Bodybuilding Supplements

Table of CONTENTS Overview

(Contents Section Pages 7 to 8)

PART ONE SPORTS NUTRITION KNOW-HOW CHAPTER 1.1 NUTRIENTS AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE (Part One Section Pages 1-2 to 1-12) Macronutrients: Meeting Energy And Growth Requirements; Thermogenesis; Macronutrient Manipulation / Modulation; Water And Electrolytes; Micronutrients: Metabolic Cofactors; Nutrient Density; Bioavailability; The Limiting Nutrient Concept; Nutraceutical; Research On Nutrients; Ergogenic Aids; Safety. CHAPTER 1.2 NUTRITION PRODUCT OVERVIEW (Part One Section Pages 1-13 to 1-25) All Foods Are Not Created Equal; Understanding Food And; Supplement Labels; Nutrition Label Reference Values; Super Foods: Nutrition Supplements Are Born; Dietary Supplements Versus Conventional Food; Benefits Of Dietary Supplements Versus Conventional Foods; Dietary Supplements Versus Drugs; Claims For Dietary Supplements / Sports Supplements; Examples Of Common Supplement Dosage Forms; Pills, Tablets And Caplets; Capsules; Powders; Liquid Supplements; Nutrition Bars.

CHAPTER 1.3 CARBOHYDRATES - THE ULTIMATE PERFORMANCE FUEL (Part One Section Pages 1-26 to 1-44) Types Of Carbohydrates; Simple; Carbohydrates; Complex Carbohydrates; Fiber; Dietary Fiber; Functional Fiber; Overview Of Some Common Dietary And Functional Fibers; Cellulose; Chitin; Chitosan; Beta-Glucans (Β-Glucans); Fructo-Oligosaccharide ( FOS ); Gums; Hemicelluloses; Pectins; Digestion Of Carbohydrates; About The Glycemic; Index (GI); Glycemic Load (GL); Carbohydrates In The Body-Glucose And Glycogen. CHAPTER 1.4 PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS: MUSCLE BUILDERS AND MORE (Part One Section Pages 1-45 to 1-80) What Is Protein?; How Genes Direct The Production Of Proteins; The Amino Acids; Proteins/Amino Acids And Energy; Rating The Quality Of Proteins; Complete Versus Incomplete Proteins; Protein Efficiency Ratio; Net Protein Utilization; Biological Value; Amino-Acid Score; Protein Quality For Athletes; Nitrogen Balance; Designing Protein And Amino Acid; Products; Free-Form And Peptide-Bonded Amino Acids; Digestion Of Protein And Amino Acids; Amino Acid Review; Alanine & Beta-Alanine; Arginine (GH, IGF, Nitric Oxide Stimulation And More); Asparagine; Aspartic Acid; Branched-Chain Amino Acids (Leucine, Isoleucine And Valine); Leucine, A Key BCAA; Citrulline ; Cysteine; Cystine; Glutamic Acid; Glutamine; Glycine; Histidine; Isoleucine ; Leucine; Lysine; Methionine; Ornithine; Phenylalanine; Proline; Serine; Taurine; Threonine; Tryptophan; Tyrosine; Valine. Additional Information About Protein And Amino Acids; mTOR: Unlocking The Secret Of Protein Synthesis; Discovering mTOR; The Leucine Connection; Making The Jump From Microbes To People; L-Leucine- The Key To The BCAA’s; The Anabolic Cascade; Practical Applications Additional Information About Protein And Amino Acids; The Synergy Of Protein Supplements; Not All Proteins Are Created Equal; Whey Protein Scores The Best; Whey Protein Has Multiple Benefits; Summary Of Whey Protein’s Key Amino Acids & Benefits; Whey Protein Gets Results – It Is Money Well Spent; Whey Protein Source Glutamine And The Athlete; BCAA’s Help Increase Training Strength, Endurance And Muscle Mass; Synergistic Effects; Effects Of Creatine Monohydrate Plus Whey Protein; Creatine And; Protein Supplementation; Creatine And Glutamine. CHAPTER 1.5 LIPIDS (FATS AND OILS) (Part One Section Pages 1-81 to 1-92) Energy And Growth Factors; Lipids-The Most Misunderstood Macronutrient; The Major Lipids; Cholesterol; Triglycerides, Fatty Acids And Related Lipids; The Essential Fatty Acids; The Omega-3 Fatty Acids ;

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Gamma Linolenic Acid; Conjugated Linoleic Acid Is An Essential; Fatty Acid For Athletes And Weight Loss; Glycerol; Medium-Chain Triglycerides; Phospholipids; Lecithin; Phosphatidylserine; Digestion Of Lipids; You Are What You Eat. CHAPTER 1.6 WATER AND HYDRATION (Part One Section Pages 1-93 to 1-98) Water And The Athlete; The Major Sources Of Water For The Human Body Are The Following; Liquids; Food Water; Metabolic Water; Glycogen-Bound Water; Effects Of Dehydration On Performance; Some Factors Effecting Rate Of Water Loss; Special Water Needs Of The Athlete; Daily Hydration Guidelines; Hydration Guidelines For Optimum Athletic Performance; Every Day; Pre-Event; During Athletic Events; Post-Event. CHAPTER 1.7 VITAMINS AND MINERALS (Part One Section Pages 1-99 to 1-126) The Lipid Soluble Vitamins - A, D, E, And K; Antioxidants Overview; Vitamin A - Retinol And Pro-Vitamin A (Beta-Carotene); Vitamin D; Vitamin E; Vitamin K; The Water Soluble Vitamins; Biotin; Choline; Folate; Inositol; Niacin; Pantothenic Acid; Riboflavin; Thiamin; Vitamin B12; Vitamin B6; Vitamin C Minerals; Boron; Calcium; Chromium; Copper; Fluoride; Electrolytes (Sodium, Chloride, And Potassium) ; Electrolytes In Food And Supplements; Iodine; Iron Magnesium; Manganese; Molybdenum; Phosphorus; Selenium; Zinc. CHAPTER 1.8 BOTANICALS, METABOLITES AND OTHER SPORTS SUPPLEMENT INGREDIENTS (Part One Section Pages 1-127 to 1-148) Metabolites; Botanicals; Standardizing Botanical Supplements For Consistency; Dosages; Alkalinizers, Blood Buffers ; Beta-Hydroxy Beta-Methylbutyrate (BHMB Or HMB); Bioflavonoids; Caffeine; Carnitine / Acetyl-L-Carnitine; Coenzyme Q10 (Ubiquinone); Creatine; Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA); Echinacea (Echinacea Purpurea, E. Angustifolia); Ferulic Acid (FRAC) Gamma Oryzanol; Garcinia (Garcinia Cambogia); Ginkgo (Ginkgo Biloba); Ginsengs; Glucosamine And Chondroitin Sulfate (CS); Green Tea (Camellia Sinensis); Lipoic Acid; Melatonin; Proteolytic Enzymes Improve Injury Healing; Rhodiola; Turmeric; Wheat Germ Oil And Octacosanol.

PART TWO FEATURE TOPICS AND SPECIAL FEATURES CHAPTER 2.1 FEATURE TOPICS (Part Two Section Pages 2-2 to 2-15) Sports Nutrition Meal Replacements, Protein Powders, Bars And Specialty Products; The Development Of Sports-Nutrition Powders; Meal-Replacement Powders; The Advantages Of Meal-Replacement Powders (Ready To Drink Ones Too); Meal-Replacement Powders Versus Conventional Meals; Protein Powders; Protein Quality; Additional Factors; Sustained-Release Protein; MRP And Protein; Nutrition Bars; Specialty Products; Metabolic Optimizers; Growth Hormone Promoters; Creatine; Nitric Oxide Stimulators. CHAPTER 2.2 SPECIAL FEATURES (Part Two Section Pages 2-16 to 2-30) Special Feature: Muscle Precursor Cell Activation And Development Special Feature: The Ultimate Bodybuilding And Strength Athlete Super-Stack Special Feature: East Meets West In The Quest For Boosting Testosterone Levels Naturally CHAPTER 2.3 BODYBUILDING.COM’S SUPPLEMENT AWARDS (Part Two Section Pages 2-31 to 2-36)


PART THREE PERFORMANCE NUTRITION APPROACHES AND GUIDE TO ATHLETIC FAT LOSS Solving the Weight Loss Puzzle CHAPTER 3.1 PERFORMANCE NUTRITION APPROACHES (Part Three Section Pages 3-2 to 3-49) Sports Nutrition is a Skill; Dynamic Nutrition For Maximum Performance Approach; The Dynamic Nutrition Approach, A Bio-energetic Model To Performance Nutrition; How Does Exercise Effect Your Muscle Fiber Development And Composition?; Dietary / Sports Nutrition Supplements Are Part Of The Dynamic Nutrition Approach; Keep It Simple And Be Consistent; RATIONALE BEHIND THE PERFORMANCE NUTRITION PLANS; MACRONUTRIENTS – SOME SUMMARY POINTS; CARBOHYDRATES; Pre-Event Meal; Carbohydrate Intake During Long Duration Events and Exercise; Post-Event and Exercise Meal; PROTEIN QUALITY; Whey versus soy; FATS; DYNAMIC NUTRITION SUPPLEMENT AND EATING PLAN EXAMPLES; 30% Protein, 55% Carbohydrate, 15% Fat Performance Nutrition Guidelines; 25% Protein, 55% Carbohydrate, 20% Fat Performance Nutrition Guidelines; 20% Protein, 60% Carbohydrate, 20% Fat Performance Nutrition Guidelines; 15% Protein, 60% Carbohydrate, 25% Fat Performance Nutrition Guidelines; FOOD LISTS; HIGH PROTEIN FOODS, FOODS HIGH IN COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES, VEGETABLES, and BEANS, Fruit; DAIRY, SPREADS and SAUCES; BEVERAGES; MIXED FOODS; TIPS SECTION, Cooking Tips, Eating Out Tips, General Tips, Traveling Tips; BODYBUILDING AND SPORTS NUTRITION SUPPLEMENTS; Sports Supplement Effectiveness and Safety; Sports Supplement and Nutrient Intake Reference Tables. CHAPTER 3.2 GUIDE TO ATHLETIC FAT LOSS: SOLVING THE WEIGHT LOSS PUZZLE (Part Three Section Pages 3-50 to 3-85) Solving The Weight Loss Puzzle; Weight Loss Demystified; Athletic Fat Loss; Understanding Where Weight Loss Can Come From; Body Composition; Calorie Intake; Meal Frequency and Size; Fat Loss Foods; Exercise and Fat Loss; Cycle Your Fat Loss With; Periods Of Weight Maintenance; DAILY FOOD INTAKE GOALS; ADDITIONAL WEIGHT LOSS INFORMATION; What Are The Health Risks Of Being Overweight?; Are You Overweight (Over-Fat)?; What Makes People Overweight/Obese?; Habits; Genes; Illness; Medicine; The world around you; Emotions; Here Are Some Weight Loss Dieting Myths; Myth: Fad diets work for permanent weight loss; Myth: High-protein/low-carbohydrate diets are a healthy way to lose weight; Myth: Starches are fattening and should be limited when trying to lose weight; Myth: I can lose weight while eating whatever I want; Myth: Low-fat or nonfat means no calories; Myth: Skipping meals is a good way to lose weight; Myth: Lifting weights is not good to do if you want to lose weight, because it will make you "bulk up"; Myth: Nuts are fattening and you should not eat them if you want to lose weight; Myth: Eating red meat is bad for your health and makes it harder to lose weight; Myth: Dairy products are fattening and unhealthy; Lessons From Those Successful At Losing Weight; Setting a Goal; Look at What You Eat Now; Start With Small Changes; Control Portion Sizes; Know Your Fats; Make Choices That Are Lean, Low-fat, or Fat-free; Focus on Fresh Fruit; Eat Your Veggies; Eat Your Grains Whole; Lower Sodium and Increase Potassium; Limit Added Sugars; Differences in Saturated Fat and Calorie Content of Commonly Consumed Foods; Some Nutrient Content Claims Found On Food Product Labels, and What They Really Mean; Additional Weight Loss Nutrition Tips; Guidelines For Personal Exercise Programs; Making A Commitment; Checking Your Health; Defining Fitness; Knowing The Basics; Cardiorespiratory Endurance; Muscular Strength; Muscular Endurance; Flexibility; Body Composition; Workout Schedule Basics; WARMUP; MUSCULAR STRENGTH; MUSCULAR ENDURANCE; CARDIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE; FLEXIBILITY; COOL DOWN; A Matter Of Principle; SPECIFICITY; OVERLOAD; REGULARITY; PROGRESSION; Measuring Your Heart Rate; Controlling Your Weight; Exercise Clothing; When To Exercise; Exercise Made Easy; Reduce Stress In Your Life. More Exercise And Physical Activity Tips; NUTRITIONAL WEIGHT LOSS AIDS; The Ephedrine / Ephedra; Weight Loss Legacy; Why Ephedra?; Research Finds That Ephedra-Containing Products Are Safe And Effective; Safe Use Of Ephedra Dietary Supplements Established By Medical Experts; Ephedra Was Still Banned; The Ephedra / Ephedrine Effect; Dietary Supplement Weight Loss Aid Summary; Nutrition / Dietary Supplement Weight Loss Aids Summary – Table; Examples of Nutritional Weight Loss Aid Products.


APPENDIX A1. Perpetual EXERCISE LOG SHEET A2. Perpetual NUTRITION LOG SHEET A3. Bodybuilding and Football Training DVD Examples A4. Tips On Increasing Muscle Growth Rate A5. 2005 Dietary Guidelines A6. Creatine Research Overview Article A7. Glossary A8. Scientific References


OVERVIEW Which supplements are best for muscle building and strength? What’s best for increasing endurance? Are there really supplements that help with fat loss? It is questions like these that athletes are looking for answers to. From your review of the table of contents, you can see that this “Guide” contains a wealth of bodybuilding and sports nutrition ingredient, product, and plan information. It provides the sports nutrition know-how and is also a special how-to reference guide. Bodybuilding and sports nutrition supplementation is a recent branch of nutrition science and product development that I have been involved in pioneering. It has come a long way since the first muscle building and performance enhancing supplements that began to appear on the market starting during the mid-twentieth century. In light all of the articles, athlete product endorsements, and advertisements for the thousands of sports supplements, deciding on your own what works best can be an insurmountable task. This is why this guide was written; to present comprehensive information about sports nutrition and ingredients, based on experience and scientific evidence. One point of historical value is that it is easy to get caught up in an endless search for a magic pill. This is why it is important to put your effort and resources into first establishing a well founded sports nutrition and supplement program that is based on scientific evidence of effectiveness. To accomplish this goal, a sports supplement program should include both the time-tested nutrients and sports nutrition approaches, as well as the addition of newly discovered ones. The primary focus of this book is the ingredients used in bodybuilding and sports supplements. In particular, the ingredients that have been proven to provide a benefit based on independent research studies. But, as sports supplements are intended to supplement the diet, in order for sports supplements to work their best, your daily sports nutrition program must be adequate too. Therefore, this Guide also contains information about sports nutrition approaches, along with additional information about the sports supplements for improvements in bodybuilding, strength, muscle mass, reaction time, and endurance. Also included is a special chapter on fat loss for athletes. Once you start using and perfecting the sports science approach for your nutrition and training programs, you can measure for yourself if a product or method has produced the positive effects on your performance, strength, or muscle mass. From my work in sports nutrition starting decades ago, I sought to create a model of sports nutrition based on the bio-energetics and specific needs of athletes, versus the


RDA’s average nutrition intake approach. Athletes are above average and require nutrition that is also above average. To help you to achieve your winning sports nutrition program, I included a comprehensive overview of sports nutrition and review the ingredients and nutrients used in sports nutrition products, with the emphasis on the ingredients having independent scientific evidence as to their effectiveness in addition to being experience proven. Plus, as eating correctly is a vital foundation for health and athletic performance, in Part Three I included an overview of my scientific based performance-nutrition approaches for your reference. This includes my Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance approach, a revolutionary scientific sports nutrition model. Part One reviews ingredients and nutrients used in sports nutrition products, along with related sports nutrition information; over 100 ingredients. The macronutrientscarbohydrates, protein (amino acids), lipids, and water-and the primary micronutrientsvitamins and minerals are covered. Also included in Part One are the botanicals and metabolites. This includes performance enhancing substances, such as creatine, CoQ10, octacosanol, ferulic acid, blood buffers, carnitine, ginseng, rhodiola, and many more. Part Two provides a review of meal replacement powders and bars; protein powders and bars; metabolic optimizers; specialty products, nitric oxide boosters; and detailed reviews of specialty products. Part Three contains easy to follow performance nutrition approaches, based on sport specific athletic type bio-energetics and muscle dynamics. Yes, a strength athlete does have different nutrition requirements when compared to a long-distance endurance athlete. There are some major differences with their sports supplements too you need to know about. Part Three also includes a special Guide to Athletic Fat Loss. Athletes who need to reduce their body fat need to take an approach that is healthy and performance enhancing. Athletes need to avoid the one-size-fits-all low calorie weight loss gimmicks, and instead need to follow a weight loss program that is more suitable for their high performance individual requirements. Also included in this chapter is a review of supplement weight loss aids, in particular, examples backed by scientific research. It is my hope that you will become a practitioner of the sports science approach. Start by getting your athletic performance and health measurements in place to keep track of your progress. Evaluate your stats on a regular basis. Constantly strive for progressive improvements. Create your training and nutrition programs based on proven scientific research, topped off with new discoveries and your personal fine-tuning. The information in this guide will help you create your state-of-the-science personalized winning sports nutrition and supplement programs. Be Your Best In Sport and Life

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR Daniel Gastelu, M.S., MFS, Training and Nutrition Expert, President and Founder of SUPPLEMENTFACTS International LLC and Athletic Performance Improvement LLC, and serves as Director of Nutritional Sciences for the International Sports Sciences Association (ISSA), is an author, a "trainer of fitness trainers", and a sports nutrition and dietary supplement industry expert. Dan Gastelu developed and co-authored ISSA's Specialist in Performance Nutrition certification program and course book, which is used to certify doctors, physical therapists, fitness trainers, strength coaches and nutritionists. He also pioneered the development of integrated bodybuilding and athletic training and nutrition systems, and products used by millions of athletes, worldwide. Dan Gastelu is author of several books about nutrition, dietary supplements, fitness, sports nutrition, and training. In addition to his education & research related activities, he has worked as an executive in the dietary supplement and sports nutrition product industry for over 2 decades, making him an “industry insider”. Dan Gastelu is a graduate of Rutgers University, where he taught science courses. Here are some of Mr. Gastelu’s books and International Sports Sciences Association’s Directorship Award:

During the past two decades Dan Gastelu has developed many health care products, including: dietary supplements, sports nutritionals, nutraceuticals, weight loss products, and other consumer health and fitness products. Additionally, he directed innovative research programs examining the effects of different nutrition & exercise programs on body composition, health, and physical performance. Dan Gastelu has worked on numerous projects with prominent fitness & health experts, such as: Ben and Joe Weider; Ed Burke, Ph.D.; Gerard Dente, Bodybuilding Champion; Shari Lieberman, Ph.D.; Cherie Calbom, M.S., C.N.; Vincent Giampapa, M.D.; Bill Grant, Bodybuilding Champion; Stephen Gullo, Ph.D.; Ann Louise Gittleman, M.S.; Varro Tyler; Ph.D.; Frederick J. Vagnini, M.D.; Frederick C. Hatfield, Ph.D.; Richard Simmons; Jack La Lanne; Denise Austin; and Tony Little. Dan is a featured author for Bodybuilding.com, and host of the popular Awesome Muscles podcast series; http://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/awesomemuscles.htm


IMPORTANT NOTICE This book is not intended for use as a substitute for consultation with a qualified medical, health, sports training, or other health practitioner. Consult with a doctor or other licensed health care professional before starting this or any nutrition and exercise programs. If you have symptoms of any illness, it is essential that you see your doctor without delay. You are unique, and your diagnosis and treatment must be individualized for you by your own doctor. This book provides educational information about nutrition, dietary supplements and the ingredients they contain, and exercise. Nutrition reference information is based on healthy athletic adults, and short-term periods - a few to several months. This information is not intended for children, pregnant or lactating women, nonathletes, or individuals with risk of disease or known illness or injury. The guidelines presented are for illustration purposes and may not be suitable for everyone. No book can replace the personalized care that you need. You are encouraged to work closely with your doctor and/or other health care professionals to create a nutrition program to achieve optimum health and athletic performance. The publishers, officers, employees, shareholders, directors, authors, agents, distributors, and other parties to this book will not accept responsibility for injury, loss, or damage occasioned to any person acting or refraining to act as a result of material contained in this book, whether or not such injury, loss, or damage is due in any way to any negligent act or omission, breach of duty, errors, interpretation of the subject matter, or default on the part of the author or his agents. The purchaser or reader of this publication assumes responsibility for the use of the information. The brand names and product examples included in this book are not intended to endorse products or any particular brand(s) of product(s). A product that is included in this book does not imply it is any better than products not included in this book. For a wide selection of thousands bodybuilding and sports nutrition supplements, including athletic training DVD’s and exercise accessories, visit Bodybuilding.com’s store.

Copyright © 2007 by Athletic Performance Improvement LLC All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, image scanning, website use, and recording, in any information or retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.


PART ONE SPORTS NUTRITION KNOW-HOW

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CHAPTER 1.1 NUTRIENTS AND ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE Every day the human body requires many nutrients for energy, growth, structure, function, performance and health. Over the years scientists, nutritionists, and various health professionals developed special terminology to categorize and represent many nutrition concepts. There are several main categories of nutrients (nutritious substances) that you need be concerned with in order to increase athletic performance and fitness. Most of the essential nutrients are lumped into two main categories: macronutrients and micronutrients. This chapter will first provide a quick overview of the basic nutrition jargon and concepts you will find useful for sports nutrition success. For example there is a growing list of substances grouped under the term nutraceutical. This term refers to foods, the essential nutrients, and other beneficial substances found in foods or special nutrition products that can help promote superior health, and may even prevent some diseases. Then there is the group of nutritional ergogenic aids, which includes sports nutrition practices, sports nutrition supplements, and other sports nutrition products to improve athletic performance. Being aware of what is contained in the food and supplements you are eating is vital to selecting what will be best for attaining and maintaining superior health and peak athletic performance.

MACRONUTRIENTS: MEETING ENERGY AND GROWTH REQUIREMENTS Macronutrients are nutrients that are required daily in large amounts, and are thought of in quantities of ounces and grams. They include carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and water. Macronutrients are important for providing the body with a supply of energy and serving as the building blocks it needs for growth and repair. Macronutrients occur in all foods, but vary in amount and proportion. For example, meats can be high in protein and fat, with almost no carbohydrate content. Pasta, on the other hand is very high in carbohydrates, with moderate amounts of protein and a very low fat content. Carbohydrates and lipids are the macronutrients primarily used by the body to produce energy, but note they also have important structural roles too. Proper energy substrate intake is important to balance energy expenditure and maintain desired body composition and performance. Your energy requirements will vary with age, activity, and foods eaten. Daily energy requirements can range from a low of 1,800 (or even lower) to over 6,000 calories per day. While not an essential nutrient, for those who choose to consume alcoholic beverages, you may be interested to know that daily alcohol consumption can contribute large amounts of “empty” calories in your diet. Alcohol also has negative effects Part One Page 1 - 2 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

of alcohol on your health and performance, and should be avoided by competitive athletes. The approximate caloric content of the macronutrients and alcohol are as follows:

Carbohydrate Protein Fat Alcohol Water

Calories per Gram

Calories per Ounce

4 4 9 7 0

113.6 113.6 255.6 198.8 0.0

As you can see, on a weight basis, fat has the most calories, then alcohol, carbohydrates, and protein. In the past it was assumed that all calories supplied by nutrients were metabolized the same way and that their total caloric content was equally used for energy. However, in recent years, scientists have determined that the energy content of different macronutrients may vary slightly in the body depending upon the relative proportions of the other macronutrients present in the diet, the type of macronutrient, the presence of vitamin and mineral cofactors, the level of hydration, and the physical conditioning of the individual. For example, protein is considered a protected nutrient because the body reserves its use for the synthesis of tissues and molecules instead of energy use. Therefore, the body has a tendency to use its fat and glycogen supply for energy instead of using ingested protein and the protein that makes up muscle tissue. In fact, a thermogenic response has been detected in response to eating diets high in protein, indicating that more energy is used in the digestion and metabolism of proteins; see box on thermogenesis for details. THERMOGENESIS. Thermogenesis is a term used to describe when the metabolic rate increases above normal, and generation of extra body heat occurs from increased rate of energy substrate utilization. Thermogenesis or the thermogenic effect, is activated by a few different mechanisms including nutrition, exercise, or stimulated by exposure to cold. Macronutrients have different effects on the thermogenic response. When food is ingested, the metabolic rate (energy used) increases above the fasting level. In the case of proteins, it is thought that this occurs because the body must use energy to process the proteins, which are then used as building blocks for tissue growth and repair. On the other hand, carbohydrates and fats function primarily as fuel, and the metabolism can more efficiently use them for energy without much energy input to process them, when compared to protein. They therefore have a much lower thermogenic effect. There are other nutritional and physical factors that stimulate a thermogenic effect, which will be discussed in more detail during the chapter on fat loss. The raise in metabolic rate is also referred to as specific dynamic action (SDA).

There are several types of carbohydrate food sources that will effect your energy and performance depending on when you eat them and what kind of carbohydrate you eat. There are complex carbohydrates (starches) and simple carbohydrates, like glucose and fructose. Starch (which is made up of chains of glucose) may provide the body with a slow and steady supply of glucose, depending on the type of food. Although, some complex carbohydrate foods can be digested and absorbed quickly causing a rapid rise in Part One Page 1 - 3 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

blood sugar levels, similar to the simple carbohydrates. However, generally speaking, simple carbohydrates, like glucose get into the bloodstream fast and serve as a quick supply of energy. Fructose causes a slower raise in blood sugar levels than glucose does, and most other foods due to its unique processing by the body. However, ingesting too much fructose should be minimized, as well as restricting the consumption of other simple carbohydrates. The physiological response to foods (how they effect blood sugar levels) is referred to as the glycemic response. The glycemic index (GI) was developed to measure how different carbohydrate containing foods effect the rise in blood sugar levels; details about this and other carbohydrate related information is as reviewed the carbohydrate chapter. Lipids is a technical term that refers to fats and other plant and animal nutrients that are insoluble in water. The fatty acids that make up fat (triglycerides) contain the highest energy of any macronutrient on a per weight basis. Other lipids, like cholesterol, are not important energy sources, but are major components of steroid hormones and bile acids. Your body is always using a mixture of carbohydrate and fat for energy, plus a little protein. This energy mixture will vary depending upon a person’s program of training & level of fitness, the intensity and duration of physical activity and the composition of the diet. Endurance sports tend to cause the body to burn a higher proportion of fat, and condition the body to be better at using fats for energy. Compare this to power sports, like sprinting, football and weight lifting, which burn a greater amount of carbohydrates for energy during these types of physical activity. Therefore, your type of physical activity will dictate the proportion of macronutrients needed in your diet. For example, a marathon runner will generally need a diet high in carbohydrates and moderate in fat and protein. On the other hand, the powerlifter needs a diet high in carbohydrates and protein, with low amounts of fat. This is one of the several aspects of the Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance approach model reviewed in Part Three. Depending on the sport, protein utilization during and after exercise can become a more complicated issue than the use of carbohydrates and fats for energy. You see, protein provides the body with essential building blocks in the form of its subunits called - amino acids. The body therefore has a tendency to avoid using protein/amino acids for energy to reserve amino acids for molecule and tissue building purposes. However, during exercise the body will use certain amino acids for energy and other metabolic functions. This cannot be prevented, but it can be compensated for by ingesting proteins with higher amounts of the certain amino acids used during exercise– the branched chain amino acids is a primary group of amino acids used for energy, in particular leucine. Research has also shown that even during rest, the athletes’ well conditioned muscles will use certain amino acids for energy, even in the presence of carbohydrates and fat. In addition to adequate protein and caloric intake, sports nutrition supplements can be used to boost the efficiency and utilization of dietary proteins, along with certain vitamin and mineral cofactors to prevent muscle breakdown and encourage muscle repair, such as amino acid tablets and protein supplement drinks and nutrition bars.


MACRONUTRIENT MANIPULATION / MODULATION A consistent intake of protein and the other macronutrients is needed all day long for optimum nutrition. However, the proportions of these macronutrients may vary around your training, time of day, and resting periods. This variation in macronutrient intake has become know as "macronutrient modulation" or "macronutrient manipulation". This simply refers to the practice of varying the intake of macronutrients to meet your specific nutrition needs. For example, right before and during exercise, intake of water, electrolytes, some amino acids, and simple carbohydrates will be desirable to maintain energy and spare glycogen stores and muscle tissue. Fats and large amounts of proteins are not desirable right before or during training or athletic events because they take longer to digest and can impair performance, as they prolong digestion. During exercise bouts or athletic competition, intake of water and or hypotonic (carbohydrate - electrolyte) beverages is almost always needed to prevent glycogen depletion. Of course the significance of glycogen depletion is that it can lead to causing early fatigue and reducing exercise performance, so athletic individuals want to avoid depletion of their glycogen (carbohydrate) body stores. For some athletes, the additional ingestion of dilute carbohydrate drink that also contains amino acids may be beneficial during training to help reduce amino acid depletion of tissues. Finally, studies have shown that ingestion of carbohydrates, or a mixed meal within 60 minutes after exercise will result in significant glycogen repletion. However, consistent meal to meal intake of the carbohydrates and other macronutrients will also help to maintain adequate glycogen levels. Mastering meal timing, meal consistency, meal frequency, and macronutrient modulation can help fine-tune your performance & fitness nutrition improvement programs.

WATER AND ELECTROLYTES Water is the most essential macronutrient to life but provides no calories or nutrition. Water is the universal solvent that all life on earth depends on and is the medium for transporting the food materials to be used in the body. A person can survive several weeks without food but only several days without water. The importance of water has always been recognized, but recently, more and more research has shown that maintaining optimum levels of hydration is important in maintaining peak performance and recovery. In sports like soccer and basketball, and long distance endurance sports, the athletes can lose several pounds of water weight in just one game. Also, all athletes performing, long strenuous training/practice sessions can also lose pounds of water weight. Loss of the body’s water can adversely affect performance and, in the long run, cause peaks and valleys in the athlete’s performance curve if adequate hydration is not maintained all day long, every day. In addition to maintaining hydration, the body also needs to maintain its electrolyte balance. The major electrolytes found in body fluids include sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Water constitutes a small or large part of every cell, depending on the function of the cell. Likewise, specific quantities of electrolytes are found in both cellular and extracellular water. Water and electrolyte concentrations in the body are closely controlled, even under extreme temperature conditions. Like water, electrolytes Part One Page 1 - 5 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

are lost through sweat and excretion. Replenishing water and electrolyte losses during exercise and throughout the day has become an increasingly more complex task for athletic individuals as new discoveries about the dynamics of these key nutrients are made.

MICRONUTRIENTS: METABOLIC COFACTORS Even more diverse than the macronutrients is the group of nutrients called micronutrients. As the name implies, micronutrients are nutrients present in the diet and body in small amounts. They are measured in milligrams and micrograms. They do not provide significant amounts of calories to the body but act as cofactors in making biomolecules, have structural roles, function as electrolytes, and function as enzymes. Broadly speaking, the essential vitamins and minerals, the non-essential vitamins and minerals, vitamin-like substances, and other dietary biomolecules which are important in performance, fitness and health fall into the micronutrient category. Vitamins are organic compounds that are required by the body for maintenance of good health and growth. Vitamins are further classified as fat-soluble and water-soluble. By convention the word vitamin has been reserved for certain nutrients that the body cannot manufacture and must get through eating food. The fat soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E, and K. Because they are soluble in fat (lipids), they have the tendency to store themselves in the body’s fat tissue, fat deposits, and liver. In excess, this storage capability makes it possible to take so much of the fat soluble vitamin that the effect on the body could cause side effects over time. Concern over the intake of fat-soluble vitamins should be exercised, while maintaining adequate dietary intake. The water soluble vitamins include the B vitamins and vitamin C. In contrast to the fatsoluble vitamins, the water-soluble vitamins are not easily stored by the body. More often, they are lost from foods during cooking or eliminated from the body. The B vitamins function mainly as coenzymes. Vitamin C has several important metabolic roles. Vitamins are not usually metabolized for energy, but some of them are essential for the production of energy from the macronutrients and act as cofactors. As with the macronutrients, vitamin research has only begun to illuminate how these nutrients benefit performance and health beyond nutritional deficiency prevention. However, current findings provide a good picture of how vitamins are important for health and performance. The mineral nutrients are inorganic nutrients (or inorganic-organic complexes) that are found in the body; and, although they only comprise about 4 percent of the body’s weight, they are essential structural components and necessary for many vital metabolic processes. Minerals such as calcium are required in large amounts every day, about 1,200 or more milligrams per day, while other minerals, such as chromium, are needed in microgram amounts. A microgram is 1,000th of a milligram. Even though there is a relatively wide range of intake observed between the different minerals, the relative importance of each mineral is equal. Some minerals are found in the body in their inorganic form, such as calcium salts in the bone and sodium chloride in the blood. Other minerals are present in the body in organic combinations, such as iron in hemoglobin and iodine in thyroxin. Absorption of minerals into the body will vary greatly depending upon Part One Page 1 - 6 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

the type of mineral. Researchers are discovering that just because a food contains a mineral, or vitamin, does not mean that all of it will get into the body. This is another reason why use of sports supplements and other dietary supplements are recommended. They ensure that the exact amount of nutrients will be supplied to the body, in controlled amounts. Additionally, you can get high quality nutrients, without the fat, salt, pesticides, and other junk that is found in many foods. In addition to essential vitamins and minerals, there exist a host of other bioactive substances that the body can make on its own, and can benefit from extra amounts from the diet. These are sometimes referred to as "accessory nutrients" or "non-essential nutrients". When it comes to the athlete, many of these nutrients will actually improve performance. Carbonates can improve performance in explosive power sports. L-Carnitine is essential for the oxidation of long chain fatty acids into energy. While carnitine can be made from the amino acids lysine and methionine, research has shown that supplemental amounts can benefit fat metabolism and increase endurance. Another nutrient, creatine, is widely taken by athletes in supplement form and touted for its energy enhancing effects and usefulness in strength sports. Furthermore, there is a growing awareness and use of substances found in plants and animals that are purported to improve health and performance. A group of naturally occurring plant compounds, the bioflavonoids, beneficially maintain the artery walls of the circulatory system and have evidence of helping improve the healing process, among other potential benefits. Then there are a variety of botanicals taken for a diverse variety of purposes, which may include anti-stress, digestion, energy enhancement, muscle growth, fat loss, and sleep. The importance of enzymes, both nutritionally derived and bodily manufactured, are important for total health, digestion, and recovery. Moreover, vitamins, minerals, and other substances used in supplements like glucosamine and chondroitin sulfate may be important for healing and maintenance of connective tissue health. The information in subsequent chapters will focus on reviewing the scientific evidence that exists for these novel substances to sort out which ones have the most independent substantiation that supports their effectiveness.

NUTRIENT DENSITY Foods contain macronutrients and micronutrients in many different combinations and amounts. A potato is high in complex carbohydrates, contains some protein, B vitamins, a good source of vitamin C, some minerals, (especially potassium and phosphorus), and a trace amount of fat. Meat, like beef for example, is high in protein with a range of fat content, but has no carbohydrates. Beef also acts as a good source of Vitamin A, some B vitamins, phosphorus, potassium, iron, and magnesium. Just a brief look at these two foods demonstrates that while they contain some of the essential nutrients, they lack others. The nutrient content of food will also vary depending upon when and where it is grown. In these modern times, a large amount of the food is processed. Most of these processed foods are very low in micronutrients. For example, white pasta, which is a good source of carbohydrates, has been stripped of most of its micronutrient content, as well as it’s fiber Part One Page 1 - 7 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

from the external bran layer in processing its flour. In fact, most pasta is fortified with added vitamins and minerals to compensate for the reduced nutrient content. Canned vegetables can also lose a lot of their vitamin content in the preparation process, including enzymes lost from the cooking process. Ingesting whole foods and sports supplements is necessary for attaining high quality performance nutrition. This is a reliable solution you are in control of for achieving high quality nutrient dense nutrition. If you are eating a lot of carbohydrates from sugar, for example, the essential vitamin cofactors will not be present in proper amounts to get the most efficient and highest level of energy out of this food. Too much sugar intake also can cause imbalances in your insulin levels. These factors have a direct effect on how your body uses nutrients for energy or for conversion to fat. Therefore, maintaining an intake of foods that are high in quality nutrients is important for reaching top performance and maintaining good health. Maintaining a nutrient dense diet will include combining healthy foods with the right supplements.

BIOAVAILABILITY It was once assumed that the presence of a nutrient in a particular food meant that the body would make full use of it. We now know that this assumption does not hold true for many nutrients. BIOAVAILABILITY refers to the ability of an ingested nutrient to enter the body from the digestive tract, into the bloodstream, and on to the cells where it is utilized. A nutrient’s BIOAVAILABILITY is affected in many ways. Certain nutrients compete with each other for intestinal absorption. Food preparation can affect bioavailability. Problems with your digestive system will interfere with nutrient absorption, and some nutrients are absorbed better in the presence of other nutrients–the intestinal absorption of phosphorus by vitamin D for example. When constructing a nutrition program, picking foods and supplements that contain highly bioavailable nutrients is a must for maximum nutrition performance. Even the nutrients used in supplement formulation can vary. So, choosing supplements with highly bioavailable nutrients is important.

THE LIMITING NUTRIENT CONCEPT While the majority of the nutrients in food are usually absorbed into the body, the absence of even one nutrient can limit the utilization of other nutrients. For example, the mineral chromium is an essential cofactor for the proper functioning of the hormone insulin. When you eat a meal insulin is secreted into the bloodstream and is required for the passage of glucose and amino acids from the bloodstream to the cells. Chromium is needed for insulin to function properly. Even if your body is making enough insulin, a shortage of chromium can prevent the complete assimilation of dietary glucose and amino acids. Researchers have determined that chromium is not present in optimal amounts in most diets, especially among athletes. When chromium is not present in optimal amounts, dietary glucose and amino acids in the bloodstream that cannot get into the cells will circulate back to the liver and may end up being converted to fat. Additionally, muscle cells will be deprived of amino acids for proper growth and recovery, and of glucose for replenishment of glycogen stores. In this example chromium is a limiting nutrient because inadequate levels limits the cellular uptake of other nutrients. Now imagine what can Part One Page 1 - 8 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

happen to the body from inadequate and unbalanced intake of many essential nutrients, which can led to causing reduced performance and jeopardizing health. Some of the same amino acids that build proteins can also become limiting nutrients for the athlete. As mentioned earlier, during exercise, some amino acids are used for energy. The amino acid leucine is one of them. Leucine is an essential amino acid. It is used to make other amino acids and is important in metabolic pathways. For the athlete, leucine can become a limiting nutrient and affect the utilization of the other amino acids when it is selectively used for energy and the other amino acids are not. Amino acids are used to build proteins, which are chains of amino acids. When one amino acid runs out, this will inhibit and reduce the rate of protein synthesis and slow down growth and repair of the body. One way to compensate for the disproportionate use of leucine for energy is to ingest supplemental amounts of leucine and other amino acids that are used for energy and can become potential limiting nutrients. It is equally important to ingest the right amount of the "non-essential" amino acids and other "non-essential" nutrients so the body does not have to waste time and energy making these nutrients. You can begin to see how performance nutrition is different from just eating for survival or optimum health. First, determine what nutrients (both essential and non-essential) the athlete’s body uses and how and when it uses them. Then supply them in the diet. It’s like formulating a super-charged fuel for a high performance engine. But the engine in this case is the human body, and it’s a dynamic one based on the individual and physical activity required for the sport.

NUTRACEUTICAL The term "nutraceutical", sometimes spelled nutriceutical, was created from the words "nutrition" and "pharmaceutical" in the 1980’s by Stephen DeFelice, MD, founder and chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine in New Jersey. According to Dr. DeFelice, a nutraceutical is any substance that is a food or a part of a food and provides medical or health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease. This concept of nutraceutical goes beyond the simple notion of just providing adequate nutrition to prevent nutrient deficiency diseases or health, as it widens the view to include prevention and treatment of all diseases. Nutraceutical products can range from whole foods, isolated nutrients, dietary supplements and nutrition programs, to herbal products, and processed/prepared foods such as cereals, soups and beverages. Health Canada has taken the lead in publishing official definitions of nutraceutical and a related term, functional foods: A nutraceutical is a product isolated or purified from foods that is generally sold in medicinal forms not usually associated with food. A nutraceutical is demonstrated to have a physiological benefit or provide protection against chronic disease. A functional food is similar in appearance to, or may be, a conventional food, is consumed as part of a usual diet, and is demonstrated to have physiological benefits and/or reduce the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutritional functions.


While the term nutraceutical is new, the concept of preventing and treating diseases is thousands of years old. In fact there is a famous quote from an ancient Greek doctor, Hippocrates, who is considered to be the founder of scientific medicine that goes like this, “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food.” In addition to essential nutrients, some examples of foods and food substances that have been regarded as nutraceutical include whole grain foods, fruits and vegetables, whey protein, soy protein, garlic, onions, fish oils, green tea, soy isoflavones, lutein, lycopene, curcumin, sphingolipids, resveratrol, isothiocynates, conjugated linoleic acid, quercetin, beta-carotene, capsaicin, lecithin, fiber, catechins and probiotics. So, in addition to eating the right foods and supplements to ensure optimum intake of the essential nutrients, eating foods with nutraceutical value will serve to make your diet even healthier.

RESEARCH ON NUTRIENTS Historically, the initial nutrition research focused on nutrient deficiencies, nutritional care for metabolic disorders like diabetes, and other clinical nutrition applications. Nutrition research on improving physical performance and optimum health is scanty, starting in the 1920’s and 30’s. However, from the late 1970’s to present, more and more research is being conducted on the ways in which nutrition affects performance and health. Researchers are breaking the confines of traditional nutritional dogma, delving into unexplored areas of nutrition, and looking at the relationships between human performance, fitness, and nutrition. In fact, there are scientific journals filled with new research on how food and supplements affect performance, and The International Journal of Sport Nutrition is dedicated to this one subject. Also, in 1994 the National Academy Press published its impressive report on Food Components To Enhance Performance, a special report by the Committee on Military Nutrition Research, followed by several additional reports about military nutrition. In addition, thousands of research studies have been published about a variety of sports nutrition related topics. This large and growing body of research ranges from creatine’s effects on increasing muscle growth and strength, to carntine’s effects for increasing endurance, to determining the best kind and amount of protein for optimal muscle growth, and the best carbohydrates for boosting exercise performance. Then there is a variety of specialty sports nutrition research to determine what works best for immunity, reaction time, boosting anabolic hormone levels, improving vision, etc. This area of research is rapidly growing, with new discoveries occurring each year, and confirmation of the sports nutrition practices and supplements that still work best; the time-tested ones, including scientific sports nutrition models I developed, presented in Part Three. The good news is that many fundamental and even some quite sophisticated discoveries have been made concerning the effects that nutrition has on athletic performance that you can start using immediately. These important scientific findings will be included in the following chapters about the various nutrients. It is important to note, however that most studies conducted on the effects that different nutrition programs and supplements may have on performance or body composition are often short in duration, several weeks to a Part One Page 1 - 10 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

few months. Therefore, it is important to understand the long-term safety of some of the supplement loading practices, like creatine monohydrate loading, are only determined for these short periods. So, if you or your clients practice certain supplement use and loading techniques, it is best done under the supervision of a doctor, nutritionist or other qualified health professional as a safeguard. There are very few cases reported in the scientific literature about supplements causing adverse effects on healthy individuals. But you know that many athletes do not follow balanced diets, and they may rely on certain supplements as a majority of their food intake. This type of inadequate / unbalanced nutrition may lead to developing performance and health problems. Remember, supplements are intended to do just that, supplement the diet. They are not intended to replace good eating habits.

