Journal of Pragmatics 42 (2010) 3138–3146
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Extra! Extra! Semantics in comics!: The conceptual structure of Chicago Tribune advertisements Neil Cohn * Department Department of Psychology Psychology,, Tufts University, University, The Psychology Psychology Building, Building, 490 Boston Ave., Medford, MA 02155, USA
A R TI C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 21 January 2008 Received in revised form 9 September 2009 Accepted Accepted 11 April 2010
Recently, increasing attention is turning to comics as a graphic domain using similar cognit cognitive ive proces processes ses to lingui linguisti sticc forms. forms. As in the verbal verbal and manual manual modali modalitie tiess of expression, various semantic structures arise across sequences of images in interesting and effective ways. This piece examines metonymy, conceptual metaphors, and blending across a three-panel pattern used in strips from an advertising campaign by the Chicago Tribune newspaper. ß 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Visual language Comics Metaphor Metonymy Conceptual blending
1. Comics and linguistics
Recent Recently, ly, the em emerg erginglegit inglegitim imacy acy of ‘‘com ‘‘comics ics’’’’ in the popula popularr sphere sphere has given given rise rise to its visual visual langua language ge comingunder comingunder the lens of linguisti linguisticc analysis. analysis. While examination examination of the visual language in comics comics has been vogue vogue for several decades, particularly in Europe (e.g. Gubern, 1972; Hünig, 1974; Krafft, 1978), 1978 ), this scholarship has largely remained steeped in the structura structuralist list or semiotic semiotic paradigms paradigms of linguist linguistics’ ics’ past. Indeed, Indeed, despite despite the nearly nearly half century since the ‘‘cognit ‘‘cognitive ive revolution,’’ the effort to elevate discussions about this visual language to its insights has only surfaced recently. Especially follow following ing the public publicati ation on of theori theorist st Scott Scott McClou McCloud’s d’s (1993 (1993)) landm landmark ark book book Understanding Comics, usin using g the the tool toolss of mo mode dern rn language analysis to examine the visual language in comics has seemed an intuitive methodology. These attempts have rangedfrom ran gedfrom the grafti grafting ng of McClou McCloud’sappro d’sapproach ach onto onto existi existing ng lingui linguisti sticc discou discourse rse theori theories es (Sarac Saraceni, eni, 200 2000, 0, 2003 2003;; Stain Stainbroo brook, k, 2003;; e.g. Lim Fei, 2006) 2003 2006 ) or to cognitive schemas (Narayan, ( Narayan, 2001), 2001), to arguing for the placement of the study of sequential graphic graphic creation as a whole whole in a linguisti linguisticc and cognitive cognitive paradigm (Cohn, ( Cohn, 2003, 2007a,b). 2007a,b ). Other research on this visual language has targeted more specific issues showing that the graphic form is capable of conveying conveying rich conceptu conceptual al expressio expression n beyond beyond the demonstra demonstrative tive qualities qualities of iconic signs. signs. Recent Recent studies studies have examined examined the pervasiv pervasiveness eness of conceptua conceptuall metaphor metaphor (Lak Lakoff off and Joh Johnso nson, n, 19 1979 79)) and and blen blendi ding ng (Fauco Fauconnier nnier and Turn Turner, er, 2002 2002)) ina vari variet ety y of comics, including depictions of anger in the celebrated European Asterix comics (Forceville, (Forceville, 2005), 2005), text-image relations in political political cartoons cartoons following following the September September 11, 2001 2001 attacks attacks (Berge Bergen, n, 2004 2004), ), and even underlyin underlying g theories theories about the definition of ‘‘comics’’ itself (Horrocks, ( Horrocks, 2001). 2001). While these works have effectively shown how semantic properties arise in indiv individu idual al image images, s, few studie studiess have have explic explicitl itly y addres addressed sed how these these concep conceptua tuall phenom phenomena ena arise arise across acrosssequences of images. images.
