Clarinet of the XXI - Richards

The Clarinet of the XXI Century

Michael Richards

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CHAPTER 2 - Single Sounds Alternate Fingerings Different timbres of the same pitch on the clarinet are most conveniently achieved through alternate fingerings; embouchure manipulation alone will not work, since it will also affect pitch. However, altering timbre is not the only purpose of alternate fingerings. The artistic clarinetist of the late twentieth century employs different fingerings from standard fingerings in certain musical contexts, throughout the standard orchestral, chamber music, and solo repertoire. 6 These contexts may require a slightly higher or lower pitch for reasons of intonation, a technically simpler fingering for a smoother legato, a less resistant fingering for an easier entrance at a soft dynamic level, or a more desirable tone color for better blend or portrayal of a particular musical character. For example, if one employs the standard G-flat fingering in the following passage (Example #3) found in the first movement of the Sonata by Francis Poulenc, the result will be a low G-flat. The suggested alternate, which is generally a high fingering, will be better in tune at this loud dynamic level (also brighter and thicker/stronger).

Example #3 (click on music to hear mp3)

The production of a smoother legato in the first movement of the F Minor Sonata , Op. 120 No. 1 by Johannes Brahms is facilitated with the alternate E-flat diagramed in Example #4. Contrary finger motion is completely avoided, as is the slide that would be required with the use of the standard E-flat. 7

3 Example #4 (click on music to hear mp3)

A smoother legato may be attained by the utilization of an alternate F-sharp in the following example ( Concerto - Aaron Copland) for a different reason; an acoustical reason. The A and F-sharp are both partials from the same fundamental (D3).


An alternate fingering for D is essential to assist the clarinetist in the production of a soft entrance in the second movement of the Brahms Trio , Op. 114 (Example #6).


In the third movement of the Clarinet Concerto by John Corigliano, the alternate fingering indicated below for altissimo B-flat allows the player to not only match the timbre of the distant off-stage clarinetists, but also is easier to play in tune and to play softly.


An excellent study of alternate fingerings in the traditional literature has been written by Thomas Ridenour. 8 Rather than duplicate his research, the following pages will focus on examples for the usage of alternate fingerings in new music, and to offer a chart of altissimo register fingerings that, while not exhaustive, does include a variety of technically simple fingerings for pitches of a wide variety of timbres. In music of the last twenty-five years, the expansion of timbral resources and sensitivities and of usable pitch nuances has become a primary compositional concern. However, in order to indicate (as a composer) and perform (as a clarinetist) alternate fingerings, one must understand the acoustics of the instrument. All pitches on the clarinet do not lend themselves to alternate fingering possibilities. In general, the pitches which utilize the longest length of tube have the smallest number of options; pitches below B3 and pitches between B4 and G5 have few or no alternate fingerings (Example #8).

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Example #8

Pitches in the altissimo register have the most alternatives, since they can serve as partials to a number of different fundamentals. The top half of the chalumeau register and throat register (B3 to A4) offers a variety of "covered" sounding (few strong partials) alternate fingerings. Most of these are crossfingerings (fingerings that employ open vents, higher on the instrument body than the lowest tone holes that are closed by fingers or keys) which can only be produced at a very soft dynamic level with a minimum of upper partials present. Joji Yuasa and Isao Matsushita exploit these special fingerings in rapid alternations with conventional fingerings of the same pitches (also alternating dynamics: FF to pp) to simulate the sound of rapidly tongued articulations (Example #9). This technique is also conventional for the shakuhachi (on which the performer of traditional solo honkyoku never articulates with the tongue) - a Japanese bamboo flute.

Example #9 Clarinet Solitude - Joji Yuasa (click on measure to hear mp3)

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Alternate Fingerings (continued) A chart of other fingerings (B3 - G5) suitable for rapid alternation with the regular fingering of the same pitch, follows (Table #1). Those which can not be alternated at a rapid speed have been labeled nf (not fast). The intonation of these pitches is extremely close to the regular fingering; only minor adjustments of the type made in normal tuning while playing may be necessary. Those pitches which may exhibit noticeable tuning discrepancies have been labeled (s. low = slightly low, etc.) 9 ; pitches that are a bit more resistant than regular fingerings are designated "resist." Table #1 (click on measure to hear mp3)

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Alternate fingerings of contrasting timbre and dynamic capabilities may also be extracted from diads (multiple sounds consisting of two pitches). The lowest pitches from these fingerings are especially dull sounding and only playable at ppp-pp dynamic levels. The reader is referred to Chapter III for other similar sounding alternate fingerings; all multiphonics that are possible to begin with the bottom note only, will work (Table #2). Table #2 (click on measure to hear mp3)

8 The lower register "break" (B-flat4 - B4) of the clarinet has also, historically, been a cause of problems for the performer.10 Not only has timbral homogeneity been difficult to achieve, but the movement of so many fingers from one pitch to the next has also limited the possibilities for a smooth legato. Alternate fingerings for the lower clarion register do exist, and often can be employed quite successfully to extend the throat register (Example #10). These fingerings are likely to be somewhat unfamiliar to many clarinetists (since they utilize the rarely employed upper trill keys which are played by the side of the stretched first finger of the right hand), so care should be taken if they are to be approached by leap.


Legato movement over the "break" between the clarion and altissimo registers is somewhat easier to negotiate than the lower break. A set of alternate fingerings do exist, however, that actually function by overblowing the alternate fingerings just described for the lower clarion register. The timbre of these pitches becomes brighter and thinner as they become higher (Example #33). These alternates may be difficult to produce in an isolated context softer than mf, and must be attacked in a fairly strong manner to insure stability (especially the highest three pitches).


9 An abundance of alternate fingerings exist for pitches in the altissimo register. Paul Drushler has very clearly described the acoustical link between basic fingerings and registers of the clarinet (Example #34a). Third partials (clarion register) are produced by depressing the register key (thus opening the register hole). Fifth partials (C-sharp5 - Asharp6) are produced by lifting the first finger of the left hand, in addition to the register key. This permits the LH1 tone-hole to act as a vent. Seventh partials, and higher, are generally produced by depressing the G-sharp key in addition to the others mentioned (in the chart of altissimo fingerings presented in this chapter, the F-sharp key, as well as other vents, seems to be equally represented). The general outline of this formula is followed in the following example (Example #34b). It is important to note that many fifth partials also require the G-sharp key, and that other vents (A key) are utilized for pitches derived from the highest partials. In addition, the highest pitches often stem from "out of tune" partials of unrelated fundamentals. It is clear that the desirable method for developing fingerings consists of starting with a fundamental, selecting vents, and making final alterations by opening and/or closing various tone holes. According to Drushler, "variations in pitch, timbre and stability for specific altissimo notes can be discovered by experimenting with modifications of basic fingerings." 11

Example #34a (click on music to hear mp3)

10 #34b (click on music to hear mp3)

The limited finger movement required between the five pitches in Example #35a can be utilized by composers in rapid musical passages. Drake Mabry has written for a "composite fingering" in the third movement of Street Cries for solo clarinet (Example #35b). This particular fingering not only permits swift leaps in register without much trouble, but also provides a dramatic contrast of timbres.

Example #35a (click on music to hear mp3)

11 #35b (click on music to hear mp3)

Some other possible composite fingerings are included below (Table #4).

Table #4 (click on music to hear mp3)

The American clarinetist Henry Gulick writes of classifications for altissimo register pitches.12 These categories deserve mention, as well as others, in order to understand timbre and resistance characteristics of altissimo fingerings. One classification that is widely employed by professional clarinetists is what Gulick calls "long fingerings." In long fingerings, the first finger of the left-hand remains on the tone-hole; a vent exists further down the clarinet body. As a result, long fingerings require overblowing of lower pitches. The longer tube length that is in play produces thicker, darker timbres that are generally more secure at loud dynamic levels (Example #36).


Chart of Alternate Altissimo Fingerings The following chart (Table #5) of alternate fingerings contains only a few of the many choices for altissimo register pitches. No unusual techniques are called for, however, such as half-holes or depression of pad keys. Slight deviations in pitch may exist, but these are easily corrected by adjustments of embouchure and air pressure. These adjustments are no more extreme than those that one would make to play in tune with other performers; they merely require a sensitive "auditory image." Since different players play different equipment, the tuning will be slightly different for each individual. An aspect such as how far a particular pad comes away from a particular tone-hole can be very significant. In the same manner, pitches from the microtone charts may work as alternate fingerings; however, one runs the risk of timbre distortion as one becomes further and further from the pitch of the original fingering. The annotations under each fingering are arranged according to the following format: I - partial - partial of fundamental that fingering is based on / fundamental pitch (ie. 5th/C4) [C4mod = modification of C4 fundamental] II - intonation - tendency towards high or low III- timbre - bright - dark (sl. or s. = slightly); thick - thin IV - articulation - resist. = resistant - difficult to begin immediately; sl.resist. = slightly resistant hard attack = must begin abruptly V - dynamics - ppp to fff (only indicated if limitations exist)

13 VI - preparation - a complex fingering - player must have time to prepare it -legato connection to it may not be possible smth. = smooth connection from another pitch isl. = isolated context only n.isl.= do not isolate VII- strengths - tr = use as a trill fingering ps = use in diatonic scale passage leg.= legato from clarion register VIII- stability - when sustained or approached/left by legato above the staves (fingering categories, according to vent used): r = thumb hole + register key vents t = overblown throat tones A = A key vent Ab = Ab key vent

14 Table #5

New Pitch Resources Microtones "all pitches that lie between the semi-tone of the twelve-tone, equal-tempered tuning system." 13 "...small tones, which usually implies musical intervals smaller than a semitone, the distance between any two neighboring piano keys. A more inclusive category is xenharmonic music, which extends to any tuning system that departs from the twelve note per octave equal-tempered scale." 14

Musical application of microtones for clarinet has only just begun to be explored by composers. It is hoped that the information presented here may spark the imaginations of composers and performers towards qualities of microtones other than pitch. Timbre contrasts, ornamentation or polyphonic development through trills, transitions to multiphonics as a means of musical cell development, or the use of percussive effects found in microtonal trills are certainly potential areas that could be pertinent to the development of musical material. Microtones are not a twentieth century invention; they were discussed as early as the eleventh century by theorists.15 N. Vincentino described a quarter-tone harpsichord in the sixteenth century, and Christopher Simpson wrote about microtonal music in the Compendium of Practical Musick (1667).16 The modern revival was also not just a result of scientific interest in the nature of sound (Alois Haba, among other microtonal

15 composers, took an intensive course in acoustics at the University in Berlin). Increased interest in folk music and a move against the richness and decadence of the late romantics helped to create a receptive attitude. Julian Carrillo ( Mexico ) began experiments from 1895 that led to an equal-tempered 96-note scale (16th tones). Busoni, in his "New Aesthetic of Music" (1906) advocated a system based on thirdtones. During the 1920's several publications by Ivan Wyschengradsky, Carrillo, and Haba helped to publicize the theories and the music. More recently, the work of Harry Partch and the music journal Interval have stimulated new interest in microtonal music.17 Microtonal production on wind instruments such as the clarinet was first exploited and notated by European composers in the early twentieth century. At first, clarinets of modified design were developed to produce these pitches. Richard H. Stein, a composer and clarinetist, developed a quarter-tone clarinet around 1911 that consisted of the addition of numerous tone holes and keys to the standard design.18 Another approach was taken by Fritz Schuller in 1937, who created an instrument that employed two different tubes tuned a quarter of a tone apart. The Czech composer Alois Haba was also intrigued by the construction of quarter-tone instruments. A quarter-tone clarinet, developed in 1924, was utilized in his Suite Op. 24 of 1925 (clarinet, quarter-tone piano) and Suite Op. 55 of 1943 (solo quarter-tone clarinet).19 However, all of these instruments failed to gain acceptance, probably because of one principal problem: clarinetists were reluctant to accept such drastic design changes. Microtonal writing for clarinet in the last twenty-five years has increased markedly. Works by Russian composers such as Edison Denisov, Italian composers such as Carlo Landini and Giacinto Scelsi, Japanese composers such as Joji Yuasa, Toru Takemitsu, Akira Nishimura, Isao Matsushita, and Masataka Matsuo, and American composers who include Robert Erickson, Richard Boulanger, Ezra Sims, Harold Seletsky, John Eaton, and Drake Mabry are a few examples.20 These composers all employ the standard B-flat clarinet to produce microtones. What may be lost with regard to precise intonation and matched timbres, is balanced with easier technical control by the player on his familiar conventional instrument. In addition, the composer has the advantage of performers with developed and more flexible techniques (a level of virtuosity that has taken many years to reach), as well as closer relationships to their instruments which allow them to work with the composer to achieve a higher level of musical expression.21 Clarinetists may not be able to produce microtones to the exact acoustical cent, but the information in this chapter does provide accuracy in relative pitch distances. Clarinet microtones present fascinating musical material outside of their pitch characteristics; for example, in the realm of timbre. Their compositional utilization need not be limited to an extension of twelve-tone chromaticism. Musicians today, however, are far from unanimous in their support of the above approach. The composer James Wood presents a common opposing view. "It is precisely these conventional instruments which in practical terms are incapable of consistently accurate realization of micro-intervals because of the subjectivity involved. Following the example of the pioneers of microtonality, if we want to achieve any degree of precision, we have to build special instruments". 22