ERGOGENIC AIDS "Ergogenic aids" is a catch all term to describe athletic performance enhancing substances and training techniques. Ergogenic aids can be nutritional and non-nutritional, and include special training techniques, blood doping, mental strategies, and drugs. Substances range from water to large dosages of vitamins. In the most fundamental sense of the definition, a nutritional ergogenic aid would cause some immediate observable benefit for athletic performance. While there are indeed viable ergogenic aids, as far as this book is concerned, your entire nutrition and training program should be approached as an ergogenic aid. So, do not focus on just one or two “magic bullet” supplements, thinking that this is all it takes for peak performance. While certain short term performance enhancing methods are employed as part of my Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance approach (like macronutrient modulation and carbohydrate loading), you must focus on perfecting your “total” nutrition and training programs to increase and maximize performance to your fullest potential. If your foundation nutrition is not optimal to begin with, then use of a "nutritional ergogenic aid" will not allow you to derive the maximum benefits it may offer. As you review the nutrients one by one, remember that the “sum total” nutrition approach will far exceed any of the individual ergogenic nutritional factors.

SAFETY Food and dietary supplement safety is a priory concern and involves vigilance on several levels. Making sure the foods you are eating are fresh and free from spoilage and microbial contamination is a top priority. Then for people with food intolerances or allergies, making sure to consume a diet that is free from the problematic foods. Accidental contamination of food is also a potential safety problem, but is usually difficult to assess when purchasing food, as contaminants are typically substances that cannot be detected by the eye or using the other senses such as taste or smell. Fortunately accidental contamination is infrequent, and usually reported in the news immediately when a food contamination incident occurs. So, keep tuned in to the daily news about these types of potential food safety issues. Review Part Three for more information about nutrient safety issues and the practical applications of the performance nutrition concepts reviewed in this chapter. Part One Page 1 - 11 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Some Common Food and Supplement Ingredient Standard and Label Jargon and Terminology. Unless you are an expert, keeping track of the terminology used in nutrition and on nutrition products can be a real chore. This summary should be helpful in understanding some of these common terms and concepts. Dietary Reference Intakes is a generic term for a set of nutrient reference values that includes Estimated Average Requirement, Recommended Dietary Allowance, Adequate Intake, and Tolerable Upper Intake Level. •

Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): the average daily dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all (97 to 98 percent) healthy individuals in a group.

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Adequate Intake (AI): a value based on observed or experimentally determined approximations of nutrient intake by a group (or groups) of healthy people—used when an RDA cannot be determined.

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Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): the highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population. As intake increases above the UL, the risk of adverse effects increases.

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Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): a nutrient intake value that is estimated to meet the requirement of half the healthy individuals in a group

Daily Values (DVs). A system created by the Food and Drug Administration to help manufacturers present their Reference Daily Intake (RDI) and Daily Reference Value (DRV) information on food and supplement labels. The RDI and DRV values are presented as percent Daily Values-that is, the amount of the nutrient in the product is described as a percentage, with 100 percent being equivalent to the total amount of the nutrient required by a reference individual consuming a 2,000-calorie-per-day diet. The terms Reference Daily Intakes (DRI), Daily Reference Values, RDI, and DRV never actually appear on the supplement or nutrition labels. Daily Reference Values (DRVs). Food- and supplementlabel nutrient values created by the Food and Drug Administration for the macronutrients and two electrolytes. DRVs, based on a reference diet of 2,000 or 2,500 calories, have been assigned to fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, total carbohydrate, fiber, protein, sodium, and potassium. These values, the same as the Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs), are presented on the new nutrition labels as percent Daily Values (DVs).

Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intakes (ESADDIs). A group of nutrient values compiled by the National Research Council that represents safe and adequate intake levels for a number of essential nutrients for which the data were sufficient to estimate a range of requirements but not sufficient enough to assign RDAs. Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). A database compiled by the National Research Council that has become the accepted source of nutrient allowances for healthy people. The RDAs serve as the basis for the Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) and Daily Reference Values (DRVs). The RDAs are presented in a book entitled Recommended Dietary Allowances, first published in 1943; the tenth edition was published in 1989, about 284 pages. In 1997 the report series was expanded under the new heading of Dietary Reference Intakes. Under the DRI series groups of nutrients were reviewed in several different reports consisting of several thousand pages. Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs). Food and supplement label nutrient values created by the Food and Drug Administration to replace its U.S. Recommended Daily Allowances (USRDAs) but still based on the National Research Council's Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). The original mandate, which grew out of a number of proposals, was published in January 1994; and the RDIs completely took the place of the USRDAs by January 1997. These values are represented on the new nutrition labels as percent Daily Values (DVs). U.S. Recommended Daily Allowances (USRDAs). A group of nutrient values created by the Food and Drug Administration to help the manufacturers of processed foods and supplements meet its nutrition-labeling criteria. The values were based on the National Research Council's Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). The FDA took the RDAs, which are the average recommended nutrient intakes for promotion of health, and created the USRDAs, which are the nutrient values used on food and supplement labels. The USRDAs were phased out and replaced with the FDA's Reference Daily Intakes (RDIs) by January 1997. However, you may sometimes encounter this terminology in books and elsewhere.


CHAPTER 1.2 NUTRITION PRODUCT OVERVIEW There are a large number of ingredients found in foods and sports supplements consisting of essential nutrients, metabolites, and botanicals, occurring in various combinations. Foods come in several forms, such as, whole foods, processed foods, frozen foods, canned foods, dehydrated foods, and even aged foods. The selection of sports supplements is also diversified and includes product types such as, vitamins, minerals, botanicals, muscle builders, strength enhancers, energy products, specialty products, and powdered meal replacements, found on the shelves as tablets, capsules, softgels, liquids, bars, and powdered products. Several decades ago at the dawn of modern sports nutrition there were only dozens of sports nutrition companies selling hundreds of products, now there are hundreds of sports nutrition companies selling thousands of products. This vast supply of food and sports supplement choices often leaves the athlete bewildered, and set on a self directed journey of sports nutrition trial and error. A journey which often leads to wasting time and money experimenting to determine the right combinations of foods and supplements that work best to achieve their body composition and improved athletic performance results. Ideally, the athlete’s focus should be on knowing the food and sports nutrition products to choose that will help them to achieve their body composition and athletic performance nutrition goals. To do this successfully you need to know what your special athletic nutrition requirements are and what foods and sports supplement ingredients and products to look for that can help best supply you with the most effective performance nutrition. Yes, the food and sports supplement needs of a marathon runner are different when compared to a football player, and so on. Then there are specialty sports like bodybuilding where the goal is building a tremendous amount of proportioned muscle mass, followed by a reduction of body fat to display their physiques for competition. Then there are still other athletes who compete in weight class sports, who need to maintain peak athletic performance, while having to deal with weight maintenance issues. While these differences are important to recognize and deal with, they are not infinite. When taking a close look at the bio-energetics of athletes participating in different sports and their sport specific anatomy and physiology, bio-energetic similarities of certain sports led to my development of a sports specific nutrition model. I started developing this model back in the 1970’s by taking a look at the actual nutrition needs of the human body based on activity and athletic performance needs. Eventually my work led me to the development of my Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance model and performance daily intake approach to sports nutrition. This differs from the generalized nutrition guidelines for the population at large in several important ways that will be elaborated on in Part Three. Part One Page 1 - 13 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

To help create a point of reference, this chapter provides an overview of the different types of nutrient sources available to athletes so that you are familiar with the various product types, and to help demystify the products you are confronted with. The remaining chapters will review details about the nutrients and ingredients found in sports nutrition supplements, followed by chapters in Part Three about sports specific nutrition (and fat loss) to provide guidelines and a framework for athletes to work from.

ALL FOODS ARE NOT CREATED EQUAL From the start you should know that the nutrient content of food varies considerably. This variation can occur from location to location and even within the same location from year to year. This has been one major flaw in the nutrition approaches taken at the institutional level, which assume a potato from Idaho has the exact same nutrient content as a potato grown in Maine. In the past, dealing with this unknown nutrient content variable was difficult; but with the help of today’s modern food technology, meeting your special athletic nutrient demands is now more effectively accomplished. The use of special food preparations and sport supplements makes getting the performance nutrition you need more reliable and economical too. To add to this food saga, some foods tend to be healthier than others. The term wholesome has become a popular way to describe foods that are supposed to be fresh, healthy, and packed with nutrients. However, many marketing companies use “wholesome” to describe whatever food they are selling, including high fat baked goods, so double check those labels for the actual nutrition content and ingredients. The primary good foods to look for are fresh fruit and vegetables, whole grains and whole grain products, beans, lean meats, fish, and poultry, for example. In response to a growing demand to offer the consumer healthier foods, health foods and health food stores have begun to emerge since the mid 1900’s. It is estimated that in the United States alone there are over 20,000 health food stores, and many grocery stores have created health food sections. But even when eating healthier foods, you need to watch the kind and the amounts that you are eating. A common misconception is that you can eat as much as you want of every food found in a health food store. Well, eating even too much of even a healthy food can become unhealthy and eventually slow your progress down, plus add extra pounds of fat to your waistline. If you check the labels, some health foods are even high in fat content, albeit the healthy unsaturated fat, but whether it is saturated or not, fat is one nutrient you want to keep your eye on and be sure not consume too much of, and make a daily goal to consume the healthy fats as discussed in Chapter 1.5.

UNDERSTANDING FOOD AND SUPPLEMENT LABELS How do you know what your are getting from the foods you eat? This is a good question with no simple answer. Take a look at the foods that you have around your house. While most packaged foods have nutrition content information, most whole foods do not have any nutrients listed, or those that do usually only list the bare minimum nutrients that are required by labeling laws. So, all of the healthy whole foods, the good food that should Part One Page 1 - 14 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

constitute the majority of your diet, like fresh fruits, vegetables, fish, lean meats, etc., do not always have adequate labels on them showing the nutrients they supply. This can make figuring out exactly what is supplied by the foods you eat a part-time job, and therefore requires nutrition training on your part. You should make an effort to start learning what foods are good sources of the nutrients you need. This can be accomplished by starting to read the nutrition labels of products that have Nutrition Facts labels. Start keeping track of what you are eating as part of your quest to master your nutrition program. By reading labels you will be able to decide for yourself if you should be eating a particular food. You will also be surprised how much fat and calories, and low nutrient content some of your favorite foods may contain, and how few calories, low in fat, and high nutrient content most healthy fruits and vegetables contain. Part Two provides example food lists with average nutrition content of common whole foods. You can use these tables to add your favorite whole health foods to, and use the recommended nutrition database sources to look up their nutrition content. Under the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) nutrition labeling regulations, certain ingredients and nutrition information should be listed on packaged foods and on a limited/voluntary basis for some whole foods. When nutrition content labels are present, they need to have the information presented in a special format, the Nutrition Facts panel (see below for some examples). The Nutrition Facts panel contains nutrient content information; like the amount of fat, protein, carbohydrates, and certain vitamins and minerals. Usually under the Nutrition Facts panel you will find the ingredient listing. This part of the label lists the ingredients contained in the foods that the nutrition content listed in the Nutrition Facts panel is provided from. The ingredient listing part of food labels will list ingredients in descending order of predominance. For example, if water is the first ingredient, then water is the most prevalent ingredient. However, the ingredient listing does not list the actual amounts of the ingredients.


Example of Generalized Nutrition Facts Panel

Example of Nutrition Facts Panel and Ingredients Listing From Actual Food Packaging


Examples of Other Nutrition Facts Panel Formats

Nutrition Label Reference Values When you start reading the nutrition labels closely, you will notice they make use of some special terms; for example, % Daily Value(s). The % Daily Value is derived from certain reference values for key essential nutrients. From the start it is important to realize that these Daily Values are based on average dietary intakes of the population at large, and are not specific to the special nutritional needs of athletes. Caution: These Government Reference Values Are Only The Bare Minimum For Survival There are two reference diets used for labeling purposes, 2,000 and 2,500 calories per day. Most athletes expend calories 2 or 3 or more times these amounts on a daily basis. Furthermore, these nutritional reference amounts represent only the minimum amounts of nutrients to theoretically reduced the risk of nutrient deficiency related diseases, not the amounts needed for optimum health or to promote maximum athletic performance. The below Reference Values for Nutrition Labeling table provides these minimum amounts of nutrition information that are used on nutrition labeling. As most food labels do not list the actual amounts of most vitamins and minerals, just the % Daily Values, you can use this information to determine actual amounts from the percentages. You will notice the Part One Page 1 - 17 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

other amazing part of the standardized nutrition label values is that they are supposed to be suitable for a wide range of age groups, for adults and children 4 or more years of age. Definitely not enough for athletic people or active people, or even for optimum health, but is nevertheless the national reference standard.

Reference Values for Nutrition Labeling Based on a 2000 Calorie Intake; for Adults and Children 4 or More Years of Age. These represent the government recommended minimum intakes reference values for the general population, for use on food and dietary supplement labels. Refer to Part Three for additional reference values. NUTRIENT Total Fat Saturated fatty acids Cholesterol Sodium Potassium Total carbohydrate Fiber Protein Vitamin A Vitamin C Calcium Iron Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin B6 Folate Vitamin B12 Biotin Pantothenic acid Phosphorus Iodine Magnesium Zinc Selenium Copper Manganese Chromium Molybdenum Chloride

UNIT OF MEASURE grams (g) grams (g) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) grams (g) grams (g) grams (g) International Unit (IU) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) International Unit (IU) International Unit (IU) micrograms (µg) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) micrograms (µg) micrograms (µg) micrograms (µg) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) micrograms (µg) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) micrograms (µg) milligrams (mg) milligrams (mg) micrograms (µg) micrograms (µg) milligrams (mg)


DAILY VALUES 65 20 300 2400 3500 300 25 50 5000 60 1000 18 400 30 80 1.5 1.7 20 2.0 400 6.0 300 10 1000 150 400 15 70 2.0 2.0 120 75 3400

SUPER FOODS: NUTRITION SUPPLEMENTS ARE BORN When people think of supplements, they sometimes tend to relate them more to drugs than to food. This is partly due to the way they look, (tablets, capsules, etc.,) and from their origins in clinical settings used to treat nutrient diseases and other disorders. Technically speaking dietary supplements are, in fact, super foods and super nutrients. They are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration as a subcategory of foods. The first use of nutrients as supplements originated from medical applications, primarily to treat nutrition deficiencies. In the early 1900’s, when vitamins were first discovered, the medical community quickly caught on to the benefits of using supplements to improve the health of their patients. Doctors and clinical nutritionists have long utilized special nutrient solutions to feed their patients back to health. These products mainly consisted of intravenous solutions that delivered a liquid nutrient mix right into the blood stream. Today, doctors prescribe dietary supplements to many patients for numerous health reasons, particularly for post surgery patients, young people, old people, pregnant women and people with certain diseases. Use of nutrients to accelerate healing is also practiced in hospitals as a result of new research demonstrating the rapid recovery of patients who had surgery and took supplements to promote faster healing. Right from the start of the discovery of essential nutrients like vitamins, scientists determined that most people were not getting the nutrition they needed from foods. This realization led to starting the practice of adding essential nutrients, like protein, vitamins and minerals to foods to boost the nutrition content; referred to as fortification. So, one of the most widespread use of vitamins and minerals in is the fortification of foods. For example, iodine in salt, B-vitamins in grain products, vitamin D in milk, calcium in orange juice, etc. In fact, the importance of adding essential vitamins and minerals to foods is recognized by the FDA, and they have a special set of guidelines for adding 21 essential nutrients to foods. Here is a quote from the FDA’s food fortification policy: “The addition of nutrients to specific foods can be an effective way of maintaining and improving the overall nutritional quality of the food supply.” While adding nutrients to foods is a good idea, the amounts added to foods may not be enough for optimum health and maximum performance. Also, you may not want to eat these types of foods. So, using dietary supplements is a way to ensure nutritional intake certainty. Moving on with this short nutrient supplement evolution overview, in the early years, aside from these clinical uses of vitamin, mineral and other supplements, progressive scientists and nutritionists leading the optimum health through optimum nutrition movement began to advocate the use of dietary supplements to ensure adequate intake of the essential nutrients, and even higher amounts for boosting health, energy, and all bodily functions. During these early days, the majority of the research using nutrient supplements was being conducted in medical settings, with people having diseases or nutrient deficiencies. Part One Page 1 - 19 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

While some of the early nutrition research was being conducted with athletes and physically active people, it was not until the space program that mass market potential use of supplements would become a reality. That’s right. Among the many other spin-off benefits derived from the space program, dietary supplements is another group of products with “astronaut” appeal. When scientists leading the space-age were preparing to send people into space for the first time, they had no idea how the digestive system would react to a zero-gravity environment. They also wanted to make sure to supply a nutritionally complete performance diet to the astronauts to ensure their peak mental and physical performance during their strenuous space flights. This space program nutrition research was a breakthrough for human nutrition because scientists had the funding to experiment on healthy, athletic individuals. Previous dietary supplement and other nutrition research relied mainly on laboratory animals and ailing hospital patients. For the first time, research would be conducted on healthy individuals to optimize their performance. The astronauts were subjected to numerous experiments in which their body weights, blood chemistry, and caloric output was measured along the way. Much vital information on nutrition and human physiology was gathered during this “nutritional” space age research. Looking back to initial research published in the 1950’s, laboratory animals were first used to formulate what was to become known as “chemically defined diets”. Chemically defined diets are nothing more than liquid meals containing a full profile of essential nutrients that are required to sustain life; amino acids, vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, etc. Through this research, much was learned about nutrition, growth, and health of laboratory animals. Once the hypotheses were tested, formulations were made for and supplied to humans for testing, evaluation and refinement. Going from a clinical setting to the mass market was a step that also occurred in the 1960’s with weight loss related products. Researchers discovered that subjects eating only chemically defined diets would experience an immediate loss of body weight. It was also interesting to note that the initial weight loss of up to 11 pounds would occur only after a short several days. Scientists attributed this weight loss to clearance of bulk from the gastrointestinal tract, and drop in water weight. This contention was supported by the observed abrupt weight gain following the first week of normal food after the break with the experimental liquid diets. Typically, subjects gained weight equal to that amount lost during the first week. This partially explains why many of the meal replacement products now available on the market will produce an initial rapid loss of body weight, followed by a period of slower loss of body weight. Ever since the 1960’s, nutritional supplements have become increasingly widespread. Many categories of products have evolved as more and more research discovered how nutrients can benefit health and performance. One of the first categories of sports supplements began with protein rich powdered drinks. Widespread use of these products continues by bodybuilders, athletes, and teenagers looking to increase body weight and help to pack on more muscle and increase strength. Part One Page 1 - 20 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

In addition to athletes, an emerging subculture of health conscious individuals also uses supplements and eats healthy foods too. Supplements are used by almost every person in the United States at some point in their life. Sports nutrition represents one of the largest and fastest growing supplement use categories because athletes know that they can derive better results when using these super foods as part of their total sports nutrition program. In the early years sports supplement use was mostly based on the logic that people who are larger, and two or more times active then the average person, have extra nutritional needs. Scientific research has confirmed that athletes have special nutrition needs, and thousands of research studies provide evidence about how sports nutrition practices and certain sports supplements are effective to promote health, growth, recovery, strength, speed, energy, reaction time, healing, and overall athletic performance. In addition to all of the research about how dietary supplements help promote athletic performance and wellness, recently the FDA has reviewed scientific evidence about the relationship of food and supplement nutrient ingredients and their ability to reduce the risk of and prevent certain diseases. From the review of the research, FDA recognizes the ability of taking dietary supplements to help prevent a number of diseases, such as calcium reducing osteoporosis, soy protein reducing cardiovascular diseases, selenium reducing certain cancers, fish oils reducing cardiovascular diseases, potassium reducing high blood pressure, chromium picolinate reducing insulin resistance, and so on.

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS VERSUS CONVENTIONAL FOOD Technically speaking dietary supplements are considered a subcategory of foods, and the manufacturing, labeling, and distribution are indeed regulated by the Food and Drug Administration, similar to conventional food products. The general definition of dietary supplements that the U.S.A. Congress developed is as follows: The term "dietary supplement" means a product (other than tobacco) intended to supplement the diet that bears or contains one or more of the following dietary ingredients: vitamin; mineral; an herb or other botanical; an amino acid; a dietary substance for use by man to supplement the diet by increasing the total dietary intake; or a concentrate, metabolite, constituent, extract.

This general definition of dietary supplements makes it loud and clear that they are a valid group of products recognized by the government. A major distinction between conventional foods and dietary supplements is that dietary supplements are meant to supplement the diet. While this is one of those fine-line regulatory details that does not mean much to consumers, it makes a difference to companies making and selling food and dietary supplement products. One of the obvious distinguishing features between a conventional food and dietary supplement is they way they are labeled. Conventional food products use the Nutrition Facts panel and dietary supplement products use the Supplement Facts panel. The following are some examples of Supplement Facts panels.


There are other behind-the-scenes issues when making and labeling conventional foods and dietary supplements. When you look on the shelves, all tablet, capsule, and softgel type products are labeled as dietary supplements. But then there are some types of products, like powdered drink mixes, ready to drink beverages and nutrition bars, among which some are labeled with Nutrition Facts panels and others are labeled with Supplement Facts labels.


Benefits of Dietary Supplements Versus Conventional Foods To supplement right, you must first eat right, and nutrition information is provided in subsequent chapters for your reference to assist in your goal of attaining a healthy sports nutrition eating plan. However, when it comes to eating for optimum health and athletic performance, conventional foods can be an unreliable source of key essential nutrients. Also, conventional foods are typically low in specialty ingredients, like creatine and carnitine. Furthermore, conventional foods are not designed for specific nutritional biochemical purposes, such as promoting optimum energy or growth hormone and testosterone production. There are some differences in the way nutrients from foods are supplied when compared to supplements, this table will summarize some of the major points, keeping in mind that dietary supplements are not intended to replace foods, but to supplement the diet to ensure adequate nutrition and for sports specific athletic performance specialty purposes. FOOD NUTRIENTS

DIETARY SUPPLEMENT NUTRIENTS

Random amounts in the diet. Nutrients supplied indiscriminately. Small, inconsistent nutrient amounts. Varied bioavailability. Contains calories. May dislike food supplying nutrients . Costly, time consuming, perishable. Often more expensive, and a nutrient basis. Usually no instructions. May have to overeat to get the nutrients you need. Mandatory, we must eat healthy foods.

Controlled, consistent amounts. Target specific requirements. Concentrated, specific amounts. Designed to be highly bioavailable. Contains no calories or controlled caloric content. No taste to “tablet” type supplements. Convenient, long shelf life. Often less expensive, on a nutrient basis. Label/manufacturer use instructions. Nutrient dense, can avoid overeating foods. Specific and supplementary use.

DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS VERSUS DRUGS When comparing dietary supplements to drugs here is where some lines get crossed because much of the research conducted using dietary supplement ingredients, such as vitamins, minerals, glucosamine, etc., was performed in medical settings to treat people with diseases. This body of research has led many consumers to often self-prescribe dietary supplements to help treat or manage their diseases. However, turning our attention to the marketplace, “dietary supplements” cannot be sold by companies to treat diseases. If a company wants to sell a nutrient ingredient to treat a disease, they have to get it approved by the FDA for a specific use.

CLAIMS FOR DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS / SPORTS SUPPLEMENTS Certain claims can be made for dietary supplement products. As previously mentioned, the FDA has a special category of disease prevention claims, referred to as Health Claims. Health Claims have to be approved by the FDA before they are made in association with selling products. Then there are a group of claims that can be made for dietary supplements that do not have to be approved by the FDA. The most commonly encountered claims for dietary supplements that are permitted for dietary supplement products come under the general heading of “statements of nutritional support”, and include such claims as: Part One Page 1 - 23 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Claiming a benefit related to a classical nutrient deficiency disease and discloses the prevalence of such disease in the United States; Describing the role of a nutrient or dietary ingredient intended to affect the structure or function in humans, characterizes the documented mechanism by which a nutrient or dietary ingredient acts to maintain such structure or function, or Describes general well-being from consumption of a nutrient or dietary ingredient.

The most widely used dietary supplement product claims being used are ones that describes the role of a nutrient or dietary ingredient intended to affect the structure or functions of humans. These have become know as structure function claims. When you think about it, sports nutrition supplements are designed to provide the body with are reliable source of essential nutrients to ensure adequate nutrition, and they can also be formulated to beneficially affect the structure and function of the human body to result in enhanced athletic performance, by promoting bigger, faster, and stronger muscles, and peak energy production, for example. So, when you review the numerous ingredients used in sports supplements, they can have multiple functions to benefit health, structure, and function of your body to help attain your athletic performance and bodybuilding goals. So dietary supplement product users won’t confuse these supplement related claims for disease treatment claims, labels for dietary supplement products that contain statements of nutritional support need to have the following statement required by FDA regulations: "This statement has not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.".

EXAMPLES OF COMMON SUPPLEMENT DOSAGE FORMS Dietary supplements and specialty sports supplements come in several dosage forms. Supplement forms are also sometimes referred as delivery systems. Pills, Tablets and Caplets. These start out as a powder blend of nutrients which are then pressed by machines into the characteristic pill or tablet form. By manufacturing definition, a pill is different than a tablet. Pills are generally smaller than tablets, and are made by using a special procedure devised by individual pharmacists. Tablets are more commonly used today. There are many sizes of tablets, but there is an upper limit based on the maximum size a person can safely swallow. Tablets are also made in chewable forms. The term “caplet” is used to describe tablets that are shaped like capsules. Originally, the caplet was a tamper proof, one piece capsule with a hard outer layer and loosely bound contents. Tablet delivery systems very. Current manufacturing technology allows tablets to digest quickly, or provide sustained release of nutrients, or even time released nutrients. These features give tablets an advantage over other dosage forms. Tablets also have a long shelf life, typically 2 or more years. Tablets need to be manufactured properly by Part One Page 1 - 24 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

experienced manufactures to perform these dynamic delivery functions. Tablets are usually coated. Coatings can be as simple as transparent glaze or colored. Some special coatings are sometimes used to delay the digestion of the tablet until it passes through the stomach and is in the intestines. This type of coating is called enteric coating. Capsules. The capsule dosage forms are primarily hard capsules and soft capsules. The hard capsules are delivery systems that consist of two halves into which the contents is injected. The two halves are brought together to form the completed capsule. Hard capsules can be filled with many types of contents, including powders, granules, pastes, oily liquids, suspensions, and solutions. Soft capsules, also called softgels, were developed to contain primarily liquid or semi liquid contents. Historically the primary substance hard and soft capsules is made of is gelatin, which is of animal origin. A recent development in capsule technology is to use materials of botanical origin to make vegetarian capsules, primarily using cellulose substances. Powders. There are many types of powder type dietary supplements made for many different reasons, containing a wide diversity of nutrients. The most common powder formulations are multivitamin/minerals, protein powders, amino acids, energy powders, fiber, and weight gain powders. Supplement powders are a convenient way to get high quality nutrition in the exact amounts you need, when you need it. Powdered nutrition supplements therefore provide a convenient high density source of nutrition to meet your individual needs. Liquid Supplements. Liquid sport supplements include protein drinks, carbohydrate drinks, weight gain drinks, herbal extracts, herbal tinctures, liquid vitamins, and minerals. Many of these concoctions are also available in dry form, either as powders or pills. Most common to the athlete are the host of carbohydrate drinks and protein rich weight gain drinks. Herbal preparations are somewhat new to the American athlete, and offer a very concentrated source of botanical ingredients. Nutrition Bars. Nutrition bars for athletes have been around for many years now, but are currently becoming popular as more athletes recognize their value. They are designed to offer a way to get a scientifically developed snack that is high in healthy carbohydrates and protein, and low in fat. This is the opposite of what most mass market candy bars offer. Nutrition bars should become part of your daily performance diet. They are a perfect delivery system for high density nutrition. Keep a few with you to fill in those in-between meal snacks.


CHAPTER 1.3 CARBOHYDRATES - THE ULTIMATE PERFORMANCE FUEL

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Carbohydrates are a high energy producing fuel source for muscles. Glucose is the major carbohydrate in the diet and used by the body for energy. Complex carbohydrates should be eaten more than simple carbohydrates. Carbohydrate ingestion before, during and after exercise needs to be timed properly. The body stores glucose in the form of glycogen. Carbohydrates are involved in maintaining blood glucose levels, which is vital to physical performance and health. Glucose also has a structural role, used to make glucosamine, which is used to form connective tissues.

Most athletes eating for top performance should consume at least 55 to 60 percent of their total daily calories from carbohydrates for maximum performance. For some athletes the percentage can even be higher, in particular on competition days. In addition, research has shown that the type of carbohydrate and food source ingested can affect performance, so consuming the right carbohydrate containing foods and supplements is important for maximum energy. In addition to maintaining a balanced diet rich in carbohydrates from meal to meal, with special emphasis on the pre-exercise/competition meal, carbohydrate energy beverage consumption timing can be a key factor for improving athletic performance. Properly timing consumption of a carbohydrate energy drink at the start of athletic activity or training, and continuing consumption during exercise can help maintain support energy levels and help to spare the body’s glycogen stores. Providing the body with an external source of carbohydrate during exercise may increase the time it takes the body to become exhausted, in particular for athletes who train or compete or train strenuously for 45 minutes or longer. In other words, it increases athletic performance and duration, and delays the onset of fatigue. When timing is right, if the body is exercising when the ingested carbohydrate starts to enter the blood stream, it is more readily used for energy and does not cause a rapid rise in insulin that could conflict with glucagon function. More information about this topic is provided later in this chapter to help you to master the nutrient – exercise balancing act. The most recent research continues to show that carbohydrates are the body's primary “high-energy” fuel source for all athletic activities. Fat is important too, especially for endurance athletes. But lessons learned from researchers in the early 1900’s who studied the effects of nutrient intake among runners and labor work performance revealed when Part One Page 1 - 26 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

carbohydrates were temporary reduced or eliminated from the diet, physical activity and work output was reduced. By putting their subjects on a variety of experimental nutritional regimens, ranging from outright starvation to diets consisting of different proportions of fat, protein, and carbohydrates, these early researchers found a few interesting dynamics. When the body runs out of its stored glycogen and is forced to just use fatty acids as the primary source of energy, physical performance can decline dramatically. Endurance athletes call this "hitting the wall." Historically long distance athletes experienced the performance reducing effects of glycogen depletion before the performance enhancing benefits of carbohydrate loading, glycogen maintenance, and ingesting carbohydrate drinks during exercise was discovered. Since the initial research, more insights about the importance carbohydrates have for athletic performance and health have been made. So while the annual barrage of weight loss fad diets might cause some confusion about carbohydrates, when it comes to optimum health and peak athletic performance, there is no confusion: adequate carbohydrate consumption is essential. Also important is consuming an adequate daily supply of carbohydrates as part of your comprehensive, mixed nutrient diet and from use of sports supplements. So, for peak performance and health, athletes must consider the type of carbohydrates they eat, the time of day they eat them, their intake of nutrient cofactors, and adequate intake of the other essential nutrients. All these elements together help to maintain the body’s glycogen stores and enhance energy production during exercise. Glycogen is a complex molecule that contains glucose, and is found in muscle, the liver and other tissues. Glycogen, therefore acts as a reserve of glucose energy, which is released when needed to provide energy for exercising muscles, and other parts of the body. As the glycogen stores are small, and quickly depleted, daily carbohydrate consumption is mandatory to ensure maximum glycogen stores for peak energy production. Among the significant aspects of dietary carbohydrates and athletic performance include their rate of digestion, absorption from the digestive system, rise in blood sugar levels, utilization as energy substrates, and storage in the body as glycogen. To gain a better understanding of these dynamics of carbohydrates in the body, the glycemic index was created, followed more recently by the development of the concept of glycemic load, which will be reviewed herein.

TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES There are several types of carbohydrates. These different types of carbohydrates are usually divided into three general categories based on their chemical structures: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharide carbohydrates are single molecules. Examples of monosaccharide type carbohydrates include glucose (also referred to as dextrose), fructose, sorbitol, galactose, mannitol, and mannose. Part One Page 1 - 27 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Disaccharides are carbohydrates that have two monosaccharide molecules linked together. Examples of disaccharides include sucrose, which is made of one molecule each of glucose and fructose; maltose, made of two molecules of glucose; and lactose, made of one molecule each of glucose and galactose. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that have three or more monosaccharide molecules linked together. Polysaccharides are sometimes also referred to as glucose polymers. Examples of polysaccharides include starch, dextrin, cellulose, and glycogen, which are all made of chains of glucose. Other common terms include glucose polymers and maltodextrin. Inulin is a unique complex carbohydrate made of multiple molecules of fructose. Note that the term oligosaccharides is a general term used to refer to short monosaccharide chains of 3 to 10 units in length. Another kind of carbohydrate is fiber, which is composed mainly of the indigestible polysaccharides that make up a plant's cell walls. These polysaccharides include cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and a variety of gums, mucilage, and algal polysaccharides. The following information reviews some more details about the different types of carbohydrates. One point of interest about carbohydrates is how they behave and function in the body and how to use this knowledge to your athletic performance advantage. In addition to the different rates of absorption from the digestive system, the two main monosaccharide’s, glucose and fructose behave differently in the body, with glucose being used more rapidly and efficiently by muscles. Getting the carbohydrate balancing act perfected is vital for intensively training elite athletes. This is also important for recreational athletes and fitness exercisers, but less critical when compared to competitive elite athletes who have to maintain championship peak performance.

SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES The term sugar is a catch all term that can actually be referring to different types of carbohydrates. For example, table sugar is sucrose, and blood sugar usually refers to the glucose present in the blood. This means that your blood sugar levels, glucose levels, are influenced from the type of carbohydrate glucose sources you ingest; complex carbohydrates, sucrose, maltose, lactose, and glucose (dextrose). The principal monosaccharide’s in food are glucose and fructose. Glucose, which is also called dextrose or grape sugar, is found commonly in fruit, sweet corn, corn syrup, certain roots, and honey. Glucose, is also contained in starch / complex carbohydrates. Fructose, which is also called levulose or fruit sugar, is found occurring with free glucose or as part of the sucrose molecule in honey and fruit. While glucose has traditionally been a frequently encountered dietary sugar, fructose’s popularity began due to the discovery that it does not cause the rapid rise and fall in the Part One Page 1 - 28 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

blood-sugar level that glucose does. Researchers realized this in the early 1980’s when they undertook the first extensive comparisons of the different carbohydrates and carbohydrate containing foods. They found that the main reason fructose is easier on the blood-sugar level is that the body absorbs and metabolizes fructose at a slower rate than it does glucose. In fact, fructose has to be converted to glucose in the liver before being used by most cells in the body, which further explains why it causes a slower rise in blood glucose levels. Because of the slower utilization of fructose, and slower rise in blood sugar levels, it was thought that fructose ingestion could help people with blood sugar control problems or issues, like diabetics, manage their blood sugar levels. Keep in mind that useful for nutritional management of diabetics does not necessarily mean good for health or improved athletic performance. Fructose containing products began to appear on the market in health food stores, promoted as a healthy alternative natural sweetener to table sugar. While fructose may seem to have benefits over the other sugars from a blood glucose response point of view, it is still a sugar and supplies raw energy without much other essential nutrition. Another issue with fructose is that when increasing the amount being consumed, it can have the tendency to increase fatty acid production in the liver, leading to fatty liver, higher levels of fatty acids in the bloods stream, and an increase in total body fat stores. Furthermore, the athletic benefits of increasing consumption of fructose are not clearly apparent. Glucose can be used by all cells, but fructose primarily has to be metabolized in the liver first, then is metabolized for energy. This is important in muscle cell bio-energetics, because muscle cells can use glucose at a faster rate than fructose. In addition, remember that eating too much of any sugar can lead to tooth decay. Concern over cavities is not just for children. Adult athletes with tooth decay may end up with disrupted athletic seasons due to root-canal surgery or tooth extractions. Fructose does have its place in nutrition in minor amounts. In addition to its slow rising effects on the blood-sugar level, it has also been found to help replenish the glycogen stores in the liver at a fast rate; note that glucose replenishes both liver and muscle glycogen at a fast rate. This is important because the brain derives most of its energy supply from the liver, which is especially low in glycogen in the morning. Perhaps the desire to drink juices high in fructose in the morning is more than coincidence, since these juices provide the mental surge of energy that so many people need to start the day. Note that once fructose is mixed with food, its benefits on blood-sugar level becomes less clear depending on the other carbohydrates contained in the meal. Some recent research indicates that there may be benefits when adding small amounts of fructose to glucose containing exercise energy beverages, when the exercise intensity is low to moderate, which will be elaborated upon in a following section of this chapter. The blood sugar balancing act gets a little tricky based on information that is in circulation, primarily weight loss related. Weight loss is a special subject treated in a different chapter, which should not be confused with nutrition for maximum athletic performance. Athletes need to consume 2 or more times the number of calories per day than nonathletic people. Athletes need to be eating foods that are more easily digested and can be utilized by the Part One Page 1 - 29 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

body for fuel and growth. Athletes typically have the opposite problem compared to overweight people, meaning that athletes use calories at a faster rate and may have trouble ingesting adequate amounts of calories. Overall glucose, principally from complex carbohydrates, is the primary carbohydrate energy source for athletic people, but the strategic consumption of sucrose, glucose, and fructose can also have a role in sports nutrition. Pure fructose containing products can be useful to help slow down the rise in blood sugar level and has applications for people with weight maintenance concerns or diabetes. Occasional consumption of fructose containing foods may be useful for athletes who need to closely manage their weight, such as athletes who compete in sports with weight classes. More details about the practical applications of glucose and fructose are provided in the section about carbohydrates for athletic performance. These days in the food supply fructose and glucose come together in a few different ways in prepared foods. As sugar, which is 50% fructose and 50% glucose As high fructose corn syrup, which is about 42 to 55% fructose, and the remaining portion glucose. Different amounts in energy drinks, sports drinks, nutrition bars and other prepared foods.

COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES Starch and other polysaccharides are also called complex carbohydrates. The two polysaccharides that are the most important energy contributors to the body are starch from foods and from glycogen stored in the body. Processed forms of polysaccharides include maltodextrin and glucose polymers, which are shorter glucose polymers than starch, and are commonly used in sports drinks because they are more soluble in water than starch is. Starch occurs in various parts of plants and consists of long chains of glucose units. The primary forms of starch molecules are amylose and amylopectin. Starch occurs in varying amounts in plant foods, such grains, fruits, roots, vegetables, pasta, bread, and legumes. Some research indicates the amylopectin is digested faster than amylose, and the glucose from amylopectin is absorbed into the blood faster. This may explain why different Part One Page 1 - 30 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

complex carbohydrate containing foods have different glycemic index values, and effect the rise in blood sugar levels at different rates. However, there are other factors, such as fiber content that effect digestibility of carbohydrate foods. Also the size of how fine flour is ground; the finer the flour the higher the glycemic index becomes. Finer flour means smaller complex carbohydrate particle sizes, which can be digested quicker. When starch containing foods are eaten, the are usually digested at a slow to moderate rate, releasing glucose molecules from the intestines into the bloodstream at a steady rate. This is unlike simple glucose, which is absorbed quickly from the digestive system into the bloodstream. Quick absorption leads to a high blood-sugar level. You will read below there are certain times when a rapid absorption of glucose is advantageous, but for the general population and weight conscious athletes, for most meals a slower to moderate rate of carbohydrate digestion is more desirable. For athletes who are consuming higher amounts of calories, a few to several thousand calories per day, they many need to maintain a higher rate of digestion and nutrient absorption, so consuming meals that have a moderate to high rate of carbohydrate digestion can be more desirable.

FIBER Fiber is another type of polysaccharide, but one that cannot be digested in the human gut and that does not act as an energy source. Fiber does, however, play an important role as the main contributor to the roughage content of the diet. Among its protective qualities, roughage, which is also known as dietary fiber, helps promote efficient intestinal functioning and aids the absorption of sugars into the bloodstream. A formal definition of fiber developed in the U.S.A. by the Institute of Medicine is: Dietary Fiber consists of nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin that are intrinsic and intact in plants. Put another way, Dietary Fiber consists of nondigestible food plant carbohydrates and lignin in which the plant matrix is largely intact. Functional Fiber consists of isolated, nondigestible carbohydrates that have beneficial physiological effects in humans. Functional Fibers may be isolated or extracted using chemical, enzymatic, or aqueous steps. Synthetically manufactured or naturally occurring isolated oligosaccharides and manufactured resistant starch are included in this definition. Although they have been inadequately studied, animal-derived carbohydrates such as connective tissue are generally regarded as nondigestible. The fact that animal-derived carbohydrates are not of plant origin forms the basis for including animal-derived, nondigestible carbohydrates in the Functional Fiber category, chitosan is an example of a fiber of animal origin. Total Fiber is the sum of Dietary Fiber and Functional Fiber. Fiber is found along with digestible simple and complex carbohydrates in various plant foods, such as fruits, leaves, stalks, and the outer coverings of grains, nuts, seeds, and legumes. Dietary fiber helps soften the stool and encourages normal elimination. Fiberrich diets also promote satiety. In addition, research has shown that people who eat highPart One Page 1 - 31 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

fiber diets experience reduced rates of cardiovascular disease, colon cancer, and diabetes. A high-fiber diet works best when it includes plenty of fluids. How much dietary fiber do adults need to get these benefits? The National Research Council established the daily adequate intake range of fiber for adults ranges from 21 to 38 grams. Some health experts recommend even a higher daily fiber intake. The estimated average fiber intake for men and women is only 12 to 18 grams per day. So, many people are eating diets that are too low in fiber. You can achieve this intake goal by eating foods high in fiber and by adding a fiber supplement to your diet. It is important to note that there is some concern that diets high in fiber may interfere with mineral and other essential nutrient absorption. This interference, however, can be offset by a daily dietary supplement or even by the nutrients already present in the high-fiber foods themselves. Another reason for consuming nutrient dense foods. Overview of Some Common Dietary and Functional Fibers The following is a short overview of the common dietary fibers and functional fibers found in whole foods, processed foods, specialty foods, and dietary supplements. Cellulose. Cellulose is a nondigestible polysaccharide consisting glucose molecules linked together with a special bond. Cellulose is the main structural compound of plant cell walls. The beta-(1,4) bond that links the glucose molecules, cannot be digested by humans, as humans lack digestive enzymes to break the beta-(1,4) linkages. In addition to cellulose that occurs naturally in foods, it is also separated out to make powder cellulose to use in food and supplement formations. Some uses of powdered cellulose include being added to foods as a thickening agent. Chitin. Chitin, chemically know as (poly-N-acetyl-glucosamine) is one of the most common natural polymers. Chitin is present in the group of animals called arthropods. It occurs in the shells of crustaceans and insects. Chitin is also found in other organisms including fungi, algae, and yeast. Commercially, chitin is isolated from the shells of crustaceans after the edible parts have been removed, such as shrimp, lobsters and crabs. Chitin is an amino-polysaccharide that contains the beta-(1,4) linkages present in cellulose. Chitosan. Chitosan, chemically know as poly-D-glucosamine, also occurs naturally and is produced commercially from chitin using a simple manufacturing process. Chitosan is sometimes used in dietary supplements for its fat binding abilities. Some research has shown that ingesting chitosan may slow down the absorption of cholesterol and fatty acids. It is interesting to note that in the manufacturing processing of chitin and chitosan, the glucosamine found in supplement products can also be produced. As an aside, there is also a process that produces glucosamine from plant sources.


