Challenges of Campus Radio Broadcasting in Nigerian Universities

CHALLENGES OF CAMPUS RADIO BROADCASTING IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES: A STUDY OF BSU FM 89.9 MAKURDI

BY

RAYMOND MSUGHTER, HEMEN BSU/SS/COM/12/17769

DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION, BENUE STATE UNIVERSITY MAKURDI

MARCH, 2017

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TITLE PAGE CHALLENGES OF CAMPUS RADIO BROADCASTING IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES: A STUDY OF BSU FM 89.9 MAKURDI

BY

RAYMOND MSUGHTER, HEMEN BSU/SS/COM/12/17769

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION, BENUE STATE UNIVERSITY MAKURDI, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE B.SC. (HONS) DEGREE IN MASS COMMUNICATION

MARCH, 2017

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this study was carried out by me and approved by the Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University, Makurdi; and that the information provided therein is truthful and factual. I therefore take full responsibility for any form of litigation or action against this work that may arise in future. ------------------------------RAYMOND MSUGHTER, HEMEN BSU/SS/COM/12/17769

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CERTIFICATION

I certify that this work was actually carried out by Raymond Msughter, Hemen with matriculation number BSU/SS/COM/12/17769. It is approved by the undersigned on behalf of the Department of Mass Communication as meeting the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Science B.Sc. (Hons) Degree in Mass Communication.

----------------------------------DR. CALEB, TERNGU CHILE Project Supervisor

------------------------------DATE

----------------------------------DR. RODNEY SARWUAN CIBOH Head of Department

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----------------------------------EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to the almighty God for seeing me through my academic pursuit; and to my late mother, Mrs. Anthonia Dooshima, Hemen (of blessed memory).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I give all glory to the Almighty God for the gift of life, health and strength

which saw me through my years of academic pursuit. Truly, “if God be for us who can be against us” My warmest appreciation goes to my project supervisor Dr. Caleb Terngu Chile for his attention despite an obviously tight schedule, who endured the painstaking task of going through this work and making the necessary corrections and constructive criticisms that have made this work to meet the desired academic standard. I acknowledge with a deep sense of gratitude the Head, Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University Rodney S. Ciboh PhD and all my lecturers: Prof. Gerard Amenger Igyor., Gabriel B. Ugande PhD., Rev. Fr. Vitalis Torwel PhD., Michael A. Kombol PhD., Tyotom Keghku PhD., Andrew O. Ijwo PhD., Late Samson A. Sambe PhD (of blessed memory)., Daniel N. Chile PhD., Daniel Bo PhD., Vaungwa A. N. Tine PhD., Benjamin E. Ogbu PhD., Shiminenge Atime PhD., Mr. Thomas Kajo., Mrs. Maria A. Onyilo., Mr. Kelvin Alom., Mr. John O. Ogi., Mrs. Tina Tsafa., Miss Grace Anweh., Mrs. Patience Achakpa-Ikyo., Miss Rachael Nyiwo., Mrs Matilda Sase., Mrs Martha Msoo Iorpagher and everybody that has contributed academically in one way or the other to make me who I am today. To my father, ASP Gabriel K. Hemen, thank you sir for believing in me and for not giving up on me despite the so many demands and stress my academic pursuit subjected you to. God bless and keep you alive so you can reap the fruit of your labour in me. To my mother, late Mrs. Dooshima A. Hemen, thank you for bringing me to this world and your love. My mother, Mrs. Jummai Gabriel, thank you for your support, love and provision. My siblings, Corporal Donald T. Hemen (Don H) and his wife Mrs. Eunice Hemen. Mrs. Evelyn

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Reginald Ikuve and her husband. Wilfred, Erdoo, Asabe Agoh, Winifred, Victoria, Joyce, Mimidoo , Tabitha, Kpankwase Favor Hemen, and my wonderful nieces Dooshima, Peculiar, Sophia and Charis; thank you all for your love and care. God bless you. To the family of ASP and Mrs. Athanasius Tsav J.P., thank you for the shelter you provided me all through my first year in school and for the fatherly advice and care you showed me. To the whole of Campus New Nation family, especially my father in the Lord, Rev. Hillary O. Agbo; thank you sir for giving my life a divine purpose and positioning me on the part to success in school and life generally. CNN is indeed the best place to be on campus. I love you all. To my friends Pastor Charles Dominic; (my roommate, biological brother, spiritual brother, leader, encourager, and confidant) sir we made it! Not forgetting Aondover Ikyobo my motivator, Blessing Edeh (MC-Pearl) a friend indeed; Faith Ahubi Imoni (Faithing), Cmrd. Geoffrey Ahile (I am privileged sir), Adoo Gum (Kumashe U Tiv), Dorothy Ochai, Moses Keghter Aguredam (course rep), Pastor Daniel Aju and Emmanuel Alumo; you guys had my back all the time. My love for you is incalculable. How can I forget my school father and mentor, ENGR. Stephen Ayua Chen; sir, only God can reward you for what you have done for me. Mrs. Judith Uzan; Ma you gave me a chance to practice Mass Communication while still in school. ENGR. Peter Awuhe, Mrs. Joyce Akuraga, Msugh Yamtso, Tersee Mzughga (T-Jimmy), Benjamin Iombor (Benzino), Japheth Terver Kwaghom (the radio Microphone), James Chokom (Dj Jas), Erdoo Azer (miss Akata) and the whole of BSU FM crew; it was really nice working with you people. To Peter Ede and Festus Yisa; who contributed in no small measure to the success of this research, always willing to put me right where I went wrong; Bro P, you kept your door open to me whenever I needed your assistance. God bless you.

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Not forgetting my amiable course mates; BSU/MACOSA class of 2016, and every student of Benue State University that contributed in one way or the other to my life while on campus. I love you all. Finally to everyone, whose work was used in the course of this research, your intellectual efforts contributed to the success of this study as such, your unique contributions are highly appreciated and may God bless you abundantly.

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ABSTRACT

The study assessed the challenges of campus radio broadcasting in Nigerian Universities, using BSU FM as a point of focus. The study was anchored on the Technological Determinism theory and the Development Media Theory. The survey research method was adopted with the questionnaire and unstructured interview as the instruments for data collection. Findings from the study showed that Campus radio stations have enormous challenges confronting them, ranging from power supply, manpower, finance, to lack of effective management or unqualified managers. The study also found out the prospects of running campus radio stations when effectively managed. The study therefore concluded that campus radio stations in Nigerian universities have to overcome many challenges ranging from funding, equipment, manpower, lack of constant power supply, lack of students participation, poor management structure amongst others. To this end, the study amongst other recommendations, suggests that any university or other tertiary institutions trying to establish campus radio stations should take into cognizance these challenges and spell out measures to bring them to a barest minimum or curb them before even acquiring a license.

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Study

The personal and unique character of radio makes it one of the most appealing and universal mass media for participatory communication and development (Tomaselli & De Villiers, 1998:147). It has the capacity to reach large audiences, both young and old, including those in remote, underdeveloped and impoverished areas of the developing world (Tavhiso, 2009). The above statement goes a long way to affirm the prospects of radio in our society. In similar vein, campus radio gives room for students to participate in the programme package and production. This explains why Madamombe (2005) highlighted some of the

benefits of campus radio that “Their transmitters may reach only a few miles, but campus radio stations are enabling isolated communities across Africa to voice their own concerns. On air, ordinary citizens discuss issues that are central to them, such as gender relations and

combating HIV/AIDS.” The general belief worldwide is that any campus based community radio station is a mere juke box. However, recent research studies have shown that some of these stations are actually contributing to community development (Osunkunle, 2009). Community campus radio stations offer concrete means for public participation and defence for cultural diversity.

“Participation is the engine of democracy and community radio is a tool for participation” (Jordan, 2006 in Suleiman, 2014) Khan (2010) posits that needless to say, community radio has played a major role in bridging the communication gap between the Government and the local people. As the community radio is still evolving it might be possible that in the near future, we will witness its various new forms which will be technologically more superior as well as user-friendly.

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At a time when public-private media lines are vulnerable to blurring and a market in the mantra climate dominates the media landscape, community media provides primacy to the local; it provides a voice to the voiceless, the unheard and the marginalized (Sen, 2010). Community radio is the modern means of communication for social communication.

“It falls under general means of mass communication. Community broadcasting is such a process whereby individuals indulge in interaction with each other to achieve collective objectives. There is action-oriented relationship between individuals involved in interaction while there is mutual friendship and attachment. Similar geographical, cultural and natural settings tend to bring them closer emotionally while chasing common objectives. The main common link for coexistence is sentiments, needs and localness. They are never competing with each other; they coexist. All are habituated to work in groups ” (Mainali, 2008). But like any aspect of human existence, campus radio stations also have their own share of challenges encountered on a daily bases as they try to live up to this task of bringing development to their host communities. Ihechu & Okereke (2012) mentioned finance as one

of the challenges facing community radio stations. They posit that “Learning from the impact of license fees and renewal fees on the existing private stations (their inability to make substantial profit after paying license fees ranging from 10 million to 25 Million naira); it becomes difficult for community stations to be commercially viable in the face of the present licensing regime.” In support of the above assertion, Thangaraj, Kumar & Asokan (2007) suggests that the annual licence fee may be cut down for community radios to ease the financial strain. Thangaraj et al (2007) further suggested that the frequencies allotted to low – power community radios should not be allotted to high power commercial transmitters even if they are more than a hundred kilometres away. Proper utilization of revenue earned through commercial advertisements if allowed, should be ensured.

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“Campus community radio is still relatively in its infancy in Nigeria. University campuses in many other countries such as the United States have well-established community radio stations, serving niche audiences while simultaneously offering a nursery slope for apprentice broadcasters” (David, 2015) BSU FM 89.9 has her own share of these challenges as are almost peculiar to other stations across Africa. A circumstance of note is the fact that the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC), in her Nigerian Broadcasting Code of 2010 the 5 th edition restricted the funding of a campus radio station to the following: Subvention; Spot announcements from within the Campus community (Not exceeding 9 minutes in every 1 hour broadcast; Donations or grants; Events coverage within the Campus community; Sale of station’s memorabilia (Broadcast Code, 2010). Although the funding of these stations is usually limited; many stations also solicit programme underwriting support, listener contributions, and outright donations, which are important because advertiser/commercial content is severely restricted by law on non commercial stations (Sauls, 1995). Challenges specific to a university-based community radio station fall into four main categories: Seasonal issues, solving the learning/performance dilemma, volunteer workforce tensions and the innovative versus the normative (David, 2015). Another challenge in line with this is the issue of programming. According to Fauteux (2015:32) “the primary role of community based campus radio stations is to broadcast alternative programmes that are not typically heard on commercial radio, but also in depth spoken word programming, community specific programming and special interest music. In addition to students, members of the community at large are also involved in the production and programming of community based campus stations. This stipulation is passed down to campus stations from the CRTC and it ensures that campus radio content is different from and alternative to commercial and public radio stations in the same area ”.