* Tel.: +1 760 484 3268; 3268; fax: +1 617 627 3181. E-mail address:
[email protected] [email protected].. 0378-2166/$ – see front matter ß 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.04.016 doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2010.04.016
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This piece will attempt to add to the discussion by doing just this, by looking at metonymy, conceptual metaphors, and blendi blending ng across across a threethree-pan panel el patter pattern n occurr occurringregul ingregularl arly y in a cor corpus pus of strips strips use used d in an advert advertisi ising ng campai campaign gn by theChicago Tribune newspaper. 1.1. Material Materialss
In early 2005, the Chicago Tribune initiated an advertising campaign using various comics and cartoons to promote the day-to-day day-to-day benefits benefits of different different sections sections of their new newspape spaper, r, including including multiple multiple three-pane three-panell comic comic strips. strips. These These ads appeared appeared on the sides of buses, on billboards, on the Internet, and other locations around the city of Chicago. All of these works were domina dominated ted by the visual visuals, s, with with the only only wor words ds in them them inhere inherentl ntly y incorp incorpora orated ted into into the repres represent entati ation on to specif specify y the part part of the new newspa spaper per concer concernin ning g the strip. strip. An additi additiona onall periph periphera erall sen senten tence ce comme commenti nting ng on the use useful fulnes nesss of using using that that sec sectio tion n of the paper accompanied the strips, but was not tied to it directly. In some cases, these sentences were unnecessary for the decoding of the visual message, while in other cases they provided essential information. Since these sentences were not interfaced explicitly with the strips, they will only be analyzed in select cases, while primary attention will be given to the strip itself. Additionally, each strip carried the advertising slogan, ‘‘Chicago Tribune: What’s in it for you?’’ Tying broadly to the utility of the paper’s varying sections, it did not play a key role in determining the semantics of each strip, and thus will not be discussed further in this analysis. 1.2. Sequential construction construction
A commo common n patter pattern n appear appearss throug throughou houtt the struct structure ure of all of the strips strips,, wh which ich can best best be illust illustrat rated ed throug through h an examp example, le, such as in Fig. 1. 1. 1.2.1. Narrative structure structure The first panel sets up some situation, here of a person eating drumsticks. The second panel features a person reading a sectio sec tion n of the new newspa spaper per labele labeled d in text, text, wh which ich is nearly nearly identi identical cal across across all of the strips strips,, thoughthe thoughthe sec sectio tion n of the new newspa spaper per changes. The final panel features an image nearly identical to the first panel, though altered in some way. Here, that altera alteratio tion n chang changes es the food food to weight weights, s, brough broughtt about about by rea readin ding g the new newspa spaper per’s ’s health health advice advice in the sec second ond panel. panel. Impli Implicit cit in this this constr construct uctionis ionis a broade broaderr nar narrat rative‘‘Arc ive‘‘Arc’’’’ that that begins begins with with an ‘‘Init ‘‘Initial ial’’’’ state state that that sets sets up theevent of the sequen sequence ce in the first first panel. panel. The sec second ond panel panel depict depictss a causat causative ive force force (readi (reading ng of the new newspa spaper per), ), wh which ich is whe where re the ‘‘Pea ‘‘Peak’’ k’’ of the sequen sequence ce occurs occurs – the clima climax x upon upon wh which ich the overal overalll meanin meaning g hinges hinges.. Finall Finally, y, the sequen sequence ce ends ends with with a ‘‘Rele ‘‘Release ase’’’’ that that bring bringss about about the change shown in the third panel, relieving the narrative tension of the predication and depicting the resultant state caused by the Peak (Cohn, ( Cohn, 2007a,b). 2007a,b ). This This accoun accountt of comics comics’’ sequen sequences ces flouts flouts the popula popularly rly held held theory theory that that sequen sequentia tiall image image unders understan tandin ding g mo moves ves throug through ha linear sequence of panel-to-panel transitions (e.g. McCloud, 1993), 1993), instead favoring an approach that acknowledges a broader broader global level of structure structure inside of which which panels panels play functional functional roles roles (Cohn, 2007a,b). 2007a,b). Though not applied in the contex contextt of sequen sequentia tiall image image proces processin sing, g, this this view view of nar narrat rative ive is certai certainly nly not unprec unprecede edente nted. d. While While notusing the exact exact sam same e terminol terminology, ogy, the notion notion of a ‘‘rising ‘‘rising-clim -climax-fa ax-falling lling’’’’ narrative narrative arc on a broad broad scale goes back to Aristotle’ Aristotle’ss descriptio description n in Poetics of the threethree-act act play, play, and simila similarr struct structure uress sur surfac face e in mor more e mo moder dern n theori theories es of nar narrat rative ive and discou discourse rse struct structure ure (e.g. (e.g. Mandle Man dlerr and Joh Johnso nson, n, 197 1977; 7; Man Mandle dler, r, 19 1984 84). ). Thes These e stri strips ps use use this this same same sort sort of stru struct ctur ure e on a sm smal alll scal scale e wh wher ere e each each grap graphi hicc unit is a narrative type – given that such limitations make up the entire narrative structure for the piece. 1.2.2. Semantic structure structure While previous approaches have explored broadly applied semantic fields involved with comic’s conceptual expression (Bergen, 2004; Forceville, 2005), 2005 ), the exploration of sequential semantics apart from narrative structure has yet to receive
Fig. 1. Example strip from the Chicago Tribune advertisement campaign.