16 It appears, from this statement, that Mr. Wood's interests lie primarily in the precision of pitch; an area that is perhaps best left to electronic music or theoretical texts. The composer Robert Erickson comments on problems of this approach: "I think of pitch as much more infinite, variable and wavy and watery...Just because we write, we have a system for 12-tones doesn't mean that every interval plays the same way. I'm playing A, but what am I doing here; who am I playing A with, shall I play it high, shall I play it low, what's going on musically and I think of these pitches as sort of dynamic entities in motion all the time.... The difficulty is that we can have all these beautiful theories and all this beautiful mathematics but when we come down to trying to make instruments and sound them, yes, and do things to make sound, it just isn't there. It just doesn't have much to do with the theories that we talked about." 23

This opinion is echoed by composer David Dunn, who stresses the importance of "real" sound over theory, through a closer examination of what a "microtone" is: "What might a microtone actually be? What characteristics might it exhibit? And in what sense is it an extension of anything when its contextual terminology must of necessity reference it to the system of temperament which it strives so desperately to disassociate itself from? Who or what has defined a universally accepted definition of tone from which our friend `micro' might be derived? And even if such a definition truly exists then upon what authority need I accept it? If small numbered harmonic ratios are truly what the ear would most prefer, left to its own resources, then in what sense could it be said that a string quartet playing traditional literature in tune is not playing in just intonation? Or in what sense could home-made instruments which strive to avoid structural rigidity ever be in just intonation when intonational drift begins to occur within minutes of initial tuning? If it is truly possible to have a microtone then perhaps it is also possible, as a friend recently proposed, to have a macro-tuning system which, for example, might consist numerically of less than one tone per octave. Ultimately my point is that the ear is what is essential in that all musical systems remain descriptions of what the ear hears. We have only a glimpse of the possible descriptions, let alone the possible hearings. To not consider deeply the terminology used to describe it is to also not consider deeply what is heard." 24

Somewhat similar problems present themselves in the music of Ben Johnston, who employs just intonation. He has pointed out that the acquired skill that allows "live" performers to adjust their intonation automatically in ensembles actually leads the tuning closer to just intonation than to equal temperament. However, this is not always true in all instrumental combinations, and especially not for a solo instrument. Stuart Dempster has noted, about his performances of Johnstons 's One Man , a tendency to gravitate towards equal temperament after several performances.25 This evidence adds further weight to the position that electronic instruments present a more accurate medium, if precise pitch is desired in microtonal music. It is true that the contemporary clarinet was not designed to play microtones. Because of the limited number of keys on the standard clarinet, many microtones require the use of cross fingerings. Cross fingerings employ open vents, higher on the instrument body than the lowest tone holes that are closed by fingers or keys. These help to produce vast contrasts of color between different microtones (Example #44).

17 Example #44

For the performer, learning these fingerings is similar to learning a new, related instrument; many of them involve unconventional or unfamiliar finger patterns. Nevertheless, the fact that composers have written microtones for the standard clarinet since at least 1911 can not be ignored; performers must find ways to produce the desired musical consequence. The problems of learning a new system can be overcome through imagination and musical understanding. It is especially curious to note that the process of learning a new system can help the clarinetist to review, refine, and perhaps understand more deeply the basic concepts of clarinet playing needed to successfully realize the standard repertoire.26

Previous Research Results of previous research have generally consisted of very limited catalogs of limited information (no smaller pitch intervals than quarter or eighth tones, little or no mention of timbre, no mention of quarter-tone or microtone trills, etc.), with little or no attention focused on practicalities of performance. Although some of this research has served as a valuable introduction to various sonic potentials of the clarinet, there has been virtually no suggestion of "safe" uses of these extended techniques in musical contexts (which ones are most reliable?). Studies by Rehfeldt, Caravan and Bartolozzi offer fine introductions, but do not present important details.27 Phillip Rehfeldt's charts include some awkward microtones that are technically impossible in most contexts (except for isolated entrances of short duration, at pianissimo - for example), or that involve nonconventional finger patterns; these problems are not sufficiently described for composers (or clarinetists). In addition, these microtones are not adequately compared according to pitch; they are merely grouped as alternate fingerings for quarter or eighthtone intervals.28 Ronald Caravan displays a quarter-tone scale (the upper range reaches only to F5) and does discuss timbre in the context of alternate fingerings; however, no mention of microtone timbre or specific considerations of technical practicality. Much of Bruno Bartolozzi's work is only applicable for a clarinetist who uses a Full-Boehm system instrument (with a low E-flat key)) -- this excludes all clarinetists who do not use this Italian-system instrument. In general, all of these documents merely touch the surface with regard to both microtones and descriptive information.

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Guidelines for Use The clarinetist may produce microtonal pitches in one of two ways: through special fingerings, or through changes in embouchure. This study has explored the first option only, since it is by far the most dependable in performance, the most universally accurate with regard to pitch, and the closest in technical demands to customary performance practice. Some problems of universal application by clarinetists who use standard Boehm-System instruments occur because of individual preferences for different mouthpieces and reed styles. Timbre distinctions of bright and dark are relative to the equipment and overall individual physical characteristics of each player. In addition, most advanced clarinetists have their instruments "customized" to improve intonation, and do not use the mouthpiece that comes with the instrument. A further complication is noted by the fact that all instruments may not be tuned at exactly A = 440 Hz. This is one reason why the author has not attempted a precise frequency analysis of microtonal pitches. Instead, information has been gathered based on the measurement by the naked ear of relative distances between pitches. Microtones are portrayed in the following charts in a proportional fashion with regard to distance from adjacent pitches. Limitations also exist in the creation of equidistant microtonal scales. Naturally, it is not always possible to find eight microtones within each whole step that are equidistant, for example. Also, fingerings may need to be adjusted slightly to avoid awkward technical problems. These technical limitations, as well as problems encountered in actual practice by the performer who must hear microtonal intervals "in tune," outline the difficulties found in the production of theoretically perfect microtonal scales with "equal-tempered ears" on standard equipment adjusted for equal temperament. In general, the composer should enlist the assistance of a clarinetist if he wishes to employ clarinet microtones in his work. Personal experiment takes precedence over strict adherence to stated principles, observations, or fingerings. The information presented here is not exhaustive by any means. Disjunct microtonal motion, for example, should be carefully checked for potential problems by a performing clarinetist.

Quarter-Tones The following quarter-tone scale extends from A3 to D6; it contains relatively few problems for the clarinetist. However, somewhat weak conjunct sections of the quartertone scale are found across the "break" from the throat register to the clarion register (Bflat 4 to D-sharp 4).32 From B-flat 4 to C4 there are technical problems because of awkward finger placement requirements. From C4 to D-sharp 4 there are no practical fingerings for quarter-tones, since virtually the entire length of the instrument is employed. Cross fingerings can not be utilized. This is the same consideration that inhibits quarter-tone production below chalumeau A. Another section of the quartertone scale that is weak consists of pitches above B6. The altered air and embouchure pressure necessary to produce these pitches (often on different partials), as well as awkward fingerings make them treacherous, especially if approached quickly by leap.

19 TABLE #6 - Quarter Tone Scale

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The clarinetist should practice tuning these quarter-tones by first playing the half-step, and subsequently adding the quarter-tone. This process will lead to an improved level of quarter-tone intonation. [below are some musical examples of quarter tones - for others, click here]

Drake Mabry, another American composer, adopts the use of quarter-tones for several musical purposes in his Street Cries (1983) for solo clarinet. One application takes the form of a repetition or echo device (Example #53).

21 Example #53

measures 6-7, mvt. I


These repetitions are not only a quarter-tone removed, but also display a strikingly different timbre. Measure 7 is not only much softer than measure 6, but has a thinner sound. Measure 37 sounds thicker and darker than measure 36. This echo technique is also employed in the second movement (Example #54).

Example #54

measures 23-4, mvt. II

In this example, the repetition sounds much darker because of its quarter-tones, lower dynamic level, and shift to the lower register. Mabry employs another timbre manipulation in a completely different context in the first movement. The very dark quality of the quarter-tones in measures 8 and 9 adds another dimension to the conflicting patterns of pitch and articulation (Example #55).

22 Example #55


One more example of timbre contrast in the first movement occurs in measure 38, where the D-flat should be fingered in the following manner to preserve the bright quality of the line (Example #56).

Example #56

This helps to vividly contrast the thick timbres of measure 37. A final illustration in Mabry's Street Cries of timbre contrast through quarter-tones is drawn from the third movement. A "composite fingering" is used to produce four different pitches with very minimal technical changes. This fingering helps to produce substantial timbre differences as well as dynamic differences among the four pitches (Example #57).

23 Example #57

Akira Nishimura wrote Madoromi III in 2003, commissioned by and dedicated to the Tanosaki-Richards Duo. The work makes extensive use of quarter-tones and microtones which support the program of the music. Translated to English, madoromi means ‘under the spell of sleep….a strong desire (or lack of resistance) to sleep…drift into sleep with strong power.' The type of sleep, itself is shallow, but the dreams that one experiences are often more realistic than reality. I wanted to write music that floats between the surface wave of this inner world. In the passage below, Nishimura writes quarter-tones for the clarinet that combine with acoustical beats from the piano pedaling and clusters to create music that fades in and out of focus. This focus is further affected by the extreme color contrasts (dark and muffled) of the clarinet G quarter-tone sharp and F quarter-tone-sharp, and the alternate fingerings for D and D-sharp, with the conventional pitches of its line. The clarinet's easy microtonal segment on G also enhances the acoustic beats from its interaction with the sustained piano chords.

24 Example #67

Quarter-Tone Trills and Tremolos Numerous trills and tremolos that utilize quarter-tones are practical. They are available in three different classifications: 1) trills between adjacent quarter-tones and standard half-steps, 2) tremolos between non-adjacent quarter-tones and standard half-steps, and 3) trills between two quarter-tone fingerings. Several examples from each area are outlined below.

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Drake Mabry successfully employs quarter-tone trills in his Street Cries for solo clarinet. The tension of an ascending quarter-tone line in the third movement is effectively heightened with quarter-tone trills (Example #74).

26 Example #74

measures 29-31, mvt. III A different set of quarter-tone trills is utilized later in the same movement (Example #75).

Example #75

measures 46-7, mvt. III

Equidistant Microtones; Disjunct Microtonal Segments; One-Octave Microtonal Scales; Non-Equidistant Microtones

Microtones The clarinet has long been capable of producing microtones smaller than quarter-tones, but has rarely been asked to do so. It's full range of microtonal possibilities has been largely undocumented. In fact, accurate microtonal segments of intervals smaller than thirty-second tones are often possible and quite easy to produce.

Equidistant Microtones Equidistant microtones are represented in Table #10; quarter, sixth, eighth, twelfth, and sixteenth tones. These microtones are arranged proportionally on the page, both horizontally and vertically, in order to permit convenient comparisons. Horizontal

27 brackets ( [ ] ) mark the length of uninterrupted scale segments, since equidistant pitches are not always available. TABLE #10 - Equidistant Quarter, Sixth, Eighth, Twelfth & Sixteenth Tones

28 In addition to the illustrated conjunct segments that are technically easy to produce in a legato fashion, several disjunct segments of eighth and quarter-tones are particularly easy to negotiate.

TABLE #11 - Disjunct Microtonal Segments

One-Octave Microtonal Scales Scales can be formed from microtones that present fascinating pitch or timbre relationships when written for clarinet. Several examples follow which have been arbitrarily chosen because of their bright or dark timbre qualities or symmetrical pitch patterns. All are fairly easy for the clarinetist to master. Example #92 presents a ten-note scale in the chalumeau register that exploits dark timbres.

29 Example #92

An equidistant scale of sixteen 3/8 tones is represented in Example #93.

Example #93

Thirty-two note scales, based on condensed interval patterns of the octatonic scale (alternating whole and half steps), are shown in Examples 94 and 95. Example 94 is arranged in an eighth-quarter-quarter-eighth pattern. Example 95 is arranged in an eighth-quarter pattern.

30 Example #94

Example #95

31 Microtonal Scale (not equidistant) The following table presents practical, conjunct microtones for clarinet according to pitch from G-sharp 2 to B quarter-tone sharp 6. The relative space between fingerings corresponds to actual pitch distance, and each system (line) represents one quarter-tone.

TABLE #12 - Microtonal Scale

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Disjunct Microtones Several easy segments of disjunct microtonal motion have been arbitrarily set down in the following table. These involve chromatic and diatonic finger patterns of the right hand. TABLE #14 - Disjunct Microtonal Motion

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Atypical Trills Finally, a collection of trills termed "atypical" has been gathered to demonstrate some unique sounds that can be easily produced as part of certain microtonal trills. These sounds include pitched key clicks or finger slaps that can be heard simultaneously with, and as either louder or softer than, a microtonal trill (see Chapter IV for further examples); apparent low frequencies that comprise part of a multiphonic sonority, usually at a very soft dynamic level; and, microtonal trills that consist of pitches with extremely contrasted timbres. They have been organized here according to the frequency of the basic pitch that the trill originates from, from low to high. A short description follows each trill fingering in order to elaborate on its characteristics and possible variations. The pitches or arrows above the staff in parentheses represent the pitch frequency that is produced when the trill key or finger is engaged. The lower notes in parentheses, described as pp-p, are evident as part of a multiphonic when the trill is performed very softly. "Pitch pop" relates to a precise pitch that is generated when the trill is performed softly with very hard finger movement.