Beta-Glucans (β-Glucans). β-glucans are polysaccharides of branched glucose resides. These β-linked D-glucopyranose polymers are found in fungi, algae, and other plants. Barley, oat, and psyllium products contain beta-glucans. Beta-glucans are considered a soluble fiber, and have cholesterol binding properties. Therefore foods high in betaglucans are recognized for their cholesterol lowering properties. Fructo-oligosaccharide ( FOS ). Fructo-oligosaccharides are polymers of fructose, and can contain a terminal molecule of glucose at the end of their chains. They are also referred to as fructans. Inulin and oligofructose are examples, and naturally occurring in a variety of plants. Some plant sources of fructans include, chicory root, onions, Jerusalem artichoke. As most fibers, the human digestive system lacks enzymes to digest them. However, certain bacteria in the colon can metabolize fructans. Fructans tend to be the preferred food for the “beneficial” intestinal bacteria. Fructans, like inulin, are used in dietary supplements aimed at improving gastrointestinal wellness. As dietary supplement ingredients, they are also referred to probiotics, because they cause the beneficial intestinal bacterial to increase in number. Gums. Gums consist of a diverse group of polysaccharides. They are typically derived from seeds for commercial applications. Gums characteristically viscous in texture. One type of gum used in foods and supplements is called guar gum, which is produced by the milling of the endosperm portion of the guar seed, and is high in galactomannans. Galactomannans are highly viscous, soluble fibers and are typically used as food ingredients for their thickening and gelling properties. Guar gum is also a common ingredient used in some fiber supplements. Hemicelluloses. Hemicelluloses are a group of polysaccharides found in plant cell walls. These polymers can consist of glucose, arabinose, mannose, xylose, and galacturonic acid. One type of hemicellulose you will see used in food or supplement products is glucomannan. Glucomannan is a viscous soluble fiber that absorbs water, and is sometimes used in the treatment of constipation or to promote intestinal regularity. Glucomannan may also have cholesterol lowering effects similar to beta-glucan. Some research indicates that it may help with appetite control. Similar to other fiber supplement type products, glucomannan products are usually ingested by adding the glucomannan powder to water then ingesting the beverage. Pectins. Pectins are found in the cell wall and intracellular tissues of many fruits and berries. Pectins consist of galacturonic acid units with rhamnose interspersed in linear chains. Pectins are also water soluble, viscous fiber. Fruits and vegetables contain about 5 to 10 percent naturally occurring pectin. Commercially, pectins are typically extracted from citrus peels and apple pomace. Isolated pectins have gelling properties, and are added to jams, jellies, and other foods. Pectins, are sometimes added to dietary supplement and other food products to increase the fiber content, typically along with other types of fibers.


An interesting aside concerning pectins is their use in some cough and sore throat lozenge products. They have the ability to soothe inflamed and irritated tissues, and this helps to alleviate sore throat and mouth.

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES The chemical digestion of carbohydrates begins immediately in the mouth via enzymes that are present in the saliva and continues in the intestines where digestive juices further break down the long chains of glucose that make up disaccharides or polysaccharides. Maximum absorption occurs once the stomach empties its contents into the intestines. It is important to note that depending on the composition and amount of the beverage, food, or meal being digested this will determine the rate at which the stomach empties, also called the gastric emptying rate. Starting with pure water, in general water can empty from the stomach quickly. Depending on the amount and temperature of the water being ingested, water can leave the stomach and enter into intestines within a few minutes to several minutes in most cases, and perhaps up to 30 minutes. Keep in mind that this is an approximate range of stomach emptying for water, and will vary depending on the individual. Also, when it comes to just water intake, in general and during exercise, a larger quantity of ingested water generally empties from the stomach faster than a smaller quantity. More details about hydration will be reviewed in Chapter 1.6, but some basics are needed here too as drinking a carbohydrate beverage can be useful for most athletes during their training, and many types of athletes depending on the length of the athletic event. Maintaining adequate hydration is important for all athletes and fitness exercisers for all sports and training. Therefore it is mandatory to begin exercise in a well hydrated condition, and periodically drink water during exercise and athletic events. When it comes to regular meals, snacks and other solid foods, depending on their size and contents, it can take one to a few hours for the stomach contents to completely empty into the intestines. Keep in mind that the stomach usually empties the contents of a meal slowly in squirts of digested fluid, a little at a time. Once in the intestines, it can take another one to few hours for the nutrients to be absorbed into the body. So, from start to finish it can take hours for nutrients ingested in a meal to clear the gastrointestinal tract and be completely absorbed into the body. This rate of digestion varies based on the meal size and food/nutrient composition, but also based on the Part One Page 1 - 34 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

individual’s digestive system abilities and rate. A nutritional digestion challenge for most athletes is to ingest foods for a healthy, but faster rate of digestion to absorb the nutrients they need, which is typically double or more compared to non-athletes. The faster rate of digestion is required to nourish and replenish the body on a daily basis, and for some athletes who need to consume calorie containing beverages during exercise to maintain their peak performance. For athletes who consume higher amounts of calories, digesting meals at a faster rate can be an important factor to properly nourish the body, while having a cleared gastrointestinal track of the previous meal eaten to enable peak performance. During digestion, fluids from the body are utilized, and blood flow is diverted to the digestive system. As these are also vital bodily resources needed for the exercising muscles, if the body is still digesting a meal when exercise begins, this can reduce the amounts of fluids and blood flow available to muscles for peak performance. Noting that some sports require strategic ingestion of energy containing beverages during competition and training that work in harmony with the digestive system functioning. Also, the rules for fitness exercisers have some flexibility due to the fact that peak athletic performance is not required, although desirable. When focusing on just carbohydrates, compared to fat, proteins, and a mixed meal, carbohydrates can usually be digested at a faster rate. In fact, one of the biggest areas of athletic performance research starting in the early 1900’s was to figure out ways to keep long distance runners and other athletes carbed up (and well hydrated) to maintain peak athletic performance. As an aside, throughout history this was also a nutritional quest of others who require peak physical output, such as workers, and the “ultimate athlete”, that is, military personnel. But, it was primarily from working with athletes that most of the modern nutrition – performance connections were made and fine-tuned. These issues of the relationship between what is being ingested and the rate of digestion is of particular importance to competitive athletes wanting to make sure they are properly fueled for maximum performance. This is also important for training sessions and fitness exercisers. So, start thinking about how a pre-competition or pre-exercise meal or beverage is going to be digested and absorbed to be available in your body for utilization and not still in your stomach and or intestines being digested. Also, think about how your competition or workout beverage is being digested to be utilized during physical activity. Ask yourself; is my pre-exercise meal just sitting in my stomach causing belching and other gastrointestinal disruption? Is it slowing down the emptying rate of my stomach as to cause dehydration and early onset of fatigue, or blood flow conflicts between the digestion system and muscles? One goal in endurance performance sports nutrition was to figure out how to best provide maximum hydration and also provide some energy to spare the body’s supply of glycogen during athletic competition and training that lasted long enough to deplete the body’s Part One Page 1 - 35 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

glycogen stores. During strength and aerobic exercise, glucose is a primary high energy source, and it is beneficial to prevent the depletion of the body’s supply of glucose during physical activity. More will be explained about this below. So, for some athletes, and other people who are undergoing physical activity for prolonged periods of time, ingesting a carbohydrate containing beverage can help the body maintain a supply of high energy carbohydrates for maintaining peak physical performance; mental performance too, as glucose is the primary fuel for the brain, as well as the exercising muscles. As the duration of exercise progresses, the body’s use of fatty acids for fuel increases, but high energy glucose is still used at a high rate during exercise as long as it is present. Research continues to focus on determining what type and amount of carbohydrates could be added to water that would not reduce the fast stomach emptying rate that is possible with water alone. Keeping in mind that most of the initial and majority of research was conducted using endurance athletes, it was determined experimentally that very dilute, low concentration carbohydrate containing beverages were able to pass through the digestive system quickly during exercise, and be absorbed at a rate that could both rehydrate and supply an external source of carbohydrate energy. It was also determined that providing an ingested source of carbohydrate beverages during exercise can reduce fat metabolism during exercise. This may be a concern of athletes with a primary goal of losing body fat, and perhaps may want to maximize fat utilization during exercise for fat loss purposes. Regarding ingestion of a carbohydrate beverage during exercise, generally, dilute, 4% to 8% glucose solutions, empty the stomach at a fast enough rate to supply meaningful amounts of water and energy during exercise, to help maintain high physical performance longer. As the concentration of the solution increases the rate of stomach emptying can be slower. This depends on the individual and their conditioning. Most studies examining the effects of carbohydrate energy beverages during exercise were conducted during single event observations; the athletes show up that day, with no prior experience drinking the beverage during exercise. This limits the scope of results, as there is evidence that the gastrointestinal system can become conditioned over a period of carbohydrate drink training to be better at absorption during exercise. In other words, when athletes make drinking beverages part of their practice, their gastrointestinal system will become better conditioned to digest and absorb the beverage during exercise. So, when practicing to be better “on-the-run” it is important to also practice being better at “drinking-on-the-run”. Also, other ingredients added to the beverage must be considered, as their presence will increase the total concentration of the beverage solution. These usually include mineral electrolytes, such as sodium, chloride, magnesium and potassium that are lost via sweat during exercise or may help increase the rate of water and carbohydrate absorption. Sometimes amino acids and other ingredients are added to the exercise energy drinks. As most drinks report the nutrition ingredient content in grams and liquid contents in both ounces and milliliters, you can make a rough estimate of the percent concentration of your exercise beverage using this label information. Part One Page 1 - 36 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

For estimating the percentage of a solution, you total up carbohydrate and other nutrient contents on a gram basis for a serving size, and divide this number by the mL (milliliters) of the serving size, then multiply this number by 100, you will get the approximate percentage of the solution. For example, 8 grams divided by 200 mL = 0.04. Then, 0.04 times 100 = 4 percent. For multiple servings, use the same approach, adding up the nutrient contents and fluid volume of all of the servings. You can also check with the company that made the product, which is highly recommend for competitive athletes who need the most accurate nutrient content information. I should point out that as more research is being conducted on the upper range of beverage concentration, there is some indication that under certain circumstances higher concentrations may also be feasible. For the competitive athlete, this is something you can experiment with in conjunction with your health professional to determine what works best for your body. Intensity and duration of exercise also plays a role in the hydration and carbohydrate utilization dynamics. First it must be realized that there is a replenishment limitation of hydration and carbohydrate beverage intake, where at high performance levels, water loss and carbohydrate utilization exceeds what can be replenished during exercise. This becomes especially important for athletes and individuals undergoing physical activity for a few to several hours, during which meal breaks are needed. For ultra-endurance events, this means conditioning the body to “eat-on-the-run”, in addition to consumption of adequate hydration beverages, and becomes an important part of the overall training and conditioning program. So, drinking / eating is part of practice for most athletes. Yes, don’t wait until the day of the competition to start ingesting beverages or eating performance foods during physical activity. Conditioning your body during practice and training to ingest drinks and or performance foods is required to determine what works best with your digestive system. Realize that it can take several days or longer for your digestive system to adjust. For long distance athletes who are performing their physical activity on a continuous basis, ingesting fluids is usually not a problem. However, for athletes who are in “stop and go sports”, like soccer, basketball, tennis, and football, or “jumping sports” like volleyball, there may be certain challenges associated with “stomaching” an exercise beverage that may be swishing around until the stomach empties. Therefore, development of individualized exercise / competition hydration and energy beverage consumption strategies are often needed. Use of carbohydrate beverages becomes more important in athletic events that are longer, which may result in depleting the body’s muscle and liver glycogen stores. This also depends on how adequate the glycogen stores are at the beginning of exercise. So it is therefore extremely important to maintain proper caloric and carbohydrate intake all day long, each day, to ensure adequate glycogen replenishment and maintenance. Assuming glycogen stores are adequate to begin with, glycogen depletion to the point of reducing athletic performance may become an issue after about 45 minutes of continuous, Part One Page 1 - 37 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

strenuous exercise. This will be elaborated on in the following sections. Also, for fitness exercisers who are not exercising at a maximum rate, and athletes needing to lose body fat, there are some interesting dynamics that will also be reviewed later in this book. Once carbohydrates reach the intestines, glucose and fructose are absorbed at their respective rates, with glucose taken up more quickly than fructose; galactose is absorbed similar to fructose. When complex carbohydrates are eaten, either alone or with sugars, their short chains of glucose polymers release glucose for absorption at the rate of digestion and digestive enzyme action. This rate of digestion and absorption is usually slower when compared to ingesting pure glucose, and can provide a prolonged supply of glucose to the bloodstream and a supply of nutritional energy that further spares and replenishes muscle glycogen. One measure of the differential absorption rates of carbohydrates and carbohydrate foods and their effect on blood glucose levels is measured using the glycemic index, reviewed below in detail. The intensity of exercise also effects the metabolism of carbohydrates during exercise, to maintain a balance of glucose production from liver and muscle glycogen stores and glucose uptake and utilization by the cells for energy. In the early days it was observed that exercising muscles (contracting muscles) had what appeared to be an insulin independent ability to take up and utilize glucose. Upon closer examination, from research with athletes, also with diabetics, this is partially the case, but insulin levels and function during exercise appears to be more important then previously thought. With low to moderate intensity continuous exercise, insulin production and levels are present at a baseline level that is usually lower than measured when compared to levels stimulated from nutrient ingestion during rest. As exercise progresses, the insulin levels eventually begin to decline as the duration of exercise progresses. Some researchers point out that the insulin production and levels during exercise may be skewed on the low side due to rapid insulin use from exercising muscles. Whatever the case may be, when glucose becomes present in the blood stream from ingesting an exercise beverage, or from glucose released from the body’s glycogen stores, the production of insulin is expected to be stimulated at some level. Another group of substances in the body associated with glucoregulation during exercise is the catecholamines; epinephrine and norepinephrine. As moderate exercise progresses, the catecholamine levels have been measured to increase. However, a more significant rapid rise in catecholamines occurs during higher intensity continuous exercise, and intensive anaerobic, explosive type exercise and athletic performance. It is thought that the catecholamines simulate a rapid production of glucose from the liver, based on experimentally measuring rates of catecholamine levels and glucose production during exercise. In addition to the production of glucogon stimulated glucose, this catecholamine induced glucose production enables the exercising muscles a plentiful supply of high energy glucose needed for anaerobic metabolism, and seems to provide a dual control mechanism to endogenous glucose production.


More research about glucoregulatory mechanisms is needed to sort out some of these intricate physiological details. Of significance regarding the glucose production and glucose utilization model during exercise is that after intense exercise, a rapid increase in insulin levels is observed. The need for the increase of post-intense exercise insulin levels is thought to be a result of the high intensity exercise stimulated endogenous liver production and rapid glucose release and subsequent rapid rise in blood glucose levels. Under intense exercise conditions the strenuously exercising muscle contractions stimulate glucose uptake, independent of insulin, so during exercise this surge in blood glucose can be delivered and utilized by the intensively contracting muscles. However, once exercise stops, the muscle contraction stimulated uptake of glucose stops, and the body needs to increase insulin levels to clear the blood stream of the exercise induced high levels of glucose to prevent prolonged hyperglycemia; high blood sugar levels. These differing effects of exercise intensities are of interest to athletes, and underscores the importance of properly warming up and cooling down at the physical and physiological levels. Understanding of the rates of glucose production and glucose utilization influenced by exercise is especially important for the diabetic athlete or fitness exerciser, and other people who need to keep tight control over their blood sugar levels for health reasons. The concern about the presence of high insulin levels at the beginning of exercise is that it tends to suppress the liberation of glucose from glycogen, and fats from body fat stores, and favors the storage of the ingested nutrients. When the body needs energy, between meals for example, the levels of the hormone glucogon increase to liberate glucose from glycogen stores and fat from fatty acids stores. However, it appears that the presence of glucose, from ingestion or liberation from glycogen can stimulate the release of insulin. One concern regarding insulin levels is not to be starting exercise or athletic events with insulin levels being too elevated at the start of exercise as caused by the pre-exercise meal or beverage. When insulin levels are high, this can suppress the liberation and use of energy in the body during exercise, as insulin’s function is to favor cell uptake of nutrients. High insulin levels can also cause a temporary hypoglycemic state; low blood sugar levels. As glucose is a primary fuel for all physical activity this could reduce athletic performance. In the traditional athletic competition model, starting ingestion of a carbohydrate containing beverage at the beginning of physical activity and during physical activity, lessens the carbohydrate ingestion insulin level effect, because exercising muscle has the ability to stimulate the uptake of glucose independent of insulin. The ability of muscle to do this appears to increase with increasing levels of exercise intensity / effort. Carbohydrates are more quickly released from the stomach to the intestines than either protein or fat. The more protein and fat that you eat, the longer your stomach will take to empty. Logically, therefore, you should eat and drink foods that are very high in carbohydrates before and during exercise to take advantage of this process. Again, this is why specially designed sports-nutrition drinks can help increase athletic performance during competition and practice.


About The Glycemic Index (GI) The glycemic index is a method used to group carbohydrate foods based on their effect on blood glucose levels. When a carbohydrate containing food is eaten and digested, as it is absorbed from the intestines to the blood stream a rise in blood sugar occurs, namely glucose. This rise is usually accompanied by a rise in insulin. This rise of blood glucose and insulin that occurs after consumption of carbohydrate containing foods, is then followed by a fall in blood glucose and insulin levels. This rise and fall in blood glucose can be rapid or slow, depending on the types and amounts of carbohydrate contained in foods and sports nutrition products. So, as different carbohydrates and different carbohydrate foods have different rates of digestion and absorption, researchers wanted to devise a way of classifying carbohydrate foods according to their effect on blood glucose levels. This initial interest was primarily motivated to gain a better understanding of the food intake – insulin production relationship to help improve dietary management of diabetes. But, as with most research, there are other applications, namely for athletes, fitness and general health. The glycemic index is defined (determined) as the area under the curve for the increase in blood glucose after the ingestion of a set amount of carbohydrate in a particular food, in the 2-hour post ingestion period compared to a reference food. The standard amount is typically 50 grams, and the reference foods are either glucose or white bread. For example, using glucose as the standard, the GI for glucose would be 100, and the other foods would be compared to this reference curve. David Jenkins and coworkers reported in their 1981 study, titled “Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange,” the first research for measuring blood glucose response to foods. A copy of this pioneering research can be found at: http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/34/3/362. For the majority of the foods and sugars tested, 50 grams was used. Blood samples were taken at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 minutes after the meals were eaten. Comparing the area under the plotted data curve for each food versus glucose the Glycemic Index was born. As the reference point the GI for glucose is 100. Most foods measured are below this value, with few exceptions.


The International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values was created and updated by scientists Kaye Foster-Powell, Susanna H.A. Holt, and Janette C. Brand-Miller and is located at: http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/76/1/5. When you review this comprehensive data, you will notice that some of the foods use a 3 hour evaluation period, in addition to the original standard 2 hour period. Also, it is important to realize that while the reference tables are useful, the GI is food specific. So similar foods and products may differ from region to region, and between different brands of the same types of foods. This will become apparent when you review the table. The initial interest in the glycemic response of foods was thought to have practical applications for creating diets to help people with diabetes control their blood sugar levels. Eventually this glycemic response research provided important insights about carbohydrate digestion and metabolism that have applications for planning diets for health, athletic performance, and management of other diet related diseases, such as heart diseases and obesity. Some points to keep in mind about the GI reference information is that the 50 gram reference values are small when compared to the amount of foods people eat, especially athletes. Also, a mixed meal will obscure the GI of an individual food. Typically a meal of different GI’s will end up being a weighted average, the final GI of the mixed meal usually being somewhere between the highest and lowest of the individual GI food values. Glycemic Index (GI) Examples of Common Foods GI 100% Glucose GI 91% to 99% Lucozade (Sports Drink) GI 80% to 90% Corn Flakes Carrots Parsnips Instant Potatoes Honey GI 70% to 79% Whole Meal Bread Millet White Rice Broad Beans Potato

GI 60% to 69% White Bread Brown Rice Muesli Shredded Wheat Ryvita Water Biscuits Bananas Raisins Mars Bar GI 50% to 59% Buckwheat Spaghetti Sweet Corn All Bran Cereal Oatmeal Biscuits Tea Biscuits Peas

GI 40% to 49% Oranges & Orange Juice Whole Meal Spaghetti Porridge Oats Sweet Potato Beans Peas

GI 20% to 29% Kidney Beans Lentils Fructose GI 10% to 19% Peanuts Soya Beans

GI 30% to 39% Butter Beans Tomato Soup Haricot Beans Blackeye Peas Chick Peas Golden Delicious Apples Ice Cream Skim or Whole Milk Yogurt

Source of GI data: David J. A. Jenkins, Thomas M. S. Wolever, Rodney H. Taylor, Helen Barker, Hashmein Fielden, Janet M. Baldwin, Allen C. Bowling, Hillary C. Newman, Alexandra L. Jenkins, and David V. Goff. Glycemic index of foods: a physiological basis for carbohydratre exchange. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 34: March 1981, pp. 362-366.

Glycemic Load (GL) Since the development of the glycemic index, a related concept was more recently developed called the glycemic load, abbreviated as GL. While, the glycemic index of a food provides an expectation of how fast a food will raise blood sugar levels, the GL is a Part One Page 1 - 41 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

calculation that considers the amount of the carbohydrate from food being ingested. But, it is ultimately how much of the food that matters from a blood sugar elevation standpoint. Eating a mouthful of a high GI food will have very little short-term effects on raising blood sugar levels. However, eating large amounts, many mouthfuls of a high GI food will cause a rapid and sustained high blood sugar level, with accompanying stimulation of high insulin levels. The GL is calculated as follows: (GI value of the food times the quantity of carbohydrate of the food serving)/100 For example, for a food with a GI of 54, and an available 20 grams of carbohydrate per serving, the GL would be (54 x 20) / 100 = 10.8 It is important to note that the practical applications of using the GI and GL are still in a developmental stage from the “nutritional big-picture”. One thing is certain though, both the glycemic index and glycemic load measures can be useful for determining the potential behavior that carbohydrate containing foods or meals have in the body as it relates to blood sugar levels and the accompanying rise and eventual fall of insulin levels. There is some growing evidence at the general population level that people who are eating diets with higher than average GI and GL values, are more prone to become overweight or obese. This notion makes metabolic sense, as the average person’s body who is overeating a diet abundant in high GI foods will have higher insulin levels causing a tendency to store more body fat, and hold on to it. The growing consensus is that diets with low to moderate in GI and GL values will be digested and processed in the body at a slower rate, and cause a lower average blood sugar levels and insulin levels. Additionally, the thinking is that this also allows the body to process the calories more effectively for energy use, opposed to the rapid influx of calories from high GI meals, that may cause a surplus of caloric load that encourages fat storage. When it comes to athletes and physically active people, the picture changes. Athletes are better at using calories and use more of them when compared to sedentary people, who in contrast are leading a low physical activity lifestyle, with little or no exercise. As indicated herein, there are times where athletes will benefit from ingesting higher GI beverages and foods. Also, considering the large amount of foods athletes have to consume each day for meeting caloric and nutrient needs, consumption of a diet that is easily digested and absorbed is warranted for many athletes; a diet that consists of foods and meals with moderate to high GI and GL ratings, with times when low GI meals may be also be useful, as reviewed in Part Three. For the athletic person knowing which carbohydrate foods and sugars will provide a quick supply of energy, or for replenishing glycogen stores rapidly has led to many studies examining the different effects of sugar and carbohydrate containing beverages and foods and their effects on athletic performance, glycogen status, muscle growth, immune system function, and other measures of health and performance.


CARBOHYDRATES IN THE BODY-GLUCOSE AND GLYCOGEN Glycogen is similar to the starch that is found in plants in that it consists of chains of glucose units. However, glycogen and starch differ in structure. In addition, while starch occurs only in plants, glycogen occurs only in animals. Very little glycogen is found in food, however. This is mainly because meat contains only small amounts of glycogen. Due to the human body's small storage capacity for glycogen, it needs a relatively constant supply of carbohydrates throughout the day. The body normally converts a portion of all ingested complex carbohydrates into glycogen, thereby replenishing its limited glycogen supply. It is estimated that depending on a persons size, the total glycogen supply is about 1,800 to 2,600 calories. As control of blood sugar levels is important for normal metabolism and health, the body is constantly storing and releasing glucose based on the influx of glucose from ingestion, between meals, or during physical activity when energy demands dramatically are increased. In the human body, glycogen is found in all the cells. However, it is present in greater percentages in the muscle fibers and liver cells. In this way, the liver and muscles act as reservoirs for glucose. The liver's glycogen supply is used to regulate the blood-sugar level. Furthermore, the glucose that is fed into the bloodstream from the liver's glycogen supply is the main source of energy for the brain. The brain can use over 400 calories per day of glucose from the liver's glycogen. Athletes and other physically active individuals sometimes have a feeling of being bogged down. Many times, this feeling is due to a low level of liver glycogen. Eating a good amount of complex carbohydrates, especially at night, will replenish the glycogen supply and restore mental alertness and physical energy. High-fructose drinks also replenish the liver glycogen. Glycogen is not stored by itself in the liver. Rather, it is stored together with water. In fact, every 1 ounce of glycogen is stored with about 3 ounces of water. This means that when glycogen is used, water is also removed from the body. Many fad diets take advantage of this phenomenon by requiring a low caloric intake coupled with a high protein consumption, which causes liver and muscle glycogen to be depleted in twenty-four to forty-eight hours. This glycogen depletion can result in a loss of several pounds of water, which many dieters mistake for a loss of body fat. Moreover, because most weight-loss diets are low in calories, the body eliminates a few pounds of gastrointestinal bulk within a few days. Dieters usually mistake this, too, for a loss of body fat. So, a week or two of fad dieting may result in a loss of several pounds of water weight and gastrointestinal bulk but perhaps only a mere pound or two of body fat. This is one reason why fad dieters quickly, almost overnight, gain back the weight they lost. Understanding this is especially important for weight-conscious athletes, who typically deplete their glycogen supplies on low-calorie diets, blow up when they return to a normal diet, and then have to lose several pounds again a few days later. By keeping their caloric and carbohydrate intakes at normal levels, athletes can help their bodies work better and can maintain their glycogen supplies for better overall performance. Glycogen depletion followed by glycogen replenishment, which is also known as carbohydrate loading, can cause the muscles to increase their water content considerably Part One Page 1 - 43 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

in association with the increased glycogen stores. When glycogen replenishment is complete, the increased body weight may induce the muscles to feel heavy and stiff. This may interfere with physical performance in certain athletic events, particularly in connection with sports that rely on repeated short bursts of all-out effort, such as sprinting, football, and basketball. Bodybuilders can take advantage of this phenomenon, however, and experienced bodybuilders know how to add size and hardness to their physiques on contest days for an added competitive edge. Understanding glycogen storage and dynamics is a cornerstone of improving athletic performance nutritionally. Knowledgeable athletes recognize that they must keep their muscle and liver glycogen stores filled up. They acknowledge that they must follow a daily nutrition program that encourages glycogen replenishment and spares glycogen utilization. Refer to Part Three for information about sports specific carbohydrate intake guidelines; carbohydrate intake approaches before, during and after exercise or competition; and carbohydrate food sources.


CHAPTER 1.4 PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS MUSCLE BUILDERS AND MORE

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Protein is a source of amino acids. Athletes require a higher intake of protein. Amino acids are essential building blocks for growth, recovery, and production of many proteins occurring in the body. Branched Chain Amino Acids are a special group of amino acids that can be used for energy and are required in extra amounts. Individual Amino Acids can elicit targeted effects, for example, increasing growth hormone, IGF, testosterone, and nitric oxide production. Collagen -- connective tissue -- makes up one third of total body protein content, making it one of the most common proteins in the body.

The relationship between protein and the athlete has become of legendary importance. Dating back to the first Olympic games in ancient Greece one of the earliest recorded athletic nutritional practices was that of consuming large amounts of protein to improve strength and performance. The most recent research confirms protein's role as a vital component of health and performance. However, studies have also established that diets that are too high in protein may be as counterproductive as diets that are too low in protein. One thing is certain-athletes require at least twice as much protein as nonathletes do. Protein is an essential part of the diet and plays many roles in the body. Protein's roles are primarily structural, but can be used by the body for energy during intensive exercise or when nutrition is inadequate. In these situations, to meet its metabolic needs, the body breaks down precious muscle tissue, which is a setback for an athlete who has been training hard to make gains. In addition, athletes need to eat just the right amount of protein to minimize the formation of metabolic waste products. When too much protein is consumed, the body converts the excess to fat and increases the blood levels of ammonia and uric acid. Ammonia and uric acid are metabolic waste products. The athlete's goal therefore is to maintain proper protein intake based on their body weight, activity level, and muscle fiber composition. In general endurance athletes with a higher level of slow-twitch muscle fibers require more protein than nonathletes, but not as much as strength athletes. Strength athletes, have larger muscles, and more of the fasttwitch muscle fibers, requiring increasing the amount of protein intake. Then there are the athletes that are somewhere between these two extremes of endurance and strength. In addition to muscle fiber growth and repair, there are also different bio-energetics that need to be considered among the different athletes, which will be reviewed in Part Three. In this Part One Page 1 - 45 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

chapter the basics of protein are reviewed and about the building blocks of proteins, amino acids.

What Is Protein? Protein is a large molecule called a macromolecule or super-molecule. It is a polypeptide, a compound containing from ten to one hundred amino-acid molecules. The amino acids are linked together by a chemical bond called a peptide bond. When we consider protein from a nutritional standpoint, we are concerned with the aminoacid subunits. There are about twenty-two amino acids that are considered biologically important, but many more exist in nature, including in the body. Amino acids are important not only for being the building blocks of protein, but also for the individual roles that they play in the body. For example, some amino acids are used by the body in metabolic processes such as the urea cycle, and others act as neurotransmitters; the chemical substances that help transmit nerve impulses. Protein is needed for the growth, maintenance, and repair of cells, including muscle cells, and for the production of enzymes, hormones, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) expression. It occurs in various sizes and shapes and is divided into two main categoriessimple proteins and conjugated proteins. Simple proteins consist only of amino acids, while conjugated proteins also have nonprotein molecules as part of their structures. Some simple proteins are serum albumin, which is present in blood; lactalbumin, which is present in milk; ovalbumin, which is present in eggs; myosin, present in muscle; collagen, present in connective tissue; and keratin, present in hair. Examples of conjugated proteins are nucleic acid, found in chromosomes; lipoprotein, found in cell membranes; glycoprotein, chromoprotein, and metaloprotein, all found in blood; and phosphoprotein, found in casein (milk protein). Protein constitutes the majority of the dry weight of most body cells. Some of the major properties of proteins include: Contractile, such as actin and myosin found in skeletal and other muscles, required for movement. Hormonal, such as insulin, growth hormone, and insulin-like growth factors. Structural, such as collagen, a component of connective tissues. Transporter, such as hemoglobin for transporting oxygen. Enzymes, for digestion and required as catalysts for many biochemical reactions in the body. DNA/Gene expression, as the information stored in genes is replicated into proteins. Receptors, protein molecules that are imbedded in cell membranes and detect signals.


How genes direct the production of proteins. Most genes contain the information needed to make functional molecules called proteins, While just a few genes produce other molecules that help the cell assemble proteins. Going from gene to protein consists of two major steps: transcription and translation. Together, transcription and translation are known as gene expression. During the process of transcription, the information stored in a gene’s DNA is transferred to a similar molecule called RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the cell nucleus. Both RNA and DNA are made up of a chain of nucleotide bases, but they have slightly different chemical properties. The type of RNA that contains the information for making a protein is called messenger RNA (mRNA) because it carries the information, or message, from the DNA out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm. Translation, takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. The mRNA interacts with a specialized complex called a ribosome, which “reads” the sequence of mRNA bases. Each sequence of three bases, called a codon, usually codes for one particular amino acid. A type of RNA called transfer RNA (tRNA) assembles the protein, one amino acid at a time. Protein assembly continues until the ribosome encounters a “stop” codon (a sequence of three bases that does not code for an amino acid).

The Amino Acids The following table is a summary of the amino acids thought to be of nutritional importance, as reported in the Institute of Medicine’s, Dietary Reference Intake report. Indispensable refers to the amino acids the body cannot synthesize. Conditionally indispensable amino acids are those requiring a dietary source when the body’s rate of synthesis cannot meet metabolic needs. Five amino acids are categorized as dispensable, which implies that the body can make them in sufficient quantities on an as needed basis. Keep in mind that most foods contain proteins with most of the amino acids present as well as most protein supplements. Maintaining a nutritional source of all of the amino acids, indispensable, conditionally dispensable, and dispensable, will help provide the athlete with a rich supply of all of the amino acids for immediate use. The following amino acids are the major ones that are important to the body and commonly encountered in supplements. As amino acid nutritional science has evolved the past few decades, so has the terminology and concepts. For example, originally the amino acids were considered to be either essential or non-essential, depending if the body can make them or not. Now the new terminology is Indispensable and dispensable. Part One Page 1 - 47 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Amino Acids and Their Current Nutritional Classification Indispensable (Essential) Conditionally Indispensable Dispensable (Non-essential) Histidine Arginine Alanine Isoleucine Cysteine Aspartic Acid Leucine Glutamine Asparagine Lysine Glycine Glutamine Acid Methionine Proline Serine Phenylalanine Tyrosine Threonine Tryptophan Valine Note: The letters D and L sometimes precede the name of the amino acid and indicate which form is present; or isomer. In general, the L form of amino acids is the biologically active form and used to make proteins. In nutrition products, however, two DL mixtures of amino acids reported to have metabolic advantages are reported for the amino acids phenylalanine and methionine. There is inconsistent use of these letters on products and in the research. Check with the manufacturer if you have a question about the amino acids contained in their products.

In the 1980’s I introduced the concept of amino acids being conditionally or semiessential, depending if the body can manufacture them at a rate sufficient to meet the body’s needs. I believed that this was of particular importance for athletes, undergoing strenuous physical activity that may exceed their body’s ability to produce certain amino acids. As with most innovative ideas, it takes time for the body of scientific evidence to accumulate and then to convince other experts. I am glad to report that in the recent Institute of Medicine’s Dietary Reference Report on protein, they introduced a new classification of amino acids called conditionally indispensable, as shown in the above table. This acknowledges that some amino acids that the body can make, are needed in the diet too, as the body might not be able to make enough of them. Keep in mind that the Dietary Reference report is primarily for the general population. So, even at non-athletic levels of activity, the list of conditionally indispensable amino acids has grown to 6. From this progression in amino acid research and development, it is easy to acknowledge how ingesting specialty protein and amino acid products for athletes has a scientific basis and importance for promoting health and performance. Another important amino acid nutrition concept I have been a practitioner of, is designing nutrition programs and sports nutrition products that enable fortification of certain amino acids or groups of amino acids to maintain the higher demands of an athlete’s protein building, or stimulate the body’s production of certain hormonal and metabolite substances. For example, providing the body with extra branched-chain amino acids, which are essential (indispensable) amino acids, but get used for energy at a higher rate by athletes, will help to offset the amounts used for energy. This way adequate branchedchain amino acids will be available for growth. Then there are the amino acids that help to support and promote peptide hormone production growth hormone, insulin and insulin-like growth factors. One of the recent uses of certain amino acids is for boosting the production of nitric oxide, important in blood circulation and other functions. However, please note that while the following information is comprehensive, many of the amino acids also have many disease uses that are not Part One Page 1 - 48 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

included. These uses are mainly in the treatment of clinical and metabolic disorders, which are beyond the scope of this book.

Proteins/Amino Acids And Energy In addition to the functions discussed above, protein-the same as fat and carbohydratescan also be used for energy, but this occurs in a minor role. Under conditions of severe calorie restriction and starvation, the body releases amino acids from muscle tissue for use as energy or in energy cycles. In a well fed state, athletes use some amino acids for energy at a higher rate during exercise and even at rest. This catabolism (breakdown) of protein occurs during exercise-especially during intensive workouts, in particular power exercises and prolonged endurance activities-or when the body runs out of carbohydrates from the diet or glycogen from its muscle and liver stores. Even though the body can depend on the fat that it has stored, it still may use some muscle protein, unless it is fed protein as food. When dietary circumstances cause the body to use amino acids as a source of energy, it cannot also use these amino acids for building muscle tissue or for performing their other metabolic functions. This is why a proper daily protein intake is essential for the athlete. Even if you do consume a proper diet, your body will still use certain amino acids as fuel during grueling exercise bouts. The muscles use the branched-chain amino acids (BCAA’s)-isoleucine, leucine, and valine-to supply a limited amount of energy during strenuous exercise. However, research has shown that although the body can utilize all three BCAA’s for energy during exercise, it uses leucine the most. As demonstrated by studies, a trained person's muscles use leucine even while that person is at rest. This disproportionate use of leucine, as well as of the other BCAA’s, affects the body's overall use of amino acids for growth. Here, the BCAA’s, especially leucine, are limiting nutrientsthat is, nutrients that, through their absence or presence, restrict the utilization of other nutrients or the functioning of the body. For optimum muscle growth, cellular growth, metabolism, and recovery, the body needs to receive the amino acids in the proper proportions. Merely eating amino-acid sources, such as meat and eggs, does not ensure that the amino acids they supply will be available for muscle growth or for the formation of other proteins. For example, suppose you consume a total of 100 grams of protein, with all the essential amino acids present in equal amounts. How will your body use these amino acids? To begin, it will utilize a considerable percentage of the leucine for energy for exercising muscles. This means that a reduced amount of leucine will be available for growth and repair purposes. When your leucine supply runs out, your protein formation will be negatively affected because leucine is an essential amino acid-that is, your body cannot manufacture it. The result is that perhaps only a portion of the original 100 grams of protein will be available for growth and repair.

RATING THE QUALITY OF PROTEINS Just as there are differences among the carbohydrates, the various proteins are not created equal. Some proteins have a more complete amino acid content than others and are therefore better suited for growth purposes. Scientists are currently using a number of Part One Page 1 - 49 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

methods to rate proteins. Most of these rating methods do not take into account the extra protein and the specific amino acids that are required by athletes, but they offer a baseline of information to work from. The following reviews some of the approaches and methods used by scientists to rate the quality of proteins for the general population.

Complete Versus Incomplete Proteins Due to the fact that adequate protein intake is essential for optimum growth in children, the World Health Organization (WHO) has conducted significant research on protein requirements. What the WHO researchers determined was that not all proteins supply the proper amounts and proportions of the amino acids necessary for adequate growth and development. Complete proteins are proteins that contain the essential or indispensable amino acids in amounts that are sufficient for the maintenance of normal growth rate and body weight. Indispensable amino acids that the body cannot make, and therefore requires a constant dietary supply of. Complete proteins are therefore said to have a high biological value. Most animal products have complete proteins. Incomplete proteins are usually deficient in one or more of the indispensable amino acids. This amino-acid deficiency creates a limiting-amino-acid condition, which adversely affects growth and development rates. Most plant proteins are incomplete. However, considering the dynamics of amino acids in the body, even high-quality proteins can be incomplete for athletes' needs. Furthermore, research indicates that the proper proportions of both the essential and nonessential amino acids are required for optimum growth and recovery. This means that athletes should consume protein supplements as well as high-quality food protein sources. Their dietary goals should be to eat a diet fortified with the amino acids that are used for energy and nongrowth functions and to ensure an adequate intake of the amino acids that are necessary for optimum performance, growth, and recovery.

Protein Efficiency Ratio Another method of determining the quality of protein is the protein efficiency ratio (PER). The PER is calculated using laboratory animals. It refers to the amount of weight gained versus the amount of protein ingested. For example, casein has a PER of 2.86, which means that 2.86 grams of body weight are gained for every 1 gram of casein eaten. One criticism of the PER system as a method for determining the quality of proteins for human consumption is that the values were derived through testing on animals, mostly rats. Does a rat's growth rate correlate to a human's? Perhaps not. Additionally, rats and other laboratory animals have a large amount of fur all over their bodies. This places an extra demand on amino acids such as methionine, which is used in fur growth and which is a common limiting amino acid in plant protein sources. Moreover, we now realize that athletes need higher amounts of certain amino acids, such as the BCAA’s. Therefore, the PER and other similar data should be used only as guidelines for determining minimum intakes of protein for nonathletes. Additionally, different proteins can be combined to improve the quality of the individual proteins. This is commonly done to increase the PER of plant proteins. Many powder supplements now include a mixture of two or more of the less-expensive lesser-quality proteins, such as soy and casein, which boost each other's Part One Page 1 - 50 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

PER’s when used together, instead of using one of the more-expensive high-quality protein sources, such as egg white. An interesting note is that the WHO recommended that newborns need complete dietary proteins containing about 37 percent of the protein's weight in indispensable amino acids. Adults, on the other hand, require complete dietary proteins containing just 15 percent of the protein's weight in indispensable amino acids. This demonstrates that the proportion of essential to nonessential amino acids is an important factor in growth and development. Athletes training to develop stronger and bigger muscles should try to maintain higher proportions of the essential amino acids in their diets.

Net Protein Utilization Net protein utilization (NPU) is a way of determining the digestibility of a protein. It does this by measuring the percentage of nitrogen that is absorbed from a protein's amino acids. Generally, the more nitrogen that is absorbed from a protein, the more digestible the protein is. The NPU of a protein is calculated by measuring an individual's intake of nitrogen from amino acids, comparing that amount to the amount of nitrogen that the individual excretes, and determining how much of the protein in question is needed to balance out the two amounts. If a protein has a low NPU, more of it is needed to achieve nitrogen balance. (For a more complete discussion of this, see "Nitrogen Balance," below.) Therefore, proteins with high NPU values, such as egg and milk proteins, are more desirable for athletes.

Biological Value While the methods used to determine a protein's biological value (BV) are not entirely standardized, the one that most scientists prefer is described as "the efficiency with which that protein furnishes the proper proportions and amounts of the indispensable amino acids needed for the synthesis of body proteins in humans or animals." The general formula for determining BV is as follows: BV = nitrogen retained divided by nitrogen absorbed x 100

The BV value does not indicate the ultimate fate of the amino acids in the body-that is, it does not show whether they will be used for muscle growth or enzyme synthesis. In addition, BV measurements vary for the same protein according to the animal species tested. For example, chickens have different amino-acid needs than do rats due to, among other things, the fact that chickens have feathers and rats have fur. Because feathers require different amino acids than fur does, the two animals need different proportions of the amino acids. Therefore, unless the BV for a particular type or brand of protein was determined specifically for humans, that protein may not offer any advantages to humans, even though it may have a high BV according to the testing done with animals.