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A campus station is not only expected to serve the needs of the university community, but also the community that houses the institution which the campus station exist on. Whatever reasons might have informed the establishment of a campus radio station, one thing is clear: it must deliver content which satisfies the tastes and meets the needs of the community (Ojebode, Onekutu &Adegbol, 2010). Another issue worthy of note is a situation where campus community radios become tools of propaganda in the hands of their owners or the government of the day as the case may be. According to Singh (2010), the little media that is growing parallel to the big global entities has to remain on guard and ensure maximum community participation, so that it does not turn into a puppet. This media which are closest to the community in the form of citizen journalism, grassroots press and community radio should not turn into a gimmick in the hands of the large conglomerates. Danger also lurks in the form of organisational control that may want to use the medium for propaganda. The medium and its use should have all the mechanisms of the involvement of the community. BSU FM like other stations under the same category suffers power issues. Given the onerous cost of generator fuel, one might expect more solar powered radio stations in rural areas, but they are not the majority. Reasons include the initial expense of the panels, as compared to a diesel generator, the fact that panels can be a target for thieves, and the difficulties associated with replacing and sourcing the battery(ies) (Myers, 2008). This research therefore seeks to find out some of the challenges faced by campus community stations, using BSU FM as a study focus. The study is set out to ascertain if for sure the station is faced with challenges, so as to suggest solutions that would at least help the station bring these challenges to the barest minimum.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem There is a dearth of information regarding campus community radio in Nigeria. Much attention has been given to the role of community radio in development, education and

community representation, but very little focus on community radio’s functioning within the current broadcast system (Lotter, 2007). Setting up and running an effective community radio faces a lot of challenges, the biggest issue being that of sustainability. Among the major reasons observed is lack of community interest, insufficient content, sporadic financial assistance. All these, combined with the bureaucratic problems of getting a license hinder the process of growth of community radios (Pradhan, 2011), and BSU FM is not left out on these myriad of problems facing campus community radios. It has been observed that the challenges facing BSU FM station in her infancy stage of operation includes poor management structure, inadequate staff/personnel, paucity of funds and bureaucratic quagmire from the university management. These problems are not however peculiar to BSU FM alone, as similar issues were noted at Simli Radio in Dalun, within the Tolon-Kumbungu District of the Northern Region of Ghana by (Al-hassan, Andani & Abdul-Malik, 2011), when they revealed that “the radio has faced leadership difficulties. It has remained a big challenge to get a Station Manager. The absence of such a figure has negatively affected service delivery and management of the station. ” Al-hassan et al (2011) further observed that “the station could not meet its target of the social programmes because of power outage. Also, there is a high tendency of disappearance of radio programmes after individual presenters leave the organisation ”. In the course of the research, it was observed by the researcher that BSU FM had gone off air from October 2016 and remained off air till the time the research was concluded. The reason for the shutdown was because the transmitter which was supposed to be a test-run transmitter could not continue serving the station for long so it shutdown on one of their

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broadcast days. This becomes a serious issue of concern because even though the station was running five hours weekdays excluding Saturdays and Sundays, the transmitter could not serve, which begs the question, what if it were to be run like other campus radio stations like UNILAG FM, which runs nineteen (19) hours daily from 5:00 am to 12:00 am. This undoubtedly shows that the school management was not prepared for the station in the first place. Another issue observed by the researcher was the issue of staffing or adequate man power to run the station. Majority of the presenters were students in their final years of study and it became a very big issue trying to get students from the lower classes to fill these vacant positions soon to be left. The researcher also happened to be among the graduating student presenters. This study therefore seeks to investigate the perceived challenges that campuscommunity radio stations face from the time of kick off to when they become part of the institution of learning that houses them, using BSU FM 89.9 as a point of focus. To this end, the research investigates the challenges and prospects of established community radios in Nigerian universities with delimitation on BSU FM 89.9., Makurdi. 1.3 Objectives of Study

i. ii.

To find out problems associated with BSU FM campus radio broadcasting. To determine to what extent these problems hinder the effective running of BSU FM campus station.

iii.

To suggest ways of either curbing or minimizing these challenges.

iv.

To assess ways through which BSU FM would be effectively managed.

1.4

i. ii.

Research Questions

What are the problems associated with BSU FM campus radio? To what extent do these challenges hinder the effective running of BSU FM campus station?

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iii.

In what ways can these challenges be minimized or curbed?

iv.

In what ways can BSU FM be effectively managed for efficiency?

1.5

Significance of the Study

This study will draw the attention of government and concerned citizens to the plights of campus radio stations on various campuses in Nigeria. The study will also be of immense significance to researchers in the academia in the 21st century. It does not only aim at contributing to knowledge but also providing a foundational basis for further studies into challenges of both campus and commercial radio stations in Nigeria and even Africa. This study will also definitely add resource to available literature and will be used to promote informed decision making and policies by governmental regulatory bodies and guide them in the right direction on matters concerning campus radio broadcasting. 1.6

Scope of the Study

This study is restricted to the challenges of campus radio broadcasting in Nigerian universities, a study of BSU FM 89.9, Makurdi. Geographically, the study is further restricted to management staff of BSU FM, academic staff of Mass Communication Department, the managers of Radio Benue, Harvest FM and NTA, Mass Communication students of Benue state University and NUJ registered Journalists. To this effect, interviews would be conducted with major members of the management staff of BSU FM: The head, department of Mass communication, the programmes producer, the chief engineer, the staff adviser, news editor in chief, the transmitter operator and a senior duty continuity announcer, while questionnaire would also be administered to the academic staff, the three managers of Radio Benue, Harvest FM and NTA, Mass Communication students of Benue State University and NUJ registered Journalists in Makurdi.

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1.7

Definition of Terms

Campus: A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related

institutional

buildings

are

situated.

Usually

a

college

campus

includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centres or dining halls, and park-like settings. A modern campus is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. Broadcasting: According to Onabajo (2000), “broadcasting has been defined as the

transmission of information through radio waves from a radio or television station, to the audience in far and near places, through their receivers, which help in decoding such information”. Broadcasting as also defined by (Akpede, 2010) is the transmission of messages from a station to an audience scattered over a given environment or area. Broadcasting could also be seen as “the process of sending out and receiving messages through the air by a scientific method called electromagnetic waves ” (Sambe, 2008). Radio: Chiakaan (2005) in Chiakaan & Ahmad (2011:96) views radio as “a broadcast

medium that limits itself to the transmission of messages which are aurally received by members of the public ”. Because radio activities or programmes are received by members of the public on a general note, this makes radio, like television to be a broadcast medium Chiakaan & Ahmad (2011:96).

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CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE 2.1

Introduction

This chapter will take a scholarly look at relevant existing literature related to the perceived challenges and prospects of running campus radio stations in Nigeria. While concepts such as broadcasting and campus radio will be reviewed, related themes such as

challenges of radio broadcasting and prospects of radio broadcasting will also be reviewed. In addition, a review of past empirical works related to this study will also be attempted. Finally, the review will be anchored on the Technological Determinism and the Development

Media Theories of Mass Communication. 2.2

Review of Concepts

2.2.1

Broadcasting

Ciboh (2007: 132) tries to capture the idea of broadcasting and its relationship to man

when he said “The adventurous and inventive man has throughout the ages, never been satisfied with his existing conditions. Ever since man could make a sound he has attempted to transmit messages over distances. A shout may have been the first long sound could be spanned by beating with a club on a hollow tree. Through persevering improvements on

methods from primitive times, man has now achieved instant communication by satellite”. What Ciboh has captured though is from a historical perspective, it has brought into limelight some terms that help in the understanding of the concept of broadcasting. It shows that broadcasting has to do with transmitting messages to a long distance and also to a large

heterogeneous audience. Broadcasting as stated earlier in the researcher’s efforts to define the term, is simply the transmitting or sending of messages through the use of electromagnetic waves or radio waves to a long distance and reaching a large and scattered audience, simultaneously. From

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the above definition, there are specific elements that differentiate the broadcast media from the print media of communication. Firstly, the broadcast media makes use of sound waves while the print media is basically concerned with typing on the newsprint. Secondly, it is also of note that broadcast messages reach the audience simultaneously at the same time, while the issue of transportation is still being sorted out by the print media producers. Nyman-Metcalf, Hills, Honeyman, Mbaine, Nyamnjoh, Kariithi and Kupe (2003)

posit that “broadcasting is by far the most important source of information, as well as of entertainment, for most people in countries around the world. High levels of illiteracy along with the difficulty of distributing newspapers mean that broadcasting is the only media which is accessible for many people. For the poor, newspapers may be prohibitively expensive, and some people simply find it easier and more enjoyable to watch or listen to the news than to read it. Furthermore, broadcasting plays a very important role as a cheap, accessible form of

entertainment”. Aderibigbe (2013) posits that broadcasting is an entirely electronic means of communication. Unlike other forms of mass communication such as newspapers, magazines and books, broadcasting uses electronic technology to encode, distribute and decode messages; newspaper is not a form of electronic communication because it does not use electronic technology in all the stages of encoding, distributing and decoding messages. Akashoro, Okidu & Ajaga (2013) further explained that “To broadcast is to disseminate information through mechanical means, simultaneously to a wide, diverse and heterogeneous audience made up of individuals within and outside a society. Broadcasting is indispensable in any society, permeating and fulfilling all individual, social, political and hedonic needs of people pivoted by the transfer of meaning – communication”. Whichever way several scholars have looked at the concept of broadcasting, their definitions always attest to the fact that broadcasting is electronic and is a process that

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involves the dissemination of mediated messages at a long distance and to a very scattered audience simultaneously. 2.2.2

Campus Radio

The definition of a campus according to the Merriam Webster learner’s dictionary is “the grounds and buildings of a university, college, or school”. Campus

as a “ word

derives from a Latin word for "field" and was first used to describe the large field adjacent Nassau Hall of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1774. The

field separated Princeton from the small nearby town”. Thus they defined a campus as “traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a college campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centres or dining halls, and park-like settings (https://en.wikipedia.org).

