Organizational Behavior, 16e (Robbins/Judge) Chapter 6 Perception and Individual Decision Making
1) ________ is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. A) Sensation B) Impression C) Apprehension ) Attribution !) "erception Answer# ! !$planation# !) "erception is de%ined as a process by which individuals individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their env ironment. "eople&s behavior is based on their perception o% what reality is' and not on reality itsel%. (hat (hat a person perceives can be substantially di%%erent %rom %rom obective reality. reality. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place ) (hich o% the %ollowing statements is true regarding perception/ A) "erception o% reality is independent o% one&s personality. B) +ur perception o% a target is not a%%ected by the conte$t o% the situation in which the perception is made. C) +ur perception o% reality can be di%%erent %rom the obective reality. ) +ur perception o% reality is independent o% our past e$periences. !) (e %orm %orm a perception o% a target by loo-ing at it in isolation. Answer# C !$planation# C) +ur perception o% reality can be di%%erent %rom the the obective reality. +ur perception o% reality is a%%ected by our personality' personality' past e$periences' and the conte$t o% the situation in which the perception is made. (e do not loo- at targets in isolation. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place
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3) (hen two people witness something at the same time and in the same situation yet interpret it di%%erently' di%%erently' %actors that operate to shape their perceptions reside in the ________. A) perceivers B) target C) timing ) conte$t !) situation Answer# A !$planation# A) Since the time and situation are the same' the %actors that that operate to shape perception must be in the perceivers themselves. "ersonal characteristics that can a%%ect a%%ect perception include perceiver attitudes' personality' personality' motives' interests' past e$periences' and e$pectations. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place 4) avid 5yers is o% the opinion that people pe ople who drive S67s are rash drivers. 8e %eels that people driving S67s do not respect road rules and always violate tra%%ic tra%%ic regulations. (hat personal %actor is most li-ely to be a%%ecting a%%ecting 5yers& perception o% S67 drivers/ A) his %inancial bac-ground B) his e$pectations C) his interest ) his motive !) his personality Answer# B !$planation# B) 5yers e$pects all S67 drivers to to be dangerous. 8is e$pectations are what color his perception. 9he e$ample doesn&t e$plain why he e$pects this' although it could be %rom a previous bad e$perience. *+# 1 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place
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3) (hen two people witness something at the same time and in the same situation yet interpret it di%%erently' di%%erently' %actors that operate to shape their perceptions reside in the ________. A) perceivers B) target C) timing ) conte$t !) situation Answer# A !$planation# A) Since the time and situation are the same' the %actors that that operate to shape perception must be in the perceivers themselves. "ersonal characteristics that can a%%ect a%%ect perception include perceiver attitudes' personality' personality' motives' interests' past e$periences' and e$pectations. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place 4) avid 5yers is o% the opinion that people pe ople who drive S67s are rash drivers. 8e %eels that people driving S67s do not respect road rules and always violate tra%%ic tra%%ic regulations. (hat personal %actor is most li-ely to be a%%ecting a%%ecting 5yers& perception o% S67 drivers/ A) his %inancial bac-ground B) his e$pectations C) his interest ) his motive !) his personality Answer# B !$planation# B) 5yers e$pects all S67 drivers to to be dangerous. 8is e$pectations are what color his perception. 9he e$ample doesn&t e$plain why he e$pects this' although it could be %rom a previous bad e$perience. *+# 1 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place
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2) !$tremely attractive or unattractive individuals are most li-ely to be noticed in a group. (hich o% the %ollowing statements best describes the reason behind this/ A) +ur perception o% reality depends on our past e$periences. B) +ur perception o% reality depends on our personality. C) (e don&t loo- at targets in isolation. ) 9he time at which we see an obect can in%luence our perception o% the obect. !) +ur motives and e$pectations a%%ect our perception o% a target. Answer# C !$planation# C) Characteristics o% the target we observe observe can a%%ect what we perceive. *oud people are more li-ely to be noticed in a group than :uiet ones. So' too' are e$tremely attractive or unattractive individuals. Because we don&t loo- at targets in isolation' the relationship o% a target to its bac-ground in%luences our perception o% the target. *+# 1 i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place ;) uring team meetings Amber owning always notices that
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=) 5onica (alden (alden %eels that people who use plastic bags are insensitive toward the environment. She believes that people have a certain obligation toward their environment and should ta-e it upon themselves to protect and preserve it. (hich o% the %ollowing %actors has most li-ely in%luenced (alden&s (alden&s perception o% plastic bag users/ A) location B) time C) characteristic o% the target ) e$pectation !) conte$t Answer# !$planation# ) A number o% %actors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. perception. 9hese %actors can reside in the perceiver' in the obect or target being p erceived' or in the conte$t o% the situation in which the perception is made. *+# 1 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place >) (hich o% the %ollowing is a %actor present in a target which may a%%ect a person&s perception/ A) attitude B) motive C) interest ) novelty !) e$perience Answer# !$planation# ) ?actors present in a target which may a%%ect a%%ect perception are novelty' motion' motion' sound' size' bac-ground' pro$imity' and similarity. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place @) (hich o% the %ollowing is a %actor present in a situation which may a%%ect a person&s perception/ A) similarity B) size C) e$pectation ) time !) e$perience Answer# !$planation# ) ?actors present in in a situation which may a%%ect a%%ect perception are wor- setting' setting' social setting' and time. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the the wor-place 4 Copyright 0 12 "earson !ducation' Inc.