Amino-Acid Score The previous protein quality methods and research made scientists realize that the primary magic of proteins is the amino acids that they contain, as well as digestibility of the proteins being digested. Due to the limitations of using biological testing to evaluate the protein quality of different foods, there was a movement toward developing a protein quality rating system based on the amino acid content, in relationship to what would be an ideal protein for humans. In the 1980’s the concept of using a system based on amino acid content began to emerge. This eventually evolved into the development of what has become know as the PDCAAS (Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score. The PDCAAS is based on creating a reference standard of the indispensable amino acid composition that would be considered ideal for humans. This method therefore considers the indispensable (essential) amino acid composition of a protein, the digestibility, and the ability of the protein source to supply the indispensable amino acids in adequate amounts required by humans. It is interesting to note that when a type of protein gets a low rating, it can have the rating improved with fortification of the low content amino acid(s). In fact, many plant proteins are limiting in one or more of the essential amino acids, thereby giving them low ratings on an individual food basis. However, when these plant protein sources are fortified with the essential amino acids, or combined with other plant proteins that have amino acid content profiles that fill-in each other’s amino acids gaps, the end result can be a higher quality plant protein source.

Protein Quality for Athletes For athletes, trying to ingest high quality proteins based on the ratings systems for the general population is mandatory. In addition to this, using protein and amino acid supplements to fortify the athletes diet has led to the development of a variety of products to help athletes meet their total protein needs, and also their amino acid specific needs. In addition to the basic protein needs that athletes have to maintain, the increased ingestion of certain amino acids to help further boost metabolic processes has become common place. In addition to the branched-chain amino acids, the extra ingestion of amino acids like arginine, glutamine, lysine, and glycine is practiced to enhance anabolic hormone production, immunity, boost protein synthesis, increase strength, improve body composition, better healing, and improve athletic performance. So as scientific discoveries continue, so will the evolution of the athletes diet and sports nutrition. Part Three contains information about putting today’s science into practice for creating the ultimate sports nutrition and supplement plans.

Nitrogen Balance Nitrogen balance is a topic that is frequently encountered when reading articles about athletes' protein and amino-acid requirements. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, amino acids also contain nitrogen as part of their molecular structure. This is a unique characteristic, one that we can use to our advantage, since it allows us to determine if our Part One Page 1 - 52 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

protein intake is adequate. Specifically, nitrogen balance refers to the condition in which the amount of dietary nitrogen taken in is equal to the amount of nitrogen excreted. A nitrogen balance that is positive indicates a possible net growth in body tissues. A nitrogen balance that is negative indicates an inadequate protein intake and the possibility that the body is cannibalizing its muscle tissue. An important nutritional goal for athletes is to aim for achieving and maintaining a positive nitrogen balance. Determining nitrogen balance is not an easy task, however. Because nitrogen from broken-down amino acids can be excreted in both the urine and the feces, and because some is lost as sweat, all these excretions must be collected and analyzed. In addition, all the nitrogen ingested from protein must be accurately measured. This is impractical for most individuals. However, some companies have now developed methods that enable athletes to get a rough idea of their nitrogen balance by taking measurements using just their urine and measuring their nitrogen ingested as protein. This approach makes assumptions about the relative amount of nitrogen lost in feces and sweat. Although you would have to spend time making calculations every day, you would probably find it interesting to learn what your nitrogen balance is to give you an approximate guideline for what your daily protein intake should be. You could then experiment with combining different food and supplement protein sources to tailor-make an efficient protein-intake program for yourself.

Designing Protein and Amino Acid Products The future for protein and amino-acid sports science lies in designing an amino-acid source that brings about nitrogen balance using a minimum amount of protein. This goal can be reached in several ways, and manufacturers have already developed pioneering ingredients and products that accomplish it. Creating an amino-acid profile that has all the essential amino acids with extra BCAA’s and the nonessential amino acids is a start. Products with a variety of amino-acid combinations are available. Among their benefits are growth-hormone (GH) stimulation, blood-ammonia detoxification, increased mental alertness, and mental relaxation. Absorption is also an important factor. Some protein manufacturers are inventing better ways to purify the protein from milk and other sources. The development of whey protein isolate is an example of improving the quality of a food source protein. Adding nonprotein ingredients can further improve utilization, as well as supply other growth factors, such as glucosamine for connective tissue, along with other cofactors, including the basics like vitamins and minerals. Explosive Growth Blend is a comprehensive product for bodybuilders and strength athletes that is designed based on this scientific sports nutrition product development approach. The diversity of amino-acid combinations possible and the benefits that they offer make protein and amino acids a very interesting field of research and a very important part of the athlete's nutrition program. The take home lesson about protein quality is that while some protein sources are naturally higher quality than others, by combining different types of proteins and/or adding specific amino acids, the quality of any protein can be improved. Part Three will review top quality protein sources. Part One Page 1 - 53 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Free-Form And Peptide-Bonded Amino Acids When referring to the amino-acid content of food or supplements, the terms free form and peptide bonded are used. In fact, the debate seems to be constant over which supplement form is better. Free-form amino acids are amino acids that are in their free state, or single. When protein is digested, some of its amino acids are eventually broken down into their free forms for transport and use in the body. Peptide-bonded amino acids are amino acids that are linked together. Di-peptides are two amino acids linked together, tri-peptides are three amino acids linked together, and polypeptides are four or more amino acids linked together. Interestingly, the intestines can absorb free-form, di-peptide, and tri-peptide amino acids but not polypeptides. Because the body has the capacity to digest protein, it can make use of whole-protein supplement sources. However, many supplements now contain free-form amino acids or combinations of free-form and peptide-bonded amino acids. Some also contain hydrolyzed proteins. Hydrolyzed proteins are already broken down, usually by enzymes, and are a mixture of free-form, di-peptide, and tri-peptide amino acids. Many people consider them better than nonhydrolyzed proteins because their partial digestion possibly makes them more easily absorbed by the body. The use of free-form amino acids is still common in clinical applications when intravenous solutions are used to supply amino acids directly into the bloodstream. Free-form amino acids can also be used to fortify food proteins. Taking the BCAA’s with meals can be useful for compensating for the amino acids already used for energy. Additionally, when you just want to take extra amounts of one or several amino acids, a free-form amino-acid formulation makes perfect sense. Free form amino acids are also sometimes added to protein products to selectively increase the amount of specific amino acids. Another reason why a mixture of free-form and peptide-bonded amino acids is better than free-form amino acids alone is that the intestines can better absorb mixtures for transport into the bloodstream. While it might seem logical that free-form amino acids could be absorbed more quickly, the upper part of the small intestine is better able to absorb amino acids in twos and threes. If you choose to up your protein intake, you should use whole proteins or hydrolyzed proteins from foods and supplements as your primary sources of protein.

DIGESTION OF PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS The mechanical digestion of protein begins in the mouth during chewing. In the stomach, the enzyme pepsin joins in, breaking down the protein into shorter peptides. The partially digested protein then passes into the intestines, where the free-form, di-peptide, and tripeptide amino acids are absorbed, beginning immediately. Enzymes continue to digest any polypeptides as they travel down the intestines. Once the free-form, di-peptide, and tri-peptide amino acids enter the bloodstream, they are transported to the liver, where a few things may happen to them. They may be converted into other amino acids; they may be used to make other proteins; they may be Part One Page 1 - 54 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

further broken down and either used for energy or excreted; or they may be placed into circulation and continue on to the rest of the body. Proteins empty from the stomach in two to three, or even more hours, depending on how much fat is present and how much food was consumed. This means that you should keep the protein content of precompetition meals on the low side, fat too, to enable your digestive system to clear of meal, and to pass nutrients into your bloodstream and cells before you begin your athletic event. More about meal composition and timing will be reviewed in Part Two, in addition to protein sources, such as whey, casein, soy, etc.

AMINO ACID REVIEW The following provides an overview of the primary amino acids of nutritional and biological importance. This includes the indispensable, conditionally dispensable, and dispensable amino acids. When applicable, the athletic performance significance is noted. While most of these amino acids have well established functions and importance based on historical use and over a hundred years of research, there is always new functions of amino acids being discovered, especially for athletic performance. Therefore some of the amino acid entries include some highlights of recent research discoveries relating to athletic performance, as well as reviewing the well established, time-tested functions. When reviewing the functions of amino acids, most amino acids have multiple functions and multiple benefits to health and athletic performance. Some amino acids are just part of proteins, others function in the body as biochemical intermediates or precursors of other amino acids or substances, then there are some amino acids that can function in the body as part of proteins, as metabolic intermediates, or directly in their intact form. Whatever the functionality of these amino acids may be, it will be easy to appreciate their use in sports nutrition products; ranging from single amino acid products, to multiple amino acid products, to a variety of multiple ingredient sports nutrition products that use amino acids is different ways to create comprehensive and balanced sports nutrition products for specific uses.

Alanine & Beta-Alanine Alanine is a dispensable amino acid found in high concentrations in most muscle tissue and is grouped with the dispensable amino acids because it can be manufactured by the body. Alanine is involved in an important biochemical process that occurs during exercisethe glucose-alanine cycle. In the muscles, glycogen stores are broken down to glucose and then to a three-carbon-atom molecule called pyruvate. Some of the pyruvate is used directly for energy by the muscles. Some of it, however, is converted to alanine, which is transported through the bloodstream to the liver, where it is converted once again into glucose. The glucose is then transported back to a muscle and again used for energy. The glucose-alanine cycle serves to conserve energy in the form of glycogen. Sports physiologists postulate that this helps maintain the glucose level during prolonged exercise. In this way, supplementing with L-alanine may be useful in a similar way to supplementing with the BCAA’s -the supplemental L-alanine may help to spare muscle tissue, as well as liver glycogen. However, research studies exploring the exact dosages Part One Page 1 - 55 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

and benefits of supplemental alanine need to be conducted on athletes to clearly confirm athletic performance benefits. In the general population dietary intake of alanine is reported to be approximately a mean of 3.6 grams per day, to a high of 8.5 grams per day. Beta-alanine is a relatively new comer in sports supplements, it differs in molecular configuration from the conventional alanine molecule. Attention was directed toward betaalanine when it was found that taking beta-alanine supplements can increase the body’s supply of carnosine. Carnosine is found occurring in skeletal muscles and other tissues of animals including humans. So, carnosine is present in the diet. Carnosine is synthesized in the body from beta-alanine and L-histidine. Carnosine is reported to have a few biological functions including antioxidant activity, activation of myosin ATPase activity, enhance copper update, and of particular interest to athletes, buffering the pH of exercising muscle. Research by R.C. Harris and coworkers published in 2006 observed an increase in muscle carnosine from a few weeks of dietary supplementation of betaalanine. Regarding athletic performance effectiveness from dietary supplementation of betaalanine, scientific evidence is beginning to be reported. For example, C. A. Hill and coworkers reported that 4 to 10 weeks of Beta-alanine supplement use increased carnosine levels and increased total work done in exercise tests using males who undertook a cycle capacity test. The Beta-alanine taking group increased total work done by 13% at 4 weeks, compared to the placebo group, then an additional 3.2% increase was observed at 10 weeks, a total of 15.2% increase. Another group of researchers, J. R. Stout and coworkers, reported that 28 days of Beta-alanine supplementation improved submaximal cycle ergometry performance and time-to-exhaustion in young women. This was attributed to an increased buffering capacity due to elevated muscle carnosine concentrations. It is important to note that beta-alanine is different than creatine, and some articles have mistakenly reported beta-alanine as being the next creatine. Metabolically, creatine functions differently than beta-alanine. Additionally, creatine has hundreds of scientific studies backing its effectiveness, while the research indicated benefits of beta-alanine are in the early stage. Keeping these differences in mind, some research was aimed at determining what effects would occur by combining creatine and beta-alanine. One research study examined the effects of 28 days of beta-alanine, creatine, and beta-alanine & creatine supplementation compared to a placebo group. The researchers wanted to measure the effects of the supplements of the onset of neuromuscular fatigue in untrained men. After 28 days the Beta-alanine and Beta-alanine & creatine taking groups exhibited a delay of neuromuscular fatigue using a continuous incremental cycle ergometry test. Keeping in mind that other research reported that creatine loading may delay the onset of fatigue. Another research study examined the effects of creatine and beta-alanine supplementation on performance and endocrine responses in strength athletes, football players. The football players followed a 10 week resistance training program. They were Part One Page 1 - 56 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

divided into groups who ingested either creatine, creatine & beta-alanine, or a placebo. Significant changes in lean body mass were measured in the group of football players taking creatine & beta-alanine together, football players taking either creatine or creatine & beta-alanine together experience significant increase in strength performance, and football players taking just creatine also experience an increase in testosterone levels. This initial research is encouraging for the use of beta-alanine supplements by strength and endurance athletes as part of a total sports supplement program. While more studies are needed to determine the dosages and duration of use, dosages used in the studies ranged from a few to several grams per day.

Arginine (GH, IGF, Nitric Oxide stimulation and more) Arginine is a conditionally indispensable amino acid that influences several metabolic factors that are important to athletes. Arginine is most popular for its role in stimulating the release of human GH (somatotropin) and related Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGF) levels. Several studies have measured the ability of supplemental L-arginine, both alone and in combination with other amino acids, to increase the GH level in athletic and non-athletic individuals. Potential benefits of an increased GH level include reduction in body fat, improved healing and recovery, and increased muscle growth rate and muscle mass. Other major benefits of arginine supplementation include improving immune system function; protein synthesis; nitrogen detoxification (reducing ammonia levels/ ammonia removal, and increasing the production); creatine synthesis; and levels of nitric oxide (NO). Arginine dosages used in research studies vary considerably; a gram, a few grams, several grams, or even higher daily dosage amounts. Based on the results of numerous arginine studies, a variety of favorable responses is reported, ranging from minor responses to larger significant improvements in the attributes being measured. This would be expected when you consider that the human body can manufacture arginine, but as it is a conditionally indispensable amino acid, this indicates that from time to time people may not be able to produce enough of it. For the athlete, especially strength athletes, supplemental arginine is considered to be essential. Some of the types of the arginine containing molecules used in supplements, include: Arginine HCl, Arginine AKG, Arginine-2-pyrrolidone-5-carboxylate. The primary purpose of these arginine containing molecules is to increase the body’s levels of arginine. Arginine Part One Page 1 - 57 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

has also been combined with other amino acids in research studies, such as lysine, glycine, ornithine, and aspartate, and is found naturally occurring with all of the other amino acids. In addition to the other benefits reported from consuming arginine supplements, the nitric oxide (NO) boosting effects are among the most recent addition of interest to certain athletes. It is first interesting to note that previous to the athletic performance interest, when researchers discovered that arginine supplements can stimulate NO production, they immediately began testing it for treating erectile dysfunction. Nitric oxide in the blood stream causes relaxation of the vascular tissues and vasodilatation, thereby promoting improved blood flow. Some cases of erectile dysfunction are thought to be related to poor NO production. As NO is made from arginine, researchers wanted to evaluate if male subjects with erectile dysfunction would show improvements from taking arginine supplementation. After taking 2,800 milligrams of arginine a day for a 2 week period, 6 of 15 subjects reported an improvement of erection function from taking the arginine supplements. The responders were the younger males of the experimental group, age rage 25 to 43. Other researchers have also evaluated arginine supplement taking for improvement in patients with cardiovascular disorders with promising results. From an athletes perspective, maintaining good blood flow is essential for athletic performance and recovery. The NO stimulating action of arginine supplements, as it relates to increasing athletic performance is a new area of research. A recent study in 2006 revealed that taking an arginine supplement, in the form of Arginine AKG, daily for 8 weeks increased blood levels of arginine. At the end of the study period it was determined that the strength training athletes significantly increased their 1RM bench press and peak power performance. This is consistent with previous studies of strength athletes ingesting arginine containing supplements. Based on the numerous research studies, supplemental intake of arginine can benefit athletes because of its ability to detoxify nitrogenous wastes, increase GH & IGFs, increase nitric oxide, increase creatine production, improve immune system function, and improve the rate of healing. L-arginine supplementation can especially help athletes involved in strenuous sports or training. In addition to athletics, arginine supplementation may have benefits for people with diabetes, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome. Existing research reports measurable responses from daily arginine supplement dosages ranging from 1,000 to 5,000 milligrams for time periods up to 4 months. Higher amounts may be required based on individual needs. Note that in the majority of studies, arginine supplements were taken during the day, and improvements in GH, IGF and NO were observed during the day, as well as also being reported in the evenings. In the general population dietary intake of arginine is reported to be approximately a mean of 4.2 grams per day, to a high of 10.1 grams per day.


Asparagine Asparagine is a dispensable amino acid that is manufactured in the body from aspartic acid. Asparagine appears to be involved in the proper functioning of the central nervous system because it helps prevent both extreme nervousness and extreme calmness. Lasparagine supplementation by athletes has not yet been evaluated. Asparagine can be found occurring naturally in foods and supplements containing whole protein ingredients. In the general population dietary intake of asparagine is reported to be approximately 7.4 g/100 g of dietary protein consumed.

Aspartic Acid Aspartic acid, also referred to as L-aspartic acid or L-aspartate, is a dispensable amino acid that has been shown to help reduce the blood-ammonia level after exercise. Aspartic acid occurs naturally in plants and animals and is found in the diet. Also, the artificial sweetener aspartame contains aspartic acid. Aspartic acid is an amino acid that is typically present in products containing whole proteins, such as whey protein, but occurs in all protein containing foods, both animal and plant origin. Aspartic acid is metabolized from glutamic acid in the body. It is involved in the urea cycle and in the Krebs cycle. In the Krebs cycle, energy is released from glucose, fatty-acid, or protein molecules and used to form adenosine-triphosphate (ATP) molecules, which are the form of energy that the body can utilize. The exact benefits of single ingredient aspartic acid supplement use for well conditioned athletes in active training have not been proven based on the research reviewed. In the general population dietary intake of aspartic acid is reported to be approximately a mean of 6.5 grams per day, to a high of 15.4 grams per day.

Branched-Chain Amino Acids (Leucine, Isoleucine and Valine) The branched-chain amino acids (BCAA’s) are the indispensable amino acids isoleucine, leucine, and valine. Together, these three amino acids make up about 35 percent of the amino-acid content of muscle tissue. Each of these amino acids is also used by the body for energy. Studies confirm that under conditions of stress, injury, or exercise, the body uses a disproportionately high amount of the BCAA’s to maintain nitrogen balance. Studies also indicate that leucine is used at a rate two or more times greater than those of isoleucine and valine. Many amino-acid formulations on the market therefore have about twice as much leucine as the other two BCAA’s. Part One Page 1 - 59 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

The BCAA’s have a history of use starting in medical settings with patients in stressed states, such as burn victims, surgical and trauma patients, and starvation. These patients were given BCAA’s to stimulate their protein synthesis and nitrogen balance. Then, during the 1980’s, sports-nutrition companies picked up on these clinical practices and sponsored research using animals and athletes that revealed that the BCAA’s are used for energy, especially by exercising skeletal muscle. The researchers hypothesized that taking supplemental BCAA’s would compensate for the BCAA’s used for energy, promote muscle growth, and restore nitrogen balance. Additionally, leucine was found to have other growth-related metabolic effects including releasing GH and insulin, and a role in controlling protein production. Eventually, research began to examine the benefits that taking in supplemental amounts of the BCAA’s would have on athletic performance, body composition and health. Some of the exercise related benefits observed in research studies include: Increase exercise endurance Reduction of exercise related fatigue Improve mental performance Increase energy levels Stimulate protein synthesis Improve nitrogen balance Improve immune system function Increase lean body mass Increase strength The amounts of the BCAA’s supplied vary with the different products available. Some products contain just the BCAA’s, others have the BCAA’s as well as a few additional ingredients, and still others contain the full spectrum of amino acids with extra amounts of the BCAA’s. Athletes, especially bodybuilders, report muscle growth and strength benefits from effective BCAA formulations. However, the BCAA’s are not just for bodybuilders and power athletes. Endurance athletes can also benefit from BCAA supplementation. Research has determined that endurance athletes use over 50 percent of their total daily leucine for energy purposes. This means that endurance athletes might need to eat several times the normally recommended amount of protein to maintain nitrogen balance. An alternative method these athletes can use is to fortify their base diet of food proteins with supplement BCAA’s. Leucine, a Key BCAA It is important to note that in addition to being a key BCAA use for energy production, the most recent research has shown that leucine plays a major role in protein synthesis. In addition to taking BCAA supplements in capsules, powdered protein products contain extra leucine, in addition to other key amino acids of athletic importance. The special report at the end of this chapter reviews this important research and product development trend.


In the general population dietary intake of the BCAA’s is reported to be approximately 6.1 grams per day for leucine, to a high of 14.1 grams per day; 3.6 grams per day for isoleucine, to a high of 8.2 grams per day; and 4 grams per day for valine, to a high of 9.1 grams per day. Based on a recent scientific conference about BCAA’s, it was determined that BCAA’s are very safe. A wide range of BCAA supplement intake has been experimented with. The exact amount of BCAA will depend on your level of activity, protein intake, and other protein/amino acid supplements you are taking. In addition to the BCAA product manufacture’s instructions you may be using, here are some additional guidelines. In general, daily intake of between 10 to 30 grams of BCAA’s, which are high in leucine, has been reported to be safe and effective. BCAA’s are typically ingested in divided dosages taken 2 or more times a day. This way, your body will be supplied a constant supply of BCAA’s, in particular leucine, which plays a important role in protein synthesis control. One approach to getting more BCAA’s into your diet is to include a product that is high in BCAA content, before or with meals. This can include protein powders fortified with BCAA’s, products that just contain BCAA’s, or high quality multi-ingredient specialty products like Explosive Growth Blend that contain extra BCAA’s, protein, other amino acids, and a variety of additional clinically proven muscle building and fat metabolizing ingredients. This will ensure that you have enough of these vital essential amino acids during meal time, to maximize protein synthesis, growth and recovery of muscle. Another approach for taking BCAA supplements is before and after exercise. Supplemental amounts of the BCAA’s could range from 1,500 to 6,000 milligrams for Lleucine and 1,000 to 3,000 milligrams each for L-isoleucine and L-valine. Divide the dosage between two servings a day. Depending on your rate of stomach emptying, experiment with taking a serving about sixty to thirty minutes before exercising and another serving after exercising on training days, or along with meals on nontraining days, to fortify the dietary proteins. The special overview article at the end of the chapter reviews some of the research related to protein and BCAA’s. In addition to this, the following provides two short research summaries of interest to both endurance and strength athletes.


Citrulline Citrulline is a dispensable amino acid and has a role in the urea cycle for the removal of ammonia from the blood. The benefits of citrulline supplementation have not been clearly established at this time, but some research reports preliminary observations of citrulline containing supplements used in experimental settings increasing nitric oxide levels. Based on these reports some nitric oxide boosting supplements are including citrulline as an ingredient. However, the exact benefits for improving athletic performance need to be confirmed with research using athletes.

Cysteine Cysteine is a conditionally dispensable sulfur-bearing amino acid. The body manufactures it from methionine and serine. Cysteine is important in the production of protein, hair, skin, connective tissues, connective tissue growth factor, glutathione, taurine, and insulin. Besides its major role as a component of proteins, it functions as a detoxifying agent, helping rid the body’s dangerous chemicals. In addition, it helps form glutathione, which is an important antioxidant and detoxifying agent. Cysteine also plays a role in energy production. Like other amino acids, it can be converted to glucose and either used for energy or stored as glycogen. As it is naturally occurring, L-cysteine is a common ingredient found in protein and multi-amino acid formulas. Some supplements also contain the N-acetyl-L-cysteine form. In the general population dietary intake of cysteine is reported to be approximately 1 gram per day, to a high of 2.2 grams per day.

Cystine Cystine is another conditionally dispensable sulfur-bearing amino acid related to cysteine as it is made from two molecules of cysteine, and typically considered together for nutritional evaluation purposes. Cystine plays a vital role in helping many protein molecules hold their shape as they are carried around the body. It is generally poorly absorbed when taken in supplemental form and is more effectively derived by formation from cysteine. The same as cysteine, cystine is important in the formation of hair and skin. It is also a detoxifying agent. The athletic benefits of supplementation with free-form cystine have not yet been evaluated.

Glutamic Acid Glutamic acid, also known as glutamate, is a dispensable amino acid occurring in proteins. It acts as an intermediary in the Krebs cycle and is therefore important for the proper metabolism of carbohydrates. It is also involved in the removal of ammonia from Part One Page 1 - 62 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

the muscles. It does this by combining with the ammonia to form glutamine. Glutamic acid is also needed for the production of energy from the BCAA’s. In fact, some research has indicated that the amount of energy produced from the BCAA’s may depend upon the supply of glutamic acid that is available. Fortunately glutamic acid is plentiful in the diet and easily made by the body. Similar to glucose, glutamic acid can pass readily through the blood-brain barrier, a semi permeable membrane that keeps the blood that is circulating in the brain away from the tissue fluids surrounding the brain cells. Glutamic acid is typically present in full profile amino acids products like protein powders and other protein containing products. In the general population dietary intake of glutamic acid is reported to be approximately a mean of 15 grams per day, to a high of 33.7 grams per day.

Glutamine Glutamine is a conditionally dispensable amino acid found in dietary proteins and made by the body. Glutamine is generally one of the most plentiful amino acids present in the body. However, researchers observed in medical settings from people who were under stress from injury or disease that their glutamine levels were decreased below normal levels. Eventually doctors determined that this decrease in glutamine among stressed patients was related to poor immune system function and reduced protein synthesis. When patients were provided with supplemental amounts of glutamine, their immune system function was improved and their nitrogen balance was restored, indicating anabolic effects. Glutamine is also reported to have anti-catabolic effects, reduce cortisol levels, improve wound healing, act as an energy source in certain cells, elevate growth hormone levels, stimulate glycogen synthesis, combat overtraining syndrome, promote protein synthesis (anabolic effects), support the blood buffering system, and promote gastrointestinal tract health. From this list of the primary benefits of using glutamine supplements in research studies it is easy to understand why use by athletes eventually caught on. Like the BCAA’s, glutamine got started in medical settings. Eventually the ability of glutamine to restore immune system function attracted attention by the athletic community. Researchers in the mid 1990’s from Oxford University, UK, are credited with being among the first to hypothesize that amino-acid imbalances may result from strenuous exercise and, as a consequence, induce a number of phenomena that are collectively referred to as the "overtraining syndrome." The initial athlete glutamine supplement research was conducted among long distance athletes, like marathon runners, who were known to have lower glutamine levels after their races, suppressed immune system function, and subsequently were thought to be at higher risk for a higher rate of infections. When athletes were given 5 grams of glutamine supplement after running a marathon, the researchers observed a reduced number of infections among the athletes taking glutamine during the 7 days following exercise. In other similar research a similar result was observed, where the athletes taking glutamine supplements experienced a reduced rate of infection, compared to athletes not taking glutamine. Part One Page 1 - 63 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

While these benefits are of importance for all athletes, in addition to the endurance athletes tested, using glutamine supplements has become very common among strength athletes, in particular bodybuilders. This common use has been promoted from glutamine’s reported benefits in boosting protein synthesis, having anti-catabolic effects, blood buffering effects, growth hormone boosting, and other muscle building related benefits, in addition to use based on case studies. Similar to the other amino acids, glutamine products range from single ingredient to multiingredient mixtures. In research studies, glutamine has been shown to be effective in dosage ranges as low as 2 to 5 grams per day. Athletes typically consume supplemental amounts of glutamine in the 5 to 10 gram a day range. With some athletes periodically ingesting even higher daily amounts of glutamine, such as bodybuilders. Glutamine is best taken in dividing the total daily dosage into 2 to 3 smaller dosages during the day, to help maintain adequate levels.

Glycine Glycine is a conditionally dispensable amino acid that is synthesized from serine, with folate acting as a coenzyme (enzyme cofactor). Glycine gets its name from the Greek word meaning "sweet." It is a sweet-tasting substance. Glycine is an important precursor of many substances in the body, including protein, DNA, phospholipids, collagen, and creatine. It is also a precursor in the release of energy and has been shown to increase growth hormone levels. Glycine is found in high amounts in connective tissues; collagen and gelatin. Additionally, glycine is used by the liver in the elimination of toxic substances and in the formation of bile salts; exhibiting hepatoprotective effects. It is necessary for the proper functioning of the central nervous system and is an inhibitory neurotransmitter. During rapid growth, the body's demand for glycine increases. Studies have confirmed that the use of glycine supplements causes an increase in growth hormone. Some studies have also noted that glycine ingestion causes an increase in strength, possibly due in part to its elevation of the GH level or increased collagen synthesis. Supplemental glycine has additionally been shown to increase body creatine levels. The use of supplemental glycine for increasing athletic performance is still in the early stages of development. However, short-term use of 1 to 6 grams per day, in divided Part One Page 1 - 64 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

dosages may be beneficial for power athletes and bodybuilders training for increased strength and muscle mass, as well as connective tissue repair and maintenance. Like with all free-form amino acids, use glycine supplements with caution. In full profile amino acid products, glycine is typically contained in protein supplements and supplements that contain hydrolyzed collagen and gelatin. In the general population dietary intake of alanine is reported to be approximately a mean of 3.2 grams per day, to a high of 7.8 grams per day.

Histidine Histidine is an indispensable amino acid, important in the growth and repair of human tissue. Histidine is also important in the formation and maintenance of hemoglobin, the oxygen transport protein in red blood cells. In addition, histidine is used in the body to make histamine and carnosine (as previously reviewed in the Alanine entry). Carnosine is chemically beta-alanyl-L-histidine. The benefits of prolonged use of supplemental free-form histidine by athletes has not been established in terms of improved athletic performance, beyond histidine’s role as a required amino acid to promote growth and health. Histidine is typically found in all proteins and you will see it listed on protein supplement labels along with the other common amino acids. The mean dietary intake is 2.2 grams per day with the highest intake about 5.2 grams per day in the general population.

Isoleucine Isoleucine is an indispensable acid that, along with leucine and valine, is one of the BCAA’s. Isoleucine is found in proteins and is needed for the formation of hemoglobin. It is involved in the regulation of blood sugar and is metabolized for energy in muscle tissue during exercise. Supplemental intake of L-isoleucine, along with the other BCAA’s, has been shown to help spare muscle tissue, maintain nitrogen balance, and promote muscle growth and healing. For dosage recommendations, refer to “The Branched-Chain Amino Acids” heading.

Leucine Leucine is an indispensable amino acid found in proteins that is, like the other BCAA’s, important in energy production during exercise. For many years, the three BCAA’s were assumed to contribute equally to energy. Recent studies, however, have shown that both exercising and resting muscle tissue uses far more leucine for energy than either of the other two BCAA’s. According to estimates, over 50% percent of dietary leucine may be Part One Page 1 - 65 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

used for energy in exercising muscles. This makes leucine a very limiting amino acid if supplemental amounts are not taken to compensate for the loss. Leucine may also stimulate the release of insulin, which increases protein synthesis and inhibits protein breakdown. The most recent new function attributed to leucine is in controlling protein synthesis, via the mTOR pathway. Review the special article at the end of this chapter for more details about this. For supplemental L-leucine dosage recommendations, refer to "The Branched-Chain Amino Acids" heading.

Lysine Lysine is an indispensable amino acid that is found in large quantities in muscle tissue. It is needed for proper growth and bone development, and it aids in calcium absorption. Lysine has the ability to enhance immune system function and is reported to be useful for fighting cold sores and herpes viruses. It is required for the formation of collagen, enzymes, antibodies, and other compounds. Together with methionine, iron, and vitamins B1, B6, and C, it helps form carnitine, a compound that the body needs in the production of energy from fatty acids. Mean dietary intake of lysine is 5.3 grams per day and the highest intake is about 12.6 grams per day in the general population. Lysine deficiency can limit protein synthesis and the growth and repair of tissues, in particular the connective tissues. Lysine has been shown to increase growth hormone levels, usually in association with other amino acids, like arginine. Lysine should be part of all full-spectrum amino-acid supplements and in protein powders. Beyond its importance as an indispensable amino acid for good nutrition and health, the effects of the use of supplemental free-form L-lysine by athletes have not yet been determined for measures in significant training or performance.


Methionine Methionine is an indispensable sulfur-bearing amino acid. It is involved in transmethylation, a metabolic process that is vital to the manufacture of several compounds, is involved in the synthesis of creatine, and important in muscle performance. In transmethylation, an amino acid donates a methyl group to another compound. These methyl donors often function as intermediaries in many biochemical processes. Methionine is the major methyl donor in the body. Mean dietary intake of methionine is 1.8 grams per day, with the highest intake about 4.1 grams per day in the general population. Methionine is a limiting amino acid in many proteins, especially in plant proteins. It functions in the removal of metabolic waste products from the liver and assists in the breakdown of fat and the prevention of fatty buildup in the liver and arteries. It is used to make choline, which makes taking supplemental choline a mandatory practice for athletes to spare methionine for its other functions. Methionine is commonly added to mealreplacement drinks and other nutrient beverages containing soy protein because it increases the quality of the protein.

Ornithine Ornithine is a dispensable amino acid that does not occur in proteins. Ornithine's primary role in the body is in the urea cycle, which makes it important in the removal of ammonia. It is formed from arginine in the urea cycle. Like arginine, ornithine has been proven to be an effective GH releaser. It is this role that has brought it widespread recognition among athletes in recent years. Supplementation with L-ornithine in various dosages, ranging from 2,000 to 4,000 milligrams per day, has been studied. Research using L-ornithine with other amino acids has also been conducted. Recently, a study using 1,000 milligrams of L-ornithine and 1,000 milligrams of L-arginine per day along with five weeks of weight training showed a decrease in body fat and an increase in muscle mass. However, indications are that the effective dose of L-ornithine may be higher. Another study examining the effects of bodybuilders taking just ornithine supplements reported an increase in growth hormone levels. More research needs to be conducted to determine the exact dosage, as well as the specific benefits. Ornithine containing supplements may be particularly beneficial for bodybuilders, powerlifters, sprinters and other strength athletes. Ornithine is also an important component of ornithine alphaketoglutarate, a compound that is gaining popularity among bodybuilders and power athletes. Ornithine Part One Page 1 - 67 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Alphaketoglutarate (OKG). OKG is used in clinical nutrition based primarily on its anabolic action. Studies report the use of OKG in Europe for a number of years -- as far back as the early seventies -- mainly for the treatment of burn victims, trauma, post-surgical healing, and cases of severe malnutrition. OKG consists of two ornithine molecules and one alphaketoglutarate molecule. OKG is a stimulus for a variety of metabolic functions. It acts as an ammonia scavenger; improves nitrogen balance; increases glutamine pool in muscle tissue, thereby reducing muscle break down (catabolism); elevates growth hormone levels; increases protein synthesis; increases insulin secretion; plays a role in glutamine synthesis; and provides an anti-catabolic effect. OKG is used in multi-ingredient formulas from 1 gram to a few grams; and in single ingredient formulas at higher dosages, typically a few grams or more, 2 times a day.

Phenylalanine Phenylalanine is an indispensable amino acid and a precursor of the nonessential amino acid tyrosine. Ingestion of supplemental tyrosine therefore spares phenylalanine for its other functions. Mean dietary intake is 3.4 grams per day, with the highest intake about 7.7 grams per day. Phenylalanine has many functions in the body and is a precursor of several important metabolites, such as the skin pigment melanin, and several catecholamine neurotransmitters, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. The catecholamines are important in memory and learning, locomotion, sex drive, tissue growth and repair, immune-system functioning, and appetite control. Phenylalanine suppresses appetite by increasing the brain's production of norepinephrine and cholecystokinin (CCK). CCK is the hormone that is thought to be responsible for sending out the "I am full" message. These functions of phenylalanine can be of tremendous value to athletes, especially those who need to stimulate mental alertness or who need to lose weight or maintain low levels of body fat. DL-phenylalanine (DLPA) has been shown to be useful in combating pain. This can be beneficial for athletes who suffer from acute or chronic pain from injury. Dosages of 500 to 1,500 milligrams of DLPA per day have been reported to be effective for this purpose. The theorized mechanism is that DLPA "protects" the endorphins in the body from destruction, thereby allowing them to distribute their morphine like pain relief. Endorphins are a thousand times more powerful than morphine. Remember, however, that more is not Part One Page 1 - 68 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

always better. If you experience just partial pain relief, contact your health-care practitioner to evaluate your condition. Do not take mega doses of DLPA, especially without medical supervision. Dosages of supplemental L-phenylalanine ranging from 100 to 500 milligrams, taken once to 3 times a day, have been reported to produce no side effects. However, note that higher dosages have been reported to cause headaches in some people. Cofactors that appear to be necessary in phenylalanine metabolism include vitamin B3, vitamin B6, vitamin C, copper, and iron. A word of caution: The artificial sweetener aspartame is a di-peptide made up of phenylalanine and aspartic acid. Soft drinks containing aspartame carry warnings that are aimed at people with phenylketonuria (PKU), a disease in which phenylalanine is not properly metabolized and can be very damaging. People with phenylketonuria should not take any supplemental L- or DL-phenylalanine. People who drink a lot of caffeine-containing beverages or take energy supplements with caffeine-containing herbs, such as guarana, may need more phenylalanine. Caffeine tends to cause some of the neurotransmitters that are made with phenylalanine to become depleted in the central nervous system. This is one of the reasons why people sometimes feel mentally fuzzy after drinking a lot of coffee. Taking supplemental L- or DLphenylalanine may help offset the depletion, or reduce your caffeine consumption.

Proline Proline is a conditionally indispensable amino acid. It occurs in high amounts in collagen tissue. It can be synthesized from and also converted to glutamic acid. Hydroxyproline, which is also abundant in collagen, is synthesized in the body from proline. Proline is important in the maintenance and healing of collagen tissues such as the skin, tendons, and cartilage. Proline and hydroxyproline are typically provided in supplements from hydrolyzed collagen or gelatin, which contain high amounts of these amino acids, in addition to other amino acids. Hydrolyzed collagen and gelatin have been used in studies and found to promote improved joint function, improved mobility and reduced pain and stiffness, in particular in knee joints. The mean dietary intake of proline is 5.2 grams per day, with highest intakes reported to be about 12 grams per day.


Serine Serine is a dispensable amino acid found in proteins and derived from glycine. Its metabolism leads to the formation of many important substances, such as choline and phospholipids, which are essential in the formation of some neurotransmitters and are used to stabilize membranes. It is part of an important phospholipid called phosphatidylserine found in cell membranes, and also reported to have anti-catabolic effects and important in brain and nervous system health and function. Serine is important in the metabolism of fat and the promotion of a healthy immune system. Serine is usually found occurring in supplements from whole proteins. The mean dietary intake of serine is 3.5 grams per day, with a highest reported intake of about 7.9 grams per day.

Taurine Taurine is a dispensable sulfur-bearing amino acid that plays a major role in brain tissue and in nervous-system functioning. It is involved in blood-pressure regulation and in the transportation of the electrolytes across cell membranes. It is found in the heart, muscles, central nervous system, and brain. Taurine is also found in the eye and may be important for maintaining good vision and eye functioning. Other reported functions of taurine include: bile acid function, detoxification of xenobiotics (foreign substances in the body), membrane stabilization, antioxidant activity, osmoregulation, cell proliferation, modulation of neuronal excitability, and intracellular and extracellular calcium regulation. A more recent suspected function of taurine is as a constituent of mitochondrial tRNA. Taurine is made in the body from cysteine and methionine, with vitamin B6 as a cofactor. Taurine is typically found in sports nutrition products and energy drinks due to its diverse and important functions to ensure adequate levels in strenuous training athletes.


Threonine Threonine is an indispensable amino acid found in proteins. It is an important component of collagen, tooth enamel, protein, and elastic tissue. It can also function as a lipotropic agent, a substance that prevents fatty buildup in the liver. Mean daily dietary intake of threonine is about 3 grams per day with a high intake of 7.1 grams per day. Supplemental threonine has a reported use in the treatment of depression in patients with low threonine levels. Studies still need to be undertaken to determine the exact benefits of taking extra threonine supplementation for athletes, besides the expected benefits associated with its essential functions in protein synthesis and other tissues.

Tryptophan Tryptophan is an indispensable amino acid necessary for the production of vitamin B3 and neurotransmitter serotonin. Taking supplemental vitamin B3 can help conserve tryptophan for its other functions. The mean daily intake of tryptophan is about 0.9 grams per day, with an upper intake of 2.1 grams per day in the general population. Supplemental tryptophan has been taken for years by millions of people for its pronounced calming effects, which include the promotion of sleep and the treatment of depression. Serotonin helps control the sleep cycle, causing a feeling of drowsiness. Research reported that taking supplemental trytophan was effective in correcting certain sleep disorders. Tryptophan has also been reported to increase the GH levels and was a popular ingredient in night-time GH releasing supplement products. Tryptophan is one of the least abundant amino acids in food, which makes it one of the limiting essential amino acids. Some foods that are high in tryptophan are cottage cheese, pork, wild game, duck, and avocado. Eating these foods along with vitamin B3 and the cofactors vitamin B6 and magnesium may help athletes derive some of the benefits that tryptophan offers. Tryptophan has been commercially used as a single form amino acid for many years. It has been used by doctors and self prescribed for treating depression, managing pain, and helping with sleep. In 1989, there was a sudden outbreak of a rare blood disorder observed in the United States. The national health department quickly linked development of the disorder to use of certain tryptophan supplements. As a result of this occurrence, the US Food and Drug Administration limited the use of tryptophan as an individual supplement and only allowed its use to fortify protein and other limited applications. The vast majority of supplement users were surprised, because based on decades of use, the rare blood disease was never before linked to tryptophan. Almost immediately during the investigation, health officials found that the tryptophan supplements used by people who developed the blood disease came from the same manufacturer in Japan. Upon further investigation, it was finally discovered that there was a contaminant in several batches of tryptophan and the contaminant was responsible for causing the blood disease, not the supplemental tryptophan. After a period of time, tryptophan products are beginning to appear on the market again. Part One Page 1 - 71 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Tryptophan is also found in many protein and amino acid products in the amino acid profile information section of the nutrition labels. Tryptophan, like many amino acids, is a naturally occurring essential amino acid found in all dietary proteins. In fact, you cannot live without it. As a result, many of the supplements you purchase indicate that the tryptophan content is from natural sources, not to be confused with the synthetic form of tryptophan. However, some companies have begun to sell single ingredient tryptophan supplements again.

Tyrosine Tyrosine is a conditionally indispensable amino acid that is made from the essential amino acid phenylalanine. Supplementation with L-tyrosine can have a sparing effect on phenylalanine, leaving phenylalanine available for functions not associated with tyrosine formation. Mean daily intake of tyrosine is reported to be about 2.8 grams a day, with high daily intake of 6.4 grams per day in the general population. Tyrosine plays many roles in the body. It is a precursor of the catecholamines dopamine and norepinephrine, regulates appetite, and aids in melanin skin pigment production. These functions are similar to the ones with which phenylalanine is associated as a precursor of tyrosine. However, tyrosine is believed to be better at stimulating these effects because it is one step closer as a precursor. An antidepressant effect and an increased sex drive in men have also been observed with tyrosine supplementation. Studies have not yet reported any improved athletic performance from ingesting tyrosine supplements under experimental conditions. A word of caution: tyrosine supplement use may trigger migraine headaches in some people when it is broken down into a product called tyramine.