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Fig. 2. Graphic compositional structure of Chicago Tribune comics.
serious scrutiny, particularly motivated by a cognitive context. On some level though, we should not expect altogether differ different ent forms forms of meanin meaning g than than those those found found in verbal verbal sen senten tences ces – only only the nature nature of the signs signs are graphi graphic-i c-icon conic ic rather rather than than verbal-symbolic. A semantic mapping of the generalized schema in the Chicago Tribune strips could follow the form below, using Jackendoff’s basic formalism of Conceptual Semantics (e.g. Jackendoff, 1990): 1990): α
[Event CAUSE([READ(Person , Chicago Tribune)], INCH(Y(α))] This formalism formalism depicts transitive transitive events as functions functions (in capital capital letters letters to indicate indicate conceptual conceptual status), status), wher where e the arguments of the function are enumerated in parenthesis (i.e. FUNCTION(Argument1, Argument2). The whole formula above is a consistent structure corresponding to the relationship of the second panel of the strips to the third panel. It says that that the event event READ READ consis consists ts of two two argume arguments nts,, a Per Person son (the (the ‘‘read ‘‘reader’ er’’) ’) and the Chicag Chicago o Tribut Tribute e (the (the ‘‘readitem’ ‘‘readitem’’) ’) – ma mappi pping ng to the second panel of the strip, where the Person reads the Chicago Tribune. This event is part of a broader causative function where it serves as the first argument (the ‘‘causer’’), with the second being an inchoative event ‘‘Y’’ (the ‘‘caused’’) that that the Per Person son underg undergoes oes (bound (bound throug through h the repeti repetitio tion n of the alpha) alpha).. This This CAUSE CAUSE event event ties ties the sec second ond panel panel (the (the causer causer)) to the res result ult,, event event ‘‘Y’’ ‘‘Y’’ that that Per Person son underg undergoes oes,, in the final final panel panel of the strip. strip. Natura Naturally lly,, the first first and third third panels panels have have mo more re rich rich structure than this implies, though varying with the specific events found in each example. It is intere interesti sting ng to note note that that these these base base consis consisten tentt struct structure uress do not convey convey any sor sortt of event event struct structure ure depict depicting ing action actionss as they unfold over space and time. While they do show temporally subsequent events, each panel is demonstrative of a partic particula ularr state state that that is united united throug through h this this sem semant antic ic struct structure ure,, witho without ut connec connectio tion n to an event event struct structure ure.. For examp example, le, for the event of READING, each panel does not show progressive states states showing the process of unfolding unfolding the newspaper, newspaper, opening it to a partic particula ularr page, page, and/or and/or rea readin ding g throug through h differ different ent sec sectio tions. ns. In the first first panel panel of Fig. F ig. 1, beyo beyond nd the the inde indexi xica call bite bite ma mark rks, s, no action of eating the drumsticks is shown other than the character holding them in his hands – and not even in a position common to eating! The sense overall is not of a progression progression of events that that there is a person who does something, then then reads the paper, then does something else. Rather, there is a singular panel showing reading of the newspaper in panel two, while thefirst and third third panels panels indivi individua dually lly sho show w their their ownencapsul ownencapsulate ated d states states.. Thefirst panel panel acts acts as a sam sample ple state state that that is altere altered d in the third panel, facilitated by the causation of the second panel. This will become clearer with specific examples throughout. α
α
α
1.2.3. Graphic structure structure Beyond the semantic and narrative factors, graphic compositional elements also structure the patterns of the strips. Panels are primarily black and white, with a background gradient running blue to white from top to bottom. Figures are drawn drawn sch schem emati atical cally, ly, genera generaliz lizing ing the charac character terss past past any recog recogniz nizabl able e indivi individua dualit lity y other other than than gender gender.. The figures figures look look like like the repres represent entati ations ons use used d on signs signs for bathro bathroom oms, s, ma makin king g them them wh what at C.S. C.S. Peirce Peirce wo would uld call call ‘‘Icon ‘‘Iconic ic Legisi Legisigns gns’’’’ – signs signs that that are conventional in culture, yet still gain their expression through resembling what they mean ( Peirce, 1931). 1931).1 For every strip, the central Peak panel remains exactly the same, showing a person reading the newspaper. The only changing aspects of these panels are the gender of the character and the text indicating the newspaper section. In the one exception exception to this pattern, pattern, the person does not read the newspaper, newspaper, but instead instead sits at a computer computer monitor. monitor. The compositional patterning is more distinct in the first and third panels though, where the Initial and Release panels mirro mirrorr each each other other in graphi graphicc compos compositi ition on (mark (marked ed as X andX0 in Fi Fig.2 g.2), ), thoughchang thoughchangingsome ingsome eleme element nt to sho show w thecausativ thecausative e
1
Peirce’s theories of semiotics are often misunderstood on this point. While Peirce categorized many aspects of his triadic semiotic sign, often the only concepts retained in usage have been the threefold icons, indexes, and symbols. Since symbols must be conventional, they are often misconstrued (perhaps out of over-associ over-associatio ation n to the arbitrary dyadic Saussurean Saussurean sign) as the only type of conventiona conventionall sign. Peirce actually accounts accounts for this, making conventionality a separate variable of the nature of the ‘‘sign vehicle’’ that can engage the types of reference of iconicity, indexicality, and symbolicity, though for symbols it is a defining characteristic.