Radio on the other hand is “a broadcast medium that limits itself to the transmission of messages which are aurally received by members of the public”. Chiakaan (2005) in Chiakaan & Ahmad (2011:96). From the above definitions, it can be deduced that a campus radio is a radio station transmitting messages aurally to a defined university community audience, through the use of electromagnetic devices. Campus radio can be considered as a community radio due to the fact that they share in common the characteristic of transmitting to a defined geographical setting. Most times a campus radio is considered a radio for the housing community of the university, because the radio waves are able to reach audience outside the campus and the programming is sometimes packaged in such a way that it will appeal to members of the community who are neither students nor staff. The above position considers a campus radio as a substitute for a community radio where the former is lacking.

‘Community’ is an especially relevant term for exploring the ‘alternativeness’ of campus radio, simply because it defines the overall broadcasting system under which Canadian campus stations are grouped. Moreover, ‘community’ is used in a number of ways

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to frame and justify content that reflects a given locality Fauteux (2015:34). The major aim of establishing a campus community radio stations is to provide a laboratory for mass communication students, to train them as good broadcasters after school. The NBC code of 2010, the 5

th

edition agrees to this assertion, as it stipulates in the Chapter 9 of the code,

under section 9.7 that “a campus broadcaster is licensed princi pally to train students in broadcasting and other related fields like engineering, information technology, creative arts, use of English, drama etc., and to provide opportunities for practical experience as well as promoting

social well-being of the campus community. This has clearly

defined what campus radio stations are and the roles they play in a university and the community that houses the university. Sauls (1995) looks at the concept in a clearer and more elaborate manner as he posit

that “As with commercial stations, the underlying premise of the college radio station is to serve the community, whether it be the campus community or the community at large, but in unique ways often geared to underserved niches of the population. Much of college radio's charm lies in its unpredictable nature and constant mutations. The stations give students opportunities to work in a professional environment, make mistakes, and learn from their experiences. Because most campus radio stations are under the auspices of an academic department within the college or university, the presence of the station can complement actual coursework. Sauls points out that a campus radio is part of the learning process of a broadcaster in training, and his or her flaws are allowed and they have the opportunity to learn from their mistakes and become experienced before they are sent into the labour market, where they would be looked upon as professional broadcasters.

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2.3

Review of Related Literature

2.3.1

Challenges of Radio Broadcasting

Life itself is full of challenges; from the day a man is born to the day he leaves the earth, he is faced with different challenges at different stages of his life. Most times as he solves one challenge, the solution to that challenge most often gives rise to another challenge. Broadcasting also as a human endeavour has its own peculiar challenges that have been there since the inception of broadcasting in the year 1895, when Guglielmo Marconi set up a temporary station consisting of Morse code (or wireless telegraphy). Mohammed (2013) in his efforts to look at the challenges of open broadcasting in

Ethiopia outlined three basic problems related to that strategy of radio distribution “which directly affect its effectiveness while using radio as a tool for the education of the rural

people in community development efforts. The first problem is that, “there is no interaction between producers and consumers before programs are planned, produced and broadcast” (ibid. 128). The type of radio programs and their contents are decided, planned, and broadcasted by the experts and journalists (radio managers, program producers and reporters)

who are confined themselves within the studio’s compound. In this case, the broadcast system follows “a giver- taker pattern, where radio broadcasters (educated elite) are virtually taken as not only the sources of information, knowledge and wisdom but also the givers while

audiences are considered as takers” (Jemal 2012: 30-31). “Second, these programs are conceived in the studio, with very little or no consultation with specialist agencies and

virtually no coordination between them and the communication specialists” (Moemeka, ibid.). As this strategy does not allow audience participation and involvement, it also has no room for the consultation of various stakeholders, i.e. education and development agencies, who are engaged directly in the development endeavours. The third problem is related to the unavailability of guidance at the reception end. T he open broadcast strategy follows “a shot

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in-the-dark approach” to radio programming. These problems are not only peculiar to rd

Ethiopia but also in other 3 world countries which Nigeria is also considered as such. Chioma (2014) identified the challenges of broadcasting in Nigeria in two major categories which are sub-divided into several other categories; these are the pre-deregulation and post-deregulation challenges. 1. Pre-deregulation challenges: under pre-deregulation challenges, Chioma identified the

following problems associated with broadcasting in Nigeria:

The use of the media as a tool for political propaganda : In the overwhelming majority of African countries, broadcasting has been the most controlled media for both technical and political reasons. The history of broadcasting in Nigeria revolves around the suitability of the medium for political propaganda. Both radio and television broadcasting in Nigeria was a calculated effort at fostering political propaganda and interest. Little wonder Nigerians in the early years never came to terms with radio broadcasting, as they perceived it as a propaganda tool for the British colonial government.

F unding : The challenge of funding began when government embarked on the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986. SAP was an economic policy aimed at encouraging self-reliance and reduction of over dependence on government for financial subventions in business. Hence, government withdrew subsidies which were provided to federal and state owned media organizations. The federal government sought to create some independence in the operation of the broadcast media thereby encouraging the media to take some financial responsibility through SAP; unfortunately, this led to the introduction of commercialization in the state broadcasters – the FRCN and NTA. Faced with the inability to pay salaries of workers, produce or service available equipment and myriad of other problems occasioned by the decline in government subvention, the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) and Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) devised several other means to make money.

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Government monopoly of media ownership: For decades, the broadcast industry was completely monopolized by the state and federal government. This was a deliberate effort to control information flow and ensure that the media strictly represented the voice of the government. The implication therefore was that broadcast content was designed to project positive political image and promote the interest of government to the detriment of national interest and development.

Political instability : The several military coups of 1966, 1975, 1976, 1983, 1985, and 1993 in Nigeria placed constraints on the nation’s entire mass media of communication (print and broadcast). One notable constraint which resulted from the frequent change in power was Decree No.4 of 1984 which was promulgated to restrain the press. Furthermore, the media endured hostile attitude from most political leaders who inhibited the freedom of the press. For example, two-year jail term without the option of fine awaited any erring media practitioner found guilty under the provision of Decree No. 4. Chioma (2014) outlined the following problems under post-deregulation era.

Broadcasting in commercial interest as opposed to national interest : Privatizations of the broadcasting in Nigerian have been largely criticized for a shift from broadcasting in national interest to broadcasting in commercial interest. Unfortunately, this fear has largely become a reality as private/commercial broadcast stations commercialize virtually every aspect of its broadcast including the news. Private owned media like any other business seek to sustain its operations through any means possible. As such, there is a high level of commercial content in its programming thereby limiting discuss of issues in public/national interest.

News commercialization : One of the major ‘pains’ of broadcast liberalization in Nigeria is news commercialization. This practice is seen in virtually all private owned broadcast media (both radio and television). For a prescribed fee, individuals, private and public entitles can disseminate commercial and propaganda messages to target audiences during newscast.

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These messages are presented as part of the news bulletin in the forms of straight news reports, news analysis, or commentary after the news.

Cultural imperialism : The increase in foreign content broadcast by private stations has fostered cultural imperialism whereby the more media audiences are exposed to foreign content, the more the foreign culture and values are inculcated into their lives. Also, quite a number of local contents have been seen to reflect western values designed.

Regulation: For several years after the promulgation of NBC Act 38, state and federal broadcasters refused to submit to the regulatory powers of the NBC, arguing that they predated the NBC and that there was no express provision in the law putting them under the

Commission’s purview.

Other concerns of regulation are: content monitoring and

sanctioning process. The NBC seems not to have an adequate nor comprehensive monitoring strategy in place. Hence we find broadcast stations boldly flout the stipulations of the Code through broadcast of content that reveal

overt sexual behaviour, nudity, violence,

bloodletting, smoking, alcohol, drug abuse, denigration of womanhood, and offensive vulgar language, expressions. As far as the sanctioning process is concerned, the NBC operates three categories of sanctions for licensed stations that violate the Code. They are: license revocation, written warning to remedy a breach within a given time, and finally fines and stiffer sanctions for not complying with earlier sanctions.

Poor Management : While government oversees the activities of state and federal broadcast stations, the private owned stations are run as business and as such it faces diverse management challenges of funding which has resulted in the unsettled salaries of workers in some notable broadcast stations whereby salaries are not paid for months. This attitude of management has largely encourage the brown envelope syndrome whereby media professionals either demand or receive financial incentives, and gifts from prominent

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individuals, government, corporate organizations in order to sustain themselves and their families.

Poor program quality : The production quality of programmes is still below standard. There is a vast disparity in the quality output of broadcast generated locally and that generated abroad. This challenge is particularly famous with government owned stations. Even on radio, the signal from private owned stations such as RayPower, Rhythm, Cool FM are far clearer and less subject to interruptions than its government owned counterparts: Metro FM, Radio Nigeria etc. Also, the high cost of obtaining modern equipment which will enable clarity in sound and the skill to man such equipment are some reasons for the sub-standard quality in programming because the funds are not available.

The switchover from analogue to digital broadcasting. According to Ekeh (2009: 2) in Ihechu and Uche (2012: 41&42) in Chioma (2014), the main challenge of digital broadcasting lies with the actual migration from analogue to digital. Already 2012 deadline was not realizable. Giving the politico-economic circumstances of Nigeria and the slow approach to issues and projects such as reinvigorating the power sector, infrastructural development, the road to the digitalization of the broadcast industry is only a mirage. The major stumbling blocks in the transition to digital broadcasting in Nigeria are: lack of technical and financial resources, power supply, knowledge gap, and manpower. Another challenge worthy of note that confronts the radio broadcasting business is the competition from the new media of internet and social media made possible by the advancement in technology. This trend is caused by the always evolving nature of the world which has made the world a more global village than what was estimated a long time ago by Marshall McLuhan, when he saw the potentiality of Television bringing the world together as

one village. Cookson (2013) posits that “the industry, which generated revenues of $44b n last

26

year, up more than 2 percent on the previous period, continues to attract advertisers. But broadcasters face some of their fiercest competition for years as the world’s biggest technology companies including Apple and Google take aim at their business. Only two

months have passed since Apple’s iTunes Radio launched in the US but already 20m people have listened to the service, which plays songs selected by a computer algorithm rather than a

DJ”. 2.3.2

Prospects of Radio Broadcasting

People get passionate about radio in a way that they don't readily about other media. After all, more people still start off their day by listening to the radio than the combined number who watch breakfast TV or read a newspaper or magazine Cook (1998). The above statement by Cook sums up the prospects of radio broadcasting in these present times and in the future. Radio over the years has proven to be very pivotal to the development of the society world over. It has contributed immensely towards the dream of changing the world into one big global village, which is already evident in every urban society and with all things been equal will definitely reach its full potentials in the not too distant future.