Valine Valine is an indispensable amino acid and a member of the branched-chain amino acids. The same as the other BCAA’s, isoleucine and leucine, valine is an integral part of muscle tissue and may be used for energy by exercising muscles. It is involved in tissue repair, nitrogen balance, and muscle metabolism. For supplemental L-valine dosage recommendations, refer to "The Branched-Chain Amino Acids" heading. Refer to Part Three for more information about protein and amino acids, including protein intake based on sport specific bio-energetics and food sources.


ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS mTOR: Unlocking the Secret of Protein Synthesis My search for anabolic truth started over 3 decades ago. Like you, I was training hard and long hours to build muscle and strength, and wanted to do my nutrition right for maximum results. This was back in the days when attention was becoming more focused on anabolic steroids. But not wanting to turn to drugs to reach these goals, my focus was and still is on determining how the body works, then based on what the body needs, designing an exercise and nutrition plan that works best to get the body to respond in that direction. I always thought that turning on the power of the trillions of cells and thousands of biochemical pathways that make up the body was more involved then just taking a drug or two. Imagine what effects you can elicit in your body by making these trillions of cells and biochemical pathways work to achieve your athletic goals. This is what the science of athletic training nutrition is really about. This approach goes way beyond steroids, and is healthier for you too. During my search for anabolic truth, a few times each decade, major discoveries are made that reveal the marvelous inner workings of the human body. In the past few years such a major discovery has been made in providing vital insights to protein synthesis and muscle growth. While the details on this biochemical pathway are still being sorted out, one thing is certain, a key player in the regulation of protein synthesis is certain amino acids. When you think about it, this makes perfect sense, as amino acids are the building blocks of muscle and other biochemicals. If they are present in the body in adequate amounts, then the body’s mechanisms would be activated to build tissues. When amino acid intake is deficient, then it would follow that protein synthesis would suffer. The biochemical pathway I want to review with you in this article is called mTOR, which stands for mammalian target of rapamycin. How it got this name is not as interesting as what discovery it lead to concerning amino acids. There are many amino acids, all having different functions, most having multiple functions. Early in my research and product development efforts, the group of amino acids referred to as BCAA’s caught my special attention. Why, because early on it was realized that these BCAA’s could be used for energy as well as for anabolic processes. Logic would dictate that a nutrition plan which compensates for this non-anabolic use of BCAA’s would result in maintaining positive nitrogen balance, as well as increasing the rate of protein synthesis. The mTOR pathway discovery and other research has supported that this logic is correct. The reality being that amino acids are not only building blocks of proteins, but they are also involved in providing nutritional signals to activate translation initiation and protein synthesis. As an aside, this quick take home lesson supports the athletic eating approach of spreading out nutrient intake over several meals/snacks per day. Discovering mTOR As it turns out, this protein synthesis biochemical pathway was not discovered by exercise physiologists experimenting on making the best muscle building discovery. It was almost by accident that the mTOR discovery was made, at least as far as how it relates to its role in protein synthesis; research in the field of microbiology that lead to this important discovery. As previously mentioned mTOR stands for mammalian target of rapamycin. Rapamycin is a drug that is actually manufactured by a microorganism called Streptomyces hygroscopicus, which lives in the soil. What attracted the attention of the medical community was that researchers observed S. hygroscopicus secreted something that inhibited the growth of another microbe, Candida albicans. So, the original use of rapamycin was thought to be potentially as an antibiotic. But, upon clinical study, researchers found that rapamycin had potent undesirable immunosuppressive activities, which made it unsuitable for use as an antibiotic drug for humans. However, due to rapamycin’s effects it is being used on a limited basis in other medical applications, but that’s another story. Part One Page 1 - 74 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

During the course of all this early research to determine what it was about rapamycin that made it inhibit the growth of certain microbes, scientists found that it blocked the activity of a substance that was involved in controlling cell growth and protein synthesis. This is where the name mammalian target of rapamycin came from. The mTOR molecule is actually a protein kinase, a type of enzyme that drives biochemical reactions. The Leucine Connection As more and more research was conducted to see just how mTOR functioned in protein synthesis, it was discovered that the essential amino acid leucine was involved in regulating this biochemical’s activity. The mTOR substance is actually just one player in a series of biochemical reactions that includes other familiar anabolic substances like insulin and IGF-1 for example. Making the Jump From Microbes to People There are many studies which have been previously conducted using BCAA’s, which report beneficial effects of significance to bodybuilders and other athletes. Some of these benefits include: reduction of fatigue, inhibit post exercise immunosuppression, and of course, increased muscle protein synthesis. The new research direction from the mTOR perspective reveals how leucine works at the cellular control level. The most recent research reveals that leucine, and other amino acids, may have unique roles in metabolic regulation beyond the role of protein synthesis. For example some researchers have found that an additional role for leucine is in the control of glucose balance by enhancing the recycling of glucose and a direct link to insulin signaling. These additional nutritional insights of leucine may have important applications in weight management and also in prevention and management of diabetes. As a side note, I always contented that the average intake of protein in our country was too low and needed to be increased across the board, because amino acids have multiple functions in the body, including precursors of neurotransmitters, which control the way the entire body works, DNA expression, and serum proteins. L-Leucine- the key to the BCAA’s L-leucine is the only BCAA that can be completely oxidized by muscles for energy, and each molecule yields 3 acetyl groups. By contrast, L-isoleucine and L-valine provide relatively little energy for muscles, and a molecule of either yields only one acetyl group. During strenuous exercise, L-leucine is oxidized at a greatly accelerated pace. Supplemental amounts of L-leucine act to compensate for those losses. In addition, Lleucine has the benefits of conserving glucose (blood sugar), the body’s primary energy source, as well as sparing the other amino acids in muscle. The result is greater endurance throughout the duration of a strenuous workout, and a net increase in muscle growth (due to diminished catabolism of muscle protein both during and after a workout). Ironically, well-conditioned athletes and bodybuilders have an even greater need for supplemental L-leucine, since trained muscle uses more L-leucine than untrained muscle. However, all three amino acids need to be ingested for optimum health, the point here is focusing on which one or ones are needed in vastly greater amounts. The Anabolic Cascade Is mTOR and Leucine the anabolic salvation? It is part of what has become known as the anabolic cascade. You see there are many nutritional and biochemical factors involved in the anabolic (tissue and substance building) processes in the body. So, yes leucine is beneficial, along with all the other essential and semiessential nutrients. Practical Applications As we learn more about the way the body works, it becomes clearer that a comprehensive nutrition plan is indeed the foundation of health and getting great results from your training efforts. For me, one area of applying these scientific discoveries to nutrition practice has been in the development of sports nutrition supplements that do just that, they supplement the diet to make it better for a particular goal. In the case of mTOR, extra leucine in protein supplements makes perfect sense, as leucine is also used by the body for energy, so extra amounts make the protein supplement more anabolic. Part One Page 1 - 75 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

With athletes being more active, using more leucine disproportionately, they therefore need to take in more from supplements. This will actually make your total diet more anabolic. But more leucine is not the entire answer to athletic diet perfection. This entails eating and supplementing right. Supplementing right means more than taking a magic pill. It means including a variety of supplements to top off what your diet can’t accomplish alone, plus fortifying your diet with the essential vitamins, minerals, lipids, amino acids, etc. to ensure all your vital nutrition needs are covered. Another practical application from this mTOR and other biochemical discoveries is to learn what not to do. Regarding leucine and mTOR, researchers found that alcohol impairs skeletal muscle protein synthesis. Apparently alcohol blocks the ability of leucine to trigger the mTOR protein synthesis pathway. So, those alcoholic drinks you may look forward to consuming, are actually canceling out all of your hard training and muscle building nutrition efforts. What is most amazing is that there are dozens of things like this that otherwise hard working, diligent bodybuilders are doing wrong, which if prevented would result in massive muscle gains.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS The Synergy of Protein Supplements When I first embarked in developing protein and amino acid supplements, I just didn’t want to go through the motions. I wanted to roll-up my sleeves, and get elbow deep in to the research. This was back in the 1980’s, and what I discovered to be true back then about protein, continues to be proven over and over again today. This was during the pioneering days when scientists did not believe that taking supplements of any kind could produce benefits above and beyond eating a healthy diet. Were they wrong about this general statement, especially when it concerns sports nutrition and protein! Not All Proteins Are Created Equal Protein is essential for all living things, especially humans. Our bodies are mostly made up of various proteins. But not all of the proteins we eat are created equal. What proteins are made of has an impact on whether or not they work well in your body. Your body’s activity level, and the type of activity you perform, will dictate what type of protein you need. Whey protein has gotten the reputation of being the “king” of all proteins, especially as a supplement for athletes. Its reputation is well-deserved, as the benefits of whey protein are confirmed in medical research, including sports performance scientific studies by some of the world’s leading researchers, universities and medical centers: from Shanxi Medical College in China to Harvard University, USA. Whey Protein Scores the Best But how do scientists know what proteins are best? During the mid 1990s, when researchers were experimenting with proteins from plant and animal sources, they discovered that some proteins have all the essential amino acids in proper proportions to support growth and health while others do not. After years of testing and retesting, they determined that whey protein not only scored the highest in amino acid composition, but more importantly it also had a high biological value, or BV, a measure of how much of a protein is actually used by your body. Premium quality whey protein isolate also scores high on other rating scales as well. Whey Protein Has Multiple Benefits Like with all proteins, there is more to the whey protein story. As scientists continued researching proteins, they started to focus on their building blocks, the individual amino acids. As they tested each amino acid separately, they were amazed to learn that individual amino acids exerted profound beneficial effects on the body. In fact, most amino acids have multiple benefits.


Below are some of the functions of the main amino acids in high-quality whey protein that occur in significant amounts to promote beneficial effects. These functions are not only important to your good health; they are also of particular interest to the fitness-minded.

Summary of Whey Protein’s Key Amino Acids & Benefits Whey protein contains a full profile of amino acids, and is high in several of the key amino acids that are important to athletes and other physically active people. For example: Phenylalanine Arginine * Maintains nervous system health * Increases growth hormone levels * Relieves depression * Protects against heart disease * Elevates mood * Reduces cholesterol * Decreases pain * Lowers blood pressure * Boosts memory * Improves poor circulation * Suppresses appetite * Aids in the production of creatine, an important source of energy * Lowers ammonia levels, which can be increased in athletes due Tryptophan to frequent exercise * Relieves mild to moderate depression * Boosts NO production * Relieves insomnia and promotes restful sleep * Promotes weight loss by suppressing appetite BCAA’s (Branched-Chain Amino Acids: Leucine, isoleucine, * Reduces overall sensation of pain (i.e. migraine headaches, & valine) fibromyalgia, general muscle pain) * Increase endurance * Prevent fatigue Proline * Improve mental performance * Rebuilds cartilage and bones * Increase energy levels * Speeds injury repair * Stimulate protein synthesis * Promotes tissue recovery following exercise * Improve nitrogen balance * Protects against overuse injuries (sprains, strains, tendonitis) Glutamine * Boosts immune system function * Maintains muscle mass * Prevents muscle catabolism (breakdown) * Enhances glycogen storage * Aids recovery from exercise * Promotes healing * Increases growth hormone levels

Whey Protein Gets Results – It Is Money Well Spent While high-quality whey protein isolate is the most expensive of the primary protein sources used in protein products, it has some distinct nutritional advantages. It enhances the production of glutathione, one of the body’s most powerful natural antioxidants. It has the highest levels of BCAA’s and has been shown to boost immune system functioning and promote and support protein synthesis. It is high in glutamine and arginine. It has a good proportion of essential and nonessential amino acids. Additionally, whey protein has been clinically proven to build muscle and improve athletic performance. It has also been shown to help reduce body fat, while at the same time increase lean muscle mass when taken as part of an exercise program. Another important benefit of the protein is its ability to raise levels of IGF-1, a muscle-building biochemical, and decrease levels of cortisol, a muscle & tissue degrading substance. Whey Protein Source Glutamine and the Athlete Dr. Eric Newsholme and his associates at Oxford University in the United Kingdom were among the first to hypothesize that an amino acid imbalance may result from strenuous exercise and as a consequence induce a number of phenomena that are collectively referred to as the “over-training syndrome.” Decreased performance, depressed mood and increased incidence of infections are among the many symptoms that are related to the syndrome, which has been described by runners, cyclists, swimmers, skiers, ballet dancers, rowers and even racehorses. Dietary glutamine plays a role in counteracting these phenomena because, as has been shown repeatedly, prolonged exercise decreases the plasma glutamine level, suggesting that the muscles cannot provide enough of the nutrient. Part One Page 1 - 77 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Inadequate amounts of circulating glutamine may lead to impaired immune function and increased susceptibility to infection among athletes suffering from over-training syndrome. In addition, glutamine use by the small intestine has been found to occur at a very high rate. Observations of gastrointestinal disorders, particularly of diarrhea and food allergies may be due, at least in part, to low concentrations of circulating glutamine. Recently, it was also shown that glycogen storage in the muscles occurred significantly faster when study subjects consumed protein together with carbohydrates as compared to carbohydrates alone. One of the responsible dietary factors for this faster glycogen recovery is thought to be glutamine. BCAA’s Help Increase Training Strength, Endurance and Muscle Mass A study reported in the journal Medicina Dello Sport looked at the effect of taking supplemental BCAA’s on athletic progress. The study involved thirty-one male bodybuilders between the ages of eighteen and thirtyfour, all of whom were drug-free, or “natural,” bodybuilders. The subjects were divided into two groups: sixteen took a placebo and fifteen took a BCAA supplement. The results showed that while both groups experienced increases in body weight, the BCAA group had greater weight gains. An analysis of the weight gain in the BCAA group showed increases in the lean body mass in both the legs and arms, with no changes in the trunk area of the body. In contrast, the group taking the placebo showed no lean-mass gains in these areas. The BCAA group also showed strength gains in both the squat and bench-press exercises, while the placebo group gained strength only in the squat exercise. In addition, the BCAA group showed improvements in measures of exercise intensity. From my experience developing protein and amino acid products, and the most recent research, using BCAA’s to fortify whey protein can further enhance the anabolic and strength boosting actions. In July 2004 independent researchers reported findings of their newest research that serves to reconfirm my earlier discovery that fortification of whey protein with BCAA’s, in particular leucine, will result in greater gains in strength and muscle size. D. J. Housh, and coworkers conducted their study at the exercise physiology lab at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Men were divided in to either a placebo group or a leucine fortified whey protein group. Subjects trained 3 times a week for 8 weeks. At the end of the 8 weeks the males who were strength training and ingesting the leucine fortified whey protein had significantly greater increases in strength and muscle size when compared to the males who were taking a placebo. There are specific bio-energetic and physiological control mechanistic reasons why extra amounts of leucine and the other BCAA’s, isoleucine and valine, help to boost anabolism. Synergistic Effects The word synergistic gets used a lot in ad and brochures for sports nutrition products. By strictest definition, as it applies to nutrition or pharmacology, synergistic refers to the phenomenon of the simultaneous action of ingredients having total effect than the sum of their individual effects. For example, creatine and whey protein taken together produce an increase in strength and lean body mass when compared to the sum of their individual effects. So when it comes to proteins, the amino acid composition of some, like whey protein isolate, may indeed have some synergism going on. Ideally, you want your entire nutrition program to be synergistic, and strive to have optimum amounts of all of the known nutrients and performance enhancers. This has been the way I have approached sports nutrition for over 2 decades, to understand what makes the body work, then provide a synergistic nutrition plan. When the synergy kicks in, your body’s performance will make a giant step forward in progress. Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Plus Whey Protein A study conducted by D.G. Burke and co-workers sought to measure muscular developments during 6 weeks of resistance training, among 36 males who were randomly assigned to supplementation with whey protein, whey protein and creatine monohydrate, or a placebo (maltodextrin). At the end of the 6 week study period the following results were observed:


Lean body tissue mass increased to a greater extent in the whey-creatine group compared to the other groups; and also in the whey group when just compared to the placebo group: + 4 kg, 6.5% in the whey-creatine group; +2.3 kg, 3.8% in the whey group; and +0.9 kg, 1.5% in the placebo group. Bench press strength increased to a greater extent in the whey-creatine group compared to the other groups: +15.2 kg, 17% in the whey-creatine group; 6.3 kg, 7% in the whey group. Knee extension peak torque increased significantly with training in the whey-creatine and whey groups, but not for the placebo group. The researchers also observed that continued training for an additional 6 weeks without supplementation resulted in maintenance of strength and lean tissue mass in all groups. The results of this study revealed a synergistic effect among males taking the whey protein and creatine supplement, which resulted in greater increases in lean tissue mass and bench press performance. Creatine and Protein Supplementation W. Derave and co-workers wanted to determine the effects of creatine monohydrate and creatine plus protein supplementation on GLUT-4 and glycogen content of human skeletal muscle. Note that GLUT stands for glucose transporter. There are 5 main GLUTs which tend to be tissue specific, and GLUT-4 is more abundant in skeletal muscle tissue and also adipose tissue. This double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was performed on 33 young healthy subjects (26 men and 7 women). The subjects' right legs were immobilized with a cast for 2 wk, followed by a 6-wk resistance training program for the right knee extensor muscles. The research participants were supplemented throughout the study with either placebo (maltodextrin) or creatine & maltodextrin, or with creatine plus protein during immobilization and creatine plus protein, maltodextrin, amino acid blend, and multivitamin blend during retraining. Needle biopsies were bilaterally taken from the vastus lateralis (a muscle of the Quadriceps group, of the thigh). GLUT-4 protein expression was reduced by the immobilization in all groups. During retraining, GLUT-4 content increased in both creatine (+24%) and creatine-protein (+33%) groups, which resulted in higher post training GLUT-4 expression. When compared with the placebo group, the muscle glycogen content was higher in the trained leg in both creatine and creatine-protein groups. Supplements had no effect on GLUT-4 expression or glycogen content in control legs. Area under the glucose curve during the oral glucose tolerance test was decreased from 232 mmol. per liter per minute at baseline to 170mmol. per liter per minute at the end of the retraining period in the creatine-protein group, but it did not change in the creatine or placebo groups. The researchers concluded that creatine intake stimulates GLUT-4 and glycogen content in human muscle only when combined with changes in activity level, and that combined protein and creatine supplementation improved oral glucose tolerance. Creatine and Glutamine This was an interesting study conducted by M. Lehmkuhl and co-workers who recruited twenty-nine athletes, 17 men and 12 women, who were collegiate track and field athletes. Ten were randomly assigned to take creatine monohydrate, ten to take creatine monohydrate and glutamine, and nine to take a placebo. The creatine monohydrate taking group received 0.3 grams creatine per kilogram of body mass per day for 1 week, followed by 0.03 g creatine per kilogram of body mass per day for 7 weeks. The creatine monohydrate – glutamine taking group received the same creatine dosage scheme as the creatine monohydrate taking group plus 4 grams of glutamine per day. All 3 treatment groups participated in the same strength and conditioning program during preseason training. Measurements observed during the study included body composition, vertical jump, and cycle performances before and after the 8-week supplementation period. After the study period it was determined that body mass and lean body mass increased at a greater rate for the creatine monohydrate and creatine monohydrate – glutamine taking groups, compared with the placebo treatment. Additionally, the creatine monohydrate and creatine monohydrate – glutamine taking groups exhibited significantly greater improvement in initial rate of power production, compared with the placebo treatment.


The field of nutritional synergy is fascinating, as it opens up a whole new frontier of performance nutrition opportunity. So when you are deliberating over which supplements you want to purchase, shop with your primary goal in mind (muscle gain, strength gain, endurance improvement, fat loss, etc.) and think synergy to help guide your way. Special, high quality, multi-ingredient sports supplements like Explosive Growth Blend are scientifically developed to promote greater results from your training and nutrition programs. Scientific References for Additional Information Section. Refer to the Reference Sections for Additional References Applegate EA. Nutritional considerations for ultraendurance performance. Int J Sport Nutr. 1991 Jun;1(2):118-26. Beltz SD, Doering PL. Efficacy of nutritional supplements used by athletes. Clin Pharm. 1993 Dec;12(12):900-8. Burke, D.G. et al. The effect of whey protein supplementation with and without creatine monohydrate combined with resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscle strength. Int J Sport Nutr. 2001, 11, 349-364. Derave W, Eijnde BO, Verbessem P, Ramaekers M, Van Leemputte M, Richter EA, Hespel P. Combined creatine and protein supplementation in conjunction with resistance training promotes muscle GLUT-4 content and glucose tolerance in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2003 May;94(5):1910-6. Epub 2003 Jan 10. Economos CD, Bortz SS, Nelson ME. Nutritional practices of elite athletes. Practical recommendations. Sports Med. 1993 Dec;16(6):381-99. Evans WJ. Muscle damage: nutritional considerations. Int J Sport Nutr. 1991 Sep;1(3):214-24. Gastelu D. The Complete Nutritional Supplements Buyer’s Guide. 2000. Three Rivers Press: New York. Gastelu D and Hatfield F. Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance. 1997. Avery Publishing Group: New York. Holt WS Jr. Nutrition and athletes. Am Fam Physician. 1993 Jun;47(8):1757-64. Housh, D. J., et al. Effects of leucine and whey protein supplementation during 8 weeks of dynamic constant external resistance training on strength and thigh muscle cross-sectional area: a preliminary analysis. National Strength and Conditioning Association annual conference, July 2004. Lands, LC, et al. Effect of supplementation with a cysteine donor on muscular performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 1999, 87(4): 1381-1385. Lemon PW, Proctor DN. Protein intake and athletic performance. Sports Med. 1991 Nov;12(5):313-25. Lehmkuhl M, Malone M, Justice B, Trone G, Pistilli E, Vinci D, Haff EE, Kilgore JL, Haff GG. The effects of 8 weeks of creatine monohydrate and glutamine supplementation on body composition and performance measures. J Strength Cond Res. 2003 Aug;17(3):425-38. Lemon PW. Effect of exercise on protein requirements. J Sports Sci. 1991 Summer;9 Spec No:53-70. Lemon PW. Is increased dietary protein necessary or beneficial for individuals with a physically active lifestyle? Nutr Rev. 1996 Apr;54(4 Pt 2):S169-75. Lemon PW. Protein and amino acid needs of the strength athlete. Int J Sport Nutr. 1991 Jun;1(2):127-45. Maffucci DM, McMurray RG. Towards optimizing the timing of the pre-exercise meal. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2000 Jun;10(2):10313. Millward DJ. Optimal intakes of protein in the human diet. Proc Nutr Soc. 1999 May;58(2):403-13. Nieman DC. Physical fitness and vegetarian diets: is there a relation? Am J Clin Nutr. 1999 Sep;70(3 Suppl):570S-575S. Nuviala Mateo RJ, Lapieza Lainez MG. The intake of proteins and essential amino acids in top-competing women athletes. Nutr Hosp. 1997 Mar-Apr;12(2):85-91. Phillips SM, Atkinson SA, Tarnopolsky MA, MacDougall JD. Gender differences in leucine kinetics and nitrogen balance in endurance athletes. J Appl Physiol. 1993 Nov;75(5):2134-41. Probart CK, Bird PJ, Parker KA. Diet and athletic performance. Med Clin North Am. 1993 Jul;77(4):757-72. Shephard RJ, Shek PN. Immunological hazards from nutritional imbalance in athletes. Exerc Immunol Rev. 1998;4:22-48. Tarnopolsky MA, Atkinson SA, MacDougall JD, Chesley A, Phillips S, Schwarcz HP. Evaluation of protein requirements for trained strength athletes. J Appl Physiol. 1992 Nov;73(5):1986-95. Tarnopolsky MA, Bosman M, Macdonald JR, Vandeputte D, Martin J, Roy BD. Postexercise protein-carbohydrate and carbohydrate supplements increase muscle glycogen in men and women. J Appl Physiol. 1997 Dec;83(6):1877-83.


CHAPTER 1.5 LIPIDS (FATS AND OILS) ENERGY AND GROWTH FACTORS • • • • • •

Essential fatty acids are required for growth, recovery, and overall health. Essential fatty acids are part of each cell, including muscle cells. Fatty acids are an important source of energy, especially for endurance athletes. Intake of saturated fats and cholesterol should be kept at healthy intake levels to avoid development of coronary heart diseases. Daily intake of fat metabolizing vitamin and mineral cofactors is necessary for efficient fat metabolism. Omega 3 fatty acids, such as Gamma Linolenic Acid, DHA, and EPA cause beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system, act as moderators of inflammation, and play possible roles in improvement of strength and aerobic performance.

The third major macronutrient category, along with carbohydrates and protein, is lipids. Similar to carbohydrates, lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Lipids are necessary in the human body for numerous reasons. They contain the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. They are a source of the essential fatty acids, which play many vital roles in maintaining the functioning and integrity of cell membranes. They serve as concentrated sources of energy, add palatability to meals, and are important in biochemical and biophysical functions such as steroid-hormone synthesis. The most prevalent type of lipid is triglyceride (also know as triacylglycerol). As an energy source, triglycerides vary in importance according to the type of exercise performed. For endurance sports, such as marathon running, triglycerides are a major source of energy, in addition to carbohydrates, and to a minor extent the branched-chain amino acids. For power sports, such as sprinting, glycogen is the primary fuel, but some triglycerides are also used. It is important to understand that the body is constantly metabolizing triglycerides for energy; the only thing that changes is the degree to which it does this. Power athletes are prone to becoming over-fat because of this differential use of energy sources-that is, because their bodies use mostly glycogen for energy and just a minor portion of body fat. These athletes must therefore follow nutrition programs that are low in fat and high in fat-metabolizing nutrients. But even though endurance athletes, such as marathon runners, can get away with eating high-fat diets, they will definitely find their performance impeded and health negatively affected if their diets are too high in fat.

LIPIDS-THE MOST MISUNDERSTOOD MACRONUTRIENT In recent years, dietary lipids have gained a bad reputation. Medical research has linked a diet high in total lipids to many diseases. Certain lipids are essential to health, however, Part One Page 1 - 81 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

and exert beneficial effects. Rather than cut lipids out of your diet completely, you should learn how to increase the consumption of the good lipids and reduce intake of bad lipids in your diet. Lipids serve many essential functions in the body. Their main functions are: To provide fuel. To provide insulation. To aid in the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins. To act as energy storehouses. To supply essential fatty acids. To provide protective padding and insulation for body structures and organs. To serve as components of all cell membranes and other cellular structures. To supply building blocks for other molecules. The main problem with lipids in the diet is simple- most people consume too much total lipid, too much of the wrong lipids, and not enough of the good lipids. While lipids are necessary for health, too much of the wrong kinds of lipids can have negative effects on the body and can lead to certain cancers and cardiovascular diseases. The common culprits are saturated fats, trans fats and cholesterol. Most experts recommend a total dietary-lipid intake of less than 30 percent of total daily calories; some recommend keeping lipids under 20 percent. Because athletes generally consume over 4,000 calories a day, they can easily get an overdose of lipids in their diets. Keeping total lipid intake down, maximizing the good lipids, and minimizing the bad lipids are therefore the major focus of sports nutrition.

THE MAJOR LIPIDS Lipids occur in both plants and animals, but plant lipids vary slightly in chemical composition from animal lipids. By definition, lipids are compounds that are soluble in organic solvents but not in water. Mammal fats tend to be more saturated than fish oils or plant oils. Beef tends to be more saturated than pork or poultry. The degree of hardness that a fat displays at room temperature is an indication of how saturated it is. Compare hard beef fat, soft fish fat, and vegetable oil. Vegetable oil has a low amount of saturated fat and a high amount of polyunsaturated fat. The major lipids found in the diet and body are cholesterol, triglycerides and fatty acids, and phospholipids.

Cholesterol Cholesterol is a member of a group of fats called sterols. It is made by the body and occurs naturally in foods only of animal origin. The highest concentrations of cholesterol are found in liver and egg yolks, although high levels are also present in red meat, poultry (especially the skin), whole milk, and cheese. Cholesterol has many important functions in the body. It is a component of every cell; a precursor of bile acids, various sex and adrenal hormones, and vitamin D; and an Part One Page 1 - 82 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

important aid in brain and nervous-system tissues. The body needs a constant supply of cholesterol for proper health and performance. However, a high cholesterol level has been linked to a variety of cardiovascular diseases. For good health, doctors recommend keeping cholesterol intake to under 300 milligrams per day. Since most meats contain about 90 milligrams of cholesterol in every 3 ounces, this is an almost impossible task for athletes, who generally need to consume high levels of protein. To meet both these needs, athletes must take special care to include plant protein sources, egg whites, and other high-protein, low-fat, low-cholesterol foods and low cholesterol protein supplements in their diets. However, there are also individual tolerances to cholesterol intake, meaning that some people can remain healthy, with higher intakes of cholesterol. This can be determined with your doctor, based on your family history and measuring your blood cholesterol levels.

Triglycerides, Fatty Acids and Related Lipids Triglycerides are the major class of lipids in the diet and body. They are the lipids that make up the fats and oils in the diet and the fat that is stored by the body. They include about 98 percent of all the dietary fats. The difference between fat and oil is simple-fat is solid at room temperature and oil is liquid. This difference in solidity gives an indication of composition. Triglycerides are composed of three fatty acids attached to a three-carbon-atom glycerol molecule. There are hundreds of different fatty acids, and they come in various lengths, from four to twenty-four carbon atoms long. A short-chain fatty acid has four to five carbon atoms; a medium-chain fatty acid has six to twelve carbon atoms; a long-chain fatty acid has thirteen to nineteen carbon atoms; and a very long chain fatty acid has twenty or more carbon atoms. Fatty acids are also rated according to the hydrogen atoms that are attached to their carbon chains. Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that they can hold, with no unsaturated carbon molecules. This is why saturated fatty acids are more solid. Hydrogenation is the process of taking unsaturated fatty acids and saturating them with hydrogen atoms to make them more solid. An example is margarine, which is made of vegetable oil, a liquid fatty acid. Monounsaturated fatty acids have one unsaturated carbon molecule, and polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one unsaturated carbon molecule. Saturated fatty acids tend to be solid at room temperature. Therefore, fats are high in saturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids tend to be liquid at room temperature. Oils are high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids are always either used for energy or stored as body fat, as are fatty acids containing sixteen or fewer carbon atoms. The fewer carbon atoms a fatty acid has, the easier it is to use that fatty acid for energy. The longer fatty acids can also be used for energy or stored as body fat, but they have other functions as well. For example, they serve as components in the structure of cell membranes, which is important for growth. Part One Page 1 - 83 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Among the fatty acids, the healthy ones are the essential fatty acids, the omega-3 fatty acids, and gamma linolenic acid.

The Essential Fatty Acids Of the many fatty acids that exist, only two are essential and only one is conditionally essential. Linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) is a primary essential fatty acid. It is necessary for normal growth and health. Therefore, since the body cannot manufacture it, it must be obtained from the diet. Another fatty acid, arachidonic acid, is made in the body from linoleic acid. Arachidonic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid) only becomes essential when a linoleic-acid deficiency exists. However, because arachidonic acid has to be made from linoleic acid and because it is a polyunsaturated fatty acid, arachidonic acid has a linoleicsparing effect when it is present in the diet. This may be beneficial to athletes because arachidonic acid is also an important structural fatty acid that is present in cell membranes. Alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) is the other essential fatty acid. Alpha-linolenic acid is similar to linoleic acid in structure. Among its functions, it is important in growth and is the precursor of two other important fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). As with protein and the amino acids, the body would rather use the essential fatty acids for growth and functional needs than for fuel needs. A diet that is high in the essential fatty acids and low in the nonessential fatty acids therefore increases metabolism and discourages increased body-fat formation, assuming that overeating is not a factor. Remember, excess carbohydrates and amino acids can be converted to body fat. The essential fatty acids are important to existence and performance. Some of their specific functions are: • Presence in phospholipids, which are important in maintaining the structure and the functioning of cellular and subcellular membranes. • Service as precursors of eicosanoids, which are important in regulating a wide diversity of physiological processes. • Involvement in the transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream. • Formation of a structural part of all cells. • Reduction of the time required for recovery by fatigued muscles after exercise by helping clear away lactic acid. • Maintenance of proper brain and nervous-system functioning. • Production of prostaglandins, a group of hormones important in metabolism. • Formation of healthy skin and hair. • Assistance in wound healing. • Growth maintenance and enhancement. Linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid are both unsaturated fatty acids and eighteen carbon atoms long. While scientists recognize that the body requires these two fatty acids for health, they have not yet established RDAs for them for adults because deficiencies in the essential fatty acids are rare. Part One Page 1 - 84 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

The Omega-3 Fatty Acids During the 1980s, there was a resurgence of attention focused on two fatty acids belonging to the omega-3 family-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Previously, researchers in the 1950’s documented the cholesterol-lowering effects of EPA and DHA. However, it was not until the 1970’s, when the low rates of cardiovascular diseases were documented among the fish-eating Greenland Eskimos, that conclusive results were proven about the circulatory system health benefits of diets plentiful in EPA and DHA. EPA and DHA can be made in the body from linoleic acid, also a fatty acid, and are found in human tissue as normal components. Despite this, when they are obtained from food sources that are part of a diet that is low in saturated fatty acids, they have beneficial cardiovascular effects. They have the tendency to disperse fatty acids and cholesterol in the bloodstream, which seems to be how their presence helps prevent arteries from clogging. They have a blood-thinning effect and discourage excessive blood clotting. They lower the blood-triglyceride level and raise the level of high-density lipoproteins (HDLs), the good lipoproteins that help prevent cholesterol buildup in the arteries. In addition, EPA and DHA have an anti-inflammatory effect and work by competing with arachidonic acid, which forms pro-inflammatory compounds. Besides all their known health benefits, EPA and DHA have also been documented to improve athletic performance. Recent studies using 2,000 to 4,000 milligrams per day of EPA and DHA from supplements and fish have reported significant increases in strength and aerobic (with oxygen) performance. The improvements included increased benchpress repetitions, faster running times, reduced muscular inflammation, and longer jumping distances. Scientists believe that these improvements were due to the combined effects that EPA and DHA have on the body, including improved GH production, antiinflammatory action, enhanced oxygen metabolism, lowered blood viscosity (thickness) leading to better oxygen and nutrient delivery to the muscles, and improved recovery. EPA and DHA are found in high amounts in cold-water fishes such as cod, salmon, sardines, trout, and mackerel, and in lower amounts in tuna. They are also available in supplemental form, specifically as gelatin capsules and liquid supplements. Aim for a combined intake of 2,000 to 4,000 milligrams of EPA and DHA per day from supplement and food sources. Part One Page 1 - 85 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Gamma Linolenic Acid Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) is another important fatty acid that can be made in the body from the main essential fatty acid, linoleic acid. GLA is an important precursor of the series-1 prostaglandins, a group of hormones that regulate many cellular activities. The series-1 prostaglandins keep blood platelets from sticking together, control cholesterol formation, reduce inflammation, make insulin work better, improve nerve functioning, regulate calcium metabolism, and function in the immune system. While studies on athletes have not confirmed any performance-enhancing effects, the ingestion of foods and supplements high in GLA does benefit overall health. Foods containing GLA are not that easy to find, however. GLA is not present in many foods. In fact, the major sources are evening primrose oil, borage oil, and black currant oil, which are also high in linoleic acid. GLA taken in dosages of 100 to 400 milligrams per day, in association with the essential fatty acids and omega-3 fatty acids, may benefit physical performance and health, especially during the season.

Conjugated Linoleic Acid Is an Essential Fatty Acid for Athletes and Weight Loss One very interesting athletic supplement that has gained popularity is CLA; conjugated linoleic acid. The fatty acid CLA occurs naturally in a number of foods, primarily beef and dairy products. The word "conjugated" in its name refers to the variation in chemical structure that sets it apart from the essential fatty acid linoleic. Linoleic acid belongs to a family of essential fatty acids called the omega-6 fatty acids and performs a number of important metabolic functions in the body. A slight change in the double bonds that hold its atoms together transforms it from linoleic acid to CLA. This molecular reconfiguration has profound effects on its function and bestows upon CLA nutritional benefits different from those of regular linoleic acid. Part One Page 1 - 86 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

CLA's rising popularity among athletes stems from its ability to significantly increase muscle mass and help to stimulate reduction of body fat stores. Additionally, scientists foresee broader applications for human health. So far, research has reported that CLA acts as a powerful antioxidant, benefits the immune system, and possesses other beneficial health properties. CLA supplementation has benefits for people who need to burn fat while preserving or building muscle mass, particularly athletes such as bodybuilders and other strength athletes. Based upon the research to date, the recommended daily dose of CLA ranges from 3,000 to 6,000 milligrams per day.

Glycerol Glycerol is a three-carbon-atom molecule that is the backbone of triglycerides and phospholipids. Triglycerides consist of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule, and phospholipids consist of two fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule, with a phosphate-containing compound attached to the third carbon atom. When glycerol is removed from these fats by hydrolysis, it is a clear, syrupy liquid. The liquid has been utilized in a variety of ways over the years, but it is especially popular as an emollient in skin-care products and cosmetics and as a sweetening agent in pharmaceuticals. As a supplement, glycerol has been found by researchers to possibly help the body remain better hydrated. Studies have shown that athletes training for prolonged periods (more than one hour) are able to run cooler and longer when they ingest a water-glycerol mixture. Preliminary studies have suggested that glycerol acts like a sponge, absorbing water into the bloodstream and holding it there. However, researchers are still trying to determine appropriate dosages; the current estimates range from 10 to 60 grams, taken with the amount of water recommended for the activity, over a period of a few hours. A word of caution: Some side effects, including bloating, nausea, and lightheadedness, have been reported with glycerol use. If you choose to try a glycerol-containing beverage, test it out at least several times before competition to see how your body reacts to it.


Medium-Chain Triglycerides Medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) formulations were first made in the 1950’s using coconut oil. MCT’s contain saturated fatty acids with chains of six to twelve carbon atoms. MCT formulations are high in caprylic acid and capric acid, which are saturated fatty acids. They are just now coming to the attention of athletes because they are relatively new on the market. MCT formulations were originally developed as calorie sources for individuals who have certain pathologic conditions that do not allow normal digestion and utilization of longchain fatty acids. MCTs tend to behave differently in the body than long-chain triglycerides (LCT’s) do. They are more soluble in water, and they can pass from the intestines directly into the bloodstream. Fatty acids usually pass from the intestines first into the lymphatic system, then into the bloodstream. Because MCT’s get into the bloodstream quicker than LCT’s do, they are more easily and quickly digested. In addition, it has been reported in the medical literature that although MCT’s can be converted to body fat, they are not readily stored in fat deposits and are quickly used for energy in the liver. They can also pass freely, without the aid of carnitine, into the mitochondria of cells. MCT’s are therefore a potentially quick source of high energy for the body. MCT’s reportedly also have a thermogenic effect, estimated to be 10 to 15 percent higher than their caloric value, but only when the MCT’s in the diet exceed 30 percent of the total calories. Thermogenesis is the process by which the body generates heat, or energy, by increasing the metabolic rate to above normal. These features of MCTs have attracted the attention of athletes, especially bodybuilders. Bodybuilders feel that these features benefit their restricted contest-preparation diets, which are aimed at reducing body fat and sparing muscle tissue. The implications of the use of large amounts of MCT’s by athletes on restricted diets are not clearly evident, though. Some bodybuilders report that they are able to get "super lean" when they eat about 400 calories per day of MCT’s as part of pre-contest low calorie diet. Remember, though, that bodybuilders are not concerned with physical performance. In athletic contests, just physique is judged. Long-term use of MCT’s is of a concern due to their saturated fatty acid content. Do MCT’s have a place in every athlete's diet? More research is needed to determine the exact benefits of MCT’s for athletes in general. While bodybuilders appear to derive certain benefits, some people can experience mild side effects from eating too much MCT. Part One Page 1 - 88 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

The most common complaints are abdominal cramping and diarrhea. Prolonged use may also be of concern to cardiovascular wellness. MCT’s are saturated fatty acids, and consuming more than 10 percent of total daily calories from saturated fatty acids is not recommended because of the link to various diseases. Additionally, in recent research, individuals who ingested only moderate amounts of MCT’s developed elevated triglyceride and cholesterol blood levels. This concern will depend on the individual’s total saturated fat intake, sensitivity to saturated fat intake, and duration of use. If you plan to experiment with MCT’s, you should use formulations that also contain the essential fatty acids and the omega-3 fatty acids, or just try using a healthy essential fatty acid, EPA and DHA containing oil product.

Phospholipids Phospholipids are a second major class of lipids. Phospholipids are manufactured by the body. They are a major structural lipid in all organisms, a part of every living cell. In combination with proteins, they are constituents of cell membranes and the membranes of subcellular particles. Phospholipids consist of two fatty acids attached to a three-carbon-atom glycerol molecule, with a phosphate-containing compound attached to the third carbon atom. Their main function is maintaining the structural integrity of cell membranes. They also act as emulsifiers in the body to help disperse fats in the gastrointestinal system during digestion. They are important structural components of brain and nervous-system tissue and of lipoproteins, the conjugated proteins that transport cholesterol and fats in the blood. Phospholipids are generally contained in the "invisible" fat of plants and animals, not in the visible fat. Lecithin is the most well known phospholipid. Studies have also been conducted on the inositol-containing phospholipids, the phosphoinositides. The phosphoinositides' primary role is as a precursor of messenger molecules. In this capacity, they have a profound effect on cellular functioning and on metabolism, particularly the metabolism of fats. The research into the phosphoinositides was prompted by observations made about choline- and inositol-deficient diets. Choline and inositol are nutrients that are important in fatty-acid metabolism and are said to help defat the liver. Nutrients that have this defatting action on the liver are called lipotropic agents. Choline also functions in memory, with diets deficient in choline associated with memory impairment. For the athlete, all of these important structural, metabolic, memory, and lipotropic roles of phospholipids are vital for peak performance and health. Of the many phospholipids that exist, lecithin and phosphatidylserine are currently sharing the spotlight regarding supplemental use.

Lecithin Lecithin (phosphatidylcholine) is a type of phospholipid that has choline attached to the phosphate molecule. Lecithin supplies the body with choline, which is essential for liver and brain functioning. Lecithin is also high in linoleic acid. Egg yolks, liver, and soybeans are rich in lecithin. In addition, lecithin is manufactured by the body. Part One Page 1 - 89 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

The use of lecithin supplements came into vogue when researchers made the connection between choline and memory functioning. Lecithin's emulsifying properties are also thought to help keep the blood system clean of fatty deposits. Researchers have documented reduced choline levels in athletes running in the Boston Marathon and have speculated that a low choline level may adversely affect performance as well as have detrimental long-term effects on the nervous system. (Note that choline is now considered an essential nutrient and details are in Chapter 1.7). Studies on athletes using high dosages of 20 to 30 grams milligrams of lecithin have produced mixed results; some have reported beneficial effects on muscular power, performance, and endurance.