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Fig. 3. Metonymy in a graphic morpheme of a clown nose.
force of reading reading the news newspaper paper.. The apparent apparent visual visual changes between between these these panels panels took on three different different types of characteristics: reduction of an existi existing ng elemen element, t, addition of a new new elem elemen ent, t, or alteration of an exis existi ting ng elem elemen ent. t. Out Out of the the 23 strips, 18 featured alteration of some sort, while addition and reduction were only used three and two times respectively. Howeve However, r, in panels panels wh where ere altera alteratio tion n occurr occurred,often ed,often the change changess ma made de to the existi existing ng eleme elements nts were were done done throug through h reduct reduction ion or addition, though it was not of a whole separate entity. The other major technique used in altered panels was that of substitution of one element for another (like drumsticks for weights). As will be seen, all of these techniques lend towards conveying semantic expression. 1.2.4. Parallel architecture architecture In total, the overall pattern of the strips runs across several intertwining structures. In the spirit of Jackendoff’s (2002) Parallel Architecture, indices denote the interfaces of the structure to each other in terms of the overall whole, conveniently conveniently here denoting the panel numbers: Narrati Structure :
½Arc Initial1 À Peak2 À Release3
Semantic Structure :
½Event CAUSEð½READðPerson Chicago TribuneÞ2 INCHðY ðaÞÞ3 a
;
;
Graphic Composition Composition :
Insofar as this causative pattern is consistent and productive across multiple levels of structure, it is reminiscent of constructions in verbal language, which create abstract form-meaning pairs above the level of ‘‘word’’ sized constituents (Goldberg, 2003). 2003). For example, the construction Verb-ing the Time Away is a consistent pattern that can be filled in with numerous words to indicate performing an action over a course of time, such as reading the afternoon away, drinking the year away or the classic song, twistin’ the night away ( Jackendoff, 1997 1997). ). While it may not extend to usage in the ‘‘visual vocabulary’’ of a broader population of comics’ authors like verbal constructions, the causative pattern used in the Chicago Tribune ads seems to carry this same characteristic of an abstract form-meaning pairing that transcends its tokens in individual strips to become a consistent schematic pattern. As will be seen in several of the examples, the knowledge of this generalized skeletal structure often aids in guiding the interpretation of the sequence. In some ways, this repetitive usage could be considered a visual construction that has yet to become entrenched in broader usage (Tomasello, 2000). 2000). 2. Metonymy Metonymy
Many of the strips allowed for metonymic reference, using one thing to stand for another related concept, such as the classic example of a waitress saying The ham sandwich just spilled beer all over himself , where ham sandwich serves to mean ‘the ‘the person person who ordere ordered d the ham san sandwi dwich’ ch’ (Nunb Nunberg, erg, 197 1979 9). Othe Otherr type typess of me meto tony nymy my use use a part part of some someth thin ing g to refe refere renc nce e a whole or stating a place for an institution. In all cases, the metonymic element has some sort of related connection to a broader conception that it invokes. Perhaps the best place to begin this analysis is with a somewhat reflexive example. In Fig. 3, 3, a clown nose is added added to the person after reading the ‘‘Comics’’ section of the newspaper. The ‘‘Comics’’ ‘‘Comics’’ section of the paper is assumed to be funny, bringing amusemen amusementt to the reader. The causation causation brought brought about about by the sec second ond panel panel is not convey conveyed ed narr narrati ative vely ly per se – the person person is not not laughi laughing ng or smilin smiling g wh while ile rea readin ding g the the paper paper or after, nor is the clown nose a reflection of the person trying to be funny – its effect is demonstrated conceptually. The clown clown nos nose e symbol symbolize izess the concep conceptt of humo humor, r, and its presen presence ce is metony metonymi micc to the the idea idea that that readi reading ng the comics comics sec sectio tion n will will bring bring humor humor to your life. A similar metonymy occurs in a strip about gift giving, as in Fig. 4. 4.
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Fig. 4. Metonymy through lipstick imprints.
Fig. 5. Metonymy through reduction of a character.