Mainali (2008:15) suggests that “Community radio is the modern means of communication for social communication. It falls under general means of mass communication. Community broadcasting is such a process whereby individuals indulge in interaction with each other to achieve collective objectives. There is action-oriented relationship between individuals involved in interaction while there is mutual friendship and attachment. Similar geographical, cultural and natural settings tend to bring them closer emotionally while chasing common objectives. The main common link for coexistence is sentiments, needs and localness. They are never competing with each other; they coexist. All

are habituated to work in groups.” This shows the tendency of radio to influence and have a very positive effect geared towards development on the society which it finds itself.

27

In a similar vein, Madamombe (2005), points out that “Their transmitters ma y reach only a few miles, but community radio stations are enabling isolated communities across Africa to voice their own concerns. On air, ordinary citizens discuss issues that are central to them, such as gender relations and combating HIV/AIDS. They share farming tips and

income generation ideas and explore ways to improve education”. This especially highlights the benefits of community radio, which we can substitute for campus radio stations, which governments world over should look to invest in, if the idea of bringing the rural dwellers or masses closer to the government is ever to be achieved. Apart from educational prospects, radio also looks promising in economic development and improving standards of living of citizens. Radio as a medium of communication is cheaper compared to other media of communication and even the so called new media of internet. In a rural setting, the statistics for the number of persons that can afford an application telephone that enables browsing will surprise you, compared to the number of persons that have their battery radio sets running for the full length of their

community station’s time of transmission daily. “The idea of accelerating development by using both older media such as radio and newer information and communication technologies

has gained momentum in Africa over the past decade. The continent’s development blueprint, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), places information technologies high among its priorities. Governments agree that good Internet, telecommunications and broadcasting services can foster regional trade and improve integration into the global economy. The ability of ordinary people to communicate with each other also helps promote democracy and good governance. The cost of setting up communications infrastructure is steep, however, especially in rural areas, where distances are vast and population densities are low. Most areas outside the major towns do not have the electricity necessary for operating land telephones or computers. Radios, by contrast, are inexpensive and can run on batteries or

28

solar power. As a result, radio is by far the dominant mass medium in Africa. There is one

radio receiver for every five people (compared with one telephone for every 100 people)”. Madamombe (2005).

Myers (2008) agrees with Madamombe as she suggests that “Radio is still the dominant mass-medium in Africa with the widest geographical reach and the highest audiences compared with television (TV), newspapers and other information and communication technologies (ICTs). Overall, radio is enjoying a renaissance and numbers of small local stations have exploded over the last twenty years, due to democratisation and market liberalisation and also to more affordable technologies. Radio seems to have proven itself as a developmental tool, particularly with the rise of community and local radios, which have facilitated a far more participatory and horizontal type of communication than was possible with the older, centralised broadcasting model of the 1960s and 70s. There seems also to have been a re-discovery of radio in the context of new ICTs, a realisation that technology has made radio into a more two-way medium and that it can help bridge the digital divide by providing a powerful tool for information dissemination and access, especially for hard-to-reach rural audiences”. Scholars have explored the many prospects of radio in the society on several occasions, but the problem still remains in the hands of people in authority in Africa and world over, to evaluate these prospects and set modalities in place to enhance the growth of the industry as it promises a bright future for the whole world. Kamar, Lawal, Babangida & Jahun (2014) in their paper “rural development in Nigeria: problems and prospects for

sustainable development” suggests that the Rural Radio Broadcasting Cooperation (RRBC) should also be considered as a complementing strategy. This system will broadcast largely for

the benefit of rural dwellers. The rural information officer’s corps co uld be recruited to facilitate the basic information needs of the rural people.

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2.4

Review of Empirical Works/Studies

Several studies have been carried out by scholars relating to the perceived challenges of campus, community and generally commercial radio stations in Nigeria, Africa and World over. It is against this backdrop that the research shall attempt a review of such studies conducted that are of relevance to this study. Suleiman (2014) carried out a study on “the challenges and prospects of a camp us

radio (fm) station: what it should be and what it is. A case study of 98.9 buk fm”. The study sought to find out world view concerning various challenges encountered by campuscommunity radio stations. Using the survey research method, the researcher found out that there were peculiar challenges related to running a campus-community radio and also analyzed the future prospects of community radio stations. To this end, the researcher recommended that communities and institutions should be aware of what it takes to effectively run a radio station before even applying for a license so as to avoid the current loopholes being experienced.

The relevance of Suleiman’s study to this work lies in the fact that they both focus on the perceived challenges of running a campus-community radio station. Furthermore, the two studies explore the prospects of campus radio and give relevant reasons to why every government should invest in the campus-community radio.

In another vein, Lotter (2007) conducted a study titled “An investigation into the sustainability of community radio. Campus radio as case- study” the study looked to answer the impending question as whether radio broadcasting in South Africa could survive the

South Africa’s three-tier system of broadcasting other than just looking at the prospects of radio in economic development, education and community representation. The study adopted

the ‘semi-structured interview’ method and found out that the solutions to the challenges faced by their community radio station could be eradicated through the re-organization of

30

South Africa’s three-tier system of broadcasting, pointing out the role government policies play in causing challenges to community-campus radio stations. The researcher therefore recommended that the South African government create conducive atmosphere for both commercial and community based radio stations to survive and co-exist, without too much government policies limiting them. The study also suggests that the government invest in the Campus community radio as the future looks bright for that sector of the economy.

Lotter’s (2007) work is relevant to this study because it looks at the challenges posed by government policies in running a campus radio station. Although the study was conducted in South Africa, it suggests solutions that could be of utmost importance in working towards enhancing the campus-community radio in the Nigeria scene. The Lotter (2007) study adopted the Interview method in generating data; this study will also use the interview method in obtaining data. Another research was also carried out by Al-hassan, Andani & Abdul-Malik(2011) on

“The Role of Community Radio in Livelihood Improvement: The Case of Simli Radio”. The aim of the study was to ascertain the contribution of Simli radio towards the development and livelihood improvement of the people of Tolon-Kumbungu District of the Northern Region of Ghana. The study used the following specific techniques to collect data: meetings, focus group discussions, stakeholder interviews, debriefing sessions and observations. The research

found out that “Simli Radio has worked to improve awareness and knowledge of solutions to community development problems ranging from culture, rural development, education, hygiene and sanitation, agriculture to local governance”. The study therefore recommended

that regular feedback from the listening public is essential in identifying listeners’ preferences and the taste of various listeners segments (youth, women, men, aged, etc) and to avoid politics and religion.

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The relevance of Al-hassan et al’s (2011) work to this study lies in the fact that one of

the major challenges of a programs producer for radio is ‘content’. If the content is not appreciated by the public, the producer has wasted his/her time and energy. More so, the study points out that for the people to be completely represented by the community or campus station, politics and religious affiliations must be reduced to the barest minimum. The study also employed the field method of data collection. 2.5

Theoretical Framework

2.5.1

Technological Determinism Theory

The Technological Determinism Theory was propounded by a Canadian philosopher of communication theory Herbert Marshal Mcluhan born on the 21st of July 1911. According to Ijwo & Omula (2014:150), the main thrust of the technological determinism theory is that invention in technology invariably causes cultural change and that the way we live is largely a function of the way we process information. A common expression from the theory is that

“we shape our tools and our tools shape us” which in this case implies the way humanity control the transmission of information through the mass media which in turn influences

humanity. In a similar vein Chandler (2002) says “the most famous theorist ado pting this perspective was the sociologist, Jacques Ellul in his book The Technological Society. Ellul declared that 'Technique has become autonomous; it has fashioned an omnivorous world which obeys its own laws and which has renounced all tradition' (Ellul 1964 p. 14). He presented complex interdependent technological systems as being shaped by technology itself rather than by society. ” The theory srcinated from Marshal McLuhan’s ‘the medium is the

message’ postulation. McLuhan (1964) challenged conventi onal definitions when he claimed that the medium is the message. With this claim, he stressed how channels differ, not only in terms of their content, but also in regard to how they awaken and alter thoughts and senses. He distinguished media by the cognitive processes each required. McLuhan popularized the

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idea that channels are a dominant force that must be understood to know how the media influence society and culture. He claims that channels of communication are primary causes of cultural change. According to him, Family life, the workplace, schools, health care, friendship, religion, recreation, politics are all touched by communication technology. McLuhan viewed every new form of media innovation to be an extension of some human faculty Onwubere & Okuwa (2013). The justification for the use of this theory lies in the fact that the theory recognises the fact that media messages produced by human beings in turn influence the activities of those humans. The theory is also of the opinion that in order to understand how the media influence the society, the channels of communication must be understood first, which so much relate to this study which is set to understand the challenges encountered and processes embarked upon by campus radio stations in their day to day programmes production. 2.5.2

Development Media Theory

The development media theory propounded by Dennis McQuail in the 1980s came to fill the void overlooked by the classical theories, concerning development in the developing countries as McQuail perceived a continuous widened gap between the developed and developing countries. The theory according to Suleiman (2014), seeks to address the imbalance in development and information flow of third world countries and provide solutions to the technological problems facing them. McQuail (1997:13) in Ijwo & Omula (2014:27) observes that: development media theory was introduced to recognize the fact that societies undergoing a transition from under development and colonialism to independence and better material condition often lack the infrastructure, the money, the traditions, the professional skills and even the audience needed to sustain media institutions comparable to those of the first world or second world in which the four theories could take root. “Essentially, the development media theory tasks the media

33

to embark on activities that can bring about national development in the country” Chiakaan & Ahmad (2011). The main tenets of the theory according to Chiakaan and Ahmad (2011:142 & 143) as captured by McQuail (1987:121) were: i.