Phosphatidylserine Recently, attention has turned to another phospholipid, phosphatidylserine (PS). In PS, serine is attached to the phosphate molecule. Serine is an indispensable amino acid whose metabolism leads to the synthesis of PS. Serine functions in fat metabolism and is vital to the health of the immune system. Intake of 200 to 300 milligrams of PS has been associated with improved memory and learning. Intake of 400 to 800 milligrams has been linked to a reduced level of cortisol, which is a catabolic hormone, as well as improved muscle growth and recovery after exercise. A double-blind, crossover study measured the effects of 800 milligrams a day of phosphatidylserine (PS) compared to a placebo on the serum-hormone level of cortisol, the perception of well-being, and muscle soreness during two-week intensive training sessions. In this study, the subjects were given either a PS supplement or a placebo for the first two-week session, then the opposite for the second two-week session. The subjects rested for three weeks in between the two sessions. During both of the two-week sessions, the subjects did five sets of exercises, each set consisting of ten repetitions of thirteen exercises, four times a week. Well-being and muscle soreness were estimated using a ten-point scale. PS supplement taking subjects experienced reduced delayed onset muscle soreness and improved state of well-being.


DIGESTION OF LIPIDS Lipids take the most time and effort to be digested by the human body because of their insolubility in water and their complex structures. As lipids pass through the mouth and stomach, they are treated mechanically and chemically in preparation for the main digestive processes, which take place in the intestines. Lipids take longer than the other macronutrients to empty from the stomach, about three to four hours or more, depending on the size of the meal. Their digestion takes place chiefly in the small intestine, where bile from the liver helps to bring them into contact with fat-splitting enzymes from the pancreas and the intestinal wall. In the intestines, the fatty acids are separated from the glycerol molecules; these components are then reassembled after they pass through the intestinal walls. Along the way, they are coated with protein. They then pass into the lymphatic system. Under normal conditions, about 60 to 70 percent of ingested fat is absorbed into the portal circulation via the lymphatic system. However, medium- and short-chain fatty acids are absorbed directly from the intestines into the bloodstream. Once in the bloodstream, fats and cholesterol are transported to the liver in conjunction with lipoproteins. The liver is the main processing center for lipids. In the liver, lipids may be converted for energy use or they may be modified-for example, the carbon chains of fatty acids may be shortened or lengthened or the degree of saturation may be increased or decreased. Any lipids that are not immediately needed by the body are converted into fat stores. The liver also synthesizes triglycerides, lipoproteins, cholesterol, and phospholipids. Lipids are constantly being broken down, resynthesized, and used for energy in the body. They are in equilibrium when caloric intake is in balance with energy needs. However, when caloric intake from lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates exceeds energy needs, bodyfat stores are increased.

YOU ARE WHAT YOU EAT The type of lipid that you eat actually affects your body's fatty-acid composition. All cell membranes contain fatty acids. However, comparisons between vegetarians and meat eaters have revealed that a vegetarian's body is composed of more unsaturated fatty acids and a meat eater's body is composed of more saturated fatty acids. Also revealed was that people who


consume diets high in saturated fat have bodies composed of more saturated than unsaturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids tend to be less stable than unsaturated fatty acids and are therefore more susceptible to damage from free radicals and toxic metabolic waste products. This means that a body made of more unsaturated than saturated fatty acids may be more resistant to certain cellular damage. Since athletes are subject to high amounts of free radicals and metabolic toxins, they may be able to reduce muscle damage and increase recovery rates by consuming diets that have more unsaturated than saturated fats.

Refer to Part Three for more information about lipids, including fat intake based on sport specific bio-energetics and food sources.


CHAPTER 1.6 WATER AND HYDRATION • • •

Water replenishment is the most important performance factor during exercise. A reduction of your body water content as little as 1% can start to reduce performance. Adequate water intake should be especially emphasized by all athletes during hot/humid days.

Water is one of the most important nutrients for health and performance. Studies have verified that even minute fluctuations in the body's water balance can, and often do, adversely affect performance. In spite of this, many people take water for granted or neglect it. This is equally true for athletes and nonathletes. When the body starts to lose just 1% of its weight in water, this leads to reduction in athletic performance, that gets worse as more water is lost. So, job one is staying adequately hydrated 24 hours a day.

WATER AND THE ATHLETE Water (or H2O) consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It is the aqueous medium used for transporting the body's food materials and the place where the body's biochemical reactions occur. Water is found throughout the body, and depending on an individual's body fat, it can vary in content from about 45 percent in very obese individuals to 70 percent in very lean individuals. The different parts of the body also vary in water content. For example, blood normally has the highest water content, at about 83 percent; muscle tissue has a water content of about 75 percent; bone is about 22-percent water; and fat tissue is only about 10-percent water. A body's degree of hydration is affected by the person's balance of water intake in relationship to water loss. Water loss is less under resting conditions than under conditions of high-intensity exercising. Water is obtained from fluids that are ingested as liquids, from the water content present in solid foods, and also as a result of metabolic activity within the body. It is estimated that the average-sized man, weighing about 170 pounds and performing moderate nonathletic activities, requires about 80 ounces of water per day to match his water loss. However, water loss in marathon runners can be between 0.5 milliliters and 2 liters an hour. The moral to the water intake balancing act is to determine what your specific requirements are, under different exercising conditions and climates. This may take a little work, but is vital for achieving and maintaining peak athletic performance and health. It is a simple matter of keeping track of your body weight a few to several times a day, in particular before an after exercise. The differences in body weight that occur during exercise are mostly from water, as body weight from calorie expenditure in an exercise session is not very significant for most athletes. Use your bodyweight data to get your water intake perfected. One important point when determining your exercising water Part One Page 1 - 93 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

intake requirements, is to make sure to be well hydrated at the start of the exercise session. Otherwise, if you begin exercising in a dehydrated state, then just replacing the water lost during exercise will not be adequate intake for total rehydration. The major sources of water for the human body are the following: Liquids. Liquids are by far the most abundant source of water for the body, accounting for about two-thirds of a person's water intake per day. Liquids can be readily taken in by the body without much digestive effort. Pure water is taken in the fastest. As the carbohydrate and electrolyte contents of a liquid increase, the length of time that it takes the liquid to empty from the stomach increases. The exact concentration of carbohydrates and electrolytes that an athlete needs depends upon the sport and the level of physical activity. Food water. All foods consist of water and solids. The amount of water that a food contains depends on what the food is. For example, fruits, vegetables, cooked cereals, and milk are 80- to 95-percent water. Meat cooked rare is about 75-percent water, while meat cooked well done is about 45-percent or less water. Ready-to-serve cereals are about 3- to 5-percent water. Generally, approximately one-third of daily water intake is from food. Metabolic water. Metabolic water is the water that is produced in the body as a result of energy production. Often overlooked, it totals approximately 10 ounces per day, depending on how many calories are burned. Metabolic water is produced from oxygen and hydrogen atoms. The oxygen atoms are obtained from the atmosphere and brought into the body via the lungs during breathing. The hydrogen atoms are obtained from carbohydrates, fatty acids, and other carbon molecules that are broken down in the body for energy. Glycogen-bound water. Glycogen-bound water is stored in the muscles along with glycogen. About 3 ounces of water are stored along with every 1 ounce of glycogen. Glycogen-bound water becomes important when the glycogen supply is in the process of being depleted for energy use. This occurs during training and endurance events lasting more than one hour and during periods of calorie restriction. During intensive endurance activities, about 16 fluid ounces of water may be released per hour. However, this water will be released only for as long as the glycogen to which it is bound remains stored in the body. Glycogen-bound water must be replenished when it is used. Altogether, approximately 3 to 4 pints of glycogen-bound water can be stored. For endurance athletes and athletes performing in day-long tournaments, glycogen-bound water is an important source of hydration during physical activity. It can be maximized through carbohydrate loading. Water intake varies with the size of the individual, the duration and intensity of the activity, and the weather. Water loss is affected by factors such as the weather, the ability to acclimate to the temperature, the duration and intensity of the activity, the rate of


sweating, the weight of the clothing worn, health, gastrointestinal problems, alcohol and caffeine consumption, the use of diuretics and other medications, and body fat.

EFFECTS OF DEHYDRATION ON PERFORMANCE Dehydration can and does affect athletic performance. As the body loses water, its core temperature rises. This affects all the metabolic pathways, interferes with cardiovascular functioning, and reduces total exercise capacity. When the water losses reach 1 to 3 percent of the body weight, athletic performance is reduced, more than this, and health is also in jeopardy. During a race, marathon runners can lose several quarts of water, representing 6 to 10 percent of their body weight. If they do not properly rehydrate during the race, they will find that this amount of water loss can significantly impair their performance and possibly even put their well-being at risk. Nonendurance sports such as football, basketball, hockey, and soccer can cause similar water losses. During tournaments, no matter what the sport is, athletes must make sure they increase their water intake to compensate for the prolonged exercise over the one or two days of competition. Sports in which participants must meet weight-class requirements-boxing and wrestling, for example-are also associated with dehydration. Wrestlers typically dehydrate themselves to make a lower weight class. This type of chronic dehydration decreases performance and adversely affects health. Chronic dehydration will develop in any athlete who does not make an effort to remain adequately hydrated. The thirst response in humans is not as finely tuned as it should be. This means that the body can enter a state of dehydration and the person may not feel the sensation of thirst for several hours. Therefore, you should not rely solely on your thirst response but should, instead, make a point to keep rehydrating your body all day long. Some Factors Effecting Rate of Water Loss: Hot Weather High Rate of Sweating Inadequate Acclimation to heat Intensive Exercise Heat-trapping Clothes Diarrhea/vomiting Alcohol/caffeine Consumption Obesity

High Humidity Exercise Longer Than 30 Minutes Disease, Illness Diuretics and other drugs

SPECIAL WATER NEEDS OF THE ATHLETE The amount of water you need varies greatly according to your initial level of hydration, the climate, and the duration and intensity of your activity. As a general rule, measure your water intake by your water loss-namely, your frequency of urination. If you are well hydrated, you should be urinating about once every one and a half to two hours. If you urinate only a few times per day, you probably need to increase your water intake. Because thirst is not a good indicator of hydration level, you should get in the habit of drinking water or other fluids frequently through the day. The other indicator of dehydration is the color of your urine. Urine under conditions of being well hydrated is clear to light yellow, like lemonade. When urine is dark, this Part One Page 1 - 95 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

indicates dehydration. When you are taking supplements, keep in mind that some of the vitamin ingredients can cause coloration of your urine, this is typically a bright, light yellow. Individualized daily hydration guidelines are important for all athletes to follow. Studies have shown that endurance athletes who compete for periods longer than thirty minutes improve their performance by drinking fluids during the activity. Athletes competing in shorter events need to be properly hydrated from the start to achieve and maintain peak performance. Some athletes, who compete in stop-and-go sports may find it difficult to stomach drinking water or other fluids during their practice or events, but the payoff is worth the effort of finding the perfect hydration regimen that works best for you.

Daily Hydration Guidelines Daily hydration is vital for everyone-endurance athletes, power athletes, and even nonathletes. Table presents water-intake guidelines for healthy, active individuals who exercise on a regular basis. Researchers have found that one way to determine the recommended daily water intake is to look at daily energy expenditure. This takes in to account the size and activity of the athlete, as caloric intake is dependent on these factors. The following table provides a minimum daily water-intake range to accommodate individual differences as well as climatic differences. As the temperature climbs above 70 degrees Fahrenheit (F) and the humidity above 70 percent, water loss will be increased due to increased sweating, especially during exercise. Each athlete working with their coach, doctor, trainer or other health professional needs to determine their exact hydration needs for best results. Daily Energy Expenditure

Minimum Daily Water Intake (Estimate)

2000 calories

64 to 80 ounces

3000 calories

102 to 118 ounces

4000 calories

138 to 154 ounces

5000 calories

170 to 186 ounces

6000 calories

204 to 220 ounces

Hydration Guidelines for Optimum Athletic Performance Attaining and maintaining a peak hydration level starts by following the daily hydration guidelines discussed above. For athletes competing in endurance events lasting more than thirty minutes, and other sports, ensuring adequate hydration status before and a the start of an event as well as hydration maintenance during the event have been shown to maintain athletic performance. Athletes participating in shorter duration events should make sure that they properly maintain their hydration levels leading up to the event, but they do not necessarily need to concern themselves with drinking water during their events. One exception is athletes competing in tournaments that require participation in several events per day or several events over several days. Part One Page 1 - 96 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Guidelines for optimum athletic performance to be observed every day plus before, during, and after athletic events are as follows: Every day. During your athletic season, keep track of your water intake on a daily basis. In addition, weigh yourself at least in the morning, before and after practice to keep track of your daily bodyweight fluctuations. In general, the human body can lose only a maximum of a half pound of fat per day, so if you find yourself losing several pounds of body weight on a particular day, it is most likely from water loss. Pre-event. Whether you are participating in an endurance or nonendurance event, you should achieve adequate hydration by drinking water starting about two hours before your competition. Depending on your body weight, you should consume between 14 and 24 ounces of water. This will allow you to "top off" your body with water and still give yourself enough time to urinate the excess before your event. Additionally, fifteen to twenty minutes before your event, drink another 12 to 20 ounces of water, depending on your individual needs. Athletes exercising or competing for over 30 minutes in duration can also benefit from drinking water during the event or exercise. Avoid ingesting foods, supplements or drugs that have diuretic effects before athletic events. During athletic events. Remember that the main reason for drinking water during endurance events or other sports long in duration is to replace the water lost from sweating. Sweating is essential for cooling the body. If your body temperature increases too much during your event, your performance will suffer.To prevent this, you need to encourage sweating and make sure that the sweat evaporates from your body. Take special care on hot, humid days, which are the worst for athletic activities because they cause the most sweating with the least amount of evaporation. During your event, try drinking 6 to 12 ounces of water every fifteen to twenty minutes, depending on your body size and rate of sweating. Larger amounts may be required as determined by the size of the individual and climate condition. For athletes with competition events or during training that is over 60 minutes in duration, ingesting a carbohydrate / electrolyte containing drink will help to maintain and boost athletic performance. Refer to Part Three for additional information about this. Note that the temperature of the water may effect the stomach emptying rate. Cool water (about 40 degrees F) may increase the speed of the rate at which the water empties from the stomach. However, this may vary depending on the person and type of athletic event, and should be tested in advance of competitions to determine what works best for the individual athlete. Post-event. Give your body a chance to cool down and your heart rate a chance to normalize, then start drinking water and/or an energy rehydration drink, which contains carbohydrates and electrolytes. Drink amounts of water/ drinks that approximate net water lost during exercise, based on body weight. Depending on the amount of water weight to replenish, the rehydration quantity may have to be in divided dosages after the few hour post-exercise period. Make sure to eat a postevent / workout meal within 30 minutes to two hours after your event and consume the appropriate supplements for your sport, and continue to drink water. Depending on your rate and amount of sweating, consumption of higher amounts of salty foods, or adding salt to foods may be required to replace the sodium lost during exercise. Also, the extra sodium can help to retain more of the ingested water. Eating a meal, and taking multivitamin and multimineral supplements will help to replace the other minerals and nutrients lost during exercise.

Note that you should practice and perfect your hydration program during training to determine what works best for competition. This way your body will have a chance to adjust to ingesting the recommended amounts of water before the day of competition. You will also be able to determine the ideal pre-exercise, during exercise, and post exercise rehydration approach that works best for you. This will include replenishment of nutrients, which you can refer to Part Three for information about this topic. Part One Page 1 - 97 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Severe side effects from over consumption of water rarely occurs, but is sometimes reported. Avoiding over consumption of water will be based on learning what amount of water intake works best on an individual basis. Note that normally functioning kidneys can process for excretion about 0.7 Liters (24 ounces) or more per hour. But for water loss and intake calculation purposes during exercise and for post-exercise replenishment, you need to also consider water lost from sweating, and the amount needed to replenish “total” lost body water. Symptoms of water intoxication from severe water over consumption include hyponatremia, which can result in heart failure, and rhabdomyolosis (skeletal muscle tissue injury), which can lead to kidney failure. Consult your team physician with any concerns about the healthy limits of hydration.


CHAPTER 1.7 VITAMINS and MINERALS • • • • • •

Vitamins are needed for normal metabolism, growth and maintenance of tissue. Adequate vitamin intake is essential for performance and health. When vitamin intake is low, performance is decreased. Performance improvements are seen with vitamin supplementation. Dietary surveys show that most athletes are deficient in one or several vitamins. Optimum vitamin intake is attained from food and supplements.

Vitamins are a group of naturally occurring nutrients found in food and supplements that are required in the diet for maintenance of good health, normal metabolic functioning, growth, recovery, and performance. They are organic compounds, which means they are biologically produced and contain carbon atoms as part of their chemical structure. By definition, vitamins are necessary in trace amounts for health (micrograms to milligrams) and are essential in the diet because the human body either does not make them at all, or does not make them in adequate quantities. If any one of the vitamin nutrients is lacking in the diet, metabolism will be affected and symptoms can arise or dysfunction. The body also makes hundreds of organic substances that are essential to proper functioning. While the body can manufacture these substances, scientists have determined that supplemental amounts can be beneficial under certain circumstances. These metabolic intermediaries (metabolites) are sometimes referred to as “pseudovitamins” or “vitamin-like” molecules or conditionally essential nutrients. Some of these substances include choline and inositol and will be included in this and other chapters. Traditional nutrition views have focused primarily on providing minimum amounts of vitamins to prevent deficiency symptoms. This is the “nutrition for survival” approach. New research has determined that greater amounts of vitamins can offer other benefits for health and performance. However, while higher amounts may be better, there is an upper limit of safety and efficacy. As mentioned in Chapter 1.1, essential nutrients have a safe range of intake and this range depends on the specific nutrient and person. This chapter will present information about the “essential” vitamins and present information about their form and function. Refer to Part Three for additional information. Vitamins are grouped into two groups based on their solubility characteristics. There are the fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins. This categorical grouping was devised back when researchers were first working on isolating nutrition factors that prevented nutritional diseases. Scientists called the fat-soluble fraction, “fraction A” and the water-soluble fraction, “fraction B”. Vitamin A was the first vitamin identified in the fat-soluble fraction, thus the name. Similarly, the B vitamins were the first identified in the water-soluble fraction. As research progressed, other vitamins were found in each fraction and the letter system was used to name the vitamins. Part One Page 1 - 99 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

THE LIPID SOLUBLE VITAMINS - A, D, E, AND K The fat soluble vitamins are vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, and vitamin K. These vitamins are soluble in lipid and organic solvents. This fat soluble property allows them to be stored in the body in large amounts along with body fat stores in the liver. Water soluble vitamins can also be stored, but usually in much smaller amounts as they have the tendency to be flushed out of the body easily. The fat soluble vitamins, especially vitamin A, have been posted with a warning sign due to the fact that their levels can be built-up in the body. There is a concern that this build-up may reach levels producing side effects, although very few vitamin toxicity cases have been reported. However, this concern has grown during recent years and peaked with the emerging use of supplements and the popularized practice of megadosing vitamins to combat and prevent diseases and aging. Although vitamin toxicity is rarely reported, you should be aware of its potential occurrence, especially when striving for peak performance. Even though you may not develop a clear case of vitamin toxicity, overdoing it may impair performance. When it comes to nutrition, more is not always better. Additionally, proper digestion and absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins may require the presence of fat in the diet. Athletes on low fat and low calorie diets should be cautioned that deficiency of these vitamins is possible due to absorption malfunctions. Those taking supplements as a source of fat-soluble vitamin should look toward the ones in an oil base or take them with a meal. The following will review the basics on the fat-soluble vitamins. Antioxidants Overview During progressive research on the possible metabolic roles that nutrients may play in addition to prevention of nutrient deficiency disorders, a group of vitamins, minerals and enzymes called antioxidants have been identified that protect the body from chemical damage. Because “free radicals” damage biomolecules, they are responsible for aging and causing diseases like cancer, degenerative diseases, and environmental reactive contaminants. Oxygen itself also causes damage. Because athletes are over exposed to more free radicals, it is very important that every athlete’s diet contain the antioxidant nutrients for protection. Specifically, antioxidants protect against free radical damage and oxidation. The antioxidant group of nutrients is growing, and the following are important as antioxidants or antioxidant cofactors: beta carotene and other carotenoids, vitamin C, vitamin E, cysteine, glutathione, selenium, bioflavonoids, bioflavonoids, polyphenols, proanthocyanidins, and SOD (super oxide dismutase).

VITAMIN A - Retinol And Pro-Vitamin A (Beta-Carotene) Vitamin A is actually a group of substances that have vitamin A activity in the body. The principal vitamin A compound in the diet is retinol and belongs to a class of chemicals called retinoids, which have varying degrees of vitamin A activity. Retinol is the standard to which the other compounds that display vitamin A activity are rated against. In the body retinol can be converted into other substances with vitamin A activity, for example, retinal Part One Page 1 - 100 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

and retinoic acid. Dietary preformed retinoids occur naturally in animal source foods, and either naturally from animal source ingredients or added to fortified foods, processed foods, and dietary supplements. The carotenoids are another class of chemicals, also know as provitmain A, as they can be made in to retinol in the body. The carotenoids can build up in the body, but do not usually appear to develop signs of side effects, because the body produces the active form of vitamin A as needed from the carotenoids. Persons desiring to maintain high vitamin A intake will usually combine a moderate amount of preformed vitamin A, such as retinol, with a higher intake of the carotenoids, such as beta-carotene from foods and supplement. Beta-carotene is the most popular carotenoid and has about one-half the biological vitamin activity of retinol in supplement form, and about one-sixth or less the activity of retinol from food sources. Other carotenoids include alpha-carotene and betacryptoxanthin, which display a lower vitamin A activity when compared to beta-carotene. In addition to having vitamin A activity, the carotenoids are also considered to be an important group of dietary antioxidants that protect the body from damage at the cellular level. High levels of beta-carotene, and other carotenoids, in the body has been associated with improved antioxidant activity. As the carotenoids are yellow-red plant pigments, and taking high amounts of them may affect a person’s skin color with a yellow tint due to accumulation in subcutaneous fat at high levels of intake. This condition is called carotenemia. Coloration disappears when the high dosages are discontinued. If carotenemia develops, just cut back on your dosage of beta-carotene. Vitamin A has many functions and is essential for vision; cellular growth and development; reproduction - involved in testicular and ovarian function; integrity of the immune system; white blood cell production; formation and maintenance of healthy skin, hair, and mucous membranes; cell division and cell differentiation; promotion of bone growth, teeth development; and promoting normal epithelial cells, like those found in the lungs and digestive system. In addition to these important functions of Vitamin A, beta-carotene functions as an antioxidant, having the ability to neutralize free radicals, particularly singlet oxygen. This will help reduce cellular, molecular, and tissue damage of free radicals, which are greatly increased by exercise and increased oxygen uptake. Deficiency signs of Vitamin A include development of night blindness; glare blindness; rough, dry skin; dry mucous membranes; loss of appetite; reduced immune system function; increased susceptibility to infections; and slow growth. Side effects of ingesting too much vitamin A, include headaches, vomiting, dryness of mucous membranes, bone abnormalities, and liver damage. Signs of side effects in healthy adults may start to appear after prolonged daily intakes of very high amounts of preformed vitamin A (retinol), 15,000 micrograms (50,000 IU) of retinol, and in children 6,000 micrograms (20,000 IU). Signs of side effects have been reported to appear in lower dosages in people with know liver problems.


The vitamin A in supplements that is most commonly used is Vitamin A acetate and palmitate, but other forms will also be present. These are effective and economical synthetic forms of retinol. Natural vitamin A retinol forms are available but are more expensive because they are concentrated and extracted from natural animal sources, such as from fish liver oil. Beta-carotene, and the other carotenoids are also used in supplements to provide vitamin A activity. Both vitamin A and beta-carotene are found in gel caps, capsules, and tablets. Note that ingestion of over 30 milligrams per day of beta-carotene may lead to yellow or orange coloration of the subcutaneous fat. However, the coloration is reported to be harmless. Additionally, a note of caution to women who are pregnant or planning on becoming pregnant. High amounts of Vitamin A have been associated with the incidence of certain birth defects. Consult your doctor about supplementation before and during pregnancy. A general recommendation is to limit Vitamin A intake below 5,000 IU per day for women who plan on becoming pregnant or are pregnant. Some reports indicate that there may be an incompatibility of smokers ingesting high amounts of beta-carotene, but also indicate that more research is needed to resolve the issue clearly. The primary goal for athletes is to maintain adequate intakes of preformed vitamin A and the carotenoids from foods and supplement sources. Refer to Part Three for Vitamin A and beta-carotene dietary reference intakes.

VITAMIN D Vitamin D was originally revealed as the active nutrient in cod liver oil that was used for the treatment of rickets and other disorders. Later, researchers also determined that ultraviolet light from sunlight or lamps could cure rickets. We know that vitamin D occurs in high amounts in cod liver oil and that the body can make vitamin D when exposed to ultraviolet light. There are several compounds that exert vitamin D activity. The most commonly encountered are calciferol, cholecalciferol, and ergocalciferol. Cholecalciferol is the major form of vitamin D that is formed in the body. Ultraviolet light induces the conversion of a compound called 7-dehydrocholesterol into vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol). Vitamin D2, ergocalciferol, is produced commercially by ultraviolet irradiation of the plant sterol, ergosterol.


The body can utilize these forms of vitamin D in the body by converting them to the biologically active form, 25-hydroxycholcalciferol. Vitamin D has several important functions and is essential for normal growth and development. Its main function is the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus to support normal mineralization (hardening) of bone. Vitamin D is involved in many aspects of calcium and phosphorus metabolism, including mediating intestinal absorption and utilization. Maintenance of the appropriate level of serum calcium is also necessary to promote proper functioning of the neuromuscular system and heart action. There is also some evidence that vitamin D functions to improve muscle strength. Deficiency signs of vitamin D are characterized by inadequate mineralization of bone and associated abnormalities such as soft bones, bowed legs, poor teeth, and various skeletal deformities. In children, this can result in severe deformation of the skeleton (rickets). In adults, bone loss and an increased susceptibility to fractures can occur. Although vitamin D deficiencies are rarely seen due to fortification of milk and other foods with vitamin D, the condition is of concern in some infants who are breast fed without supplemental vitamin D or adequate exposure to sunlight. Characteristic biochemical changes include low blood calcium and phosphorus levels. For the growing child, normal adults, and athletes, vitamin D is a very important nutrient. Elderly people and persons who spend most of their time indoors should make an effort to get at least the RDA amount from dietary sources. Excess vitamin D intake is potentially harmful, especially for young children. The effects of excessive vitamin D intake can lead to calcium build-up in soft tissues and irreversible kidney and cardiovascular damage. Because exposure to sun forms vitamin D, intake of this nutrient should be closely monitored. While higher than average intake may be beneficial for athletes, megadosing of this vitamin should be avoided, unless under the prescription and supervision of a doctor. Refer to Part Three for Vitamin D dietary reference intakes.

VITAMIN E Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects cell membranes against oxidation, inhibits coagulation of blood by preventing blood clots, retards oxidation of the other fat-soluble vitamins, participates in cellular respiration, and treats, and prevents vitamin deficiency in premature or low-birth-weight infants. It is involved in immune system function and repair of chromosomes - DNA repair. Research has shown that vitamin E helps to promote cardiovascular health in adult populations. Some studies with athletes have also reported reduction in pain and inflammation, especially in combination with other nutrients.


Of interest to athletes, vitamin E supplementation has been shown to lower blood lactate levels, decrease lipid peroxidation products formed during exercise, reduce oxidative cell damage, maintain muscle tissue, and play a possible role in testosterone production. High experimental intakes of vitamin E has been found to benefit athletes by improving energy functioning, reducing cellular damage, and stabilizing membranes. Also, vitamin E supplementation has produced beneficial effects on physical performance and tissue protection at high altitudes. For athletes in high altitudes (over 5,000 feet above sea level), during the athletic season. Higher than normal intakes of vitamin E are also indicated when recovering from an injury or surgery. Several related compounds have vitamin E activity. Alpha-tocopherol tends to the most active form. The natural forms have the letter D, for example, D-Alpha Tocopheryl Succinate is one type of natural vitamin E and is generally preferred due to its higher rate of absorption. However the synthetic forms of vitamin E, are also bioavailable, and usually designated with DL at the start of the name. Using a combination of the two forms in supplement products is common. Vitamin E deficiencies are rare in humans. One condition of what appears to be vitamin E related deficiency is muscle weakness. Increased destruction of cellular membranes is suspected, as well as abnormal disposition of fat in muscles and rupture of red blood cells from reduced anti-oxidant protection. Clear determination of vitamin E deficiencies in humans is complicated by the additional factor that the mineral selenium plays a role in vitamin E’s metabolism, and that symptoms in animals sometimes disappear by the addition of selenium or the sulfur containing amino acids. Vitamin E is clearly an important essential nutrient that should be ingested in higher amounts by athletes. Compared to the other fat-soluble vitamins, vitamin E is relatively safe when over consumed. This is fortunate considering the large number of people that self prescribe megadoses of vitamin E in the hopes of curing or preventing many disorders. Refer to Part Three for Vitamin E dietary reference intakes.

VITAMIN K Vitamin K’s major function is the formation of prothrombin, which is vital for blood clotting. Without vitamin K, the entire blood clotting process cannot be initiated. It is therefore essential for maintenance of prothrombin levels and blood clotting. More recently, vitamin K has also been determined to be important in bone formation and maintenance. As


athletes undergoing strenuous training are constantly damaging tissue, a supplemental amount of vitamin K is warranted to insure adequate vitamin K daily intake. Deficiency of vitamin K is rarely encountered. However, deficiency can develop if green vegetables are restricted from the diet or drugs are taken that inhibit the formation of vitamin K by intestinal bacteria. Most instances of vitamin K deficiency are encountered with infants, also the elderly and people who have poor nutrition. It is sometimes given to patients before surgery to aid in blood clotting. Ingestion of too much aspirin can interfere with the metabolic pathways vitamin K is involved in and prevent normal blood clotting. Deficiency can develop if green vegetables are restricted from the diet or drugs are taken that inhibit the formation of vitamin K by intestinal bacteria, such as oral antibiotics. A deficiency of vitamin K would decrease the amount of prothrombin made by the body and increase the tendency for hemorrhage (bleeding). Excessive intake of vitamin K, even over long time periods, has not readily yielded major side effects. Excessive dosages in experimental animals and in infants has been shown to cause hemolytic anemia (separation of the hemoglobin from red blood cells). The synthetic water soluble forms will have an obvious wider margin of safety. Refer to Part Three for Vitamin K dietary reference intakes.

THE WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS The water soluble vitamins consist of the variety of “B” vitamins, vitamin C, choline and related vitamin-like substances. Being water soluble these vitamins are easily and quickly excreted from the body. They tend to have a wider margin of safety, with higher amounts of intake not causing any major side effects. This is the group of vitamins that has been traditionally sometimes taken in mega-doses due to their safety, and the thought that higher intake may be needed to attain and maintain optimum tissues levels. Vitamin C is the most known and widely used water soluble vitamin at what would be considered mega-dosing amounts. As with all nutrients, there is an upper limit of safe intake, and while the water soluble vitamins have a wider margin of safety, the best dosage levels are ideally determined working with a health professional.

BIOTIN Biotin is a water soluble B vitamin. It is a sulfur containing vitamin that is involved in energy metabolism, urea formation, protein synthesis, glucose formation, and fatty acid synthesis. Biotin exists in foods and supplements and is also manufactured by intestinal bacteria. Biotin plays an important role in energy production and fat metabolism. It functions in the biosynthesis of fatty acids, replenishment of tricarboxylic acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, coenzyme for a number of carboxylase enzymes, and amino acid metabolism. Deficiency symptoms can be produced from dietary sources of biotin being low or from ingestion of large amounts of a biotin-binding glycoprotein found in raw egg whites. Biotin deficiency is characterized by nausea, vomiting, mental depression, pallor, dry scaly


dermatitis, increased serum cholesterol, and loss of muscle tone. Biotin has a good safety record and reports of high dosages have not reported any major side effects. Refer to Part Three for biotin reference intakes.

CHOLINE Choline is one of the most recent nutrients being classified as essential from research reporting about choline’s important role in health, growth and development. It is involved in fatty acid metabolism and has special roles in nervous system function, among other functions. The term “lipotropic” was used to describe the effects of choline and other substances that prevent deposition of fat in the liver. Choline is a component of the phospholipid, phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) and a part of all cell membranes and lipoproteins. Choline is also used by the body to make the neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, which is critical for optimum brain and nervous system development and functioning. Exercise can deplete the supply of choline and this may theoretically impair acetylcholine amounts in the nervous system, so maintaining adequate intake is very important for athletes. Research has shown that ingestion of choline can restore levels, and is reported to enhance performance in long distance athletes, however choline is essential for all athletes. Choline deficiency can cause liver dysfunction; impaired memory and nerve functioning, and adversely effect normal growth. Very excessive intakes of choline can result in causing diarrhea, depression, fishy body odor, reduced blood pressure and dizziness. Refer to Part Three for choline dietary reference intakes.

FOLATE Folate is another water soluble B vitamin. Folic acid is the common form used in supplements. Folate compounds function metabolically as coenzymes that transport carbon molecules from one compound to another in amino acid metabolism and nucleic acid synthesis. In this way, folate is very important as a cofactor in DNA (deoxynucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) formation, protein synthesis, and cell division. Folate Part One Page 1 - 106 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

also stimulates the formation of red blood cells and vitamin B12. In particular, folate affects tissues that grow rapidly, such as the skin, lining of the gastrointestinal tract, bone marrow where blood cells are formed, and regenerating muscle tissue. Studies have also indicated that increasing the intake of folate during pregnancy has reduced the incidence of premature births and birth defects. Deficiency of folate can result in anemia, birth defects, sore tongue, digestive problems, growth problems, fatigue, poor memory, and megoblastic anemia. Increased levels of a substance called homocysteine has also been related to low folate intakes, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. For pregnant women, maintaining adequate folate intake is a must, as folate deficiency during pregnancy can increase certain birth defects. Excessive folate is rarely reported. One concern reported is among people who have vitamin B12 deficiency, in which excessive intake of folate could compound related nervous system side effects. There is also a concern for people who are taking anticonvulsant medications. Refer to Part Three for folate reference intakes.

INOSITOL Inositol, also referred to as myo-inositol, is not yet considered an essential nutrient for adults, but dietary intake can be important. The importance of inositol is underscored as it an approved ingredient for use infant formulas, and recognized for its health and growth benefits during this rapid developmental stage of life. Various studies with adults have reported beneficial effects. The most recently discovered roles for inositol that are getting attention include a role in nitric oxide formation and as an antioxidant of oxygen radicals. Inositol’s other functions include lipotropic activity, and is reported to be involved in fatty acid metabolism; carbohydrate metabolism; neurotransmitter activity; cell signaling; part of phosphatidylinositol molecule found in cell membranes and converted to other substance leading to production of second messenger molecules; and functions in promoting intracellular calcium mobilization. Deficiency of inositol production results in a build up of fat in the liver and may be related to poor nervous system function. Inositol appears to be relatively safe in healthy individuals.


NIACIN Niacin, vitamin B3, is a water soluble B vitamin that includes certain substance with niacin activity such as nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. Niacin is functionally active in the body as two very important coenzymes; NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). NAD and NADP are present in all cells and function in many vital metabolic processes, such as energy production, glycolysis, carbohydrate and protein metabolism, fatty acid synthesis, and reduction of both cholesterol and fatty acids in the blood. Niacin can also be synthesized by the body from the amino acid tryptophan. Niacin’s role as a cholesterol controlling nutrient brought it major acclaim as a miracle nutrient, and resulted in its widespread use in mega dose quantities. Nicotinic acid seems to perform better than niacinamide for lowering cholesterol and fatty acid blood levels. However, nicotinic acid in amounts over 50 milligrams causes the blood capillaries to dilate, resulting in what has become known as the niacin flush. This flushing produces a temporary red skin, itching, and heating of the skin. This is not observed with the niacinamide form of niacin. For athletes niacin intake is important, for some types of athletes high niacin intake may impair performance. It is interesting to note that, although niacin is very essential for cellular respiration, energy production research conducted with athletes clearly shows that it may reduce performance in some instances. The higher amounts of niacin administered before exercise caused glycogen to deplete at a faster rate and caused earlier onset of fatigue for long distance athletes. Niacin apparently blocks the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue, thus making this source of energy less available during exercise. Thus, niacin mega dosing should be avoided by endurance athletes. However, there is some evidence that higher than average dosages of niacinamide given before anaerobic (strength) exercise may improve performance. Due to the fact that strength athletes get more energy from stored glycogen, and faster glycogen liberation may result in faster anaerobic energy production. More research is warranted to confirm this. Deficiency symptoms of niacin include depression, confusion, headaches, elevated body fats, fatigue, and development of pellagra. Pellagra is a disease characterized by dermatitis, inflammation of mucus membranes, dementia, and inflamed and discolored skin. There is a long history of use of high dose niacin in medical settings for cholesterol lowering, with risks and benefits clearly determined. Mega dosing niacin in daily dosages Part One Page 1 - 108 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

of 3 grams or more a day, has been associated with leading to developing serious side effects, including liver health issues and should be avoided. Refer to Part Three for niacin dietary reference intakes.

PANTOTHENIC ACID Pantothenic acid is another member of the B vitamin group, also referred to as Vitamin B5. Pantothenic acid plays many important metabolic roles, primarily as a component of coenzyme A and phosphopantetheine, which are involved in fatty acid metabolism. Pantothenic Acid is also involved in steroid and cholesterol synthesis. Studies conducted among athletes ingesting high dosages of pantothenic acid have yielded performance enhancing effects when taken by endurance athletes over 14 days, 2 grams per day. However, other research with athletes taking lower amounts did not result in significant benefits in performance. Short-term mega dosing of pantothenic acid may be beneficial for endurance athletes for short time periods (7 to 14 days) before athletic competition. However, more research is needed to fine tune the optimum intake for this potential short-term, high dosage use. Deficiency of pantothenic acid is rare. Side effects reported from people being fed pantothenic free diets include: restlessness; fatigue; irritability; malaise; sleep disturbances; gastrointestinal upset and distress; muscle cramps; hypoglycemia. Pantothenic acid is relatively safe with no side effects with average intake. Higher mega dosages have been associated with causing gastrointestinal upset. Refer to Part Three for pantothenic acid dietary reference intakes.


RIBOFLAVIN Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) is involved in energy production and growth. In the body, riboflavin functions primarily as part of two coenzymes; flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). These coenzymes are involved in many oxidation-reduction reactions which produce energy from carbohydrates, fatty acids, and some amino acids. Because of riboflavin’s role in energy producing reactions, it is a vital nutrient for the health of all tissues, in particular the skin, eyes, and nerves. Apart from these essential functions, riboflavin taken in 10 mg/per day amounts was reported to produce a lowering of neuromuscular irritability after electrical stimulation of muscles. This indicates that riboflavin taken in higher amounts may improve muscular excitability and result in better overall performance. Deficiency is associated with developing tongue swelling; weakness; skin irritation; anemia; and sore throat. Short-term studies using higher than normal intakes of riboflavin have been reported to be well tolerated. Refer to Part Three for riboflavin acid dietary reference intakes.

THIAMIN Thiamin (as thiamin pyrophosphate or TPP), also called vitamin B1, also spelled thiamine. In the body, thiamin joins with phosphate to form thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP) and functions as a coenzyme required in carbohydrate metabolism. Thiamin is converted into coenzymes that aid in the complete breakdown of carbohydrates, along with other B vitamins. Other functions of thiamin include the production of ribose, which is needed for the synthesis of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) and appetite simulation. As athletes eat more calories and carbohydrates, thiamin requirement is increased. Athletic performance improvements have been reported among endurance athletes ingesting higher amounts of thiamin. Maintaining the integrity of nervous system functioning is also of great benefit to any athlete. Some research indicates that endurance athletes may derive acute performance enhancing effects by ingesting mega doses of thiamin for short periods, several days to several weeks. Other research reports that supplemental thiamine may significantly improve firing accuracy in marksmen. Based on an eight week study where athletes who consumed a vitamin B1, B6 and B12 combination preparation an improvement in fine motor control of slow movements was determined to reduce tremor, and result in significant improvements in target shooting accuracy. Signs of deficiency include abnormalities of carbohydrate metabolism, fatigue, loss of appetite, constipation, depression, confusion, poor coordination, and a disease called Beri Beri. Beri Beri is the traditional disease associated with prolonged intake of a diet low in thiamin. Primary symptoms involve the cardiovascular system and nervous system. Symptoms include muscular weakness, atrophy, heart failure, and depression. Since the cells of the nervous system are sensitive to carbohydrate metabolism, this may be why this system is the first to show signs of thiamine deficiency. Thiamin deficiency is also observed in individuals who drink alcohol excessively. Thiamin is safe and side effects are rarely reported in healthy adults, and high dosages have been reported to be safe in a limited number of studies. This does not mean that benefits will be incurred from mega doses of thiamin all year around; but short-term use of higher dosages could be beneficial during the athletic season. Part One Page 1 - 110 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Refer to Part Three for thiamin acid dietary reference intakes.

VITAMIN B12 Vitamin B12 forms essential coenzymes that are necessary for neural tissue development, folate metabolism, DNA synthesis along with folacin, energy metabolism, new cell growth, and red blood cell synthesis. Vitamin B12 and cobalamin are terms used to describe a group of cobalt-containing compounds that display vitamin B12 activity. In the body, the predominant active cobalamin coenzymes are methylcobalamin and 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin. A common form of B12 used in supplements is cyanocobalamin. Only minor amounts of B12 can be absorbed directly from the digestive system. For optimum absorption B12 needs to be bound to a substance called intrinsic factor. Studies conducted re-energizing non-athletes experiencing tiredness thought to be from low B12 status, are credited with prompting widespread mega dosing of oral B12 supplements and B12 injections among athletes. These studies usually used injections of B12, although some report responsiveness with oral B12 intake. Thus far, B12’s role in promoting its essential metabolic functions, and like the other nutrients, is needed in higher than average amounts by athletes and physically active people to maintain healthy levels in the body. Also, as people age it has been observed that digestive system function needed for maximum B12 activation and uptake starts to decline. Therefore as people get older, their need for dietary B12 increases. Vitamin B12 has been regarded in athletic circles as the primary energy vitamin. In fact, it is a common practice for athletes to get vitamin B12 shots during the athletic season. Vitamin B12 is only part of the performance nutrition picture, but does play a very essential role in maintaining health and promoting performance. Some attention has also focused on a coenzyme form of B12 called cobamamide, or dibencozide. This has been touted as an anabolic nutrient form of B12. A study was conducted on children with growth deficiency disorders, and cobamamide improved growth. Cobamamide has been reported by athletes to increase perceived energy levels and increase appetite. Cobamamide is not a replacement for B12, but could be combined with conventional B12, and the other essential nutrients. Similar to folate and vitamin B6, B12 plays an important role in being able to lower and maintain healthy blood levels of a substance made in the body called homocysteine. High levels of homocysteine in the body are related to higher rates of cardiovascular disease. Studies have shown that B12 supplementation alone or in combination with folate and or B6 has the ability to reduce high levels of potentially harmful homocysteine, thereby promoting good cardiovascular health, important to athletes and everybody else too. The homocysteine lowering effect is accomplished in the body from B12’s role in converting homocysteine to methionine.