34 TABLE #17 - Atypical Trills

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CHAPTER 3 - Multiple Sounds Some acoustical principles of clarinet multiple sounds The general acoustic principles of the clarinet have been previously discussed; our problem here is to discover how they explain the phenomenon of multiple sounds.11 It is obvious that multiple sounds are based on partials of a fundamental pitch. However, they are not always related as odd partials of one likely fundamental. Where do these unrelated partials come from, then? The answer may be related in some way to the even partials that exist in particular clarinet spectra mentioned by Backus and others.12 These findings are important when one considers the derivation of pitches in clarinet multiple sounds; pitches which are not logically explained as the odd-partials of a given fundamental, may actually be out-of-tune, even-partials, or partials from another fundamental. It is clear that multiple sounds are based on partials of at least one fundamental, but why are there such drastic timbre differences between multiple sounds and between individual pitches of one multiple sound? There must be more to an explanation of the acoustics of multiphonics. Unfortunately, many terms used to describe multiple sounds are misleading and oversimplified. Early acoustical descriptions of woodwind multiphonics often refer to them as "harmonics," pertaining to partials produced according to the standard overtone series from a fundamental pitch. This is a dangerous usage, since it invites comparison to string harmonics, which consist of one pitch produced from a single fundamental. In reality, the more accurate acoustical explanation of clarinet multiphonics is much more complex and not universally agreed upon. Another misnomer is the labeling of multiphonics as "chords." Again, a comparison with string double or triple stops is not appropriate, since each multiple sound has a different texture as well as a different timbre and intensity for each of its tones. Ronald Caravan has suggested some interesting theories in his 1974 dissertation.13 He cautions us, however, with regard to our interpretation of numerical figures to draw conclusions about the acoustical characteristics of the clarinet. "The human variable, which must be present to produce the sounds is great....it appears that it possesses a greater latitude of variation than the margin for error would impose even in computations on as elementary a level as those made here."14 Nevertheless, results from spectrum analyses that he conducted fuel speculation that more than one fundamental and set of overtones are present in each multiple sound. When a multiple sonority is produced, it appears that there are actually two tube lengths at work simultaneously (Example #1).

36 Example #1

This seems to be supported by the following example, which shows a sequence of multiphonics with a lowest pitch that changes very little from one to the next (Example #2). Example #2

The upper pitches, however, gradually progress upwards. It is significant that the left hand fingering remains the same; it appears that the open hole (second finger, left hand) behaves as the terminating hole of the shorter tube (Caravan calls this L1). This is similar to a E3 fingering, but is slightly lower because of the additional fingers on the right hand placed over holes. The right hand fingers gradually are lifted (in a chromatic or microtonal ascending motion); these control the length of the longer tube (L2), and cause the higher pitch, and to a lesser extent the lower pitch, of the multiphonic to gradually ascend. Thus, the terminating hole of tube L1 (open hole in the left hand fingering) also functions as a register opening or vent for L2. Caravan has labeled this hole the "register-terminator hole." THE REGISTER-TERMINATOR HOLE PERFORMS TWO SIMULTANEOUS FUNCTIONS: IT TERMINATES THE SHORTER TUBE AND ACTS AS A REGISTER OPENING OR VENT FOR THE LONGER TUBE.

37 Obviously, since all fingerings on the clarinet with these characteristics do not produce multiple sounds with the same ease, there must be particular limitations to the registerterminator hole. Caravan believes, through a series of informal tests, that the size of the diameter of the register-terminator hole is crucial to the ease of multiphonic production. Decreasing the size of a successful register-terminator hole lessens the ease with which the hole can be made to act as the end of a length of pipe (L1); increasing the size of a successful register-terminator hole increases the ease with which this hole can act as the terminator of a length of tube, but decreases its ability to act as a register hole for the longer tube (L2). In other words, the smaller the opening of the register-terminator hole, the greater the tendency to act exclusively as a register hole, and the larger the opening, the greater the tendency to act exclusively as the effective termination of a tube length. This theory can be used to explain why multiphonics that use the conventional register key, which has a small opening, as their register-terminator hole are more difficult to produce. Caravan has also hypothesized that the ratio between the length of tube 1 and tube 2 must also be more than 50% and less than 80% for a multiple sound to work well. However, he admits that the size of the register-terminator hole most likely effects the relative success of these ratios. The number of variables are, indeed, numerous. With these theories in mind, the pitches of a multiple sound in Example #2 can be explained as follows:

The lowest pitch of a) is derived from tube length L1 (c). This pitch (a sharp D3) is lower than E3 because of the added fingers of the left and right hand below the registerterminator tone hole (2nd finger of the left hand). The G4 and C-sharp5 found in multiphonic a) are produced from tube length L2 (b). This tube length would normally produce the 3rd (E4) and 5th (C-sharp5) partials above its fundamental (A3). The middle pitch of multiphonic a) is a minor third higher than the normal third partial (G4 instead of E4) because of the excessive size of the terminator hole. It has often been noted that the same multiphonic fingering will not produce the same pitches for different players, or even for the same player from one day to the next. It is true that on equipment of the same system (Boehm, for example), the precise pitch content may not be consistent; however, these are very minor variations, at least in the multiple sounds presented in this study. These inconsistencies can result from any of a

38 variety of reasons; an unbalanced reed, an insufficiently warmed-up instrument, specific mouthpiece characteristics, or customized clarinets, are four frequent causes. More likely, however, are deficiencies found in the construction of all clarinets and/or properties of the acoustical phenomena involved. As Paul Drushler points out, the clarinet is very much out of tune in its upper register (based on upper partials).15 As a result, fingerings must be altered to play single pitches. However, fingerings can not be changed for each pitch of a multiple sound; they, therefore tend to be out of equaltempered tuning, very often creating acoustical beats (amplitude modulation or interference tones) which can change markedly according to the adjustment of the reed and mechanics of the instrument. In addition, the combination of sonorities in a multiple sound may often produce difference or summation tones.16 Difference tones may only be audible if the pitches of the multiple sound are in tune and at an adequate volume. All of these acoustical phenomena may alter principle pitches, add new pitches, or appear to the ear to do either (often they change or fade in and out during the period of sustain of the multiple sound).17 Spectrum analyses by Caravan indicate that the strengths and tunings of partials which comprise multiple sounds do not remain in a very stable relationship among one another while the sound is produced, even though the composite sound may appear to remain constant to the listener.18 One more variable that comes into play is the fact that pitches in a multiple sound may alter because of the adjustments required of the player to produce the split sonority; this will generally lower pitches (Example #2 is a good illustration). Caravan presents some other valuable, although more general, insights as to why certain multiphonic fingerings seem to work better than others. "Important to note is that the smaller the degree of departure from normal playing practices a multiphonic fingering requires, the more manageable it is."19 This is logical, since the instrument has been built to deal with problems of standard performance practice. Multiphonics built from new, but technically feasible, fingerings are closer to standard performance practice than multiphonics produced from conventional fingerings through varying the oral cavity, breath pressure, and/or embouchure. Extreme flexibility of embouchure and breath, as well as flexible mouthpiece and reed set-ups, have long been characteristics of jazz players. Thus, it is not surprising that many of William O. Smith's multiphonics are produced by this manner. The author supports Caravan's statement about the unpredictability of this type of multiple sound. "The problem with multiphonics produced in this way is that in most cases they require such significant adjustments on the part of the performer that they tend to be very difficult to play, tend to be quite unstable and limited in dynamic range, and may not be attainable by every performer."20 Composers should be cautious when writing such sonorities. Chart of Multiple Sounds for Clarinet The following chart has been compiled from hundreds of musical compositions, and experiments; it has been checked by numerous players for accuracy. I have striven to organize the material according to acoustic principles of the clarinet and basic principles of clarinet technique. All of the multiple sounds presented are playable on any traditional professional mouthpiece/reed set-up. They demand only slight deviations from normal finger expectations and embouchure. Many previous studies have organized multiple sounds according to verbal descriptions of categories of production and/or sound, regardless of acoustical relationships. This

39 study employs acoustical relationships as the first order of organization, and briefly describes characteristics of each multiple sound (see explanation of notation, below). Of course, it is impossible to discuss every conceivable context for a particular multiple sound. BE SURE TO CONSULT A CLARINETIST ABOUT FEASIBLE CONTEXTS FOR PARTICULAR MULTIPLE SOUNDS. Multiple sounds have been placed in groups (labeled by letter, beginning with those with the lowest fundamental); a common denominator within each group is an identical register/terminator hole. In other words, the left hand fingering remains constant within a group. The multiple sounds are ordered according to the right hand fingerings which ascend in chromatic or microtonal intervals. Care has been taken to insure that these groups are playable as sequences; this means limited (minimum) finger movement, and a lack of contrary motion, wherever possible. The fastest possible tempo of legato connections of multiphonics within a group has been notated between the staves: very fast fast moderately fast moderate not possible A broken vertical line ( ) between multiple sounds in a group indicates that a legato connection is not possible, even though the adjacent sounds utilize the same series of partials. A double bracket ( [ ] ) between sounds in a group indicates that a legato connection is not possible, because the series of partials changes. Groups of multiple sounds with the same letter label (ie. A, A1, A2 etc.) utilize slightly different, but related left hand fingerings (different vents). For example, left-hand fingerings in Group A1 differ from Group A only through the addition of the register key. Left-hand fingerings in Group A2 differ from Group A only through the addition of the A-key, etc. The close technical relation of these groups makes numerous trills and tremolos possible between them (discussed later). Left-hand fingerings for A represent the lowest bottom pitches - left-hand fingerings for Z, the highest bottom pitches. It is important to note that each multiple sound listed is available in isolation; it need not be connected to another. Various characteristics of each multiple sound have been described beneath each example in the chart. The format of this chart, top line to bottom line, is: I - a number (1-462) - this number represents the position of this multiple sound in relation to the others in the chart, according to its lowest (and highest) pitch. The multiphonic with the lowest low pitch is #1; the multiphonic with the highest low pitch is #462. II - dynamic range possible - pp to FF

40 III - stability: how stable? a = very stable is the sustain b = moderately stable c = unstable IV - response: the time required to begin all sounds of the multiple sound? 1 = all sounds begin simultaneously, easily 2 = all sounds appear within 1 second, easily 3 = all sounds appear within 2 seconds, resistant 4 = all sounds appear within 3 seconds, more resistant 5 = all sounds appear within 4-5 seconds, very resistant V - timbre and texture - some general characteristics deserve mention here: 1) All diads will contain a significant amount of air when played softly. • All multiple sounds that use keys 3 and/or 4 as register vents will have thin timbres. • Most of the multiple sounds that do not contain undertones are capable of generating higher partials than indicated in the chart when played very loudly. However, the production and content of these partials are not controllable or reliable.

timbre descriptions are divided into 2 categories: a) those which describe individual pitches of a multiple sound b) those which describe the overall texture of a multiple sound dull - lack of partials dark - few higher partials dlbt. or dl.b - dull lowest pitch wide - predominant lower partials thin - pitch is weak, lack of partials

41 _______________________ ft - (fat) many partials (low & high) brt or edge - (bright) many higher partials brtp - bright highest pitch eltp - electronic "edgy" highest pitch thtp, t.h., or th.t - thin highest pitch wktp - weak highest pitch s.tp - strong highest pitch _______________________ sbtn - subtone ========================= elc - (electronic) 3 or more pitches, thin timbres, acoustical beats elc! - (raucous electronic) - changing amplitudes of pitches (similar to electronic,otherwise) bts - (acoustical beats) - acoustical beats caused by out of tune intervals slbt or sbt - (slow acoustical beats) thk - (thick) many pitches thk! - very thick mud - (muddy) unclear pitches _______________________ ns - noise in the sound s.ns - some noise in the sound air - air sounds apparent in sonority _______________________ bal - (balance) all pitches of equal intensity

42 3vc - three voices mvc - many voices holl - (hollow) - high and low pitch (no middle frequencies) tran - (transparent) lite - (light) thin timbres gent - (gentle) dull timbres soft - dull timbres rest - resistant _______________________ diad - two pitches (an undertone - lowest pitch is weaker than the highest) Mtr! - predominant major 3rd (10th) or triad M3! - major 3rd

VI - technique - (hints for easier production) ls! - looser embouchure, less air pressure tite - tighter embouchure, more air pressure d.lw - difficult to produce lowest pitch !tp - aim for highest pitch

VII - arpeggiation - capability to begin multiple sound with top or bottom pitch alone, gradually adding other pitches: top - easy to begin with top pitch bot - easy to begin with bottom pitch m.d. - moderately difficult d. - difficult

43 Chart of Multiphonics

The notation system used in this chart for multiple sounds on the staff is one which the author hopes will become standardized. All pitches (or as many as possible) in the multiple sound should be written on the staff. The filled-in note heads indicate secondary pitches, which may or may not be present according to the dynamic level of the multiple sound. It is important that the fingering for a multiple sound be indicated at

44 every occurrence in the music, directly under the sonority. These procedures will greatly assist the clarinetist in learning the music. The website for The Clarinet of the Twenty-First Century has an interactive, searchable database of multiphonic fingerings (http:// ) for clarinetists and composers. One may choose multiphonics based on any or all of the variables below: lowest pitch highest pitch number of pitches (2, 3, more than 3) softest dynamic possible (pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff) loudest dynamic possible (pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff) stability (very stable, moderately stable, unstable) resistance (easy, somewhat resistant, resistant, more resistant, very resistant) possible to begin from lowest pitch alone? possible to begin from highest pitch alone? noise in sound? (no noise, some noise, much noise) strong acoustic beats in sonority? (not apparent, some, many) color extremes (none, dull, bright)

The website also has a database for sequences of multiphonics. The searchable variables include: sequence with stationary lowest pitch? Which pitch? sequence with stationary highest pitch Which pitch? easy technical sequences - fastest possible tempo (moderate, moderately fast, fast, very fast)

Diads Another category of multiple sounds that has received innovative treatment in several works is diads. These sonorities are generally only possible at very soft dynamic levels, and tend to have very dull, pale timbres. The interval between top and bottom pitches is

45 generally either a major or minor tenth. Many of them are undertones, with top pitches commonly between G-sharp4 and C5. Isolated diads are adopted in Matsuo's Hirai III (1987), a concerto for clarinet and strings. They are blended in a marvelous texture of string harmonics (Example #13). Example #13

Other conventional fingerings in the clarion and altissimo registers of the clarinet are available for producing marvelous dynamic and timbre contrasts with the throat register, by simply releasing the register key. Example #23

Drake Mabry, in his work Street Cries for Solo Clarinet (1983), employs diads that gradually and softly fade in from their lowest pitch.