Media must accept and carry out positive development tasks in line with nationally established policy.

ii.

Freedom of the media should be open to economic priorities and development needs of society.

iii.

Media should give priority in the content to the national culture and language(s)

iv.

Media should give priority in news and information to link with other developing countries which are close geographically, culturally or politically.

v.

Journalists and other media workers have responsibilities as well as freedom in their information gathering and dissemination tasks.

vi.

In the interest of developing ends, the state has a right to intervene in, or restrict media operations, and devices of censorship, subsidy and direct control can be justified. Folarin (2006) states that “however, a legitimating principle at the time the theory

began to emerge was that there were (and still are) certain common circumstances or characteristics of developing countries that make it difficult to apply the other normative theories to the press therein. These include: 1. Absence or inadequate supply of requisite communication infrastructure; 2. Relatively limited supply of requisite professional skills; 3. Relative lack of cultural production resources; 4. Relatively limited availability of media-literate audiences; 5. Dependence on the developed world for technology, skill and cultural products.

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The relevance of the development media theory to this work lies in the fact that Nigeria is also classified as a developing country as attested by Folarin (2006) (Consider that India, Brazil and Korea on the one hand; and Nigeria, Togo and Bangladesh on the other, are

all lumped together under the category of “developing” or “third world” countries). Therefore, these challenges are not alienated to Nigeria and certainly not Benue state. The theory will also assist to point out that these media in the developing countries lack the technical manpower and knowhow to effectively compete with the media in the developed countries of the world, while also pointing out the relevance of the media in the development of the developing country(s). Finally, the theory also points out some of the deficiencies of media in the developing countries which includes the following as listed by the National Open University of Nigeria Folarin (2006). 1. Absence or inadequate supply of requisite communication infrastructure; 2. Relatively limited supply of requisite professional skills; 3. Relative lack of cultural production resources; 4. Relatively limited availability of media-literate audiences; 5. Dependence on the developed world for technology, skill and cultural products These challenges are also encountered by community-campus radio stations in their quest to produce and disseminate information to their audiences within the institution and the host communities, which BSU FM 89.9 is not immune to. 2.6

Chapter Summary

Radio as any other medium of communication is not devoid of challenges encountered in the day to day running of the medium. Producers of radio programmes face several problems on a daily base as they try to put together programmes for public consumption, ranging from manpower to audience literacy level. Literature suggests that despite these problems, radio is very crucial in the development of a nation especially as it

35

comes to bridging the gap between the governors and the governed. Empirical studies also show that community-campus radio stations face challenges but always try to rise above these challenges to satisfy the yearnings of their host community. Two theories were however used to validate the review of literature in this chapter: Technological Determinism Theory and the Development Media Theory.

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CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODLOGY 3.1

Research Design

For the purpose of this study, survey research method was adopted. According to Kraemer (1991) in Glasow (2005), three distinguishing characteristics sum up what survey

research is. “First, survey research is used to quantitatively describe specific aspects of a given population. These aspects often involve examining the relationships among variables. Second, the data required for survey research are collected from people and are, therefore, subjective. Finally, survey research uses a selected portion of the population from which the

findings can later be generalized back to the population”. Wimmer and Dominick (1987), in Suleiman (2014) defines survey as a method which involves scientific sampling and interviewing of people in order to analyze and report their responses Wyse (2012) in Omonu, Fakaa, Tsegba, & Shima (2016) provides the following advantages of surveys over other research methods including content analysis: surveys are relatively easy to administer; can be developed in less time compared to other data collection methods; they are cost effective; can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail, email, kiosk or telephone; surveys are capable of collecting data from a large number of respondents; numerous questions can be asked about a subject, giving extensive flexibility in data analysis. This method therefore is justifiable for this research project because of the advantages it offers, and judging by the problem being investigated, survey was deemed the most appropriate research design for the study to ensure the collection of valid data from large population that would help in answering the research questions and fulfilling the study

37

objectives. Some of these advantages include, collection of data from a large number of students, getting different opinions about the subject under study, and it also offered the researcher extensive flexibility in data analyses. 3.2

Population of the Study

The population of this study comprises the management staff of BSU FM 89.9 (Benue State University, Makurdi campus community radio), the academic staff of the department, the managers of the three broadcast stations in Makurdi which are Radio Benue 95.0 FM, Radio Nigeria, Harvest FM 103.5 and Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) Makurdi Network Centre, undergraduate students of Mass Communication, Benue State University, and the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ) members in Makurdi. According to the Benue State University 2015/2016 session, Mass Communication

student’s statistics obtained from the Examination Officer from a compiled assessment recording list (2016), “Benue State University Mass Communication undergraduate students have a population of 2,760 students, given in a tabular form as: Table 1: Mass Communication students S/N CLASS/LEVEL 1 100 Level 2 200 Level 3 300 Level 4 400 Level Total Source: Compiled Assessment List 2016

POPULATION 955 555 510 740 2,760

An official list of registered members of the NUJ according to their respective media organizations was also obtained from the NUJ Makurdi chapter. The number of NUJ registered journalists in Makurdi was thus given in a tabular form as follows:

38

Table 2: Media Organizations and Registered Journalists. S/N Media Organization 1 Radio Benue 2 State Information 3 Frontline Newspaper 4 The Voice 5 Correspondents

Number of Journalists 38 47 6 37 27

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

10 13 13 10 16 6 16 11 9 5

National Advocate National Times Echo/Mirror Ikpamkor/template Harvest Fm Peoples Summit Prime News Pavilion Newspaper NTA Shy-Lo Communications LTD 16 Federal Information Chapel 17 Nigeria Oracle 18 Frontline News 19 The Target TOTAL Source: NUJ Membership register 2016.

6 12 11 8 301

A representative sample was drawn from this population size using appropriate sample size determination mechanisms to enable the study make generalization over the entire population of the study. The population was thus given as follows: Management staff of BSU FM 7, consisting of the head of department (H.O.D), station manager, staff adviser (Director), the chief engineer, the studio manager, the transmitter operator and one senior duty continuity announcer. The academic staff  17 out of 19, since two of them fall under the management staff of the station. The three managers of Radio Benue, Harvest FM, and NTA Makurdi Network Centre, Mass Communication students of Benue State University, given at 2,760, and registered Journalists of NUJ Makurdi Chapter, given at 301. This gave the total population at 3,081.

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3.3

Sample Size

A sample size of three hundred and forty one (341) was chosen for this study from the population. The sample size was deter mined using the Keyton’s guide for sample size determination which gives 95% confidence level and 5% sampling error for each sample deduced for the population. The guide is used thus: Table 3: Keyton’s Guide Population Sample Size Population Sample Size 50 44 260 155 75 63 280 169 100 80 300 169 120 92 400 196 130 97 500 217 140 102 1000 278 150 108 1500 306 160 113 2000 322 170 116 3000 341 180 128 4000 351 190 127 5000 357 200 132 10,000 370 220 140 50,000 381 240 143 100,000 and above 384 Source: keyton, J. (2015), Communication Research: Asking Questions, Finding th

Answers (4 ed)

Based on the application of the Keyton’s guide as presented above, the population of this study (3,081) falls under 341sample size range. Therefore, the sample size for this study was three hundred and fourty one (341). 3.5

Sampling Technique and Procedure

Although the sample size of the study was determined at 341, to ensure that everyone in the population was given an equal chance and opportunity of the likelihood of being selected to form the sample size, and to reduce the level of bias to a barest minimum, the need to employ a sampling technique arose. In order to select a representative sample upon which the questionnaire was administered, the managers of the three major broadcast stations

40

in Makurdi were selected, as well as the academic staff of Mass Communication Department, the entire students of Mass Communication, Benue State University were also selected, then finally NUJ registered Journalists were selected. Since it was difficult to administer questionnaire on this entire population, the researcher employed the stratified random sampling technique, to reduce the population to a manageable unit and reduce the level of bias. According to Nickolas, S. (2015), Stratified random sampling is a better method when there are different subgroups in the population. Stratified random sampling divides a population into subgroups, or strata, and random samples are taken, in proportion to the population, from each of the strata created. Going by the above definition by Nickolas, S. (2015), the sample size of 341 was distributed among the total population without bias, so that every unit was represented. Therefore three (3) questionnaire were administered to the managers of the three major broadcast stations in Makurdi, while 17 questionnaire were also given to the academic staff of Mass Communication Department. This was justified since the two populations were relatively small, compared to the others, of NUJ registered journalists and Mass Communication Students. The sample size was thus reduced to 321. The researcher then used Proportionate stratified sampling procedure to get the sample size for Mass Communication students and NUJ registered Journalists. This was given in simple ratio, using the ratio of 2:1, the strata was divided thus: Given that the population is in two strata; 2+1=3, where 3 becomes the denominator. 2×321/3=214. 214 represent Mass Communication students. Therefore 1×321/3=107. 107 Journalists.

41

The same ratio was used in determining for the four arms of Mass Communication students. The information is projected in the table below: Table 4: Determining Mass Communication students sample size S/N Class/Level Population 1 100 Level 955

2 3 4

200 300 Level Level 400 Level Total Source: Assessment list 2016. Table 5: NUJ Registered Journalists S/N Media Organization 1 State Information 2 Radio Benue 3 The Voice 4 Correspondents 5 Harvest FM/ Prime News 6 National Times/ Echo Mirror 7 Nigeria Oracle 8 Pavilion/ Frontline News 9 National Advocate/ Ikpamkor/Template 10 NTA 11 The Target 12 Frontline Newspaper/ Peoples summit/ Federal Info Chapel 13 Shy-Lo LTD

555 510 740 2,760

Sample Size 86

43 21 64 214

Number of Journalists 47 38 37 27 16 13

Sample Size 15 14 13 12 11 9

12 11 10

8 7 6

9 8 6

5 4 2

5

1

TOTAL 301 Source: NUJ Membership register 2016

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The researcher at this stage distributed three questionnaires to the three managers, 17 to the academic staff of Mass Communication Department, and then applied the stratified sampling technique by administering questionnaire to students of Mass Communication; Benue state University and NUJ registered Journalist, Makurdi chapter. 3.4 Research Instruments and Administration

Two research instruments were used for data collection in this study- Questionnaire and interview. A 12 item questionnaire was designed and structured into close-ended

42

questions. The questionnaire was further divided into two sections, covering demographic information and responses to the research questions. Seven unstructured interview questions were also drawn by the researcher and used to conduct interviews with the seven management staff of BSU FM station, to obtain information on the challenges of Campus Radio stations in Nigerian Universities, using BSU FM as a study guide. Questionnaire are relatively easy to analyze, and simple to administer. A large population can be contacted at a relatively low cost; and respondents have time to think about their answers. Therefore, researchers cannot influence their response (Okoro, 2001) in Omonu, Fakaa, Tsegba, & Shima (2016). The unstructured interview has several strengths that contribute to reliability, validity, legal defensibility, and perceptions of fairness. According to McLeod (2014) unstructured interviews are more flexible as questions can be adapted and changed

depending on the respondents’ answers. Unstructured interviews generate qualitative data through the use of open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. This helps the researcher dev elop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation. They also have increased validity because it gives the interviewer the opportunity to probe for a deeper understanding, ask for clarification & allow the interviewee to steer the direction of the interview etc. The researcher administered 341 copies of questionnaire to respondents cutting across seventeen academic staff of Benue State University, the three managers of the major broadcast stations in Makurdi, 214 students of Mass Communication department and 107 NUJ registered Journalists. Interviews were then conducted with seven management staff of BSU FM. Services of ten (10) research assistants were employed by the researcher to assist in administering the questionnaire to the various media organizations, Mass Communication Students, the three managers and the academic staff of Mass Communication Department.