The release of reading the ‘‘Gift Ideas’’ section of the paper depicts the figure to have lipstick marks all over his head. Partially, lip marks hold a part-whole relationship to a woman2 as a whole, though it extends further because of the context of those lips and the meanings associated to kissing. Kisses imply an intimate relationship of the giver to the recipient, and such suc h an abunda abundance nce of lip impri imprints nts insinu insinuate atess that that that that the gift gift had a happy happy recept reception ion.. The mes messag sage e create created d is: taking taking the gift gift advice found in the paper will make your mate happy. Here, the lipstick stands for the happiness that the newspaper can bring to a spouse through gifts, and thus reciprocally to the giver of the gifts. While these examples have both featured some sort of alteration to the Initial through addition, reduction of an element can also be metonymic, as in Fig. 5. 5. In the the rele releas ase e of this this stri strip, p, the the redu reduct ctio ion n of the the midd middle le char charac acte terr fromthe fromthe thre three e peop people le at the the bus bus stop stop impl implie iess that that he is the the person who read of the ‘‘Auto’’ section of the paper in the second panel, and that he has bought a car and no longer needs to use the bus. A bus stop represents a form of transportation, here depicted somewhat unfavorably because of the snow and the implication that a car would be preferable, validating the advertising of the newspaper’s usefulness. By contrasting the bus stop with the auto section, the reduction of a person suggests he has bought a car to drive instead of taking the bus. Though two of the figures look identical, the reduction of the missing person is understood metonymically entailed as the one who read the paper. Metonymy Metonymy can also be formed formed through a backform backformation ation as well, well, as in Fig. 6. 6. This strip shows the utility of the ‘‘Sales’’ section by illuminating a darkened room with a lamp – presumably bought after reading the paper. In the first panel, the two white dots represent the eyes of the cat, but the reader can only make that distinction after they reach the final panel. The black of that panel is also unspecified, and only the presence of the lamp makes it clear that the first panel represents the same scene shrouded in darkness. The metonymic cat eyes become the only element that indicates that the first panel indeed does show a lamp-less living room (and knowledge knowledge of the compositio compositional nal patterns patterns of the overall strips). strips). In a way, the darkness darkness itself creates a metonym metonymic ic part–wh part–whole ole relationship based on the presence of the cat, which thereby allows the whole blackened area to reference the living room, but only after reading the complete strip. Note also that narrative coherence is not maintained throughout the second panel, since that panel is not shrouded in darkness. Either the character is reading the paper in an entirely different location from his darkened room, or the panel serves only a conceptual purpose as a representation representation of causation – it does not represent the unfolding of events. 2
Or a lipstick-wearing man!
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Fig. 6. Part–whole metonymy through backformation.
Fig. 7. Metonymy through the association of watercoolers and conversation.
Fig. 7 demons Fig. demonstra trates tes a strip that that bucks bucks nar narrat rative ive event event struct structure ure almost almost entire entirely. ly. Here, Here, the waterc watercool ooler er in the first first and last last pane panels ls stan stands ds as a plac place e that that peop people le gath gather er to talk talk in an offic office. e. In the the first first pane panel, l, the the wa wate terr tank tank and and cup cup hold holder er is full full wh whil ile e the the trashc trashcan an rem remain ainss empty. empty. The final final panel panel sho shows ws the trash trash filled filled with with cups cups and the water water level level decrea decreased sed,, imply implying ing that that people people have been drinking. Generally speaking, sports have no great connection to watercoolers, but the implication of the second panel is that reading the ‘‘Sports’’ section of the paper will give you something to talk about at work (not that it makes you thirsty!).3 Inde Indeed ed,, the the only only pres presen ence ce of char charac acte ters rs in the the stri strip p is in the the seco second nd pane panel, l, wh whic ich h only only show showss an indi indivi vidu dual al read readin ing g the paper. However, the pile of cups in the Release implies that more than one person has been at the cooler, since social discussion is not a solo event, meaning the individual reading the paper also stands for multiple people (a metonymic part– whole relation), since reading the Sports section would allow a common ground for group discussion. Again, this strip works at a purely conceptual level since no events are depicted in the relationship of panels exists at all. There are no characters introduced to partake in actions, and none conveyed. Rather, the panels create symbolic meanings unified by abstract narrative principles. 3. Metaphor Metaphor Conceptual metaphor involves understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another, thereby mapping properties of attacked one one into into the the othe other. r. A comm common on me meta taph phor oric ical al sche schema ma migh mightt be that that ARGUMENTS ARE WAR , wh which ich yields yields statem statement entss like like I attacked all of his points and defended my arguments (Lakoff and Johnson, 1979). 1979 ). Arguments do not have to involve attacking or defending , but the ma mappi pping ng of war war onto onto debate debate allow allowss for these these types types of expres expressio sions. ns. Usage Usage of metaph metaphor or see seem m unexce unexcepti ptiona onall to language, making them an essential aspect underlying conceptual expression. Fig. 8 shows a metaphor that is common in graphic form. This simple example utilizes the metaphor that A NGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER , wh whic ich, h, as Lakof Lakofff (199 (1992) 2)4 notes, notes, manife manifests sts by sho showin wing g steam steam blowi blowing ng out of the charac character ter’s ’s (unsee (unseen) n) ear ears. s. NGER IS A HOT FLUID LUID IN A In Forceville’s (2005) analysis of the French comic Asterix, he found numerous signifiers of the A NGER
3
This also provides a good example of cultural relativity of using such tropes, as gathering around the watercooler may not be a universal practice in offices around the world. Indeed, this convention may not even be fully understood in America (where these ads came from) either. When faced with explaining this example on a homework assignment, some undergraduate students of mine did not understand the convention, and tried to reconcile watercoolers and sports using justifiable inferences, such as ‘‘doing sports make a person thirsty’’ or ‘‘they made up a sport throwing cups into the trash’’. 4 Unless otherwise noted, the metaphors in this section, and the verbal sentences used as examples for them, come from Lakoff (1992). (1992).
