency
which
controversial
to
places
the
of
to
project
the
After
a series Treasury
promised cations of
the
49th
the -
Treasury
of
letters
to, g,ive
the-, British
in
Somaliland
The.. controversy mate claim. dangerous
a-number
thus,
a pre-
The main'obstacle
- was overcome
in
July.
connection
during
meetings,
sum of Z1.000
consideration. with
and
to, future the
appli-
demarcation
-Italian-Somaliland
boundary.
what
a legiti-
over
to-jurisdiction"in-the*disputed dimensions
Royal
and inter-departmental
favourable
more funds
Britain
the
of
He was,
a preliminary
most
the
about
and verify
commission.
the
and Italyo
commission,
Phipps,
meridian. joint
allocated
for
Capt.
boundary of
continued
proposed
proposed
position
by Britain
to Somaliland
proceed
near
cursor
the
for
the
the
proposed
Nevertheless, a joint
appoint
negotiations
pace by appointing
Engineers, of
to
the
a crucial
and Italy.
was accepted
While
of reference the
set
Britain
determine
would
for
reference undoubtedlyo
necessity
places,
principle.
terms
the
of
were,
between
of
commission
in
terms
the
constituted areas
first
months
84. C. O. 535/82/22359 W.O. to C. O. 19/7/1927.
of
84
assumed 1928.
Was
0 31 the
Mijjertein
purported
to be taken to
claims the
and accepted those
its
reiterated
or was the
areas,
Italian
boundary
the
of
Taleh
1894 Protocol
as follows
position
for
as a criterion
determinant
overriding
of Baran*and
ovmership
to be
line?
Italy
:-
11 that the the Italian Government desire Commisapp*ýin*tment and despatch of the Joint acceptance of sion be preceded by Britain's the view that Mijjertein of Baran ownership
is not in dispute
With Britain
Italian
the
top-level
Italian
over
criterion
for
disputed
areas.
Italian
impatiences
and on the
of
border of
the
the
most
legitimate
in
with
situation
in
borders resulted
and her in
contentious claim
to the
the
was
1928 an interForeign
Office, to
a view the
for
a stage
Colonial
was held
of 1928.
Kittermaster
22nd February the
borders
February
now reached London.
On reflection
85. C. O. 535Z83/38006 (Encl-in 23/j/1928,
the
closing tribes
between
The meeting attitude
demonstrate
in
and War Office
closure
to blackmail
undoubtedlys
meeting
Somaliland
partly
step
consultations
departmental
evidentlyo
to British
had,
summoned home,
Office
drastic
Somaliland
The dispute
the
to
and partly took
Italy
a view,
***"85
re-assessing
circumstances o.ther reversal
issue, jurisdiction
demands.
of 86
of Britaints
namely, in
the the
inter-departmental
Italian Embassy in London to F. O. F. O. to c. o. 6/2/1928).
86. 'C. O'.'535/83/38001'"Note of a conference held at the C. O. in regard on February 22nd 1928 to consider the position between British Somaliland and Italian to, the-frontier de Somaliland" n.
431 discovered
meeting
a basis
for
to claim
jurisdiction
backlash
to
possessed
the
the
since
certain
British
grazing
tribe have a
could tribes
also in
rights
and watering
usage
wass 12so
same area,
several
the
of that
master
colonial
that
tribe
by a Somali
over
Italy
insistence
Italy's
of territory
of a piece facto,
that
Italian
territory. "It was thought that in view of this, we should be prepared to drop our attitude of maintaining (meridian) that the Protocol line was the only boundary, the boundary and that. the task-of this commission and nothing should be to delimit else "87 It
must be pointed
outs
to push her
borders
the
and watering
grazing
Italian
that
Baran
and Taleh
tribes
in
Britain
on the Italian
nor
basis
the
border
tribes.,
the
and the
Foreign
Office
87. Ibid.
of Mijjertein
be countered
the
rights In
problems
both
meeting to
Far
by Italy the
of
by British neither
compliand
two countries.
the
Colonial in
type
Somali
of the
in Rome and Mogadishu.
in
to
might
of the
no effort
tribes
the
it,
closure
advised
of
by an analo-
run..
from
inflame bills
spare
long
basis
usage
possessed
the
advocated
to Italy's
British
Italians
basis
administrative regard
by her
to make it-clear
to gain.
stood
the
With
the
of
on the
hoped
could
guidelines
further
even add to
possessed
territory.
Italy
of theoretical
rights
territory
had no wish
Britain
territory
on the
claims
that
Italian
She only
her
gous claim
cate
into
territory.
Italy
howevers
border
to
Office
protesting
The Italians
to
to be told
ought
432
that
"Just as the British have respected authorities the Mijjertein prescriptive grazing and watering to allow rights, so the Italians will continue tribesmen to graze and water in unarmed British Italian territory" 88 This-was
threat
a veiled
Mijjertein
the
should tribes
British
The latter
an alleged
intrusion
sent
Barry
into
Britain
reminded
border
Italy
demarcation
was also
suggested
a preliminary
as suggest reference between
of
meeting
two men should
try
of
that
to
the
the
Italian
both
administrations. need to get the
Governor
outstanding
It hold
should
disputes
and the as well
over the terms of 90 The Commission.
joint
and Corni,
the
ground.
at Aden,
Kittermaster
the
Kittermaster
as
soldiers
deteriorating
off
to the deadlock
proposed
At the
Nogal.
tribes
local
boundary
against
British
pressing
end the
on the
of Barryo
the
and looted
the
with
effect,
of British
Italian
of
a solution for
impact
in
and the
in
amountedo
was clearly
tribes
proposed
and wells.
instigation
a number
the
to Kittermaster
officer
Nogol
denying
territory
the
under
into the crossed 89 The situation the
which
Italian
reported
between
in
grazing
protests
administrative
same time
there.
1ralian
the
against
made no visible
and irregulars,
British
having
persist
threat
Italians.
the
Italians
new policy
to a tit-for-tat
tribes
retaliation
to
access
Britain's
for
meeting
the
Italian
Governor.,
was
88. Ibid. 89. C. O. 535/84/38006
Kittermaster
to c. o. 19/10/1928.
38006 F. O. to Graham (British go. C-0.535 Y132/'1928. Ambassador in (Enal. in F. O.. to C. O. 12/12/1928). Ro
433 held
subsequently
in
The two Governors brought
to
their
to
say,
disagreed for
forward towards
viour
the
It
was a fiasco.
practically
on every
Their
two esteemed
beha-
embarrassing
at Aden,
Resident
subject
uncourteous
particularly
proved
Italian
the
expected
1928.
discussion.
each other
host,
Kittermaster
December
91
who, to
gentlemen
needless
do better.
wrote: It I do not regard the result of our talk It because it was negative. asoLýtisfactory was obviously out of place for me to try toincidents discuss the many untoward which occurred on the frontier of late years as no decision could possibly on such crucial points be reached except on the spot where witnesses would be availablet'92 Five the
announcing
were
at
issue.
By the
the
for
arrangements
In
commissioners. as the
Senior
demarcation Italy's
in
party October
boundary
of of
189ýý-(b)-co'llection
experts
This
of Britain's
inhabitantso
91.
C. O. 525/8V38oO6
92.
Ibid.
in
England
1929.
as defined
the
local
left
concern
should
of
Joint
itself by the
with
Kittermaster
to begin
July
that (a)
him.
assist
by
the
the
Joint
delimitation
Anglo-Italian by inquiry
other-me'ans
Commis-
Boundary
proposal
own
Stafford
was preceded
anh compilation and'such
of her
Major
to
feet
to complete
Britain
selected
on the
her
commissioners
and despatch
selection
commission.,
dragging
Italian
for
waiting
June Britain
acceptance
Commission
end of May the
a handful
and his
Stafford
own boundary of
by
Britain
surprised
same time,
Commissioner
and selected
sion
the
Italy of her
Mogadishu
in
already
later,
appointment
Britain,
accusing on the
months
as might
Protocol from appear
to C. O. 13/12/1928.
the
3 10, . information
expedient,
and watering
grazing of
the
collected the
consider
the
the
border
of
evidence, if
necessity,
The first at Bunder
Joint
any,
for
meeting
Ziad,
the
of
an Italian agreement
considered,
in
terms,
Bunder
it
drawn up,
the
territory.
briefly,
49th
that
and was,
therefore,
Thus,,
the
light
would the
Protocol
was to
question,
however,
Ziad-since-the tried,
49th
the
to was -,
the
was
to
lay
the Italian
within
west of
howevers. 49th
meridian
Protocol,
-a
of
the
between
of notes
by upholding
Ziad
line.
Protocol
the as an
wasýconfirmed
Bunder
retain
define
The
1894 Protocol Mad
the
as to
observation,
problem
meridian
to, exploit. ',
case
boundary
undertaking.
exchange
was to of
test
Bunder
Bunder
a view
the
strength
the
whereby
the, west
towno with
constitute
first
to
was
each side
whole
lay
on the
solved
Commission
as to what
astronomical Mad
Italy
Joint
and., therefore,
meridian
mistake 94 town.
Italian
In
adjusting
when the
A subsequent
Rome and London
Italy,,
that
Bunder
town.
original
the
was assumed that
revealed
it
of
Subsequent
British
to
became the
success
was,
position
general Mad
for
prospects
of
of
Commission
coastal
some basic
east
rights
tribes.
the
to reaching
line.
existing
93
boundary.
held
as to
Ziad
although
crucial -The.,
the--limits
of, Bunder
was no. longer-. relevant.
this-ambiguous
situation
to her
93.
Memorandum by the Colonial Cý-P- 535/ 89/38219/111 Office , background the border of the Anglo-Italian on problems to be adopted by as to the attitude and, proposals Britain over Bunder Ziad, n. d. December 1930.
94.
Ibid.
435 best
The Italian
advantage.
Bunder miles
included
Ziad
so to
or
Hais,
the
was to
argument
Commissioners
of Bunder
south-west
the
town
a British
that
claimed lying
some 5
Ziad.
Their
that
effect
11some of the inhabitants of Bunder Ziad had (i. e. at Hais) and Bunder Mad gardens there was dependent on the well at Hais for water for some Hais Italians had The occupied ýears *00 the Governor without any protestýfrom Hais was a Somaliland of British and ... " Mijjertein watering place. 95 These claims tested
by the British
Bunder
Mad
depended
grounds
of having
the
several the
wells
basis
of
of
Italy
to
at Hais
to Britain.
The wells as by the In view the
to resolve issue
minor
Rome'to
tation-of
Mijjertein. failure
Bunder
to what
lay
the-Protocol
Bunder
Ziad
96.
C. O. 535/87/38111
of
Joint
boundary.
is
could
was absurd
for
historical
the
Joint
Ziad,
Mijjertein unacceptable
Commission
a relatively Lawrence., to
Goverment
the agree
Commission
to
He could -
see no prospect
sometimes
Stafford
on
as much by the
least
the
had
occupation
was also
ahead.,
British
the
restrict
Ibid.
of
over
dispute
95.
on the'basis
at 96
It
on
occupation
an illegal
of
were - used
of'the
compared
'
on some occasions
Governor.. 'urged'the
acting with
on account
claim
use of water
The Italian
Ziad
of Hais
Italian
was - illegal.
Ha'is
reclaim
Bunder claim
unchallenged
be irrelevant.
that
was dismissed
fact.
The Italian
own.
indeed and -
Warsengeli
in
con-
The argument
at Hais
well
no basis
its
The Italian
event.
on the
bitterly
were
Commissioners.
a previous
was deemed to have been
and arguments
spelt
the
delimi-
Banda Ziad.
to C. O. 19/10/1929.
31 6 of
being
any agreement it
or not
whether
The situation in
serious
London Not
was the
question
reached
the
of what
voke
Ethiopia
tant
to
into
League
arch
consequences
of
however,
the
Italy,,
British'tribes. in
options
depend If,
The latter
compliance
conceivable
on-the
to
quo,
Italy
junction.
on what subsequent
ensu-ing
the,., o.ther
the
raised
pro-
Britain
to
wishesp
Britain
mightpe-n1l"e, to
border bear
as
negative
Italyls,,
her
these of
question
would
-Britain
latter-claimed
grounds
-the. by, Britain decision.
discussion hand,
to
possible
that
re-open
area
even appeal
might
with,.
resolved
470/80
Italy
these
the
was reluc-
catagorize
advantage
The meeting
and,. the
_on,,
and Britain
Britaints
the
was bound
and thereby
80 and
should
claiming
This
Against
from
territory
point,
enemies.
beyond
first'inquire
this
demarcation
protests
pro
Somaliland
470 longitude
of
that
territory.
mind-until
demarcating
junction
Ethiopia.
as a quid 98
agenda
to be done when demarcation
insist
of Nations
one of her
was
the
bitter
antagonize
on the
items
Somaliland-Italian
beyond
Italian
sufficiently
the
of
ought
might
westwards
to be within
London..
(at
Italy
continue
would
important
point
latitude).
this
Protocol
an inter-departmental
Ethiopian-British
tri-junction
'_
the
alter
was considered
to warrant
least
meeting.
the
to
was necessary
came to determine
97
boundary.
to
when it
reached
the
between Italians
Rome and
made no
97. C'.O.. 535/87/38111 Lawrence to C. O. 28/12/1929. Note of a conference held at the 98. C. O. 535/89/38219/111 Office on 24th March 1930 to discuss questions Colonial the delimination of the boundary. regarding
437 for
request tion
the
that
point.
work
the
of
The meeting issue,
the
namely
Since
the
Italian
had not
clashes the
suffering 99 worsening.
Taleh.
then
the
to
turned or
the
of
The problems unacceptableo
concluded
the
Somali
of the
border.
inter-tribal
their
border,
their
peak level
were
at
crucial
of
side
junc-
terminate
most
otherwise
tribes
border
470/80
the
would
on either
reached
The meeting
but
also
was progressively by Italyts
exacerbated
claims that
over since
Baran
and
no immediate
was apparent,
solution
"an attempt information the British sion as to 0000 100 The third over
Commission
closure
of
but
persistent,
Joint
rights
only
beyond
proceed
recognition
and watering
grazing
to
demarcation
Ziad.
Bunder
further should be made to collect and to secure agreement between of the Commisand Italian sections the respective rights grazing native to be discussed
item
The consrs
of
opinion,
deadlock
was the at
the
meeting
was that "the issue is not important in itself, apart loss of prestige from the question of possible if the Italian are admitted" 101 claims had already
Kittermaster and hinted Mad
Bunder meeting,
99.
at
Ibid.
loo.
Ibid.
101.
Ibid.
the
noted
a similar
of Britain
possibility
and demanding
howevero
expressed
a quid that,
pro
if-Britain
point
giving
inýover
quo elsewhere. gave
in
of view
to
The Italian
438 demands,
the
latter
thinking
more exorbitant
claims,
tossed
The best
around.
was to be tough
mercies
and began
end of February junction
British the
Italians
this
they the
Italians
Ziad.
In the
as having 103 ý This
the
latter
British part point
far
event
Italy
of
In May
by notifying as the
point
them-that final-part
Joint
from
for
being
Ferro'e-Fuoco
Commission
their
and declared except
of
and Italian
Somaliland
of June the
with
beyond
been discussed.
British
been accomplished,
however,
the
The
(470/80)
of going
in
.
proceed
the
tri-junction
was,
to
the 102
480/80
raised
question
as the
and in
point
between
turned By the
tri-junction
the
tender
hinterland.
the
as the
tri-junction
common boundary
the
Commission
had been instructed
surprised the
to
demarcated
Commission
was felt,,
start.
80 latitude, and
has already
accepted
it
had gone as far
question
Italians
the
be
could
Italy,
Joint
response
this
demarcated
the
Britain's
Somaliland.
duty
the
as far
point.
raising the
of April
Britain
problem
demarcate
49 0 Longitude
of
the
to
Ziad
1930 demarcation
Commissioners
unless
Bunder
to make even
treat from
right
of Rome and London,
southwards
middle
the
that
way to
her
with
Leaving
be encouraged
might
main
Bunder
the
end of the
in
Somalia
102.
Francesco-Saverio'Caroselli (Rome),, 1931 P. -315 ''310 ,
103.
Memorandum by the C. O. on the C. O. 535/89/38219/111 the-Anglo-Italian border background-of, problems and to the to be adopted as attitude proposals ...... op. cit. ý
4ýD Joint
Commission tion
the
of
the
grazing boundary
tribes
the of
accordance
border
the
tribes.
rights
in
tent
it
difficult
April
1930 with
evidence tentative
evidence the
other
claims
side.
ultimately way of
of
dispersing
a settlement.
some correspondence between,
Joint
and consisand then
some The
sides.
the
examining in
those
achieved
were then consulted _Rome. between the two had taken
and,
the, two sides-of
/3821ý/Jjj 5ýý/89, C-O-, 104.
Commission
was interested
having
the
supportof
the and
by
anything
and., after place,
Commission
was, now more relaxed.,
Stafford
of
claims
ended up by quarrelling
without lo4
resumed. -, The atmosphere
the
of
contradictory
of
and rejecting
about rights
and reaching
Instead
tribes
The two sides
London
tiations
its
the
to both
each side
objectively,
the
Commis-
tribes
met in March
elders,
failure.
was a dismal
border
any meaningful
analysing
the
the
the
and watering
that
acceptable
conclusions
attempt
ing
from
collected
the
Commission to
a view
if
question
between
and contradictory
to construct The, Joint
picture.
the
on each side
territory
each other's
ques-
and recommend.,
was also
grazing
The tribes
made such extravagant
on the
instructions,
from
the
of
Joint
the
and settled. their
with
border
found
rights
and counter-claims
information
and nature
Mad,
an agreement
There
changes. claims
collected
extent
Bunder
to be investigated
In sioners
reach
and watering
outstanding
border
Besides to
was supposed
necessary., of
tasks.
Commission's
nego-
were and the
to C. O. 22/4/1930.
i,
had so far
they
their
of
advice
to
decided
Commission
and,
administrative
officers.
agreement
Commission
believed
grazing
three
an area
to be a fair
Habitual
in which
was then
described
moved in
search
included
the
labelled
Abnormal
a tribe,
when compelled
drought.,
could
any time
the
of
Area.
habitual
the
of
The most
This
by adverse area.
a tribe
a normal
the
to
always
Area
normally and
year,
was
category
in which
was an area
of
as
Grazing
such as
circumstances 105,
clauses
the
described
were
The third
area.
Area.
important
of
category
tribe
in
the
what
was defined
which
and water
seek grazing
out
The Normal
year.
grazing
Grazing
on the
Consequently,
This
as an area within of grazing
rely
The first
areas.
some sections
at
evidence
The agreement
Grazing
be found
the
representation
rights.
of grazing
of
instead,
was drawn up setting
watering
categories
was labelled
deal
a great
been collected
a general.
Somali
ignore
agreement
were: (a) boundary the
the
In
between
Warsengeli.
the
tribes,
In, the past , had been in the habit
territory
up to
49th-meridian. . tory_t-o south'as.
there
namely,
the
was no, definite Mijjertein
and
,
(b)
tein
area
northern
aý limit,
and the
the Warsengeli in
of. grazing
of , 15 -miles,
14ijjer-
each otherts side
on either
of
the
--, ý
(c),,,, The Mijjertein-had-grazed,
ablo.utl 15 miles Gerrowei
west
(480 25t
105. C. O. 535/89/38219/111
of Long.
the
in British Protocol
line,
terrias far
80 231 Lat. )
Kittermaster
to C. O. 8/8/1930.
a
(d)
The Warsengeli Sunto
between
tory
(e) in to
an area
from
action
then,
December
limits
boundary
the
Italians
in which It
on both
sides
watering latter
would of
the
course
to
of
Joint
of
in
the
was
was for
of Britain the
altering
tribal
the
with
(see map).
Commission.
was to make a new agreement the
Protocol
boundary
border
their
action
would
grazing
ancient
Of opinion
was in
with be
the
to guarantee
be necessary,
the
crucial
lines
more closely
conform
lo6
line.
meeting
to
a view
line,
adopt
was one of
The first
The weight
rights.
the
from
Two alternative
with
by the
alternative
confirmed.
the
to
as defined
The second
east
Protocol
the
was Britain This
19,30.
Italy
with
of
30 miles
themselves.
presented
Protocol
terri-
had grazed
tribe)
an inter-departmental
which
to negotiate
15 to
conclusions?
for
summoned in
and south
east
varying
these
questions
(British
The Dolbahanta
What policy, of
Italian
2 miles
up to
and El Laghodhe,
territory
Italian
light
in
line.
Protocol
the
had grazed
Somali
and
favour
of
because
Icy hith erto contem"this had been the"poli Government by Majesty's His whose main plated freedom to is of movement secure pre-occupation than accessions tribes of for British rather " in this territory area. 107 the that important, by far was reason The'second, most and alteration
of
the
Protocol
line
quarrels
was bound between
to
Italy
cause
unneces-
and Britain,
sary
complications'and
lo6.
Memorandum by the C. O. on the C. O. -535/89/38219/III border problems and background of the Anglo-Italian to be adopted by Britain proposals as to the attitude n. d. December 1930. over Bunder Ziad
107. Ibid.
S
'--
TE
G0O
is'
CA (ý;
ee
r
Vtl
Y'A
ty Ci 6''
( "-"
ý,9-
7r 4-
44.3 as well
the
case, not
the
as raise grazing
assume that
the
ipso
restricted
facto, usual
liable
Thus,
circumstances.
it
causes
of the
by the to
would
alteration
Somali.
In
Commission
different
under
change
the
boundary
Somali
any
were
have been erroneous
inter-tribal
of
the
of
zones marked
They were
static.
the
suspicions
would
to have,
nomads and eliminated feuds.
"It is therefore impossible to lay down a boundary line more in accordance with tribal areas than the present one ... it is very strongly recommended that no change at all line, should be made in the Protocol which " is becoming well-known to the natives ... lo8 Bunder of
remained
Following
contention.
of March
Ziad
1930,
Stafford
the
the
difficult
most
bone
inter-departmental
was instructed
definition
of
the
limits
of Bunder
definition
to
the
effect
that
to Ziad
Bunder
meeting
oppose
with
Ziad
Italy's
a counter-
started
"from a point on the coast at the middle of the mouth of the Da Dowah (alias Daboh or Dadarbo) Tug, situated just west of the town of Bunder Ziad - thence east along the west line to the 49th meridian2 of the Garbo hills east of Greenwich". 109 If
the
left
Italians-were
out
Hais.,
demarcating
the
then
ready Stafford
Bunder
Ziad
to
this
accept would
definition
be prepared
enclave
at
the
which
to
start
beginning
of
October. The Italian to'-Rome'and
108.
r6deiived'6:
Commissioners reply
referred
in'August.
the
matter
Britain's
Ibid.
to Corni 109. C. O. 535/89/38219 Stafford to C. O. 14/6/193o). in Kittermaster
12/6/1930
(Encl.
I
definition
of
the
and no further
steps
of Bunder
was becoming
Britain be Italy's that
delaying
an agreement
London
the
in
of Bunder
was,
for
Britain's
Italy
Commission
reported
to
Stafford
their
their
to
demarcation
Italy
threat. into
it
intention
Consequently., was shelved,
and
in November.
negotiations
attempts
come
return
the
frighten
adamant.
recall
to
was a veiled
was Britain's
resumed
of
in
this
remained
threat
The outcome
leaving
to
evidently,
If
capitulation. failed,,
would
This
to
was notified
Stafford
unaccomplished.
110
she believed
by her
of October,
middle
what
matter
differences.
taken
were
Britain.,
the
their
The latter
steps
to resolve
the
dispute
was
a telegram:
11meeting took place on 4th November with Italians. They stated the limits as previously limits I repeated Britain's which reported., " Conference closed. were not accepted. A few days
latter This
unleashed
final
another
Rome, as well tions.
Stafford
breakdown phase
as between
The Italian
left
for of
of conflict their
complained
London. the
negotiations
between
respective
I London
local
and
administra-
that
8/8/1930. to C. O. ter Kittermas 535/89/ý8219 C. O. 6/11/1930. to O. C. Kittermaster 535ýPq/3P219 lll*-C. O.
110.
p
was unacceptable
in
out with
tactics.
with
Ziad
The intention
the
impatient
no immediate
if
Ziad
to be taken
were
Rome and London had sorted
until
to
limits
.
the Italian delegate, in full while fuiiilment declared of his instructionso himself for the attainment ready to negotiate based on the dipof a transactional solution lomatic situation and on the actual state of the British delegate limited himself affairs, to again requesting the acceptance, pure and by simple, of the proposals already rejected the Italian delegate The the refusal of .... British delegate to renew the negotiations to the frontier line with regard of the enclave has rendered vain the hope that the mixed commisbefore leaving Somaliland., sion, would be in a to submit to the two governments position a solution reached upon the only point remaining to be discussed. 112 The Colonial Office reacted angrily and accused the of
Italians
of having
an amicable
been the
They were
settlement.
block
stumbling
in
the
way
to have
said
"re-affirmed their previous regardcontentions ing the location of the boundary of Bunder Mad to contentions which have proved unacceptable H. M. Government. Col. Stafford had no option but to tell him that he could not accept their proposals" 113 The Colonial
The first
action. tude
Office
noted,
to give
While Britain
mind,
initiative
gauge
the
demands for
in
Britain
hitherto to
the
to maintain
and the Italians
the', attias'al: ready
was,
other
of
courses
and demand a quid
pro
114
quo elsewhere.
the
was for
she had taken
two alternative
perceived
keeping decided,
these
nevertheless,
of reviving
the
to
issue.
let Britain
and advantages-ofýacceding
possibility some other
in
two open alternatives
concession.
But
Italy
Italy
take
would to
then Italy's
was equally
112. C. O. 535/89/38219 Italian-Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Encl. in Embassy in Rome 21/11/1930 to the British F. O. to-C. O. 27/11/1930. 113. Ibid.
Minute
by Lee.
114. C. O. 535/89/38219 Memorandum by the C. O. on the backborder problems op. cit. ground of the Anglo-Italian
-
44C determined
to
play
the
waiting
Embassy in Rome to
remind
the
work
Britain
instructed
her
Italian
authorities
of
Somaliland.
The British,
original this
half-hearted
the
the
while
up their
Bunder
Joint
the
time
War II. for
sibility
dispute
to
to
in
ignored
the
to write was still
Italy
of
the
abeyance
London
controversy
Britain both
administering
forward
put
solution
defeat
Thereafter
in
overcome
was left
Mad
the
of
to
1931
seem to have
proceeded
The Bunder
at
World
Ziad
not
intended
no conceivable
Commission
report.
unresolved the
being
did
Italians 115
initiative.
There problem,
however,
and the
obstacles,
January
unaccomplished
of how they
any new proposals
In
game.
during
assumed respon-
Italian
and British
Somaliland.
The Joint the
purpose
to It
ratification.
in
relation
Commission attempt were
grazing the
no! alter
equally
respectiland
ation:
.,, unanimous
Governments
important
in
urging
of
the
in
recommending
recognize-the,
of
the
The Joint
and Britain boundary.
Protocol
Somali
to make to
rights
boundary. Italy
June for
recommendation
and watering
Protocol in
was unanimous
was completed
few recommendations
The most
to
It
report.
respective
had very
the
was one regarding
to
their
two Governments.
Somali
up their
of writing
and submitted
the
Commission met in London 1931 for
to They
the
two countries
grazing
and watering
Graham (British 115. C. O. 535/92/38508/A Ambassador in Rome) F. O. 20/1/1931 (Encl. in P. O. to C. O. 5/2/1931).
44 IJ rights
bore
which
Another had been charged
duty
by Italy
should
be devised but
between London
the
for
also
two local
and Rome.
appointed
designated
it
the
was charged
settling,
all
the
border
of
Committee a view decided total follows
to
at El Dofar
discussing
methods
divide
or
claims
were
indeed the
into,
meeting
into
compiled
and arising
of
on March its
Joint
Sub-Committee.
looking
of
between
4 members and
of
Claims
quarrels
this
15th
Sub-
1931 with
procedure. four
out
It
was A
categories.
and categorized
as
:Category
discussion):
45;
44;
1 (claims
Category
accepted
6, Italian
British
by all
parties
3.
2 (claims
to be investigated):
3 (claims
without
56
Italian
CategorY
foundation):
Italian-36 (d)
ordinary
the
of 224 claims
disputes
and counter-claims
was held
to
future
suggestion,
of
was formula
unnecessary
The first
raids.
(c) British
claims
It
some definite
a sub-committee
duty
claims
tribes.
administrations,
the
the
(b) British
avoiding
Commission
outstanding
settling
Anglo-Italian
with
(a) 'without
for
At Britain's
Commission
It
that
boundary.
Joint
border
the
only
Protocol
the
the
settle
and Britain not
the
which
between
and counter-claims
and claims
with
was to
desired
to
no relation
116
cIourts):
Category British
116. C. O. 535/92/38508/"A" Boundary Commission
4 (petty 24;
to be referred
claims
Italian
to
7.
The Report of the Anglo-Italian (Encl. in Stafford to c. o. 61-611931).
L. 4r
thus,
The Sub-Committee.. in
2.
category the
between
Quarrels
Italian
Mijjertein
operations the
After
storm
of
the Mijjertein
her
Italian
operations
Magan who had been the only
refused
to return
tein
country
but
brought
across.
This
stock.,
captured
from
owners.
The British
did
not,
ore,
did
action theref
reference
of
Italians that It
might
117.
technicallys
the
produce
stock
have, been the as the
rightful
saying
that
claims
settling
The Magan
raids.
and.,
a raid
constitute
the terms of come within 118 In any case.. the Sub-Committee.
not
claimed
to be
really
not
could
the
so far
of
had
Italianso
their
claim, for
trans-frontier
the
and ought to
this
contested
the
to
Mijjer-
they
stock
according
was responsible
sub-Committee out
the
not
the
in
servitude
Magan and returned
and
Mijjertein..
as by right
Mijjertein
the
the
of
these
country,
retained
time
had receded
their of
their
also
to
arising
to
they
belonged
the
the
clients
the
subjects.
recalcitrant
to
had returned
stock
the
from
Magan117 at
against
for
claim
territory
British
erupted immediately.
almost
officials
by the British
country
Italian
into
claims
arguments
was an Italian
contention
had been brought
which
the
settling
and protracted
and British
bone of
The first
down to
got
British
concrete
actually
evidence to
belonged
The Magan is a Somali by the other inferior by affiliating living in them a and-serving famous werbo however, and weapons, fighting
118. C. O. 535/90/38219/t'D"
concerned,.
the
Mijjertein.
of. theýMagan-
personal-property were
to prove
the
Thus.,
case was nothing
tribe which was regarded as tribes. The Magan earned their themselves to'the other tribes The Magan relationship. servile for their in manufacturing skill making medicine.
Kittermaster
to C. O. 3/5/1930.
449
more than
"a civil suit arising out of the circumstances nature which should be investiof a domestic and should theregated by the local magistrate 4" fore be placed in category 119 The Sub-Committeets the
threatening
Italians
this
particular
claim
tually
averted
aside,
at
proceeded
temporarily, the
with
that
was agreed
settlement
the
of
less
controversial t-I
The Sub-Committee May at
Sunto.
3 days,
only
four
to
In
at
the
charged
the
support
accusing
course
British
Sub-Committee the
the
British
the
obstructed
one of British
accept
have written quently,
claims
the
were
examined
the
remaining
the
of
of
of Horsely,
the
over
extending
British one -
which
and
the
they
purported
of having
fabricated
The
rallied
representativey of
representatives
counter-
evidence-
Kittermaster
British
to
Conse-
and the, Italians
down.
Italians
claims,
Italians
justice, having
with
in
allegedlooting.
the
accused
once more broke
Italian
argument,
of
evidence
time
tiberations
its
resumed
20 hours
After
Italian.
refused
to
be set
Sub-Committee
claims.
three
if
was even-
issue
the
the
while
with
meetings
A crisis
dismissed.
were
a standstill,
further
to boycott
when it
least
came to
proceedings
incompetence:
"The-Italian known no Somali, and Commissioner Horsely and corruption of deliberate complains To interpreter. interference-by the-Italian; the procedure adopted our idea of proceedings, It by the., Italians-, was, repugnant 0' 120 TheI
Colonial
Office
was
at
a loss
to
know
how
119. Ibid.
120. C. O. 535/90/38219/"D"
Kittermaster
to C. O. 19/5/1930.
50 the
salvage progress per
This
housing give
the
evidence.
being
it
and yet
day.