43

The interviews were however conducted by the researcher, covering the 7 management staff of the radio station. All the days of the week- Mondays to Fridays during the study’s field work period were used in the administration of the instruments. Four weeks were devoted to the administration of the research instruments by the researcher and the ten (10) research assistants to enable them effectively administer and retrieve the questionnaire as well as conduct the interviews. 3.5 Method of Data Collection

The questionnaire and unstructured interview methods, constituted the primary sources of data for eliciting information concerning the issue investigated. A 12 item questionnaire was developed, with both close and open-ended questions and segmented in two: one covering demographic information and the other responses to the research questions and administered to the selected sample for the study. 7 interview questions were also drawn and interviews conducted with 7 management staff of BSU FM radio station. While the secondary sources were drawn from relevant materials, text books, magazines and journal articles obtained online, within and outside the conventional library. 3.6 Method of Data Analysis

Data were collected and analyzed after four days. While data collected through the questionnaire were presented in simple percentage tables the interview was analyzed using textual analysis in accordance to the level of occurrence of each participant.

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CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1

Introduction

This chapter deals with data presentation, answering of research questions and discussion of findings. The data collected for the study through survey (using questionnaire and interview as instruments) to evaluate the challenges of operating a campus radio station in Nigeria is presented in this chapter. The data collected through questionnaire is presented in tables and analyzed using simple percentages to determine the frequency of occurrence of the variables studied, after which the data collected through interviews were presented using textual analysis to draw up the main argument of the interviewees regarding the variables being studied. The data presented and analyzed is used in answering the research questions raised to evaluate the challenges of campus radio broadcasting in Nigerian universities. This is followed with the discussion of findings. 4.2

Data presentation and Analysis (Survey-Questionnaire)

A total of 341 copies of the questionnaire were administered, and 326 copies were retrieved and found to be properly filled while ten (10) were filled but found to be invalid for analysis. The researcher and the assistants could not retrieve five (5) copies of the questionnaire despite efforts made. Consequently, a total of fifteen (15) copies of the questionnaire were lost in the course of data collection for the study. This implies that there was 96% return rate of the questionnaire administered. This is representative enough and is in conformity with the law of proportionate sampling. The data collected for the study is presented and analyzed in the sequence of the questions in the questionnaire; therefore, the demographic data is presented before the responses to the research questions.

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Table 1: Gender Distribution Gender Frequency Male 126 Female 200 Total 326 Source: Field survey 2017

Percentage (%) 38.7 61.3 100

Table 1 above indicates that 126 respondents (38.7%) are male, while 200 (61.3%) respondents are female. This implies that the female constitute the majority of respondents. However, this does not affect the study since it is not gender based. Table 2: Age Distribution

25 35 45

Variables Frequency 18 – 195 59.8 26 – 61 18.7 36 – 40 12.3 46 and above 30 Total 326 Source: Field survey 2017

Percentage (%)

9.2 100

In Table 2 above, 195 respondents (59.8%) said they were within the ages of 18 – 25 years old; 61 respondents (18.7%) say they are within the age bracket of 26 and 35; 40 respondents (12.3%) said they are between ages 36 and 45, while 30 respondents (9.2%) indicate that they are 46 years and above. This implies that most of the respondents are between the ages of 18 and 25. Table 3: Occupation of respondents Variables Frequency Students 208

Percentage (%) 63.8

Lecturers

16

4.9

Managers

3

0.9

Journalists

99

30.4

Total

326

100

Source: Field survey 2017 In Table 3 above, 208 respondents (63.8%) said they were students; 16 respondents

(4.9%) were lecturers; 3 respondents (0.9%) were managers, while 99 respondents (30.4%) indicated that they were journalists. This implies that most of the respondents were Mass Communication students. This however did not present any form of bias, as the number

46

sampled was realize by distributing to every group according to their number, which Mass Communication students came out top. Therefore every strata of the population was duly represented. Table 4: Knowledge of how campus radio stations operate Response Frequency YES, I do 220 NO, I do not 86 Undecided 20 Total 326 Source: Field survey 2017

Percentage (%) 67.5 26.4 6.1 100

From table 4 presented above, out of the total population, 220 respondents (67.5%) said they have knowledge of how a campus radio station operates; 86 respondents (26.4%) said they do not have knowledge of how a campus radio station operates, while 20 respondents (6.1%) indicated that they were undecided about their knowledge of how a campus radio station operates. This shows that a good number of the respondents sampled had a good knowledge of what campus broadcasting is and how its operations are done.

Table 5: Do you think BSU FM is operating fully in accordance with campus radio structure? Response Frequency Percentage (%) YES, It is 116 35.6 NO, It is not 198 60.7 Undecided 12 3.7 Total 326 100 Source: Field survey 2017

Table 5 above shows that 116 respondents (35.6%) said they think BSU FM is operating fully in accordance with campus radio structure; 198 respondents (60.7%) say they do not think BSU FM is operating in accordance with the standard of campus radio broadcasting, while, while 12 respondents (3.7%) indicated that they were undecided about the operations of BSU FM as compared to the campus radio structure. This signifies that majority of the sampled respondents believe BSU FM is not operating in accordance with campus radio structure.

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Table 6: What are problems associated with BSU FM? Response Frequency Percentage (%) Lack of adequate equipment 90 27.6 Lack of trained personnel 60 18.4 Ill attitude of the school 36 11.1

management Lack of constant power supply Lack of adequate manpower All of the above Total Source: Field survey 2017

74 50 16 326

22.7 15.3 4.9 100

Data contained in table 6 shows respondent’s perception of the problems associated with BSU FM campus radio station. Information presented in the table shows 90 respondents (27.6 %) believe lack of adequate equipment is the most prevalent problem confronting BSU FM; 60 respondents (18.4%) see lack of trained personnel as the biggest problem; 36 respondents (11.1%) said ill attitude of the school management is a problem at BSU FM; 74 respondents (22.7%) see lack of constant power supply as a major problem of BSU FM; 50 respondents (15.3%) said it is lack of adequate man power, while 16 respondents (4.9%) said all the mentioned are problems faced by BSU FM.

Table 7: How these challenges hinder the effective running of BSU FM Response Frequency Percentage (%) Short broadcast time per-day 100 30.7 Lack of students participation 60 18.4 Managers are not motivated to 24 7.4 work Poor programme quality 70 21.5 Lack of campus-community 50 15.3 participation in content production All of the above 22 6.7 Total 326 100 Source: Field survey 2017

Data contained in table 7 represents respondent’s perception of how these challenges hinder the effective running of BSU FM. Information presented in the table shows100 respondents (30.7 %) said these challenges subjects the station to very short broadcast time

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per-day; 60 respondents(18.4%) said it results to lack of students participation; 24 respondents (7.4%) claim managers are not motivated to work amidst these challenges; 70 (21.5%) said it results to poor programme quality; 50 (15.3%) said it results into lack of campus-community participation in content production, while 22 respondents (6.7%) said all the options apply as to how these challenges hinder the effective running of BSU FM.

Table 8: How does lack of effective management hinder the effective running of BSU FM? Response Frequency Percentage (%) No proper research into content 100 30.7 production Lack of objectivity in news stories 60 18.4 Short broadcast time per-day 60 18.4 All of the above 106 32.5 Total 326 100 Source: Field survey 2017

Table 8 illustrates how lack of effective management hinders the effective running of BSU FM. 100 respondents (30.7%) believe that it hinders proper research into content production; 60 respondents (18.4%) said it causes lack of objectivity in news stories while the same number of respondents still believe that it causes short broadcast time per-day. 106 respondents (32.5%) imply that all the options apply as concerning this issue.

Table 9: Ways of curbing or minimizing challenges hindering the effective management of BSU FM Response Frequency Percentage (%) Encourage students participation 20 6.1 Employ only professional and 40 12.3 qualified managers/staff Acquisition of world-class or 120 36.8 standard equipment Constant power supply 56 17.2 Regular students practical in the 10 3.1 studio All of the above 80 24.5 Total Source: Field survey 2017

326

100

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Table 9 shows respondent’s perception on possible ways of either curbing or minimizing the challenges hindering the effective management of BSU FM. Out of the 326 sampled for the study, 20 (6.1%) respondents said students participation should be encouraged by management; 40 (12.3%) respondents believe that employment of only professional and qualified managers and staff is a possible solution to this issue; 120 (36.8%) imply that world-class equipment be acquired and used for efficiency; 56 (17.2%) respondents believe that constant power supply is a possible solution; 10 (3.1%) of them said regular practical sections be organized for students, while 80 (24.5%) respondents implied that all the options be considered towards effective management.