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Fig. 8. Symbolic depiction of anger shown through steam coming out of the ears.
Fig. 9. Conceptual metaphors depicted through traveling on an escalator.
CONTAINER , especially facial expressions like bulging eyes and reddened skin, in addition to the full lifting of bodies off of the ground ground.. This This strip strip use usess none none of these these fairly fairly iconic iconic – yet exagg exaggera erated ted – aspect aspectss of human human emotio emotion, n, and simpli simplifies fies the metaph metaphor or to a singular ‘‘graphic morpheme’’ of steam. Since the causative panel shows the ‘‘Commentary’’ section of the paper, the steam conveys that reading it will get you angry. The accompanying sentence to this strip lends even more insight, stating ‘‘In-depth opinions you can’t ignore,’’ insinuating it gets you passionate about people’s opinions – perhaps a good thing because it stimulates your thinking. Only Only one strip strip deviat deviates es slight slightly ly from from the standa standard rd graphi graphicc patter pattern n of the constr construct uction ion.. InFi In Fig. g. 9, the the cent centra rall pane panell does does not not depict the newspaper in print form, but references a part of the Chicago Tribune’s website, the ‘‘career builder’’ section, by showing the figure in front of a computer screen: Pervading this strip is a metaphor of a C AREER AS A JOURNEY – that allows for phrases like He clawed his way to the top, and She’s climbing the corporate ladder – while also containing another metaphor of S TATUS IS UP that modifies the original career metap me taphor hor.. Since Since the man moves moves down down the esc escala alator tor in the first first panel panel and up in the third, third, this this schema schema reinfo reinforce rcess the positi positive ve ROGRESS IS FORWARD MOVEMENT, since the figure is facing the force of the Tribune. This also invokes a metaphor of M AKING PROGRESS direction of travel along the escalator, as well as moving in the left-to-right direction in which the reader experiences the panels. Note also that outside the text on the computer screen, the notion of ‘‘career’’ is never decodable from the visual representation – it only contains a man on an escalator and looking at a computer screen. While the metaphor is carried out visually, the semantic frame created by the text motivates it. 4. Blending Blending
Metaph Metaphor or and me meton tonymy ymy can also also be accom accompli plishe shed d throug through h wh what at Fauc Fauconni onnier er and Turne Turnerr (200 (2002) 2) call conceptual blending . In addition to the mapping of one domain onto another, they argue that blending maps into a new ‘‘mental space’’ that contains the blend of the two domains, allowing for correspondences that might not actually reflect a fully entrenched conceptual metaphor. Because this blend occurs in a new space, some qualities from the domains may not transfer, while other other proper propertie tiess that that emergeout emergeout of the newreading newreading maynot be explic explicit it in the origin original al domain domains. s. For exampl example, e, in the sen senten tence ce The surgeon was a butcher , only the juxtaposition of the two nouns crates underlying meaning that being a butcher is a bad thing – which in the context of their craft is untrue. Fig. 10 shows how, in the visual form, blending can occur directly with graphic elements. This This strip strip implie impliess that that rea readin ding g the ‘‘Sci ‘‘Scienc ence’’ e’’ sec sectio tion n of the new newspa spaper per will will ma make ke you sma smarte rter, r, me meton tonymi ymical cally ly convey conveyed ed by blending Einstein’s hair on the figure. This sort of blend would be characterized by the philosopher C.S. Peirce as metaphoric
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Fig. 10. Einstein’s hair used as a symbol for intelligence.