The Sub-Committee
situation.
did
not
include
the
who had travelled
elders 121
interested
the
wa s costing
Lee accused
the
was making
Treasury
no 910
nearly feeding
and
long
distances
to
Italians
of not
cost
of
in
flan impartial investigation: the justice or is entirely otherwise of native claims subordinated to the advancement of Italian political It is no exaggeration to say that their aims. aim is to make themselves as troublesome'as in the hope that we shall possible eventually, for the sake of peace and quiet, let them have their way ... "122 The Sub-Committee the
Italian
Italian
decided
authorities
on the
representative
tion.
The British
difficulties
had held
made the
analogous
to
Mosconi
gesture
of
Mosconi..
strip
Sub-Committee,
hitherto.
encountered
in June when
was resuscitated
of his
The Colonial the
posithe
for
responsible
instructing
the
office British
to
representative
11make concessions to secure wherever possible that by doing so no important agreement, provided. is sacrificed"123 interest After things
took
Italians number
issues
had previously
121.
Ibid.
122.
'Ibid.
replacement
an unexpected
began of
the
to
turn
on which stood
Minute-by
firm,
for
the
better.
a flexible
demonstrate
the
of Mosconi,
attitude
state
of
The over
a
they with
the
result
that
by the
Lee.
123. C. O. 535/90/38219/ttDt'
C. O. to Kittermaster
111611930.
451 1930 the
end of September bulk
great
the
of
the
left
settlement
and the
114,654
Rs.
tribes
the
commended the
Kittermaster
Rs.
Italian
Magan
British
tribes
84,178.
This 30,476.
of Rs.
balance
debit
a
one of the
the
awarded
Italian
in
Italians
the
including
claims,
The final
stock.
had settled
Sub-Committee
their
for
officials
co-operation "but it is with Major Horsely that the honours in view keeping Major Horsely, of war rest. to give way on the main objective, was willing principle where no important points of detail was involved" 124 the Connected with the settlement was of claims issue
more fundamental settling
future
Italians
took
to
and proposed the
between after
claims the
general.
Two items
conflict.
The
on this that
for
the
were
on the
a group
of British
crossed
into British
the
case
situation
meetings
washeld
Italian
Protectorate. of the
Somali
scout
in at 1931.
boundary
said
by
to have and returned
stock
The British,,
124. C. O. 535/90/38210 Mittermaster 125.
the
of
looted
out-
was an Italian
These were
territory,
place
August
3rd.
The first
violation
tribesmen.
take
settling
of
on the
agenda.
an alleged
about
should
border
the
territory,
Italian
meetings
periodic
purpose
for
issue
particular
administrations
months
complaint
took
and avoiding
British
two local
in
Gerrowei,
the
formula
and reviewing claims 125 The first of these
standing
to
a permanent
initiative
the
six
every
finding
of
for
their
part,
who had been captured
to C. o. ii/q/193o.
Italian Ministry C. O. 535/93/38508/"A" of Foreign Embassys Rome, 27/1/1931 to the British Affairs (Encl. in F. O. to C. O. 5/2/1931).
at
4-52, El
and locked
Laghodhe
up in
the
one of
Italian
jails.
"The result Kittermaster of the meeting"j, 11was disappointing reported, as it seemed to indicate Government was not that the Italian " treating the matter seriously. 126 than
Even more serious was the of
the
attitude
to
the
Italians
boundary either
as a hard
to
Italians tribes
accordingly,
tive
was bound
since
to
measures
punitive British
were
left
Italian
ments
were
negotiations 128 Rome.
an iron
against
the
tribes
re ported the
Fascist
border
Internally,
126o' C. O. 535/93/38508/"Att 127. Ibid. 128.
Ibid.
in
their
this
direc-
might then
the
of
taking The
take
such
the
might
steps
crossing new developfresh
hope that
questions
her
.
against
the
be opened with
draw-
was systematically colony's
borders
be explained being
Italian
pursued colony
Kittermaster
The
to restrain
meantime
appeared,
policies
to
most,
127
concerned.
tribes
the
to London
around ýhis
curtain
colonial
of Africa.
In
so it
Somaliland.
British
their
on the
at
into
but
no choice
to warn
Italy.. ing
Italians
Somali
conditions
British
the
Protocol
or,
a contravention
territory.
of
the
rights.
the
cross
provoke
with
as were necessary into
to
question
Commission.,
the
which
stringent
to warn
proceeded
Joint
regarded
line
under
the
over
the
of
be forbidden
cross
two disputes,
and watering
they
and fast
should
allowed
grazing
that
the
over
Italians
recommendation
asserted
side
only
traditional the
deadlock
by the
adopted
Somali
Contrary
the
with
by the in
the
Horn
was a scene
to C. O. 1/9/1931-
Pl
to make the
intended the to
and intensive
extensive
of
to
the
force
the
colonyts
the
Italians
hands
in
of vigorous
that
British
her
border
evidentlyo
that or at
eliminate arisen-out
should
the
boundaries.
129.
to
territory. her
least
closure reduce
traditional in
The manner
the
grazing utter.
in
is
this
with to
misery
Rome
between
boundary which
would had hitherto to
principle
the
of
of the
the
effect
rights
and watering
disregard
and'extent
and
was assumed,
problems moral
,
colony
brought
relations
of
Italyts
pursuit
borders
It
points
on her
It
which
policy
By 1932
peripheral
the
within
close
extaiding
was one thing
there
be conceived.
the
be recognized
her
that
to concentrate
of, the-advocated Somali
to block
of various
therefore, If
and strained
- might
the
territory.
occupation
policies
-a
tribes
about
gradually
was to minimize
decision
and London
that
it
Ethiopian
Somaliland
Britain,
was determined
appeared
full.
were
desired
into
Unlike
Italy
were
apparento
quite
economic
expansionism
Like
had hither-
colony
Ethiopian in
so as to be able
problems
the
Italians into
Somaliland
she must have
light
the
is
in
were
viable.
Italy.
any obstacle
frontiers
It
to
which
and she had no scruples
were already 129 Ogaden.
the
Italian
Government
whenever
Externally,
way.
the
failure,
accept
use of
in
Fascist
projects
economically
burden
an economic
proved
not
colony
Protectorate..
British
however,
economic
'J
colonial
abuse
Colonialism in Somalia, Robert Hess, Italian VII; Also Sylvia Pankhursto_Ex-italian chapter X. Somaliland, op. cit. chapter
of
this
op.
cit.
43 by the
principle
border
theme of
persistent
iron
in
was that
the
military
preparations
Fascist
Ethiopia.
Italian
against
border,
therefore,
Italy's
anxiety
the
appear
outside
to
was
world,
policy with
look
to
Italyts
to Britain
The closure
for the
of
to have been motivated
leakage
she was making
This
hostile
whole
encroachment.
to minimize
far-reaching
collision
tended
would
and the
preparations
into
live
Somaliland
expansionist
on the
was,
and Ethiopia
support
Ethiopia
her
to
wish
colony.
Italy's
to bring
Britain
expansionism.,
into
for
Italyts
was making
the
most
history.
to British
Government
essential
was bound
which
for
relation
within
the
probably colonial
explanation
curtains
absolutely
is
Somaliland's
The other behind
tribes
of
information
of the
and of her
extensive gradual
by
to military advance
Ogaden. The Ethiopian thorn
persistent
in
side
the
of
flesh
the
border
was another
of Kittermaster's
administra-
tion.
One main source of trouble was the Aysa tribe which _., inhabited the area between the meridians roughly of Longitude
40 0 30'
010
0 12 N.
430 15' -
additional
the
of
in
troops .
wl, ýj, would
event
of
often
dido
notorious
the
lived to
situation in
advantage
condition hills
they
Thus,
and exploited
E and the
their
Aysa country. military
moving
their
is
of
the
Aysa tribe
were I
of
by mounted
Moreover,
territory.
sections
geographical
especially
them., the
Ethiopian
An
a conglomeration
against
to
border
advantage.
was the
favour
difficult.
retreat
of the
sides
best
operations,
be particularly
troops
on both
It
of Latitude
parallels
in
Aysa could..
the
and
The most the
Rer Kul
and
455 the to
whose karias
Rer Gaidi Zeila. Zeila
rupt
between
their
Thus,
they
trade
and render
and the
Zeila to
reluctance sense
clash
of
the 1927.
eight
Gadabursi
Rer Gaidi,
assault
sexual girl
for
their
on her
and the
that
cases
of
defy
and
was
strength
Aysa occurred
this
among the
without
any apparent
treated
at Berbera
in
a group
month,
of
Aysa.,
a brutal
and committed
The
reason. but
the
culprits directive
Kittermaster's
The incident
he could
officers
administration
living
girl
as a definite
administration
the
test
notwithstanding
surrender.
declared
the
then
large,
at
of
tribesmen,
was subsequently
remained
position
a young
dis-
enhanced
them to
encouraging 130
end of
seized
of
Aysa had apparently
the
Towards
to
power
passage
route
The administration's
the
administration
March
the
unsafe
One of
caravan
their
within
administration.
untenable.
the
astride
interior.
with
By 1927 the
between
had it
independence,
the
even despise
becoming
lay
was interpreted
by the
and Kittermaster
challenge,
no longer
Ifafford to disregard a case of so fraglant to comply with Government orders as refusal is shown in the protection of the eight " culprits. 131 lines two of Kittermaster alternative proposed action. risk
was for
The first
defiance.
further
detachment a view surrender
to
of
the
The other
Camel Corps
threatening, the
him to
wanted
into
ignore
the
was to
send a strong
the
matter
Aysa country
or coercing
them if
necessary,
In
coercion
became
men.
case
and
with
605. S. AFR. MSS. 130. 131. C. O. 535/82/22341
Kittermaster
tO C. O. 31/3/1927.
to
456 the
necessary., the
of the
Aysa country,
Somali
Office in
Governor
London, of
destroy
that
the
in
into
Ethiopian
they
deem the
troops
territory
to
to
regard
the
administration
clashes proposals
down and he was informed persist
prits,
with
short In
the
back
ment-with
132.
Ibid.
133.
Ibid.
of
the
In
for
Kittermaster
Minute
the
punitive
Rayne
at
the for
sufficient it
of
with
views
was Britain's
Consequently, action
were
He was,
the
might
culprits.
troops
any caseo
accordingly.
surrender
turned
howevero the
of
cul-
133
of, August
the-Gadabursi
the'Aysa., by which
by Green.
as they
Aysa country
the
Somali.
cross
past,
Raynets
not
or
Far
return.
possible,
the
with
of use of force.
their-allieso
the
that
demand for
theýmiddle
to
were
recommended.
Kittermaster's
to
felt
same time, orders
the
them to
accepting
attacks.,
to void
policy
while
the
use
would
administration.
for
if
the
raids
at
such a time
and,
aerial
operation
Aerial
had done in
despatch
stock
Office.,
command of the
the
capture
The Colonial
the
to be safe
instead,
to
Kittermaster's
with
until
on leave proposed
opposed
guaranteeing,
as they
then
of Kittermaster's
Aysa.
towards
might,
situation
advocated,
the
comply
attitude
it,
method of warfare 132 The Colonial most.
he thought
without
Aysa would
from
the
D. C. of Zeila
attacking
stock
their
the
bombardment
aerial
Rayne was definitely
action.
of aeroplanes
change
and feared
as to what
only
being
Rayne,
consulted
lines
this
dreaded
the
proposed
they
went
and negotiated undertook
to
behind
a settlepay a
4 3" fine
100 camels
of
betrayal
of
risked
their
crime
the
of
end of August the
fine,
implicated round
of
the
feuds
in
between to
determined 134
their of
men.
the
the
intervene,
test
against 135 ground. with
his
vention'by
the
the
of men.
territory
against
lawlessness.,
to
death.
Thereaftero
would
prestige
and encouraged
more serious-outrages
134. MSS. AFR. S. 605.
against
the
the
British
Hence-
to
began
pro-
as a battle to
remonstrate
but
the
tribes with
Akil inter-
military
administration
Aysa and other
a party
administration
became inevitable;
undermined the
the
Ethiopians
their
have
for
the attacked S of and killing
an Aysa Akil
administration
Aysa.
and the
Gadabursi
sent
inaction
135. Ibid.
and more serious
and forced
use of Ethiopian
stabbed
problem,
force'and
number
when the
Kittermaster
payment
by ambustling
retaliated
escalated
the
Gadabursi the
By
the
solving
stock
an equal
especially
kinsmen
was promptly
their
The Gadabursi
conflict
the
a big
capturing
Aysa and killing
forth, to
karias.,
Gadabursi criminals.
eight
another
punish
The Aysa mobilized Gadabursi
the
from
far
to
Gadabursi-Aysa
fact,
internal
treachery.
the
had completed
this
had
order
Gadabursi
administration
were
the
of
as a
was a good
by accepting
place
kins-
they
in
to break
the
The later their
but
in
action since
This
criminals.
he did
100 camels
Gadabursi
administration
Kittermaster
and this
alliance, offer
Gadabursi
by their
committed
especially
the
with
for
opportunity
the
alliance,
a quarrel
protect
of
the
The Aysa interpreted
men.
the
for
further IS to
commit
impunity.
4 in January
Thus.. tage
of the
Gadabursi part
to
deal
"B"
of
Burao
Aysa stock
miles
day,
was on the
without
the stock,
the
troops.
The attempt
operating
Corps,
and,
operate
operation
open plain
in
spite
of
of 60
stretches
up l.. 200 The next
to
attack
stampede
was made on
and the
Aysa not
the
Camel
lives
eight
Most
Aysa had apparently
them again
claimed
200 men,
and tried
presence
Kittermaster
consequently, against
all,
rounded
was frustrated
"C"
of
which
no actual
the
Kaye with
part
any opposition.
though
Nevertheless,
ceased
in
advan-
Aysa and the
Aysa country.
Aysa collected
captured
to
the
took
Capt.
Hobbs with
The Camel Corps
the
the
former.
totalling,
encountering
however,
repulsed.
the
towards
of Zeila.
south
camels
to
Camel Corps,
from
moved out
a blow
Governor
between
quarrel
company and Lieut. the
company of
the
continuing
1929 the
-j
of
the
acquired
permission
at
the
end of February.
of
the
Aysa and dispersed
This the
Aysa force. Up to encountered the
second
by a strong ment,
the
this
by the
point
Camel Corpss the
operation force latter
no real
of were
Camel Corps-lostIone
but
Camel Corps
armed Aysa. repulsed, soldier
had been
opposition on the
following at night
was attacked
After with
night
a protracted
engage-
many casualties.
and had two others
The
seriously
Irýnticipation, reprisals, a large of more-severe '. into Ethiopian terrinumber of the Aysa crossed the border 136 tory.
wounded.,
136. C. O. 535/87/38122
Kittermaster
to C. O. 6/6/1929.
459 The border non-existence the
of
boundary
problems
clear
by the
Somali
chiefs
who,
advantage
the
proper
their
autonomy
that
a British
ever
rebelled
the
in which
the
authority the
the
of
it
Britain
it
the
and Ethiopia
solution to
trative
system
for
the
border
granted
each other
the
right
the
Alternatively, a reciprocal general not
British
to'pursue
of European
foundation
theseworking
could
motives
arrangements
The pursue to
extent
the
unmarked
have been for
a common adminisor to have the
have
wanted
agreed
upon
Ethiopiats
Yet,
- precluded
country
territory.
each otherts
formula.
escape
the
to
or
the
districts
two countries
extradition
suspeiion
without
any of
into
or rebels
criminals
try
would devise
would
place.
might of
when-
a crime
of
violating
either
collection
it
had taken
sure
with
addition,
jurisdiction
was never
The realistic
tax In
took
nomads on
committed
country
do so without
their
only
did,
Somali
authority
or rebellion
but
could
boundary.
tribe
offended
the
1897.
border
themselves
Ababa.
governing
beyond
crime
offenders
which
its
border
of
in
not
as they
enrich from
of Addis
or Ethiopian
against
across
to
was part
on behalf
operations
of
of Ethiopian
supervision
capture
this
position
exploited
by a number
managed to
pretext
show the
was fully
which also
by the
exacerbated
by Rodd and Makonnen
lacking
of
they
stock
but
to
marks
as negotiated
was a loophole
This
were
this and -
was
the-possibility evolving
of
between
the
emphasize
the
and-theýEthiopians. One more example
awkwardness
and gravity
of
will
serve
the
border
to
situation.
In
460 November living
1928 a group-of
seasonally
incensed kinsmen the
in
were
for
no prospect decided
Ethiopians
the
Bulaleh
to Addagalla
killed
the
soldiers
in
vicinity.
together
and other into
the
with
in
to
put
spark
That
off
Farah
dispute
for
the
a quarrel
was:
under
to be tried these
Farah
in
in
between
and punished? trial
to hand
free
set
looted
stock
the
bore
border
the
the British
a dilemma
hall-
the
under them'over
both
137. C. O. 535/86/38098 Kittermaster
was beyond to
British
and his
obviously
only
the
question
crucial
Ethiopian not
threatened
and Ethiopia.
was Farah Ethiopia
Protec-
and
and tried,
Yet
whose jurisdiction
for
Ethiopian
were
crossed
Britain
to be arrested
authorities.
men back
was'reluctant
of
he had been a nuisance
and Ethiopian
Aysa party
other
The incident
administration
ought
the
they
and then
the
of
1916.
The presence torate
kinsmen,
release
and six
was
Ethiopian
of his
liberators,
property 137 territory.
of Serenleh
the
Aysa
(alias
Farah
The prisoners
their
being
enterprise
refused,
guard
valuable
British
marks
prison
one of
the
prisoners,
of
a party
demand being
their
of
There
This
and demanded the
promptly
and,
these
of
became
a number
railway.
collected
On the
prisoners.
border,
by one named Bulaleh
Farah
and Rer Gaidi
at Addagalla..
prison
who was an employee
Government. went
because
them by force.
and led Wingil)
release
the
of
Ethiopian-Jibuti
to release
organize'd
side
an Ethiopian
on the
posts
Aysa Rer Kul
on either
the
with
the
party
wanted
law but
Britain
on the
grounds
to C. O. 14/11/1928.
6 of
the
uncertainty
of
Britain
because
It
and his
of Farah that
principle executed
there
countries.
tug-of-war
The stage
was,
between
Britain
Kittermaster
Britain bound
in to
similar
that
set
taken
between
Farah
this
Office's
amounted Ethiopia's
and the
to Britain's legal
claim It
system.
latter-would-settle
unconditional
surrender
for of Farah
138. Ibid. 139.
Ibid.
to
do
one for case was of
cases point
"the Governor should hand the Farah to the Abyssinians .... Government ask the Abyssinian of and participation presence in at the trial officer sullar " trial. fair a 139
in
and
a
of view
by Machtig:
was expressed
This
was
end of November,
in
two
the
and bitter
a long
subsequent
The Colonial
nature.
men to Ethiopia
the
important
was a very
for
moral
he was supposed
qf""what
any decision
a precedent
the
at
extradi-
Britain
any case,
for
of
even
or
and Ethiopia.
inquired
The question
set
Rule
on the
agreement
thus,
Camel Corps
duly
him.
with
In
was no extradition 138
by the
arrested
trial.
as
the
was contested
to hand over
no obligation
the
Thus,
be punished
would
also
system
with
Europe.
party
fair
- without
was under since
they
legal
tally
not
in Western
Law as conceived tion
did
but
residence
actual
Ethiopian
regarded
and brutal.
unjust
their
Minute
by Machtig.
of
man Bulaleh but he should to agree to the cona British order to secure status
a quasiý-Judicial
to EthioPiao
was unacceptable nothing and his
less party
than to
Britain's the
Ethiopian
140
authorities. The Foreign
asked
for
Addis
Ababa. in
Office of
held
insisting
should
came in
of Dunbar,
the
the
extradition
of
be handed
over
this
point
and
Minister
at
the
one with
4fý)
Colonial
and participation
trial
of Farah as a sine qua 141 Kittermaster prisoners.
the
the
Colonial
Office
remaining
adamant,
the
to her.
He noted,,
and advised
of Ethiopia
event
at
British
presence
the
at
views
not
was at
on the
official
similar the
views
Office
The latter
a British
non for
in
the
4 rj
that,
prisoners
however,
that, "in that event we can hardly disdain responfor making good the damage, more sibility looted especially as all goods have been brought into British Protectorate I .... suggest that the most satisfactory method the matter is to see if the of settling Abyssinian Government will accept a financial settlement of blood money for their soldiers " killed ... 142 As a result
between began
the to
deteriorateo
Dunbar
found
venting
the
ferred
Ethiopian
to
it
controversyo
Government
necessary
British
be cross-examined
this
and the
and some rude
impasse.
the
of
to
find
notes
by both
the
that
in Harar Ethiopian
relations
British
Legation
were
exchanged.
some ways of
He recommended consulate
the
Farah where
circumbe transhe would
and British
officials.
14o.
C. O. 535/87/ý8122 to F. O. 20/1/1929
141.
Ibid.
142. C. O. 535/87/38122
Dunbar (Encl.
(British Minister, Addis Ababa) in P. O. to C. O. 24/l/1929).
Kittermaster
to C. O. 7/2/1929.
63 "If by H. M. after examination and deputy Governor of Harar, is considered guilty, and the blood the murdered men refuse my accused should be tried'in Dunbar
The concession to
the
attend
court
passed
on the
it
veto
on the
grounds
that
the
in
Nevertheless,
event
"Abyssinia has never passed death its sub ects who murdered British ' tribes. 144 Thus, of
in
the
practice
whole
warned
well
in
to
or short
The awkward
and the
the
way for
Ethiopian
conspirators have been led
were,
in
a settlement for
authorities, it
by the
was presumed, nose.
In
were
not
the
was quite payment
of
fines
all
this and Lega-
British
the
the
between
British
of Farahts
rest.
nonentities absence
by the His
May 1929.146,
the
by
stand
was solved,
situation
tuberculosis
from
of Farah
protests
diplomatic
authorities
sovereignty to
on
sentence protected
regarded
of Ethiopia's
in making
tion.
Ethiopia
of
143. C. O. 535/87/38122 Dunbar to F. O. 22/4/1929 F. 0'. 'to C. O. 27/4/1929).
who might their
leader
(Encl.
144. Ibi'd. 145. Ibid. 146. C-0-535/87/38122
Kittermaster
to
proposed
hands
but
involving
a death
to wash her
would
executed.,
Party
infringement
no efforts
paved
Britain
any verdict 145 sentences.
prison
ready
Ethiopian
endorse
spared
death
that
advance and his
as Britain's
death
was not
In fact
matter.
and see Farah willing
Britain
than
of
Dunbar
prisoners,
him
rather
an observer
proceedings
being
sentence
to make was for
was prepared
judge.
as an active
Consul Harar, the accused relatives of money, the " presence. 143
to C. O. 23/5/1929.
in
464 it
was thought
that
unlikely
commit a similar
they
such as this,
caused by inter-tribal
feuds,
delimit
At least
the boundary.
possible
for
location
of a tribe
the British
in relation
the border
Italy tion
Protectorate, the position
she would
years
for
came,
it
sheer
force
pleading,
stock
Commission.
but
the
Colonial
Office
its
enthusiasm.
taking
such
short
ignorance
of
only
unprepared
for
this
He had to
two eventually
feet
by the
was the
idea
proposed
Lawrence,
nearly
answer
its
off
by
delimited
took
if
Ethiopia
asked
when the
the
time.
notice.
be
the British
within
It
Not
Ethiopiawnted
was totally
of
tax-collectors
boundary
147
to reply
Governor,
loca-
line.
to have
a month's
as
from the delimi-
when apprehended,
the
commence in
at
Somali
be prepared
but
her borders
but not least,
Ethiopian
formally
of
Moreover,
she would henceforth
In May 1926 Britain
Ethiopia
it.
to know the exact
And last,
of the boundary
swept
acceptable,
This would not solve
hoped to derive
seized
to know the
at a particular
wish to close
and prosecute
an Anglo-Ethiopian
the need to
alleviate
of the boundary was that
who had hitherto
to
might
line.
Britain
to capture
the turmoil
would make it
section,
essential
of the boundary
able
this
to the boundary.
had done, it'vras
tation
alone
underlined
or tribal
or Ethiopia
the advantages
let
and the Ethiopians
problem but it
should Britain
own,
crime.
Problems
time,
on their
would,
delimitation then
acting
kind
of under-
confess
that
147. C. O. 535/79/22239 Intelligence Report for M4y, and June 1926 (Encl. in Kittermaster to C. O. 9/8/1926).
4C: "we cannot He suggested
July
too
soon by the
the
administration.,
time
to be put
was,
evidently,
be ready
or August Colonial
in
full
the
while aerial
Commission
the fully
patience for
obstacles block
the
to
matters,
Britain
either
had to
or Ethiopia All
powers.
these
to
overcome. Treasury.
the
find
technical
had to be sought
co-operation difficult
Ethiopia
was the
to
time
however,
obstacle,
proposed
exercise:
Britain
on the
terms
of reference
for
financial
In view
let
and time
needed
Ethiopia's
say nothing had to
alone
of
agree
could
diplomatic to
not
could
pre-
be undertechnolo-
in
financial
oneso meant
to make greater
sacrifices
the
from
seek assistance problems
con-
sides
shortcomings of
the
of Ethiopiats
their
on both
undertaking
proposed
and
and technical
motives,
Moreover,
estimated.
matter
the
ample
as on the
of European
jargon,
that
undertaking.
to be made by each country.
distrust
gical
the
of
needed
the
of
agree
machinery
and at Berbera,
stumbling
The most
as well
tribution
for
Ministry's
scene
had to
Ethiopia
pare
Air
was considered
The whole
London
gear
needed
mapping. on the
existed
in
main
Then the War Office
for
even this
but
underestimating
Britainfs
staff,
as soon as April.,,
Office.
both
148
European
other
be solved
not
within
a
of months. Some progress the
was made in
Treasury
In this
month
alloted
Z16,0_00 to, the
London
succumbed
delimitation
War Office
too
announced
that
it
appointing
the
necessary
personnel
August
in
to pressure of
the
and
boundary.
had no difficulty but
1928.
would
The in
do so on
148. C. O. 535/85/38034 Lawrence to C. O. 9/3/1928.
4CC condition
Ethiopia
the
Commission.
Joint
if
be wasted of
the
to
the
to
Ethiopia
her
Addis
was urged
to
her
of
the
taken
the
went
technical
personnel
Commissioners.
Senior
British
Commissioner;
Lieut.
Taylor.
They were
at Harar.
a geologist 150
at
to
long
to
start
that
the
from
1931 Britain
of her
officers,
evaporated.
two notified
delimitation be under-
taken
the
Clifford,
Godfrey-Fausset
Plowman.. the
to
steps
European
released
to be accompanied
and Mr.
appoint
exercise
other
These were major Captain
last
the
She had already
year.
original
more than
for
1930 Ethiopia
In February
countries.
Ethiopiafs
unanswered
and suggested
following
her
recruit
Ethiopian
to Ethiopia
pleas
she was now ready
boundary
to
Government
constant
that
appoint-
the
seems to have
Britain
the
same time,
project
In November
to
reported
the
years.
to
was regularly
steps.
Commissioners
to be given
commission
similar
Britaints
work was
as recommended 149
take
in
enthusiasm Thus,
At the
might
the
were
regard
with
progress
boundary
Ababa.
as well
of
effort
meeting
instructions
what
own Commissioners.
Britain's ment of her
whole
to repudiate
were
Commission
for
the
decisions
An inter-departmental
discuss
the British
the
accept
Otherwise
Ethiopians
commission.
held
then
to
promised
names the and
by a medical British
Consul
149. C. O. 535/85/, 38034 F. O. to Dunbar 7/9/1928. W. O. to C. O. 9/2/1931/1957 150. C-0 LI)535/93/38506/"Bl' (M. Plowman was-later replaced by Mr. T. Curle.
467 The British to negotiate
instructed the
about
terms
of
The Ethiopians of
the
joint
tions
were
boundary
were
put
to
the
Ababa reported
Government
for
the
joint
commission.
to
accept to
were
the
in
Ethiopians
to
These
August
aerial sugges-
and rebuffed at Addis
Minister
The British
decisions
agree
demarcation.
after
151
immediately.
Ethiopian
and they
commission
Ababa was then
the
to undertake
the
almost
with
reference
of
mapping
at Addis
Legation
that
"the Ethiopian Government could not agree to the grant of full powers to their commission for any modifications whatever, nor to the " for mapping purposes. use of aircraft 152 This
threats
veiled After
gave for
reference important
in
the
joint
commission (c)
countries. possible
every
the
During sioners
time
would
Protectorate,
Joint
soon
of
have
the
the
demarcation, access
-and vice-vers'a.
to
the
boundary
the had
succeeded
of
the
the
two
undertook
joint
(e)
to give
commission
Ethiopian
roads
of
The most
between
to be divided
to
terms
The expenses
The two Governments
of
the
commission.
as Ethiopia
(b)
personnel
assistance
Government.
had been exerted, Britaints
in
and
protests
Ethiopian
delimitation
The
were
Strong
the
and accepted
as
her
recruiting
to
proposed
(a)
were
issued pressure
be undertaken
would
in
were
considerable
Ethiopians
Britain.
exasperated
stalemate
the
Aeroplanes
(d),
CommisBritish were
to be
(H. Addis Ababa) M. Minister Barton 535/92/38506/A 151. C. O. to F. O. 8/8/1931 (Encl. in F. O. to C. O. 7/9/193ý)k-, 152.
Ibid.
4613) used for
mapping
was to have
full
and surveying
minor
governments, treaty
were
adjustments
to be settled
left
commissioners 1931 and the
their
own responrespective
between
153
for
the
of
Commis-
Ethiopian
The British
on 26th
Berbera
the
of
the
by the
Legation.
delimitation
commission
and modifications
amicably
London
boundary
Somaliland
on their
Disagreements
and the British
Government
The joint
to
referring
(g)
frontier.
sioners
to make,
powers
and without
sibility
(f)
November
Ethiopian-British
commenced in
the
earnest
following
year. on the
The problems were
a different
of
two fronts.
other
tectorate
French
situated
the
Gildessa.
cated
without
Above allj,
between settled
and British
road.,
caravan 154 This
stretching
those
Somaliland
the
follow
from
of February
the
From the
caravan
and scale
Agreement
opposite
Abassouen.
of
had been
latter
route
from
Zeila
in
by the
By this
which
or heavy the
Horn
Agree-
were
on the
coast to
was to
follow
and from
there
to Harar, short
40 miles,
difficulty
policy
line
as Bia-Kabouba,,
was a relatively
serious French
the
Pro-
British
on paper
a point
frontier on the
Somaliland
place
to no more than
the
of Hadou and leading
wells
as far
the
1888.
from
line
by a, straight
separated
side
The boundary
and Jibuti
Anglo-French ment,
nature
French
by
passing
line,
boundary could
be demar-
expenditure.
of Africa
bore
a
153. Ibid. 154. British 494.
and Foreign
state
papers vol.
100 p. 493-
609 deal
great unlike
Italy
beyond
the
treaty
boundaries
vigorous
economic-policies
on the
calmness the
need to
French
in
the
side
illicit
pursuit
border.
relative Consequently,
boundary
was less
two fronts.
other
between
the
arms traffic
the
on a number the
to
the
of
of
Thus,
colony.
the
of
of contention
was the
borders
of her
suppression
see eye-to-eye
side
this
her
pushing
contributed
was on the
it
issue
important the
French
delimit
than
pressing
could which
France,
and she was neither
in her
British
a factor
issues,
in
was she interested
nor
and the
of Britain.
of violent
subjects
of
that
interested
was not
to a policy
committed
French
to
of resemblance
The only
British
and the
across
border. Kittermaster's
period
of cordial
relations
development Berbera. paid
the
Mr. Waterloo.,
in
to Jibuti
a visit
by the
way the
running
Jibuti
affairs.
as a colony.
at Adeno
M. Chapon-Baissac took
Jibuti
more as their
reported
that
was for
a liking
The Chapon family
sister.
Waterloo
and
1929 and was impressed
January
to have been, administering
Jibuti
Resident
British
He also
Madame Chapon and her
than
between
Governor,
French
by a steady
was marked
the
seems household
two ladies
had done "admirable generally
work in organizing the place pulling
dispensaries and f, together ... 155
155. C. O. 535/87/38121 Memorandum by Waterloo on "Relations Somaliland" between Jibu. ti and British . n. d.
(Encl.
in
F. O. to C. O. 9/2/1929/J.
321/25/1)..