46 Example #24

Multiphonic Sequences A number of multiphonic sequences are quite easy to produce in legato articulation. In most cases, the multiphonics in the sequence may be played in any order (indicated here). Thirteen examples are given below (with indications of fastest possible tempo) – 48 more are available on The Clarinet of the Twenty-First Century website ( http://www.research. umbc.edu/~emrich/multiphonic sequences.html ). • Moderate tempo; any order (click on music for mp3)

47

2) any order [A3] (click on music for mp3)

Richard Boulanger, an American composer from Boston, also writes an effective sequence of multiple sounds in Construction #1 for Clarinet and Electronics. The top pitches relate to the melodic cell from which the work is generated (Example #41). Example #41 (click on music for mp3)

Richard Boulanger CONSTRUCTION #1 All Rights Reserved Used by permission from the composer

48 Yuasa creates appropriate musical moods through the use of sound characteristics of the following multiphonics within a phrase: the gentle qualities of #50a serve as a relaxed phrase ending; the variety of dynamic capabilities of #50b permit its use as part of the fpp thematic germ throughout the work (Example #50).

Example #50 (click on music for mp3)

Yuasa also makes very effective use of thick, distorted multiphonics at the climax of the work.


49 Joji Yuasa CLARINET SOLITUDE Copyright 1983 by Schott Japan All Rights Reserved Used by permission of European American Music Distributors Corporation, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for Schott Japan

In Distraction for clarinet and piano, by Masataka Matsuo, balanced soft multiphonics are interrupted by loud repeated notes in the piano. Example #53 (click on music for mp3)

Bill Kleinsasser utilizes balanced multiphonics in numerous contexts in Smooth Wood, Flash Metal (2003) for clarinet, flute, and interactive computer (written for E. Michael Richards and Lisa Cella). The composer writes: The noticeable differences between interesting objects offer engagement with the particularities of the objects themselves and also the less obvious offerings provided by the implied relationships between the objects. This work offers a three-fold expression of this idea playing out on many levels with the interplay and juxtaposition of musical differences forming the compositional basis of the work. The piece is in three large sections: an extended flute solo which evolves into a duet with the computer, a duet with flute and clarinet that is augmented by computer transformation, and a clarinet solo which forms its own context through computer transformation of the live performance. The clarinet solo is based on alternation of spectral focus and diffusion. The duet combines the flute and clarinet alternations with its own metaphor of entwining and fusion. The nature of the flute's acoustic character, how it differs from the clarinet, how the two can combine and intersect, and how these differences can be projected and transformed through the computer's particular idiom, are examples of how objects and relationships

50 permeate this music. The computer music, developed by the composer using Max/MSP software, is the result of real-time processing of music played by the flute and clarinet during the performance. In this way the computer can be considered analogous to fluid, aware architecture – variably resonating, diffusing, echoing, filtering, and reflecting what the acoustic instruments play.

The example below occurs at the beginning of the middle section of the music – the clarinet and flute multiphonics intersect closely, sharing many of the same pitches, but a number of acoustic beats result from the blend. Example #57 (click on music for mp3)

Multiphonic Trills and Tremolos The subject of multiphonic trills and tremolos will be briefly broached here; the reader is referred to the book by Gerald Farmer as an excellent source of half-tone or larger trills and tremolos.25 Farmer's book includes detailed diagrams of each individual trill. Trills between adjacent multiple sounds in the chart presented (different right-hand fingerings) in this chapter are possible, except where brackets or dotted lines intercede. In addition, they are possible between multiple sounds with the same right-hand fingering but different left-hand fingering between the following groups: A2 and A3 B and B1 B and B3 E and E1 H2 and H I1 and I

51 K and K1 K2 and K Carlo Landini uses one particular trill in Konzertstuck which is periodically interrupted by melodic fragments. The phrase eventually builds to a fortissimo climax; these particular diads are effective loud as well as soft.


Another example of diad trills can be found in Yuasa's Clarinet Solitude . These are only possible at very soft levels and are especially effective with "hard fingers" that emphasize the pitch pops of the tone holes being trilled.


Joji Yuasa CLARINET SOLITUDE Copyright 1983 by Schott Japan

52 All Rights Reserved Used by permission of European American Music Distributors Corporation, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for Schott Japan

P.Q. Phan also writes a sequence of multiphonic trills ( My Language for clarinet and piano) where the register key is trilled. This rising line has been appended recently by Phan to include more multiphonics (Example #77a). The trills with open left hand thumb hole in this example are easier to control than any in the Smith example, since the left thumb does not have to simultaneously cover the tone hole and trill the register key.


Example #77a

A spectrogram of the phrase above clearly demonstrates the increased tension of these multiphonics. The first trills (ex. #77) contain most of their energy in the fundamentals,

53 with some 3 rd partial presence. Gradually, 2 nd and 4 th partials are added, and the final trills (ex. #77a) of the phrase contain very thick pitch bands. #1

#2

54 #3

#4

There are other multiphonics that can be enhanced through a register key trill (Example #78).

55 Example #78 (CD3-Examples, Tracks 91-99)

A spectrogram for the eighth example above shows a tremolo that contains 3rd and 5th partials (gradually enter), along with a sustained pitch with a strong 2nd partial. As these voices and partials enter, the sound increases in complexity.

56 Bill Kleinsasser writes two multiple timbre trills (diads) in Smooth Wood, Flash Metal . These particular sounds are very difficult to play FF, but the hard finger/key sounds of the trill fingerings can help to create the necessary tension. Example #83 (CD3-Music, Track 79)

Multiphonics with Voice A final division of multiple sounds to be described here involves a simultaneous use of the voice with the production of a clarinet tone. In general, it is difficult to achieve a balance in volume between the two; the clarinet is usually louder. For the male voice, the following register for singing (notated at sounding pitch) is usually safe, although checking with a specific performer is advisable.

Example #85

As one sings higher in this range, vocal production becomes much more difficult. Singing, or humming, on the phoneme "ah" or "oo" is most effective and controllable. Eve de Castro Robinson also employs vocal portamento in her Undercurrents for solo clarinet. In the example below, the player hums above and below the established sung/played unison, creating acoustic beating.

57 Example #90 (click music for mp3)

This idea returns at the end of the work, where the phrase ends with an ascending shriek in the voice.

Example #91 (click music for mp3)

Seiji Yokokawa asks the clarinetist to sing a three note phrase with portamenti while playing a sustained E2 (Un miroir casse ). Example #92 (click music for mp3)

58

Later in the work, the sung part is reduced to a single held pitch.


Gerald Farmer has presented exercises for the clarinetist to increase his abilities to sing and play.26 However, these have not been placed in a graded order of difficulty that will accustom one to the sensation or improve one's auditory image. The following exercises should serve as merely suggestions; the interested clarinetist should design and practice his own. However, the basic principle of imitating with the voice what one plays seems to be a sensible starting point. Four approaches appear below:

1) sing a drone pitch - play a pattern above this drone - begin in unison (Example 94a)

59 2) play a drone - sing the same pattern that was played in #1 (Example 94b)

3) sing and play in parallel 3rds (Example 94c)

Spectrograms Spectrograms of a number of multiphonics follow (many more are available on The Clarinet of the Twenty-First Century website – http://www.research.umbc.edu/~emrich/multiphonicspectra.html). These diagrams represent the indicated multiphonic played at its middle dynamic level (i.e. if p-ff is possible, mf is the middle dynamic level). The duration of each multiphonic is between 2 and 7 seconds. It is important to note that the spectrum of practically every multiphonic changes (at least subtly) during its duration – the sound is constantly transforming.

60 In the spectrograms, height indicates frequency (hz.), or pitch of the fundamental(s) and partials; length (horizontal) indicates duration; and darkness/lightness indicates the relative amplitude (strength) of components of the sound. Directly below is a note to frequency converter (taken from the website of the Physics Department of The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia – http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/notes.html), NON-TRANSPOSED (written B4 for clarinet = A 440), that gives a context for the spectrograms.

61

22) E-99 : D ¾ 3 = 294 B5 = 880 E5 = 1175 5th of D ¾; 2nd of E; partials through 5000 hz.

62

23) E1-184 : F ¼ 3 = 311 F#4 = 659 C#5 = 988 2nd partial of C#; some 3rd and 4th partials

63 24) E1-226 : F#3 = 330 F5 = 1245 2nd and strong 3rd partial of F#; strong frequency band 1000-2000, up to 20,000 hz.

25) E1-398 : G#3 = 370 D ¾ 5 = 1109 5th partial of G#; 2nd partial of D#

64

CHAPTER 4 - Other Resources Sounds of Definite Pitch Glissando/Portamento These terms are still often used interchangeably, even though they have been clearly defined in earlier texts on new clarinet techniques.1 Part of the problem may result from the use of these terms by performers of instruments (string, brass) on which the glissando is executed in a different fashion; these instruments do not have keys (or as many keys), for example, which greatly assist in clearly defining pitches. At any rate, we will define the glissando as "a rapid chromatic scale between two notes - it is desirable to slightly blur these notes (by speed) so that they are not distinct, evenlyspaced in time, pitches." This technique is possible without a great deal of difficulty throughout the range of the clarinet (it is, of course, more difficult if required over one of the two "breaks" of the instrument). Since it is rather easily produced, we will move on to discuss the much more difficult portamento. Portamento can be described as a continuously smooth, sliding glissando. Caravan has given us a proper definition - "the connection of two tones by a smooth slide which passes through all of the possible pitches or frequencies between the two tones without interruption."2 The continuous movement of a trombone slide, or a string player's finger slid along a single string yields similar effects. The sound has entered the avant-garde repertoire most surely as a result of influences from jazz vocalists and clarinetists (including its widely known use in Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue - 1924), in addition to influences from the common practice of "circumlocution" (pitch sliding and bending) found in many non-western traditional musics (Japanese and West African, for example). Xenakis (in Eonta ) and Haubenstock-Ramati were among the first to extensively employ portamento in post-1945 music. The music of Eonta effectively combines steady pitches with slow portamenti, creating a marvelous, constantly changing rate of acoustical beating. A variety of explanations and methods have been suggested for portamento. All involve lip pressure, oral cavity shape, throat opening, tongue position, air pressure, and fingers, although in different hierarchical positions of importance. Phillip Rehfeldt recommends adjustments in lip pressure, oral cavity shape, and throat opening to produce a lower pitch from the fingering employed.3 This lower pitch must be maintained in parallel motion by the embouchure as the fingered pitches begin to move upwards or downwards. Garborino discusses, in a somewhat confusing way, what he labels as an "acciaccatura-portamento."4 This is realized with the lips by either relaxing or squeezing the embouchure at the moment that the portamento begins, or with an abrupt change in fingering just as the portamento begins. Neither method seems to be dependable in practice. Ronald Caravan states that portamento is produced primarily by manipulating the shape of the oral cavity by means of tongue position changes.5 Embouchure adjustment and tone hole uncovering are not as important. He presents an example, to illustrate his point, that involves a portamento from C4 to C5 (Example #1).

65

Example #1

Caravan contends that all fingers of the right hand may be lifted simultaneously and all fingers of the left hand may be lifted simultaneously without affecting the portamento. What he fails to mention, however, is how much time this portamento is to take from beginning to end, what the dynamic level is, or what its shape in time should be (Example #2). These factors all determine the role of embouchure and fingers. Example #2 Possible Shapes, in Time, of Portamenti

Caravan does offer some good suggestions for learning portamento production. Since downward tone bends are the most difficult, these should be practiced first; mastering the required technique (tongue and throat position control) for this skill is applicable to all other (including ascending) portamenti. Eventually, a series of downward tone bends can be linked to form a longer portamento. The following table delineates the possible safe range of downward pitch bends 6 This skill very much depends on the player and the flexibility of his equipment!! However, it is a capability that can be extended with practice.

66 Table #1

After one has practiced series of downward tone bends, the next logical step is to practice ascending bends, followed by series of ascending bends. Charles West has developed a methodology for the production of a continuous ascending portamento from G2 to C6(!).7 This is possible by connecting three separate portamenti - one from G2 to B4 (chalumeau and throat registers), one from B4 to C5 (clarion register), and one from C5 to C6 (altissimo register) - through a switch to an alternate fingering on the two pitches that are in common between registers (B4 and C5) (Example #3).

Example #3

The first of these portamenti is accomplished by adjustments in tongue and throat positions, in addition to a sliding of the fingers from the tone holes (G2 to G3). The throat A key, register key, and side key 3 (b-flat) are gradually added to bring the pitch up to B4; it is important that the left thumb never completely leave the thumb ring, not only in this portamento, but in the other two as well. The side fingering for B4 is then switched to the long B4 fingering (Example #4). This needs to be practiced to avoid, or disguise as much as possible, the resultant "bump" heard during this switch. West

67 presents a valuable hint when he suggests that the long B4 be played with the A key depressed so that it may more closely match the timbre of the side B4 fingering. Example #4

The second portamento is accomplished in a similar fashion to the first; B4 to C5 involves essentially the same fingerings as G2 to F3. The link to the altissimo register is accomplished by lightly touching the long C-quarter-tone-sharp 5 fingering (which is actually bent down by the relaxed throat and embouchure to C natural) (Example #5). Example #5

Fingerings for C-quarter-tone-sharp 5 to G-sharp 5 are accomplished by merely imitating those for chalumeau G-sharp to throat F. The final major third (G-sharp 5 C6) is achieved by adding the A-flat key, A key, register key, and side trill keys 3 and 4 (remember to keep the thumb ring down). West also offers some worthy ideas with regard to practicing this portamento. It is learned most quickly by working on one of the three sections at a time, being careful to practice linking one section to the first note of the next section.