Fig. 11. Gas gauges overlain on a head symbolize the mind as a container.
iconicity , because its meaning is linked to its referent ‘‘by representing a parallelism in something else’’ ( Peirce, 1940). 1940). literally y become become Einste Readin Reading g the new newspa spaper per will will not make make you literall Einstein in (unfor (unfortun tunate ately) ly) – the figure figure in the final final panel panel only only gained gained a (physical) feature of Einstein’s to conceptually convey the idea of heightened intelligence (a non-physical feature). Fig. 11 makes use of a visual blend with more symbolic correlations, with a gas gauge mapped onto the person’s head to imply imply that that reading reading the ‘‘Nati ‘‘Nation’ on’’’ sec sectio tion n of the paper paper will will ‘‘fill ‘‘fill up’’ up’’ your empty empty mind. mind. The placem placement ent of the gauge gauge on the head head impor importan tantly tly impli implies es that that the mind mind is being being filled, filled, and that that it is a contai container ner for inform informati ation. on. In som some e ways, ways, this this relate relatess back back to the visual depiction of A NGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER , since in both instances the physical head becomes that container, though they bear very different entailments. The blend doesn’t fully make the mind like a gas gauge though, since the mind doesn’t lose or shut down like a car does when ‘‘empty’’ of ideas. In this respect, the empty/full distinction is similar to the STATUS IS UP me meta taph phor or.. It is bad bad to be em empt pty y – wh whic ich h is wh why y you you wa want nt to read read the the news newspa pape perr to beco become me full full – but but bein being g em empt pty y won’t cause your mind to stop functioning. Perhaps another blend that has to do with the mind will make a fitting end to this discussion, depicted in Fig. 12. 12. Like Like the examp example le in Fig Fig.. 11 11,, this this strip strip invoke invokess the idea idea of the mind mind needin needing g intell intellect ectual ual stimu stimulat lation ion that that can be provi provided ded by reading people’s ‘‘Editorial’’ opinions. The visual blend of gears on the head create a sense that the MIND IS A MACHINE, while their movement echoes the phrase get the wheels in your head spinning , invoking the metaphor that L ACK ACK OF PROGRESS IS L ACK ACK OF
Fig. 12. The mind as a machine depicted with gears blended with a head.
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MOVEMENT. Again Again though though,, unlike unlike a brain brain,, whe when n gears gears of a mach machine ine stop stop movi moving, ng, it shuts shuts down. down. While While it it might might be true true that that if a brain stops ‘‘moving’’ a person is likely dead, but at this point the editorial section wouldn’t be of much help! Rather, the stagn stagnati ation on in the first first panel panel only only reflect reflectss the concep conceptio tion n of intell intellect ectual ual stimu stimulat lation ion,, wh which ich is som someth ething ing that that machin machines es do not have a capacity for at all. 5. Conclusion
These strips demonstrate that the graphic form can also tap into the same abstract properties of conceptual thought – metonymy, metaphor, and blending – as other linguistic modalities. Often times these processes are motivated by a single sign, such as lipstick kisses, a clown nose, Einstein hair, or the presence or absence of motion lines. But, these signs themselves do not necessarily invoke such conceptual functions. Rather such an effect is brought about by these signs by embeddin embedding g their their contexts with other other panels of the sequence sequence concurren concurrently tly with a single single symbolic symbolic word. word. That is, the sequence facilitates the metonymy, metaphor, or blending, not just the signs. Furthermore, these strips also rely on the integration of text and image. While the images carry out the meanings, such interpretations would be impossible without the words to point the way. Indeed, without the word ‘‘Sports’’ a watercooler would wo uld just just stand stand for people people drinki drinking, ng, and withou withoutt ‘‘Sale ‘‘Sales’’ s’’ the roo room m with with a lamp lamp wo would uld just just appear appear to have have a light light turned turned on, nota lamp lamp freshl freshly y bought bought.. While While the strips strips do sho show w the abili ability ty of images images to use creati creative ve concep conceptua tuall proces processes ses,, they they also also sho show w the extens extensive ive impac impactt that that the concep conceptua tuall netwo network rk of a singul singular ar wo word rd can have. have. Each Each strip strip only only contai contains ns one wor word, d, yet evokes evokes very very rich rich expres expressio sions ns achiev achieved ed by the graphi graphics. cs. Thr Throug ough h these these me means ans,, sequen sequences ces can transc transcend end nar narrat rative ive nor norms ms in convey conveying ing conceptua conceptuall expressio expressions, ns, show showing ing that sequentia sequentiall images images do not just mimic mimic the unfolding unfolding of everyday everyday events. events. Such textimage image integr integrati ation on reflect reflectss the intuit intuition ion that that the verbal verbal and graphi graphicc forms forms are not necess necessari arily ly wo world rldss apart apart in their their expres expressiv sive e capa capaci city ty,, but but are are rath rather er two two side sidess of the the same same conc concep eptu tual al coin coin – and and can can ther thereb eby y be stud studie ied d with with the the same same tool toolss and and me meth thod odss from cognitive science. Acknowledgements