He attributed
this
wonderful
to
work
the
fact
that
"Mr. Chapon-Baissac, his wife and his sisterin-law In are Protestants they addition ... three unusually are all cultivated and intelligent free from narrow people, singularly French prejudice 156 Waterloo that Berbera suggested should take advantage
the
of
as Chapon to
establish
administrations.
In
initiative to be visited the
of
Accordingly,
with
he felt
Kittermaster to
acting
M. Cochard,
governor,
find
of
Kittermaster
agai ,nst
arms illicit
traffic.
leave
the
at
to
mission
towards
the Jibuti
who was believed
Governor
the
British
than
Kittermaster's of British
twilight
was marked hopes
156. Ibid.
in
like
so.
in
October
but
in
Paris.
The
for
the
and he
friendly brought
by
with'the returned
and Kittermaster
year
to
doing
connection
purpose
from
sought
perthe
of meeting
to be more well
disposed
Cochard.
Somaliland's
felt
welcomed
Kittermaster
charges
period
by a gradual,
and enthusiasm
questions
M. Chapon-Baissac
end of
revisit
Jibuti
be happy
and other
was less the
all
the
disb6ýsing
Chapon on leave
denying
made a point
two
to
Jibuti
visited
was disappointed
he would
Office
and authorized
whenever
the
had taken
a view
The Colonial
tolibuti
proceed
that
arms traffic
suggestion
between
M. Chapon-Baissac Waterloo
illicit
interest.
Waterloo's
fact
a man so wonderful
of
relations
by Kittermaster
problem
of mutual
cordial
informing
of
at Jibuti
presence
but
real
might
be seen as the history.
colonial cooling-off
and expressed
of
by Archer
It the and
47 Summers in 21 years ship
the
future
of continuous
was a period
to be governed the British mourning
the
when Britain pursued,
adopted
successor
The overriding had been to Britain
best
the
a great
stagnation
as the
policy
the
for
in
During
the
the
history,
Dervish
was held,
it
such memories,
Protectorate's
was likely
of
following the
1931
to be Lawrence
as
administration
a Dervish-like
memories
period
of Commissioner.
rank
of Kittermaster's
Somali
of
end of
and appointed
that
of
deal
The twilight the
reduced
was
generosity
an end at
anything
of history.
storage of
avoid
or revive place
There
concern
with
conflict
the
hopes.
and at Empire
come at
the
with
London
British
was also
after
governor-
over-straining
Kittermaster
removed
in
the
of
shattered
be seen to have
could
both
cinderella
without
over
Protectorate
Kittermaster's
reflection
taxpayer.
the
of
warfare.
of
on how this
Berbera
his
prosperity
to
embroil
round
of
days.
The
was the decade
or so
stagnation
of
policy
cold
or "care as it
was more politely
that,
ceivable
the
the
collapse
of modern
ning
with
nationalism
colonial Africans
and the
outside
not
leasto
the
the
of
the
graduates
through
- went
India
increasing
the
from
Khartoum
growing
number
between
European
regimeo
the
between
growing
the
number
and Aden., and last., of
the
urban
beginin
and elsewhere
contact
world;
was incon-
encirclement;
virtual
Ethiopian in
serious
It
repudiated.
of relations
Africa;
Somali
policy"
Italian
deterioration
steady
powers;
called
and was eventually
challenges
the
and maintenance
of but
populations,
472 the
Somaliland
stagnant.
Protectorate
could
remain
untouched
and
CHAPTER VII
47
t'-)'
FROM STAGNATION TO A MODEST PROGRAMMEOF DEVELOPMENT: THE IMPACT OF ITALIAN
Arthur
IMPERIAL
Lawrence
and Commander-in-Chief torate of
in
the
February
officer
The only of
project
the
it
Colonial
example,
time
had already
the
By 1940 every water
district for
resources
as for
has already
of
the
with.
therefore,
deemed
In
in
supplied
with
1933
1937.
in
to Z7,943
was well
for
1932,
programme;
rose
by
funds
artificial
consumption
as well
1
irrigation.
stagnation
as had survived
Dervish
period.
The Veterinary
these.
In March
1932,
the
the
befell the
such of turbulent
Department
Colonial
abolition
of the
Report, 1. Annual Colonial for 1932 No. 1613; for 188o.
British 1933 No.
that
whose inception
been dealt
and then
services
Lawrence
new policy
generous
on the
rank
Somaliland.
new policy.
human and animal
The axe of social
scheme,
the
was meant
by the
affected
boring
was spent
came down to Z2,556
for
aims
Fund and was,
range
some Z3,838
Protectorate
been allocated
Development
to be outside
it
was not
Kittermasterts,
Happily,
the
diminished
which
to reduce
The decision
was the water
stagnation
during
1932.
Protec-
Somaliland
the British
of
Britaints
as Commissioner
assumed office
administering
to underline
(1932-1939).
EXPANSION
Office
the
few
postwas one of informed
Department
was under
Somaliland Protectorate 1660 and for 1937 No.
47, q serious
consideration.,
opinion.
Lawrence
of having
to witness
and they
to
wanted
depressed
was rather
know his
by the
prospect
"what must be regarded as a retrogressive But I realize Major step .... and probably Cocksedge does not, that conditions have forced H. M. Goverment to adopt a change Protectorate in this Maj. of policy .... Cocksedge has worked hard and his efforts have met with marked success to the great benefit Camel Corps, to of the Somaliland this to the people and to administration, the trade of the Protectorate"'. 2 Cocksedge intentions;
it
constructive
work
stroke
the
Protectorate's
of
tained far to
ironical
seemed quite the
abolishing that
from
had hitherto
the
products.
Cocksedge
Veterinary
Officer
productso the
a factor
economy of
the
the
animal
Britain
should
pointed to
ensure
which
would
Protectorate.
was bound the
sale
animals
of
that
the
health
and sus-
departmento
revenue
out
be reluctant
industryo
contemplate
the
of
economy,
the
90% of
had nursed
which
meagre
from
obtained
would
came from
desired
of what
world
that
The abolition
effecting
by
overnight fact
that
industry.
a decade's
the
of
department
very
a diminution
outside
In view
revenue
Government's
to him that
be dismantled
should
a pen.
the
news of
was unbelievable
the
it
by the
was stunned
in
and animal absence
the
serious
He then
of a the
animals,
to buy Somaliland have
lead
Protectorate
the of
to
animal
consequences went
that
2. C. O. 535/96/3864 Lawrence to C. O. 21/3/1932.
on to
on
argue
475 11*ooo surely the time, it seems hardly in to abolish spite of the financial stringency, the department to the animal industry, essential the one possible hope of the Protectorate; it would appear to be more in keeping with progress to extend operations but steadily, in quietly the direction these people the value of teaching to attempt in breeding, of selection and generally to help them in finding livemarkets for their I stock by every means available would ask ... that you seriously to your decision reconsider " the department. abolish 3 Lawrence, though sharing Cocksedge's sentiments, was not
to go so far
prepared In
of policy. The latter
this
as to recommend a reversal he was supported
position
by Rowan.
minuted: (sic) "the Governor does not mk the Secretary the decision of State to reconsider and I don't think there can be any question of this - our does not include development present policy and that is the end of it *. off4
Seel,
on the
hand,
other
be swayed by reason. sedge's
He took
examined. essential of that
facts
Department.
department
in
the
latter
ment of
the
stud
the
had cost following year
farm.
that,
situation
upon himself
1930 and Z21935 the ture
the
regarding
the Veterinary the
He suggested
representations,
than
was more prepared
the cost
in view
duty
of
and the
Treasury
year.
of Cock-
be re-
should
achievements for
The department's
example,
some ZlP782
The increased
had been a result
the
compiling
He established, the
Rowan to
of
the
merits
in
expendiestablish-
could
be
3- C. O. 535/96/3864 Memorandum by Major Cocksedge on the (Encl. in to the Veterinary Dept. abolish proposal The achievements of the Lawrence to C. O. 21/3/1932). discussed by Peck, successor to department are fully Cocksedge (see MSS. AER. S. 141). 4. Minute by Rowan on C. O. 535/96/3864: Cocksedge on the proposal to abolish Department.
Memorandum by the Veterinary
476 assessed
on the
to which
the
Since
the
customs
had shown,
Reports, 1921-1930)
A sample
trend. British will
(9)
was the
to
greatest
receipts,
contributor.
in
1924 the
to show, and were continuing Ps (see Annual Colonial of stat for
Protectorate
Somaliland serve
customs
department
of the
establishment
the
from
of revenue industry
animal
receipts
an upward
YEAR
basis
the
illustrate
the
years
point.
(Z) CUSTOMSRECEIPTS REVENUE
TOTAL REVENUE
1921
80,, 270
51,494
1922
82.. 316
51., 740
1923
78.541
57,605
1924
82,607
60,955
1926
90., 569
75*167
1927
88., 879
69, r(lb
1929
101*541
79.. 577
1930
105,304
730290
Seel Veterinary
concluded
Department
with
his
arguments the
in
defence
observation
of the
that
in a country no other with practically (i. this livestock but means of subsistence the Veterinary Department vote) was hardly the abolition extravagant provision ...... hope the department the door any on closes improving the quality of hides and skins from the Protectorate. exported 'and leaves the only natural resources of the country hopeless of disease any outbreak against "5 which might come along. The matter Veterinary
Ibid.
Advisor
Minute
was then to the
by Seels
to Montgomery2
referred
State
Secretary'of
Principal
in
the
for
C. O.
the
e. an of of
the Colonies
4711 for
expert
the
retaining was likely
department
to bring
damage Britain's With
to reverse
which
had already
decision. letter support the
to
reconsidered
abolition
of
Veterinary
1932,
being
Department.
department
such an excellent
was pre-
the
Treasury abolition, of
the
addressed
the
a in
arguments
and pointing
out
if
in,
in
persisted
a bigger
footing
The Treasury to
and undertake of
replied the
retain
one condition
health
6
Somali.
reversal
proposal
the
also
intended
all
incurred.
of
the
Office
Treasury
promise
level
the
out
Only
should
the
of
department,
the
accepting
liabilities
might
but
of
abolition
Office
Colonial
the
its
it
position,
the
involve
was then
but
Colonial
setting
favour
economic
eyes of
accept
the
Treasury
actually than
the
the
of
in June
the
the
the
been informed
Accordinglyo to
very
earlier-decision..
to be persuaded
needed
bill
its
because
avoid,
in
advice,
pared
might
to
in
strongly
only
the
about
prestige
Montgomery's
that
not
was trying
Britain
which
He came out
advice.
had to be met to maintain stock
flas not to diminish trade and revenue .... (and) provided that other veterinary services with are reduced to the minimum, consistent full expendiour §etting value for the total ture 7 these "other But where-were which veterinary services"Treasury Cocksedge his
wanted
"reduced
had constructed
campaign
Ibid.
tosee
against..
Minute
ticks
to
the
some five and scab,.,
or
Grantedo
minimum"? so dips In
as part
additiono
by Montgomery.
8/6/1932. to C. O. Treasury 535/96/3864 7. C. O.
the
of
he, had
478 set
up a number the
contain dips
spread
the
nor
jeopardizing The only
service
dispensable
which
luxury the
to the
in
1932.8
Somali.
question
paid
an official
1931.
about
removal
of
troops,
to
measure
familiar
by the that
argument
thereby
endanger
decided
to
than the
introduce
remove
the
reduce
the
cost
One of
the
recommended
trucks
to replace
have
have been the howevero
administration
foreign
of
innovations of
December
would
countryo
the
the
and
it
was
intended security
was to
camelry
foreign
of
soldiers
reorganizations
of maintenances
part
K. A. R.
the
of the
security minor
the
step,
local in
answering
absence 9 were unreliable.
Somali*soldiers
Rather
This
to
in
would
troops.
opposed
of
taken,
saving
the
in
Protectorate if
of
was abolished
a view
General
which,
the Nyasaland
the
the
a substantial
was successfully
modern methods it
was with
Inspector
visit
The only
the
the
that
brought
with
It
a
had been estab-
which
be effected
could
establishment?
this
farm
stud
Treasury.
be considered
conceivably
Regrettably.,
What economies security
by the
of demonstrating
purpose
husbandry August
was the
and thereby
stock
stipulated
could
the
neither
be dismantled
could
of the
health
him
enable
Surely,
centres
condition
to
centres
epidemics.
the
the
for
of
quarantine
impairing
without
lished
of quarantine
forces.
purchase
of the
to
14
Camel Corps
8. MSS. AFR. S. 144. History The Veterinary of the British 1924-1960 by E. F. Peck., op. Protectorate Somaliland cit.
9. MSS. AFR. S-552 p. 164-166.
47 Oll and the
was to retire,
other
soldiers
and officers
or had completed could
not
military
vote
and,
the
nation only
for
the
Akils
in
meaningful
the at
six
were
civil
the
change
Colonial
Reports,
10.
Ibid.
preceding
of the
in
this
the
illustrate British
1924 - 1935)
to
which
of
could
expenditure. the
point
Somaliland
on the of
stag-
showed period. radical
effect
was already
District
eight
Ofricers
A few elderly
Protectorate. too
These
forces
reluctant
strength
but
retired
will
years
the
administration
districts
10
period
security
from
retirement
effect
the
during
on the
bare
due for
either
any fundamental
indeed,
those
replace,
of contract.
was equally
statistics
the
have
difference
Britain
operating
terms
expenditure
marginal
changes
who were
their
measures
and not
not
have
any
The following (see Annual Protectorate
for
480 (9)-CIVIL
YEAR
(Z) MILITARY EXPENDITURE
EXPENDITURE
1924-'25
102051
48,213
1925-126
103,288
64,667
1926-'27
100..175
48,950
1927-128
135,003
63.,625
1928-'29
152,614
54,453
1929- t 30
144,444
54s583
1930-'31
135,671
50,091
1931-'32
109,382
46., 912
1932-'33
114,059
39..761
1933-'34
126,588
41,,o68
1934-'35
132,980
54,598
1935 -'36
166., 919
4o, 271
While in
sibilities a lively
border
of
and subsequent reaching
interior,
Italian
the
late
1930s,
both
on the
acquired
in Britaints
and indeed
indispensable,
tion
was becoming
which
Ethiopia
a key role
of Britain's
backwater
of,
in
remained
politics
her
and international
British the
other,
Somaliland,
diplomatic
as was not,
dependencies.
imperial tool
interests in
the
progressively
intoo
to have far-
were local
closure
expansion
manoeuvrings in
such significance
statesmen
respon-
The Italian
Consequently,
of British
estimation majority
play
border
Somaliland,
conquest
situation. came to
the
her
diminish
phenomenon.
repercussions
political
of
the
to
strove
and stimulating
of the
which
Britain
the by a
_enjoyed The former
became a handy,
handling
of
more complicated
delicate. The closure
of
the
eastern
a situa-
border
of the
and
481 Protectorate
had already
tribes
could
which
in
and grazing
brought
no longer
the
go in
could
holding
the
of periodic for
administrations border
standing
the
sole
to
alleged
raid
certain
Awal Esao a British
in
by Italian
taken
a British Italian
irregulars
A third
incident
Camel Corps
on British concerned
up a mixed
Camel Corps
dispose
of
18th
February
to
attempts..
ended in
to
the
accept
Lawrence
of Awal
incident
was reported same time;
the
at
by
by name, was killed
between
the
Italian
irregulars
met their
of
the
like
agreed
sat
set
at Gerowei
previous
side
by the
to
administrative
It
Neither
Somaliland
11
local
most
seized.
in which
death.
disputes.
levelled
residing
death
a clash
and,
a
the
in
stock
these
an
place
and his
a deadlock.,
allegations
of
soil
composed
of
out
karia
1935 Rome and London
commission
to
of
interests
taken
almost
Elmi
out-
to have
A second
Segulleh
In February
15th
arose
to
agree
Dolbahanta
was said
at Galnoleh,
and a party the
two men of
from
best
protected
stock.
place
subject,
officers
the
1933 and to have resulted of his
Italians
local
settling
on the
subjects
The incident
Esa and loss to have
was in
the
of
One such a dispute
do so.
January
between
purpose It
disputes.
the was to
wishes
meetings
of both
at Gorrileh.
The furthest
to Britain's
acceding
of water
Representations
country.
to Rome had been to no avail.
the British
themselves
avail
Mijjertein
to
poverty
similar
was disposed
other
side.
lamented:
Report for the Quarter 11. C. O. 535/100/5863 Intelligence (Encl. March 1933 No. 1 31st in Lawrence to ending C. O. 29/4/1933).
4602 "I fear we cannot press further for compensation the Italian Government is responsible .... for the 3 full dias (Rs. 9,000 or 300 camels)". 12 Rome was again of
rigidity
the
came to
reply
Italian
the
for
ponsibility
for
Worse
still,
deep into
Italian
this
sphere
of
being
as that
Somaliland
to
adainant.
were
was expanding
borders
Ethiopian-occupied to
the
warned
already their
officers
permission
from
Government
to
the Walwal
British
to graze
tribes
the
protest
that
indicate
aim:
ultimate
in
the
if
of
"The policy to the frontier with regard to being the tendency the same, remains than relax their about orders up rather the frontier" 14 The Italian
13 the
opening
of
influence
the
to
prepared
misgivings.
Italians
tended
evidence
all
with
on the
pursued
was extended
Indeed,
res-
What was to happen
territory.
Ethiopian
was Italyts
the
a
was better
This
question
tribes,
Italian
the
territory?
albeit
January
accepted
and were
4P500.
Rs.
with
British
the
same policy
incidents
more important
On the
Italians
the
and was accepted,
nothing,
border
the
two of
and in
officialso
that
effect
the
about
complaints
with local
the British
compensate than
approached
across Italians.
and Wardair
administration the
border
Lawrence
not without urged
to Rome and to make it,
still tighten crossing
region to
had
allow prior
the
British
clear
that
12. C. O. 535/106/46001 Lawrence"to C. o. 9/3/1935in Rome to F. O. 13. C-0 535/114/46oO3 British'Embassy 4/1ý1936 (Encl., in F. O. to C. O. 131111936). "Extract from the Intelligence Report 14. C. O. 535/95/38622 for the quarter for the Erigavo District, ending 31st March 1932 (Encl. in Lawrence to C. O. 29/4/1932).
48%j I
Britain
did
Wardair.
But
the
Colonial
It
If
Accordinglys
did
it
best
and
that in
policy
likely
to
change
was likely
to
stiffen
was informed
Lawrence
feel
not
was the
was not
anything.,
to Walwal
claims
office
approach
circumstances.
attitude.
Italian
recognize
hard-line
Lawrence's the
not
Italy's it
further.
that
"H. M. Government are aware that the Italians have no grounds for establishing themselves at but would not appear that Walwal and Wardair, any useful purpose would be served by making British unless either proany such protest tribes tected were denied water or grazing, or the Ethiopian Government itself against protested Italian For the present all that encroachment. can be done is to ensure that no language is used in any communication with the Italians which would imply recognition claims of their to Walwal and Wardair territory or any specific in this region". 15 Thus., as long
as the
tribes
to grazing
access
Italians
and water.,
conditions,
Britain
did
to
Italian
forward
denounce
tacit tory policy
acquiescence would
effect
that
not
Italian
be'reciprocated
was shattered
Goverment
in
received it
at
to
were willing albeit
consider
it
policy.
The hope that
designs by Italy's
the
an official
under her
end'of
strict
responsibility this
Ethiopian
over
change 1933.
British
allow
of her
terriborder
The British
communication
to
the
was
"not possible to for them (i. e. the Italians) of the Government at Berbera, accede to the request tribes, they admit-that'foreign since cannot into pass ýýdre un Pd : whether armed or 0 should ' that territory, Italian such of opinion inciincursions can only pxovoke unfortunate Italian dents with the adjoining populations the Italian Government therefore consider ih*at*, in with the understandorder to harmonize ings reached at the time of the constitution of it is essential to the Boundary Commissiono the frontier line rectification at a of arrive to the satisfaction as far as possibleo giving,
15. C. O. 535/95/38622 C. O. to Lawrence 3/8/1932. 10
484 needs of the frontier grazing and watering The question tively
Government. as already Protocol likely
The Anglo-Italian
line,
alter.., ation
might,
in
the
Somali
into
arouse
London,
in
view
retention
such an
Italy's
that
and Cohen advised
and
was the
This
the
was
alteration
and that
a rebellion.
had, of
to complications
lead
fact,
by the British Commission
the
tribes,
of
had been exhaus-
no boundary
border
the
satisfy
matter
16
Boundary
that
arguing
the
rejected
recommended
out,
"
in
boundary
and subsequently
pointed
to
the
of rectifying
discussed
tribes places.
accepted
proposal
"should The only necesnot be reconsidered. is to reach an agreement with the sary thing Italians and of the grazing on the question rights". watering 17
Arrangements border
with
end of
1931.
and his
Ethiopia
Harold
Commissioners headed
technicians-and The exact
was as follows
farewell
little
at Sheikh
by Tassama Bantie
European
time
a couple
and including
by the
to witness
the
ceremony"18 The Ethiopian
and Lady Kittermaster. arrived
stage
Commissionero
Senior
in
at Berbera
touching
Protectorate's
an advanced
the British
team arrived
Sir
the
demarcate
had reached
Clifford,
"quite for
to
of
days later,
a number
of
advisers.
assignment
of the
Boundary
Commission
:-
Embassy in London to F. O. 16. C. O. 535/102/25837 Italian 29/12/1933 (Encl. in F. O. to C. O. 23/l/1934). 17. Ibid.
Minute
by Cohen.
18. C. O. 535/95/38611 Clifford
to C. O. 10/12/1931.
485 (a)
To demarcate
between
Ethiopia
and the
as laid
down in
Britain
and Ethiopia
Jalelo,
runs
Annex to Mountains that to
Hill
to Arran
8th
and the
between
the
Somaliland cost
addition,
intersection in
were
by October
Consequently,
differences be sorted authorities
had, out in
according
by the Addis
Somali
in
most
were
British Ababa.
and the 19 way. equitable
the
noted, for
the
Commission
border from
tribes. the
was com-
and disagreements the western
demarcating inevitable
a previous Legation
was
80 N. working
section
uncertainties
to
and British
demarcating
of
pillars
responsibility
the
areas
course
delays
U^t
of Greenwich
of Ethiopia
The eastern
the
and from
boundary
47 0 and latitude
1932 but in
experienced
the
of
the
started
direction.
a westward
pleted
half.
of
upkeep
that
longitude
that
latitude.
grazing
The Commission
at
Saw
east
meridian
as already
permanent
by the
47th
be shared
shall
in
a straight
Governments
such fashion
of upkeep
delimit
the
To allot
in
to
and t1-Bnce in
of north
respective
In to
the
of
parallel (b)
and thence
Great
starting
of Egu to Moga Medir:
Arreh,
intersection
between
referred
road
caravan
hills
Treaty
frontier
Protectorate
May 1897 which,
of Somadou,
and the
point the
the
the
of
Somaliland
the
of 14th
of
portion
British
Annex III
along
the
the
since
all
arrangement,
and the
to
Ethiopian
20
Nationalism
Chap.
6.
19.
S. Touval.,
20.
"Ethiopia's Frontiers. The Boundary David Hamilton, (Unpubtheir Demarcation 1896-1956" Agreements and 1974 p. 106. Oxford), Thesis, lished
op.
cit.
48
In June 1932 the French were invited in
participate point,
where
of the
Jibuti
the
the
delimitation
Anglo-Ethiopian
Colony.
This
and thereafter
the
Ababa to write
up the
It
Commission
the
border
grazing
tribes.
Treaty
line,
though
the
end of
1934,
had met with
Italians Joint
these
of
and the
have
apparent
warming
up of
Ethiopia's
image on the
Ethiopian
commit
might
since
ambitions, attack
Britain. isolate
21.
Ibid.
Ethiopia Italy2
Ethiopia2
month investi-
of
areas
of
the
of
between not
a more solid
to
only
Anglo-
basis,
Britain
have
dealt
latter
would,
in
without
risking
a confrontation
pursued
a policy
was in
of Ethiopia
this
against
a blow those
spirit
enhance
should
would
and it
and
politics,
defence
therefore,
by the
Britain
international that,
the
on Ethiopian
we%*-unnerved
was likely of
up by the
the
This the
put
proceedings
relations
possibility
to
The
whose designs
arena
by
obstacles.
against
the
demarcating
accomplished
opposition
acquire
herself
attack.
external
not
the
relations
of
was the
development
was also
task
been mentioned,
already
This
there
following task
trying
The Italians,
Ethiopia.
but
accomplishments.
successfully
Somali
Commission.
territory
to Addis
and watering
primary
the
difficult
1934,
21
The Commissionts
most
their
more difficult
the
in
proceeded
1934 and the
October
and delimiting
gating
of
that
meets with
was accomplished
report
began the
tri-junction
border
Commissioners
in
was completed
the
of the
to
to Italyfs
circumstances, with
calculated that
to
she viewed
4,87 the
apprehension
with
the
emergenc-,e of
Anglo-Ethiopian
Commission.
that
fact of
the
Italy's
fears
Britain
proposed
boundary
treaty
welcomed
to
Rodd-Makonnen
the
proposal
protests
between
Britain
contrary
to
Italian
the
to London,
Government
of
1897.
and a draft
of
the
towards this
the
that
that
a
proposed
end of Febru-
development,
Agreement
contended
signing of
sent
a new treaty
was illegal
Tripartite
demarcation
Treaty
saying
and Ethiopia
by the
the the
with
the
treaty in London was prepared 22 Italy, ary. of on learning strong
14a47 that
be crowned
should
to replace
Ethiopia
seemed to be confirmed
as it l9o6.23
of
be
would The
any such treaty
must "be subject to examination and discussion between the signatory Governments of the Tripartite Agreement before being entered into". 24 Italy's
took
attitude
the
by complete
surprise.
Italy
go so far
in
designs*
France,
though
did
take
to
might suit
Tripartite
her
Agreement,
had not
It
twisting
not
British
been the
Government
imagined pol itical
a signatory Italyts
stand
that situation to
the
- at
22.
"British Clifford.. Somaliland 97,1936, Geographical Journal,
23.
Agreement of 1906 was signed by Italy, The Tripartite intention It declared their Britain as being and France. the status to respect so long as it surquo in Ethiopia The signatories undertook entity. vived as a political (and the integrity Abyssinia intact to "maintain of .... the political in maintaining to). cooperate and*territorial by the determined state as of affairs at prequo status (Parts of the Agreement are, quoted by existing" (Hamish Hamilton) Italy in Africa Holliss 1941, Christopher 49. text can be found in C. Rossetti, The full Storia p. Etiopia durante Dell' il regno di Menelik Di 10matica Il 0)ý1910 P. 319-325.
24. C. O. ý35/98/5803 25/5/1933.
Italian
Boundary" Ethiopian p. 289-307.
in
Ambassador in London to F. O.
4848
she did
least
not Italy
that
ironical
should torial
and political
as the
arguing from
upsetting
date
it.
to
the
Commission watering treaty
quo,
did of
not
country, terri-
the
revived
far
and consoli-
any surrender
of
the
by. the
Boundary grazing
and
The projected of
events the
after
until
of
was only
ancient 25 tribes.
overtaken
not
confirm
it
work
claim,
treaty,
the
Somali
was subsequently
and waso thereforeo
would
sovereignty; to
the
of
Italy's
contested
suggest
as confirm
as well rights
the
Anglo-Ethiopian
status
a seal
put
invade
on
of Ethiopia's
defender
proposed
much less
intended
quite
encroached
to
Government
The treaty
territory,
fact2
integrity.
The British the
in
was,
and was later
have posed
that
It
had already
which
territory
Ethiopian
it.
express
1935
World
War II. The Somali
the
beset
work
of
opposition Commission
Boundary
Ethiopian
tribe the
the
French
would
cation parallel to
blow French certain
the are
commercial
fortunes
alleged
Aysa
by the
railway.
elder,
to have by the
Anglowhich
obstacle
the
of
was-
that
fear
demarof
roads
have
dealt
Thus,
the
and even bribed
a
would
of Jibuti.
name of Deria
F. O. to Vitleti, C. O. 535/98/5803 in London :ý1611933-
it
construction
This
incited
Aysa
instigation
motive,
was the
Jibuti
the
to
at
The latter's
be accompanied
the
of
among the
originated
colony,
Somaliland,
in British
work
The anti-demarcation
to have
French'authorities.
claimed
25.
in
the
was another
demarcation.
believed was movement living
to
the
Gonaleh,
Italian
a
to
Ambassador
4&9 mobilize
his
Boundary
Commission.
Aysa
kinsmen
on the
with
to
a view
Gonaleho
Consequentlyo
bandwagon
intimidating
the
of
"there is no room for the Government and the Aysa in this country". 126 a demonstration
organized Apparently
the
hostility
to
the Boundary
the
in
the
petrators from
the
of the French
to have actively were,
engineer
attached
in
and became generally
charge
however,
Beitz, in
factor to
were believed
colony..
and no British
to of
the Boundary
the
would
construction
culminating
the
Ethiopian 27
to be the
The persame Aysa
were believed
tribes
Beitz,
a German
wass in
a motor
the
to
leading
Commission of
have
seem-to
spread,
Herr
to
no steps
The events
as follows:
had,
French
territory.
Ethiopian
murder
briefly,
took
a member of
participated.
incident
tion,
of control
of rebellion
at Mordale
its
of. confining as the
and this
of Herr
murder
Commission.,
idea
Somaliland.
Commission
out
movement,
the
encouraged
instead
The French,
anti-European. suppress
got
people
in French
at Rahale
demonstration,
hoped,
allegedly..
the
rallying
road
addifrom
26. C. O. 535/101/25815 "British Somaliland-Ethiopian Boundary Commission: Extract Report from Political No. 16, March 1934". 27. Alex T. Curlets Private Papers. Curle was the Political Officer attached to the British side of the AngloBoundary Commission. Ethiopian Most of the papers copies of which reports, are in the nature of political (or their substance) can be found in the C. O. 535 Curlets papers give an interesting and series. detailed and of the account of the Walwal incident faced by the Boundary Commission. difficulties
49Cil to Habaswein.,
Mordale
On the
frequently.
and he inspected
do his
of Aramadole,
the
a dry
the
bed where
river
of
one mile
got
out
the
road.
tigate
the
matter and was instantly 28 His companions were
and knives. significant
was the
on the
at
plot
road
but
the'time
had neither
The movement, blessing
fact
of
lead
to
the
case
on the
The Somali,
the
the
would
section behind
inves-
to
vehicle
Aysa
with
spears Equally
labourers
working the
had known of tried
nor
into
harmed.
not
to
border
of Herr
that
demarcation
buspected
closure
of
the
British
Somaliland-Italian
boundary,
tacit
tribes.
murder
The Somali
29
it.
stop
seem to have had the
of the the
the
inside
steeply
killed
murder, it
reported
The motive political.
of
therefore, a cross
that
the
of
to
was encountered
stones
across
at
On reaching
descended
road
a wall
Beitz
Mordale
road.
approximately
border,
Ethiupian
the
of
project
and a driver,
by two escorts
inspection
routine
vicinity
May 1934 he left
10th
7: 00 a. m. 0 accompanied
the
Beitzwas would the
as was already Somaliland
border.
to John Drysdale, I "maintained that their grazing customary without grounds had been ceded to Ethiopia that to them, and they feared reference transrestrictions would be placed on their " frontier migrations. 30 according
28. MSS. AFR. S. 605. 29. C. O. 535/101/Z25815 Col. Alex T. Curie to the British Addis Ababa,. 14/3/1934 (Encl. in Lawrence Minister k/4/1934). to C. O. 30. J Drysdale. The Somali . 48. p:
Dispute
(Pall
Mail
Press)
1964
to
the
The murder
of Herr
powers
administering
four
Somali
temporarily
country,
internal
differences.
runner
of a general
rule.
This
France
and Ethiopia
the
Berbera, the
after
commenced in
April
two companies
of
any joint
arrest
the
the
that
effect
towards a hot
mounted
that
total
the
of Reyaleh
and 1,000 of
Bennett
their
from
frontier. overtook
Ethiopians be drawn
not
they
to
promised their
into
do the
same.
a tip
31 the
to
his
with
'The Camel Corps the
man near
The body was later the
one of
stock.
of
commanding
cross to
two days
murderers
would
but
to
course
men was moving
60 men had been arrested
31. C. O. 535/lOl/25815 to F. O. 16/4/1934
the
received
afterwards, of
a blow
Bennett
undertook
Boh Gamal,
Shortly
and deal
as might
the-wanted
him.