1) (hich o% the %ollowing is a %actor present in a perceiver which may a%%ect perception/ A) interest B) similarity C) sound ) pro$imity !) bac-ground Answer# A !$planation# A) ?actors present in a perceiver which may a%%ect perception are attitudes' motives' interests' e$perience' and e$pectations. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 11) Alicia A-ers wor-s as a mar-eting e$ecutive. She always tal-s in a high pitch and o%ten draws a lot o% attention wherever she is. (hich o% the %ollowing statements best e$plains the reason behind people noticing A-ers/ A) "erception o% reality depends on the perceiver&s past e$periences. B) "erception o% reality depends on the perceiver&s personality. C) Characteristics o% the target a%%ect people&s perception. ) 9he time at which we observe behavior a%%ects perception. !) 5otives and interests o% the perceiver a%%ects perception o% behavior. Answer# C !$planation# C) Characteristics o% the target we observe can a%%ect perception. *oud people are more li-ely to be noticed in a group than :uiet ones. !ven e$tremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more li-ely to be noticed. Since people do not loo- at targets in isolation' the relationship o% a target to its bac-ground in%luences one&s perception o% the target. *+# 1 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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1) ________ e$plains the ways in which we udge people di%%erently' depending on the meaning we assign to a given behavior. A) Attribution theory B) !:uity theory C) +bect relations theory ) Attachment theory !) Cultural schema theory Answer# A !$planation# A) Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual&s behavior' we attempt to determine whether it was internally or e$ternally caused. etermination however' depends largely on three %actors' namely' distinctiveness' consensus' and consistency. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 13) Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual&s behavior' we attempt to determine whether it was internally or e$ternally caused. 9hat determination' howeve r' depends largely on three %actors. (hich o% the %ollowing is one o% these three %actors/ A) traceability B) consistency C) veri%iability ) relatedness !) a%%ect intensity Answer# B !$planation# B) Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual&s behavior' we attempt to determine whether it was internally or e$ternally caused. etermination however' depends largely on three %actors' namely' distinctiveness' consensus' and consistency. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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14) (hich o% the %ollowing is an e$ample o% internally caused behavior/ A) An employee was late %or a team meeting because o% a heavy downpour. B) An employee was laid o%% because the company was attempting to cut costs by laying o%% employees. C) An employee was %ired %rom wor- because he violated a company policy. ) An employee could not attend an interview because o % a delayed %light. !) An employee could not come to wor- because he met with an accident. Answer# C !$planation# C) Internally caused behaviors are those we believe to be under the personal control o% the individual. *+# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 12) (hich o% the %ollowing is an e$ample o% e$ternally caused behavior/ A) An employee postpones a meeting because he overslept. B) An employee is late to wor- because o% a punctured tire. C) An employee was %ired because he violated a company policy. ) An employee was promoted when he achieved more than the assigned obectives. !) An employee closed a sale with an important corporate client because o% his e$cellent negotiation s-ills. Answer# B !$planation# B) !$ternally caused behavior is what we imagine the situation %orced the individual to do. ?or instance' i% an employee is late %or wor-' and you attribute his arriving late to an automobile accident or a %lat tire' then you are ma-ing an e$ternal attribution. *+# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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1;) According to the attribution theory' ________ is one the three main %actors which attempt to determine an individual&s behavior. A) distinctiveness B) perverseness C) %le$ibleness ) resilience !) timorousness Answer# A !$planation# A) Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual&s behavior' we attempt to determine whether it was internally or e$ternally caused. etermination' however' depends largely on three %actors' namely' distinctiveness' consensus' and consistency. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 1=) (hen individuals observe another person&s behavior' they attempt to determine whether it is internally or e$ternally caused. (hich o% the %ollowing attempts to e$plain this pheno menon/ A) "ygmalion e%%ect B) emotional dissonance C) attribution theory ) two%actor theory !) %raming e%%ect Answer# C !$planation# C) Attribution theory is an attempt to determine whether an individual&s behavior is internally or e$ternally caused. (e udge people di%%erently' depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior. Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual&s behavior' we attempt to determine whether it was internally or e$ternally caused. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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1>) (ith re%erence to the attribution theory' which o% the %ollowing terms indicates the e$tent to which an individual displays di%%erent behaviors in di%%erent situations/ A) %le$ibility B) integrity C) consensus ) consistency !) distinctiveness Answer# ! !$planation# !) istinctiveness is one o% three determining %actors that contribute to attribution theory perceptions. istinctiveness re%ers to whether an individual displays di%%erent behaviors in di%%erent situations. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 1@) I% a person responds to a particular situation in the same way over a long time period' then the attribution theory states that the behavior demonstrates ________. A) distinctiveness B) consensus C) consistency ) discontinuity !) traceability Answer# C !$planation# C) Consistency in a person&s actions means that the person responds in the same way to the same situation over a long period o% time. ?or instance' an employee who has not been late %or several months is perceived di%%erently %rom an employee who is late two or three times a wee-. 9he regularly late employee demonstrates high consistency in tardiness. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place ) According to the attribution theory' i% a behavior scores ________' we tend to attribute it to e$ternal causes. A) low on distinctiveness B) low on adaptability C) low on consistency ) high on stability !) low on consensus Answer# C !$planation# C) Consistency indicates that the person responds the same way over time. 9he less consistent the behavior' the more we are inclined to attribute it to e$ternal c auses. *+# i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place @ Copyright 0 12 "earson !ducation' Inc.
1) anice oder wor-s in an environmental campaigning organization and o%ten needs to interact with a large team %or proect implementation activities. 8owever' she always %inds it di%%icult to wor- as a part o% a team. She always seems to have maor disagreements with team members which lead to antagonistic relations between them. 9hough she has moved %rom one team to another' her relations with colleagues always seem to be hostile and cold. 8ow would the attribution theory describe this behavior/ A) low on consensus B) high on reliability C) high on adaptability ) high on consistency !) low on distinctiveness Answer# !$planation# ) Consistency in a person&s actions means that the person responds the same way over time to the same situation. oder has had hostile relationships with colleagues over a long period o% time. 9hus' her behavior shows consistency. *+# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place ) According to the attribution theory' i% everyone who %aces a similar situation responds in the same way' we can say the behavior shows ________. A) distinctiveness B) tractability C) consensus ) consistency !) manageability Answer# C !$planation# C) I% everyone who %aces a similar situation responds in the same way' we can say the behavior shows consensus. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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3) anice is late %or wor- each day by about ten minutes. 8ow would attribution theory describe this behavior/ A) It shows consensus. B) It shows similarity. C) It shows consistency. ) It shows reliability. !) It shows distinctiveness. Answer# C !$planation# C) Consistency in a person&s actions means that the person responds the same way over time to the same situation. An employee who hasn&t been late %or several months is perceived di%%erently than an employee who is late two or three times a wee-. anice demonstrates high consistency in tardiness. *+# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 4) According to the attribution theory' which o% the %ollowing behaviors is most li-ely to be attributed to an e$ternal cause/ A) a behavior that scores high on consensus B) a behavior that scores low on distinctiveness C) a behavior that scores high on consistency ) a behavior that scores low on traceability !) a behavior that scores high on rigidity Answer# A !$planation# A) According to the attribution theory' i% a behavior scores high on consensus' we tend to attribute it to e$ternal causes. *+# i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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2) Samantha is never late %or wor-' but last 5onday she arrived an hour late because o% heavy tra%%ic. According to the attribution theory' Samantha&s behavior on that d ay scores ________. A) high on reliability B) low on distinctiveness C) high on traceability ) low on consistency !) high on stability Answer# !$planation# ) I% a person responds the same way over time then his or her behavior displays consistency. Since Samantha is generally in the o%%ice on time' her behavior scores low on consistency. *+# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place ;) 5egan Cardova' who wor-s as a sales e$ecutive at +rbit Ban-' has been %ailing to meet her sales targets %or the last 1 months.