68 The long portamento that Phan writes in the introduction of My Language for clarinet and piano is not difficult to play, even though it is at a slow tempo, because it is written with a cresc. to FFF and is strongly supported by the piano.


Isao Matsushita writes a number of short clarion register portamenti in Kochi II for solo clarinet. Other timbre transformations in this early section of the music include vibrato, flutter-tongue, and key vibrato.


In Madoromi III , Akira Nishimura asks the clarinetist for numerous portamenti in the altissimo, clarion, and chalumeau registers. In the example below, an alternate fingering for G5 (shown below in Example #24a) will allow the player to more effectively control a pp dynamic.

69 Example #24 (click on music for mp3)

A smooth portamento can be created from D-flat 5 to G5 by carefully switching to the second fingering indicated below, then gradually peeling off the fingers to the alternate G5 fingering indicated in the second measure. The long downward portamento from this G to D-sharp 5 is executed by slowly lowering the second finger of the left hand and loosening the embouchure. The fingerings indicated next to D-sharp 5 and C-sharp 5 in measures 3-4 below can be trilled to create quarter-tone trills. In order to achieve a smoother portamento from A5 to F4, one should first gradually lower the first finger of the right hand, then the third finger of the left hand (measure 5). Finally, the portamento from E4 to D-flat4 can be executed by first adding the F key to E4. Example #24a

70

Teeth on Reed Portamento is also possible by moving the teeth lightly on the reed from about midway down to further away (towards the shoulder) from the tip. However, the portamento will not always be smooth; jumps in partials are unavoidable, much like portamento harmonics on the contrabass (sounds that are reminiscent of seagulls). These sounds, which can not really be infallibly controlled according to pitch, tend to range from Dsharp 6 upwards (depending on qualities of the reed). The result will be a thin, highpitched whistling sound that can be played in the dynamic range pp-f. Non-portamento changes in pitch can be executed by either altering the pressure on the reed, or by moving the teeth to a different position on the reed. The safest context for pitches produced by teeth on the reed is one that calls for random pitches. Carlo Landini writes this way in Konzertstuck for solo clarinet (1980), where explosive high, squeaky sounds are used to periodically interrupt a softly held unison trill (Example #29). Example #29 (click on music for mp3)

This phrase is best played by randomly moving the fingers of the left hand to change the pitches. A spectrogram of these sounds shows a strong fundamental and 2nd partial, with a weaker pitch band from the 3rd partial upwards to 20,000 hz. Similar to muted pitches, some lower subtones are also present.

71

Another use of teeth on the reed, this time as an isolated portamento scream, is written by Helmut Lachenmann in Dal Niente (Interieur III) for solo clarinet (Example #30).

Example #30 (CD4-Music, Track 22)

A good notational symbol for teeth on reed is . Indications of duration may be notated proportionally by a horizontal line (Example #31). Example #31

Other Objects as Resonators Different and provocative sounds may be created when other objects are placed in vibration by sounds from the clarinet. Some of these objects will only vibrate when set in motion by particular pitches of the clarinet; others will vibrate differently when generated by any of many possible clarinet sounds. This area has not been explored in depth by clarinetists or composers; the following examples merely touch the surface of options. Setting the strings of the piano in vibration is one technique that has been employed by composers (one of the earliest examples occurred in Eonta by Xenakis). It is accomplished by playing the clarinet "into" the strings (with the bell at a distance of

72 anywhere from 2 feet to practically resting on the strings) while the sustain pedal of the piano is depressed (Yamaha currently sells a wedge to hold the pedal in place!). This allows not only the fundamental pitches played to vibrate sympathetically, but some of their partials as well. The result is a gradual increase in complexity of texture, depending on the volume of the clarinet, number of notes played, and length of time that the pedal is held. The quarter tones and pitch bends in the clarinet part of Nishimura's Aquatic Aura also produce sympathetic vibrations from the piano that are generated as soon as the sustain pedal is depressed . Example #38 (click on music for mp3)

Richard Boulanger also explores the resonance of the timpani in Construction #1 Clarinet (1980). Several different combinations of clarinet sounds and timpani that include vibrating objects resting on their heads, are employed. In one phrase, the clarinetist activates a timpanum that contains an inverted cymbal on its head, by playing a low E (full tube length) which crescendos to a short flutter-tongued E. The clarinetist depresses the timpanum pedal at the end of this sound to lengthen and raise the pitch (Example #40).

73


This same timpanum is also later activated by a phoneme that is shouted through the clarinet, while the pedal is quickly depressed and released several times (Example #41).


Richard Boulanger CONSTRUCTION #1 All rights reserved Used by permission from the composer

One more object as resonator will be mentioned, and that is the clarinet body itself which serves as an amplifier of breath/air sounds through the instrument. The timbre qualities of these sounds change depending on the length of tube involved. In Kochi II for solo clarinet, Isao Matsushita begins the work by alternating between conventional chalumeau pitches, and air sounds. Example #45 (click on music for mp3)

75

Vibrato There are two different types of vibrato: amplitude (or volume) and pitch. These are produced on the clarinet by a variety of methods. Amplitude vibrato may come from the diaphragm, glottis, or throat, while pitch vibrato originates with the jaw or lip. Confusion exists in method books, and among clarinetists, because the method of production is often used to describe vibrato, rather than the type of sound. To add to this state of chaos, Rehfeldt says that jaw vibrato is more common than amplitude vibrato in practice, while Drushler claims the opposite to be true!26 It seems to the author that pitch vibrato is more intriguing for the composer, because it is much richer and varied in sound potential. Pitch vibrato is achieved by the clarinetist through fluctuations of jaw (or lip) pressure on the reed. There will be slight timbre differences in the sound, because the reed is being pinched, but the perception of these will be directly related to the depth of the vibrato (how wide the pitch range is above and below the primary pitch) and the speed of the vibrato (how many cycles in time). Amplitude vibrato is produced by fluctuations in air pressure past the reed. The difference in amplitude (or loudness) of these fluctuations is severely limited. Since most clarinetists today do not employ vibrato, it would be best for composers to notate it when desired. Rate of vibrato should be displayed ( six to eight pulsations per second is a reasonable upper limit), indicated in the following manner (Example #55). Example #55 (click on music for mp3)

Depth (pitch) can also be indicated (as Paul Zonn does in Revolution ).


76

Another example of vibrato depth, which is meant to expand a microtonal trill, is found in an etude by the author (Example #57). Other possibilities are below the first example.

Example #57 (click on example for mp3)

A spectrogram displays the increasing strength of pulses just above the fundamental, a strong 2 nd partial throughout, and a frequency band of increasing strength and size from the 3 rd partial higher through 20,000 hz.

77 Microtonal trill to vibrato (0-7 seconds)

Microtonal trill to vibrato (7-14 seconds)

Pitch vibrato is also possible to produce in a gradual progression from air only, to sound (or the opposite) (Example #60). The pulsations of air sound similar to the sound that a stylus might make when it reaches the end of a phonograph record.

Example #60 (CD4-Examples, Track 17)

78 Flutter-Tonguing Flutter-tonguing on the clarinet is achieved by one of two methods: 1) a rapid flutter of the tongue behind the reed, "d-r-r-r" (or a rolled "r" on the upper palate), or 2) a growl produced by the throat (typically a trilled throat 'r') in a manner similar to gargling. The first method, which can be achieved by fewer players, is difficult to achieve at soft or changing dynamic levels. The second method does not produce as dramatic of a tone modification, but is possible throughout a greater range of the instrument. In general, flutter-tonguing by method 2 is feasible from the lowest pitch of the clarinet through Csharp/D 5 at any dynamic range. It is also possible to produce on higher pitches, but becomes increasingly more difficult, especially at a pp dynamic level. The first use of flutter-tonguing can be found in Strauss' Don Quixote , where the trumpets are asked to imitate bleating sheep. An early use in the clarinet solo repertoire can be found in Alban Berg's Four Pieces Op. 5 for clarinet and piano (1913). Fluttertonguing is used here for two different musical reasons: for intensifying a phrase (Example #61a), and for creating a blurred, fleeting texture (Example #61b). Example #61 click here for mp3 of a - click here for mp3 of b

Alban Berg FOUR PIECES FOR CLARINET AND PIANO, Op. 5 Copyright 1924 by Universal Edition Copyright Renewed All rights reserved

79 Used by permission of European American Music Distributors Corporation, sole U.S. and Canadian agent for Universal Edition

Harold Seletsky utilizes it for similar reasons in his work of 1978, Robin's Piece (Example #62).

Example #62 (click on music for mp3) • intensification

• blurred, afterthought

Harold Seletsky ROBIN'S PIECE All rights reserved Used by permission from the composer

Sounds of Indefinite Pitch Singing through the clarinet (with mouthpiece attached) Singing through the clarinet on various vowel sounds can create interesting formants (reinforced harmonics) when one lifts the fingers of either (or both) hand from their tone

80 holes. The sound will change drastically between the following vowel sounds: ee, aw, o, and oo. Richard Boulanger asks for this technique in Construction #1 for solo clarinet (1980). The clarinetist is required to sing a drone pitch (B-flat) while fingering a perpetual F major scale from E2 to F3 and back, as fast as possible (Example #66). Example #66 (click on music for mp3)

Richard Boulanger CONSTRUCTION #1 All rights reserved Used by permission from the composer

This sound is even more pronounced if the player takes more mouthpiece than normal into his mouth. It is also possible to re-articulate this sound in an interesting way by pronouncing "le" with the tongue on the roof of the mouth. Other variations include adding a growl-like flutter or vocal portamento. In the fourth section of Attracteurs Etranges for clarinet and computer tape, Jean Claude Risset writes a repeated low F for the clarinetist to sing through the clarinet (the notation indication is a box around the pitch). He does not specify the vowel sound or timbre of this sung pitch, but since it is echoed shortly thereafter in the tape part, the player should base his sound on what is produced on the tape. Since F2 uses most of the clarinet body as a resonator, the sound is quite dark here.


Percussive Sounds A variety of sounds (definite pitch, indefinite or approximate pitch) are possible on the clarinet that also contain percussive elements. Most of these percussive sounds are fairly soft; some must be amplified to be clearly heard. This is another area that has only been lightly investigated by composers or performers. Richard Boulanger asks the clarinetist to alter a gesture that is gradually becoming softer (dim.), despite the dynamic markings, from sound, to air, to key clicks in Construction #1 (Example #76).


Richard Boulanger CONSTRUCTION #1 All rights reserved

82 Used by permission from the composer

Helmut Lachenmann has developed a more complex system in Dal Niente . The notation, described below, includes a symbol for blowing on the reed with the instrument held a short distance from the mouth (Example #78).

Example #78

These subtle filtered color changes are exploited in numerous phrases; the music is very expressive, despite few standard pitches! In the following example ( Dal Niente ), note the interaction of fine changes in color between inhale/exhale, S/F consonants, short tube (G3) to long tube (E2), and dynamics/attacks (fffp - pp - p cresc.) (Example #79) Example #79 (click on music for mp3)

Helmut Lachenmann DAL NIENTE Copyright 1974 by Musikverlag Hans Gerig, Koln/Cologne

83 1980 assigned to Breitkopf & Hartel, Wiesbaden

The sound of a finger striking a tone hole can also invoke a pitch. These sounds can be best produced by one of the three fingers of the left hand, while fingering notes from C3 to E2. They can also be sounded simultaneously with a very soft conventional tone (Table #4). Table #4 (click on measure for mp3)

Double trills on the clarinet can be achieved by rapidly and alternately trilling the first and second fingers of the left hand. The sound created (soft dynamic level) is one of implied pitch, over which one hears a sound similar to a muffled tom-tom roll. These trills are possible for fingerings from B3 to E2, from which implied pitches between D-

84 sharp3 and D3 are derived (if the register key is depressed, the implied pitches lie between F-sharp 3 and F3). There is also a timbre conversion towards darker sounds as one fingers lower pitches (Table #5). An etude by the author, found at the end of this chapter, exploits several of these trills.

Table #5 (click on measure for mp3)

Akira Nishimura effectively writes a short cadenza of double trills in Madoromi III . In the example below, these trills emerge from and return into the ringing piano chords. This delicate texture allows the very soft subtleties of these sounds to be heard. Example #88 (click on music for mp3)

85

Speaking through the Clarinet (with mouthpiece attached) Works have been written for solo trombone (Robert Erickson - General Speech ) and solo trumpet (Kenneth Gaburo - Mouthpiece ) that have successfully employed speech through instruments.39 Part of the beauty of this technique is the production of ambiguous meanings through different shades of intelligibility of the text. Words begin to sound similar to other words, and take on musical qualities! The listener begins to listen to the rhythm, shape, and inflection of speech with a new awareness. In addition, the theater inherent in this technique reminds one of Liebowitz's comment about sprechstimme : This new way of treating the voice permits the elaboration of melodramatic scenes according to purely musical principles, which is not the case in classic recitatives.40 In a section from The Black Wall illustrated below, Drake Mabry has the woodwinds (including E-flat clarinet) and brass whisper, in unison, lines from the poem that inspired the work. Even though the text is unintelligible, the unison effect and multiple timbres is mesmerizing. Example #92 (click on music for mp3)

The following consonant transients are especially effective on the clarinet as short sounds: T, H, W, K, Y, and Th (touch reed). Furthermore, all of the phonemes below are plausible:

86

Table #8 (click here for mp3) a as in act front vowel ng as in bring voiced nasal a as in ago o as in odd ah as in father back vowel o as in official ahr as in arm oh as in oat back vowel air as in dare ohr as in board aw as in walk oi as in join ay as in age front vowel oo as in soon back vowel d as in dog voiced plosive oor as in poor e as in bed voiced plosive or as in horse e as in taken front vowel ow as in now ee as in see front vowel r as in red voiced semivowel eer as in beer

87 s as in sit unvoiced fricative g as in get voiced plosive t as in top unvoiced plosive h as in hat th as in thin unvoiced fricative hw as in wheat unvoiced glide th as in this voiced fricative i as in give front vowel u as in cut mid vowel i as in pencil u as in circus i as in fire ur as in burn j as in jam voiced comb. plosive-fricative uu as in book back vowel k as in king y as in yes voiced glide l as in leg voiced semivowel n as in no voiced nasal

The few examples below do not work well, primarily because of the invasion by the reed of the oral cavity.