Britain,
and the
operation
French
for
of
Major
with
culprits
pursuito
and killed
movement. pects
one of
arrest
The French
April,
foreign
on a combined
Camel Corps,
The Italians On lst
border
1934,
military
such of
territory.
stock
the
400 troops.
despatching into
for
be a fore-
Ababa met at Mordale
and agreed
Operations
action.
own
Representatives
solidarity.
the
of
their
against
ranks
concern
parts
might
imperative
close
and Addis
incident
different
uprising
made it to
grave
overshadowing
Somali
Somali
Jibuti
caused
The incident
prospect
emerging
Beitz
the
the
French
identified of
ringleaders
French
captured
By the-end
of
and locked
as
the
the
30 susmonth
a
up in Harar,
Barton, H. M. Minister, Addis Ababa, (Encl. in F. O. to C. O. 21/4/1934).
-1
Jibuti
and Berbera
matter
of two months
the
of the
demarcation
Nevertheless, Boundary itself
numerous
the
attitude Somali
it
the
suppression
other
sections
inspire
the
of is
forestalled
what
solving
the
majority
not
only
that
accepted
that
the
have
might
by the
of
the
political
the
Somali. in
redress
than
605. AFR. S. MSS. 32.
taken
as a appeal
of v,ýolence but
up-
would
its
also
be gained
to had
the
through
means was becoming
and non-violent method.
concern
the-murder
and
a general
however,
past,
could
more civilized
measures
had lost
the
Aysa
One possible
into
The futility
of
the
use of violence
problems
organization as the
punitive
developed
1930s
Aysa
among the
reaction
explanation,
political
that
community.
prompt
the
armed support.,
no apparent
Somali
that
surprising
widespread
Of more direct Protectorate
and in
a cross metion
of
rather
been demonstrated
political
manifesting
pillars
appears,
feelings
A more plausible
seým to be that
belief
is
caused
explanation
way of
it
not
their
as it
true,
is
tribes, did
rising.
crushed.
of the
rooted2
of boundary
destruction
represented
uprising
the work
deeply
remained
movement against
was completely
against
a
memoranda to London. If
the
Thuso within
Aysa-inspired
boundary
resentment
Commission in
a trial.
pending the
32
to
the British
of Beitz.,
was the
Somaliland steady
1)
Italy
into
advance
of
dilemma
was that
usurper
of Ethiopia's
and therefore cerning
the
salient
fact
whereas
not
Ethiopian
those
Refusal
on the
this
fact,,
though
consistent
the
League
and to
of border the
of Nations,
border.
British
This
Somaliland that
was either
temporary
less the
to
League
Britain's the
would
have
help
of
attitude the
those
borne
either towards
Ethiopia Italian
international
The balance
would
of
obligations was not
dictated easy, to
there
side the was no
And,
need-
therefore.,
by the
to
decide
local
to to
and her
tribes
without
the Britain's
of Natiuns.
considerations
nor
any solution
Britain
of
territory
weaken.
were
League
expansion,
diplomatic
number
good to
such a measure
or the
border
on either
offer
Italy
tribes,
in
neitherýEthiopia to
Even if
brunt
the
of Ethiopian
was likely
the
taken
exacerbate
Moreover,
it
recognize
position
living
circumstances
of Nations
to
more harm than
Ogaden to British
pragmatic
33.
tribes
or that
de facto
ever-increasing
occupation
difficulties.
close
to
the
unsolved
Italy's
in
say,
the
Protectorate.
indication
was the
of Britain with
was doing
the
Ogaden she had already
part
between
con-
by her,
Italy
was bound
leave
disputes
the
sovereignty,
questions
occupied that
of
her
with
territory
parts
as a
and political
discuss
had to be faced
Britain's
Italy
she regarded
occupied.
tensions
territory*33
territorial
could
in
authority
Ethiopian
had to balance against
her
situation.
strike.
forward A boastful is given account of Italy's policy to the Governorship by De Vecchi's successor of (ed. )o Somalia Italiana Guido Corni Somaliland, Italian (Milan), IIs P. 34-37. 1937, vol.
49/1 This highlighted left
in
the
sporadic
1934 they British
in
stock
As far
the
concerned,
there.
To whom then
redress
for
grasp
the
of the
apparently to be the
of
sophisticated
naively
simple
obvious
solution:
this
political prescribed
from policy
ceased
was
to
but exist
or demand
Lawrence situation what
the
territory
to protest gang?
began
By April
official
had long
near
they
dollars
of Ethiopian
was Britain
actions
Ogaden, where
43,000
as Britain's
authority
outlaws
Protectorate.
the
worth
Ogaden was part
Ethiopian
practice
into
the
from
70 35'),
raids
had looted
tribes.
in
and settled
45 0 201 Long.
launch
was first
situation
1934 when a gang of Dolbahanta
Protectorate
Damot (Lat. to
diplomatic
anomalous
whose was
he believed
"I should be grateful if you could persuade the Ethiopian Government to take immediate these people to return to steps to oblige British Somaliland since I do not suppose they would arrest them and hand them over to though The Ethiopian Government, us .... to render us all assistance quite willing to may not at the moment be in a position do so. In this case would they permit me as to send over the border a very special-case a company of 150 Camel Corps with'2 officers "; to these the solely men? effect of arrest he went
on to
Broadmead
suggest
that
tfunless something is done at once by them to the raids these cattle Erevent and to arrest hieves, I may be forced to ask the Italian authorities, who have posts in or near the the inhabited by them to give me all country " assistance. 34 to do with any of Lawrence's would have nothing
34. C. O. 535/100/5882 Lawrence to Broadmead, Acting Addis Ababa, 21/7/1933 (Encl. in Broadmead Minister, to F. O. 3/8/1933).
49 ,Pj,
suggestions:
"to ask that a company of foreign troops to penetrate into the should be allowed territory of another sovereign state could be regarded by the state in quesscarcely tion as other than derogatory to its Moreover, it seems sovereignty and prestige. to me quite to ask for something useless to be refused, which is certain and on which we cannot insist"; as for
the
idea
of
helps
Italian
soliciting
"it more than to asking amounts to nothing the Italians have already who, I understand, border to well over the Ethiopian penetrated help us out of our difficulties. Such a course appears to me to be both undignified and dangerous and might lead to all sorts of " complications. 35 Undeniably, could of
the
not
the
have been better
Dolbahanta
offered
objections
raiders
no alternative
to any of Lawrence's put.
Yet,
proposals
how was the
to be disposed
of?
Broadmead
and he probably
suggestions
problem
had
none. In found
no less
the
Colonial
hostile
Office,
reception.
Lawrence's Seel
proposals
commented
that
"I feel much doubt about proceeding as the Commissioner In the first asks. place it seems to me that he had no justification even for suggesting that he should be either ' to send troops terriinto Ethiopian allowed tory, Government did or that if the Ethiopian they should be given a not agree to this, hint that we would invite the Italian authorities to assist In either us. should have case'I thought that, would be likely as the suggestion to offend he wouldthe Ethiopian amour-propre., have consulted the Secretary of State even before making them tentatively to Addis Ababa. it
36
35. C. O. 535/100/5882 Broadmead to F. O. 3/8/1933 in F. O. to C. O. 10/8/1933). 36. Ibid.
Minute by Seel, Principal
in the C. O.
(Encl.
496 was to be no action
So there
The only
dacoits.
authority
in
however,
would
it
realistic
the
have
in
the
Britaints
policy that
ceivable to
in
Britain
would
such and kindred in
ticular,
and on the
arena
Moreover,
Italy's
general. steadily whole
the British
the
of
stretch
this and -
tuality
was not
of her
regardless
no choice, Nations,
but
Italians
held
British
tribes
and grazing
to
come to
the
key to
the
who depended in
the
to
view
defining
Britaints
which in
the
first
policy
The meeting
henceforth
were
place.,
the
League
the
fact
of
that of-the
livelihood
between
meeting
and War Office
Office
situation.
have
would
and welfare
their
for
the
on water
Ogaden.
Colonial
facto
with
peace
An inter-departmental Office,
in
terms
was
such an even-
Britain -
policy
in
politics
In
border. off
par-
soon embrace
and might
far
in
influence
of
eye
her
Protectorate
sphere
southern
incon-
undermining
international
westwards
extending
of
a blind
turn
to
the
politi-
definition
without
of
to
was., indeed,
It
Somaliland
position
Italian
fundamental
continue
problems
have wanted
regard
with
an urgent
Somaliland.
To do so,
territory.
a very
for
de facto
them. would
Ethiopian
underlined
the
of
the
recognized
encountered
and called
cal-problem,
Italians,
Britain
Dolbahanta
disposing
Italy and -
occupied
dacoits
for
or arrest
evict
that -
The difficulty Dolbahanta
ask the
implied
to be so implied
jurisdiction
to
area,
the
against
method
have been to
would
problem
taken
in
the
light
acknowledged
Britain's that.,
policy. however
of
Foreign with
was convened
made fundamental
to guide
the
the
de
resolutions It
was,
much Britain
a
Italian
resented nothing with
do to
she could
Italy
was out
policy
of
threat
to the
the
of
British
In
the
Ethiopia.,
there
was really
A military confrontation 37 Secondly, Italy's question.
stop
borders
closing
Ethiopia.
into
expansion
it.
was appreciated
tribes
if
ever
as a real
Italy
applied
it
in
circumstances,
"what was essential rights was that the grazing of the Somali tribes should be accepted and that., once this was done, it did not really to H. M. Government what happened in the matter territorial issue between Ethiopia and Italy the best course was to make a direct him quite approach to Mussolini and tell frankly that H. M. Government would propose to insist Somali upon the rights of their tribes, felt and that they therefore confident that the Italian Government would be " to difficulties. make prepared not 38 Thus.. Britaints concern for the welfare of her Somali was to
subjects political
objections
expansionist
say to
the
precedence there
might
over
whatever
moral
have been against
and Italyts
policy. What,
their
take
on the
Ethiopian
sympathy
other
Emperor
hand,
were
the
British
who was constantly
to
seeking
and advice?
37.
C-0-535/104/25888 Record of Office Foreign on 29/11/1934 (Encl. of Walwal and Wardair
38.
Ibid.
a meeting held in the the position to discuss in F. O. to C. O. 1/12/1934).
t. s "The line to take was to urge the Emperor to that the two countries propose to the Italians delay as possible should proceed with as little " to a demarcation the ground. on 39 this
Clearly, tacit
was a double-edged
acquiescence
Italyts
forward
Emperor
to bring
thing
the
time.
policy Italy
British
two belligerent
point
magnanimous that not
Britain's the
in
remained
the
for
spirit.
of
terms
whoever grazing From
was a be mentioned
of her
tribes of
adoption
to be seen how the
with
tribes.
course,
the
It
the
this
welfare
behind
in
recognize
Somali
of
the
was this
new policy
would
practice.
itself
Government
of Nationso
her
army,
firm,
December
tons the
Britain's
1934, to
- Lines
various
European
to
import
to
a contract Ltd.
of
the
As a member of
was entitled given
Ethiopian
a consignment
from
Protectorate.
and she-had
new policy
when the
import
purchased
Ethiopia
the Walford
for
case
permission
3,000
through
countries,
test in
sought
arms weighing
based
British
some-
at
hope that
the to
must.,
dletat
It
presented
for
in
sh Somaliland, it
concern
The first
League
the
but
raison
impossible
best
the
table,
a conference
continue
of Briti
sole
policy. work
of
policy,
advise
on the
Britain
would
of view
same time,
nigh
countries,
rights
to -
was Machiavellian
put
emerged victorious
the
to
round
policy to
and watering
the
at
knew was well
Britaints
was calculated the
and,
give
neutrality
any rate
- or at
she would
policy:
to
do the
arms
a London40
delivery.
39. Ibid. L. H. G. Walfords Director 40. C-0-535/106/46004 of Walford Lines Ltd. to the Director of Public Works$ Berbera, 16/12/1934 (Encl. in Lawrence to C. O. 21/12/1934).
I
The feeling
in
491"-,.
London was that
"the matter appears to require consideration from the political point of view, having regard to the tension between the at present existing "41 Ethiopian Italian Governments. and Itwas the
as difficult
for
arms through
test
from
with
an outright
Italy.,
two extremes, in
request tions
for
Ltd.
was for
as it
while
being
held
rapid
deterioration by the
famous Walwal
lighted in
the
downfall
historical
With
grazing
the Boundary 1934. middle
to
a, view
Commission
of
the
month
later
they
Italian
to
investigating
first
and then arrived
force.
A brief
the
the
proceeded at Walwal Italian
some tradi-
the border
tribes,
Ogaden in November
met at Daghbur
A, Junior,
high-
deserves
of for
out
by the
and culminating
events
set
thereby
Government.
rights
Lines
Walford
relations,
these
and watering
the
of
condi-
complicated
incident,
Ethiopian
The Commissioners
Tvio days hostile
the
background
examination. tional
of
Ethiopia
Ethiopia's
the
Italo-Ethiopian
of
a pro-
either
Britain
was further in
take
arms that
the
The situation
risking
such difficult
business; 42 responsible. in
passage
antagonize
to
agreeing
of the
delivery
to than
stipulated
principle,
interest
her
Rather
refusal.
the
permit thereby
Protectorate,
Britain,
the
lost
avoided
the
to
Britain
in
the
to Ado on the and encbuntered officer
20th. a
ordered
41. C. O. 535/106/46oo4 F. O. to C-.O. 9/l/193542.
(a) that In view of the were The conditions stipulated the Company the would-require a special cargo, of volume (b) Trade The Protectorate the Board licence'from of be for an escort nor responsible provide would neither the safe delivery of the cargo to Ethiopia.
500 the
instead,
sent
commanding on the
Commission
higher
and on the
25th
the
debarred
A dispute
erupted
vociferous
insults
and the
Italians.
Italian
soldiers
man digging
long
not
more than
twenty
Discussion the
resumed gress,
the
Mogadishu on'the of with
43.
following Italian
the Union
Italian jostling
in
yards
military
warfare,
Ethiopian
and each to nearly
extended
forces
belligerent
Cimmaruta
but
while
and the these
were
their
training
colleagues,
felt
pro-
guns
disregard
together 43 to Daghbur.
insulted
withdrew
in
from
camp at Ado4, in
The British
Commission
were
arrived
aircraft
Commission's
Jack.
Ethiopians
apart.
between day,
the
trench
the
places,
and
Ethiopian
The line
wells
soldiers.
the
and began to demonstrateo
Boundary
their
down to
down
the
inspect
in
evening
own trench. and,
was turned
between
exchanged
settled
the
had been solved
question
and much hand-to-and were
arrived
and advised
so by the
doing
from
Towards
his
Cimmaruta
tried
Commission
and,
senior
The proposal
authorities.
were
one mile
the
to go back until
comply
the
of days later
a couple
considering
to
refused
at Wardair.
then
officer.,
lattero
to Ci=aruta,,
protests,
scene
by the
the
but
to be humiliating,
withdrawal
but
to withdraw
Commission
and,
biass is given by A full account, albe it with, exaggerated ' Somaliland Pankhurst, Ex-Italian Sylivia op. cit. chap. 10. T. Curle in his A more reliable account is given by Alex. the Commission could Although Paperso op. cit. Private by the Italians, it had the occupied areas visit not information to enable it to sufficient collected already form a general of the traditional picture grazing and the border tribes. A report rights of on this watering Addis Ababa intended in to form drawn and was up was Anglo-Ethiopian the Treaty. The projected of part is given by Italian version of the Walwal incident (Milan) 1936. R. Cimmaruta.. Ual-Ual
50 The ensuing the
scope
between
quarrel this
of
disintegration,
Italians
Nations Italy
Ethiopians
not
had done in
agree
the by the
General
she believed
League
that
of Nations
nothing
sit
on a round
quarrel
to
Assembly
the
came out
too
League
might
only
of Nations, bring
to
findings
to the
the
the
she advocated
an arbitrationcommission its
not dispute
the
of
the
with
did
of
it.
Italo-Ethiopian
disrepute;
and report
League of
table
Britain the
and the
The former
past,
such a step
into
of having
expedient the
to
the
of
Following
Ethiopians
but
of having
idea
the
reinforcements.
whom she despised.
encourage
outside
beginning
Empire.
Ethiopian
troop
the
marked
Commission
intervention
would
for
in
as they for
debated
the
of
brought
appealed,
incident of the
the withdrawal
is
study.
The Walwal the
Rome and London
all.
into
look
League
of
Nations. The arbitration
in May 1935 and charged
appointed
the
tigating the
question
and the the
could
to
claims not
conclusion neither
that
legal
the
the the
the
settle
Not
the Walwal the
Italians
nor
the
agreements Without
or otherwise
of
commission
of who was guilty
surprisingly,
incident
the
investouching
without
arbitration
question
of
areas.
d isputed
the
duty
of
legality
Ogaden,
incident.
incident
interpretation
establish to
the
with
the Walwal
of
concerning
properly
the Walwal
which
the
of
treaties
mandate
Italyts
in
causes
was eventually
commission
it
came to
was an accident Ethiopians
could
for be
the
blamed.
fate
Ethiopials
the
While minds
in
Ethiopia
the
ordered
in vain.
The following
Ethiopian
bombsj
from
forces as the
ensued
dayo the
different
and by the
had collapsed
resistance Italians
installed
had already
the
attacked fighting
1935,
Ethiopian 1936 the
of
middle
in
themselves
The Italo-Ethiopian in
repercussions As the
Italians there
ment,
Addis
British
began
to
was growing for
then the
future
long-term and watering
grazing
concern safety
their
grazing
Protectorate.
Somaliland
replace
the
had far-reaching
conflict
the
Protectorate
tribes for
fresh
45
Ababa.
land
troops,
Ababa and attacked
By October
directions.
their with
Fierce
Addis
made for
Italians
1934,
December
and tanks
them.
and routed
4th
Italians,
aeroplanes
in
situation
to withdraw
Ethiopians
Cimmaruta
the
engaged
military
On the
rapidly.
was changing
reinforcements,
dispute
the
Geneva,
114) r
sealed.
Italo-Ethiopian
statesmen
of
thus,
was,
502
the in
the
of
the
rights
in
Somali
British
bordero to
regard
with these
Somali-
British
the
stoc k across position
Govern-
Ethiopian
and their
areas:
"Governor that the trans Lawrence realized tribes Protectorate the frontier grazing of inconthe by threatened not merely was administraveniences of his not having full they tribes the British tive when control of but by the much in Ethiopia, were grazing Italy that might simply more possibility done as she had already close the frontier, border Protectoratets the eastern along *t'46
44.
J.
Drysdale,
The Somali
Dispute
op.
cit.
chap.
4.
45. Ibid. 46.
David Hamilton, Thesis) op. cit.
"Ethiopiats p. 110.
Frontiers
****"
(unpublished
0i 51 The immediate was to
confrontation in
grazing
the
Protectorate January tribes
effect
force
areas
involved
or get
Italo-Ethiopian
the British
tension
of
the
of
tribes
to return
either
in
the
1935 it
was reported
that
had opted
to return
and that
then the
In
conflict.
the
to
majority
the
of
Itnearly the Burao tribes all are now either within our borders or about to enter, and the the bulk of the Hargeisa movement involves "47 tribes living in Ethiopia. who were There
was a substantial
ever,
who chose
of
these
of
the
tions for
were
the
fear
case
of
in
chief
of
the
with the
fines
the
conflict
face
Italians.
of
There
by the
to
refused their
to return
previous
misthe
example,
of
the
Habr Yunis
1928 so as to
avoid Faced
up in
the
Italo-
face
the
prosecution
Some sections
of
the
who had become notorious the
border,
the,. conflict.
and others
side
condi-
overcrowded
administration.
caught
across
recognition
for
Aman section in
Some
conflict.
was,
were
decided
in
their
to be drawn
subjected
lot into
to rough
47. C. O. 535/106/46011 Lawrence to C. O. 18/1/1935. 48. Ibid.
to
Some enlisted
threw
Those who refused
on either
of
the
on account
in
forces
in
how-
tribes,
by their
others
those
raids
areas
decision
or returning 48 latter.
particularly
British
while
of getting
Ethiopian
the
this
imposed
constant
the
to Ethiopia
on and participate the
in
Protectorate. Rer Ismail
the
of
would
punishment
for
opted
by their
in
they
conflict
Dolbahanta..
stay
to
choice
Ethiopian they
forced
who had fled
payment with
remain
Protectorate
the the
of
tribe
to
hardship of
part
5014 treatment
by the
belligerent
stipulated
by the
who joined
their
service
of
was
her
on the
issuet
British
tribes
to
the
limited
being
British
blind
eye
been
raised
Aden.
to
they
were
foreign
forces
to
in to
much good was
allowed
the
of
itself
enlisting
in
49.
,
Ibid.
the
Britaints
1935,
possible Italian
in
the
prestige. and to
the
hitherto
dissuade
or Ethiopian
in view; in
run, it
to was not
The Colonial
Foreign
this
therefore, to
long
Moreovero 50
a
serving
subjects
quarrels.
be persuaded
In March to do everything
was bound,
turn
Arabs
of
of
more
a different
British
same mind,
to
had
recruitment
having
the
to
on
question
forces,
inclined
held
over
Office,
no objection
Lawrence
as this
Britain
office
since
and
opposed
implicate doing
Barton
tension
the
over foreign
was
Italian
so many
The Foreign
forces, issue
a definite
of
created
into
subjects
the
return
an opinion
offer
against
But
the
also
of
recruitment
for
call
Protectorate
Italian
particularly
forces
part
the
did
taking
Italian
on the
only
and grazing. to
requested
but the
water
recruiting
Not
into-foreign
policy
themselves
action
prompt
tribes to
addition
declare
self-evident.
subjects
the British
in
shouldo
also
The need for
One condition
was that
Italians
up arms and fighting, 49 subjects.
Britain
forces.
point
Lawrence British forces.
Office of
view.
was instructed subjects
from
He failed.
50. C. O. 535/108/46011 Barton to Lawrence 18/1/1935 (Encl. in 13arton to F. O. 18/l/1935).
rn .flhtLawrencefs
efforts
countries in
from
either
by Britain's
worried
Ethiopian
to
attempt
Italian
belligerent interested in
her
prevent
any case, subjects
forces: them. If they on the spot " from Italy. 52
Another
immediate
escalated
conflict
was in Lawrence
taking
result the
form
advised
such measures
repercussions
tory.
by the
ff the to point was not vital *id cýu not recruit enough native4 they would send out more troops
border.
consider the
in
serving
on the
ignored
as by those Somali who were 51 The Italians side. were,
as well
joining
not
were
of waVfrom
of
the
of
lawlessness
the
as were
Colonial
into
and chaos to
Office
necessary
spilling
Italo-
to prevent
British
terri-
He wrote: it incursion large be any on a scale would .. liLiy to create a very difficult situation locally. Even more important is, the question difficulty of whether might not be experienced in keeping the British-protected tribes themThey are armed and might be selves quiet. by the prospects in a disattracted of loot ordered area" 53 The Overseas Defence Committee met on 22nd 1935 to
February land
in
the
that
Lawrence
preventive latter the
light
of
should
measures
submitted situation
discuss the
the
a long
to propose
he was the report
and recommending
It the
the
was decided
necessary
man on the
assessing urgent
of Somali-ý-
position
new developments.
be asked since
security
gravity
security
51. C. O. 535/108/46011 Barton to F. O. 7/3/1935 F. O. to C. O. 12/3/1935).
The
spot. of
precautions
(Encl.
in
52. C. O. 535/108/A6011 Drummond,H. M. Ambassador in Rome, to F. O. 15/5/1935 (Encl. in F. O. to C. O. 20/3/1935). 53. C. O. 535/108/46011 Memorandumby the C. O. on the situation in Ethiopia n. d. February 1935.
. XE, ( C"If"I'T C)F 'T9,00?. s N9-IvJCT'TIA15 111111-ETAICONIJ "T"PI-.
MPIDSITKIN
VArmA, %. J-Q
u's
CT ULF
LI'
U
k\ DEN
,
a-s
ý-C-, ToR
C-
secTop,
ruo
AOSSES
vý A,
'4'
ii
I co
.3 =6.. 4
SE!LTIDZ /'ý
40
40
lei
N
pO
-\I
a
\ V
INDIAN
OCEA
MILSS
IT -
1? 0--
LIO 1
100
507 to be taken.
On his
own initiative,
cancelled
leave
Among his
recommendations
the
of all
detachment
then
reinforced
by two aircraft
would
up the
the
call
Police
Lawrence
each.
forces
gerent
as to wish
excited
and to
property He did
not the
about
among the
loyalty
In
June
how he proposed the
during would
tribes
raiding that
westwards,
it
"C"
sector
sectors
Office's
the would
the scene
be possible
once the
to
the war
the
Ogaden on the
himself
the
had reached the
air
The "B"
would
to reduce
frontier
of
plan
and the
prevent
conflict
divide
zone.
They werep
(see map).
Basing
fighting
neighbours'
a detailed
to
the
of
be so
apprehensions
Camel Corps
border.
keeping
their
subjects. 54
emergency
belli-
move
troops Harar
in or
into
three
as follows 1.
miles)
of
He proposed
thereabout.
from
the
the
territory,
refugees
to be patrolled
across
assumption
the
time
have
sector
deploy
these
who might
submitted
increase
100 men of
of
to
loyal.
Lawrence
to
troops
the British
completely
than
less
tribes
Colonial
of
so he believed,
force
the
share
he
and would
themselves
the
be
should
objective
the
border
R. A. F.
In addition,
on British
to help
control
Aden.
the
fighting
officers.
Protectorate
by not
prevent
the
reserves
then(xplained to
and civil
the
from
illaloes
from
law and order
in
Camel Corps
as being
measures
military
was one that
stationed
and the
he had already
alloted
"All sector to
from
Borama to Aran
"A" Company of
the
Arreh
Camel Corps.,
54. C. O. 535/108/46011 Lawrence to C. O. 15/6/1935.
(go with
one
508 at Borama and a second
post
Aran
from
sector miles),
to
alloted
and Bohotleh.
at
have
the whole the in
55
posts.
point
"C" Company with
posts
The R. A. F. would
and at Bihen.
for
The plan
patrolling between
communication
and maintaining
in
was studied
the
London
and approved
therefore,
by the to
the
remote
The overseas
in
estimated
connection
with
in the
the
to the
event
Camel Corps
battalion With
the
thatp
from
Italians
was no
consider
would
target.
most vulnerable
met again
to. make the,
supplement local
would
those
already It
situation.
of -Italians
outside
British
and Britain
of
such a confrontationp
of
Committee plans
The possibility
Italy
as their
contingent,
thatp
event
that
likely
Defence
Protectoratep
Nigeria.
the
Protectorate
British
necessary
in
and,
was more than
afull
between
confrontation
Italy
Somaliland
of British
of view.
point
and her
became necessaryi
It
security
con-
against
sanctions
of Nations.
the
consider
latter's
the
of Ethiopia
economic
League
international
a military
passed
the
of
to
owing
Italy
between
1935 relations
invasion
Italian
support
recommended
longer
the
of
subsequent
from
end of
had deteriorated
demnation
of
tri-junction
the
to
at Dabbagob
posts
August.
and Britain
the
(225
and be responsible
at Burao
border
from
alloted
point
Towards
it
sector
with
"B"
2.
tri-junction'point
"C"
(135 miles)
base
the
company,
tri-junction
its
to
"B"
3.
to Galnoleh the
Arreh
one at Aran Arreh.
require
- possibly
attacking
was the
reinforcement Tanganyika
Somaliland
55. C. O. 535/108/46011 Lawrence to C. O. 15/6/1935.
or
5" "should be able t6 hold up advance or .... at any rate defend the environs of Berbera" 56 in December The situation review came up for another following
further
As a result
relations.
and Aden had already the
members of
in
deterioration of
contingency
thought
thought
that
into
plan
Anglo-Italian forces
British
it
in
Although
been reinforced.
Committee
earlier
thiss
the
the
some to put
desirable
effect..
Egypt
the
majority
"the menace to Somaliland from Italian to the south is not regarded forces as from a military point of very serious to the strength Having regard of view. forces, their the Abyssinian relatively high morale in the Ogaden, and lack of Italian success in that regions substantial that the Italians it is unlikely would risk Moreovero Somaliland. on British an attack should decide to launch even if the Italians take several itwould a considerable attack.. Ifs nevertheless, weeks to carry out .... such a threat should become more imminent than at the present time, should a battalion be brought to Somaliland. from Tanganyika A further battalion could be and battery " brought from India ... 57 The Committeets resolution amounted to saying that although an Italian
invasion
ruled
the
out,
immediate that
Protectorate
danger.
needed
of British
Italo-Ethiopian Finding
was,
Hence,
to be taken
Somaliland
the
were
could
be
not
nevertheless,
in no
security
arrangements
only those
for
dealing
with
the
conflict. a formula
by which
Britain
could
secure
56. C. O. 535/111/46011 Minutes of the overseas Defence Committee held on 19/9/1935. 57. C. O. 535/111/46011 Minutes of the overseas Defence Committee held on 20/12/1935.
'ju for in
her the
tribes
and harassment
by the
In January they
position:
would
Italo-Ethiopian
that
dispute
London
attitude. Somaliland
- sweetened
Italians
were
Accordingly,
were
The
of British ultimate
Italians British
permit
tribes
closure
tribes
of
their
clarified
to use
intimations
interfering
of
the
in
to modify
prepared
the
instructed
further
with
had no intention
the 59
task.
and Walwal as long as the 58 lasted. But after representa-
tension
Britain
the
rights
in Wardair
and grazing
from
Italians
1935 the
not
and watering
difficult
most
a bad omen portending
border.
tions
grazing
the
was already
water
ancient
Ogaden was by far
eviction
the
their
Italian
their in
authorities
by Rome to
respect
"existing de facto situation regarding access of British7-tribes at Walwal and Wardair .... in accordance It is with local regulations. that at the present added, however, moment access must be regulated so as not to permit (sic).,, foreign of infiltration of elements Armed natives in no case be admittedo will 60 These
instructions
Italian
lost
officials
loopholes,
with
týe
tribes.
BritLsh
regulations" that
left
impossible
a view
much to be desiredo
to continue
For
should
in
no opportunity
example,
be applied
conditions
were
and the
the
and evicting
provision
was manipulated often
laid
that
down for
59. C. O. 535/109/46011 Drummond to F. O. 25/l/1935 F. O. to C. O. 27/l/1935).
"local the
to
58. C. O. 535/109/46011 Drummond to F. O. 3/l/1935 F. O. to C. O. 6/l/1935).
60. Ibid.
its
exploiting
harassing
local
extent
the
(Encl. (Encl.
in in
5L1 tribes
British the in
any way the
local
elements"
by the
for
out
working
It
was,
to
a formal
of view
point
of
questions this
circumvent
local
a system their
guaranteed He would, the
prejudice
without
the
of
Somali
a purely
however.,
remained
Ethiopia
should Yet,
it
clear would
of
to in
The the
alleviate
had nothing caseo any
London.
was more than
likely
Italo-
was, a marvellous A few questions,
was under that
the
with
One was, whether of what
be
legality
the
of Ethiopia.
be informed
61. C. O. 535/109/46oll
rights.
agreement
question
as being
unanswered.
be
abundantly
and some were not even conversant 61 idea Lawrence's Ethiopian quarrels. one - or
need for
and watering
who,
Italian
tribeswould
ultimate
in
the
with
British
occupation
was regarded
order
advocated
do
so it
dis-
Lawrence
make it
tribes
of In
wider
be explained
would
plight
the
Italy's
of
or otherwise motive
to
purpose
territory.
grazing
and the
agree
would
Ethiopian
the
same time,
discussion
the
upon them the
whereby ancient
the
at
for
need
arrangement.
Britain
communicate
and impress
administration devising
problem., He would
approach.
that
Italy
affecting
the
and emphasized
inconceivable
conference
difficulties
and binding
a more definite
with
the
of
tribes,
British
of course,
cussing
London
informed
experienced
tion.
be construed
The arrangement
the
from
Similarly,
could
wished.
officials
unsatisfactory
Lawrence
to
border.
Somaliland.
British
that
the
cross
"foreign
about
provision
was., therefore,
to
to
wishing
or not contempla-
Ethiopia
Lawrence to C. O. 9/2/1935.
would,
if
told,
informing
overo
Italy
what
over
which
these
Admittedly,
Italy.