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=) According to the attribution theory' i% a behavior scores ________' we tend to attribute it to internal causes. A) low on consistency B) high on rigidity C) low on distinctiveness ) high on consensus !) low on con%ormity Answer# C !$planation# C) istinctiveness re%ers to whether an individual displays di%%erent behaviors in di%%erent situations. According to the attribution theory' i% a behavior scores low on distinctiveness' we tend to attribute it to internal causes. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place >) (hich o% the %ollowing terms best describes the tendency to underestimate the in%luence o% e$ternal %actors and overestimate the in%luence o% internal %actors when ma-ing udgments about the behavior o% others/ A) %undamental attribution error B) bandwagon e%%ect C) contrast e%%ect ) emotional dissonance !) sel%%ul%illing prophecy Answer# A !$planation# A) 9he tendency to underestimate the in%luence o% e$ternal %actors and overestimate the in%luence o% internal %actors when ma-ing udgments about the behavior o% others is re%erred to as the %undamental attribution error. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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@) Daomi ?isher' a sales manager at "ure' a water puri%ier company' had a new member' *eah 5arshall' oin her team. 9hough during *eah&s interview' Daomi %elt she would be a productive sales e$ecutive' her per%ormance has o%ten be en below the mar-. Consistently in the past three months' *eah has been unable to reach her targets and is %alling substantially behind on her annual targets. Daomi assumes that *eah is not determined and motivated enough to do what it ta-es. (hich o% the %ollowing' i% true' wea-ens Daomi&s assumption/ A) *eah has o%ten arrived late %or team meetings conducted in the morning. B) *eah has been assigned a sales territory where consumers are %rom low income groups. C) *eah has good interpersonal s-ills and gets a long well with her customers. )
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3) ohanna 5urray' a climate campaigner at 9he Dational ?ootprint ?oundation' is -nown in her organization to be a campaigner o% caliber and high per%ormance. She recently wor-ed on a campaign against global warming during which she wor-ed e$tremely hard to achieve proect milestones. 8owever' the campaign %ailed as it could not achieve the desired obective. ue to this' her manager' Brenda +wens' gave her a poor per%ormance appraisal. In the appraisal' Brenda said that ohanna was not motivated and %ailed to reach out to 2' people through Internet media to spread awareness about climate chan ge. (hich o% the %ollowing' i% true' wea-ens Brenda&s statement/ A) ohanna lac-s e$perience in publicizing campaigns using Internet media. B) Brenda was unable to ma-e time %or ohanna to brie% her on the tas-s involved in carrying out the campaign&s media strategy. C) ohanna recently moved %rom the agriculture campaign to the climate campaign. ) ohanna&s previous ob involved an e$tensive amount o% researching on environmental issues. !) Brenda is -nown in the organization to be a %air and unbiased manager. Answer# B !$planation# B) Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal %actors such as ability or e%%ort and place the blame %or %ailure on e$ternal %actors such as bad luc- or unproductive cowor-ers. 9his is -nown as a sel%serving bias. I% Brenda were unable to ma-e time %or ohanna to brie% her on the tas-s involved in carrying out the campaign&s media strategy' then this wea-ens the argument because it shows that it was not entirely ohanna&s %ault and that Brenda is partly to blame. I% ohanna lac-s e$perience in publicizing campaigns using Internet media' it strengthens Brenda&s statement. 9he %act that ohanna recently moved %rom the agriculture campaign to the climate campaign and that ohanna&s previous ob involved an e$tensive amount o% researching on environmental issues is irrelevant to Brenda&s argument. Brenda&s argument is strengthened i% she is -nown to be a %air and unbiased manager because it indicates that her evaluation o% ohanna is most li-ely true. *+# AACSB#
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31) ohanna Springer' who wor-s as a sales e$ecutive at "ascal&s Ban-' is upset at the way her manager' !mma (omac-' always calls her in %or oneonone meetings to discuss her underper%ormance. 9hough Springer ma-es a higher number o% sales calls and wor-s longer hours than last year' her sales %igures are still low. She -nows that the main reason behind her underper%ormance is the recent economic meltdown in the country. 8owever' her manager %eels that Springer&s underper%ormance is the result o% her laidbac- attitude and has nothing to do with e$ternal %actors. In this situation' (omac-&s behavior is characterized by aFn) ________. A) anchoring bias B) contrast e%%ect C) %undamental attribution error ) sel%%ul%illing prophecy !) "ygmalion e%%ect Answer# C !$planation# C) 9he tendency to underestimate the in%luence o% e$ternal %actors and overestimate the in%luence o% internal %actors when ma-ing udgments about the behavior o% others is re%erred to as the %undamental attribution error. *+# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 3) ________ bias indicates the tendency o% an individual to attribute his or her own successes to internal %actors while putting the blame %or %ailures on e$ternal %actors. A) Status :uo B) Sel%serving C) istinction ) Congruence !) Anchoring Answer# B !$planation# B) Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal %actors such as ability or e%%ort and place the blame %or %ailure on e$ternal %actors such as bad luc- or unproductive cowor-ers. 9his is -nown as a sel%serving bias. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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33) ane Allen' a campaign manager at a nonpro%it organization' o%ten ta-es %ull credit %or proect successes even when her team members& contributions play a big role in achieving milestones. 8owever' when proects receive setbac-s' she blames her team members and sometimes states that the situation was beyond her control. Allen&s behavior is an e$ample o% aFn) ________ bias. A) impact B) anchoring C) con%irmation ) distinction !) sel%serving Answer# ! !$planation# !) Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal %actors such as ability or e%%ort and place the blame %or %ailure on e$ternal %actors such as bad luc- or unproductive cowor-ers. 9his is -nown as a sel%serving bias. *+# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 34) *aura Simpson' a campaign manager at a child rights organization in a-arta' planned a marathon %or celebrities to raise money %or underprivileged children. 9hough all arrangements %or the event had been made' a %ew days be%ore the event she realized that on the same day there was a political rally happening in the city which would bloc- access to the route on which the marathon was supposed to be underta-en. In such a situation' what is Simpson' wh o su%%ers %rom a sel%serving bias' most li-ely to say/ A) I did not do su%%icient research on public events in the city. B) 5y colleagues did not in%orm me about the rally. C) 9he director had warned me o% this. I should have -nown better. ) I should have weighed %easibility options %or the event. !) I should have established better contacts to -now about this update. Answer# B !