Table #9 (not possible) b as in boy (voiced plosive) f as in fat (unvoiced fricative)

88 p as in pin (unvoiced plosive) v as in van (voiced fricative) z as in zebra (voiced fricative) m as in me (voiced nasal) sh as in rush (unvoiced fricative) w as in will (voiced glide) zh as in vision (voiced fricative)

The Japanese composer Isao Matsushita effectively writes whispered phonemes in his work Kochi for three A clarinets. The players pronounce a variety of toneless ko's and chi's as the work comes to a close "in which sound disappears into the wind." (Example #93) Example #93 (CD4-Music, Track 57)

Isao Matsushita KOCHI All rights reserved Used by permission from the composer

89

CHAPTER 6 - Bass Clarinet Single Sounds It is an unfortunate myth which claims that extended techniques are only "effects" that are in no way related to traditional instrumental techniques.2 In fact, extended techniques are exactly what the term implies; extensions of conventional techniques. Throughout history, players and instruments have been forced to adjust to the times, or risk becoming obsolete. For example, composers, clarinetists/bass clarinetists and instrument makers have precipitated, often through collaboration, instrument design changes since the earliest clarinet was developed; the innovative composer, through his music, challenged the clarinetist, who consulted the instrument builder on ideas for mechanical improvements that would simplify the effort necessary to achieve the desired musical result. However, no design of the clarinet/bass clarinet has ever solved all of the awkward technical problems for the player. The most obvious proof of this statement is found in the fact that clarinetists/bass clarinetists have traditionally developed new or "alternate" fingerings to facilitate more reliable and musical results (suggested, and sometimes demanded by composers, conductors etc.) in performance. This has occurred despite the general emphasis by clarinetists/bass clarinetists in performance practice today on homogeneity of sound between adjacent pitches and registers. The usage of alternate fingerings in performance practice throughout the history of the clarinet/bass clarinet, but most especially since the early twentieth century when most clarinetists/bass clarinetists were playing instruments that had a greater number of easily manageable keys and thus more alternatives to choose from, demonstrates the existence of the concept of extended techniques, well before the middle of the twentieth century.3 Unfortunately, the clarinet/bass clarinet has evolved by exclusively empirical methods rather than by progressive theories. This, in addition to the musical requirements of past epochs, is another reason that has led both instrument-builders and clarinetists/bass clarinetists towards this single objective: what Bartolozzi has fittingly described as "the emission of single sounds of maximum timbric homogeneity throughout the range of the instrument."4 Rather than exploit the inherent qualities of the instrument, the clarinetist/bass clarinetist has been most often satisfied with refining the technique necessary for the performance of music from past musical epochs. Thus, during the twentieth century, much technique has become rigidly standardized. The desire of homogeneity of timbre in performance practice is especially baffling when one considers the unique characteristics of the bass clarinet, most obvious in comparisons with other woodwind instruments. It naturally possesses five registers of very different color, and of much greater contrast than any other wind instrument. The lowest three notes are very dark and resonant. The lowest register (chalumeau) tends to be dark with a big tone, and becomes diffuse as volume is increased. The throat register tends to be thin (airy; less projection) with potential for significant adjustments of timbre by the performer, while the clarion register is a resistant, thick, and airy tenor voice that becomes brighter as one approaches its highest pitches. The altissimo register

90 is bright and becomes thinner and more intense as one ascends towards the highest pitch extremes of the instrument (Example #1).

Example #1 (click on register for mp3)

Spectrograms of these six registers reinforce the observations above. The lowest three pitches are rich in partials with a strong frequency band from 300-2000 hz. First, third, and fifth partials are clearly apparent, as are partials above the fifth. C------------------ C#---------------- D

91

As the fundamentals move through the chalumeau register, higher partials become weaker.

Eb------------------- E----------------- F-------------F#------------- G-------- G#

A---------- A#---------- B---------- C---------- C#---------- D----------- D#----------- E

92 Upper partials continue to weaken through the throat register.

E------------ F----------- F#--------- G--------- G#----------- A--------- A#

In the lower half of the clarion register, the fundamental and 3rd partials are particularly strong, but frequencies above 3000 hz. are weak. Frequency bands below 3000 hz. are more prevalent than in the throat register.

Clarion register:

B-------- C--------- C#--------- D--------- D#-------- E--------- F--------- F#

The first three partials are strong in the upper half of the clarion register, and partials above 3000 hz. gain strength at the top of this register.

93

G------------- G#------------------------ A------------------- A#

The lower part of the altissimo register contains strong 1-3 partials with gradually weakening frequency bands as the fundamentals ascend.

B--------- C--------- C#--------- D----------- D#--------- E---------- F---------- F#

The strength of the first three partials continues through the middle and top of the altissimo register, and partials above 3000 hz. gain strength. G----------- G#------------- A------------- A#------------- B--------------- C

94

C-------------------- C#----------------- D----------------- D#

E------------------ F---------------------------------- F#

Because of the absence or weakness of clearly heard partials in this highest register, differences of dark and bright are not as applicable; thick and thin are perhaps more accurate descriptions, and usually relate to the particular partial level that is involved. For example, a pitch played on the third partial of a particular harmonic series may sound thinner than the same pitch played on the fifth partial of another particular harmonic series (Example #2).


Viewing the spectrogram, one can see strong 1 st through 5 th partials in the first D. The second D fingering has stronger 4th , 5th , and higher partials, which contributes to creating a brighter/thinner sound.

D------------------- Bb--------------------------- D------------------------ G

Various reed styles or mouthpieces may push these qualities towards thicker or thinner extremes. The effect of volume on timbre is most pronounced in the chalumeau register. In fact, the greatest contrast of timbre characteristics occurs in this register of fundamentals, when it is produced at a high volume level. At the other extreme, the most uniform timbre can be achieved in soft passages towards the top of the bass clarinet range, since there is a lesser presence of higher harmonics in this register and at this dynamic level. In between these outer extremes, it can be safely concluded that loud volume levels exaggerate the timbre characteristic of a certain pitch, while softer volume levels produce timbre matching at a middle point between dark and bright. Of course, the performer has a certain amount of control over timbre variables through embouchure or air pressure manipulation; increased embouchure pressure will produce stronger partials

96 while less pressure results in the weaker presence of partials. However, this manipulation often distorts pitch level. The timbre characteristics that have been defined for individual pitches in this study are not the outcome of extensive or unusual embouchure manipulation. In a more general sense, it is known that the harmonic spectrum produced by any instrument constantly changes in performance with every pitch and dynamic nuance that is played. In fact, there are even moment to moment changes in the balance of harmonics in every single humanly produced sustained tone.5 Other aspects of the sound that effect these changes include formants, phase, noise elements, presence of inharmonic partials, and transients (attacks). From all of the above information, it is clear that timbric homogeneity is an unlikely and unnatural eventuality for the bass clarinetist to achieve. The altissimo register of the bass clarinet is the least explored register by composers, and provides a number of possibilities beyond the “as loud as possible” wailings most often associated with this tessitura. In magnificat 1 (variations) for alto flute, bass clarinet, and marimba, Linda Dusman effectively and imaginatively utilizes the top sounds of the bass clarinet. The phrase below illustrates a sequence of perfect fifths that culminates in a written C6 – the playing resistance experienced when using the fingering suggestion below allows this note to be controlled at a moderate volume.


Later in the same work, Dusman writes lyrical phrases that span more than four octaves of the bass clarinet, and that weave among the other instruments in the trio. Fingering suggestions for E6-G6 follow the musical example below.


Alternate Fingerings Different timbres of the same pitch on the bass clarinet are possible only through alternate fingerings; embouchure manipulation alone will not work, since it will also affect pitch. However, altering timbre is not the only purpose of alternate fingerings. The artistic bass clarinetist of the late twentieth century employs different fingerings from standard fingerings in certain musical contexts, throughout the traditional orchestral, chamber music, and solo repertoire.6 These contexts may require a slightly higher or lower pitch for reasons of intonation, a technically simpler fingering for a smoother legato, a less resistant fingering for an easier entrance at a soft dynamic level, or a more desirable tone color for better blend or portrayal of a particular musical character.

98 In music of the last twenty-five years, the expansion of timbral resources and sensitivities and of usable pitch nuances has become a primary compositional concern. However, in order to indicate (as a composer) and perform (as a bass clarinetist) alternate fingerings, one must understand the acoustics of the instrument. All pitches on the bass clarinet do not lend themselves to alternate fingering possibilities. In general, the pitches which utilize the longest length of tube have the fewest options; pitches below B3 and pitches between B4 and G5 have few or no alternate fingerings. Example #6

Pitches in the altissimo register have the most alternatives, since they can serve as partials to a number of different fundamentals. The top half of the chalumeau register (B3 to A4) offers a variety of "covered" sounding (few strong partials) alternate fingerings. Some of these are cross-fingerings (fingerings that employ open vents, higher on the instrument body than the lowest tone holes that are closed by fingers or keys) which can only be produced at a very soft dynamic level with a minimum of upper partials present. A chart of fingerings (B3 - G5) suitable for rapid alternation with the regular fingering of the same pitch, follows (Table #1). Those which can not be alternated at a rapid speed have been labeled nf (not fast). The intonation of these pitches is extremely close to the regular fingering; only minor adjustments of the type made in normal tuning while playing may be necessary. Those pitches which may exhibit noticeable tuning discrepancies have been labeled (sl = slightly low, etc.)7. nf = not fast sl = slightly low sh = slightly high st = stuffy (resistant)

99 Table #1 (click on measure for mp3)

Spectrograms for the conventional fingering for D3 and two alternate fingerings show the greatest strength of partials 1,3,5,7 in the spectrum of the conventional fingering. The second alternate fingering is especially muted – it contains only strong 1st and 3rd

100 partials, complemented with a more prominent 2nd partial than with the other fingerings. Partials above the 3rd are practically absent in the spectrum of this alternate fingering.

D3

The spectrograms below for F#3 indicate that the first alternate fingering has the richest set of partials. The second alternate fingering has a weaker 3rd partial coupled with a fairly strong 5th partial. The third alternate fingering owes its extremely muted timbre to nearly 100% of its energy centered in the fundamental.

F#3

An abundance of alternate fingerings exist for pitches in the altissimo register. Paul Drushler has very clearly described the acoustical link between basic fingerings and

101 registers of the clarinet (Example #9a). Third partials (clarion register) are produced by depressing the register key (thus opening the register hole). Fifth partials (C-sharp5 - Asharp6) are produced by lifting the first finger of the left hand, in addition to the register key. This permits the LH1 tone-hole to act as a vent. Seventh partials, and higher, are generally produced by depressing the G-sharp key in addition to the others mentioned. At least the outline of this formula is followed in the following example (Example #9b). It is important to note that many fifth partials also require the G-sharp key, and that other vents (A key) are utilized for pitches based on the highest partials. In addition, the highest pitches are often derived from "out of tune" partials of unrelated fundamentals. It is clear that the desirable method for developing fingerings consists of starting with a fundamental, selecting vents, and making final alterations by opening and/or closing various tone holes. According to Drushler, "variations in pitch, timbre and stability for specific altissimo notes can be discovered by experimenting with modifications of basic fingerings."8 With the bass clarinet, the position and degree of pressure placed by the embouchure on the reed allows control of a greater range of altissimo notes than on the soprano clarinet (up to G-sharp6!). It is possible to play on the 13th and 15th harmonics of a given fundamental.

Example #9a (click on music for mp3)

102 #9b (click on music for mp3)

Note, below, how the presence and strength of upper partials fades as one moves up the fingerings of the harmonic series. The first fingering contains strong 1st , 3rd , 5th , and 7th + partials. The fingerings based on the 11th -15th partials all contain strong 2nd partials.

B--------------F#--------------------- D#---------------------- A---------------- C#

103 E--------------------- G

The following chart (Table #2) of alternate fingerings contains only a few of the many choices for altissimo register pitches. No unusual techniques are called for, however, such as half-depression of pad keys. Slight deviations in pitch may exist, but these are easily corrected by adjustments of embouchure and air pressure. These adjustments are no more extreme than those that one would make to play in tune with other performers; they merely require a sensitive "auditory image." Since different players play different equipment, the tuning will be slightly different for each individual. An aspect such as how far a particular pad comes away from a particular tone-hole can be very significant. In the same manner, pitches from the microtone charts may work as alternate fingerings; however, one runs the risk of timbre distortion as one becomes further and further from the pitch of the original fingering. The annotations under each fingering are arranged according to the following format:

line # information

I - partial of fundamental that fingering is based on/fundamental pitch (i.e. 5th/C4); (C4m = modification of C4 fundamental fingering) II - timbre: br = bright; br! = very bright; d = dark; s = slightly; st = stuffy III - dynamics - ppp to fff IV - intonation - l = low; h = high; s = slightly V - articulation - res = resistant, difficult to begin immediately; s = slightly VI - preparation - com = a complex fingering; player must have time to prepare it; legato connection to it may not be possible; sm = smooth connection from another pitch possible; sm! = very smooth connection from another pitch possible Blank fingering grids have been included so that the reader might add his/her own fingerings.