Britain's
stances, most
tion
to
itself,
address
the
very
neutrality
to
the
of
questions
for
In
the
sort
tribes the
to which
problem
precisely
had pledged
her
for
is
indeedo
was,
easy answers.
concern
crucial
ought
were
find
not
one could
which
and this
the
over
this
and yet
Britain
Britain's
sovereignty
by Italy,
was disputing
controversy
implied
of Ethiopian
More-
a sell-out.
of
have
would
held
effectively
areas
the
Ethiopia
recognition
continued
Britain
and accuse
protest
circum-
was considered
local
regardless
administra-
of
conse-
other
quences.
local
approach
considering
Britain
what
as a quid
in
empty handed,
Britain's
as the
just
to give
asked
were
as would
questions
League
to
issue, over
East
There which
have
cal
of
was. not Italy's over
important
Italian
policy the
be dangled
Somali
grazing
before
on a local
Italy.
Britain
if
international her the
in
examples
-for in Spain
economic for
we e, nevertheless,
natures
expansion,
possible;
give.
not
compromised
concession
f the
but
a local
place
substantially
question
much point
difficult
prove
way on such
or to retreat
question
might
might
condone
as a recipr the
were
It
of Nations.
Britain
Middle
the
over
position
for
it
take
to
of
the
offer
receive
had to be of
issue
crucial
was not
to
expecting
discussions
Otherwise,
level.
There
quo.
pro
Lawrence's
with
to
was prepared
however,
offer,
was the
there
proposalso
Italians going
be approached
Rome could
Before
and the
sanctions flexibility
Italy's
and watering
a few local One of
rights.
attractions
these
was f or
59 1
ts
to give
Britain her
projected
the
Tripartite
the
treaty
contrary
treaty
it
the
Empire
and Italy
treaty
should
not
to
two birds
treaty the
the
with
a regime
same time,
Italy
a more accommodating rightsý'
Not
on the
treaty
it
issue
had not-been
suspend
Ethiopia
over
tion
ofýZeila
Tana scheme.
63
the
Now
the
control projected
be best
would
might
might
be appeased
avoid
collapse
on the Britain
and by the
advised
soon and, and made to
question
began
time
of
signing
to
a
at adopt
of grazing drag
Italian
her
feet
conquest
signed.
The other was to
that
which
surprisingly..
to have
losing
she would
attitude
maintained
the until of the treaty 62 Britain would thereby
conclusion
one stone:
with
only
was clearly
Britain
violate Italy
protests.
was insisting
be signed,
not
mentioned,
underway
Italyfs
had become more clear.
situation kill
for
press
of
or did
not
were
Government
of her
not
Britain,
plans
regardless
Ethiopian
did
As already
but
but
view,
signed,
that
did
as to whether
controversy
Ethiopia
with
Agreement.
that
contended
the
way over
Britain
concession
then
negotiations, the
latter's
in
exchange This
in
progresso
application for
expedien&X
making
considered
concessions
for
the over
commended itself
with acquisithe
Lake
in
62.
Ibid.
63.
to get an outlet to the sea in order to Ethiopia was anxious bureaucratic high duties the customs and obstacles avoid at to honour the Treaty had failed Italy Jibuti: of Friendship Ethiopia have by 1928 should which acquired a free zone of (see "Ethiopia's Hamiltono David Assab Frontiers at 424). Ethiopian acquisition p. op. cit. of Zeila would her problem, have alleviated to and Ethiopia was prepared for constructing a concession give Britain a water (a barrage Lake Tana summary of the Lake Tana scheme on is found in F. O. /10872).
514 London, Zeila
Ethiopia's
and consequently, discouraged
were
by the
overtaken
and the
Italian
Lawrence's
whole
line
Rome and accepted
almost
at
once.
instructions
issued
to
the
to
were into
enter
Rome was reminded
of
the
Italian
came at
the
effect
reply
the
"did not think that Somaliland were yet commissioners" 964
for in
the the
stimulated the
internal
from
were
in
August
and to
of September
an extra
Lawrence
estimated Ogaden tribes
across
the
on the
1935,
for
District
and encouraged
raids
3,000
camels
order
to
illaloes
prevent
By the
the
the
region
the
situa-
recruited the
to Burao;
owed to
from
and 700 sheep
Lawrence
L40 as a result.
to be in
was,
in Burao
more explosive,
debt
border
consequences
conditions
In
the
arrangement
In February
Nearly
30 extra
incurred
by the
administration.
a definite
skirmishes
looted.
becoming
and despatched
authorities
promise
disastrous
overcrowded
Ogaden tribes.
and goats tion
having
the
Italian
in Italian authorities in a position to appoint
1ýime, political situation.
example,
no specific
beginning
to graze
seeking
mean
border
to
was put
the British
in making
delay
tribes
was
they
that
This
Yet
unfulfilled the
action
of
local
with
negotiations
deal
package
of Ethiopia.
conquest
proposed
for
aspirations
Treasury
end of Decembero
Protectorate of 5,000
tribes dollars.
64. C. O. 535/109/46011 Drummond to F. O. 1/9/1935 (Encl:. in F. O. to C. O. 3/9/1935). , 65. C. O. 535/112/46035 Lawrence to C. O. 23/2/1935.
65
515 Then in June
1935 two British
Yusuf
Koreyeh
and Ismail
they
had found
difficulty
Walwal,
at Walwal
by Cimmaruta
seized These
led
events
their
to
Lawrence
at
A few weeks
runners
mail
that
animals
stubbornness.
two British
incident,
subjects,
to Lawrence
reported
in watering
to Cimmaruta's
owing this
after
Nur,
Somali
were
handled.
and roughly that:
observe
"I believe Cimmaruta, to be excitable Captain and to likely bombastic endanger more an officer and than to estabfriendly on the frontier relations "66 them lish or cement
belief
administration
unless
a more satisfactory
that
be arranged
could
was firm
The British
the
with
the
in
modus vivendi
Italians
delay,
without
"there doubt but that seems to be little authorities of the Italian averred policy "67 to close the frontier The collapse of
of
It
Protectorate.
the
with
greatest
level,
in
is
not
tration
policy
order
to
suggested,
would
but, -
have
ought
however,
the that
invasion contradicted
undoubtedly,
so far
and
Somaliland that
as hitherto, to be undertaken
and must be limited
offend
Italian
Ethiopia
British
be argued,
Italians
caution not
condoned
a position
the
with
the
for
not
could
in
situation
half
first
the
during
regime
power
matters
simplified
negotiations
Ethiopian
the
1936 clarified
thereby
It
the
the is
British
of Ethiopia Britaints as the
local
the
Government.
Ethiopian the
to
adminisfor -
such
official interests
of
66. C. O. 535/109/46011 Lawrence to C. O. 7/6/1935. 67. C. O. 535/114/46011 Weekly Intelligence 30/1/1936 (Encl. in Ethiopia, Affairs C. O. 1/2/1936).
Report on the in Lawrence to
£
British
Somaliland
a single than
and effective
to have
tive,
were
the
facing
problem into
hasty
state
of
collapse already
negotiations
of Ethiopia
at
to have
of
committed
detachments,
arrests
and tried
Another
disturbing
but
ineffec-
out
the
of
in
on womens 68
random.
the
and,
crimes
prepared$
to keep the
As
soldiers
excitement
at
rapid
of
Italian
scandalous
the
contingent
One feature
amok with
enter
invaders.
and the
year.
well
pressing
Italian
of
civilians being
border
so much to
of undisciplined
and killed
property
number
previous
form
the
as to combat
arising
the hands
to have ran
reported
Camel Corps
the
most
Italians
had been expected
this
came in
process, looted
the
and violence
confusion
the
was not
lawlessness
noted,
ho n were
1936,
of
with
to have
unrecognized.
administration
had been made the
plans
ýýthe
but
beginning
the
across
one recognized
effective
By the
was better
administration
two authorities,
other
it
concerned,
The a
effected of war at
scene
arms length.
arms and ammunition that
a good
forces..
being
number
in of
phenomenon was the
the
border
Somali
uncommitted
to
recruits
the
It
areas. into
causes
of
influx
of
was learnt the
belligerent
the war,
made
68. C. O. 535/114/46011 Weekly Intelligence Report on the Affairs in Ethiopia 16/1/1936Between January and for October 1936 the War Office assumed responsibility the secur ity of the Protectorate owing to the grave ' Col. created by the Italo-Ethiopian clashes. situation Major Hornby took command of the Camel Corps, replacing to the War Bennetto and Hornby was to report directly In November the Colonial Office resumed all Office. in the Protectorate; the situation responsibility was considered to have returned to normal.
51? business
lucrative by
them
their
in
and
Since
that
fact
to
disarm
Britain
had
the
the
own side
of
became
an eager
market
however, to
the
raised
followý'Italyls
but.,
in
June
on her
the
for
Ogaden
of in
of
shortage
known
to
the
sale
of her
announced of
the
border.
with
respect
Somali
British
subjects
firearms.
This,
Britain
ought
matter
disarmament
was not
not
disarmament
of
manpower.,
rrotectorate
feuds
to
whether
the
internal
side
border, the
the
intention
such
a
say,
watched;
Italy
1936
no
to
well
stimulus
tribes
example
view'of
too
is
question
Somaliland
British
in
declared
her
to
raids,
A further
the
decision
be carefully
to
supplied
needless
was,
uprisings
elaboration. was
to
arms
of
transfrontier
anti-colonial
require arms
in
sale
This
needed
which
firearms
of
the
of
employers.
development role
out
in
undertaken
the
until
1939.
Another of refugees
arrival
55 civilians,
officials,
were
from
1937 the children.
Berbera
the
at
was borne in Britain. contributed
were
cost
by the In
48 soldiers,
to
1937 and 1938,
for
and Z14,000
of maintenance
charity example,
towards
By
at Borama and
established
and- various
10 civil 69
of whom 297
1,347,
The cost
of Z10,000.
Treasury
Z25,000
These were mainly
70 women and 93 children.
number had swollen 70 Two camps were
the
was the
unexpected,
war zone.
In May 1936 there
Ethiopian.
April
not
repercussion,
organizations the
Treasury
the-maintenance
69.
C. O. 535/116/46011
Plowman to C. O. 25/5/1936.
70.
C. O. 535/121/46011
L awrence
to C. O. 18/3/1937.
of the
cost
camps.
51
71
for
In June 1936, Plowman, acting the
sent
London:
to
telegram
following
Lawrence,
itmilitary is Ethiopia rapidly of occupation frontier to Somaliland becoming up effective to to your approval subject and I propose, between try to arrange one or two a meeting their opposite frontier and officials of our to territory the in ascertain occupied numbers the latter of crossing regarding propose what disarmament tribes, by British frontier and them to to kindred out point and subjects, " boundary the runs. where exactly 71
The latter
thought
as accepted
to
it t necessary "it
the
by
was like
their
to
new tenants
and familiarizing proposal
it
interesting;
is
point
introducing Plowman's
premises. but
Officeo
Colonial
Lee
that
explain
that be understood our officers the Italians as being would only recognize in de facto of parts of those occupation Somaliland Abyssln-LTa--Uordering on British into'disthey have entered the fact that them will not, of course, with cussions imply sovereignty recognition of Italian " Abyssinia. over 73 will
Following and Rome, the took
strations The British
Officer, officer outlined
an exchange
first
meeting
place
of notes
between
by Captain
Borama and the Italians the
frontier-section
Italy's
border
71. C. O. 535/127/46011
policy
Treasury
two local
the
as being
admini1936.
August
District
Long,
by Gualdi.. of
London
between
19th
at Borama on the
were represented
of
the
-
commanding 74 Gualdi
Ogaden. (a)
to
prevent
to C. O. 14/1/1938.
4/6/1936. to O. Plowman C. 535/115/46011 O. C. 72. Minute
by Lee,
Principal
in
the
C. O.
73-
Ibid.
74.
the term "Italian For the sake of simplifying matters, be used to territory" and all that goes with it, will to the Italian in addition Somaliland Colony, to apply, from 1936. the Ogaden, with effect
514P
armed
tribes
from
British
tribes
grazing
andwatering or
Tribes
entering
(d)
same.
tried
of
reach remedy
an acceptable to
the
of
the
formula
desperate
plight
these
some of
dictated
be altered
by the
days
on
particularly
meeting
offer
condi-
policy
A second
to
closed
entering
areaso
no authorization
The failure
and
and grazing
eight
to
were
75
reservations,
request,
a stalemate.
Ogaden
was the
to Mogadishu.
ended in
areas.
subjects
only
(c)
along
zone,
against
this
arms
post
proceed
the
of
their
prescribed
permits.
76
at Britain's
leave
Italian
British
tracks
prescribing
had received
in
and could Long's
purpose
Gukti-Medir
protest
that
u uthorities
be communicated
meeting
to
evertheless,
idea
All
obtain
was informed
by hi 7N-er e
held.,
(e)
the
must
in
residing
must
Long
the
tribes
territory
but
as the
such
for
must
graze
(b)
territory
nearest
territory
subjects.
Italian
border
the
at
and must
for
Italian
animals
Italian
areas,
British
tions
them
tracks
be preserved to
their
deposit
Certain
the
crossing
behind
prescribed
into
crossing
9
was
but
later, anything
would
Gualdi
new.
The
77 Italians
to
and the British
meant
that
there
of
the
British
could
be no
tribes.
75.
Annual Colonial Report, British Somaliland Protectorate, for 1936 No. 1815. It must be explained that the negotiato the Ogaden and not the Italian tions Somaliland related Italian in the latter territory Colony. policy remained the border. one of closing
76.
the Italians Before in Addis Ababa, the
77.
Minutes C. O. 535/116/46oll of a meeting held at Borama on between representatives 27/8/1936 of the Italian and (Encl. Governments in Plowman to C. O. 12/9/1936). British
had firmly established Ogaden was administered
their from
authority Mogadishu.
520 Their hit
problems the
tion., the
day.
tribal
in
the
fighting
The desperate
from
by a severe
aggravated
Protectorate
inter
letter
were
a number
latter
part
1936.
of
and looting
situation
drought
Starva-
the
were
elders
the
to
order in
was underlined
of Dolbalianta
which
of
a
adminis-
tration: "We have to describe to you that the present (hot season) appears to be bad as no Dair However, much rainfall within our territory. the Dair is much better beyond the British boundary, therefore departed we are forcibly from our territory, for the sole purpose of With regard to such grazing outside of it. grazing we have been told by His Excellency be no prohibition the Governor that there will to the natives for of any of the Governments to this Relating encouragegrazing purposes ... ment given to us by our kind Government we have boldly the Protectorateo proceeded and live outside in which the Italian Bandas have at Armale, (sic), by which they worried us arounded us We believe us. and frightened we are correct if we say that H. M. Government are quite aware Bandas, of how they of the lies of the Italian they trouble used to do after us, especially that the mischief is always made by the British did Italian Banda not subjects ... the immunity to the British respect granted tribes. As your Lordship are aware we are British therefore subjects, we are under the impression that we entitled to get protection how know to from our kind Government, beg so we " this will be obtained. 78 The
situation
inter-departmental Colonial
Office
November
1936,
to
take
part.
was
serious
discussion. and Foreign
A meeting Office
and Capt-.
Long,
It
this
was at
to
enough
between
was thus
then meeting
the
an
the
convened
on leave,, that
deserve
in
was invited essential
78. C. O. 535/116/46011 Dolbahanta elders to the British Government, 8/10/1936 (Encl. in Lawrence to C. O. 24/lo/1936).
521. differences
between
international the
with
Britaints
to came passage
Somaliland
of
the
time,
becoming
more accommodating
There
the
authorities
in
Government
of
local
that
of
1936,
for
negotiations the the
were
on the
formal
lines
it
position
advocating
on the
as if
forgetting
In February
rectifying
the
country,
politics.
to
for
southern
Somali
grazing
were than
seemed to permit.
Colonial
Office,
to
the
treat
the
arena
the
this
of
Italian
was by
international
Lawrence Italians
of
and
legitimate
that
border
the
with
Italians
example,
with
and the
deal
of Nations
and
that,
territory,
the
administration,
Ethiopia
no means Britaints
view
League
tendency
was a growing
especially
the
Office
had to
towards
- local
appears
Ethiopian
affecting
in
policy
It
Colonial
having
administration, in matters
interests
surface.
the
Italians
Britaints
dual
the
and watering
was
with
a
Protectorate rights.
He, wrote, "It is obvious that territorial rectification is the only the impossible effective remedy for it be described situation can hardly otherby the Anglo-Ethiopian frontier wise - created through the recognized which passes and indispensable grazing and watering areas of several tribes. The existing of our nomadic arrangement these tribes to graze have treaty whereby rights their is in Ethiopian territory and water stock has worked fairly a palliative which satisfactorily have thus Circumstances up to the present. .... to force combined urge and I would our hands, the utmost that with seriousness, we must at the it is earliest suitable opportunity and before too late, in the make every not only effort, interest but also in those of our tribes, of future to neighbourly relations on the frontier, for these tribes secure a sufficiency of territory to enable them to remain constantly under " jurisdiction exclusive our ... 79
79. F. O. 371/20168o 188-191 Lawrence to Thomas 12/2/1936 "Ethiopia's Quoted by David Hamilton, Frontiers op. cit. P. 110).
-
r
LI
During
the
this
view.
reiterated fact
the
that
made it local it
inter-departmental
Britain's
imperative
for
and informal
the
Italian
in
relations
that
meeting in
the
of Nations on a found
Office,,
The Foreign
must be considered
problems
Leage
and insist
favour
approach.
to remind
necessary
to
her
appreciating
of
the
in
attitude
Long
meeting,
He showed no sign
4
Somaliland
the
the
of
context
Anglo-
general:
"it was conceivable it would that ultimately territorial to feasible a negotiate prove Somaliwhereby British with Italy adjustment but the grazing land would acquire areas, no such arran gement was practicable clearly
time * ,80
at the present is
worth
relations
in
It Italian
from
smooth.
pleasure
with
Italyts
had,
example,
were
to of
far
for
the
status
while
with
the
request
informally, made -
provided
September
from Harar who was wanted
the
to
1936 another of course
to Berbera for
legal
obliging
latter-made
express
the
as practicable,
the
a_formal
of
Ababa
Addis
Italian
row erupted
a British
British
in
application
regime over for
by Britain -
prosecution.
duty
interestsy
and material
personnel
disBritain
of Ethiopia,
of Consul-General,
Then in
had no objection
of
in
as far
in Europe,
alone
Legation
reduced
there.
subject
let
As a demonstration conquest
Anglo-
actually,
her
ignoring,
extradition
Ababa,
Addis
British
protecting
that,
mentioning
a
the
Somali The Italians I the matter in
accordance
80. C. O. 535/116/46011 Minutes of an inter-departmental the in 20/11/1936 Colonial held office, on meeting in Ethiopia and Somaliland. discuss the situation
to,
523 with
the
with
Italy's
Anglo-Italian condition Italyts
nition
of
London
sent
be made.
of
the
the
London
to
Italy,
but,
to
But
the
the
policy
with at
alive
Somali
problem
smiling
what Italy
in
doing
matter
relations to
expel
for
Company, to
the
retaliatory
Consul-
was held measures it
deliberations,
in
reasons
British
meeting
one
firms
Indian-British
be presumed
that
it
did
or
sympathetic
at
the
was required
in against
was resolved
neither
81. C. O. 535/117/46oll
attempt
while to
difficulties
the
administration. Britain's
on the
general
local
snarling
do both
had already -
Office,
Foreign
inter-departmental
local
of her
Somaliland,
the
to
was one of reconciling
in
and the
decided
nomads and the
Britain's
elsewhere. success
warning
was not
should
altogether.
must not
by the
faced
Italy
unexplained
matter
Ethiopia,
1937 Anglo-Italian
Trading
thorough
recog-
request
large
at
British in
no formal
prosperous
analogous
after
It
meeting,
implied
An inter-departmental
the
by issuing
of
Mohammedally
As complicity
sovereignty
when
strain
consider
shelve
1873.
remained
indeed,,
and, 82
General.
to that
and most
oldest
un1mown
have
beginning
further
Ethiopia,
would
instructions
At the underwent
of
claims
The criminal, 81 to rest.
was laid
Treaty
scene
at her
- or rather
won the
her
Government
Plowman to C. O. 26/9/1936.
82. C. O. 535/122/46011 The British Consul in Harar to H. M. Consul-General in Addis Ababa, 13/3/1937 (Encl. in H. M. Consul-General to F. O. 16/3/1937)
-
52A, censure
in
Clement
Attlee
In December 1935,
Parliament.
truth,
biting
with
observed,
for
example, that
"the trouble foreign with the Governmentts the fact that you have is its duality; policy but the constant line not a single of policy interweaving and the of the imperialist "83 League of Nations policies. Be that inter-departmental to
a solution
the
on the
watering
rights,
deadlock
in
a more informed
local
dating
could
was to
attitude
cussions
of both
by the
that
The Foreign
quate. the
local
take
Office,
This
approach however,
discussions of conducting 84 level. Could the whole matter the
British
Consul-General?
Italian
being
asked whether
about
the
proposal.
Roberts,
this It
that
the
was feasible, would
the
only
a more accommoquid
pro
dis-
that
end the
was justified
had proved was uneasy with not
in Addis
authorities
with
in Rome between
place
countries.
a
officials
them a substantial,
a local
between
Italian
adopt
prospect
a high
to
speaking
intimated to
and
led
and Long suggested
should
representatives argument
Italy
offer
Office
Italy
with
the
meeting,
persuade
The Colonial
quo.
the
at
grazing
Long,
find
negative
had already
discussions. of
1936 was to
by Italyfs
Somali
which
knowledge
any one else
way Britain
of the
question a factor
the
caused
problems
of the
concern
primary
of November
meeting
attitude
than
may, the
as it
inadeabout
Italy
at
such
be finalized Ababa and the
Consul-General,
on
was pessimistic same way the Borama
83.
Debates (authorized Edition) The Parliamentary VXII 19th December 1935 (Wyman and Sons Ltd) 128-136.
84.
C-0-535/116/46011 Minutes of an inter-departmental meeting held in the C. O. on 20/11/1936 to discuss the situation in Ethiopia and Somaliland.
volume columns
523discussions
85
had ended.
the Rome-alter-
He preferred
native. Rome was being
While to have the on the
discussions
local
from Harar
officials meeting
the
with
British quite
Treasurer,
of grazing
between
their
soften
Lawrence
rights.
Italian
at an informal
Italy's
wish
they
on the
attitude
to
and the
Ethiopia
In return
Protectorate.
to
better.
and,
expressed
relations
Somaliland prepared
Berbera
visited
trade
resume normal
the
for
a turn
a request
in Rome, developments
conducted
scene took
with
approached
were
question
reported:
"prospect an agreement locally of reaching and you may promising appears to be fairly to hold in a6eyance proposal decide therefore to meeting in Rome. It86 It
already
if
the
feeling
proposal
local
Italian
in Rome there
tiating
a package
Britain
had,
impending nothing
the
for
late,
the
accepted
Besides, the
too
was already
for
of course,
to
inform
to do with
would the
for
highest
the
the
represented nego-
not
authorities. Italians
be informal
controversy
in Rome.
views
was no reason
with
discussions
a meeting
officials'
deal
had
Government
Italian
over
the
that
and would Italian
have
conquest
of Ethiopia. Plowman and Lee were
appointed
to represent
the
85. C. O. 535/116/46011 Roberts, H. M. Consul-General in Addis Ababa to F. O. (Encl. in F. O. to C. O. 28/12/1936). .
86. C. O. 535/116/46011 Lawrence to C. O. 2/2/1936.
8th,, January
1937.
concluded
February
the
two sides Trade
Transit British
Somali
their
ancient
grazing
for
return
Walwal
(b)
The British
(d)
Details
the
in
Italians
trading
acquire
to
the
as they
stayed
(c)
No armed
laws
any circumstances
and stock
advance
deal:
of grazing
area
under
Protec-
to be
were
the
crossing
of
Transit
Trade
part
of
border. Conditions
the
deal
expenses
to
attached
as follows
were
Berbera
Port
being
footed
by the
the
Italians
(b)
British
duties
not
roads.
warehouses
roads
The cost
of
their
to bear
th6
of of
was to be footed were
was to go by
The trade
The Italians
(d)
or constructing
portation
(c) excess
The Italians
a lesser
in
and,
Zeila-Borama-Jigjiga
much in
facilities.
the
was to be modernizeds
Berbera-Hargeisa-Jigjiga;
Zeila-Aisha
the
:-
(a)
proportion, the
Italian
of people
Ogaden,
Somaliland
as long
Ethiopia
enter
to
enjoy
the
in
rights
permitted
to
in
by
to
continue
attached
would.,
of numbers
to
to
British
the
be subject to
Agreement,
were
were
tribes
were
supplied
of
the
Early
month.
Rights
Italians
in
was outside
Ethiopia.,
tribesmen
the
the
llth
came to be known as
and watering
which
(a)
the
what
were
A few conditions
torate.
in
signed
and facilities
rights
end of
tribes
Rome on the
commenced on the
and Grazing
which
in
the
at
in
arrived
Discussions
and were
the
and they
Government
British
the
cost
goods.
Pay customs the
of maintaining
constructing
new ones to trade
cost
by both
to
were
and
and
wharves (e)
countries.
the
of modernizing facilitate The Agreement
transwas to
52'7 last
two years 87 renewal.
before
The conclusion far
as British
international Italian
the
little
the
in
the
in
was no point immediately living
as
former pages.
of
the
sides
discuss
confrontation.
to
of
indifferent; either
the
the
eventual as
gloomy
The
Somaliland. the
preceding
the
of the
of
Italo-Ethiopian and
quarrel the
a good of, the
there
of
their
in
aspect reaction
reciprocal
problems'
and
British
discussed
tribes
border.
had
The majority
remained
on the,, side
in
once,
trading,
rights,
dispute
interesting
the-Somali
Italians
other
the
of rela-
Somali
and welfare
of
of
hesitation,
and obtained
regime,
been
eventual
arms
the
peace
aspects
was
up
the
on the
For
the
of
of grazing
to
Ethiopian
already
The most
tribes
without
Italo-Ethiopian
conflict
Somali
question
both
interesting have
could,
given
con-
or otherwise
Protectorate.
doings
so
Italian
controversy
the
wrong
refusing
on
the
was thenceforth
Protectorate
affecting
The
well
to
Having
on the
concessions
collapse
the
border.
facilities
tribes
for
completed,
legitimacy
of Ethiopia
administration
demand redress across
the
importance
British
and possible
was concerned,
as to
scene
review
Agreement
The persisting
occupation
tively
this
of
Somaliland
of Ethiopia.
quest
up for
coming
British
number
belligerent
the
took forces,
87. C. O. 535/125/46115 "Negotiations in Rome concerning Grazing Rights and Transit Trade in Somaliland". (East) January 1937. No. 1159., Africa
528 depending
the
on who was offering The attitude
remun-eration.
most
of the
attractive
Somali
was summed
up as follows: "they hate both Italians and Ethiopians. The Somali looks with dismay on this advance. They are fully that they would be certain disarmed and their women dishonoured and that the Italian tribes would be given preference, traditional and their grazing, and more espeThe cially wells,, would be encroached on. British tribes were watching and saying little The both the tribes attitude of who are Lbitually domiciled in the Protectorate and those who make season migrations in the grazing territory, is one of almost areas in Abyssinian indifference, complete except where their interests, personal and the security and maintenance of their stock are threatened Compare this
the
with
in
reaction
Africa:
South
"the war in Ethiopia had a remarkable in effect South Africa. It was the only political event that had roused the Africans for many years. Many realized for the first time that there in Africa, existed still an independent country where the black man was master and had his own king. They were inspired by the idea of black their men defending own country against white aggressors 89 It cherished were
not
To the other
is
quite
by distant
Somali, imperial
powers
the
And this
Somali
of
of the
is
Ogaden in
AnglO-Ethiopian
Ethiopia
about
had hitherto the
ideas
romantic
was indistinguishable
by Ethiopia
activities
the
communities
Somali.
Ethiopia
The acquisition subsequent
African
by the
shared
that
evident
not
surprising.
from
the
encountered. 1897 and the Boundary
88. C. O. 535/109/46011 Intelligence Minute of June 1935 by Smith, District Officer, Burao, (Encl. in Lawrence to C-o- 13/7/1935). 89.
Edward Roux, p. 302.
Time Longer
Than Rope (Madison)
1964,
t
II '1
Commission; Britain
in
the
Ethiopians,
not
strong
to like
the the
the
in
when Lij
It
is
bandwagon
its
the
in
the
distant
impress
Somali.
For
had a pompous monarch in
the
Somali
expecting
the
the
that
on the
from
power
and one of if
support,
the
Their
has already Italians the
their and -
imagination resistance
of in
heroic more even and Dervish
the
that against
anti-Dervish
distant
their factor
1896 -a
the
revulsion.
Somali
Besidesp
at Adowa in
for
of resistance in
been cited.
Christian
oldest
by the
be accepted
Ethiopia
that
fact
produce
only
role
not
hardly
could
as reasons
advanced could
Ethiopia
which
the
example,
imperialism.
publicized
the
in
Dervishes
of Africa
parts
European
parallel
Pan-
to recall
for
record
ties
was
rooted
he was toppled
had a distinguished
stirred
that
people
stages
the
Ethiopia
still
of
gap by fraternizing
to rally
world..
could
the
story
two peoples;
effort
it
against
black
the
Equally,
campaigns
long
deeply
attributes
was admired
traditions
and religion
The mere fact were
the
worth
the
coup.
Moreover,
the
the
rudimentary
Pan-Africanism.,
by an internal
of
culture
between
and attempted of
tip
to bridge
Yasu tried
Islam,
the
transcend
was still
of Africa.
for
Somali,
Italy
with
movement;
Somali.
and antagonism
Africanism
with
but
were
enough to
differences
Dervish
contempt
injustice
the
collaboration the
suppressing
Somali,
Ethiopian
Horn
Ethiopian
Ethiopian
apparent of
the
529 .and
which
African
1930s
could
examples
in
victory
communifind the
little
history.
The Somali
reaction
to
the
Italian
invasion
of
53 C Ethiopia
was,
thus,
physical
discomfort
limited it
the
expectation
of
to
And the
accurW-.
the
of
would
latter
Transit
The Somali
no time
the
materials, the
improved In
power. the
businessmen
from
armed tribes
of
the
in
demand for
into
Ogaden.
Agreement before.
their
raw
Ethiopia, their
man-
administration border
con-
new oppor-
demand for
effective
venturing
Rights
the
which
removed
had discouraged
which
the
experienced
opportunities
on the
established
hazards
earlier
the
addition,
mere idle
followed
and Grazing
high
likely
were
was not
exploiting
and the
optimistic
that
increased
new market
roads
Italians
in
by the
provided
or to
had not
the
about
boom which
Trade
Protectorate
tunities
bring
reaction
was such as the lost
anxiety
benefits
material
The trade
sentimentality. clusion
to
the
enterprising
the
unadministered
Drysdale
writes
and
that
"In succeeding between years mutual confidence Italian grew as and British administrators practical experience of common problems was For their the British gained. welcomed part, in an'administration which could act promptly the interests and this of the nomads concernedo " the the continued until war. 90 outbreak of the
once
"almost tionfl,,.,
total
In
the
Italians
roads
and
the
Italian
90.
J.
91.
Ibid.
established disarmed
the
occupation
Drysdale2 P. 56.
Somali
absence a strong tribes.
Ethiopian
of
built
administrationo The
of Ethiopia
Dispute
administra-
op.
positive
effects
were
seen in
cit-
P- 57.
the
of
steady
increase
of the
ponding
decrease
first
time
aid
in
resumed by the
caused
in
in
it
imperial
history,
(see graph).
1938.
the
is
the
of
of World Somali
corres-
Grants-in-aid.
Protectorate's
outbreak
and the
revenues
1939 because
As for tunities,
the
of
the
was needed
were
Protectorate's
For
the
no Grant-inThe Grants-in-aid decline
economic
War II. to
response
the
new oppor-
that
reported
f1manywho never thought of trading previously, over the border and doing are taking caravans A sign of prosperity is a brisk very well. t' toim. in Hargeisa demand for building plots 92 The improvement led
standing justification
stagnation.
of
Italyts
tion.,
radical Britain
remain
the
from
Lawrence's to
of
the
the
administering
was any the
the
among the
her
the
own reputa93 A border. in
attempted of
reduction
the
post.