$planation# B) A sel%serving bias places the blame %or %ailure on e$ternal %actors such as bad luc- or unproductive cowor-ers rather than ta-ing personal responsibility %or the %ailure. *+# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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32) Individuals engage in ________ because it is impossible %or them to assimilate everything they see and can ta-e in only certain stimuli. A) selective perception B) cognitive dissonance C) sel%serving bias ) emotional labor !) sel%%ul%illing prophecy Answer# A !$planation# A) Any characteristic that ma-es a person' an obect' or an event stand out will increase the probability we will perceive it. Since we can&t observe everything going on about us' we engage in selective perception. *+# 3 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 3;) ou are more li-ely to notice a car li-e your o wn due to ________. A) stereotyping B) sel%serving bias C) halo e%%ect ) selective perception !) contrast e%%ect Answer# !$planation# ) Because we can&t observe everything going on about us' we engage in selective perception. Selective perception allows us to GspeedreadG others. ue to selective perception' we are more li-ely to notice cars li-e our own. *+# 3 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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3=) 8arriet Hirby' a %und raising manager at a women&s rights organization' e$perienced a bad incident last year with the public relations manager o % a ban-ing company who had committed to sponsor a charity event. 9he ban- bac-ed out at the last minute. 9his year' when a renowned international ban- e$ecutive showed interest in sponsoring the organization&s upcoming annual event' Hirby reected their participation. She %elt that ban- s have a casual approach toward charity events and it is ris-y to involve the m in the event. (hich o% the %ollowing best characterizes Hirby&s decision/ A) selective perception B) cognitive dissonance C) sel%serving bias ) bandwagon e%%ect !) sel%%ul%illing prophecy Answer# A !$planation# A) Because we cannot assimilate all that we observe' we ta-e in bits and pieces. But we don&t choose randomly rather' we select according to our interests' bac-ground' e$perience' and attitudes. 9his is -nown as selective perception. *+# 3 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 3>) ________ re%ers to the tendency o% people to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis o% a single characteristic. A) Con%irmation bias B) Sel%serving bias C)
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3@) Amanda (inter wor-ed as a public engagement coordinator at Sa%e ?ood Alliance until three months ago when her manager' *aura 5orris' promoted her to the position o% a sustainable %ood campaigner. 8owever' soon a%ter this' *aura noticed that Amanda was %acing maor di%%iculties in achieving campaign milestones and the proect was %alling behind schedule due to her lac- o% per%ormance. (hich o% the %ollowing' i% true' would most strengthen the argument that *aura was in%luenced by the halo e%%ect in her decision to promote Amanda/ A) *aura is -nown to micromanage most o% her proects. B) *aura uses cultural stereotyping in order to speed u p the process o% decision ma-ing. C) *aura has made good hiring decisions in the past and is -nown to be an unbiased udge o% character. ) *aura sat in on only one o% Amanda&s presentations prior to giving her the promotion. !) *aura wor-ed closely with Amanda over a period o% > months. Answer# !$planation# ) (hen we draw a general impression about an individual on the basis o% a single characteristic' such as intelligence' sociability' or appearance' a halo e%%ect is operating. A single trait is allowed to in%luence the overall impression o% the person b eing udged. 9he %act that *aura sat in on only one o% Amanda&s presentations prior to giving her the promotion indicates that she was in%luenced by the s-ills that Amanda displayed during that single encounter. 8er decision was not based on a comprehensive evaluation o% Amanda&s abilities and per%ormance. 9he %act that *aura is -nown to micromanage most o% her tas-s wea-ens the argument that *aura e$perienced the halo e%%ect. 9he %act that *aura uses cultural stereotyping in order to speed up the process o% decision ma-ing is irrelevant to the argument because it tal-s about a halo e%%ect and not cultural stereotyping. I% *aura has made good hiring decisions in the past and is -nown to be an unbiased udge o% character' it wea-ens the argument that she was in%luenced by the halo e%%ect. I% *aura wor-ed closely with Amanda' she is most li-ely to -now her strengths and wea-nesses and would not be in%luenced by the halo e%%ect. *+# 3 AACSB#
with bureaucrats' politicians' celebrities' and other prosperous individuals. 8e %eels that all rich people are -ind' hardwor-ing' and %riendly. (hich o% the %ollowing best characterizes avies& perception/ A) con%irmation bias B) sel%serving bias C) randomness error ) halo e%%ect !) hindsight bias Answer# !$planation# ) (hen we draw a general impression about an individual on the basis o% a single characteristic' such as intelligence' sociability' or appearance' a halo e%%ect is operating. A single trait is allowed to in%luence the overall impression o% the person b eing udged. *+# 3 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 4) ________ re%ers to the evaluation o% a person&s characteristics that is a%%ected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who ran- higher or lower on the same characteristics. A) 8alo e%%ect B) Contrast e%%ect C) Con%irmation bias ) Stereotyping !) Anchoring bias Answer# B !$planation# B) Contrast e%%ect is the evaluation o% a person&s characteristics that is a%%ected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who ran- higher or lower on the same characteristics. *+# 3 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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43) (hich o% the %ollowing statements is true regarding a contrast e%%ect/ A) It attributes success to internal %actors and blames %ailure on e$ternal %actors. B) It involves udging a person on the basis o% perception o% the group to which he or she belongs. C) It involves evaluation o% a person&s %eatures based on comparison with another person. ) It indicates a tendency to draw a general conclusion about a person on the basis o% one %eature. !) It indicates a tendency to %i$ate on initial in%ormation and %ail to accept subse:uent data. Answer# C !$planation# C) Contrast e%%ect is the evaluation o% a person&s characteristics that is a%%ected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who ran- higher or lower on the same characteristics. *+# 3 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 44) essica recently oined a new company and was %irst introduced to 5ichelle' her cubicle neighbor. 5ichelle came across as amiable and cheer%ul. uring lunch she met another colleague' Carrie' who did not come across as %riendly as 5ichelle. In this situation' essica&s interpretation o% Carrie&s personality is most li-ely to be a%%ected by ________. A) con%irmation bias B) contrast e%%ect C) %undamental attribution error ) sel%serving bias !) bandwagon e%%ect Answer# B !$planation# B) Contrast e%%ect is the evaluation o% a person&s characteristics that is a%%ected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who ran- higher or lower on the same characteristics. *+# 3 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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42) udging someone on the basis o% one&s perception o% the group to which the person belongs is called ________. A) con%irmation bias B) stereotyping C) %raming e%%ect ) sel%serving bias !) bandwagon e%%ect Answer# B !$planation# B) Stereotyping is de%ined as udging someone on the basis o% one&s perception o% the group to which that person belongs.