104

Table #2 (click on pitch for mp3)

105

Quarter-Tones The quarter-tone is a logical rather than acoustic extension of the chromatic scale. In the practice and theory of a variety of Asian musics, for example, where microtonal intervals are employed, exact quarter-tones do not exist. The following chart attempts to represent equally tempered quarter-tones, but may certainly be modified to create a variety of proportions. Unless there are reasons of desired voice leading, adherence to either sharps or flats within a work will make visual and technical recognition easier for the performer (the quarter tone scale here is presented in sharps only). It is generally good practice to specify fingerings directly under the quarter-tones that appear in the piece, as opposed to merely a list at the beginning of the work. Of course, it is not necessary to repeat this fingering diagram every time a particular quarter-tone occurs. Since all fingerings may not produce an identical pitch or timbre for every performer, it is helpful if the composer can briefly describe his intentions in a preface. For example, is he more interested in a dark timbre than a precisely pitched quarter-tone? This will help the performer to make an educated fingering choice, if it is necessary to change the given fingering because of inherent characteristics of individual instruments and bass clarinetists. (it should be noted that there are fewer available fingering choices for the bass clarinetist than the soprano clarinetist, especially below the altissimo register - one reason is the covering of tone holes with pads and key mechanisms that have different functions on the bass clarinet). The following quarter-tone scale extends from A3 (written pitch) to G-sharp 6 (!); it contains relatively few insurmountable problems for the bass clarinetist. However, somewhat weak conjunct sections of the quarter-tone scale are found across the "break" from the throat register to the clarion register (A-sharp 4 to D4). From C4 to D4 there are no practical fingerings for quarter-tones, since virtually the entire length of the instrument is employed. Cross fingerings can not be utilized. This is the same consideration that inhibits quarter-tone production below chalumeau A. Another section of the quarter-tone scale that is weak consists of pitches above F-sharp 6. The altered air and embouchure pressure necessary to produce these pitches (often on different partials), as well as awkward fingerings make them treacherous, especially if approached quickly by leap or attacked without preparation. Several notations appear below some of the quarter-tones in the chart. Timbre indications are given if a quarter-tone differs significantly from the timbres of notes around it (i.e. a dark timbre in the lowest register is relatively different from a dark timbre in the clarion register). It was not possible to find equal-tempered quarter-tones for all intervals - thus, some are marked as sh (slightly high) or sl (slightly low). DAT refers to pitches that are difficult to attack strongly.

106

107 Table #3 - Quarter-Tone Scale (click on line for mp3)

108

109

Linda Dusman uses bass clarinet quarter-tones in several contexts in magnificat 1 . The conjunct segments of quarter-tones below (m.30-5) are very effective at pianissimo – the expression marking in the score is “weeping.”


Chart of Multiple Sounds for Bass Clarinet The following chart (Table #5) has been compiled from numerous musical compositions, and experiments of the author; it has been checked for accuracy by other players. The author has striven to organize the material according to acoustic principles of the bass clarinet and basic principles of bass clarinet technique. All of the multiple sounds presented are playable on any traditional professional mouthpiece/reed set-up. They demand only slight deviations from normal finger expectations and embouchure. (while it is true that a multiple sound may be derived from any possible fingering for a single tone, of which there are theoretically thousands, this study omits those that require more than slight deviations in traditional finger and expectations and embouchure) Those multiple sounds that employ the low C-sharp and C keys played by the right hand, or the low D key played by the left hand, are only available on a bass clarinet that extends to low C (written). The multiple sounds that employ the low E-flat key are available only on bass clarinets that extend to either low E-flat or low C. Many previous studies have organized multiple sounds according to verbal descriptions of categories of production and/or tone color, regardless of acoustical relationships (i.e. derived from the same left hand vent hole). This study employs acoustical relationships as the first order of organization, and briefly describes characteristics of each multiple sound (see explanation of notation, below). Of course, every conceivable context for a particular multiple sound has not been discussed. The author wishes to reinforce the following advice: BE SURE TO CONSULT A BASS CLARINETIST ABOUT FEASIBLE CONTEXTS FOR PARTICULAR MUTLIPLE SOUNDS.

111 Multiple sounds have been placed in groups (labeled by letter, beginning with those with the lowest fundamental); a common denominator within each group is an identical register/vent hole. In other words, the left hand fingering remains constant within a group (in most cases). The multiple sounds are ordered according to the right hand fingerings which ascend in chromatic or microtonal intervals. Care has been taken to insure that these groups are playable as sequences; this means limited (minimum) finger movement, and a lack of contrary motion, wherever possible. Groups of multiple sounds with the same letter label (i.e. D, D1, D2 etc.) utilize slightly different, but related left hand fingerings (different vents). For example, left-hand fingerings in Group D1 differ from Group D only through the addition of the register key. Left-hand fingerings in Group D2 differ from Group D only through the addition of side key #3. The close technical relation of these groups makes numerous trills and tremolos possible between them (discussed later). Left-hand fingerings for A represent the lowest bottom pitches - left hand fingerings for Z, the highest bottom pitches. It is important to note that each multiple sound listed is available in isolation; it need not be connected to another. Various characteristics of each multiple sound have been described beneath each example in the chart. The format of this chart, top line to bottom line (underneath each multiple sound), is:

Line # information

I - dynamic range possible - pp to FF II - stability : how stable is the sustain characteristic - a = very stable; b = moderately stable; c = unstable III - response : the time required to produce all pitches of the multiple sound - how resistant is it? - 1 = all sounds begin simultaneously, easily; 2 = all sounds appear within 1 second, easily (somewhat resistant); 3 = all sounds appear within 2 seconds, resistant; 4 = all sounds appear within 3 seconds, more resistant; 5 = all sounds appear within 4-5 seconds, very resistant IV - timbre : description of individual pitches of the multiple sound (sometimes (all multiple sounds that use side keys 3 and/or 4 as register 2 lines) vents will have thin timbres) tp = top bt = bottom dlbt = dull lowest pitch dabt = dark lowest pitch (few higher partials)

112 fat = many partials (high and low) thin = pitch is weak; lack of partials - lack of center brt = bright; many higher partials brtp = bright highest pitch thtp = thin highest pitch sub = subtone; dull V - texture : description of the overall texture of the multiple sound (sometimes - 2 general characteristics deserve mention here: 2 lines) 1) all diads (multiple sounds of two pitches which are produced as undertones) will contain a significant amount of air when played softly 2) most of the multiple sounds that are not undertones are capable of generating higher partials than indicated in the chart when played very loudly. However, the production and content of these partials are not controllable or reliable. diad = two pitches (an undertone - lowest pitch is weaker than the highest) holl = hollow; high and low pitch (equal strength) 3vc = three voices mvc = many voices bal = balance; all pitches of equal intensity elc = electronic; 3 or more pitches, thin timbres, acoustical beats elc! = raucous electronic; changing amplitudes of pitches (similar to electronic, otherwise) be = acoustical beats; beats caused by out of tune intervals slbe = slow acoustical beats mud = muddy; unclear pitches gent = gentle; dull timbres M3! = predominant major 3rd (10th) or triad ns = noise in the sound (air) sns = some noise in the sound

113

VI - arpeggiation : capability to begin multiple sound with top or bottom pitch alone, gradually adding other pitches t = easy to begin with top pitch b = easy to begin with bottom pitch bt = easy to begin with either top or bottom pitch

VII - technique : hints for easier production ls = looser embouchure, less air pressure ls! = very loose embouchure tite = tighter embouchure, more air pressure

The notation system used in this chart for multiple sounds on the staff is one which the author hopes will become standardized. All pitches (or as many as possible) in the multiple sound should be written on the staff. The filled-in note-heads indicate secondary pitches, which may or may not be present according to the dynamic level of the multiple sound. It is important that the fingering for the multiple sound be indicated at every occurrence in the music, directly under the sonority. These procedures will greatly assist the clarinetist in learning the music.

114

Spectrograms Spectrograms of a number of multiphonics follow (more for bass clarinet multiphonics are available on The Clarinet of the Twenty-First Century website – http://www.research.umbc.edu/~emrich/multiphonic_spectra.html ). These diagrams represent the indicated multiphonic played at its middle dynamic level (i.e. if p-ff is

115 possible, mf is the middle dynamic level). The duration of each multiphonic is between 2 and 7 seconds. It is important to note that the spectrum of practically every multiphonic changes (at least subtly) during its duration – the sound is constantly transforming. In the spectrograms, height indicates frequency (hz.), or pitch of the fundamental(s) and partials; length (horizontal) indicates duration; and darkness/lightness indicates the relative amplitude (strength) of components of the sound. Directly below is a note to frequency converter (taken from the website of the Physics Department of The University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia – http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/notes.html), NON-TRANSPOSED (written B4 for clarinet = A 440), that gives a context for the spectrograms. According to Peter Veale and Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf in their book The Techniques of Oboe Playing , multiphonic spectra on all woodwind instruments obey a similar basic principle. The frequencies present in a multiphonic spectra can be explained as a combination of the sums and differences of the two frequencies of the primary pitches of the particular multiphonic (each multiphonic contains only two primary pitches). So,...: A = highest primary pitch B = lowest primary pitch F = frequency within a multiphonic

F = A(+ or – 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.) + or – B(+ or – 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.)

In example 5 below, the vibration at 258 hz. can be explained in the following way: A = G5 (698 hz.) B = B ¼# 4 (220 hz.) F (258 hz.) = A (698) – 2B (220) = 698 – 440 = 258 ----------------------------------------------------------------

116 38) E-19 : E ¼ 3 = 137 A ¼ 4 = 392 D ¾ 5 = 554 5th partial of E ¼ - 2nd , 3rd partials of D ¾

39) E1-3 : G ¼ 3 = 175 D ¾ 5 = 554 4th partial of G ¼; 3rd partial of D ¾

117 40) E1-7 : G ¼ 3 = 175 D#5 = 554 (weak) G#5 = 740 - 2nd , 3rd partials of G#

41) E1-10 : B5 = 440 (?) A ¾ 5 = 880

Other Resources Many other sounds can be produced on the bass clarinet through extended techniques that defy categorization with the single or multiple sounds that have been described in the last two chapters, even though they may maintain a number of similar qualities. These have been divided into sounds of definite pitch (glissandi/portamenti), sounds of indefinite or approximate pitch (half-pitched percussive sounds, vocalizing - gradations of singing and speaking - through the bass clarinet, air sounds) and specific techniques (i.e. flutter tonguing) which may be applied to sounds of one or both categories (or, in addition, conventional bass clarinet tones, sounds from Chapters I and II, etc.). The reader is referred to The Clarinet of the Twenty-First Century for a discussion of specific techniques - they are all applicable to the bass clarinet. The descriptions and musical examples on the following pages are not meant to imply that these are the only possibilities. Rather, it is hoped that these may serve as provocations to composers and bass clarinetists who may discover and create new

118 musical ideas, and, in so doing, expand and refine the instrumental techniques required to realize these ideas. The palette of potentially expressive sounds on the bass clarinet is virtually limitless.

Sounds of Definite Pitch Glissando/Portamento Caravan does offer some good suggestions for learning portamento production. Since downward tone bends are the most difficult, these should be practiced first; mastering the required technique (tongue and throat position control) for this skill is applicable to all other (including ascending) portamenti. Eventually, a series of downward tone bends can be linked to form a longer portamento. After one has practiced series of downward tone bends, the next logical step is to practice ascending bends, followed by series of ascending bends. Short ascending bends are especially idiomatic in the clarion and altissimo registers of the bass clarinet where the third finger of the right hand is employed. Takayuki Rai employs some in Sparkel for bass clarinet and computer tape.


119 Spectrograms of these small portamenti show a rich palette of partials that is weakened slightly during the middle of the portamento.

Longer ascending portamenti can be initiated and/or aided by this finger – an example of an especially easy portamento follows: Example #3 (click music for mp3)

120 The spectrogram below indicates a slightly weaker band of partials once the portamento is initiated.

Descending portamenti in the altissimo register are also idiomatic. Takayuki Rai writes the following small portamenti:


The spectra of each of these pitches above contains a strong fundamental and partials from the 3rd and above, with some 2nd partial energy present. At the end of each portamento, the presence and strength of all of the partials increases.

121 Ab-------------- G-------------Gb-------------F-------------- Bb--------------- D

G#--------------------- A------------------------- F#

122

Sounds of Indefinite Pitch Half-Pitched Percussive Sounds The bass clarinet offers an incredible resource for percussive (both unpitched and halfpitched) sounds because of the size and harmonic richness of its resonating body. The fact that keys cover the seven finger tone holes (different from the key rings of the soprano clarinet) also helps to amplify the volume of the percussive sounds made when fingers strike the tone holes (either as single strikes or trills/tremolos). The following chart classifies these sounds (in a similar fashion to the classification of multiple sounds) according to left hand fingering, beginning with the entire upper joint covered (A), and gradually progressing to none of the upper joint covered (P). The number following the letter (i.e. A1) denotes which fingers/keys are moved. The number 1 represents one or more of the three fingers of the right hand - the number 2 represents one or more of the three fingers of the left hand - the number .5 represents a low key moved by the right hand without all the fingers of the right hand covering the three tone holes. Finally, the letters with no numbers following them (i.e. A) represent a low key moved by the right hand with all the fingers of the right hand covering the three tone holes. These sounds are most resonant when the mouthpiece is not in the mouth. They differ in color from a strong hollow resonance to very thin, short, click resonances.