Deficiency symptoms of B12 include a disease called pernicious anemia (poor B12 absorption) leading to megaloblastic anemia (enlarged red blood cells, poor delivery of oxygen to cells); irritability, loss of appetite, fatigue, weakness, constipation, headache, weight loss, confusion, depression, poor memory, and sore tongue; and neurological changes leading to numbness and tingling in the hands and feet. B12 deficiency in the diet is rarely seen, and most deficiencies are attributed to poor B12 absorption. Pernicious anemia is actually a disease that develops from inhibited absorption of B12 due to inadequate intrinsic factor production. However, minor amounts of B12 can be absorbed independent of intrinsic factor. This is thought to have led to the practice of mega dosing B12, with the idea being if the amount of B12 being ingested is increased, then the amount of B12 that gets absorbed independent of intrinsic factor will also be increased. As with all diseases, pernicious anemia is serious and people who think they have this problem should be checked by their doctor, for proper treatment. Excessive intakes of B12 do not appear to exhibit major side-effects. Refer to Part Three for vitamin B12 dietary reference intakes.

VITAMIN B6 Vitamin B6, also know as pyridoxine, is an essential vitamin and has become most noted by athletes for its role in the metabolism of amino acids, glycogen, lipids and certain hormones; hemoglobin synthesis; immune system; and synthesis of neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin. Vitamin B6 actually occurs in nature as pyridoxine, pyridoxal, and pyridoxamine. In the body, B6 is converted to its active forms, pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) and pyridoxamine phosphate (PMP) and serves primarily in many of the same types of transamination reactions (making one amino acid from another) that take place in amino acid metabolism. Like B12 and folate, B6 has been reported to have a homocysteine lower effect, from it role in converting homocysteine to cysteine in the body. Due to B6’s role in protein/amino acid metabolism, the requirement for vitamin B6 increases as the intake of protein increases. Vitamin B6 is also involved in conversion of the essential fatty, linoleic acid to arachidonic acid, glycogen breakdown, energy production, and synthesis of red blood cells. Studies with athletes indicate similar results as with niacin, due to B6’s tendency to increase utilization of glycogen stores, and decrease fatty acid energy substrate use. So, for endurance athletes, high dosages of vitamin B6 should be avoided, as one of their primary goals during exercise is to spare glycogen use, and encourage fatty acid use. However, short-term anaerobic activity may benefit from extra B6 due to the glycogen liberating action. In sports such as weight lifting, wrestling, sprinting, football, and soccer, where the primary energy source is glycogen, used to power bursts of explosive muscle contractions for powerful athletic movements. Coincidentally, strength-power type athletes are on higher protein diets, so their B6 requirement is therefore increased. Athletes undergoing glycogen depletion as part of a carbohydrate loading program may experience more rapid depletion of glycogen stores, with higher than average B6 intake. This can be useful during the first glycogen depletion days of a carbohydrate loading Part One Page 1 - 112 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

cycle. Vitamin B6 intake has also been reported to increase the exercise induced rise in growth hormone, which is another potential benefit for athletes. Deficiency symptoms associated with low intakes of vitamin B6 include depression, skin problems, poor wound healing, dermatitis, sore tongue, anemia, fatigue, and convulsions. While B6 is safe under normal intake levels, massive dosages (a couple to several grams per day taken for months in duration) has been reported to cause nervous system related side effects. Based on examining a range of dosages, reversible neurological side effects such as tingling and numbness of arms and legs, may start to occur at levels of 300 mg per day or higher. But lower dosages have not been reported to cause these side effects. Refer to Part Three for vitamin B6 dietary reference intakes.

VITAMIN C Vitamin C is an antioxidant and has multiple functions as a cofactor or coenzyme. It is involved in the formation and maintenance of collagen, which is an important constituent of connective tissues and intercellular substances. Collagen is a protein and an important component of skin, ligaments, and bones. Vitamin C promotes healthy capillaries, gums, and teeth; aids in intestinal iron absorption; blocks the production of nitrosamines carcinogens; prevents the oxidation of folacin; helps heal wounds; may provide resistance against infections; aids in the metabolism of tyrosine and phenylalanine; aids in the absorption of iron; immune system function; and protects cells from free radical damage. As with the other antioxidants, vitamin C may play an important role in the prevention and correction of dietary born degenerative diseases. For athletes, these functions of vitamin C are very important, especially as an antioxidant and collagen tissue formation and maintenance. Studies have also indicated vitamin C’s role in increasing muscular strength, reducing lactate blood levels, and sparing glycogen. Endurance athletes need higher amounts of this and other antioxidants due to their increased oxidative stress. While the research results have been inconsistent for vitamin C’s ability for preventing cold symptoms for the general population, a significant benefit has been reported for certain people under extreme environment and stressful conditions. These people include skiers, marathon runners and soldiers in sub-arctic exercises. The primary form of vitamin C used in supplements is synthetic ascorbic acid. Other forms include buffered vitamin C and mineral ascorbates, such as calcium and magnesium ascorbate. Natural supplemental form of vitamin C is supplied by rose hips and is more expensive compared to the popular synthetic form. There is also a patented form of vitamin C, called Ester C™. The company that manufactures it reports a higher retention than the more water soluble regular vitamin C. Deficiency of vitamin C can lead to developing scurvy, which is a serious disease characterized by weakening of collagen tissues and structures, that results in widespread capillary hemorrhaging. Scurvy is rarely seen in adults in the United States, but is sometimes observed in infants and the elderly. Excessive intake of vitamin C, more than 3 grams per day, has been associated with potential minor side-effects: headache, Part One Page 1 - 113 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

increased urination, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and nausea. Mega dosing vitamin C is commonly practiced by those wishing to derive potential health benefits. When dosages of vitamin C are ingested at 1,000 mg or lower at time, or taken with meals, the potential for gastrointestinal upset is usually avoided. Refer to Part Three for vitamin C dietary reference intakes.


EXAMPLES OF MULTIVITAMIN AND MULTIMINERAL PRODUCTS


MINERALS • • • •

Minerals are needed for normal metabolism, growth, and health of the body. Adequate mineral intake is essential for performance and health. Dietary surveys have discovered that many athletes’ diets are deficient in one or more minerals. Optimum mineral intake is best attained from a combination of food and supplements.

Minerals occur naturally in living plants and animals and nonliving dources such as minerals in water or from the soil. Minerals are elements, substances composed of only one kind of atom. In addition, they are inorganic; and unlike vitamins, they usually do not contain the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms found in all organic compounds. However, minerals can be part of organic molecules or combined to an organic molecule complex. Most minerals have names that reflect the places in which they're found or one of their characteristics, such as their color. Nutritionists classify the minerals that are essential for human life as either major minerals or trace minerals. Nutritionally speaking, the difference between major and trace minerals is how much you have in your body and how much you need to ingest to maintain a steady supply. The following is a review of the minerals in alphabetical order.

BORON Boron is a trace mineral which occurs in the body in small amounts. It has been established as an essential mineral in humans. Boron appears to have several functions, including: influencing calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium metabolism; functionality of membranes; brain function and cognitive performance; and bone formation. Attention by athletes has been directed toward boron as a result of its alleged role in increased testosterone production. It all started back in 1987 when a study was published reporting increased testosterone levels in postmenopausal women. Translating this effect to younger adult males and females is speculative. Subsequent studies providing male bodybuilders ingesting 2.5 milligrams of boron supplements did not report a significant increase in testosterone or strength increases. While further research is needed to determine boron’s exact benefits for athletes. Boron intake is required daily for health and performance, but like the other minerals, side-effects can occur if too much boron is taken. Deficiency of boron in humans has not been observed definitively. In animals, boron deficiency is associated with symptoms, which include reduced growth rate and decreased blood steroid hormone levels. Excessive intake from regular dietary sources is rare. Side effects based on accidental high dosages, clinical settings or in experimental studies include irritability, seizures, and gastrointestinal disturbances, noting that very high dosages can be lethal. Part One Page 1 - 116 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Refer to Part Three for boron dietary reference intakes.

CALCIUM The role calcium plays in bone formation is well known, but calcium also has other very important functions as well. Calcium plays essential roles in nerve conduction, transmission of nerve impulses, normal heart beat, muscle contraction, increased membrane permeability, and blood clotting. Calcium also functions as an enzyme cofactor. Recently, calcium has been connected to controlling blood pressure in some individuals. While calcium is a primary nutrient in bone formation and maintenance, other nutrients are also important in bone formation and the proper utilization of calcium. They include vitamin D, copper, zinc, manganese, and boron. Mineralization of bone requires a positive calcium balance; that is, more calcium being absorbed than is being excreted. This is important to maintain during growth years and during adulthood. Until recently, most medical authorities believed that once an individual attained the ripe old age of 30, it was not possible to build more bone tissue. But recent research has finally proven what many sports fitness scientists already knew. Exercise and proper dietary intake of calcium will result in increased bone mass in adults. The benefits are obvious for everyone who wants to maintain a healthy body. High intensity exercise, such as resistance training, appears to stimulate increase in bone mass more than aerobic type exercise. From an athlete’s standpoint, adequate calcium must be maintained all year long, and from childhood through adulthood. This means eating a diet adequate in calcium and taking a comprehensive supplement with the other nutrients, good sources of calcium, and the calcium cofactors. Deficiency of calcium results in poor bone formation or onset of a bone disease, such as osteoporosis. Poor calcium intake also results in muscle cramping and reduced energy levels. Rickets and stunted growth are also potential disorders related to a calcium deficient diet. Excess calcium taken during short or long periods of time normally does not cause major side-effects in adults aside from constipation and increased risk of urinary stone formation. Excessive calcium intake can interfere with the absorption of iron, zinc, magnesium, and other minerals. A condition referred to as milk-alkali syndrome is dose dependent, which may lead to calcium deposits in the kidneys and other tissues, and can occur with increasing calcium intake levels above the recommend levels. Very high calcium intake for long periods of time can lead to renal function problems. Research Part One Page 1 - 117 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

supports the adequate daily intake of calcium for maintenance of overall health and performance. Refer to Part Three for calcium dietary reference intakes.

CHROMIUM Chromium’s major role is helping insulin work in your body. It is said to potentiate insulin action, which influences metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Chromium also plays a role in the metabolism of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and helps to maintain their structure and gene expression. Chromium aids in fatty acid and cholesterol formation in the liver, and some studies have shown a lowering of cholesterol with chromium supplementation. Furthermore, chromium deficient diets are linked to higher incidence of diabetes and heart disease. It is chromium’s role as an insulin potentiator that has brought it so much recent media attention. Early researchers found that chromium exhibited a lowering of blood glucose levels. Because of this characteristic, chromium is referred to as a glucose tolerance factor. The glucose tolerance test is a test used to determine how well a person can remove high levels of glucose from the blood stream. The subject being tested is fed high amounts of glucose, and the blood levels are tested over several hours. The test is used for determining diabetes and hypoglycemia. It is also used to measure the efficacy of nutrients and drugs that possess blood glucose removal properties, like chromium. Due to chromium’s role as a potentiator of insulin function, glucose and amino acids that circulate in the blood stream after ingestion will have a higher rate of uptake by the cells. This does not necessarily mean that the levels of insulin are increased. And it does not mean that chromium has a direct effect on muscle building (like testosterone) or fat loss (like growth hormone). It just means that increasing dietary chromium levels will improve the functioning of insulin, which should result in a higher rate of cellular uptake of glucose and amino acids into the cells. For the athlete, adequate chromium intake is essential. Several studies have shown that individuals taking supplemental amounts of chromium in association with training and a good diet have been able to increase the rate of muscle gains and increase the rate of fat loss. Deficiency of chromium can lead to impaired glucose tolerance (impaired insulin functioning) and impaired glucose utilization; weight loss; evaluated fatty acids; abnormal nitrogen metabolism; neuropathy; and insulin resistance and type-2 diabetes. Excess chromium dietary intake is rare. Side effects from accidental ingestion of very high amounts of chromium can cause severe gastrointestinal, kidney, and liver health issues. Part One Page 1 - 118 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Studies support the adequate daily intake of chromium for maintenance of overall health and performance. Refer to Part Three for chromium dietary reference intakes.

COPPER Copper an essential mineral with several important functions. Copper is present in many enzymes: is part of the antioxidant SOD; important in formation of collagen; and involved in energy production, melanin pigment synthesis, myelin formation, immune function, glucose metabolism, and cholesterol metabolism. Some attention was directed towards copper by athletic researchers as a result of copper’s role in energy production. Copper is part of cytochrome oxidase, an enzyme that is found in the electron transport system. Because dietary surveys indicate that many athletes, especially endurance athletes, have inadequate copper intake, additional supplemental amounts of copper have been researched. The role copper plays as a component of antioxidant SOD is again vital for the protection of the body at the cellular level, for improved performance, and for shorter recovery times after exercise. Deficiency of copper intake can lead to bone abnormalities, anaemia, hypopigmentation of the hair, impaired growth, abnormal metabolism, and neutropenia (low white blood cells). Excessive dietary copper intake is rare, and reports of are usually from acute overdosages. Side effects include nausea, diarrhea, gastrointestinal upset. Refer to Part Three for copper dietary reference intakes.

FLUORIDE The role of fluoride in prevention of tooth decay is well known. It is also found in bone and in soft body tissues in very small amounts. Fluoride’s role in increasing resistance of tooth decay is most notably seen in children. Fluoride intake has also been associated with increased bone integrity. There is some evidence that maintaining good fluoride intake may help reduce osteoporosis. For the athlete, however, fluoride intake is not related to any increase in athletic performance. Its importance lies in the maintenance of good teeth for proper eating and the maintenance of a healthy skeleton. Additionally, fluoride supplements are only available by prescription. The primary intake of fluoride is from the water supply and the diet. A link of low fluoride in water, and increased tooth decay has led to the practice of adding fluoride to water supplies in areas with naturally occurring fluoride.


ELECTROLYTES (Sodium, Chloride, and Potassium) Sodium, chloride, and potassium are collectively referred to as the electrolytes. While the other minerals may have electrolyte activity, these three are generally considered the main electrolytes in the body. Magnesium and calcium is sometimes grouped with these three electrolytes, but is treated separately here due to their multiple functions, and requirements. Electrolytes exist in the fluids of the body, in the cells and blood. During exercise, electrolytes can be lost from the body in sweat. Loss of electrolytes during exercise becomes a major concern depending on the rate of sweating and the duration of exercise. This has lead to development of electrolyte containing exercise beverages. The main function of these electrolytes is maintenance of the balance of fluids in the body between cells and the blood stream. Some of the other functions of these electrolyte minerals are summarized below:

Electrolyte

Main Functions

Sodium

• • • • • •

Extracellular cation. Regulation of osmolarity. Regulation of body fluid balance. Active Transport across cell membranes. Uptake of some nutrients in intestines. Muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission.

Chloride

• •

Extracellular anion. Control of fluid balance.

Potassium

• • • •

Intracellular cation. Fluid balance. Nerve transmission and muscle contraction. Glycogen formation.

Deficiency of the electrolytes is not normally observed unless under conditions of severe dehydration, during prolonged periods of exercise without proper hydration or electrolyte replenishment, and conditions of renal disease. This is possible to occur during higher levels of activity, such as with athletes. Depending on the duration of exercise and amount of sodium lost via sweating, this could create the need for several or more grams of sodium per day. Some estimates from athletes training in ultra-endurance sports and in the military report that 10 or more grams of sodium can be lost during prolonged periods of continuous strenuous activity. Side-effects of electrolyte deficiency include dizziness, fainting, and reduced performance. Excessive intake of sodium and chloride (because they occur together in food) causes hypertension, fluid balance problems, and edema. Very high potassium intake, can lead to acute hyperkalemia, which can cause cardiac arrest and be lethal.


Electrolytes in Food and Supplements These three electrolytes occur in all foods. Sodium and chloride are usually supplied by food mostly as sodium chloride. Sodium bicarbonate and monosodium glutamate also contribute to dietary sodium intake. Table salt (sodium chloride) and processed foods are by far the largest contributors. Potassium is present in all foods, but is particularly high in fruits and vegetables. In fact, while the typical daily intake of potassium is 2,500 mg to 3,400 mg, some individuals on high fruit and vegetable diets maintain a potassium intake as high as 8 grams or more per day. Most individuals want to maintain moderate sodium and chloride intake and maintain higher potassium intake. Athletes especially, have higher demands of these minerals due to excessive sweating and increased physical activity. The higher food intake of athletes usually compensates for higher electrolyte demands. Many sports drinks on the market contain water, carbohydrates, and electrolytes. Use of these drinks is recommended for active athletes, exercising an hour or more per day. Drink them during and after exercise. Intake of extra sodium is sometimes need after long hours of strenuous activity. Increasing consumption of salty foods, or adding extra salt to meals, especially after the physical activity can help to replenish this extra lost sodium and chloride. This extra sodium intake after exercise will also help your body to retain more water which can help with rehydration. Potassium and the other essential nutrients will be replenished from your food and supplement intake. Long distance and ultra long distance athletes need to make sure they are first maintaining adequate water and carbohydrate intake, and then maintaining appropriate levels of electrolytes. Drinks lower in electrolytes are best during exercise because higher electrolyte concentrations will delay gastric emptying and impair hydration and carbohydrate supply during physical activity. Supplement intake of sodium and chloride are not usually required, however some supplements do contain sodium and chloride. Athletes wishing to add more sodium or chloride to their diets can do so with the addition of table salt to their foods, or consume foods with salt added such as pretzels. Potassium, on the other hand, can range quite considerably in the diet. Individuals concerned with possible low potassium intakes should look for multi-vitamin/mineral supplements which contain some potassium; as potassium chloride, and make an effort to consume potassium containing foods on a regular basis. Refer to Part Three for sodium, chloride and potassium dietary reference intakes.

IODINE Iodine occurs in two thyroid gland hormones: thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Iodine is therefore required for the proper function of the thyroid gland, which is essential for normal metabolism, energy production, growth, integrity of connective tissues, and overall physical performance. Research supports the adequate daily intake of iodine for maintenance of overall health and performance. The research does not currently support mega-dosing iodine for increased performance. Part One Page 1 - 121 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Deficiency of iodine intake includes: enlarged thyroid gland (goiter); lethargy; weight gain; dry skin; delayed tendon reflexes; poor concentration; feeling weak. Excessive dietary iodine intake is rare. Refer to Part Three for iodine dietary reference intakes.

IRON Iron’s well known function is its role as a part of hemoglobin, which is a carrier of oxygen in the body. Iron also is a constituent of myoglobin and a number of enzymes. Iron stores mostly occur in the body in bone marrow, the spleen, and the liver. When iron intake is low, these stores are depleted so that individuals can sustain for a while on a diet low in iron with out developing anemia. When anemia does occur due to severe depletion, it may take a long time to reverse the condition. For the athlete, this can be extremely detrimental. Dietary surveys have reported many athletes’ diets being low in iron, particularly, long distance athletes, athletes on low calorie diets, athletes with poor or inadequate nutrition habits, and female athletes. Studies support the adequate daily intake of iron for maintenance of overall health and performance. Deficiency of iron primarily results in anaemia. Excessive iron intake from the diet is rarely encountered. Most cases of acute iron poisoning, which can be lethal, occur in children from accidental ingestion of iron containing supplements. High dosages of iron can cause abdominal cramping, constipation or diarrhea, and nausea. Refer to Part Three for iron dietary reference intakes.

MAGNESIUM The majority of magnesium in the body occurs in the bone, muscles, and soft tissues. Magnesium has many metabolic and structural roles. It constitutes part of bone and teeth, plays a role in muscle and nervous system function, activates enzymes, assists calcium and potassium uptake, assists glycolysis, and aids many biosynthetic processes. Magnesium is involved in anaerobic and aerobic energy production. Magnesium is required for maintaining an adequate supply of nucleotide substances required for DNA and RNA synthesis. Of particular interest to athletes are the studies reporting that supplementing the diet with moderate amounts of magnesium improves several athletic performance factors: enhanced physical endurance and increased strength, for example. Maintenance of bone tissue is also an important function of magnesium that should not be overlooked. In addition, Magnesium plays a role in the proper function of skeletal muscle and smooth muscle tissue. When physical activity is increased, depletion of magnesium is observed, especially among athletes involved in long distance sports. It is interesting to mention that low magnesium levels may lead to muscle cramping. When magnesium levels are reduced, this may cause an increase intracellular calcium. As calcium is involved in muscle contraction, magnesium depletion may lead to developing muscle cramps, due to higher rate of calcium influx, so increased muscle cramps may be a possible sign of inadequate magnesium intake. Part One Page 1 - 122 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Deficiency of magnesium can include symptoms such as muscle weakness, irritability, nausea, loss of appetite, cramps, abnormal heat rhythms, and depression. Of interest to female athletes, studies show that suboptimum intake of magnesium can cause or increase premenstrual tension and discomfort, which may be corrected with magnesium supplementation. Excess intake of magnesium to the point of causing side-effects is rare from food intake. Healthy individuals seem to be able to tolerate magnesium intake well. Ingesting large amounts of magnesium has a laxative effect, and several laxative products contain magnesium compounds for this purpose. Individuals with abnormal renal function can be subject to hypermagnesemia, symptoms of which include depression, nausea, vomiting, and hypotension. Refer to Part Three for magnesium dietary reference intakes.

MANGANESE Manganese is a trace mineral with several important functions. It is required for energy production, is part of enzymes, aids in bone and connective tissue formation, is part of the antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD), aids in collagen synthesis, and facilitates carbohydrate metabolism. The role manganese plays in bone and connective tissue formation, and antioxidant activity are of particular importance to athletes. The strength and maintenance of bone and connective tissues is essential for athletic performance. Adequate manganese intake is therefore required. Maintaining the body’s proper supply of SOD is also an important function linked to manganese. SOD is a powerful antioxidant, and helps protect the body from free radical damage. Deficiency of manganese is rarely observed, symptoms include: impaired growth, slowed finger nail growth, poor bone and connective tissue formation/maintenance, low superoxide dismutase production, and disturbance of energy metabolism. Because of manganese’s essential role in bone and cartilage formation, and because of its role as a part of antioxidant SOD, certain degenerative diseases may be caused from inadequate manganese intake, such as osteoporosis and arthritis. Excessive manganese dietary intake among humans rarely occurs. Excessive manganese intake may lead to causing neurological side effects. Refer to Part Three for manganese dietary reference intakes.


MOLYBDENUM Molybdenum is a trace mineral present in enzymes, such as xanthine oxidase, sulfite oxidase, and aldehyde oxidase. These compounds are involved in energy production, nitrogen metabolism, and uric acid formation. Deficiency of molybdenum in the general population has not been reported. Excessive intake of molybdenum under normal dietary conditions is rare. Side effects have been reported from ingestion of large amounts of molybdenum, however, reports note that very high intake of 10 to 15 milligrams per day from food has been reported to possibly increase uric acid levels. Keep in mind that intake of molybdenum is usually well under 2 milligrams per day. Refer to Part Three for molybdenum dietary reference intakes.

PHOSPHORUS Like calcium, phosphorus is an important part of bone and plays several other important roles in the body, such as energy production. Phosphorus is present in bone, in cellular fluids as phosphate ion, and in phospholipids, proteins, nucleic acids, ATP, creatine phosphate, etc. Phosphorus is also involved in cell permeability, metabolism of fats and carbohydrates, formation of ATP and high energy storage, modulation of enzyme activity, and phospholipid transport of fatty acid. The chemical energy of the body is stored in high energy phosphate compounds, like ATP and CP. Phosphorus also plays a role in collagen synthesis. Deficiency of phosphorus is rarely seen in adults. It has been observed in cases of malnutrition and in clinical settings among the ill. Deficiency symptoms over long periods of time include poor bone formation, poor growth, weakness, anorexia, anemia, rickets, ataxia, and malaise. Excessive intake of phosphorus has been reported to cause gastrointestinal upset; and adversely effect calcium metabolism and may lead to stimulate bone loss. Refer to Part Three for phosphorus dietary reference intakes.

SELENIUM Selenium’s role in influencing antioxidant activity in the body is well known. Selenium is a vital component of an antioxidant enzyme called glutathione peroxidase. Glutathione peroxidase protects the body from free radical damage, in particular hydroperoxides. In this role as an antioxidant, selenium helps prevent damage to the body’s tissues, cells, and molecules, which can lead to reduced risk of degenerative diseases like coronary heart disease, arthritis, and certain cancers. For athletes, protection against free radicals is important for protection of tissues, shortened recovery times, and protection from the extra added free radical load caused by strenuous exercise. Deficiency of selenium is related to causing an endemic cardiomyopathy disease called Keshan disease, and possibly a musculoskeletal disorder called Kashin-Beck disease. Inadequate selenium intake is also related to poor immune system function. Excessive


selenium intake can lead to causing selenosis, which is associated with skin lesions, neurological effects, gastrointestinal disturbances, and changes in the hair and nails. Refer to Part Three for selenium dietary reference intakes.

ZINC In athletic circles, zinc has developed a reputation as one of the primary healing nutrients, testosterone boosters, and a male fertility nutrient. While zinc has a masculine reputation, it is essential to both males and females. Zinc has many important metabolic roles in the body, and is part of various metalloenzymes that play roles in growth, testosterone production, DNA synthesis, cell replication, fertility, reproduction, and prostate gland function. Zinc functions as a free ion in cells, as a part of the synthesis of biomolecules, and as a part of enzymes. For the athlete, maintaining proper zinc intake is vital, especially for growth and repair of muscle tissue to meet the recovery demands of training. Dietary surveys on athletes report that low zinc intake is common. This occurs especially in endurance athletes, athletes on low calorie diets, strength athletes, bodybuilding athletes, and female athletes. There are very few studies examining the actual effects of zinc supplementation on performance, but one study did show increased muscle endurance with zinc supplemented athletes. Two other studies examined the effects of zinc supplements used by wrestlers. After 4 weeks, improvements were observed for increasing resting and free testosterone levels, and increasing thyroid hormone levels. Another wrestler study, reported a positive effect for hematological parameters, such as improved erythrocyte, leukocyte, and thromocyte counts and hemoglobin values. In a study with football players, benefits of ingesting a zinc containing supplement were also reported. This study used a combination ingredient product, containing zinc, magnesium and vitamin B6. After the 8 week study period the researcher reported increases in strength performance, total testosterone levels, free testosterone levels, and IGF-1 levels. They concluded that the supplement improved anabolic hormone profile and muscle function in strength-trained varsity collegiate football players. Deficiency in dietary zinc can cause impaired growth, loss of appetite, skin changes, disrupted immune system, delayed sexual maturation, night blindness, hair loss, dermatitis, and impaired healing. These conditions of inadequate zinc intake are obviously detrimental to athletic performance. Excessive zinc intake can result in adverse effects such as: lowering of high-density lipoproteins, inhibition of copper absorption, nausea, gastric distress, headaches, dizziness, abdominal pain, and other metabolic disturbances. Diets high in protein and fiber can impair zinc absorption. Since athletes are normally on such diets (either high in protein, fiber, or both), zinc supplementation is a way to ensure that adequate zinc intake is achieved. Refer to Part Three for zinc dietary reference intakes.



CHAPTER 1.8 BOTANICALS, METABOLITES AND OTHER SPORTS SUPPLEMENT INGREDIENTS In addition to the macronutrients and traditional micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), you will encounter a variety of other substances in foods and supplements. These substances fall into the general categories of botanicals, metabolites and other health and performance enhancers.

METABOLITES Metabolites are substances that take part in metabolism. Some are produced in the body as part of the metabolic process, while others are derived from food sources. Some are also available in supplemental form, for example creatine, carnitine, Co-Q10 and CLA are metabolites. Even though the body is able to make many of these substances, loading up on them allows athletes to prevent shortages during exercise and to have an immediately available supply in reserve. Much of the pioneering research to determine which metabolites are important to athletes was conducted in clinical settings using both individuals with metabolic disorders and patients recovering from injuries or surgery. The researchers discovered that the subjects not only overcame their disorders but often went on to attain a state of health better than what they had started with. Studies conducted with athletes demonstrated that certain metabolites improve such athletic-performance factors as strength, agility, speed, and aerobic capacity, in addition to promoting and maintaining good health. Metabolites, similar to other ingredients, are available as single-ingredient formulations and as part of multiple ingredient formulations. They come in tablet, powder, liquid, and novel food forms.

BOTANICALS Botanicals is a catch all term for plants. When you start reading about plants used in supplements and medicine the term herb is primarily used. Technically the term herb refers to the general characteristic of a certain plant form that is typically non-woody plants. However, in the botanical world wood and nonwoody plants, and their parts, are used in supplements. So when you read about botanicals you will encounter a variety of terms, all relating to the fact that the ingredient(s) are from plants. The study and the practice of prescribing plants for health and performance is one of the oldest health sciences. Many plants have powerful components that can be of great Part One Page 1 - 127 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

benefit. In fact, the pharmaceutical industry got its start when druggists began isolating these components and making them available in their purer forms. Some plants offer many health and performance benefits, but they must be used with care. Some plants should be used for only short periods of time, to help heal the body of an illness or to treat a symptom. Some should not be combined with certain medications or other plants, since their primary components may interact negatively. Some plants should be avoided by competitive athletes, since they may contain a substance(s) banned by sports governing organizations. Standardizing Botanical Supplements for Consistency It is often the concern of athletes that not all herbs or herbal products are created equal. The reason: the chemical composition of plants varies greatly depending on where the plants were grown, the soil in which they were grown, the weather conditions during their growing season, and how they were harvested. To provide products with consistent bioactive content, the processes of concentration and extraction are used. Standardized botanical ingredients will typically list the amount of the bioactive as a percentage of the total plant ingredient, and sometimes the amount of botanical bioactives are listed. Dosages Similar to the essential nutrients, daily dosages of most metabolite and botanical products are taken in divided dosages, taken 2, 3, or more times per day. In this way levels of the bioactives in the body can be sustained for longer periods of time. Some companies offer sustained release formulas, which are usually taken once or twice a day.

ALKALINIZERS, BLOOD BUFFERS Most of the research on blood buffers has centered around Sodium Bicarbonate (baking soda). Many studies have reported ergogenic effects for individuals undergoing repeated maximum workloads ranging from seconds to several minutes. Studies performed on sprinters, 800 meter race, and world class rowers have documented the ergogenic effects of sodium bicarbonate. Large amounts are needed, however. About 0.1 gram is required for every pound of lean body mass, some studies even used higher dosages. For an individual with 150 lb. of lean body mass, the amount of sodium bicarbonate would be approximately 150 times 0.1 grams = 15 grams. Dosage administration depends on whether or not the individual is subject to possible side effects, such as diarrhea, nausea, cramps, or flatulence. Most sodium bicarbonate products recommend a maximum daily dosage of 4 grams per day, so the ergogenic dosages used in athletic research studies are much higher, and can have adverse effects. Dosages can be taken on an empty stomach, 1 hour before strenuous activity. If you find that you suffer gastrointestinal side effects, start 2 hours before your activity and take ¼ dosage with water every 15 minutes. Sodium bicarbonate loading will also load the body up with a few grams of sodium, so caution should be used by individuals with blood pressure problems and hypertension. To avoid injury to the gastrointestinal system, make sure the powder is completely dissolved, and do not take sodium bicarbonate when you are overly full. Do not take sodium bicarbonate for more than a few days at a time. Sodium Part One Page 1 - 128 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

bicarbonate is also considered an antacid, which may interact with other drugs. Consult your doctor immediately if gastrointestinal pain and discomfort persist. Use of blood buffers is considered experimental.

BETA-HYDROXY BETA-METHYLBUTYRATE (BHMB or HMB) BHMB is metabolite supplement that gained immediate popularity and use in weight lifting and bodybuilding circles from initial research reporting increased strength and lean body mass when taken as part of a resistance training program. BHMB is made in the body from the amino acid Leucine. A research review conducted in 2003 reported that creatine was most effective in producing significant gains in lean body mass and strength with resistance training. However, the research review also reported that BHMB produced gains lean body mass and net strength gains that were less then those produced by creatine, but were also significant when compared to a placebo. Another study reported that an additive effect when creatine and BHMB was taken together. According to most studies, 3 grams per day is the most commonly used effective dosage producing measurable improvements, with a range of 1.5 to 5 grams per day depending on activity level, body weight, and combination with other ingredients. Note that BHMB is not a replacement for leucine, as leucine is an indispensable amino acid with many important essential functions including making BHMB in the body.

BIOFLAVONOIDS This is a group of naturally occurring plant compounds primarily with antioxidant action. Bioflavonoids are part of a larger group of plant compounds, called flavonoids. Flavonoids that influence the human body in some way are called “Bioflavonoids”. There are thousands of them, and researchers are confirming the many benefits bioflavonoids have to offer in improving health and performance. They have been proven to strengthen capillary walls and thereby prevent capillary damage. Bioflavonoids may also have an anti-inflammatory effect and show anticataract activity. Bioflavonoids exhibit antioxidant activity and prevent destruction of vitamin C by converting its less active form, dehydroascorbate. The major bioflavonoids found in supplements are: Rutin, Hesperidin, Citrus, Quercetin, Flavones, Flavonols, and polyphenols for example. Quercetin is well studied for its ability to reduce inflammation as well as reduce LDL oxidation; a benefit common among the bioflavonoids. Hesperidin also helps lower LDL and triglycerides, and raise HDL (the good Part One Page 1 - 129 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

lipoproteins). Hesperidin also has anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. Some new types of bioflavonoid ingredients appearing on the shelves in the late 1990’s include: the polyphenol epigallocatechin gallate in green tea, which prevents the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, has anticancer properties, stimulates thermogenesis, and improves circulation; soy flavonoids (isoflavones) genistein and daidzein, which are powerful antioxidants and cancer inhibitors - lowering risks for breast and prostate cancer; anthocyanidins found in many plants; curcuminoids in turmeric which exert antiinflammatory and antimicrobial effects; ginkgoflavon-glycosides which improve blood flow to the brain; silymarin which acts as an antioxidant and helps protect the liver while boosting the immune response. In general terms, bioflavonoids are the brightly colored chemical constituents found in most fresh fruit, vegetables and herbs; for example, citrus fruits, grapes, plums, apricots, cherries, blackberries, rose hips, leaves, broccoli, greens, soy products, and grains. Ergogenic effects of bioflavonoids are beginning to be reported in the research. The main ingredient in chocolate and many chocolate flavorings, cocoa, also contains the beneficial bioflavonoids. So that chocolate flavored sports nutrition drink or bar will be a source of beneficial bioflavonoids. The benefits listed above clearly make this group of plant compounds a must in your daily nutrition plan. Bioflavonoids have been noted to improve recovery and provide nutritional support for athletes recovering from injury. Daily recommended supplement amounts range from 200 milligrams to 2 grams depending on the product and types of bioflavonoids. Maintaining dietary intake of a mixture of the different bioflavonoids is a primary goal, with extra amounts of specific bioflavonoids when certain benefits are desired. Refer to manufacture’s instructions on dosages. Higher amounts of bioflavonoid intake are usually indicated when under the stress of intensive training or healing an injury.

CAFFEINE Caffeine is a naturally occurring compound that belongs to a group of substances called methylxanthines. It is found in coffee, tea, chocolate, cola, and botanical supplement products, such as, guarana, yerba mate, and green tea. Although caffeine is naturally occurring, it is also synthesized, and sold as nonprescription drug, as an alertness aid and stimulant.


Caffeine has several main effects that are desirable, it increases alertness by stimulating the nervous system; it acts as a mild diuretic; it simulates cardiac muscle tissue; it increases lipolysis; increases physical activity, and it stimulates thermogenic activity. Almost the entire world relies on a daily caffeinated beverage to get the day started. However, for the athlete, caffeine offers much more than a good morning drink. Studies clearly show that intakes of caffeine can have beneficial effects on performance, in particular endurance. Caffeine tends to increase the use of fatty acids for energy, which in turn has a glycogen sparing effect. Caffeine as a nervous system stimulant provides a mental boost to help the athlete through rigorous training sessions. Research even shows that caffeine can increase the rate of fat loss. The military is a big proponent of the use of caffeine for enhancing or sustaining physical and cognitive performance. Use of caffeine was even reported to increase the time to exercise exhaustion at high altitudes, at 4,300 meters. For competitive athletes, it is also important to be aware that some sports organizations ban the use of caffeine in certain sports, at certain blood levels. Users of caffeine also need to make sure to consume extra water to offset the potential mild diuretic effects. Due to the combination of effects caffeine has on the body, it is also used as a weight loss aid. Caffeine has thermogenics effects, increasing the calorie expenditure rate, and promotes the use of fatty acids for energy. The mild diuretic effect may help reduce water retention. The stimulatory effects provide a mental energy boost that some dieters find useful to offset the mental energy drain that may occur while on a reduced calorie diet plan. Caffeine primarily works by stimulating the nervous system to increase production of excitatory neurotransmitters. If an individual takes too much caffeine, or takes it for prolonged periods of time, the precursor nutrients that produce these excitatory neurotransmitters become depleted, and cause a mentally burned out feeling. Caffeine’s diuretic affects are most detrimental to endurance athletes. Caffeine should be used sparingly by athletes until the individual athlete determines the exact performance enhancing effects it has for them. Caffeine can be used periodically to provide a mental boost to enhance workouts. Also, some studies indicate that heavy caffeine intake, for long periods of time, may deplete the body of calcium, therefore adequate calcium intake is mandatory and heavy caffeine use should be avoided for this and other reasons. As an ergogenic aid taken before competition, you first have to check on the legality of caffeine in your sport. While individual dosage will vary, researchers recommend 200 to 600 milligrams (about 3 to 5 cups of coffee) about 1 hour before competition, but make certain that you are well hydrated to offset any diuretic effects of caffeine. Also, note that studies indicate that caffeine may reduce the strength improving effectiveness of creatine. In strength athletes, caffeine may slow down the muscle contraction cycle, and actually reduce strength potential. Competitive athletes must make an effort to evaluate the health and athletic performance effects caffeine has on an individual basis. The nonprescription drug use of Part One Page 1 - 131 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

caffeine is 100 to 200 milligrams, every 3 to 4 hours, for occasional use. Common side effects are nervousness, irritability, sleeplessness, and rapid heart beat. Caffeine intake less than 300 milligrams per day, from ingestion of a few to several cups of coffee or tea, spread out over the day, can reduce or eliminate the potential dehydrating effects. Caution: The potential down side of caffeine is it may cause dependency and alter your physiology. Also, caffeine can be lethal at high acute dosages, over 10 grams for adults and a lower acute dose for children. So make sure you keep your caffeine containing products away from children. Significant mild side effects in adults are reported to be observed with acute dosages starting at about 1 gram.

CARNITINE / Acetyl-L-Carnitine Carnitine is made by the body and it’s primary role is the transportation of fatty acids in to mitochondria. The effectiveness of carnitine in various research has been so impressive that it is now considered to be a conditionally essential nutrient, meaning that the body can benefit from supplemental intake, as the body’s intake may not be adequate for optimal health and function. Carntine’s primary role is in the mitochondria of cells, where it moves fatty acids into the mitochondria to be used for energy. Research has demonstrated certain athletic performance improvements with carnitine supplementation. Athletic benefits include increased endurance, improved VO2 max, reduced lactate levels during exercise, and improved anaerobic strength output. Studies support the use of carnitine supplementation for intensively training, competitive athletes, primarily endurance activities lasting over several minutes. However, benefits for strength athletes has been reported, in particular during weight lifting exercise. In addition to lactate reduction, improved recovery potential after resistance training from carnitine supplementation has been reported. Carnitine is also useful in increasing the rate of fat loss by increasing the rate of fat used for energy; carnitine encourages the body to use more fat for energy. So as part of a reduced calorie diet, carnitine can increase the rate of fat loss in some people. There is also a variety of health promoting effects from taking carnitine supplements, including heart health, mental wellness, healthy aging, and increased male fertility. With all of the reported research proven health, healing and performance benefits carnitine has to offer, the decision to declare carnitine a conditionally essential nutrient was a good one. Carnitine supplementation of 1 to 3 grams per day is reported to yield Part One Page 1 - 132 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

performance enhancing results, taken starting at least several weeks before competition. Carnitine loading 2 to 5 grams per day, one to two weeks before events can also be tested. Both endurance and strength athletes can benefit from using carnitine supplementation, the L-carnitine form is the bioactive form used in supplements. Carnitine occurs in supplements in a few forms, L-Carnitine Fumarate and Acetyl-L-Carnitine are high quality forms used in supplements. By adding the “acetyl” compound to L-Carnitine it improves its ability to be taken up and used in various tissues, such as the brain. Using the combination of these two forms can result in greater distribution to all of the tissues in the body.

COENZYME Q10 (UBIQUINONE) CoQ10 has a history of use in clinical application for people suffering from cardiovascular disorders. Its safety and effectiveness are well established, and studies on athletes report ergogenic effects, such as improved physical performance in endurance events. CoQ10 is a coenzyme found in every cell’s mitochondria, and plays a role in oxidative energy production of the high energy molecule ATP. CoQ10 is also reported to have antioxidant abilities. Much research has also been conducted using CoQ10 supplementation to improve heart function There have been a number of studies reporting benefits of CoQ10 supplement use for improving endurance type exercise and athletic performance. However, similar to some of the other metabolites, the results of the studies have reported either a significant benefit or neutral results when compared to a placebo; which means CoQ10 may or may not produce significant improvements in athletic performance. So for long distance athletes CoQ10 may provide an added boost in athletic performance. Athletes choosing to test CoQ10 supplements for athletic performance should keep good records of their athletic performance to determine if measurable benefits are occurring. Depending on the person’s CoQ10 status, it may take a few to several weeks for performance enhancing benefits to occur. Endurance ergogenic dosages range from 60 milligrams to 300 milligrams per day. Lower dosages are typically used in multiple ingredient supplement, primarily for CoQ10’s antioxidant properties for promoting health.


CREATINE Creatine has been used nutritionally to increase the amount of creatine and high energy creatine phosphate in muscle tissue. Creatine is present in food and is manufactured in the body. It occurs in animal products, such as meat and fish. One pound of raw steak contains about 2 grams creatine. But, it should be noted that cooking will convert the creatine into its creatinine, which is quickly excreted from the kidneys. Creatine monohydrate is the form used most in clinical studies and proven over and over again to promote significant muscle building and strength performance benefits. In the body, creatine is made from the amino acids glycine, arginine and methionine. Normal daily dietary creatine requirements are estimated at 2 grams per day, in nonathletic individuals. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and CP (creatine phosphate or phosocreatine) are stored in muscle cells and function as a pool of immediate energy. The bigger the amounts in the muscles, the more the muscle can lift and perform short term maximum strength performance. CP is used to quickly replenish ATP in fast twitch glycolytic muscle fibers. This process takes only a fraction of a second. Continued high intensity levels of performance cause fatigue to set in from metabolic waste products. Creatine loading can therefore result in improving training intensity and recovery in anaerobic sports by loading up the muscles resting reserve of creatine phosphate. In other words, the more creatine and creatine phosphate the muscles have on hand, the more ATP can be replenished during bursts of all out effort. Of the dozens of studies conducted using creatine supplementation during the 1990’s to present, improvements in strength performance were observed mostly in sports that exhibited all out effort for under 30 seconds. For example, creatine supplementation improved performance in weightlifting, powerlifting, football, short duration track and field events (sprinting, jumping, throwing, etc.), vertical jump performance, 300 meter sprint, and short rowing events. Increases in VOmax has been observed in a limited number of studies on untrained and moderately active individuals. Also, the most consistent effect of taking creatine is an increase in lean body mass which has made creatine popular among bodybuilders and other athletes wanting to increase muscle mass and body weight. One thing is clear from all of this research, if you are exercising to improve strength, muscle mass and physical performance, creatine works to enhance these effects more significantly. The most recent research also reports that athletes taking creatine are


actually reported to reduce the risk of all injuries, including muscle cramps when compared to taking a placebo. The following tables provide an overview of creatine benefits and creatine usage guidelines. Like the other nutrients, taking creatine on a consistent basis, in divided dosages 2 or more times a day will help provide the body and muscle tissues with a constant supply. If your meal intake is timed correctly around your workouts, then taking creatine around mealtime will be sufficient as reviewed in the table. As indicated in the table, creatine can be combined with other nutrients and metabolites, like vitamins, minerals, protein, BCAA’s and glutamine. Also, creatine monohydrate has the most research studies backing its effectiveness. The appendix includes the reprint of a Creatine Super-Feature if you are interested in learning about this most effective substance and related exercise physiology and nutrition topics.