Table 10: Ways of encouragingstudent’s participation Response Minimal stipends Programme production assignments Annual awards and recognition of active participants Annual Broadcast classes and seminars All of the above Total Source: Field survey 2017

Frequency 90 126

Percentage (%) 27.6 38.7

20

6.1

30

9.2

60 326

18.4 100

Table 10 presents data on ways of encouraging students’ participation in running BSU FM. As seen in the table, 90 (27.6%) 0f the respondents said minimal stipends from the authorities to students can go a long way; while an overwhelming 126 (38.7%) believe that the management should encourage students by regularly sending them on programme production assignments; 20 (6.1%) suggest awards and recognition of active participants; 30 (9.2%) respondents implied that annual broadcast classes and seminars could also be a possible solution, while 60 (18.4%) of the respondents believe that all the options be adopted to encourage students’ participation.

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Table 11: Has BSU FM been effectively managed for efficiency? Response Frequency Percentage % YES, it has been effectively 99 30.4 managed NO, it has not been 217 66.6 effectively managed Undecided 10 3.0 Total Source: Field survey 2017

326

100

Data contained in this table highlights how effectively BSU FM has been managed for efficiency. Out of the 326 respondents sample for the study, 99 (30.4%) believe that BSU FM has been managed effectively for efficiency; an overwhelming 217 (66.6%) said BSU FM has not been managed effectively for efficiency, while 10 (3.1%) of the respondents were undecided about the issue.

Table 12: In what ways can BSU FM be effectively managed for efficiency? Response Frequency Percentage % Collaboration with established 100 30.7 community radio stations within and outside the state Annual subventions from the state 50 15.3 government Regular attendance of Broadcast 60 18.4 seminars/conferences for managers The station should be digitized 10 3.1 Manpower should be increased 30 9.2 Exchange of programme ideas with 66 20.2 established radio stations All of the above 10 3.1 Total 326 100 Source: Field survey 2017

Table 12 presents data on ways through which BSU FM can be effectively managed for efficiency. 100 respondents (30.7%) of the sampled 326 believe that collaboration with established community radio stations is a possible solution; while 50 (15.3%) respondents suggest annual financial support from the state government; 60 (18.4%) implied that regular attendance of broadcast seminars/ conferences for managers of the station can be of immense help; 10 (3.1%) of the sampled respondents said the station should be digitized; 30 (9.2%) of

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them said manpower should be increased, while 66 (20.2%) of respondents suggests exchange of programme ideas with established stations. Finally, 10 (3.1%) of the respondents believe that all the options apply to ways of effectively managing BSU FM for efficiency.

4.3

Data presentation and Analysis (Survey-Interview)

Given certain limitations of the questionnaire for data collection, interviews were also conducted method of data collected for analysis. These interviews were conducted among the seven management staff of BSU FM. They comprise the Head of Department (H.O.D), station manager, staff adviser (Director), the chief engineer, the studio manager, the transmitter operator and one senior duty continuity announcer. These set of interviewees were considered to be experienced enough in their day to day running of the station, to be able to give the researcher vital information about the challenges encountered in the running of BSU FM.

The interview guide drawn for the study from the research objectives had seven questions. Respondents were also allowed to discuss or point out what they considered important that has not been captured in relation to the problem being investigated. The presentation of data is based on the sequence of the interview questions while the general or dominant views expressed by the interviewees are captured as responses to the questions.

This means that the presentation is not a sequential presentation of each interviewee’s response in a singular manner but rather, their dominant responses to the sequence of questions in the interview guide.

The first question sought to find out the interviewee’s understanding of the challenges of campus radio broadcasting in Nigerian Universities. All the interviewees demonstrated professional knowledge of what they perceived as the challenges confronting campus radio broadcasting in Nigerian Universities. They observed that campus radio in the Nigerian scene

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is faced with several issues, and these were the most prevalent in their responses; poor financing (funding), inadequate equipment, poor management structures, low students participation, and lack of community participation in programme content production. They noted that financing amongst the other challenges stands out, since the others cannot possibly be realized without finance. This they said is why many universities do not even own campus radio stations in the first place despite the many benefits. The interviewees also noted that even the campus stations that are already operating are prone to the danger of going off-air if not properly financed, citing BSU FM as an example, who was still struggling to come back on air at the time of this research.

With regards to what inherent challenges they have noticed or observed with BSU FM since her inception, the interviewees noted that BSU FM amongst other things suffers from lack of proper funding and a below standard managerial structure. Funding becomes a very big issue especially as campus radio is not supposed to be commercialized. They also noted that the station is faced with the issue of low quality and outdated equipment, while power supply is also not left out.

Three of the interviewees noted that those issues mentioned above lead to others like lack of manpower and lack students participation in content sourcing and production, since there is no form of motivation from the school management. The school management most of the times seeks voluntary services, while students see it as a distraction from their primary reason of being on campus, especially as there is no form remuneration involved.

On how these challenges have hindered the effective running of BSU FM, the interviewees did hesitate to point out the fact that the station is off-air as a result of these challenges and that it got to the point of shutdown due to the somewhat negligent attitude of the school management. A follow up question was asked by the researcher concerning when

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the station would possibly be coming back on air and the station manager said “very soon”. She explained that the school management was working on acquiring a mini transmitter that would serve for a short period of time as they await the approval of the senate for a new transmitter to be bought.

The interviewees also noted that when the station was still on air, some broadcast days had to be cut short because of power outage and lack of petrol to power the generator. They said some programmes were repeated for several weeks because the producers could not produce new editions, either there was no power supply (electricity) or nobody on ground to anchor them due to insufficient manpower. There had been times when news stories had to be repeated for days because there was nobody to write news and the time had to be used.

The interviewees further noted that the usual broadcast time of the station was very short compared to the time they should have been running, due to the low capacity of the old transmitter which eventually shutdown after been overworked. They also said if the station needed to extend the broadcast time, then the need for more hands to enable the station run shifts, since the same people would not be taxed to work all day and all week. One of the interviewees noted that the station was almost known for starting transmission behind schedule, which was most times caused by lateness of students on duty who had to attend a

lecture before the station’s opening time or probably just lack of motivation f rom them to work for the station.

Asked on how these challenges could be minimized or possibly curbed, the interviewees suggested that every manager’s role should be defined as concerning the running of the station and everybody should play their roles well, having in mind the main aim of establishing a community radio such as BSU FM. They also advised the school

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management to as a matter of urgency provide the station with the required world-class equipment while employing the needed manpower to enable a smooth running of the station.

On what ways they suggest BSU FM should be managed for efficiency, the interviewees suggested that the station should be more student friendly than is, putting into consideration the aim behind its establishment which is to serve as a broadcast laboratory for Mass Communication students. They also noted that the required incentive be provided, such as minimal stipends, standard equipment, proper funding and others.

More workers should also be employed and the time of broadcast be reviewed and increased. One of the interviewees suggested that room should be created for feedback from the audience, as this would go a long way in promoting community participation in content production.

As concerning how they rate BSU FM among other campus radio stations in Nigeria, the interviewees were all affirmative to the fact that the station is average especially owing to the fact that it is still in its infancy. More so, BSU FM still has a long way to go before she can measure up to other campus stations in Nigeria, like UNILAG FM which is already seen as one of the major radio stations in Lagos and not just a campus radio station. They also noted that some of the challenges that BSU FM is facing today have been overcome by most campus stations in Nigeria.

On the prospects of running a campus radio station despite the challenges, they note that there are many prospects in terms of development academically, as these stations help achieve one of the core aims of Mass Communication which is to educate. Campus radio stations serve as laboratories for Broadcast students, where they are trained for the outside world. Here they are allowed to make mistakes and try again, unlike it is in the outside world.

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They further noted that campus stations do not just educate, they entertain and inform the host communities about happenings around and worldwide. Campus stations also enable easy transfer of information from the school management to the university community, which consists students, staff and the host community. 4.4

Answering Research Questions

Research Question One: What are the problems associated with BSU FM campus radio?

Tables 4, 5 and 6 as well as participants’ responses have answered this research question. Accordingly majority of the respondents (67.5%) said they have knowledge of how a campus radio station operates, while in table five, (60.7%) of respondents imply that BSU FM is not operating according to the standard of campus radio broadcasting. This shows that most of the respondents are knowledgeable about campus radio broadcasting. In table six, (27.6 %) said lack of adequate equipment is the major problem with BSU FM. However a considerable percentage of respondents (22.7%) believe lack of power supply to be a problem with BSU FM, while (18.4%) of the respondents said they see lack of trained personnel as a problem facing BSU FM. Finally (15.3%) of the respondents see lack of adequate manpower as a major problem with BSU FM. Going by the percentage per response, this implies that BSU FM is faced with lack of adequate equipment, lack of constant power supply, lack of trained personnel and lack of adequate manpower amongst other problems. Research Question Two: To what extent do these challenges hinder the effective running of BSU FM campus station?

Table 7 and 8 have answered this research question as majority of the respondents from table 7 (30.7 %) indicate that they feel these challenges subjects the station to very short broadcast time per-day, while a considerable (21.5%) said it results to poor programme quality. (18.4%) said it results to lack of student’s participation probably due to lack of

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motivation, either through remunerations or lecture schedules and broadcast times. (15.3%) said it results into lack of campus-community participation in content production. The data contained in table 8 collaborates the information contained in table 7 as it talks about how lack of effective management hinders the effective running of BSU FM, since the question seeks to find out to what extent the challenges identified hinder the effective running of BSU FM. (32.5%) imply that all the options of no proper research into content production, lack of objectivity in news stories and short broadcast time per-day are as a result of lack of effective management. While (30.7%) believe that it hinders proper research into content production. Collectively therefore, data contained in tables 7 and 8 commendably answers research question two to the effect that very short broadcast time perday, poor programme quality, lack of campus-community participation in content production while no proper research into content production and lack of objectivity in news stories found in table 8 all show the extent to which the perceived challenges in table 6 hinder the effective running of BSU FM campus radio. Research Question Three: In what ways can these challenges be minimized or curbed?

Tables 9 and 10 have answered this research question. (36.8%) of the respondents in table 9 imply that world-class equipment be acquired and used for efficiency. While (24.5%) of the respondents believe that all the options in table 9 apply in the quest to either curbing or minimizing the challenges confronting BSU FM. The data contained in table 10 is in agreement with table 9 as concerning ways of curbing or minimizing challenges confronting BSU FM. It shows that (38.7%) of respondents believe student participation can be encouraged through programme production assignments. (27.6%) of the respondents suggest that minimal stipends be given out to active participants. Collectively, this implies that acquisition of world-class equipment according to the sampled respondents will go a long way in curbing or minimizing these challenges, while also putting

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into consideration active student’s participation, employment of only professional and qualified managers/staff, Constant power supply and Regular students practical in the studio as a good number of respondents (24.5%) believe these measures would go a long way. Also the management should task lecturers to give students programme production assignments and the management should also consider giving out minimal stipends to students who are active participants in the running of the station. Research Question Four: In what ways can BSU FM be effectively managed for efficiency?