123 Table #6 (CD Bcl #2 – tracks 5-33)

124 (CD Bcl #2 – tracks 34-56)

125

CHAPTER 7 - E-flat Clarinet Single Sounds Altissimo Alternate Fingerings The American clarinetist Henry Gulick writes of classifications for altissimo register pitches.8 These categories deserve mention, as well as others, in order to understand timbre and resistance characteristics of altissimo fingerings. One classification that is widely employed by professional clarinetists is what Gulick calls "long fingerings." In long fingerings, the first finger of the left-hand remains on the tone-hole; a vent exists further down the clarinet body. As a result, long fingerings require overblowing of lower pitches. The longer tube length that is in play produces thicker, darker timbres that are generally more secure at loud dynamic levels (Example #7).


Altissimo fingerings in a second classification produce pitches from overblown throat tones, without the left thumb covering the back tone hole (Example #8). Since such a short tube length is employed, these pitches tend to be thin and bright.


A third classification includes fingerings that use both the thumb hole and register key as vents (open thumb and depressed register key) (Example #9). These fingerings tend to be a bit dark, but thin. They are especially effective in soft legato passages that link the clarion to altissimo register.


By playing on certain upper partials, fast chromatic figures in the altissimo register can be easily produced (Table #2).

127 Table #2 (click on measure for mp3)

128

Altissimo Alternate Fingering Chart The following chart (Table #3) of alternate fingerings contains only a few of the many choices for altissimo register pitches. No unusual techniques are called for, however, such as half-holing, etc. Slight deviations in pitch may exist, but these are easily corrected by adjustments of embouchure and air pressure. These adjustments are no more extreme than those that one would make to play in tune with other performers; they merely require a sensitive "auditory image." Since different players play different equipment, the tuning will be slightly different for each individual. An aspect such as how far a particular pad comes away from a particular tone-hole can be very significant. In the same manner, pitches from the microtone charts may work as alternate fingerings; however, one runs the risk of timbre distortion as one becomes further and further from the pitch of the original fingering. The annotations under each fingering are arranged according to the following format: line # information I - partial of fundamental that fingering is based on - (i.e. - 5C4 = 5th partial of C4) II - timbre - br = bright; s = slightly; d = dark v = very; th = thin; st = stuffy; a = airy III - dynamics - pp to ff IV - intonation - L = low; H = high; S = slightly V - articulation - res = resistant; difficult to begin immediately; s = slightly VI - preparation - sm = smooth connection from another pitch possible; tr = trill fingering

Blank fingering grids have been included so that the reader might add his/her own fingerings.

129 Table #3 (click on pitch/line for mp3)

Quarter-Tones The quarter-tone is a logical rather than acoustic extension of the chromatic scale. In the practice and theory of a variety of Asian musics, for example, where microtonal intervals are employed, exact quarter-tones do not exist. The following chart attempts to represent equally tempered quarter-tones, but may certainly be modified to create a variety of proportions. Unless there are reasons of desired voice leading, adherence to either sharps or flats within a work will make visual and technical recognition easier for the performer (the quarter tone scale here is presented in sharps only). It is generally good practice to

130 specify fingerings directly under the quarter-tones that appear in the piece, as opposed to merely a list at the beginning of the work. It is not necessary to repeat this fingering diagram every time a particular quarter-tone occurs. Since all fingerings may not produce an identical pitch or timbre for every performer, it is helpful if the composer can briefly describe his intentions in a preface. For example, is he more interested in a dark timbre than a precisely pitched quarter-tone? This will help the performer to make an educated fingering choice, if it is necessary to change the given fingering because of inherent characteristics of individual instruments and E-flat clarinetists. The following quarter-tone scale extends from A3 (written pitch) to G-sharp 6; it contains relatively few problems for the E-flat clarinetist. However, somewhat weak conjunct sections of the quarter-tone scale are found across the "break" from the throat register to the clarion register (A-sharp 4 to D4). From C4 to D4 there are no practical fingerings for quarter-tones, since virtually the entire length of the instrument is employed. Cross fingerings can not be utilized. This is the same consideration that inhibits quarter-tone production below chalumeau A. Another section of the quartertone scale that is weak consists of pitches above F-sharp 6. The altered air and embouchure pressure necessary to produce these pitches (often on different partials), as well as awkward fingerings make them treacherous, especially if approached quickly by leap or attacked without preparation. Several notations appear below some of the quarter-tones in the chart. Timbre indications are given if a quarter-tone differs significantly from the timbres of notes around it (i.e. a dark timbre in the lowest register is relatively different from a dark timbre in the clarion register). It was not possible to find equal-tempered quarter-tones for all intervals - thus, some are marked as sh (slightly high) or sl (slightly low). DAT refers to pitches that are difficult to attack strongly.

(click on line for mp3)

131

132

Microtones The E-flat clarinet has long been capable of producing microtones smaller than quartertones, but has rarely been asked to do so. It's full range of microtonal possibilities has been largely undocumented. In fact, accurate microtonal segments of intervals smaller than thirty-second tones are often possible and quite easy to produce.

Equidistant Microtones Equidistant microtones are represented in Table #7; sixth, eighth, twelfth, and sixteenth tones. Bar lines mark the length of uninterrupted scale segments, since equidistant pitches are not always available.

133 TABLE #7 - Equidistant Eighth, Sixteenth, Sixth, & Twelfth Tones (click on measure for mp3)

134

135

One-Octave Microtonal Scales Scales can be formed from microtones that present fascinating pitch or timbre relationships when written for E-flat clarinet. Several examples follow which have been arbitrarily chosen because of their bright or dark timbre qualities or symmetrical pitch patterns. All are fairly easy for the clarinetist to master. Example #10 presents a ten-note scale in the chalumeau register that exploits dark timbres.


An equidistant scale of sixteen 3/8 tones is represented in Example #11.


Chart of Multiple Sounds for E-flat Clarinet The following chart (Table #12) has been compiled from numerous musical compositions, and experiments of the author; it has been checked for accuracy by other players. The author has striven to organize the material according to acoustic principles of the E-flat clarinet and basic principles of E-flat clarinet technique. All of the multiple sounds presented are playable on any traditional professional mouthpiece/reed set-up. They demand only slight deviations from normal finger expectations and embouchure. (while it is true that a multiple sound may be derived from any possible fingering for a single tone, of which there are theoretically thousands, this study omits those that require more than slight deviations in traditional finger expectations and embouchure).

137 Many previous studies have organized multiple sounds according to verbal descriptions of categories of production and/or tone color, regardless of acoustical relationships (i.e. derived from the same left hand vent hole). This study employs acoustical relationships as the first order of organization, and briefly describes characteristics of each multiple sound (see explanation of notation, below). Of course, every conceivable context for a particular multiple sound has not been discussed. The author wishes to reinforce the following advice: BE SURE TO CONSULT AN E-FLAT CLARINETIST ABOUT FEASIBLE CONTEXTS FOR PARTICULAR MULTIPLE SOUNDS. Multiple sounds have been placed in groups (labeled by letter, beginning with those with the lowest fundamental); a common denominator within each group is an identical register/vent hole. In other words, the left hand fingering remains constant within a group (in most cases). The multiple sounds are ordered according to the right hand fingerings which ascend in chromatic or microtonal intervals. Care has been taken to insure that these groups are playable as sequences; this means limited (minimum) finger movement, and a lack of contrary motion, wherever possible. A broken vertical line ( ) between multiple sounds in a group indicates that a legato connection is not possible, even though the adjacent sounds utilize the same series of partials. A double bracket ( ) between sounds in a group indicates that a legato connection is not possible, because the series of partials changes. Groups of multiple sounds with the same letter label (i.e. D, D1, D2 etc.) utilize slightly different, but related left hand fingerings (different vents). For example, left-hand fingerings in Group D1 differ from Group D only through the addition of the register key. Left-hand fingerings in Group D2 differ from Group D only through the addition of side key #3. The close technical relation of these groups makes numerous trills and tremolos possible between them (discussed later). Left-hand fingerings for A represent the lowest bottom pitches - left hand fingerings for Y, the highest bottom pitches. It is important to note that each multiple sound listed is available in isolation; it need not be connected to another. Various characteristics of each multiple sound have been described beneath each example in the chart. The format of this chart, top line to bottom line (underneath each multiple sound), is:

Line # information

I - dynamic range possible - pp to FF II - stability: how stable is the sustain characteristic - a = very stable; b = moderately stable; c = unstable III - response: the time required to produce all pitches of the multiple sound - how resistant is it? 1 = all sounds begin simultaneously, easily

138 2 = all sounds appear within 1 second, easily (somewhat resistant) 3 = all sounds appear within 2 seconds, resistant 4 = all sounds appear within 3 seconds, more resistant 5 = all sounds appear within 4-5 seconds, very resistant IV - timbre: description of individual pitches of the multiple sound (all multiple sounds that use side keys 3 and/or 4 as register vents will have thin timbres) tp = top bt = bottom dlbt = dull lowest pitch dabt = dark lowest pitch (few higher partials) fat = many partials (high and low) thin = pitch is weak; lack of partials - lack of center brt = bright; many higher partials brtp = bright highest pitch thtp = thin highest pitch sub = subtone; dull V, VI - texture: description of the overall texture of the multiple sound - 2 general characteristics deserve mention here: 1) all diads (multiple sounds of two pitches which are produced as undertones) will contain a significant amount of air when played softly 2) most of the multiple sounds that are not undertones are capable of generating higher partials than indicated in the chart when played very loudly. However, the production and content of these partials are not controllable or reliable. diad = two pitches (an undertone - lowest pitch is weaker than the highest) holl = hollow; high and low pitch (equal strength) 3vc = three voices

139 mvc = many voices bal = balance; all pitches of equal intensity elc = electronic; 3 or more pitches, thin timbres, acoustical beats elc! = raucous electronic; changing amplitudes of pitches (similar to electronic, otherwise) be = acoustical beats; beats caused by out of tune intervals slbe = slow acoustical beats mud = muddy; unclear pitches gent = gentle; dull timbres M3! = predominant major 3rd (10th) or triad ns = noise in the sound (air) sns = some noise in the sound VII - arpeggiation: capability to begin multiple sound with top or bottom pitch alone, gradually adding other pitches t = easy to begin with top pitch b = easy to begin with bottom pitch bt = easy to begin with either top or bottom pitch VIII - technique: hints for easier production ls = looser embouchure, less air pressure s! = very loose embouchure tite = tighter embouchure, more air pressure

The notation system used in this chart for multiple sounds on the staff is one which the author hopes will become standardized. All pitches (or as many as possible) in the multiple sound should be written on the staff. The filled-in note-heads indicate secondary pitches, which may or may not be present according to the dynamic level of the multiple sound. It is important that the fingering for the multiple sound be indicated at every occurrence in the music, directly under the sonority. These procedures will greatly assist the clarinetist in learning the music.

140

Table #12 - Multiple Sounds click on measure for mp3

Multiphonic Trills and Tremolos The subject of multiphonic trills and tremolos will only be briefly mentioned here. Trills between adjacent multiple sounds in Table #12 (different right-hand fingerings; same left-hand fingering) are possible. Trills and tremolos are also feasible among many non-

141 adjacent multiple sounds (same left-hand fingering; different left-hand and right-hand fingerings) from Table #12 - composers are urged to check specific trill possibilities with an E-flat clarinetist. In addition, they are possible between multiple sounds with the same right-hand fingering but different left-hand fingering between the following Groups: A2 and A3 B and B1 E and E1 H and H1 I and I1 K and K1 K and K2

Diad tremolos using the top two right-hand trill keys controlled by the first finger are effective in both loud and soft contexts. Example #4 (click on 3 measure section for mp3)

142

Vocalizing through the clarinet Singing through the clarinet on various vowel sounds can create interesting formants (reinforced harmonics) when one lifts the fingers of either (or both) hand from their tone holes. The sound will change drastically between the following vowel sounds: ee, aw, o, and oo. Example #10 (click on music for mp3)

This sound is even more pronounced if the player takes more mouthpiece than normal into the mouth. It is also possible to re-articulate this sound in an interesting way by pronouncing "le" with the tongue on the roof of the mouth. Other variations include adding a growl-like flutter or vocal portamento. Further sounds that are possible to generate through the clarinet with the mouthpiece on are a barking sound ["(r)uff"] with a low E fingering, a slow laugh from the throat with a low E fingering, or a throat tremolo (ululation) "eh-eh-eh etc," (the way young children imitate a machine gun) which can be altered with a vocal portamento and/or by randomly moving the fingers of the right hand. Through the E-flat clarinet (with mouthpiece off), it is also possible to produce an ingressive or egressive "vocal fry." Deborah Kavasch, a former member of the Extended Vocal Techniques Ensembles at the University of California , San Diego , describes this phenomenon:

143 Vocal fry is perceived as dry, clicklike pulses and is often used to imitate the opening of a creaky door. The pulse rate of vocal fry can be controlled to produce a range from very slow individual clicks to a stream of clicks so fast that it is heard as discrete pitch. It can be produced both egressively (exhaling) and ingressively (inhaling). The individual may find one mode easier to control than the other in terms of such parameters as pulse rate, dynamics, and pitch. The term "pitch," as used here in relation to vocal fry, refers to the range of perceived pitches rather than to any implication regarding the mode of phonation. 6

This effect is especially interesting when one moves the fingers of both hands, since very soft, airy sounds are apparent, in addition to the vocal fry (Example #11). These can be especially beautiful when amplified.


Clarinet of the XXI - Richards

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