Ray Jacken Jackendof dofff is thanke thanked d greatl greatly y for his feedba feedback ck on ear earlie lierr drafts drafts of this this paper, paper, as is Chris Christop topher her Johnso Johnson n for provid providingan ingan opportunity for being written in the first place. References Bergen, Benjamin, 2004. To awaken a sleeping giant: blending and metaphor in editorial cartoons after September 11. In: Achard, M., Kemmer, S. (Eds.), Language, Culture, and Mind. CSLI, Palo Alto, CA. Cohn, Neil, 2003. Early Writings on Visual Language. Emaki Productions, Carlsbad, CA. Cohn, Neil, 2007a. A visual lexicon. Public Journal of Semiotics 1 (1), 53–84. Cohn, Neil, 2007b. Foundations for a natural visual language grammar. In: Visual and Iconic Languages Conference. University of New Mexico, Proceedings online at: http://www.cs.unm.edu/$vail/ vail/.. Fauconnier, Gilles, Turner, Mark, 2002. The Way We Think: Conceptual Blending and the Mind’s Hidden Complexities. Basic Books, New York. Forceville, Charles, 2005. Visual representations of the idealized cognitive model of anger in the Asterix album La Zizanie. Journal of Pragmatics 37, 69–88. Goldberg, Adele, 2003. Constructions: a new theoretical approach to language. Trends in Cognitive Science 7 (5), 219–224. Gubern, Román, 1972. El lenguaje de los comics. Ed. Pen ínsula, Barcelona. Horrocks, Dylan, 2001. Inventing comics: Scott McCloud defines the form in Understanding Comics. The Comics Journal 234. Hünig, Wolfgang K., 1974. Strukturen des Comic Strip. Olms, Hildensheim. Jackendoff, Ray, 1990. Semantic Structures. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Jackendoff, Ray, 1997. Twistin’ the Night A way. Language 73 (3), 534–559. Jackendoff, Ray, 2002. Foundations of Language: Brain, Meaning, Grammar, Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Krafft, Ulrich, 1978. Comics lesen. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart. Lakoff, George, 1992. The contemporary theory of metaphor. In: Ortony, A. (Ed.), Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Lakoff, George, Johnson, Mark, 1979. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. LimFei, Victor Victor,, 2006. 2006. Thevisual Thevisual sem semant anticsstrat icsstratum:makin um:making g meanin meanings gs in sequen sequentia tiall images images.. In:Royce, In:Royce, T.,Bowcher, T.,Bowcher, W. (Eds.) (Eds.),, NewDirectio NewDirections ns in theAnalysis theAnalysis of Multimodal Discourse. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, New Jersey. Mandler, Jean M., 1984. Stories, Scripts, and Scenes: Aspects of Schema Theory. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ. Mandler, Jean M., Johnson, Nancy S., 1977. Remembrance of things parsed: story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology 9, 111–151. McCloud, Scott, 1993. Understanding Comics: The Invisible Art. Harper Collins, New York, NY. Narayan, Shweta, 2001. A Window on a Trail: The Metaphorical Structuring of Scott McCloud’s Web-Comics. In: Comic Arts Conference, San Diego, CA. Nunberg, Geoffrey, 1979. The non-uniqueness of semantic solutions: polysemy. Linguistics and Philosophy 3, 143–184. Peirce, Charles Sanders, 1931. Division of signs. In: Hartshorne, C., Weiss, P. (Eds.), Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, vol. 2: Elements of Logic. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Peirce, Charles Sanders, 1940. Logic as semiotic: the theory of signs. In: Buchler, J. (Ed.), The Philosophy of Peirce: Selected Writings. Kenga Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd, London. Saraceni, Mario, 2000. Language Beyond Language: Comics as Verbo-Visual Texts. Dissertation, Applied Linguistics, University of Nottingham. Saraceni, Mario, 2003. The Language of Comics. Routeledge, New York, NY. Stainbrook, Eric J., 2003. Reading Comics: A Theoretical Analysis of Textuality and Discourse in the Comics Medium. Dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Tomasello, Michael, 2000. First steps toward a usage-based theory of language acquisition. Cognitive Linguistics 11 (1), 61–82. Neil Neil Cohn Cohn has recently recently been gaining attention attention for his work on the relationships relationships between between the cognition cognition of graphic expression expression and language. language. He is an internation international al speake speakerr on this this topic, topic, andis theauthor theauthor of Ear of Early ly Writin Writings gs on VisualLangua VisualLanguage ge as well well as theillustra theillustratorof torof Wethe Wethe Peopl People:A e:A Call Call toTake toTake Back Back Amer Americ ica a, with with authorThom authorThom Hartmann. He is currently a graduate student in Psychology at Tufts University.