Somali
and the
1933 rank
from
Protectorate
latter
British
the
across
policies
The change had coincided to
policY
in view
was whether,
was first
against
Report, 92. Annual Colonial for 1936 No. 1815. 93.1.
side
there
pursuing
damaging
without
to Commissioner.
circulate
in
and social
stagnation
appointment
as to whether
consideration
on their
protested
officer
Governor
began
could,
financial
Protectorate's
to persist
economic
static
when Lawrence
the
doubts
Britain
Another
breakthrough
of
serious
for
of
border,
to
in
Rumours
with then
Italian
Somaliland
Protectorate,
M. Lewis, A Modern History of Somaliland op. cit. This gives a general picture P. 90-101. of the vigorous Govt. in the Italian pursued by the Fascist policies See also Robert Hess, Italian colonies. overseas in Somalia op. cit. Colonialism Chap. VII.
/
ilso 000
flog 000
117 Ae
sal cc 0
I
%VI
w,
1
113+
1135
Iq3ý
11.38
1917
IJ39
I.
5 '3 officials
across
inferior
position
the
than
command or indeed his
accorded
by the
change
in
Mijjertein.
Protectorate
told
that
deserved
the
it
uniform
Seel
latter
informed
him that
the
matter
officially
he did
as this acting
for
spy on
ascertaining 94
interview
would
not
whether
and appreciated Lawrenceo
with wish
have
personal
and became
apparently
to
Lavirence
the
of
to
On being
a Governor
of
with
At a private
accused
powers
of Kittermaster.
embarrassment.
whole
were
Commissioner".
on., he went
sympathized
how the
Somaliland
Commaruta
a view
officer
by a "Commissioner"
the
Later
Italian
understand
"High a
his
being
as used to be
the
Italian
of
respect,
with
that
resembled
not
possessed
latter's
even more confused. Lawrencets
parts under
Lawrence
not
to have been baffled
reported
be administered
to be placed
about
an
and so did
was Cimmaruta,
northern
occupied
Kittermaster.
He could
could
the
whereas
of Governor
people
of title
Lawrence
as much respect
predecessor, the
that
that
deserve
One of
the
border
to raise in his
resulted
motives.
He waso
however., "much concerned and said he is quite prepared to resign if that would facilitate the appointment of a successor with Governor's status
it 00.95
The matter at
that
was not
time.
But
taken the
seriously Italian
in
the
occupation
Colonial of
the
Office Ogaden
94. C-0-535/100/5889 Edward Barryo District Officero Burao, to Lawrence 28/7/1933 (Encl. in Lawrence to C. O. 3/8/1933). 95.
Ibid.
Minute
by Seel,
Principal
in
the
C. O.
534 . to
led
a reconsideration the
administering
Africa,
Lawrence
learnt
that
Italy
officers
dwarfed
Lawrence
in
Italians, the
intended
for
title
its
abolition
of
stagnation,
of Governor
its
renunciation
forces
which
ing
the to
revert
the
policy
(b)
administration for
1937,
a Government
elementary
of more drugs
purchase port (1937) stood
facilities (c) at
etc. Public
Z6,777;
Works: it
96. C-01535/100/5889
into
revert-
the
minute
to
her
its
for (a)
The introduction
in
Z1,585field
staff.,
improvement (in
recurrent
1936)
of
increase
trans-
to Z3o784 hitherto
expenditure
by Seel,
of
a number
at Berbera
to
of revenue
estimates
were
Z2,532
1936
was made in
increase
was proposed
force
as well.
and equipment, from -
by a the
and provided
and Agriculture:
policy
Nevertheless,
direction
school
the
accompanied
soon to
these
suffered
Although
with
were
submitted
and
by Seelo
1935.
Britain
this
Some of
Veterinary
have
force
development
services.
social
policy.
also
have
would
in
compari-
ranking
Somali
was not
to
move in
and expenditure
of
the
of
high
representations
restoration
of Governor
A bold when the
prestige
East
was
the
of
was restored
of
by It
more
just
in
that,
appoint
estimation
had combined title
Commissioner
1931 had been connected
in
had
Commissioner.
further
After
formal
Italians
officer
Q6 Ogaden. These would
and Britain's
the
The
circulate
to
the the
in
process.
to
to
be a "Low"
must
military
of
as High
began
and whispers
son,
the
De Bono
the
status
Protectorate.
General
appointed
the
of
it
18111193S.
to
Z7o332
(mainly
to
for
provide
better
maintenance
of
water
supplies).
The overall
estimated
showed an increaseZ14,330 Nevertheless
to
reaction volent
with
the
them in
sympathy
Colonial than
rather
the
1937
previous
year.
from Z118,976 in
These proposals were clearly
avowed policy the
of
increased
also
1935 to z164,356 in 1936.97 at variance
that
over
had
revenue
for
expenditure
the
was one of bene-
Office
outright
but
stagnation,
of
hostility.
Calder
lamented: it the Somaliland a running on of policy 'and basis is difficult caý; maintenance ... insist advisors on a high stanour military in the Camel Corps and the dard of efficiency maintenance contingent; our of a foreign done for education advisors want something want advisors education; our agricultural done for agriculture and stock something .... be that many of our problems will I feel are firmly established solved once the Italians tribes The transfrontier over the border. be disarmed of our will and the disarmament It is then agreed that tribes follow. will the sole purpose for which we need troops and law in is to Somaliland and maintain police drastic tribes order among our disarmed ... in the expenditure on the Camel reductions With some of Corps should be possible .... the money saved we might make a modest , beginning such as educawith social services tion. Hence I suggest we should carry on with the minimum change for, the next year or two till we see how things work out eea"98Following the
this
previous
minute, year's
the
figures,
97. C. O. 535/119/46075 Draft Expenditure f or-1937. 98. Ibid.
Minute by Calder,
estimates and the
were
projected
estimates-of Assistant
trimmed
social
Revenue Secretary,
down to
and C. O.
were
services
in
was written
the
in the
1936 when the the
from felt.
been fully
Rights
point year,
the
the history
months
Office
earlier
had submitted
Dr.
a scheme for
the
staff,
technicians dispensaries
introduce
and dispensers, and mobile
Senior
medidal
that
of medical outlay
to recruit for
course a number units.
Officer,
Medical
an initial
start
turning
of appointment 99 Officer., and two
improvement
a training
and
the
He intended
L519 and 9410 recurrent. junior
the
to
Trade
1937 was the
Agricultural
The scheme involved
services.
Transit
In June of
approved
Buchanan.,
of attitude
thanks -
year
stagnation.
of
European
an additional
change
by the
Indeed.,
had not
of Ethiopia
following
about
minute
advantages
was a marked the
Calder's
material
There
Agreement.
Colonial
that
conquest
brought
prosperity
in
process.
Italian
Office
Colonial
Grazing
the
must be appreciated
It
accruing
in
scrapped
536
of
of more
the field
He explained
that flat present does not reach the the department living bulk of the population at a distance from the hospitals except on rare occasions the tour to is able a medical when officer " countryside. 100
99.
100.
c. o. to Mr. MacKinnono Assistant C. O. 535/124/46o94 11/6/1937. Mr. Tanganyika, Officer, livestock to the AgriMacKinnon was the officer appointed Somaliland. Departmento cultural Dr. Buchanan., to the Secretary to C. O. 535/126/46126 (Encl. 4/4/1937 in Lawrence to C. O. the Goverment, 10/5/1937).
537 The proposals
Advisory
Colonial their
were
Medical
Committee,
Defending
adoption.
by Stanton,
appreciated
the
the
Chairman,
who recommended Stanton
proposals,
wrote:
"I am sure that the items are necessary if we are to have even the outlines of a medical department in Somaliland I understand ... that the Italians will make a first class in Abyssinia. show of their medical services We must have at least the rudiments of a in SomalilandOf' medical service 101 The scheme was incorporated in the Protectoratefs for
estimates
1938 and endorsed
In of
the
field
to how the
administration
and viable
than
an unexpected
that
the
been caused-by while
air
British
fact
that
Somaliland
and the
was healthy.
Lee then
Ibid.
Minute
the
ideas
which
Somaliland. the to
as
made
Office,
in
difficulty
saying
had been
the
past
was under
on to
the
the to
had by
Aden was administered
Protectorate's
by Stanton.
was
amalgamation
between
went
It
Colonial
been transferred
communication
had improved,
101.
in
the
Aden had since
Office. Office,
the
of proposals
on the, scene was one for
impediments
In particular,
end
be made more vigorous
One of
Principal
earlier
solved.
India
hitherto.
the
administration,
could
Aden and British
by Lee,
Treasury.
by a series
re-appearance
amalgamating revived
of civil
was followed
stagnation
by the
Colonial the
Colonial
two dependencies financial
argue
that
position
5) "contacts between Aden and Somaliland are Somaliland very close. used to be regarded as an annexe of Aden, and our administration there began so as to ensure was largely a (and good shooting) for the Aden meat supply Aden is full garrison. of Somalis, and is indeed by the inhabitants regarded of Somaliland as their Somaliland metropolis .... in effect, be treated would, as a province " Commissioner. of Aden under a Provincial 102
Amalgamation, together
pooling territories the
of resources
border
be followed
presence
the
two
and improve.
of the
once more came into
by the
give
administration
The inescapable
the
would
and manpower,
a more efficient
trade.
across
to Lee,
according
the
Italians
picture:
"it is relevant to point out that the in the Governor of qualities required Somaliland The old primitive are changing. days, when the Governor was a semi-military figure in charge of a skeleton organization holding down fanatic tribesmen by the force of character., are rapidly especially passing, with the advent of Italian administration More and more compliacross the frontier. cated problems are arising - again particularly as a resultof contact with the Italians. This demands a more efficient Government machine than there is in Somaliland at " present. 10.3
could
not
The need for
more efficient
be disputed,
but
amalgamation
was the
economical.
Seelo
was sceptical tion
scheme,
answer,
Lee's
had made it
far
was questionable or indeed
Principal
also
about
of Ethiopia,
it
from
administration
in
whether the
it
was Office,
The Italian
proposals.
the
emphasizing
more difficult.
Colonial
whether
It
occupa-
need for
Lee's
was contended
102. C. O. 535/126/46137 Memorandum,on the future administration in the C. O., of Somaliland by Lee, Principal n. d. October 1937. 103.
Ibid.
539 that.,
in
quest
of Ethiopia,
the
circumstances
by the
created
Italian
con-
"Somaliland is connected with African central
now less than ever before British East Africa, and territories ...... lo4 Secretary, had no kind words
an Assistant
Cowell,, either
for
lapse
into
The Protectorqte
amalgamation. its
Aden with
old
its
financial
might
again
and thereby
ailments
saddle
problems;
"furthermore it is well known that the in Aden and in the opposition of the Indians Legislature Indian to the transfer of Aden to the Colonial based on Office was largely that Somaliland had not prospered a belief After Office under Colonial administration. some years experience administraof colonial tion in Aden vie might venture to consider for an amalgamation some tentative proposals but I should be reluctant to move so far the
within
This
put
the
last
nail
Nearly
tion.
In
which the
Colonial to
the
which
into
to
devise
Somali
investigate
amalgamation.
coffin
of
the
Colonial
later
the
improving
social
The study
a new administrative
send a qualified
traditions
the
would
administra-
and customso
organization to
Office
machinery
an administrative
intended
Office
Somali.
the
for
own plan
the
suited
pologist of
order
years ... " 105
few
two years
its
came up with
first
yield
system
anthro-
and institutions information
upon lo6 be based. .
would
t
104.
Ibid.
Minute
by Seel,
105.
Ibid.
Minute
by Cowello
lo6.535/134/46168
Principal Assistant
in
the Sec.
C. O. in
the
C. O.
c. o. to Glenday 27/4/1939.
'01
540 Glenday,
Vincent to
asked
expressed
doubts
own solution: weakness
Akils of
and the
their
new Governoro
however,
on being
on this
particular
idea,
opinion
as to whether
was not disarm
of the being
Somali,
his
offer
that
anything
the
the
European
reveal had his
to
the
fact
inclined
were
to
trusting
officers,
the
that
the
defy
the
in
the
power
107
rifles.
fact,
of
Somali
had been engaging
Office
since
1937.
Idea
tectorate
and been shocked
of
the
possess
K. A. R., by the
arms;
of
attention
In December of
General
to
the
the
Inspector
allowed
would
-Glenday He attributed
Somali.
armed,
well
study
known.
already
administration
In point
were
the
this
that
of
the
year,
had visited fact
the
disarming
that
Colonial the the
the
ProSomali
was
107. C. O. 535/134/46168 Glenday to C. O. 11/5/1939from Kenya where Glenday had just been transferred by implementing a policy he had enraged the'Somali that by the in N. F. D. disarmament advocating and of the Somali in the soufthern parts of Kenya should be "natives" be classified and be made to pay the same as When he was transtaxes as the rest. of the Africans. ferred to Somaliland the Somali community in Moshi became apprehensive that he would try to force the Somali to write their language in Roman orthography. They, therefore, wrote to their kinsmen in Burao warn"You must not think ing them about the new Governor: justice that he came to Somaliland to administer No! NO! NO! but he came to make you slaves as those in information This be kept this part of Africa must .... (Ahmed Ali and other Ishaaq elders in Moshi secret" to Nadi, Burao, PC/NFD/4/7/2 - Quoted by Romilly Turton in t'Ishaaq Somali Diaspora and Poll-tax in agitation No. 292, July Ken a 1936-41". African Affairs Vol-73 in Somaliland 197ý P. 329)., His disarmament policy one elder talked of him as the angered the-Somali; "worst an most useless Governor" (interview with ,d Ibrahim and Mahmud Ahmed Ali at Hargeisa., Ahmed Hassan 5/9/1974).
541 "a state of affairs else in the British North-West frontier districts outlying possession of this must be a potential internal security The disarmament need for
Britain
disaTament 1938, plans.
had emphasized
Ogaden tribes
to follow
by the
was accepted
The desirability
suit.
Colonial
Office
was instructed and the administration log The Arms and Ammunition Ordinancep in August
promulgated
sequently alia..
the
of
which exists no where Empire, except in the of India, and in certain the of the Sudan .... large number of rifles source of danger to the ""'1108
1939,
the of
in August
to
draw up
1939,
was sub-
declaring,
inter
that "no native shall after six months from the be in possescommencement of their ordinance for the sion of any arms of war or ammunition 11110 same.
The response
to
hostile
with
there
but,
the
disarmament
the
exception
law was slow
and clearly
of
"one half-mad to wadad who has been trying the young men of one of the sections excite who have a lot of riflest', ill to disaramalike resistance armed an was nothing
ment. Stagnation already
pointed
out,
in
the
field
in
1937 when the
of
education Treasury
ended,
as
endorsed
Inspector General of the West 108. C. O. 535/131/46133. African Frontier Force and the Kingts African Rifles: Somaliland ProtecReport on his tour of the British 15/12/1937. torate, 109. MSS. AFR.' S. 605. 110. C. O. 535/129/46062: 1939. 111. C. O. 535/134/ý6i3j
The Arms and Ammunition Glenday to C. o. 25/8/1939.
Ordinance
511 1
4ý
an edUtational an elementary this
school
breakthrough
Lawrence
together
conferred
and
backwardness then
wrote
involving
programme
to
to
with
from
as follows: SaMOU some ga-lri graduates
the
that
agreement
Protectorate
Colonial
of
112 The background in
the
the
establishment
was briefly
came to of
Berbera.
at
the
was
Office
the
1935 Khartoum
educational
deplorable.
Lawrence
as follows:
"time has came when the Government of this Protectorate facilities must provide educational in above that of the Koranic schools already is to estabexistence and my very earnest wish lish Burao, a station school at Hargeisa, Erigavo, the Nogal, " Borama, Zeila and Berbera. He applied After
the
Committee
for
Z7,350
to
the
cover
proposals
had
on Native
Education,
been
first
studied
by
four the
years.
114
Advisory
"the view was expressed that it would be to start preferable not with 7 schools but with a single station school at Berbera and to follow this up, as soon as practicable, by the establishment schools of further on the same lines in The gained experience .... the running of the first station school wouldo it is thought, be of the greatest value in connection with the establishment of other schoolsil. 115
112.
Mahmud Ahmed Ali,
i13-
C. O. 535/113/46062
Hargeisa,
5/9/1974.
Lawrence to C. O. 5/6/1935.
114. C. O. 830/3 Education Department Report This was the Department's first-report. 115. C. O. 535/118/46062
for
1938.
C. O. to Lawrence 26/11/1935.
113
1)
54 In 1936, Lawrence submitted
but,
school
at Berbera
turned
down by the Treasury.
Government elementary
again the following
approved Lawrence's
the
in
it
was
of the financial
With the improvement
as an item
indicated,
as already
the scheme was submitted
for
a new scheme providing
of the first
the establishment
ej
for
estimates
situation year and
1938.
was
objective
ttto devise aimed education of primary a system to make the best the Somalis use of at fitting the new conditions civilization which Western them to is thrusting and to helping upon them, these the course are conditions which control to take without likely at the same time traditions, life, the them from and alienating heritage their that natural are environment -&a
116
would
self
the
that
believed
Lawrence
he had
goal
him-
set
by
be achieved
ftgiving the Somalis and others and a capacity and agritaste for employment in stock raising to industry enable commerce and culture, ... them to appreciate and become more realities they into the which society members of useful have been born ... It 117 who The school would be headed by a European teacher in
would,
addition,
Protectorate, for
plans was to Islamic
with
the
include
116.
c. o.
117.
Ibid.
Arabic,
Ibid. The in October headmaster Education.
hygiene.,
arithmetic.,
and handiwork.
830/_3 Education
The curriculum,
interior.
geography,
Department
the
laying
of
responsibility
reading.,
writing.,
studies,
the
in
of Education
Director
special in
more schools
agricultural'science
118.
be the
historyo 118
stock
During
Report
op.
raising,
these
early
cit.
construction of the Berbera school commenced 1937, and Mr. Ellison its first was appointed in addition to his bein the Director of He arrived in April 1939.
stages
of
instruction taken of
did
for
question
appear that
language
the
- which
the as -
unwritten Arabic
not
granted
their
the
planning,
of that
all
Somali
language
important. would
was at,
primary
the
any
language
of
March
the
of It
welcome
the
up to
rate,
was use
then
instruction,
with
as a supplement. Towards
of Burao
reported
the
end
the
following
of
rather
District
Officer
alarming
news:
"On or about 13th instant Ibrahim Egal .... from Berbera; he brought arrived a letter leaders with him from the religious of the Qadiriyya to the sect in Berbera addressed Saleheya sect in Burao The the gist of .... letter to the was an appeal for opposition to teach Somali language in Roman proposal in the Government schools, characters as this would tend to bring the boys up as infidels to the and would be harmful Mohammedan religion. It was suggested in the letter that the education was officer in disguise. The Sheikh did a missionary the support not obtain of all and a number to impede the Governwished to do nothing ment educational policies The messenger
not
stop
in
the
mosque and forced
British-sermon Saed, Burao, written
a headteacher to
swear
in
on the
the
That
some three
matter
was reported
tion's
under
local
of
school
he would
in his
school.
to London
estimation
Koranic
months
the
elapsed
underlined strength
an antiElli
a certain
that
Koran
to be taught
Somali
he delivered
there;
did
at
not 120
allow
before
the
the
administra-
and popularity
119. C. O. 535/129/46o62 Smith, bistrict officers Burao, to the Secretary to the Government 23/3/1938 4/7/1936). in Lawrence to C. O. -(Encl. 120. Ibid.
of
I
545 the
the
against of
the
was not
the
against
of
parcel
the
of
status
the
attempt
to
Asiatic
status
popularity
the
allega-
In July,
were
Some two
in
teaching
Sheikhs
was at
of the
were but
stake
the
concerned the
also
They saw their
race.
launched
struggle
Somali
as being
by the
Ishaak
the
resisting
them as "natives";
classify
the
sermons
proposed
of written
The latter
in Kenya.
action
Aw Adan., and Sheikh
as these
Somali
teaching
the
true.
emotional
Islam, which
only
that
appear
Abdillahi
So far
language.
strong
to have been affected.
Mosque against
Hargeisa
any
increased
were
delivered
Gaileh,
Abdillahi
whole
agitators
Sheikh
namely
taking
and made it
was reported
vradads,
in
apparently
resistance,
Hargeisa
Somali
delay
agitators
made by the
tions
it
This
movement.
struggle and
part
communities
Government's
they
claimed
It partly Arabic that was their on the basis that this feared language and they written if an alphabet would be undermined claim language the Somali for were invented .... to British Somaliland They therefore wrote if that their keen apprehension expressing in Roman script, to be Somali written were the Somali languages, as were many Bantu to the same be reduced would everywhere " they despised. the Bantu of status 121
the
By August propoxtions A meeting to
discuss
or not
121.
and gained had earlier the
problem,
Lawrencets
movement had assumed dangerous number
a substantial on been held
in
the
suggestion
that
if
the
supporters.
Colonial to
and particularly
of
Office
decide
Somali
did
whether not
"Ishaak Somali Diaspora R. Turton and Poll-Tax Affairs in Kenya 1936-4111, African Vol. Agitation No. 292 July 1974, P. 329.
73P
5i the
want
to
decided the carry
on with
newly
appointed
the
and instruct
rest
Director
whole
Office him to
had omit
the curriculum 122 Ellison, project.
the
of
the
from
Somali
of written
then
school,
The Colonial
Lawrence
overrule
teaching
the
be scrapped.
should
programme
in
language
Somali
and the
who was described
of Education,
as "a truly he could
thought
persuade
attitude teaching
of Somali
or race
categorization.
that
firmly
He,
administration
to
failed
Christianity
end of his
should
give
worse.
made matters
to
the
and his alter
denial
the
belief,
he was.
that
Ellison
their
them that
do with
instead,
Father
established,
what he had witnessed,
to change
knovin as "padre",
popularly
Even by the
the
Somali
had nothing
he was a Catholic
already
the
them and re-assuring
to
by going
He was by then
men",
educated
123
and in
tour,
was not way,
sPite
convinced
of
that
He wrote:
that it would "I agree with'hislExcellency to the be a sign of weakness to surrender leaders Berbera over the language question Somali were not to be this If stage at ýegarded ** the subject, a compulsory as leaders Berbera at once, and would realize take advantage doubtless of the fact that this they had won the day, and I think " would weaken our position. 124
122. C. O. 830/3 Education 123. Interview with 26/8/1974. 124.
Department
Mahmud Ahmed Ali,
Ellison C. O. 535/129/46o62 (Encl. Government 31/8/1938 2/g/1938). I
Report
1938 op. cit.
at Hargeisa,
to the Secretary to the in Lawrence to C. O.
.1t
the
In October Ellison
all
the
that
the
about
of
opening
concession
in
pride
way to the Station
Berbera
school
from
gist
there
45 PuPilss 126 two weeks.
first
the
about the
over
the
Berbera
opening
Moreover,
by the
absurd of
was no question
school,
of
the
a
school,
giving
by this
administration,
in
time
to'more
a majority
of Somali
C. O. to Lawrence,
126. C-0-535/129/46062
Plowman to C. O. 8/12/1938.
Plowman quoting
parts
and
irrational
125. C-0-535/129/46062
127. Ibid.
was
Plowman received
intensified. the
issue
language
to
inter-
Somali
the
long as the Somali teaching and the padre in the school we will not at all accept in it, teaching changes gravely as this 1'127 land. our and pollutes religion
was considered
demands.
December 1938 the
was that.,
of which ffas are any our
This
the
a few days after
petition
whatever
was opened with
prediction
diminishing,
overall
have to make by
might
The opposition
soon vindicated.
and the
outweighed
On lst
of any concession
pretation
Somali
school
Somali.
Ellison's
far
of the school and 125 language. It was pointed
British
60 within
to
increasing
the
position:
opening
of the the
its
reiterated
the
Somali
good will
advantages
giving
Office with
must proceed
forget out
Colonial
2/10/1938.
of the petition.
548 had
elders
began
to
By the
was busy
laying
cost
and prepare
discuss
arrived
on 20th
Koranic
school
the
from
the
move-
Officer, ordered
Burao, the
gave orders people
badly
arrived
crowd to
to
the
were
to disperse, police killed.
to
proposed
where
inspect
of his
a handful but
in
open fire
he
a local While
and his
Ellison
the
educational
mob numbering
damaged.
with
extensive
to up-grade.
stone
and three
in
assess
was Burao
an angry
progress..
The latter
elders.,
the
he intended
and buildings
injured
for
administration
on another
with
itinerary
and began to
collected
went
May and proceeded which
the
up more schools
opening
parents
of his
was in
inspection
128.
for
concreteýplans
Part
programme.
panions.
1939
of
In May Ellison
to
200,
beginning
plans
interior.
tour
three
themselves
128
ment.
the
dissociate
junior
staff
the nearly
comwere
The District of
police
vain. on the
and
He then mob and
129
the Berbera The movement against school was not supported by the educated Somali, the employees of the administration and a-substantial nuniber of the urban merchant class. These stood to gain by the programme, and could not be The taken in by the propaganda of the Wadads. easily the advent of it is q uite latter, regarded conceivable, to their European education and spiritual as a threat and ununeducated authority over the hitherto mystical their for depended The wadads people. sophisticated "Siyaro" from the ordinary livelihood people. on charity, the people by'demanding high SomQ wadads used to exploit turned out to be part time crooks. fees., and others often in 1976 the Somali Government executed Early some ten to to have tried frustrate the were alleged who wadads famine relief Governmentts measures, saying that some to Islamic law. the were contrary measures of
Officer, 129. C. O. 535/132/46036 Smith.. District the Secretary to the Government, 22/5/1939 Plovmzianto C. O. 22/5/1939).
Burao to (Encl. in
F- I
5,19 A commission into
the
incident
was later
which
that
confirmed
the
by the wadads who alleged
that
to proselytize
Christianity.
of the
and preach were Sheikh
riot
The latterts political
name will agitation
far
rising, tional
from
discrediting
programme,
the elders. the
renewed
tunately, World were
these
War II able
and it
between the
the
earlier
Sayyid
is
to
Qadiriyya
was that
movements
the
based
is
that
to
the
Saliheya whereas
Sayyid,
the the
educa-
of by
Unfor-
plans. outbreak
of
the
British
some contrasts
of
the
1930s and
such as that
from the
whereas
and derived
Another
Qadiriyya
the
originated
at Berbera,
sect.
the
of
The most remarkable
former
based
movement was rurally
note
Hassan.
Burao
encouraged
1942 that
until 130
movement
anti-colonial
the
the
and a majority
by the
to
anti-education
sect
the
them.
interesting
Muhammad Abdille
difference
from
interrupted was not
to revert It
Sheikhs
the Britishwere
were
with
The use of violence
to go ahead with
support
Omar.
connection
Ironically,
it.
leading
Similarly,
in
leaders
Farah
and discouraging
strengthened
was condemned by the
The ring
again
1930s.
inquire
had gone to Burao
Isman Nur and Haji
the
up to
movement was engineered
Ellison
appear
of
set
its,
interesting
remained
movement of the
the
Sayyid's
support
difference
essentially
1930s
mainly
succeeded
hostile in
130- Interview with Mahmud Ahmed Ali at Hargeisa 26/8/1974. , This elder was with Ellison at the time of the Burao by stones thrown by the mob. rising, and was injured
550 both
rallying ment
the
of
ditional of
1930s
importance
cultural,
material
the
than
rather
growing
With
village.
it
was,
violence
at
Burao
the
communication marked
feature
between
the
Somali
in
in
and brotherly
the
Sayyid's
overtures
were
from
run, the
the
between
latter
Dervish
of a long
those
to
the
the
and more
of
the than
therefore,
Somali
communities the
superiority,
later
in Kenya and those
Somali
the
corresponded
Whereas,
distant
were between for
in
and patronization
advice.
an assumed position
and fighting
and
equals
sharing
than
what
in
common
In
same cause.
was more effective
of
another
had been more in
it
diaspora,
consultation
interests
contact
had also
Sayyid
propaganda
Somaliland
The
Protectorate
it
New forms were
more sophisticated the
of
but
movement.
the
methods
condemned
inspiration
later
and
the
of
the
the
that
and new sources
kinsmen
British
widely
and
protest
surprising
movement.
of
communication
violent
was
of
of
of
the
of rhetoric,
nature
importance
spirit
the
centres
of
Although
his
with
new movement
underlined
the
only
cause
was becoming
efficient.
the
advancement,
not
was not
tra-
emerging
as the
the
replace
move-
the
new forms
therefore,
undermined
diaspora
of
urbanization,
protest;
also
decline
to
that
areas
intellectual
began
organization
of
rurally-based
and
the
Saliheya-Qadiriyya
fact
urban
of
corresponding
the
The
That
same cause.
an indication
was
nationalism.
urban-based
the
transcended
rivalry
Somali
behind
sects
the
long
obtained
in
days. The rising
at Burao
background
of political
was,
actually, protest
the
climax
and attempts
at
The
organization.
political
Haji
was a certain
Farah
was Jama Telephone. an American from
the
in
1909
spying
for
the
couple
of
years the
agent
of
Addis
Ababa to
in
the
with
return
much
Haji
Protectorate
conspiracy
but
was
but
in
tion.
signed
as the
tional
facilities;
neglect
of
introduction 131 police.
for
his
be a secret
the
but
was,
to
Emperor
do so. addressed
over
complaining
instance,
administra-
he wrote
lack
duties";
a
about
protesting
employment
Office
a
to
the British
of
of
and brutality
naturally
comment but
such educa-
opportunities;
administration
punishment
of capital
with
went
Office,
of
unfair
to
Farah
of customs
agriculture;
to Lawrence
1938
for
of
to
He actually meet
Colonial
lack
The Colonial back
discovered
by 217 people,
"burden
things
supposed
after
unable
1933,
his
of
as
deported
He was released
aspect
every
been
charged
to
and
America
and
later
the
In September
memorandum,
on account
arrested
hoping
to
virtually
Omar had
Goverment.
1933
in
He was Permitted
disappointment,
petitions
about
1905
soon
was
1928,
Between
thirty
Farah
Dervishes.
second-in-command
now lives
Dervishes.
Ethiopian
his
latter
this'movement
of
Omar and his
The
citizen.
spearhead
sent the
latter
justice; of
the
petition dismissed
131. C. O. 535/190/5886 Memorial by 217 petitioners Secretary of State for the Colonies 61911933. Telephone's real name is Ismail Mohamed Siad.
to the Jama
all
the
allegations
offhand.
"I can say with safety", "that he wrote, the have no right to speak as reppetitioners resentatives Protecof the natives of this torate". 132 Lawrence that
to
was authorized
future
petitions
administration
Omar wrote
should than
rather
The two men paid
inform
Farah
and Telephone
be channelled
through
directly
to London.
sent
In November Haji
no attention.
the
Farah
again: "it is straightforward fact to express the deep and unsupportable grievances of the British Somaliland loyal before subjects Your Lordshipst for remedy consideration from the unobtainable heavy tribal fines, have no means vihich your loyal subjects to comply with, the suppresof whatever sive and frightful rulings of the present " Commissioner. 133
Lawrence
the
advised
and indeed
all
subsequent
Farahts in
arrive January
of
the the
Colonial
petitions however,
petitions,
Colonial following
had been received
Office
Office.
ignore this
of
this
kind.
continued
Between
to
1933 and
some fifteen
year,
in London.
to
Cohen had to
petitions admit
that
"Haji bombastic Farah's and metaphoric style is not without but the subject effect, matter of his petitions cannot be so commended .... the bulk of his representations are misrepresentations, sometimes frivolous and often We do know Haji Farah malicious not when ... Omar will from, his dischoose to desist gruntled outpourings". 134
132.
C. O. 535/100/5886
133.
C. O. 535/100/5886 Haji State for the Colonies
134.
Ibid.
Minute
Lawrence
by Cohen.
to C. O. 11/11/1933.
Farah Omar to 20/11/1933.
Secretary
of
P.
too
Seel
felt
that
Farah
Omar's
t1are founded, where hearsa T, on malicious , facts. 135 the
Henceforth
came from
that
tion
Colonial
complaints not
Office
Haji
was
Farah
unsupported of the
on pure perversions to
ignore
every
Omar and his
friend
the
Office's
petiJamar
Telephone. On being Farah
decision
informed
of
a bitter
sent
Colonial
protest:
"I very much regret that, being a known elder Somaliland underwho invariably of British situation of stand the past and the present I cannot in any circumstances his motherland, true and what is substantially exaggerate Somaliknown to all the community of British 63 to 1 am land. Therefore my age of owing to address to your Lordship not in position (s'c)136 variety" comments of unreal Plowman,
then
for
acting
what he thought
Lawrence.,
of Farah,
on being
asked
to
say
wrote:
"It is now ten years since I myself had dealings and to judge from with this person, he is his recent suffering memorials .... 11 decay. from advancing senile 137, Farah's the
Italo-Ethiopian
war.
the
Ethiopian
in
enlisted In
1938 he re-appeared
renewed
was temporarily
attention
vigour.