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4=) ) A manager believes that he should not hire older wor-ers because they can&t learn new s-ills. 9his belie% is an e$ample o% ________. A) an anchoring bias B) a %undamental attribution error C) a con%irmation bias ) a sel%serving bias !) stereotyping Answer# ! !$planation# !) (hen we udge someone on the basis o% our perception o% the group to which he or she belongs' we are using the shortcut called stereotyping. *+# 3 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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4@) (hich o% the %ollowing terms re%ers to a situation in which a person inaccurately perceives another person and the resulting e$pectations cause the other person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception/ A) con%irmation bias B) sel%%ul%illing prophecy C) attribution theory ) contrast e%%ect !) bandwagon e%%ect Answer# B !$planation# B) A situation in which a person inaccurately perceives another person and the resulting e$pectations cause the other person to b ehave in ways consistent with the original perception is -nown as a sel%%ul%illing prophecy. *+# 3 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 2) Sarah Covington' a sales manager at Synergy Corporation Ban-' o%ten -eeps low e$pectations o% her team. She %eels that they are under:uali%ied %or their ob and do not have substantial e$perience to sell a large number o% accounts. Covington&s team does not %eel motivated enough and invariably underper%orms and misses targets on a regular basis. (hich o% the %ollowing concepts best e$plains Covington&s team&s poor per%ormance/ A) hindsight bias B) sel%%ul%illing prophecy C) con%irmation bias ) contrast e%%ect !) bandwagon e%%ect Answer# B !$planation# B) A situation in which a person inaccurately perceives another person and the resulting e$pectations cause the other person to b ehave in ways consistent with the original perception is -nown as a sel%%ul%illing prophecy. *+# 3 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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21) (hich o% the %ollowing terms re%ers to choices made %rom among two or more alternatives/ A) in:uiry B) decision C) perception ) intuition !) rationalization Answer# B !$planation# B) A decision re%ers to choices made %rom among two or more alternatives. Individual decision ma-ing is thus an important part o% organizational behavior. But the way individuals ma-e decisions and the :uality o% their choices are largely in%luenced by their perceptions. *+# 4 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 2) AFn) ________ re%ers to a discrepancy between the current state o% a%%airs and some desired state. A) problem B) decision C) instinct ) intuition !) perception Answer# A !$planation# A) A problem re%ers to a discrepancy between the current state o% a%%airs and some desired state. ecision ma-ing occurs as a reaction to a problem. *+# 4 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# e%ine organizational behavior and identi%y the variables associated with its study
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23) (hich o% the %ollowing is a decisionma-ing model that describes how individuals should behave in order to ma$imize some outcome/ A) rational decisionma-ing model B) %le$ible decisionma-ing model C) distributive decisionma-ing model ) associative decisionma-ing model !) integrative decisionma-ing model Answer# A !$planation# A)
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22) (hat is the %irst step in the rational decisionma-ing model/ A) developing alternatives B) de%ining the problem C) identi%ying the decision criteria ) weighing the decision criteria !) evaluating the alternatives Answer# B !$planation# B) 9he rational decisionma-ing model %ollows a si$step process. 9he steps are 1) e%ining the problem ) Identi%ying the decision criteria 3) Allocating weights to the criteria 4) eveloping the alternatives 2) !valuating the alternatives and ; ) Selecting the best alternative. *+# 2 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 2;) Anne (arner' a climate campaigner at an environmental organization' is in charge o% implementing a campaign activity where she need s to increase the use o% renewable energy in the villages o% 7ietnam. ?or her proect' she uses the rational decisionma-ing model to implement activities. She has ust completed identi%ying an appropriate criteria %or decision ma-ing and has allocated weights to the criteria. (hich o% the %ollowing is (arner most li-ely to underta-e ne$t according to the model/ A) develop options o% wind' solar' and hydro energy B) analyze the problems o% the proect C) determine goals o% the proect ) select hydro energy as the best option !) weigh advantages between solar and wind energy Answer# A !$planation# A) 9he rational decisionma-ing model %ollows a si$step process. 9he steps are 1) e%ine the problem ) Identi%y the decision criteria 3) Allocate weights to the criteria 4) evelop the alternatives 2) !valuate the alternatives and ;) Select the best alternative. Anne should now develop various alternative solutions. *+# 2 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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2=) (ith re%erence to decision ma-ing' which o% the %ollowing does satis%icing involve/ A) weighing each criteria be%ore ma-ing a decision B) see-ing solutions that are satis%actory and su%%icient C) scrutinizing and evaluating each alternative in detail ) selecting the best option with the highest utility !) %inding optimal solutions to problems Answer# B !$planation# B) 9he limited in%ormationprocessing capability o% human beings ma-es it impossible to assimilate and understand all the in%ormation necessary to optimize. In addition' many problems li-ely do not have an optimal solution because they are too complicated to be bro-en down into the parameters o% the rational decisionma-ing model. 8ence' people satis%ice' that is' they see- solutions that are satis%actory and su%%icient. *+# 2 i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations 2>) !mily Boyce' a proect manager at an insurance %irm' regularly satis%ices while ma-ing decisions. She o%ten comes across complicated problems which would ta-e a long time to resolve. ue to the pressing deadlines' she o%ten meets proect goals by satis%icing a large number o% her decisions. (hich o% the %ollowing is Boyce most li-ely to do/ A) see- complete in%ormation while ma-ing decisions B) search %or solutions that are reasonable C) identi%y all possible options to solutions ) analyze each alternative in an unbiased manner !) choose the optimal solution to each problem Answer# B !$planation# B) 9he limited in%ormationprocessing capability o% human beings ma-es it impossible to assimilate and understand all the in%ormation necessary to optimize. In addition' many problems li-ely do not have an optimal solution because they are too complicated to be bro-en down into the parameters o% the rational decisionma-ing model. 8ence' people satis%ice' that is' they see- solutions that are satis%actory and su%%icient. *+# 2 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations
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2@) A process o% ma-ing decisions by constructing simpli%ied models that e$tract the essential %eatures %rom problems without capturing all their comple$ity is -nown as ________. A) optimal decision ma-ing B) intuitive decision ma-ing C) bounded rationality ) active selection !) incremental decision ma-ing Answer# C !$planation# C) 9he human mind cannot %ormulate and solve comple$ problems with %ull rationality. 9hus' they operate within the con%ines o% bounded rationality. 9he process o% ma-ing decisions by constructing simpli%ied models that e$tract the essential %eatures %rom problems without capturing all their comple$ity is -nown as bound ed rationality. *+# 2 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations ;) ________ is an unconscious process created %rom distilled e$perience. A) "rocess consultation B) Action research C) Intuitive decision ma-ing ) Active selection !) !motional intelligence Answer# C !$planation# C) Intuitive decision ma-ing is an unconscious process created %rom distilled e$perience. Intuitive decision ma-ing occurs outside conscious thought' relies on holistic associations' is %ast' and engages in emotions. *+# 2 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations ;1) (hich o% the %ollowing is true about intuitive decision ma-ing/ A) It is a slow process o% decision ma-ing. B) It is devoid o% emotions. C) It is the most rational way o% ma-ing decision. ) It occurs within conscious thought. !) It involves ma-ing decisions based on distilled e$perience. Answer# ! !$planation# !) Intuition re%ers to an unconscious process created out o% distilled e$perience. It occurs outside conscious thought and relies on holistic associations' or lin-s between disparate pieces o% in%ormation. It is %ast and is a%%ectively charged' meaning it usually engages the emotions. *+# 2 i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations 3 Copyright 0 12 "earson !ducation' Inc.