Table 11 and 12 have unanimously answered this research question. In table 11, of the 326 responses received, (66.6%) said BSU FM has not been managed effectively for efficiency, and this represents a great majority of the total respondents. By implication, majority of the respondents believe that the station is not effectively managed and are out to suggest ways of effectively managing BSU FM. The data presented in table 12 shows ways through which BSU FM could be managed for efficiency. (30.7%) of respondents believe collaboration with established community radio stations is a possible solution, while a considerable (20.2%) of them say exchange of programme ideas with established stations too can proffer solutions to ineffective management. (18.4%) and (15.3%) of the respondents suggest that annual broadcast seminars/ conferences be attended by managers to build their capacity and annual financial support from the state government also encouraged respectively. This implies that for BSU FM to be effectively managed, the managers should collaborate with other community radio stations both within and outside the state, and in the process exchange programme ideas for better programming and management. This can also be achieved through attendance of seminars and conferences both internationally and locally for capacity building and learning of new trends in broadcasting, while the state government

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should also make it a point of duty to aid campus community stations with annual financial support to enable effective management. 4.5

Discussion of Findings

The main thrust of this study has been presented and analysed in line with the research questions in Chapter One. Going by the analysis, the study has established that campus radio stations in Nigeria are faced with several challenges, ranging from finance to lack of adequate equipment, inadequate power supply, below standard equipment, poor management and manpower. The issue of funding is expressed in Chioma (2014)’s view of the challenges of radio broadcasting in Nigeria as she posit that funding has been an issue of broadcasting in Nigeria right from the time of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) by the President Babaginda administration in 1986. Chioma (2014) further looked at poor management structures, which leads to non payment of salaries, which most times encourages news commercialization, popularly called “brown envelope syndrome” The issue of inadequate power supply as found out by the researcher is entrenched in the argument by Al-hassan et al (2011), where they observed that power outage becomes a hindrance for the smooth running of Simli Radio in Ghana. The issue of light becomes embarrassing most of the times as very important programmes are cut short without any prior warning. Most times these programmes are live and duty continuity announcers are left with the task of always apologizing for failed programmes, due to power outage. The study also found out that these challenges affect the effective running of BSU FM in several ways including short broadcast time per-day, poor programme quality and lack of community participation in content production. This finding is in agreement with the views of Chioma (2014), when she posits that the production quality of programmes is still below standard. There is a vast disparity in the quality output of broadcast generated locally and that generated abroad. Mohammed’s (2013) work is also in agreement with this finding as he

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observed that “there is no interaction between producers and consumers before programs are

planned, produced and broadcast” . The study also found out that despite the challenges, there are solutions to some if not all of these challenges. The study through responses from the interview and questionnaire came up with solutions to the challenges faced by BSU FM and other campus radio stations. These include acquisition of world-class equipment, employment of professional staff only, constant power supply and student participation. Finally, the study found out ways through which BSU FM can be effectively managed for efficiency. These ways include Collaboration with established community radio stations within and outside the state, Exchange of programme ideas with established radio stations, Regular attendance of Broadcast seminars/conferences for managers and Annual subventions from the state government. The results from the study affirmed that campus radio stations have challenges that hinder their effective running, but despite these very many challenges, there are several prospects of running campus radios. The study aligns with the basic assumption of the Technological Determinism Theory, which states that the way we live is largely a function of

the way we process information. The theory is known with the popular expression “we shape our tools and our tools shape us” . The study also adopted the Development Media Theory to help us understand the challenges of campus radio broadcasting as seen in McQuail

(1997:13) in Ijwo & Omula (2014:27), when he said “development media theory was introduced to recognize the fact that societies undergoing a transition from under development and colonialism to independence and better material condition often lack the infrastructure, the money, the traditions, the professional skills and even the audience needed to sustain media institutions.

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CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1

Summary

This study assessed the challenges of campus radio broadcasting in Nigerian universities, using BSU FM 89.9 as a point of focus. After the study reviewed concepts including Broadcasting, and Campus Radio, related literatures were also reviewed under the themes Challenges of Radio Broadcasting and Prospects of Radio Broadcasting. In addition, a brief review of related empirical works was also done as it showed that there are indeed challenges facing campus-community radio stations as expressed by the other researchers. Using the survey research method, findings showed that campus radio stations like other stations in Nigeria have peculiar challenges that they all suffer from right from their time of inception. The study also found out that BSU FM has her inherent issues and these issues have contributed to the overall operation of the station, which eventually caused the station to go off-air for a long period of time, barely one year after commissioning. The study did not just identify the challenges confronting the station but also proffered solutions to these challenges and suggested ways of running the station for efficiency. 5.2 Conclusion

Drawing from the above findings, the study therefore concludes that campus radio stations in Nigerian universities have to overcome many challenges ranging from funding, equipment, manpower, lack of constant power supply, lack of students participation, poor management structure amongst others. Consequently, these challenges play very significant roles in the content produced by BSU FM. These challenges, no matter how grave they might seem, they still have solutions, which if adopted by the management will take the station to heights unimaginable.

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5.3

Recommendations

Based on the above conclusion, the study therefore provides the following recommendations: I.

Universities planning on owning and operating campus radio stations should be ready for the challenges that come after license acquisition. They should make sure they address these issues before applying for licenses.

II.

Inquiries should be made into what kind of equipment are trending and updates be made so that BSU FM can be ranked amongst other campus radio stations in Nigeria.

III.

Broadcast regulatory bodies like the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC), should review the laws guiding the operations of a campus radio station; putting into consideration the non commercialization rule, which restrict the funding of the campus radio to the host university and the no advertisements policy should also be reviewed. This should be done in a bid to ensure that campus stations can survive independently without too much reliance on the University for funding.

IV.

Finally, student’s participation should be encouraged through remunerations and programme production assignments. Also the community should be involved in programme packaging and production, as this would go a long way in building trust between the station and the host community.

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Problems and the at the Kongu

APPENDIX I: Letter of i ntroduction

Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University, P.M.B. 102119, Makurdi. Dear Respondent, I am an undergraduate student of the Department of Mass Communication, Benue State University Makurdi. I am currently conducting a study on Challenges of Campus Radio Broadcasting in Nigerian Universities: A study of BSU FM 89.9 You have been selected as one of the respondents and I will be grateful if you could kindly

answer accurately to the best of your knowledge the questions contained in the questionnaire. All responses will be treated with utmost confidentiality and will be strictly used for academic purposes only. Thank you. Yours faithfully, RAYMOND, M. HEMEN.

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Appendix II: QUESTIONNAIRE

SECTION A Instruction: Please tick in the appropriate boxes or respond as required below

1.

Gender:

Male

2. 3.

Age: 18-25 26-35 Occupation: Student

Female 36-45 Lecturer

46 and Above Journalist SECTION B

Instruction: Please tick where it applies in the brackets below. NOTE: multiple selections are allowed.

4. Do you have knowledge of how a campus Radio station operates? a) YES, I do ( ) b) NO, I do not ( ) c) Undecided ( ) 5. If yes in 5 above, do you think BSU FM is operating fully in accordance with campus radio structure? a) YES, it is ( ) b) NO, it is not ( ) c)

Undecided ( )

6. In line with questions 5 & 6 above, what are problems associated with BSU FM campus Radio? a) Lack of adequate equipment ( ) b) Lack of trained personnel ( ) c) Ill attitude of the school management ( ) d) Lack of constant power supply ( ) e) Lack of adequate manpower ( ) f) All of the above ( ) 7. How do these challenges hinder the effective running of BSU FM? a) Short broadcast time per-day ( ) b) Lack of students participation ( ) c) Managers are not motivated to work ( ) d) Poor programme quality ( ) e) Lack of campus-community participation in content production ( )

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f) All of the above ( ) 8. How does lack of effective management hinder the effective running of BSU FM? a) No proper research into content production ( ) b) Lack of objectivity in news stories ( ) c) Short broadcast time per-day ( ) d) All of the above ( ) 9. In what ways can these challenges hindering the effective management of BSU FM be curbed or minimized? a) Encourage students participation ( ) b) Employ only Professional and qualified managers/staff ( ) c) Acquisition of world-class or standard equipment ( ) d) Constant power supply ( ) e) Regular students practical in the studio ( ) f) All of the above ( ) 10. In what ways can student’s participation be encouraged? a) Minimal stipends ( ) b) Programme production assignments ( ) c) Annual awards and recognition of active participants ( ) d) Annual Broadcast classes and Seminars ( ) e) All of the above ( ) 11. Would you say BSU FM has been effectively managed for efficiency? a) YES, it has been effectively managed( ) b) No, it has not been effectively managed ( ) c) Undecided ( ) 12. In line with question 12 above, in what ways can BSU FM be effectively managed for efficiency? a) Collaboration with established community Radio stations within and outside the state ( ) b) Annual Subventions from the state government ( ) c) Regular attendance of Broadcast seminars/conferences for managers ( ) d) e) f) g)

The station should be digitized ( ) Manpower should be increased ( ) Exchange of programme ideas with established Radio stations ( ) All of the above ( )

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Appendix III: Interview Guide

The following questions are put forward as guide for interviews to enable the collection of data that will complement the questionnaire. Please, your opinion regarding the issue raised will in no small measure contribute to the success of this study, your support and cooperation is solicited, and will be highly appreciated. Do feel free to add your own thoughts on any of the questions. 1. What is your understanding of the challenges of campus radio broadcasting in Nigerian Universities? 2. What inherent challenges have you noticed or observed with BSU FM since her inception? 3. How have these challenges hindered the effective running of BSU FM 4. How can these challenges be minimized or possibly curbed? 5. Through what ways do you suggest that BSU FM should be managed for efficiency? 6. How do you rate BSU FM among other Campus radio stations in Nigeria? 7. What are the prospects of running a campus radio station, despite the challenges? Thank you for your time and opinion. Your support and cooperation towards the success of this study is highly appreciated, and any additional comment or suggestion is welcome. Thank you.

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