His
In
1935 he left
army as their on the
first
act
Somaliland was to
diverted
by
Harar
and
for
recruiting
agent.
scene with send a telegram
to
London:
Minute
by Seel.
135.
Ibid.
136.
Haji Farah Omar to C. O. 535/102/25836 2o/6/1934. of State for the Colonies,
137.
C. O. 535/102/25836
the
Secretary
Plowman to C. O. 28/6/1934.
5,154"British Somaliland loyal lost subjects this Government. They suffer with confidence (sic) fines, suppressive raids unbearable intolerable torture. Appeal for other " immediate protection ... 138
the
time,,
By this
a hot
was becoming wadads in
controversy issue, the
opposing
and Farah's
rising
at Burao
elders
Farah's
better
conditions In
with
the
The Burao
ended his
political
1937,
the
movement, in
the
the
Somali
through
prices
for
their
Officials'
Somali
of the
higher
for
the
services,
employees
aim of pressing
of
political
administration.,
the
example,
of
1930s with
late
and higher
service,
by the
a number
more social
provide
for
by a number 139 as an imposter.
Farah
scene
to of
was founded
tration
question
hands with
programme.
arrest
of pressing
means,
produce. Union
on the
purpose
non-violent
educational
who regarded
appeared
declared
and he joined
subsequent
Besides clubs
language
on, he had been denounced
Earlier
career.
the
over
, adminis-
wages,
better
in the administration more opportunities age pensions, 14o formed too the farmers The clubs merchants and etc. old
through
to
sought
The first
party,
political in
their
defend
from
common problems
approach
formed
they
which
a united
the
Somali
interests
stand Youth
and 141
point. Club,
was
1943.
138. C. O. 535/129/46036 5/8/1938.
Haii
Farah Omar "spokesman",
139. C. O. 535/129/46036 Elders of the Habr Toljaala and Habr Yunis, Burao, to the Secretary to the Government (Encl. in Lawrence to C. O. 3/9/1938). 140. S. Touval, 141. Ibid.
Somali Nationalism
Chapt.
6.
op. cit-
P. 56-66.
555 Haji significance ing
Farah's
in
repercussions torate.
with
than
in
graze
economy
of
had
largely
been
the
warehouses
Italian
in
the
hopes
first
two
failure
of
handle
the
the
142.
firms
roads,
results
and
contri-
construction had
ports,
big
the
cost
anticipated;
originally and
eager
have
to
and her of
years
of
been
and
commercial in
take were
the
Ethiopia
the
Italy traffic
unwilling
contract to
to
came
Transit
Agreement.
on the
Transit
Trade
form
at
the
Efforts were plunge
during
light and
Grazing had
been
a consortium
to
disappointment to
the
in
exaggerated-optimism
One major
Britain
the
in
confidence
misplaced
Agreement.
to
the
the
142
commercialýpotentials
firms
work
discovered
tribes
by boosting
Her
finding
of
Agreement
British
also
the
of
later
were
arrangements
stipulated
of
already part
the
Italy,
For
of
Trade
the
but
she had
than
more
Italian
Italy's
Rights
border,
modernization
had
from
a disappointment.
Ethiopia
exaggerated.
the
the
possible
Agreement
Italy
by having
and modernization
the
markets
Transit
Protectorate.
Government
moreover,
the
grow-
Protec-
Rights
benefitted
only
across
the
towards
not
the
Somaliland
and
small the
about
and
1939,
with
had,
Italy,
Grazing
and
had
was of
concern
British
February
Britain
Italy to
bution
the
Trade
expire
Agreement.
Trade
to
dissatisfaction
allowed
of
relations this
of
to
expressed
more
Britain's
The Transit
due
the
her
agitation
to
compared
strain
was
political
as had
ports, to
persuade
a failure. themselves
"Ethiopia's David Hamilton., Frontiers (unpublished Thesis) op. cit. p. 114.
been private
Most into
the
of an
which
enterprise this
being
the
were
doubtful
first
length
Italians
Berbera ment
left
and
the to
difficult
in
work
few
to
was
weather
nearly
also
of
Berbera
often
proved
the
During
and regulate.
arrange-
Somali
many
enrolment
business
This
goods.
not
the
with
always
hot
came to
143
standstill.
Besides was becoming
continuing
were
uncomfortable
October)
liase
Difficulty
There
for
circumstances,
to the
who came up for
discipline
(July
standards
the
the
Others
Ethiopia
govern
officers
be desired.
labour.
with
to
willing
season
to
a lot
In
years,
Agreement.
to
handling
in
administration
the
of
time.
young
two
an end within
ability of
two
sent
experienced
port,
duration
Italyts
of
an appreciable the
come to
might
the
manpower and economic
increasingly
- waving to
an incident
the
branch
an olive
condemn her
which
a comment in
disenchanted
did
not
in
London
with
in
problems,
Italy
Britain's
double
Somaliland
while One such
and elsewhere.
go down well
with
House of Commons by Clement
the
Italians
Attlee,
was
M. P.:
"the condemnation by the League of Nations of invasion the Italian still stands. of Ethiopia that they have no H. M. Government have declared it, intention yet they allow the of condoning to develop our harbours Italians of Berbera and Zeila Somaliroads through British and to build land which enable them to supply the troops to beat down the heroic resiswhich are trying "144 tance of the Abyssinians.
143. C-0.535/125/46115 ending 30/9/1937. 144. Parliamentary Report) Vol. 2956.
Transit
Trade Report
for
the quarter
Debateso House Of Commons (Official 338 No. 156,26th July 1938 column
'J g
There the
expiration
Agreement
it.
followed
by the
This
The Colonial to
closure
to reach
refuse
might
use their-power
felt
that
tectorate
the
British
was the
Lawrence's cated.
policy katurally,
suggestion, more time the
rectifi
of
the
border
to
Somali
was that the
with
livelihood
of the
Britain
and demanding
Colonial
views.
to
Office
A joint
areas Pro-
back was vindi-
years
was delighted
the
was
Thus,
solution.
several
It
Somaliland
British
reasonable
Lawrence
for
British
grazing
of
In November 1938 the Foreign
then prepared
they
the
the
some
Worse still,
transfer
advocated
Office's
at
quol.
to
the
Italians
might
receive
this
to
no
in seeing to it that negotiations with . 145 cation of the border were opened.
to the Colonial
The
pro
tribes
and he urged
grazing
by way of a quid
permanent
only
the
tribes.
Office
blackmailing
tribes.
and was deter-
The Italians
the
be
to British
arrangements
over
to
safeguard
Colonial
to
want
likely
this,
precisely
the
concessions
used by the
feared,
on
Rights
would
any arrangement.
as a weapon for
thus
was
and risky.
point
fundamental
it
periodic
was unsatisfactory
tribes
in
opinion
of making
Italians
possible
that,
and Grazing
of the British
rights of
the
feared
do everything
consensus method
was,
Office
and watering
Trade
1939,
danger
a real
Transit
February
abrogate
mined
the
of
in
therefore,
was,
Office
lose Italy
for
was won over
memorandum was
the Cabinet:
f "Ethiopiats Frontiers 145. David Hamilton, (unpublished Thesis) OP- Cit- P. 115.
5 "1)8,
"the frontier line between the British Somaliland Protectorate and Ethiopia in as defined the Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897 had the disthe traditional astrous effect of bisecting Somaliland tribes. grazing areas of British Moreover,, it left British territory within areas there of poor grazing, while at the frontier begins One of the an area of superior grazing. tribes provisions of 1897 Treaty was that on to either side of the frontier were to be free traditional make use of their grazing grounds The Somaliland Government on either side .... found in the administraan embarrassing problem tion to spend of tribes which were accustomed in territory to which of each year part a British had no right In the officer of access. this did not matter years early as British to cross the undemerofficers were accustomed frontier, to administer cated and, in effect, tribes in what was really Ethiopian territory. The demarcation in 1933-'34 of the frontier put an end to that state of affairs" 146
It that
was then
Britain
of a quid parts
could
the
of
consider
Protectorate,
the Northern
Frontier
might
the
modify
aI view
to
met
the, ýend
at
With
the
Office,
the
of
proposals The Prime
of
seeing
the were
"handed over " state. 147
to
like
Mad
the
Colonial
Office
opposed
subjects chattels
eastern
region,
and
with
ý, The Cabinet proposals.
and the
by all'the
for
the
Britain
losses.
discuss
by way
Agreement
of the
part
Minister,
British
in
additiono
financial
November
exception
ministries. prospect
of
In
Trade
Italy's
Italians,
the Bunder
District.
reducing
the
same memorandum,
concessions in
Transit
the
giving
quoA territorial
pro
in
suggested,
example,
Foreign
other hated
the
being to a totalitarian
146.1C. O. 371/23373: Memorandum by F. O. and C. O. on Ethiopia the southern boundary of the and the proposal. to rectify British'Somaliland Protectorate, November 1938, p. 12. 147. C. O. 535/130/46115 Extract from the conclusions Cabinet meeting held on WednesdaY 30/11/1938.
of the
(
PIZ 0
Fo Sf-D IN
E"Y
j,,J-k'
OF AMN AWA
kýITIL LfZ.
tryn ON4hufI)kc4
tt
NA
1 L0v61
ýSL4LW
ixiV, oe. #\VAA
VLLIA
Wh
I FN Lru ýtýt; '.
vcok
If k LE
loss o
CtA-
ý AS G htAtt
b4nl
ýK
,Iký,
ýj ý
ýA\) bk3q
14-N1)
INDIý
OCE -
MI LES
VýbIk
560 feared
He also Italians
that
would
cause
posals,
especially
that
Northern
Frontier
District.
have been resisted
threatening
for
that
of Staff
the
to be requested
the
and Grazing
date
its
of
Rights
In the
of
the
proposed
exchange
of
the
boundary
was to be made.
Italy
to
agreed
demanding
the
reached
in
tion
of
the
was,
moreover,
Italy
renewal
more concessions. By the
London with border
Italyts
of
for
six
1939
decision
to
the
of Germany was now a question
of territory
from
no mention
surprisep without
had
yet
been
rectificato
Italy.
more difficult
It for
on many international
the World of
Transit
months
proposed
progressively
into
was
and rectification
agreement
no
to the
Italy
the
but
1939,
of
Committee
To Britain's
see eye-to-eye
entry
of
of the 149
and cession
to
Policy
renewal
also
seriousness
meantime,
territory
regard
becoming
and Britain
questions;
middle
the
February of
would
be referred
Foreign
Agreement in
expiry
transfer
of the
should
pro-
of the
base for
the
to
agree
the
a strategic 148
scrutiny.
to
Press
and would
question to
the
affected
in view
and then
a more detailed
Trade
Italians
the
parts
certain
tribes
with
to
opposed
The latter
was resolved,
subject,
Chiefs
was also
Kenya and Uganda. It
the
the
Parliament,
of ceding
by the
have meant giving
in
an uproar
The War Office
and public.
of territory
any exchange
time.
War II
on the
In
circumstances,
the
side
148. Ibid. 149. C. O. 535/130/46115 Earl Rome, to F. O. 13/l/1939.
of Perth,,
H. M. Ambassador in
5F)I tried
Britain for
a second
to time
its
after
without
success.
Britain's
Trade
and Grazing
Rights
been
as had the
on the
war
two
Somaliland
had
to
in
side
of
to
be cancelled
Jibuti
had
torate
was,
defected
therefore.,
to
in to
offer
the
renew
expiry
Agreement
August
1939, the
modify
Transit
was
ignored.
Yet,
not
close
the
Ethiopian
border
London.
In
June
Germany, later.
months
and Britain
France had
feared
to
Agreement
did
Italy
significantly,
Italy
persuade
The the
resist after the
and
the
Vichy
1940
invaded
earlier Italians French Regime.
Italy
entered
British between
plans from
Jibuti
Governor The
of
Protec-
to be abandoned:
"From a small eminence where the Rest House handful them I with my come, watched stands been We had apparently of police ...... burst of with a greeted and were spotted but there fire couldcbs we was nothing .... hill the down away silently so we crept merging into the bush beyond the aerodrome did not pursue us for I Italians The -*-* top in the vicinity and sat on a hill thoughts more alien watched with bitter " troops into my station. pouring 150
150.
MSS. AFR. S. 605: account by Walsh, Borama, September 1940. Officer,
the
District
5F)
EPILOGUE
Looking Africa
during
the
the
most
striking
the
Horn
of Africa
first
and its
it,
The most
to rally
attempt Somalism.
Indeed, Somali
of modern
tude
Touval
Somali
a decade
say,
praised
also
partly
ness
of
held
Somalia
his
defeated
fight
twenty
ideas
frustrate
Britaints
attempt
in
line
her
colonial
Fascist
period,
British
colonies
but
administration
military was
tectorate
only
even here
elsewhere
in
replaced
one Government
and thirteen
in
He is, against
Islamo
he is
backward-
the
yearso
alien
but
relative
lingered
British
the
on and
to bring
the
Italian
colony
Africa. Italian
the
during
progress the
continued
Protectorate
territories.
had made considerable
Somaliland
there
other
atti-
And when he was eventually
to
with
the
founder
their
struggle to
Pan-
of
he was so
so ago,
aevotion
him.
conservative
bandwagon
or
for
Hassan;
him as the
his
For
of
successful
ambivalent.
responsible today.
but
nothing
for his
process,
of Somali
and although
to
for
this
and nearly
describes
become rather
and respected
between
of
articulator
on the
late
rule
out
Muhammad Abdille
has of
needless
did
Somali
division
sense
outstanding
of
century,
the
with
was a growing
nationalism;
by the
regarded
of
made a serious the
Horn
twentieth
that
was Sayyid
was he who first
the
of
Connected
consciousness. consciousness
of the
parcelling
powers. of
it
history
half
and as a result
this
the
at
phenomen is
imperial
various
,,
back
lagged
behind
When the
British
rule
School
in
former
Italian
the
in British
1941, Pro-
Somaliland
56 (I.
Colony op.
M. Lewis,
cit.,
The Modern
the
Sayyidts
at
the
he had
he
to
inferiority
to
eliminate, the
rivalry,
Sayyid's
banned
recently
Republic.
cratic
being
In
the
teenth
these
violence
of
poems
tribal
sec-
geneological his
doctrines.
being
are
made
his the
be
thoughtto
were
works
Somali
Demo-
the
Sayyid
reputation
of
Somali
is
independence
new sources
demarcation.,
as stipulated
in the
For their
of reverse
this
the
unification
the
most
persistent
of
the
first
the
treaties time,
also
historical
rallying
the
real
factor, too
country point
of
of
ground, of
the
to
adopt
inspiration.
nineof
their
either
late.
the
meaning
dawned on them;
country
Somali
of
on the
was already
or petitions,
began
nationalism,
was the
partition to
years
1930's
Century.
attempt
surprisingly,
and receive
new strategies
boundaries
Not
the
his
down.
played
one of
and style
Similarly,
aims
tribal
minimize,
Government
gaining
effort
ideas
the, first
during
enjoyed
the
by the
in
of
to
response
least
exploit
their
of
tremendous
or at
to
those
on account
the
and divisive.
archaic
insulting
he,
movement
nationalist
The bulk
negative
of
the
embarrassed
manifestly
Dervish
he used
means
and
either their
or
his
of
all,
While
achieve.
scorning
In view today
the
to
despised
above
opportunity
antithesis
himself
set
devoted
tions
the
in
every
Thus,
were
support
are
took
rivalry.
are,
on tribalism.
divisions
same time,
tribal
to-day
of
views
tribal
denouncing
Somaliland,
of
119.
P.
The Somali by
HistojZ
31
tnrougn
Nevertheless,
has
since
the
Somali
remained national
(the
consciousness
the
Somali
Somaliland,
Ogaden, and The
fresh
War.
The dramatic
Italy
in
and Ethiopia. a Vichy
Emperor Ababa in for
a time,
but
administrative Somaliland
and the
land,, at
Horn
the
the
inter-territorial ideas; Italian-ruled
isolated stand must their tarian
the
the
remember role rule
that
in the
as liberators of
Italy.
based
Haud remained,
it
under
a
at Jigjiga.
Protectorate
were
of French
turn.,
leading
iron
to
their
a greater
which
exchange
had hitherto
was lifted. at
were
this
great
pains
To undertime,
anxious
of Somaliland Thus,
master
intensified
curtain
Somaliland British
Somali-
one colonial
this
territories
atmosphere
to Addis
return
came under
contacts,
of political
out
The
and placed
British
In
war.
held
alone
The British
exception
of Africa the
end of
not
administrations.
the
Thus,, with
had lost
Ogaden and the
Officer
by
own Somaliland
Colony
Area",
two military
of Africa
Italy her
also
was
drama of her
jurisdiction.
military
Somaliland,
Second World
December 1942.
the
his
outside
under
by the
months,
until
them a "Reserved
placed
Horn
but
declared
Italian
the
of
made a triumphant
May 1941,
five
Somalia
the
The French
of Ethiopia
of
namely
French
and after
exceeded
Governor
the
Somalia,
a Greater
occupation
Somaliland,
middle
Kenya).
for
eight
the
symbolizes
Greater
of
drive
Within
British
under
N. F. D.
1940 was only
in
Somaliland,
momentum during
capitulation.
Colony
the
Somali
given
flag
Italian
the
fixed
star
national
constituting
British
only
five-point
Republic
territories
the
56 11 .
from
to
emphasize
the
were
one
totali-
taken
to
565 avoid
unpopular
blur
the the
of
difference
seek
This
an upsurge for
aspirations
The
existence
political
organization
The first
political in
emerged
of
rule
was the
nationalism;
had
which
war.,
might that
and
atmosphere
condu-
Somali began
to
a new lease
was given
land
in
for
the
literally
duce other
social
the
to
initiative, Italian the
their
to
the
Camel Corps
and the
administration
implement the
end of
the
interior.
its
a new survey
of
the
of
Somali
and intro-
Protectorate's
reception
duty
the
own armed
the
disarm
wadads
more schools British
were
British
the
for
educational
the
war,
On its
to
teaching
three
the
develop-
conservatism
fact..
reported
the
1945 the
the
for
the
of
of
Somali-
was embarras-
by 1942 the
In
offices
British
After
and proceeded
deferred
year In
the
was successfully
long
the
in
was propitious:
a majority of
Club,
once opened
The earlier
British
acceptance
borders.
open more schools
the
civilians;
colonial Youth
administration
services.
weapons
encouraged
Protectorate
wadads was discredited.
accorded
with
the
of
the
master
was more enthusiasm
Somali;
Protectorate
Somali
agitation.
northern
Somaliland
the
However,
political
begging
colonial
1943 and at
there
baclz-tardness
to
sing
the
and Jigjiga.
ment than
one
party,
Protectorate,
relative
of
totranscend
Mogadishu
in Berbera
of
Italian
Somalia,
before
which
life.
of
of
Somali
of
just
the
sort
a Greater
an outlet
policies
between
liberators.
to
cive
restrictive
and
rest
announced
Somali
language,
persuaded programme. were
Goverment resources,
opened
to By in
authorized
r.,
366 At the
Horn
the
of
other
her.
and the
became a burning
issue
in
Already,
Area".
Somali
throughout
the
Somali
aspirations by what
believed
Horn
for
people
tories
were
ship.
The plan
be best
united,
was welcomed too
imperial
the
by the
control
of
trustee-
but
denounced Britain
of
came to nothing..
"Reserved
the
terri-
Somali
accusing
The Plan
PlanBtviA the
of
Somali
it,
opposed
1946
Bevin
a British
under
motives.
resumed
if
among
were given
interests
served
the
before
Then in
Somali
the
all
counter-protests
the
preferrably
Russia
and Ethiopia
dangle
of Africa.
that
for
consider
came to be known as the
would
by Ethiopia.
to
a Greater
and advocated
Somali
harbouring
the
U. N. and in
to
tried
was
Italian
was pressing
demands provoked
the
of what
former
the
refusing
Britain
alternatives
hopes
Ethiopia
"Reserved
the
Ethiopiats
fresh
question
Area"
the
of Africa.
return
the
"Reserved
to be done to Somaliland
the war,
end of
in
Area"
1948. A Four formed
Power Commission
consisting
U. S. A.,
to
of
Somalia
visit
People.
While
Commission
to
proceed
in
had
Somali
Somalia
the
advocated its
former
opposed the to
by
arrival mobilize
Commission
return
of
to
of
were
Mogadishu,
the
former
of
Commission,
Italian
by
for
but
demonstrators
measure
had
to was
evelof managed
Consequently, and
the
which
on the
Italians
the
community
Somaliland This
following.
a considerable
of
consortium
Somali the
wishes
Italian
territory. the
the
underway
the
a pro-Italian
as a trust
was greeted
the
meantime, and
Russia
ascertain
arrangements
majority the
Britain,
and
organized
master the
France,
the
in
was,
counter-
the
567 demonstrators; in
the
a riot
loss
of
the
Council
Power Co=ission
manifest Four
to
opposition
Power Commissibn This
Italy.
under of
1949.
the
At
administration
general
were the
the
political
events.
the
Unlike
in
Nevertheless.,
a territorial in
and Arabs.
The Assembly
appointed
the'Council
of
in
French
in
Jibuti
the
other
developments obtained
the
of
political
to
be prepared time.
space
of
hand,
had not
the
political
Protectorate
for
independence
The British been
put
Assembly
atmosphere was returned
Frenchmen,
Thus,
to
political from
what
The country
south. within
the
same time
was more relaxed. to
Africans
a representative
Protectorate
on the
War II.
World
saw an intensification
the
in
encourage
Somaliland.
of period
organization
of
politics not
insulated
remained
The Trusteeship
of
Republic.
parts
of Jibuti
the
Representative composed
stream of
policy
did
after
1945,
was established
the
outside
path
Jibuti
tutelage,
French
only
France
her
U. N.
composition
different
end
years.
The French
Britain,
organization
the
at
resumed
ten
before,
multi-racial
for
U. N.
under
after
the
trusteeship
of
territories,
as ever
took.
favour
colony,
Somali
and the
political
former
the
authority,
1950 Italy
of
remained,
responsible area
her
Italian
by the
independence
of
assimilation
in
findings
Notwithstanding
of
decided
beginning
Of all Somaliland
a return
its
reported
Ministers.
was endorsed
of
a target
with
of
Foreign
of
and resulted
out
lives.
several
The Four to
broke
eventually
its
pre-war
had
prescribed
on the table.
other Hence.,
In status,
1948, under
the a
56 Governor.
civilian in
the
the
south,
go their
With
the
Protectorate
"Reserved
Area"
in
parties
League which gained the
"Reserved
Arealt
political
activity
for
of
Britain
was sought
the
south.
in
the
Several but
their
in
into
one single
with
the
Haud.
northern
north,
"Reserved
of to
introduce
institutions
a measure
their
recovering
to Ethiopia in which
of responsibility.
self-Government.
and
up in
the
1950's
compositions
In
combined
Union for
fight
north
ethnic
campaigning
awakening
parts.
the
of
sprang
of
point
to
These parties
and of
Area"
1946,
The return
and strength
the National
aim of
in
Youth
and southern
unity
in
political
Somali
became a rallying
goals.
party,
the
with
Mogadishu
parties lay
The political
the
them for
other
their
express
and the
south
take
thus the
effect
Protectorate.
ultimate
differences
than
rather
the
the
became a common enemy,
her
the
of
and the
accelerated,
in
political
political
and collaboration
base
the
return
great
in
south The
had an unsettling
had been formed
a strong
in
the
and aroused
south
the
up with
interest
it-ouEL;'aiupia
the
to
immediate
development.
However
south.
Contact
excitement.
in
little
Protectorate,
Protectoratefs
catch
territories
the
of
on the
was to
displayed
upheavals
rule
once more tended
the
noted,
war,
British
and other
Italian
of
ways.
As already after
resumption
two territories
different
concern
the
the the
in
Front, union
of
the
Ogaden and
following
the'return
encouraged
Britain
the
were
This
1955,
Somali was to
1957 a Legislative
to
prepare Council
569 was formed,
and the
was inaugurated.
the
In June
for
unanimously trust
following
the
union
territory. to
were merged From the
of view
of
only
independence
was articulated
Minister
the
of
half
the
of
the
the
Assembly
in
Somali
and
Republic.
however,
mood on the a speech
this
eve of
by the
Abdirashid
country,
voted
two territories
Somali,
the
won;
a new constitution
Protectorate
an independent
was a battle
Prime
1960 the
In July
form
point
year
first
Ali
Sharmakay: "our misfortunes do not stem from the unproductiveness nor from a of the soil, lack of mineral These limitations wealth. well-being viere accepted on our material from for by our forefathers and compensated a whom we inheriteds among other things, of spiritual and cultural prosperity the teaching inestimable value: of Islam on the on the one hand and lyric poetry is that No! Our misfortune other .... with whom, our neighbouring countriess like the rest of Africa, vie seek to and harmonious promote constructive Our relations are not our neighbours. neighbours are our Somali kinsmen whose by indishas been falsified citizenship They boundary arrangements. criminate frontiers have to move across artificial They occupy the to theirpasturelands. and pursue the same pastoral same terraine, We speak the same laneconomy as ourselves. the same We share the same creed, guage. and the same traditions culture (quoted
by Drysdale,
The union though
territory, Greater
Somalia, the
achieving tories. Somali
of
the
step the
emphasized
ultimate
Ogaden,
unity of
p.
Protectorate
a positive
The formation (in
the
cit.
op.
the
Jibuti
of
8).
and the
in
ihe
trust
direction
of
more difficult
task.
the
terri-
all
Somali and the
Somali
Republic Northern
left
of
many
frontier
570 District)
Government
in
in
Thus,
and the
Mogadishu
secessionist
Somali
believing
hopes
Somali
the
over
the
N. F. D.
It
N. F. D. with of
the
the
Government
ebments
in
line
action
of
the
the
survived
was taking
Conference,
Somali
quo in
However,
the
the view
the
Somali
pre-independence
the
ascertain
to
promised wishes
of
the
N. F. D. to
her
problems
in
the
Ogaden,
protested
against
the
alteration
of
development
that
people
of
against
Government
union
be united
strongly,
Assembly
the
the
of no-
National
meantime,
that
Britain
a motion
the
aggravate
policy
a tougher
Government
to Kenya to
the
militant
for
to
not
of
people. In
worried
by the
Kenya's
British
would
The cautious
re-assure
during the
send a commission the
1962.
a sympathetic
Indeed
aspirations'.
the
in
them
uniting
clamour
the
shattered
disappoint
first
and led
to
and continued
Britain
London
their
March
operating
Britain
Republic.
tabled in
not
that
without
intensified
Government
would
was criticized
being
confidence
support
a cautious
having
was hoped
country;
then
preferred
Ogaden,
Somali
to
pressure
were
Britain,
Kenya independence
grant
was
territories.
that
in
Republic
post-independence
which
The new Government approach,
the
came under
movements
"unclaimed"
the
fold.
incomplete,
regarded"as
the
the
outside
Horn with
projected
of Africa. Somalia,
would for
however,
the
have
Ethiopia,
Moreover, the
same logic
applied
Ogaden.
equally,
being
Somalia
were
the the
leading if
The Kenya political
not
would to status IT. F. D. to to
this
more parties
571(K. A. N. U. and K. A. D. U. ), took
rences,
despite
a common stand
their
internal
the
against
diffe-
union
the
of
N. F. D. and Somalia. The promised in
early were
1963'. and reported in
overwhelmingly
Republic.
The problem to
embarrassing
the
that of
was at
this
British
strained,
and Kenya politicians
March
1963 the
N. F. D. was to dispute
independent
area
to
Republic
establish
Somalism
the
than
she
no
the
Somali
Republic
Somali
were
Government. Somali
were
Pan-
increasingly indepen-
attained armed
of
1964,
the
Force
into
the
Somali
Ogaden,
against
of
attention
further
the
the
seemed the
only
troops
from
Ogaden and,
helped
of
of
where
the
the
Ethiopian
extension
even more remote.
1965 a contingent crossed
began
Republic
confronting
towards
chances
was uncompromising.
Republic
and the
and China.
Kenya
rebelling
actively
unification
In January
end
shifted
Hereo
an
north.
the
Towards
the the
Britain
became
had
herself
found
in
nationalists
sooner
that
between
the
and
Russia
with
In
Republic.
off,
Republic
Somali
Thus,
militant. dence
ties
closer in
broken
were
to
of Kenya;
between
relations
Britain's
Commonwealth.
part
Somali
Somali
threatening
was to be solved
Kenya and the
the N. F. D.
becoming
announced
an integral
remain
Diplomatic Somali
Secretary
Colonial
problem
progressively
the
of
in
the
time
were
Kenya out
the
over
joining
were becoming
Ethiopia
the
Somali
Government;
with
an independent
the
favour
relations
pull
investigated
commission
of
The Emperor solution. the
Somali
by the
572 local
hoisted
people,
Republic.
Ethiopian
One Somali
out.
the
flee
and died
hero
in
Democratic
troops
the
clutching the
Republic
in
crisis
tribal
and regional during
fervour,
re-appeared
the
and frustration finding
to
Somali
Republic.
The old
a
had been over-
of maximum nationalist Disillusionment
scene.
internal
and the
recriminations
elections
The new President,
Ibrahim
policy
of
of 1969
detente
of
This the
there
This
elections.
Goverment
was
were held
accused
of
the
65 parties
were
In
the
Siad
Barre,
was
of
jobs
1969
October
President
of
governed
according
Socialism.
".
to
in
the
the
political Ministers was
evident
favours.
gaining
Army intervened first
electhe
contesting
tribalism
On the
that
declared
the
further
the
In
rampant;
and
neigh-
and
countryts
also and
Government.
civilian
coup
the
corruption
Republic's
parties.
and toppled
anniversary
Supreme Revolutionary Somalia principles
to
promised
discontent
political
underlined
distribution
Egal,
the
with
caused
Decadence
instability.
the
the
created
and fresh
fragmentation
the
now a national
adventures
1966 the
countries.
tions
to
refused
year.
bouring
in
to
them
him.
which
on the
scapegoats.
the
pursue
Somali
period
led
resign,
following
He is
In
of
forced
these
Somali
drive
Academy of
rivalries
shadowed
were
the
to
by name,
was named after of
the
of
sent
flag.
Military
The failure political
were Harani
soldiero
Somalia;
flag
national
would
henceforth
of
"Scientific
of Council, be
the
7 In O. A. U.
1974 Siad Barre
In this
for
was difficult vigorous
for
the
one of
threatened
the
in
the
French
under
1958 Jibuti
The party
and ultimate
union
Ethiopia
outnumbered. by preferring
further
independence
and unity
be happy Ethiopia.
that
once Jibuti in
the
be done,
and what
area
cardinal
with
form
aim of
it
will
of the the
was hope-
matters
She would, Jibuti was,
is,
and still
jeopardy.
take,
howý-
united
railway
but
to
colonialism
(recently
Somali
Somali
for
Ethiopia's
in
of
agitated
Somalia,
movements
In
favour
Somalia
French
Somalia.
independence,
The union the
in
which
there
1960's.
In
Jibuti
the
grew
The O. A. U. has constantly
and more militant. the
Pan-Somalism.
be in
would
independence
to grant
for
main worry
united
Somali
early
Jibuti-Ethiopia
to Sidama)
extended 1970's
the
is
to
shift
the
an independent
Ethiopiats
with
interests
to have
to
complicated
with
is,
secessionist'groups
with
continued
Somali
O. A. U.
had voted
France.
with
independence lessly
in Jibuti
a
has
When the
rule.
supporting
enthusiasm of
the
It
and still
which
has tended
emphasis
Ogaden and the N. F. D. in
remaining
was,
of
existence
the
of
dispute
of
spearhead
unification
the
very
the
of
upon him.
to
issues
referendum
ever,
was thrust
Somali
was vigorously
was little the
the
Chairman
responsibility
most controversial
still
Republic
great
as Chairman,
for
Of late, jibuti,
ideals
him,
campaign,
territorieso
the
position,
Pan-African
promoting
became the
early stronger
urged
as to when this remain
territories
Democratic
France will
to be seen. is Republic.
still It
57 4ý is,
however,
generally
have
appreciated
that,
however
lem'of alone. colonial Africa not
during strong
If
every
face
chairmanship
Somalia's
ethnic
boundaries would
his
boundaries
colonial
Siad and -
recognized
of
case might
does not group
were
dividing
it
a problem
the
affect to
from gravity
Barre the
be,
O. A. U.
the
the
prob-
Somali
repudiate its
must
the
kinsmen, of which
can
be over-emphasized.