;) "hyllis Stintson needs to decide whether to start a campaign against de%orestation in Indonesia. 9hough her research team has provided substantial in%ormation on the high %easibility o% the proect' Stintson does not go ahead with the proect. I% Stintson made her decision by drawing unconscious re%erences %rom several di%%erent e$periences in the past' her de cision is most li-ely in%luenced by which o% the %ollowing/ A) optimization B) intuition C) %undamental attribution error ) %raming e%%ect !) anchoring bias Answer# B !$planation# B) Intuition is a highly comple$ and highly developed %orm o% reasoning that is based on years o% e$perience and learning. 9he -ey to using intuition in decision ma-ing is neither to abandon nor to rely solely on intuition' but to supplement it with evidence and good udgment. *+# 2 AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations ;3) 9he ________ bias is a tendency to %i$ate on initial in%ormation and %ail to ade:uately adust %or subse:uent in%ormation. A) hindsight B) overcon%idence C) anchoring ) availability !) sel%serving Answer# C !$planation# C) 9he anchoring bias is a tendency to %i$ate on initial in%ormation and %ail to ade:uately adust %or subse:uent in%ormation. It occurs because our mind appears to give a disproportionate amount o% emphasis to the %irst in%ormation it receives. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations
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;4) eanne !dwards wor-s as a campaign manager at
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;2) ohanna 5urray' a climate campaigner at 9he Dational ?ootprint ?oundation' is -nown in her organization to be a campaigner o% caliber and high per%ormance. She has strong networ-s with the 5inistry o% !nvironment and allies with several environmental organizations in the country. +ver the years' she has gained substantial -nowledge on the issue o% climate change. 8owever' recently when she prepared a consolidated report on a con%erence she attended on climate change' it re%lected maor loopholes and limited in%ormation %rom the con%erence. (hich o% the %ollowing' i% true' substantiates that ohanna had an anchoring bias/ A) ohanna was moved by the arguments put %orth by the %irst spea-er. B) ohanna participated actively in the interactive session conducted at the end. C) 9he spea-ers at the con%erence consisted o% renowned environmental scientists and activists. ) ohanna has attended several con%erences where the panel consisted o% eminent scientists. !) ohanna was shoc-ed by the startling %acts shown during the concluding session. Answer# A !$planation# A) A tendency to %i$ate on initial in%ormation' %rom which one then %ails to ade:uately adust %or subse:uent in%ormation' re%ers to an anchoring bias. I% ohanna were moved by the arguments put %orward by the %irst spea-er' then this supports the argument that she had an anchoring bias because this may have led her to prepare a report which had limited in%ormation and %ocused on initial parts o% the con%erence. I% ohanna participated actively in the interactive session conducted at the end' then this wor-s against the argument. It is irrelevant to the argument that the spea-ers at the con%erence consisted o% renowned environmental scientists and activists. I% ohanna has attended several con %erences where the panel consisted o% eminent scientists' it wor-s against the argument because it indicates that she is used to attending similar con%erences and not overwhelmed by the presence o% eminent scientists. 8ence' this wea-en s the argument. ohanna being shoc-ed by the startling %acts shown during the concluding session wea-ens the argument as it shows that she did not %i$ate only on the in%ormation presented at the beginning o% the con%erence. *+# ; AACSB#
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;;) 9he tendency to see- out in%ormation that rea%%irms past choices and to discount in%ormation that contradicts past udgments is -nown as aFn) _____ ___ bias. A) distinction B) omission C) impact ) con%irmation !) anchoring Answer# !$planation# ) 9he con%irmation bias represents a speci%ic case o% selective perception. "eople see- out in%ormation that rea%%irms past choices and discount in%ormation that contradicts them. 9hey also tend to accept at %ace value in%ormation that con%irms their preconceived views' while they are critical and s-eptical o% in%ormation that challenges these views. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations ;=) ________ bias re%ers to the tendency %or people to base their udgments on in%ormation that is easily accessible. A) Anchoring B) Availability C) +vercon%idence ) Con%irmation !) 8indsight Answer# B !$planation# B) Availability bias re%ers to the tendency %or people to base their udgments on in%ormation that is readily available to them. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations ;>) (hich o% the %ollowing types o% biases is most li-ely to play a signi%icant role during a negotiation/ A) impact bias B) normalcy bias C) distinction bias ) anchoring bias !) status :uo bias Answer# !$planation# ) Any time a negotiation ta-es place' so does anchoring. ?or e$ample' when a prospective employer as-s how much you made in your prior ob' your answer typically anchors the employer&s o%%er. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations 34 Copyright 0 12 "earson !ducation' Inc.
;@) A manager doing per%ormance appraisals gives more weight to recent employee behaviors than to behaviors o% ; or @ months earlier. 9his shows that the manager&s perception is a%%ected by aFn) ________ bias. A) sel%serving bias B) availability C) impact ) distinction !) hindsight Answer# B !$planation# B) Availability bias re%ers to the tendency %or people to base their udgments on in%ormation that is readily available to them. 9he availability bias e$plains why managers doing per%ormance appraisals give more weight to recent employee behaviors than to behaviors o% ; or @ months earlier. *+# ; AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Application *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations =) ________ re%ers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it&s wrong. A) !scalation o% commitment B) ?undamental attribution error C)
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=1) 9he tendency to believe %alsely' a%ter an outcome o% an event is actually -nown' that one would have accurately predicted that outcome is -nown as aFn) ________ bias. A) sel%serving B) con%irmation C) impact ) hindsight !) anchoring Answer# !$planation# ) 9he hindsight bias is the tendency to believe %alsely' a%ter the outcome is -nown' that one would have accurately predicted it. 9he hindsight bias reduces o ur ability to learn %rom the past. It lets us thin- we are better predictors than we are and can ma-e us %alsely con%ident. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations =) According to the concept o% ________' decisions are made solely on the basis o% their outcomes' ideally to provide the greatest good %or the greatest number. A) utilitarianism B) selective perception C) sel%%ul%illing prophecy ) halo e%%ect !) contrast e%%ect Answer# A !$planation# A) According to the ethical yardstic- o% utilitarianism' decisions are made to provide the greatest good %or the greatest number. In this system' decisions are made solely on the basis o% their outcomes. *+# > i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations
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=3) Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders are -nown as ________. A) change agents B) boundary spanners C) early adopters ) whistleblowers !) %ree riders Answer# !$planation# ) (histleblowers are individuals who reveal an organization&s unethical practices to the press or government agencies' using their right to %ree speech. *+# > i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# e%ine organizational behavior and identi%y the variables associated with its study =4) (hich o% the %ollowing is a component o% the threecomponent model o% creativity/ A) e$pertise B) logical thin-ing s-ills C) e$trinsic tas- motivation ) intuition !) analytical s-ills Answer# A !$planation# A) !$pertise is the %oundation %or all creative wor-. 9he potential %or creativity is enhanced when individuals have abilities' -nowledge' pro%iciencies' and similar e$pertise in their %ield o% endeavor. *+# @ i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations =2) 9he threecomponent model o% creativity proposes that individual creativity essentially re:uires e$pertise' creative thin-ing s-ills' and ________. A) e$ternal locus o% control B) intrinsic tas- motivation C) emotional intelligence ) positivity o%%set !) selective perception Answer# B !$planation# B) 9he threecomponent model o% creativity proposes that individual creativity essentially re:uires e$pertise' creative thin-ing s-ills' and intrinsic tas- motivation. *+# @ i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations
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=;) An individual&s perception o% reality can be substantially di%%erent %rom obective reality. Answer# 9<6! !$planation# "erception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. 8owever' what we perceive can be substantially di%%erent %rom obective reality. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place ==) "eople&s behavior is based on their perception o% what reality is' not on reality itsel%. Answer# 9<6! !$planation# "eople&s behavior is based on their perception o% what reality is' not on reality itsel%. 9he world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place =>) 9he perception o% a target is una%%ected by the perceiver&s personality or past e$periences. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# A number o% %actors operate to shape and sometimes distort perception. 9hese %actors can reside in the perceiver' in the obect or target being p erceived' or in the conte$t o% the situation in which the perception is made. *+# 1 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place =@) Attribution theory tries to e$plain the ways in which we udge people di%%erently' depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior. Answer# 9<6! !$planation# Attribution theory tries to e$plain the ways in which we udge people di%%erently' depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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>) According to the attribution theory' i% a behavior scores high on consensus and distinctiveness' we tend to consider it as an internally caused behavior. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# According to the attribution theory' i% a behavior scores high on consensus and distinctiveness' we tend to consider it as an e$ternally caused behavior. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place >1) According to attribution theory' the more consistent a behavior' the more we are inclined to attribute it to e$ternal causes. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# According to attribution theory' the more consistent a behavior' the more we are inclined to attribute it to internal causes. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place >) 9he tendency %or individuals to attribute their own successes to internal %actors and put the blame %or %ailures on e$ternal %actors is -nown as the con%irmation bias. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# 9he tendency %or individuals to attribute their own successes to internal %actors and put the blame %or %ailures on e$ternal %actors is -nown as the sel%serving bias. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place >3) 9he tendency to underestimate the in%luence o% e$ternal %actors and overestimate the in%luence o% internal %actors when ma-ing udgments about the behavior o% others is -nown as the randomness error. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# 9he tendency to underestimate the in%luence o% e$ternal %actors and overestimate the in%luence o% internal %actors when ma-ing u dgments about the behavior o% others is -nown as the %undamental attribution error. *+# i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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>4) 9he tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis o% a single characteristic is -nown as the contrast e%%ect. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# 9he tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis o% a single characteristic is -nown as the halo e%%ect. *+# 3 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place >2) A candidate is li-ely to receive a more %avorable evaluation i% preceded by mediocre applicants and a less %avorable evaluation i% preceded by strong applicants. 9his is an e$ample o % the halo e%%ect. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# (e don&t evaluate a person in isolation. +ur reaction is in%luenced by other persons we have recently encountered' and this phenomenon is e$plained by the contrast e%%ect. *+# 3 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations >;) Stereotyping helps individuals ma-e :uic- dec ision through generalizations. Answer# 9<6! !$planation# udging someone on the basis o% one&s perception o% the group to which that person belongs is -nown as stereotyping. ?or individuals' relying on generalizations every day helps them ma-e decisions :uic-ly they are a means o% simpli%ying a comple$ world. *+# 3 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place >=) In an interview' in%ormation elicited early %rom an interviewee carries greater weight than in%ormation elicited later. Answer# 9<6! !$planation#
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>>) 9he rational decisionma-ing model ta-es into consideration the %act that all in%ormation pertaining to a problem might not be available to the decision ma-er. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# 9he rational decisionma-ing model relies on a number o% assumptions' including that the decision ma-er has complete in%ormation' is able to identi%y all the relevant options in an unbiased manner' and chooses the option with the highest utility. *+# 2 i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place >@)
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@) !scalation o% commitment re%ers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it&s wrong. Answer# 9<6! !$planation# !scalation o% commitment re%ers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it is wrong. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations @3) 9he tendency to believe %alsely' a%ter an outcome o% an event is actually -nown' that one would have accurately predicted that outcome is -nown as the con%irmation bias. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# 9he tendency to believe %alsely' a%ter an outcome o% an event is actually -nown' that one would have accurately predicted that outcome is -nown as the hindsight bias. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations @4) (omen are more li-ely than men to overanalyze problems be%ore ma-ing a decision and to rehash a decision once made. Answer# 9<6! !$planation# 9wenty years o% study %ind women spend much more time than men analyzing the past' present' and %uture. 9hey&re more li-ely to overanalyze problems be%ore ma-ing a decision and to rehash a decision once made. *+# = i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations @2) A %ocus on utilitarianism creates an environment that hinders productivity and e%%iciency. Answer# ?A*S! !$planation# 9he %irst ethical yardstic- is utilitarianism' which proposes ma-ing decisions solely on the basis o% their outcomes' ideally to provide the greatest good %or the greatest nu mber. 9his view dominates business decision ma-ing. It is consistent with goals such as e%%iciency' productivity' and high pro%its. *+# > i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations
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@;) (hat is perception/ iscuss the %actors that in%luence perception. Answer# "erception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. (hat an individual perceives can be substantially di%%erent %rom obective reality. (hen people loo- at a target and attempt to interpret what they see' their interpretation is heavily in%luenced by personal characteristics such as their attitudes' personality' motives' interests' past e$periences' and e$pectations. Characteristics o% the target also a%%ect perception. Since people do not loo- at targets in isolation' the relationship o% a target to its bac-ground also in%luences perception' as does one&s tendency to group close things and similar things together. Conte$t matters as well. 9he time at which people see an obect or event can in%luence attention' as can location' light' heat' or any number o% situational %actors. *+# 1 i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place @=) iscuss the attribution theory. Answer# 9he attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual&s behavior' we attempt to determine whether it was internally or e$ternally caused. 9hat determination' however' depends largely on three %actors# F1) distinctiveness' F) consensus' and F3) consistency. ?irst' distinctiveness re%ers to whether an individual displays di%%erent behaviors in di%%erent situations. A behavior high in distinctiveness is more li-ely to be given an e$ternal attribution. Second' i% everyone who %aces a similar situation responds in the same way' we can say the behavior shows consensus. A behavior high in consensus is more li-ely to be considered an e$ternally caused behavior. 9hird' the more consistent the behavior' the more we are inclined to attribute it to internal causes. *+# i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place @>) Compare the %undamental attribution error and the sel%serving bias. Answer# (hen we ma-e udgments about the behavior o% other people' we have a tendency to underestimate the in%luence o% e$ternal %actors and overestimate the in%luence o% internal or personal %actors. 9his is called the %undamental attribution error. 9here is also a tendency %or individuals to attribute their own successes to internal %actors' such as ability or e%%ort' while putting the blame %or %ailure on e$ternal %actors' such as bad luc- or unproductive cowor-ers. 9his is called the sel%serving bias. *+# i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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@@) (hat is selective perception/ Answer# 9he tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis o% one&s interests' bac-ground' e$perience' and attitudes is -nown as selective perception. Individuals engage in selective perception because it is impossible %or them to assimilate everything they see and can ta-e in only certain stimuli. 8owever' they do not choose randomly.
1) !$plain with an e$ample the contrast e%%ect. Answer# !valuation o% a person&s characteristics that is a%%ected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who ran- higher or lower on the same characteristics is -nown as the contrast e%%ect. (e don&t evaluate a person in isolation. +ur reaction is in%luenced by other persons we have recently encountered. ?or e$ample' in a series o% ob interviews' interviewers can ma-e distortions in any given candidate&s evaluation as a result o% his or h er place in the interview schedule. A candidate is li-ely to receive a more %avorable evaluation i% preceded by mediocre applicants and a less %avorable evaluation i% preceded by strong applicants. *+# 3 i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place 13) !$plain the relationship between decision ma-ing and perception. Answer# Individuals in organizations ma-e decisions' choices %rom among two or more alternatives. Individual decision ma-ing is an important part o% organizational behavior. But the way individuals ma-e decisions and the :uality o% their choices are largely in%luenced by their perceptions. ecision ma-ing occurs as a reaction to a problem. 9hat is' a discrepancy e$ists between the current state o% a%%airs and some desired state' re:uiring people to consider alternative courses o% action. In addition' one person&s problem is another person&s satis%actory state o% a%%airs. Awareness that a problem e$ists and that a decision might or might not be needed is a perceptual issue. !very decision re:uires a person to interpret and evaluate in%ormation. A person&s perceptions determine which in%ormation is relevant and which is not. 9hroughout the entire decisionma-ing process' perceptual distortions o%ten sur%ace that can bias analysis and conclusions. *+# 4 i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# Apply the study o% perception and attribution to the wor-place
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14) (hat is bounded rationality/ 8ow is it related to decision ma-ing/ Answer# 9he capacity o% the human mind %or %ormulating and solving comple$ problems is %ar too small to meet the re:uirements %or %ull rationality. 9hus' individuals operate within the con%ines o% bounded rationality. 9hey construct simpli%ied models that e$tract the essential %eatures %rom problems without capturing all their comple$ity. Individuals can then behave rationally within the limits o% the simple model. +nce the limited set o% alternatives is identi%ied' the decision ma-er will begin reviewing it. But the review will not be comprehensive. Instead' the decision ma-er will begin with alternatives that di%%er only in a relatively small degree %rom the choice currently in e%%ect. ?ollowing along %amiliar and wellworn paths' the decision ma-er proceeds to review alternatives only until he or she identi%ies an alternative that is good enough. 9he %irst alternative that meets the Ggood enoughG criterion ends the search. 9hus' the %inal solution represents a satis%icing choice rather than an optimum one. *+# 2 i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations 12) (hat is intuitive decision ma-ing/ !$plain. Answer# Intuitive decision ma-ing is an unconscious process created %rom distilled e$perience. It occurs outside conscious thought and relies on holistic associations' or lin-s between disparate pieces o% in%ormation. It is %ast and is a%%ectively charged' which means that it usually engages the emotions. (hile intuition is not rational' it is not necessarily wrong. Dor does it always contradict rational analysis. Instead' the two can complement each other. In certain instances' relying on intuition can improve decision ma-ing. But it is important not to rely on it too heavily. 9his is because it is un:uanti%iable and thus it is h ard to -now when our hunches are right or wrong. 9he -ey is neither to abandon nor rely solely on intuition' but to supplement it with evidence and good udgment. *+# 2 i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations 1;) (hat is an anchoring bias/ Answer# An anchoring bias is a tendency to %i$ate on initial in%ormation and %ail to ade:uately adust %or subse:uent in%ormation. It occurs because our mind appears to give a disproportionate amount o% emphasis to the %irst in%ormation it receives. Anchors are widely used by people in pro%essions in which persuasion s-ills are importantJadvertising' management' politics' real estate' and law. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations
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1=) escribe the con%irmation bias. Answer# 9he rational decisionma-ing process assumes we obectively gather in%ormation. But we don&t. (e selectively gather it. 9he con%irmation bias represents a speci%ic case o% selective perception# we see- out in%ormation that rea%%irms our past choices' and we discount in%ormation that contradicts them. (e also tend to accept at %ace value in%ormation that con%irms our preconceived views' while we are critical and s-eptical o% in%ormation that challenges them. 9here%ore' the in%ormation we gather is typically biased toward supporting views we already hold. (e even tend to see- sources most li-ely to tell us what we want to he ar' and we give too much weight to supporting in%ormation and too little to contradictory. *+# ; i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations 1>) (hat is escalation o% commitment/ !$plain. Answer# !scalation o% commitment re%ers to staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence it is wrong. Individuals escalate commitment to a %ailing course o% action when they view themselves as responsible %or the %ailure. "eople who care%ully gather and consider in%ormation consistent with the rational decisionma-ing model are more li-ely to engage in escalation o% commitment than those who spend less time thin-ing about their choices. 9hey are more li-ely to have invested so much time and energy into ma-ing their decisions that they h ave convinced themselves they are ta-ing the right course o% action and do not update their -nowledge in the %ace o% new in%ormation. *+# ; i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations 1@) !$plain the hindsight bias. Answer# 9he hindsight bias is the tendency to believe %alsely' a%ter the outcome is -nown' that we&d have accurately predicted it. (hen we have accurate %eedbac- on the outcome' we seem pretty good at concluding it was obvious. 9he hindsight bias reduces our ability to learn %rom the past. It lets us thin- we&re better predictors than we are and can ma-e us %alsely con%ident. *+# ; i%%iculty# !asy ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations
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11) !$plain the e%%ect o% gender on decision ma-ing. Answer# AACSB# Analytic S-ills i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Synthesis *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations 11) (hat are the three ethical decision criteria/ !$plain. Answer# 9he %irst ethical yardstic- is utilitarianism' which proposes ma-ing decisions solely on the basis o% their outcomes' ideally to provide the greatest good %or the greatest number. 9his view dominates business decision ma-ing. It is consistent with goals such as e%%iciency' productivity' and high pro%its. Another ethical criterion is to ma-e decisions consistent with %undamental liberties and privileges' as set %orth in documents such as the Bill o% i%%iculty# 5oderate ,uest. Category# Concept *earning +utcome# iscuss the %actors in%luencing individual decision ma-ing in organizations
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