I
BIBLIOGRAPIff
575 . The sources as already
area, not of
thought
in
quoted sources
mainly
explained, to
necessary
follow
them individually,
listing
the
text,
given
here
this
upon which
full
the
particulars
found
to be useful
during
a full
bibliography
for
the
is
traditional wherever
they
were
consulted
preparation
of the
the Horn
of Africa
is practice
are given.
which
based
It
archival.
since
are those
thesis
are The and thesis; to be
has yet
compiled.
A.
PRIMARY SOURCES (DIANUSCRIPT)
1.
C. O. 535 (Somaliland) Series: volumes 1-138 were This was-the most important source. consulted.
2.
F. O. 2 (Africa)
3.
C-O-, 534 Series: Correspondence concerning the King s African Rifles.
4.
C. O. 537 Series: Only volume 44 (Report on Wingate's Mission to Somaliland) was relevant.
5.
C. O. 713 Register
of Correspondence 1905-1926.,
6.
C. O. 769 Register
of out letters
7.
Manuscripts African documents following
Series cover the period 1900-1905.
1905-1926.
in Rhodes Houseo Oxford. were consulted:
The
(1)
"A History MSS. AFRi9'3i 552: Camel of Somaliland (anonymous). A very useful corps". and detailed of the Camel account of the-history Corps.
(2)
MSS. AFR. S. 553: Swayne.. 1893.
(3)
DISS. Brit. Swayne.
(4)
M8S. AFR. 891-907 "Political Affairs in the Somaliland Protectoratet'. from private - an excerpt papers (1924) Sir G. Summers (1925). of and Sir A. Lawrence
Private
Emp. S. 279:
Journal Private
of H. G. C.
papers
of E. J. E.
576 -
8.
(5)
I-ISS. AFR. S. 846-855 A. A. McKinnon (Assistant Agricultural Officer) 1938,, "Notes of Safari.
(6)
MSS. AFR. S. 141 E. Peck "The Veterinary History 1924-196o" of the Somaliland Protectorate
(7)
mss. AFR. s. 424, ff. 37-41 J. L. P. L. Llewellin (District Officer, N. F. D. ) "An account of the sack of Serrenleh obtained from a Magabul who took part in the attack".
(8)
MSS. AFR. 670:
Major
OtNeillts
private
papers.
Mahmud Ahmed Alits his role private papers concerning in the campaign for European education in the Somaliland Protectorate. T. A. Curle's private papers the Anglo-Ethiopian Boundary Walwal incident.
B.
the work and the
concerning Commission
of
PRIMARY SOURCES (PRINTED)
1.
F. O. 40.3 Series:
Foreign
2.
C. O. 830 Series:
These
3.
CABINET PAPERS: Cab. 37 series They were consulted. contain photo-copies of prints circulated among Cabinet members (e. g. memoranda, reports and despatches).
4.
c. o.
5.
C. O. 673 Series:
6.
F. O. 386 Series contain the period 1906-1920.
7.
F. O. 371 Series:
879 Series:
Colonial
Office contain
Office
Confidential
Prints.
departmental
reports.
Acts and Ordinances, a variety
Prints.
Confidential
of
1900-1936. statistics
for
(1)
Vol. 10872. Foreign Office Memorandum on the History 1925. of the Lake Tana Project,
(2)
Vol. 23373. Foreign Office and Colonial Office joint Memorandumon Somaliland and the Ogaden.
8.
E. Hertstlet The Map of Africa bz Treaty -P (London 1909,3 volumes). edition) IT 190
9.
Annual Colonial Reports: of the important eventso information.
Ord
these contain useful summaries statistics and other types of
.5
10.
11.
12.
Newspapers:
(1)
The Pall
(2)
The Times
(3)
The Daily
Mall
Gazette
Telegraph
Parliamentary
Papers
(1)
Statistical
(2)
Appropriation
I (3)
Papers
reports accounts topics
on special
Journal Events connected of the Principal Somaliland: This is a War Office journal the anti-Dervish 1902-1904. operations,
C.
PRINTED BOOKS
Allen, 1943-
N. G., Guerrilla
2.
Archer, African
G., Personal AdministKator
3-
M. O.., Educational Beshir, 1898-1956_ c-rd-T-19bg _(Oxf A., The Colonial Betram,
4. 5. 6.
V., Via Esplorato
Bottego, Il Giuba Budge, 2 vols.
E. A. W.,
gi
(London)
War in Abyssinia
Memoirs 1963.
and Historical (Edinburgh)
1
of
of
the
(Cambridge)
Service
de Scoptera kRome) lb95.
A History
in
Developments
nel
Ethiopia
Cuore
an East Sudano 1930.
dell'Africa
(London)
1928, I
7.
First Footsteps R. P., Burton, tLondon) Exploration of Harar witH an introduction-by edition
8.
Caroselli,
9.
qerulli,
F. S.,
Ferro
Somalia:
in East Africa: is lb5b. There G. Waterfield,
(Rome) 1931.
Scritti
ed inediti
10. Cesari., C.., La Somalia Italiana 11. Cimmaruta, R., Ual-ual
(Milan)
D., A Tear forSomalia
13. Corni., G.., (Editor)
or an a new 1966.
e Fuoco in Somalia Vari
_E., (Rome) 1957.
12. Collins,
with concerning
editi
(Rome) 1935. 1936. (London) 1960.
Somalia Italiana
(Milan)
1937.
-
572 14.
Coupland, R., The Exploitation 1890: The Slave Trade and the 19.39.1
15.
Cromer,
16.
Crowe, S0E The Berlin (London) 1ý42.
17.
Davies.. C. C., The Problem of (Caýbrl-dg-FT 1-9.32. 18go-12o8
18.
Drake-Brockman.,
19.
Drysdale,
20.
Edye., J. S., Sports to Young Shikaries
21.
Gaibi, A., Manuale di Storia Politico-Militare (Rome) 1928. Colonie Italiane
22.
Giglio LtItalia (Rome) 1956.
23.
Hall,
Earl
H.,
West Africa
The Somali
in
25.
Herbert,
26.
Hesso R. L. 0 Italian 1966.1
27.
Hollis.,
28.
Hoskins., 1928.
29.
H8nley,
30.
Hunt 0J6A.., 1944-1950
31.
FMA Hunter, i8M. (Bombay)
H. L., G.,
(London)
1964.
and Somaliland 1695. -
with
(London) in
British
The Consul
Grammar
White
Man's
at
of
the
Somalia 1941.
(New York)
India
1951. Protectorate
Somaliland Somali
Language
(London)
1935,2
Horn
Africa
(London)
33.
F L., James, 2nd edition
34.
Jardine, 1923.1
35.
J. W., and Addison, Jennings, (London) 1905. in Somaliland
The Mad Mullah
of
of Somaliland C.,
With
1908.
(Chicago)
Country
32.
D. J.,
(London)
(London)
of
Huxley.
The Unknoim 1890.
to
Sunset
A General Survey (London) 1951.
"E.,
in
Routes
delle
1911.
(London)
Africa
Hints
1937.
Somaliland
Colonialism
1912.
Rosso 1857-1885
(London)
Office
in
Italy
Frontier (London)
Etiopia-Mar
A. 0 Two Diaries
vols.
Conference
Somaliland
in India (London)
Africa:
1908,2
North-West
Dispute
A. 0 Somaliland
C.,
the
R. E.., British
The Colonial
'24. Hamilton,
(London)
Modern Egypt
of,
J.,
1856of East Africa Scramble ýLondon)
the
vols. 1888;
(London) Abyssinians
579 36.
Jones, A. H. M., (Oxford) 1955.
37.
Karp, M The Economics " (Bostonj 1960.
38.
Langer, 1935.1
39.
Laurence.,
40.
Lewis,
W. L., M.,
I. M.,
and Monroe,
E.,
History
of Ethiopia
of Trusteeship
The Diplomacy
of
The Prophetts
Camel Bell
A Pastoral
in
Somalia (New York)
Imperialism
Democracy
(London)
(London
1963.
1961).
41. Lewis, I. M., Pe Afar. and Sdho. 42.
Lewis., I. M. and B. W. Andrzejewski (Oxford) Introduction 1964.
43.
Lewis, 1965.
44.
Marston, TE Area 1800-; 8j6
45.
McNeill, 1902.
Somali
I. M.., The Modern History
M.,
46. Mellis, 1895.1
(London)
of Somaliland
Britain's Imperial Role in the THamden., Connecticut) 1961.
In
Pursuit
the
of
C. J. 0 Lion Hunting
48.
Moss,
49.
Moyse-Bartlett (Aldershot)
50.
Mungeam, G. H., 1966.1
51.
Murdock, History
52.
History in Official of the Operations (War Offices London) 1907,2 1901-1904
53.
Olivers Africa
54.
R ý and Atmore, Oliver, (Cambridg; 1967.
55.
Pankhursts
E. S.,
56.
Pankhursts
R.
A. H. E.., My Somali H., 1965.
(War Office., (London)
Book
The King's
British
Rule
G. P., Africa Its (New Yo-rk-7 19-5.9.
R.., Sir Harry (London-Fl-957.
Peoples
A.,
1895-191: 2 (Oxford)
and the
Ethiopia
Culture
Somaliland, volumes. Scramble
Since
Somaliland in
Rifles
and Their
Africa
Ex-Italian
London)
1913.
African
in Kenya
Johnston
Travellers s
(London)
in Somaliland
Military Report on Somaliland ki) 1907 and kii) 190b.
Red Sea
(London)
Mad Mullah
47.
An
Poetry.
for
1800 (London)
(London)
1951. 1965.
I
58G (London)
57.
Pearce,
58.
Pease,
59.
Peel, C V. y Somaliland. Expeditions in the Far
60.
Perham,
M. P.,
Major
61.
Perham, 1948.
M. F.,
The Government
62.
Prevost-Battersby, (London) 1914.
63.
Raffaele poranea
64.
Rayne,
65.
Rivlin, B. (New Yorký
66.
Rodd, J Rip Social (Londonj 92-2.
67.
(2nd Rodd, J R., Social Diplomatic Memories Seriesl and 1894-1961 EgvDt and Abvssinia (London) 1923.1
68.
Rotberg, R. E A Political (New York) 1ýý5
69.
Sanderson,, N,, England, Europe and the Upper Nile (Edinburgh )G.19 5., , Sheikh, Jaamac Cumar Ciise, Tacliinta Wasaaradda Hiddiya Sare Diiwaanka Gabayadii Sayid Maxamad Xasan (Mogadishu) 197T. I Jaamac Cumar Ciise, Sheik, fi-l-tUsur Tarikh al-Sumal (Cairo) 19 via-l-hadithah al-14uster
70.
71.
F. B., A. E.,
Rambles Travel
Ciasca, (Milan) H.,
Sun,
in
Lion
Land
and Sport
in
Being Interior
Dane's
H. P., Storia 1938.
(London)
Africa
1902.
an Account of Two (London) 1900. (London)
Garden
of Ethiopia
Richard
dell'
of
Somaliland
Italia
Contem-
(London)
Sand and Somalia Nations
1925. jLondon)
Corfield
coloniale
The United 1950.
1898.
and the
and Diplomatic
1926.
Italian
Memories,
History
Colonies, 1885-1893
of Tropical
Africa
A-D-p
The
72.
Smith,
73.
A New Light The Somali Peninsula (anonymousp Information Services 1962. ment, ? Mogadishu)
74.
Speke, of the 1967.
on ImperialMotives of the Somali Govern-
J. H., What Led to the Discovery of (Edinburgh) Nile 1864; New edition,
the Source London,
-4
F... A womanfs 190y.
Pleasure
75.
Swayne, (Bristol)
76.
Swayne., C. 0 Seventeen (London )HiG. 895.
Trips
Trip
in
ThrouGh
Somaliland Somaliland
581 77. Touval,
(Harvard)
Somali Nationalism
S.,
J. S.,
78. Trimingham,
Islam
1963.
(London)
in Ethiopia
1952.
79. Walsh, L. P., Under the Flag and Somali Coast Stories (London) 1932, 80. Warburg, G., The Sudan Under Wingate: in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan lb99-191b 81. Waterfields,
G., Morning Will
Administration ýLondon) 197-1.
Come (London)
1961.
82. Webster, J. B., and Boahen, A. A., The Growth of African Years. West Africa The Revolutionary Civilization: Since 1800 (London) 19bb.
84. Wingate,
'Twixt Sirdar and Menelik (London) 1901. . F. R., Mahdism and Egyptian Sudan (London) 1891.
85. Wingate,
R., Wingate
83. Welby,
M. S.,
86. Wolverton, Lord, (London) 1894.
Five Monthst
D.
Lt. Barker Geographical p. 130-13b.
(London) the Sudan of
1955.
in Somali Land
Sport
ARTICLES
"On Eastern Africalt (her eaft Society
Journal of the Royal -R-. -G-. tlbb4) STT, XVIII er-J-. I
2.
Beachey, R. W. "The Arms Trade in East Africa-"'in History Journal Late 19th Cebtury", of African (1962), ). 451-467. 111 A. J. H. p. after
3.
Suleiman Harigall G. W. Bell XX (,1937)p p. 296-299.
4.
Cerulli, Africa
5.
Sudan Notes
the (here-
and Records
Chronache Etiopiche" E., "La Somalia nelle (1929) p. 28-49. ii Italiana, I D., "Notes on the History Fearon, of Berbera" I The i. part 3 (1956), Journal., Somaliland p. 147-16-7-17 of The Treaty C., "Article VI (1965) 221-231.
6.
Giglio, J. A. H.,
7.
Hardy, R. A., Magazine, xx
8.
Hess,, R.., (1964). v
9.
R.., "Italy Colonial Ambitions Heszr, and Africa: World War V' J. A. H., iv (1963) P. 105-126.
Itso"maliland" Scottish (1904) p. 225---22-37-.
"The Mad Mullah 415-433. p.
of Ucciallill
Geographical
and Northern
Somalia".,
J. A. H., in
58 "The Development H. B., of the Somali" (1932). 31p p. 234-244., African Society
10.
Kittermaster, Journal of
11.
"The D. J.., Latham-Brown, Dispute" The International (1956) v p. 245-264.
12.
"The Origins H. S Lewis, , (1966). 27-46. J. A. H., vii
13.
Lewis., I. M. "The J. A. H.., 1 (1960).,
14.
to the Ethiop-Somalia Mariam., M. W.., "Background 11 Journal Studies, Dispute" of Modern African p. 189-219.
15.
Miles, Royal
16.
the Port of Somaliland, Nurse, C. G.., "A Journey through between Zeila. and Bulhar" ProceedinS sof the Royal (lb9l) Geographical XII, New Series, Society, P. b57-bb, 5-
17.
Owenp. F. C., "The Somaliland 1904" Journal of the United (1905) P. 169-1=
Ethiopian-Somaliland and Comparative of
the
Conquest Somali p. 213-230.
S. B. o "On the Somali Geographical Societyo
Galla
of
Frontier Law Quarterly, the
and
the
Horn
of
Somali".. Africa" Boundary (1964)
" Proceedings Countr571---1777-2-7 of the XVI P- 149-157*
June 1903 to May Operations XXX Institution. Services 9
With notes on Pease, A. E., "Some Account of Somaliland: the Gadabursi journeys through and Western Ogaden Magazinep Geo0raphical 1896-1897" Scottish Countries, (1898) xiv P. 57-73. ""Great Britain 19. Ramm, A.. of Italian and the Planting Historical English Power in the Red Sea, 1868-1885" Review LIX (1944) p. 211-236.
18.
E. G. 9 "The Recent Territorial iv (1 894)o P. 54-58.
Arrangements
20.
Ravenstein, in Africa".
21.
Sources to from African G. N., "Contributions Sanderson, Valley the Upper in Competition European the History of (1962) 69-90. ft A. J. H. Nile the p. of
22.
in Somaliland" A. D., "Ex edition Smith, iv MR) Journal, P. 528-531.
E.
ABIR (I Mep "Trade (University 1855 2.
Aregay., Kingdom
UNPUBLISHED
and Politics of London
Geographical
THESES
Region
1830-
Christian Ph. D...
1971).
ian in Ethio M. D., 19N).
M. W.., "Southern Ethiopia and the (University 1508-1708" of London
583 3.
A. M., "British Brockett, Somaliland 1905" (Oxford Ph. D.., 1969).
4.
"British AS. ýUniversity Caplan, 1909-1919
5.
Hamilton, D., "Ethiopiats Frontiers: The Boundary (Oxford Agreements their 1896-1956't Demarcation., and. D. Phil., 1974).
6.
"The Pastoral E. R Turton, Tribes Northern of jUniversity .9 1800-1916" of London Ph. D., 1970).
Protectorate
to
Policy towards Ethiopia, of London Ph. D., 1971).
Kenya
DIAPS
1965.
Fage., J. D.,
2.
There is also a useful map at the back of the biennial Protectorate Report for Somaliland reports the years 1956 and 1957 kH. M. S. O., London) 1959 and Somaliland Report for the Years 1958 and 1952 (H. M. S. O., London 19bo.
N. B.
An Atlas
of African
(London)
1.
Most of the placename (Oxford) Oxford Atlas
G.
History
spellings 1963.
ELDERS GAVE ME VALUABLE
Mogadishu,
taken
from
The
THE FOLLOWING
ORAL INFOPMANTS.
Afqarsheo
are
Dahir
2.
Mohamed Haji Hussein 4th August 1974.
3-
Musa Galaal
4.
This 12th August 1974. Haji Adan Ahmed, Mogadishu, (i. known Afqaloola is e. twisted popularly as elder who time been the have born to as same at claims mouth) Hassan,. L,and to have spent his Muhammad Abdille Sayiid days of childhood with him at Erigavo. r 20th August 1974. Sheikh Jama Umar Esa, Mogadishu, This informant works at the Somali Academy, Mogadishu oral traditions and the Sayyid's and was busy collecting poems.
5.
6.
Ahmed Hassan
("Sheeko
Mogadishu,
Ibrahim,
August
1974.
1.
Ali,
3rd
INFORMATION:
Hariir"), 7th
Hargeisa,
August
26th
Mogadishuo 1974.
August
1974.
584 7.
Mahamud Ahmed Ali,, Hargeisa, 26th and 27th August 1974. This elder was one of the first Somali He led a campaign for graduates of Gordon College. European education in the 1930's.
8.
Sheikh Ali Ibrahim, Hargeisa, 5th September 1974. This elder is the advisor to the Department of Justice Law. He founded the first on Islamic modern primary in 1942. school in Hargeisa
9.
Sheikh
10.
Haaji 1974.
11.
Olujood
12.
Ali Muhammad Kavidan, Berbera, 10th 6th in the Battalion, elder served 1930's.
13.
Abdurahaman 1974.
14.
Sheikh
15.
Ali
Hersi,
Aadan Hassan Buluke, Ahmed Faarah,
Haji
6th
Hargeisa,
September
Berbera,
Berbera,
gth
gth
Sheikh.,
15th
September
September
1974.
September. K. A. R. in
This the
Jama Muhammad., Sheikh,
Mahamud Umar,
1974.
14th
September
September 1974. _
Haaji
Hassan
Ibrahim,
Sheikh,
15th
September
1974.
APPENDIX
535
1
"THE NEWS BROUGHT FROM ACROSS THE SEAS" (composed
2.
by the
the
after
I have been told
by the
the
from
news brought
And which from
3.
Sayyid
It
came from
Jidbale
5eople
the
of the
across
confrontation)
low-born
7 our, encampment
seas Habar Yoonis
and
the West.
reached
me here
in
the
East
and I am much
distressed. The man whom his
kinsmen
support
is
fortunate
and
he prospers While will
6.
he who does not be killed
descend
from
a mighty
lineage
by want.
is
The cause of my desolation
fainthearedness
La-mong
my kin7
7.
Naive and simple is the man who has put his trust
in
the pluck. of the Dervishes. 8.1
9.
lost
those who were LTike7 kings and
with mere. weaklings., --One cannot discern any mettle
was left
among the young men
Zs-wagger7, swinging their who
arms.
10.
A wife with good connections
through the ties
11.
kinshipj, -favoured in all respects,, house, equipped with gourds and. plates, A beautiful
12.
Choice dateso rice
and a dish of meal seasoned with
spices.. 13.
Moon-hued -,patterned
silkj, in
cotton,
colours,
of
cloth
with
large-spots
536 14.
A stout
its
stallion,
tassels
rump caparisoned,
dangling, 15.
A harness the
16.
Numerous
19.
lowing
21.
22.
of
this
in
of
camels,
ones,
the
spring
rainy
and solace. for
They have mistaken
a true
blessing
the
prosperity
world.
They have
left
the
behind
6rs God, Boog of
ChapterE7
Law.
The man who in
the
goes to
at Burco
Laaran
Everyone like
hundreds
contentedly
comfort
and His 20.
on top
studs
and some gelded
a stallion
Cattle
of
shining
sheep and goatsj,
season, 18.
with
saddle-clotho
with 17.
charged
has left
be at
would
past
in
us and stayes
your
the
call
now
open plains
stray-camels
Those whom I called
dear
friends
their
have broken
promise 23.
The oath
drawing
on the
lines
had no validity
ground, 24.
tookp
they
which
They have
turned
into
a lie
the
solemn
before
oath
God. 25.
26. -
When the
call
was proclaimed
publicly
on the
to rally
togetherj,
and now they
stay
loud
conch
trumpet
People
used
away. 27.
They refuse
to
answer
the
call
because
they
are
weakminded. 28.
A male
lion
reconnoitres
before
he makes his
leap
537 29.
But
they,
those
their
guiding
who killed
the
do not
mounts.,
strong
seek out
and mature
among
them. 30.
their
of 32.
and frolic
These men play
somnolent terrors
When the
and this
is
the
cause
even in mid-morning..
sloth
of war come and fire
forth
sends
smoke
33.
35.
36.
Like
sheep
their
bellies
While
the eagle was eating
their
flesh.
Their
faces
their
lay
killings
with
on
men and plucked
even show displeasure
do not
They have given
they
by pestilence,
stricken
yesterday's 37.
their
at them.
rifles 34.
not face those who have fired
They will
about
spears and the
bragging
up their
manly 4
styling 38.
boasts
Their
hair
of-their
Zi-ike7
horsemanship
concerning
stolen
to
property
faced
39.
When they
40.
Even I keep'lookingaroundo
have become,..
them. they
an open attack,.
fled.
quickly
idleness
and slothful
has come fu-pon me,, 41.
The men who have are
42.
43.0 44.
at Jidbaale
breasts7
men, my soul My heart of
on the
settled
sides
of Buura
fugitives
The defeat f7ith
7. .been
is
a sheep's
full is
them into
sluts
of milk. aflame
pounding rump
has turned
with
as if
great
sorrow
I had eaten
the
fat
meat
38 45.
It
is
my body to 46.
the
into 47.
this
was the
It
and helpless
weeping
And here
49.
The men who would
51.
who threw
me
the
of
men who have been
massacred
48.
at
infidels
because
quakes
the
is
only
hyena, not
delighted
with
their
to my side
rally
are
flesh. in
Zb-elong and weaklings
to 7 the other world ., who are of no use are left,
and Buqul
the
graves
God,
reduced
state
long-foreskinned
deliverately
50.0
have
dust.
My liver
their
ra%ge that
all.
A simpleton
Short
will
take
up my
cause
52.0
Zmy7 iron sharpen ,
God, I shall
Zw-eapon7 like
a
hunter 53.0
in
God,
when the
time,
a short
tomorrow
day after
has passed 54.1 of 55.
the
O'God., we have
57.0
a town
set
out
and Looyo of
the
God, I can pass mid hours
58.1
lightning-flashes
on a long
I and
journey,
Zm_yhors, 67
God, Burco lik2e
the
Dayr'rain
Boodays., 56.0
in
move on swiftly.,
shall
of
are-Ze-nemy
territory-to
me
Amharas', ---
through
Beerato
and Siig
in-the
one morning
God,, I shall
seek my rights
which have been lost
to me 59.0 6o.
God# I am not 0 God, confront slaveso
seeking me first
injustice, with
evil
the Iidoor,
those mules! 0
and vainglory those
APPENDIX 2
(After
Dul Madoba)
The poem was composed by Sheikh the
the
news of
You have this
battle
Mahammed shortly to him.
was reported
died.,
Corfieldj,
after
and are no longer
in
world,
2.
A merciless
3.
When, Hell-destineds
journey
was your
portion.
you set
for
out
the
Other
World 4.
Those who have gone to Heaven will if
5.
God is
Answer-them
7-
Sayýto
how God tried 'From
them:.
never
their
ceased
The British
of
the
faithful
and the
that'day
to
this
the
Dervishes
upon us.
assaults brokeno,
were
and faith
9.
With
fervour
10.
Say:
'They
11.
Say:
'Yesterday
their
attacked
old
12.
And the
13.
Say:
14.
Report,
15.
Show these-past daggers
you.
the-noise
of battle
us;
engulfed
of
companions
of Heaven,
6.
80
you,
willing;
When you see the jewels
question
.
bullet 'In
fury
in
rifles struck they
how savagely
were
the
attacked
the
holy
struck me in fell their
war a, bullet me. the
' us.
1
us at mid-morning.
generations plunged.
Dervishes
from
one
' ' arm.
' upon us. swords
tore
you,
in how many places
the
16.
"Fr: iend,, " I called,
Say:
590
"have
compassion
and spare
me! Say:
'As I looked
heart
was plucked
18.
Say:
tMY eyes stiffened
19.
The mercy
20.
Say:
17.
I
tStriking
21.
My ears,
straining
22.
The risks
from
its
to
side
side
my
'
sheath.
as I watched
was not
with
my soft
horror;
with
granted-t at my mouth they
spear-butts
words; for
I took,
deliverance,
the mistake
found
nothing;
I made, cost
my
',
life.
24.
from
implored
silenced
23.
fearfully
'Like
the war leaders
great
plans
for
Say:
'The
Say:
brought
schemes the
26.
Men lay
27.
Say:
djinns
racked
sleepless,
planted
in me
me everywhere t
at my-shrieks.
shouts
-"Great
I cherished
t
'When pain
Say:
old,
'
victory.
my ruin.
25.
of
the
acclaimed
departing
of
my soul., 28.
Say:
'Beasts
torn-it 29.
Say:
thebyena.
30.
Say:
'The crows
31.
Say:
'If
32.
In
the
last
and
plucked
were
defeated.
standlof,
flesh
and the
t out
stubborn'denials
my clansmen
my flesh
the
sound of, swallowing from
fat-comes
eaten
for, meat. 1
apart 'The
have
of prey
my veins
are
and, tendons.
to be abandonedp", then
'
resistance"there'is'always,
great
slaughter. 33.
Say:
'The Dervishes
bolts
of
a storm,
are
rumbling
1
like
the
advancing
and roaring.
'
thunder-
APPENDIX
5.91 BRITISH
MINISTERS CONCERNEDWITH SOMALI AFFAIRS 1870-1939
Foreign
Secretary
1868-1870 1870-1874
Earl Earl
for
1868-1874
Duke of Argyll
secretary
1874-1@78 1878-1880
Earl of Derby Marquess of Salisbury
for
1874-1@78 1878-1880
Marquess Viscount
secretary
188o-1885
Earl
for
1880-1882 1882-1885
Marquess of Hartington Earl of Kimberley
secretary
1885-1886
Marquess
for
1885-1886
Lord
Randolph
secretary
1886
Earl
of Rosebery
for
1886
Earl
of Kimberley
secretary
1886-1887 1887-1892
Earl Iddesleigh Marquess of Salisbury
for
1886-1892
Viscount
Secretary Foreign Secretary Foreign Secretary Foreign Secretary Foreign Secretary Foreign Secretary Foreign Secretary Foreign Secretary Foreign Secretary Foreign Secretary
India
India
Inida
India
India
India
of Clarendon Granville
of Salisbury Cranbrook
Granville
of
Salisbury Churchill
Cross
-1892-1894
Earl
of Rosebery
1892-1894
Earl
of Kimberley
1894-1895
Earl
of Kimberley
1894-1895
H. H. Fowler
secretary
1895-1900 1900-1902
Marquess Marquess
for
1895-1902
Lord
secretary
1902-1905
Marquess
for
1902-1903 1903-1905
Lord Hon.
secretary, for
India
secretary for
India
India
India
-
of Salisbury of Lansdowne
George Hamilton of Lansdowne
George Hamilton St. J. Brodrick
SECRETARIES OF STATE FOR TM
COLONIM,
1905-1908
The Earl
of Elgin
1908-1910
The Earl
(later
1910-1915
Rt.
Hon. Lewis Harcourt
1915-1916
Rt.
Hon. A. Bonar Law
1916-1919
R. Eon. W. H. Long
1919-1921
Viscount
1921-1922
Rt.
Hon. Winston
1922-1924
Rt.
Hon. J. H. Thomas
1924-1929
Rt.
Hon. L. C. M. S. Amery
1929-1931
Rt.
Hon. Lord Passfield
1931-1935
Rt.
Hon. Sir
1935-1936
Rt.
Hon. J. H. Thomas
1936-1938
Rt.
Hon. W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore
1938-1940
Rt.
Hon. Malcolm MacDonald
1905-1940
and Kincardine Marquess)
of Crewe (later
Viscount
Milner Churchill
Philip
Cunliffe-Lister
PERMANENTUNDER-SECRETARIES OF STATE FOR THE coLoNiEs
igoo-194o
1900-1907
Sir Montague F. Ommanney
1907-1911
Sir Francis
1911-1916
Sir John Anderson
1916-1921
Sir George Fiddes
1921-1925
Sir James Masterton Smith
1925-1933
Sir Samuel Wilson
1933-1937
Sir John Loader Maffey
1937-1939
Sir Cosmo Parkinson
1939-1940
Sir George Gater
Hopwood
Harcourt)
PARLIAMENTARY UNDER-SECPMARIM coLoNiEs,
igoo-194o
1900-1903
Earl of Onslow
1903-1905
Duke of Marlborough
1905-1908
Wins ton Churchill
1908-1911
Col.
J. E. B. Seely
1911-1914
Rt.
Hon. Lord Emmott
1914-1915
Lord Islington
1915-1917
Sir
1917-1919 1919-1921
W. A . S. Hewins Lt. Col. L. Amery
1921-1922
Hon. E. F. L. Wood
1922-1929
Hon. W. G. A. Ormsby-Gore
1929-1931
Dr. T. Drummond Shiels
1931-1932
Sir
1932-1936
The Earl
1936-1937
Rt.
1937-1940
The Marques of Dufferin
Arthur
OF STATE FOR THE
Steel-Maitland
Robert
Hamilton
of Plymouth
Hon. The Earl
De La Warr
APPENDIX 4
OFFICERS ADMINISTERING THE BRITISH
PROTECTORATE
IN SOMALILAND 1884-1939
Lieut.
-Col.
F. M. Hunter
1881-1885 1885-1887
Lieut. Lieut. Lieut. Lieut.
Lieut.
for
the
Somali
and political
-Col.
E. V. Stace
1887-1893
consul agent
and political
-Col.
c. W. H. Sealy
1893-1895
consul agent
and political
-Col.
W. B. Perris
1895-1897
consul agent
and political
-Col.
J.
H. Sadler
1897-1898
consul and political agent consu-general
1898-1901 Capt.
consul Coast consul agent
H. E. S. Cordeaux -Col.
E. J. E. Swayne
1901 acting 1902-1go4
consul-general
1904-1906
commissioner general commissioner Commissioner
Capt.
H. E. S. Cordeaux
1906-1909
Brig.
Gen. Sir William Manning
1910 Jan. Commissioner to. 1910 June
A. Byatt
1911-1914
Commissioner
Archer
1914-1919 1919-1922
Commissioner; Governor
Gerald
Siimmers
1922-1926
Governor
Sir
Harold
Kittermaster
1926-1931
Governor
Sir
Arthur
LawInce
1931-1935 1936-1938
Commissioner; Governor
Sir
Vincent
Glendy
1939-1940
Governor
Sir
Horace
Sir
Geoffrey
Sir
and consul-
APPENDIX 5
VICEROYSAND GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA 1870-1898
Earl
of Mayo
1869-1872
Lord Northbrook
1872-1876
Lord Lytton
1876-188o
Marquess of Ripon
1880-1884
Earl-of
Dufferin
1884-1888
Marquess of Lansdowne
1888-1894
Earl of Elgin
ý1894-1899