Summary of Beneficial Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation This table includes a summary of the major conclusions about how creatine monohydrate supplementation improves body composition, physiology, physical performance and athletic performance. Body Composition and Athletic Performance Related Athletic Performance Physiology Related Improvements Improvements Sports Improvements Reported In Research Studies: -Improves rate of training induced -Promotes greater gains in Bodybuilding gains. increasing FFM (Fat Free Mass, Football -Improves maximal strength and which includes muscle mass). Handball / Squash power about 15%. -Increases muscle fiber size - Improves work performed during Hockey (hypertrophy). Military Performance maximal effort muscle -Increases muscle mass. Powerlifting contractions about 15%. -Increases myosin muscle fiber Softball / Baseball - Improves anaerobic power. content. Soccer -Improves single-effort sprint - Improves strength training Sprint running performance about 5%. adaptations. Sprint cycling - Improves multiple sprint - Improves limb blood flow. Sprint rowing performance. - Reduced ammonia levels. Weightlifting -Improves work performed during - Reduced lactate levels. Wrestling repetitive sprint performance - Raises lactate threshold. about 15%. - Reduces cholesterol levels. Sports In Which Improvements -Improves performance during - Reduces homocysteine levels. are Expected Due to the Bioexercise of high to maximal - Increases in muscle satellite energetic Nature of the Sport: intensity. cells (muscle fiber precursor - Sports involving short-term - Increased number of cells). sustained or periodic maximum weightlifting repetitions. effort strength and power, such - Increased number of Benefits have been measured in as: weightlifting sets. men and women; young and old Basketball - Greater gains in vertical jump (teenagers to over 70 years of Bobsledding height and power. age); inactive, active and athletic - Increased 1 repetition maximum. -Bowling individuals. Boxing - Increased peak force. Canoeing / Kayaking - Increased peak power. Note: creatine supplementation - Reduction of athletic injury rates, Curling has not been shown to increase Decathlon such as: reduced muscle long-term endurance physical / Fencing cramping, reduced dehydration, sport / exercise performance. Golf reduced muscle tightness, Other supplements, such as ice Skating reduced muscle pulls, reduced carnitine, certain carbohydrates, Lacrosse muscle strains, reduced joint etc. have been reported to Martial Arts injuries, reduced contact injuries, stimulate significant Rodeo reduced illness, reduced number improvements. of missed practices, and reduction Skiing, downhill Tennis in total injuries during the season. Track and Field events that utilize anaerobic energy systems, such as shot put, high jump, long jump, etc.


CREATINE DOSING & USE GUIDE SUMMARY Use under medical supervision for safe and effective results. For healthy individuals only, who are engaged in strength training, muscle building and strength sport training and competition season. Individual results will vary. Preferred Creatine Type: Creatine Monohydrate powder or chewable tablets. Use only high quality research grade / pharmaceutical grade creatine, which are guaranteed free from impurities, such as dicyandiamide, dihydrotriazine, and creatinine. (note: quality results require a quality product, like Higher Power Creatine.) Creatine Dosing: 20 grams per day, less Ingest in 4 to 6 divided Optional. Consumption Loading Phase (based than 200 pounds ideal dosages each day. of a glucose beverage on ideal body weight.) body weight with or upto 30 minutes Take 60 to 30 minutes after creatine Duration of Use: 7 25 grams per day, 200 before meals. consumption. days. pounds to 300 pounds ideal body weight Or take with meals if Can also take a creatine gastrointestinal upset is combination product that 30 grams per day, over experienced. If includes glucose, 300 pounds ideal body gastrointestinal upset protein, amino acids, weight persists, reduce the daily vitamins, minerals, and other sports nutrition dosage to the maintenance dose ingredients. Such as regimen, realizing that it Explosive Growth Blend™ will take a few weeks longer to achieve increased creatine body Avoid mixing acidic levels that will result in beverages with creatine. the desired benefits. Creatine Dosing: at least 5 grams per day, Ingest in 2 or more Can also take a creatine Maintenance Phase less than 200 pounds divided dosages each combination product that (based on ideal body ideal body weight day. includes glucose, weight) protein, amino acids, at least 7 grams per day, Take 60 to 30 minutes vitamins, minerals, and Duration of Use: up to 200 pounds to 300 before meals. other sports nutrition 4 months. Followed by pounds ideal body ingredients. 4 or more weeks of weight Or take with meals if non-creatine use. Then gastrointestinal upset is Avoid mixing acidic repeat at least 10 grams per experienced. beverages with creatine. loading/maintenance day, over 300 pounds regimen as required by ideal body weight your training and competition schedule Note: taking creatine with whey protein supplements can significantly improve the benefits. Use a product that contains whey protein isolate for best results. Try Explosive Growth Blend™, which is over 20 of the most effective muscle building products in one convenient formula made using proprietary SynerBlend™ technology. This will get you the best results for less money. Keep a high quality container of pure creatine in your supplement cabinet to use for loading and maintenance and if you want to increase the creatine content of your protein powder or other sports nutrition supplement. For example, Higher Power’s Creatine Preparation: the best preparation method is dissolving creatine monohydrate powder in to water. Pure creatine monohydrate has a solubility of about 7 to 8 grams in 500 ml of water. Warmer water can dissolve more creatine per ml of water. Consume your creatine solution after mixing the powder into the solution. High quality creatine should easily dissolve. A poor dissolving creatine product is a sign that it might not be high quality. Creatine can also be mixed with non-acidic beverages, like milk. Creatine monohydrate can be taken with other supplements, such as vitamins and minerals, protein powders, etc, or as part of a complex supplement formula where creatine monohydrate is one of the ingredients. The most important factor to taking creatine is to be consistent and take it on a regular basis. It takes several days for the muscle cells to increase total creatine and creatine phosphate levels, and using the maintenance dose every day keeps the muscle tissue levels saturated. Avoid continuous and high caffeine consumption while taking creatine supplements. Also avoid or minimize alcohol consumption during training and competition seasons; alcohol interferes with protein synthesis, promotes dehydration, and causes cellular damage. Part One Page 1 - 137 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

DEHYDROEPIANDROSTERONE (DHEA) DHEA entered the dietary supplement market first as a longevity substance, then to promote increases in testosterone levels, which then attracted use by athletes. Due to DHEA’s association with testosterone production, it has attracted much attention from sports organizations. DHEA is not an anabolic steroid. However, DHEA may be banned by your sports governing organization. Like other substances in the body used to make steroid hormones, such as cholesterol, DHEA’s primary role is as a building block of testosterone, estrogen and other steroid type hormones. It occurs in the body as DHEA and DHEA-sulfate (DHEA-S). Either form has the potential to be used to make testosterone and estrogens. Whether DHEA actually results in increasing the production of testosterone or estrogens depends on the body’s own DHEA production. In general, DHEA production starts to increase during puberty and peaks in the mid-20’s. After 30, DHEA production and levels can start to slow, and continue to decline as aging progresses. The general trend reported in research studies is that older people, with lower DHEA levels respond more significantly to DHEA supplementation. However, responsiveness will ultimately depend on your DHEA status at any age. As women produce less DHEA, they are usually more responsive to DHEA supplementation, in addition to males who have lower than average DHEA levels. Some of the benefits of taking DHEA supplements, primarily in older people, include: reducing body fat; maintaining or increasing lean body mass; promoting healthy immune function; improving mood; improving sleep; maintaining bone health or even increasing bone density; improved glucose metabolism. For women, additional benefits can include easing / reducing menopausal symptoms. Dosages used in studies generally range from 25 milligrams per day to 200 milligrams per day, or higher; with women using dosages in the low end of the range, usually 50 milligrams per day or lower. The effects of long-term DHEA use are unknown. Based on studies of short duration, a few to several months, side effects are usually mild and reversible, and include decline in HDL cholesterol and acne or oily skin. However, additional side effects for women can be more significant and include, breast tenderness; Part One Page 1 - 138 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

reversible hirsuitism (facial hair growth). Even though DHEA has been sold as a supplement for many years and has a good safety record, the only real way to confirm safe and proper use is under doctor supervision. Also, men and women who are at risk of hormone dependent cancers should avoid using DHEA.

ECHINACEA (Echinacea purpurea, E. angustifolia) Echinacea is a well establish botanical that stimulates the immune system. Its main active ingredients found listed on supplement labels of standardized echniacea extracts are phenolics, echinacosides, or sesquiterpene esters, standardized to about 4%. Taking 200 to 400 mg, 2 to 3 times per day is an effective dosage for stimulating the immune system. Stimulation of the immune system is useful for the treatment of colds and flu, and symptoms. Some recent research performed on athletes in the early part to the athletic season, show that athletes taking Echinacea experienced fewer upper respiratory infections when compared to athletes not taking Echinacea. So, using a high quality Echinacea botanical supplement may help to reduce your sick days. Echinacea is taken in intervals of 14 to 21 days at a time with several days off, then the cycle is repeated, as to not over stimulate the immune system all of the time.

FERULIC ACID (FRAC) GAMMA ORYZANOL Gamma oryzanol is a substance extracted from rice bran oil which has been reported to promote a variety of metabolic effects, including: increased endorphin release, antioxidant action, lipotropic action, stress reduction, growth hormone stimulation, growth, and recovery. Ferulic acid is actually a part of the gamma oryzanol molecule that is also available as a supplement. Improvements include: increased strength, improved recovery, reduced muscle soreness, reduced sensation of fatigue, and decreased catabolic effects of cortisol. Dosages of 30 milligrams to 200 milligrams of ferulic acid per day, and/or 300 to 900 milligrams of gamma oryzanol per day have been reported as having no major side effects. While research is sparse, athletes report beneficial results from the supplemental Part One Page 1 - 139 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

use of gamma oryzanol and ferulic acid. Ferulic Acid is reported to be about 30 times more bioavailable then gamma oryzanol. Some research also reports the combined use of ferulic acid and anabolic steroids, with ferulic acid boosting the overall anabolic effects.

GARCINIA (Garcinia cambogia) The primary active ingredient in Garcinia is called hydroxycitric acid (HCA). HCA is reported to block an enzyme in your liver that converts carbohydrates to fatty acids in your body. This means that more carbohydrates will be available for cellular energy. Most supplements contain Garcinia which is standardized to an HCA content between 50% to 80%. Dosages found to be effective are 500 mg to 1000 mg, 3 times per day before meals. Garcinia is primarily used as a weight loss aid. Standardized Garcinia extract is also reported to control appetite, along with suppressing the formation of fat and cholesterol in the liver. No major side effects reported from taking Garcinia supplements at common dosage level used in studies.

GINKGO (Ginkgo biloba) Ginkgo is another botanical with reported benefits for improving and maintaining good circulation, and also mental function. This would be of special interest to endurance athletes. High quality ginkgo supplements are standardized to 24% flavone glycosides and 6% terpenes. The effect dosage range is 40 mg to 200 mg per day, in divided dosages, but 120 mg per day is the most common. Ginkgo also has powerful antioxidant activity which will help protect athletes from free radical damage, especially oxygen free radicals. No known major side effects have been reported from using product recommended dosages, but people on anticoagulant therapy should be cautioned about possible blood thinning effects.


GINSENGS There are several types of ginseng that have been in use for thousands of years as an overall promoter of good health and improved energy. The types of ginseng primarily found in supplements are: Chinese Ginseng (Panax ginseng), American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), and the related species, Siberian Ginseng (Eleutherococcus senticosus), also referred to as Ciwujia. Herbalists report that American ginseng is less stimulatory. Chinese ginseng and Siberian ginseng are the ones most researched and used for improving athletic performance. The primary “active” components of ginseng are a group of sponin compounds called ginsenosides/panaxosides, and eleutherosides in Siberian Ginseng. Ginseng also contains the trace mineral, germanium, which has been shown to exhibit overall health effects, and increase the body’s supply of oxygen. Ginsengs also contain other substances, including botanical antioxidants. Some of the benefits reported in the research include: Improved physical performance Improved oxygen uptake Improved post exercise recovery Improved exercise total workload Improved aerobic capacity Improved strength performance Increased time to exhaustion Reduction of lactate levels during exercise Improved VO2 max Reduced body fat Increased fatty acid utilization for energy Improved heart rate recovery

Improved mental performance Improved visual reaction time Improved psychomotor performance Reduced feelings of fatigue Improved visual reaction times Improved recall Improved alertness Improved motor skill coordination Improved auditory reaction time Decreased eye strain

Research results report a range of results from neutral to very significant improvements. When you add up the results from the dozens of research studies, one thing is certain, taking ginseng provides some level of benefit for improved physical and or mental performance. (Refer to the Rhodiola section below, for information on this related compound and overview of adaptogens.) When using ginseng, look for standardized preparations, 2 to 4% standardized ginseng products are a common standard. Ginseng products range from single ingredient to multiple ingredient. Chinese Ginseng combined with royal jelly is a traditional combination for energy. Siberian ginseng has been the favorite of Russian athletes, who are reported to use it regularly. Chinese ginseng is also widely used and well researched. Another researched combination is ginseng with ginkgo. Dosages of ginseng range between 100 milligrams to 1 gram per day during the season and pre-season, and as needed during the off season. Ginseng is also found in some good quality sports multi-vitamin/mineral supplements which offers convenience. Endurox is an example of a popular brand of Siberian Ginseng, proven effective in clinical studies.


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GLUCOSAMINE AND CHONDROITIN SULFATE (CS) In the body there are several types of connective tissues. Cartilage, tendons, ligaments, intervertebral discs, pads between joints, and cellular membranes all are comprised of connective tissue. All connective tissues have two common components, chief of which is collagen. One third of your body’s total protein volume is comprised of collagen, making it the most common protein in the body. The other component is proteoglycans (PGs). PGs form the “framework” for collagenous tissue. These huge structural “macromolecules” are comprised mainly of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) -- long chains of modified sugars. The principal sugar in PGs is called hyaluronic acid, 50% of which is comprised of glucosamine. The principal amino acids forming collagen are proline, glycine, and lysine. Collagen and PGs must somehow “get together” during the production of new connective tissue. Of the multitude of biochemical reactions which must take place during the synthesis of connective tissue, there is one critical “ratelimiting” step which, once reached, guarantees that new connective tissue is being successfully synthesized. That rate-limiting step is the conversion of glucose to glucosamine. Glucosamine is the single most important substance in the synthesis of connective tissue. Over thirty years of research has gone into understanding how glucosamine acts as the precursor of GAG synthesis. Glucosamine is so effective it repairs connective tissue, and may very well be a way to reduce the risk of conncective tissues problems from occurring in the first place by maintaining adequate connective tissues in your body. In human clinical trials, glucosamine given orally in doses of 750-1500 milligrams daily was observed to initiate a reversal of connective tissue degeneration, promote connective tissue maintenance, and also pain in the knee of athletes. Glucosamine as a supplement clearly aids in connective tissue synthesis. All athletes need such a substance, as the repair and growth of connective tissue is never-ending. Research has confirmed that both glucosamine HCl and glucosamine sulfate are effective. Similar to glucosamine, chondroitin sulfate has been tested in humans as a promoter of connective tissue maintenance, growth and repair. It is important to note that both glucosamine and CS are effective on their own. Recent research has found that when taken together they have a synergistic effect. One issue with CS is the high quality, standardized raw material is several times more expensive than glucosamine, and Part One Page 1 - 142 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

unstandardized powdered forms of CS. So, glucosamine tends to be a cost effective approach to promote connective health. For people who do not respond to glucosamine supplementation after 3 months of use, they should consider also using CS along with the glucosamine. A special research report is included in the appendix section of this book that reviews the various benefits that glucosamine and CS have to offer, from young athletes on up.

GREEN TEA (Camellia sinensis) Green tea extract is another botanical ingredient that you will find in sports nutrition products, also weight loss products. Its main function is as a powerful antioxidant. Recent research has determined that the polyphenols in green tea have a thermogenic effect, which increases the body’s calorie expenditure rate and also causes more fats to be used for energy. Green tea also has a mild stimulatory action, due to caffeine content. High quality green tea products are standardized to 50% to 90% catechins/polyphenols (epigallocatechin gallate is a primary green tea polyphenol). Green tea also has cardiovascular health and function benefits, helping to maintain the structure and function of the circulatory system. Depending on the potency of the standardized green tea extract, the beneficial dosage range is starting at 50 mg to 500 mg per day, or even higher. Some green tea extracts contain caffeine and some are decaffeinated. You can also derive the health benefits of green tea by drinking several cups of plain, fresh brewed green tea per day.

LIPOIC ACID Lipoic acid (alpha-Lipoic Acid or thioctic acid) is a substance made in the body, and functions as an antioxidant. Lipoic acid also interacts with some of the other nutrient and manufactured antioxidants to promote their function in the body, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, coenzyme Q10 and glutathione. Animals studies revealed that lipoic acid displayed a glucose uptake effect, thereby enhancing transport of glucose into the cells. Part One Page 1 - 143 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

The combined effects lead to exploring the therapeutic potential of using lipoic acid for improving certain conditions associated with type-2 diabetes. Initial studies discovered that lipoic acid seems to increase insulin mediated glucose uptake. Diabetics sometimes develop problems with their nervous system, called diabetic neuropathy, nerve disorders that can lead to causing pain, numbness, and muscle weakness. Oxidation stress is considered to be a contributing factor in causing the neuropathy. Some of the benefits reported from the research studies of diabetics taking lipoic acid include: improvement of neuropathic symptoms (reduction in nerve damage and pain), reduction of free radicals, enhancing glucose uptake, So, now lipoic acid is now being used by some athletes as an "insulin mimicker or helper" because it was shown in diabetic studies to help with the utilization of blood glucose, which may also help the body build muscle glycogen. As lipoic acid is a powerful antioxidant, supplemental use was shown to help protect the red blood cells and fatty acids from the type of oxidative damage caused by intensive training. Studies examining the effects of lipoic acid use by athletes are required to determine the specific performance enhancing benefits. One study published in 2003 reported the results of comparing the use of creatine monohydrate 20 grams per day; or creatine monohydrate 20 grams per day plus sucrose 100 grams per day, or creatine monohydrate 20 grams per day plus sucrose 100 grams per day plus lipoic acid 1000 milligrams per day for 5 days. Body weight increased about 2.1% for all of the groups, which confirms the effectiveness of creatine monohydrate. While the researchers did not detect any difference in increased body weight between the treatment groups, they did report a greater increase in phosphocreatine and total creatine muscle content. However, this did not seem to effect the outcome of increasing body weight, which was the same for all treatment groups. Perhaps future studies will examine if there are any different performance effects between the treatments. Lipoic acid is used in a wide range of dosages in products. Dosages of 300 to 600 milligrams per day are in a range of effectiveness based on clinical studies. However, some studies used even higher dosages. As lipoic acid has antioxidant effects, it is sometimes included in multi-ingredient products at lower dosages to contribute to the total antioxidant action. Lipoic acid is reported to be relatively safe in studies using 600 milligrams or lower. An infrequent allergic skin reaction is a rare side effect, including rash, hives and itching. A potential side effect is hypoglycemia base on the improved glucose uptake reported in some studies.


MELATONIN Melatonin is another metabolite substance produced by the body. Melatonin supplements have not been shown in any tests to directly improve athletic performance, but it has been shown to indirectly improve performance by stimulating certain bodily processes. As melatonin causes deep restful sleep, during quality sleep growth hormone, IGF, and testosterone levels are increased, which promote muscle growth and repair. Additionally, the deep sleep reduces cortisol levels, so the melatonin promoted deep sleep has beneficial anti-catabolic effects, as well as anabolic effects. According to several studies, it helps people fall asleep quicker, stay asleep, and enjoy a more restful sleep. Furthermore, it does this without causing sleep hangover, which is an after effect of most sleep medications. Researchers have determined that when the sun sets, the body’s melatonin level begins to rise. At dawn, the body’s melatonin begins to drop again. There are times, however, when the body’s natural melatonin production may be upset. Traveling across time zones disrupts melatonin production, causing what is commonly known as jet lag. Nervousness before an important athletic event affects melatonin production, as does the stress of training. Staying up late to study for a test, catch up on work, reading or watching television can also be disruptive because, according to researchers, lamplight may be enough to suppress proper melatonin production. Millions of people have been using supplemental melatonin during the past few years with no apparent side effects. The amounts typically used successfully in studies for short-term use have ranged from 0.5 milligrams to 6 milligrams per day, although up to 10 milligrams per day is sometimes recommended. However, until researchers determine the effects of long-term supplemental use of melatonin, use only when needed for short periods of time, several days up to 4 weeks. For safest use consult your doctor before using, as there are some potential side effects, including incompatibility with drugs and for people with certain conditions and also, disturbed sleep could be a symptom of a disease. Some potential use concerns include people with hormonal disorders, diabetes, liver disease, cerebral palsy, seizure disorders, migraine, depression, hypertension, and may be incompatible with immunosuppressive, sedative and hypnotic medications. As melatonin causes sleepiness, avoid driving, operating machinery or similar activities for at least 5 hours after taking melatonin.


PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES IMPROVE INJURY HEALING Athletic injuries cause setbacks in training and downtime during the season. Because of this, in the 1960s, a number of scientists looked for natural products that can help improve the rate of injury healing. In animal studies, the use of proteolytic enzymes was shown to reduce the inflammation associated with injuries and to shorten healing time. Subsequent studies conducted in hospitals and using injured people, surgery patients, and women who had given birth also demonstrated that proteolytic enzymes can help quicken the healing process. In 1967, P. S. Boyne and H. Medhurst applied these clinically verified benefits to athletes on the playing field. In a landmark study, they gave a proteolytic-enzyme concentrate (containing trypsin and chymotrypsin) to football (soccer) players from twenty-eight professional teams. The tablets were enteric coated, enabling them to pass through the stomach and not be digested until entering the intestines, since it had been learned in animal studies that the acidic stomach environment decreases the amount of proteolytic enzymes absorbed into the body by altering the enzymes chemically. During the study periods, any athlete who sustained a significant injury was immediately given two proteolytic-enzyme tablets, followed by two tablets at bedtime. The injured athlete then continued to take four tablets daily, in divided dosages, a half hour before meals, until he recovered from his injury and was able to return to training. At the end of the football (soccer) season, Drs. Boyne and Mehurst determined that less playing time had been lost per player when the injured players were given the proteolytic-enzyme product as compared to the previous season, when the proteolytic-enzyme product had not been given. In other words, the proteolytic-enzyme product reduced the amount of time it took to recover from injury and return to training. Other researchers reported similar results when using proteolytic-enzyme preparations to help quicken injury-recovery time. The benefits to the healing process include improved blood flow to the injured area, reduced inflammation, reduced edema, and improved flexibility and motility. Along with the proteolytic enzymes (trypsin and chymotrypsin), the enzymes papain and bromelain have also been shown to be effective at improving the rate of recovery from injuries. Note that in the aforementioned studies, proper medical attention was also administered, along with drug therapy when indicated, as well as physical therapy, rest, and the application of ice. The oral proteolytic-enzyme products were well tolerated by the subjects, and side effects were rarely reported. So, the next time you experience a sports-related injury-or any injury, for that matterinclude a short course of proteolytic enzymes in your treatment. Consider using a bromelain, papain, or trypsin-chymotrypsin product, or one that contains all four of these efficacious enzymes, in enteric-coated tablets or capsules. The effective daily dosages range from 300 to 500 milligrams three to four times a day. These enzymes are best taken on an empty stomach, with juice or water. (Do not take these enzymes if you are sensitive to papaya or pineapple.) They are typically taken until the injury is healed, usually several days; take them longer only under a doctor's supervision. In addition to taking the enzymes, make sure you maintain a healthy diet and take your regular supplements, as well as other supplements known to improve healing-bioflavonoids, 1,000 to 2,000 Part One Page 1 - 146 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

milligrams a day; curcumin, 1,000 to 2,000 milligrams a day; glucosamine, 1,500 to 2,500 milligrams a day; and chondroitin sulfate, 1,500 to 2,500 milligrams a day. And don't forget to seek medical attention for proper treatment of the injury!

RHODIOLA Rhodiola consists of a group of species of plants found growing in colder regions of the world. The species Rhodiola rosea, also known as golden root and arctic root, has been shown to promote beneficial health and performance effects similar to the ginsengs. Like many botanicals it has been used in folk medicine for thousands of years, but scientific research was not started until the 1900’s. Russian scientists have pioneered research using Rhodiola and reported that extracts from their Siberian indigenous plant helped to increase the body's resistance to physical and mental “stresses”. Like the ginsengs, Rhodiola is categorically considered an adaptogen botanical. Adaptogen is a term coined by Russian researchers to describe a substance that helps increase the body’s resistance to adverse influences and stresses, both physical and environmental. Generally adaptogens boost the body’s immune system, energy levels, and physical and mental performance. To be a true adaptogen, a substance must be safe for daily use, increase the body’s resistance to a wide variety of factors, and have a normalizing action on the body’s systems. Adaptogens are useful to healthy individuals as an aid for coping with daily stresses, and as a tonic to help maintain normal body functions. They are also used by people with illness in support of therapeutic treatment. This ability of Rhodiola and other adaptogens eventually lead to research on athletes, in addition to people in the workplace, students, even research with Russian astronauts to help overcome space flight related fatigue. As a result of numerous animal and human studies Rhodiola has been shown to promote similar benefits for improving physical and mental performance, (see ginsengs). In particular the research indicates benefits for athletes looking to improve endurance, skills and reaction time, in addition to work performance and health under stressful situations. Daily dosages of Rhodiola range from 200 milligrams to 600 milligrams per day, of standardized extracts containing the key bioactive substances, 3% rosavin and 0.8 to 1% salidroside. When taking Rhodiola for the first time some people may experience feeling overly stimulated or jittery. If this occurs it is recommended that smaller daily dosages of 50 to 100 milligrams per day are used for a few to several days, followed by increasing the dosage to the recommend levels prescribed by the product’s instructions.


TURMERIC In addition to being a favorite culinary spice, turmeric (Curcuma longa), which originated in Asia, has been employed in the traditional health-care systems of many nations for centuries. Curcumin is the main pharmacological agent in turmeric. Curcumin has been shown in several studies to have protective properties similar to those possessed by the nutrient antioxidants vitamins C and E. Turmeric is also used in the Indian and Chinese systems of medicine in the treatment of inflammation. This use seems to be substantiated by recent scientific research demonstrating that curcumin possesses significant antiinflammatory action. An herb that combats inflammation is known as a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory (NSAID). The recommended dose of turmeric is about 400 milligrams three times a day. This helps reduce inflammation, pain, and muscle soreness.

WHEAT GERM OIL AND OCTACOSANOL Octacosanol is a component of wheat germ oil, and both have been used by athletes for improved performance effects. Wheat germ also contains vitamin E, essential fatty acids, and plant sterols. Studies on humans have used amounts of octacosanol ranging from 1,000 to 6,000 or more micrograms (mcg) per day. Benefits include: improved neuromuscular function, increased reaction time, improved endurance, improved muscle glycogen storage, and reduced effects of stress. Daily use of octacosanol along with wheat germ oil can be beneficial during the season and pre-season.


PART TWO

FEATURE TOPICS AND SPECIAL FEATURES

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CHAPTER 2.1 FEATURE TOPICS SPORTS NUTRITION MEAL REPLACEMENTS, PROTEIN POWDERS, BARS AND SPECIALTY PRODUCTS Back in the 1960’s when I started using bodybuilding and sports nutrition products the number of products and ingredients was much smaller in number compared with today’s vast selection. Even in the 1980’s when I started designing and marketing these types of products there were still fewer companies, product types, and ingredients. Starting in the early 1990’s is when the sports nutrition industry started growing rapidly. This was promoted by the increased sports nutrition research, and also from the passage of the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994, which permitted the use of more ingredients in supplement products, and also permitted the use of claims that can be made when selling these products. Today there are hundreds of companies making thousands of sports nutrition products. It can be outright mind boggling when trying to select which products to use. As the primary lesson from Part One was to consider the nutrients the body needs and are research proven, this nutrient focused approach will also help you to decipher the ingredients being used in sports nutrition products. When you start looking at the ingredients, you start to see trends among the different products, and how most products in a particular sports nutrition category contain the same major ingredients. There is a wide selection of generic type sports nutrition products, for example creatine, whey protein, dextrose, BCAA’s, betacarotene, calcium, carnitine, and vitamin B6. These products are very straight forward and “feature” ingredient(s). Then there are the specialized multi-ingredient sports nutrition products. A major part of the art and science of sports supplement formulation is to create customized formulas to meet certain needs. On the surface these products can have a certain degree of what I call “mystique appeal”. But, when you take a close look at the ingredients and compare products of similar use, you will observe that they use primarily the same ingredients. Nutritional intake plays a role in all phases of athletics, from precompetition training to post competition recovery. Many nutritional substances have been employed over the years to maintain and enhance physical performance. Among the most widely used of these performance foods are protein powders, meal replacements, and sports bars. More recently, nutritionally complete powder supplements have become popular and offer a multitude of benefits to athletes.


The appropriateness and effectiveness of these types of supplements, or of any nutritional substances intended to enhance physical performance, depend on a careful evaluation of the physical requirements of the sport and metabolic characteristics of the athlete. The metabolic characteristics include the rate of gastric emptying, ability to digest nutrients, taste preferences, and gastrointestinal tolerance. The sport-specific requirements may be for high-carbohydrate beverages to improve energy output and increase endurance; highprotein powders to assist muscle growth and recovery for strength and/or power athletes; complete, high-quality meal-replacement products to aid weight loss or weight maintenance while maintaining peak physical performance; or metabolic optimizers and specialized sports supplements, which offer the benefits of several supplements combined in a convenient and tasty nutrient-dense beverage. The appropriate nutrition product(s) will contain ingredients that meet the specific demands of the athlete in question. In this chapter is reviewed some of the scientifically engineered sports-nutrition powders and bars that are popular among athletes. These products include meal replacements, protein powders, sports nutrition bars, and combination ingredient specialty products.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPORTS-NUTRITION POWDERS The story behind the development of today's powdered sports-nutrition products is as compelling as those of the space program and computer technology in the last fifty years. In fact, the development of the first "meal in a can" can be traced back to post-World War II nutrition research, during the early years of the space program. Exercise physiologists and nutritionists working closely together conducted pioneering nutrition experiments for the goal of finding a way to ensure the health and safety of the astronauts leaving the Earth's gravity for the first time in human history. As information about the essential nutrients accumulated, nutrition researchers began to experiment with what came to be known as "chemically defined diets." Some of the researchers focused on creating a nutritionally adequate diet, made up of the known essential nutrients of the day. Their first subjects were laboratory animals. In the early 1950’s, after scientists figured out the correct formulas for animals, they diligently experimented to sort out exactly which nutrients were essential for humans to grow, develop, and maintain health and performance. For astronauts, they wanted to create a highly efficient meal that would keep the astronauts working at peak performance but that would also minimize the amount of waste products. Maintaining perfect health was considered to be essential for the astronauts' survival as they explored the unknown effects of zero gravity on the body. One of the classic studies in this area, appearing in the May 1970 issue of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, reported on the history and interesting effects of chemically defined diets; it is required reading for anyone seriously interested in nutrition. In the article, Dr. Milton Winitz and his coworkers reported the results of their several-month-long study using chemically defined diets on human subjects. The composition of the completely defined chemical diet they used included the essential and nonessential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, and essential fatty acids. This chemical nutrient Part Two – Page 2 - 3 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

concentrate was diluted in water and used as the sole source of nutrition during the experimental period. The total daily caloric intake of each subject was adjusted to match his or her specific metabolic demands. While this pioneering nutrition research did not examine all of the intricate bodycomposition and physical-performance measurements typically used in today's medical studies, some interesting discoveries were made. First, it was found that the health of the subjects was maintained, and improved in some cases, during the twenty-five-week period. Second, cholesterol levels were reduced, along with blood pressure. Third, bodyweight changes were observed, depending on the subject's starting condition. For example, overweight individuals rapidly lost fat tissue, underweight individuals showed healthy weight gain, and individuals considered to have normal starting weights did not experience any appreciable weight changes. Another interesting body-weight dynamic was also observed. The chemically defined diet was designed to exclude dietary fiber and other dietary bulk. As a result, during the first week of the study, all the subjects experienced an initial weight loss of up to 11 pounds. This lost weight was quickly regained during the first week after returning to a normal diet. The researchers attributed this abrupt initial drop in weight to the clearance of gastrointestinal bulk. The significance of this research was multi-faceted and led the way to the development of new clinical therapeutic diets, weight-loss diets, and a vast array of sports-nutrition products. It also opened the minds of scientists to continue researching the intricate relationship among nutrients, body composition, health, and performance. Knowing about Dr. Winitz's early research makes it easy to understand how the past research discoveries underlie the formulas of the various sports-nutrition products. The nutritional characteristics of the different sports-nutrition powders are the result of different nutritional strategies. But, this is only part of the powdered-sports-nutrition story. The other side of the story involves developments in food technology that paralleled the discoveries made by nutrition researchers. These technological developments led to the invention of sophisticated experimental equipment and techniques, the identification of new and unique nutrients, and the creation of high-tech manufacturing techniques to turn these new ingredients into usable products. The advancements included technological developments that have resulted in better, more biologically active ingredients. Another factor to consider in the food-technology story is the economics associated with the inclusion of these revolutionary new ingredients in sports-nutrition products. When new dietary ingredients are first made, they are usually very expensive due to the newness of their production process and their low market demand. In cases where the ingredients are protected by a patent, the producers can maintain the higher prices, due to the ingredients' patent-protected exclusivity. Eventually, as the market demand increases for these novel supplement ingredients and the manufacturers develop better and faster ways to produce them, the prices fall, and


these savings are passed on to the consumer as a result of competition in a freeenterprise society. For example, in the late 1980’s when creatine and whey protein isolate products were first appearing in the marketplace, they bore expensive price tags. Now, over double the amounts of these highly regarded sports-nutrition products can be purchased for less than half the cost several years ago. As manufacturing technology improves to meet increasing market demands, prices will continue to drop on some of the newer, more expensive sports-nutrition products that scientific research has recently brought to our attention. It is also interesting to note that protein powders are usually easier to manufacture when compared to the ready to drink products. In fact, until the 1990’s, there were very few ready to drink meal-replacement drinks. This is primarily due to stability issues encountered when the ingredients are hydrated and sit on the shelf for months at a time. So, while more ready to drink meal-replacements are now available, the MRP products dominate the sports nutrition marketplace. MEAL-REPLACEMENT POWDERS There is no doubt that when Dr. Winitz's research was originally published, the fast weight loss observed during the first week of his experiment influenced the weight-loss market to offer products that produced similar results. Millions of people turn to powdered mealreplacement drinks each year in their quests for slimmer bodies. When used properly, these products work. However, as already discussed, the rapid weight loss experienced with these products is caused mostly by the elimination of gastrointestinal bulk and water weight. While many of the meal-replacement powders currently available on mass-market shelves have long histories of being safe (when used properly, as part of a nutritionally balanced diet), the quality of the weight loss they facilitate and their total nutritional value are not necessarily the best for meeting the high-performance demands of athletic people. Athletes need to consider the amount of protein a meal-replacement product contains, as well as its total number of calories, different types of carbohydrates, fat content, and variety of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients essential for promoting desirable body composition changes and maintaining physical performance. For example, athletes require two to four times the RDA of protein, but most mass-market meal replacements contain just very small amounts of this macronutrient, usually less than 10 grams per serving. It is extremely important for athletes to maintain an adequate protein intake all the time, to maintain their muscle mass and a healthy metabolism. Therefore, during this past decade, sports-nutrition companies have developed mealreplacement products specifically designed for athletes. As you shop around for a sportsnutrition meal replacement, you will notice that they are high in protein, containing usually 20 grams per serving or more, and include a comprehensive profile of essential nutrients. These special sports-nutrition meals are usually low in fat and contain customized blends of carbohydrates, mixtures of simple and complex carbohydrates, including dietary fiber. These special carbohydrate blends are designed to provide a sustained supply of energy to help maintain the blood-sugar level. Maintenance of the blood-sugar level is important for mental and physical performance, and appetite control. Dietary fiber also helps


maintain the blood-sugar level, as well as control the appetite. Dietary fiber is nature's appetite-control substance and blood-sugar regulator. Concerning the maintenance of the required daily caloric intake, athletes in intensive training and competition typically need to ingest 3,000 to 7,000 calories per day, depending on their activity level and body weight. Because of their hectic schedules, however, it is often difficult for them to consume enough calories and nutrients. This can lead to a nutritionally deficient diet, which can cause the muscle-glycogen level to decline and may impair the ability to train and perform adequately. Poor diets also often lack the protein, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients needed for optimum training and performance. Meal-replacement powders, which are also called "engineered foods," can enhance the nutritional value of athletes' diets tremendously. They provide carbohydrates, to supply energy to the working muscles; protein, to provide amino acids for muscle growth and repair; and vitamins, minerals, and metabolites, to satisfy nutritional requirements. In addition to using meal-replacement powders for weight loss, athletes have also found them to be convenient meal substitutes and high-quality snacks that increase the nutritional quality of the daily diet. The Advantages of Meal-Replacement Powders (Ready To Drink Ones Too) Meal-replacement powders and drinks can be used as follows: •

As pre-competition, post-competition, or post-training meals, or as meals between events during tournaments. Meal-replacement powders can serve as easy alternatives to solid food for athletes competing in day-long competitions or tournaments, or in multiple events. Solid food consumed before competition may cause stomach upset. The low or lactose-free formulations of many meal-replacement powders may help reduce gastric distress and nausea. Meal-replacement powders also can be consumed closer to competition time than regular meals, due to their shorter gastric-emptying time. This may help avoid competition nausea in athletes whose tenseness may delay gastric emptying. When using a meal-replacement powder as a pre or post-competition / training meal, choose one that is high in total calories (300 to 650 calories), high in carbohydrates, moderate in protein (15 to 40 grams), low in fiber, and low in fat.

•

To maintain body weight. Athletes' travel schedules and rigorous training regimens often do not allow time to consume an adequate diet. Meal-replacement powders/drinks can supply the calories and protein needed to prevent the loss of lean body mass.

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To lose weight. High-protein meal-replacement powders can help athletes lose fat weight without sacrificing muscle weight. They offer a balance of nutrients in place of high-fat, high-calorie foods. They also produce a low stool residue and thereby help minimize the weight gain following a meal, which may be of special benefit to wrestlers, boxers, weightlifters, powerlifters and athletes in other weight class sports.

•

As a high-energy snack. Meal-replacement powders/drinks can serve as convenient high-carbohydrate, moderate-protein snacks to maintain the energy level and enhance performance. They can also supply extra nutrition during heavy training, when the caloric requirements are greatly increased. They can provide a significant amount of calories and contribute to satiety without leaving the athlete feeling uncomfortably full.


•

To increase lean body mass. In addition to a resistance-training program, consuming adequate calories and protein is essential for the development of muscle tissue. High-protein meal replacements can supply the calories and protein without the extra fat that usually is found in conventional food.

Meal-Replacement Powders Versus Conventional Meals Does this mean that you should forgo conventional meals? No, you need to include healthy conventional foods in your sports nutrition program, in addition to the use of mealreplacement powder/drinks. Especially in the fruit and vegetable food category, which is not easily replaceable with processed products. Include a variety of healthy whole foods in your diet, in addition to meal-replacement powders/drinks. If you would like to try a meal replacement, there is a wide variety on the market. These days, high-quality meal-replacement powders are available for about two to four dollars a serving, which is a reasonable amount of money to pay for a nutritionally complete meal. And many of these products are quite delicious and satisfying. When shopping for a meal-replacement powder/drink, the important things to consider when deciding which one is the best for you are taste and digestibility. Almost all mealreplacement powders are high in nutrients and low to moderate in calories; except for the weight gainer products, which can be 600 calories or more per serving. Some quality products are EAS Myoplex Plus Deluxe, TwinLab Rx Fuel, Weider, Nature's Best Perfect Rx, and MET-Rx, all of which supply high amounts of carbohydrate and protein, a low amount of fat, and additional nutrients required by athletes. No matter which specific brand you use, when you first use a sports nutrition quality mealreplacement powder, you may find your stomach slightly bloated or suffer gastrointestinal cramps or diarrhea. This is usually because your body needs time to adjust to the nutrientdense character of these products. In some cases there may be a certain ingredient you have trouble digesting. Don't fret; there are a good number of products from which to choose. If you have a problem with lactose, you may need to select a product that is lactose-free. You might need to try several products in order to determine which one works the best for you. The experimentation may be worthwhile, though. If you experience gastrointestinal upset when first using a particular product, there are a few things to try to get your body accustomed to it, before giving up on it: • • • • • • •

Contact the company that makes the product to get some advice from them. Drink water or another beverage several to 20 minutes before drinking the MRP. Drink the MRP slowly, in sips. Try starting with half servings. Eat some other foods with the MRP, bread for example. Combine some compatible foods in to the MRP, like fruit. Drink the MRP as part of a snack or small meal.

After a few times of trying a particular product, if you still have gastrointestinal upset then it is probably time to try another product. But don’t give up, the sports nutrition benefits of using these products is worth the effort.


EXAMPLES OF SOME MEAL REPLACEMENT AND PROTEIN PRODUCTS

A Unique Whey Protein Isolate Pudding Mix


PROTEIN POWDERS As a category of food products, protein-powder supplements generically are dry powders, with 50 percent or more of their weight made up of essentially purified or concentrated protein primarily from whey, casein, egg and soy (refer to Part Three for comparisons). Carbohydrates are often added to protein powders. This is because they can be used to increase the calorie content, and they seem to boost the efficiency of the protein, allowing it to be used to repair and build muscle rather than provide energy. Carbohydrates usually increase insulin levels more than proteins, so this can also help stimulate amino acid uptake by the cells. In addition to the amino acids contained in the protein source, some protein products contain additional added nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, herbs, extra individual amino acids (such as L-glutamine), creatine, dietary fiber, flavorings, emulsifiers, sweeteners, digestive enzymes, and metabolites, to improve the amino-acid profile or enhance the protein utilization. The addition of beneficial nutrients and ergogenic aids can make the protein powder supplement more effective, multi-functional, convenient, and more economical, versus taking more types of separate products. When including the different ingredients there is also the potential for synergistic effects, as reviewed in Part One. In fact adding additional amino acids that athletes need more of is now a common product development practice, in particular adding extra arginine, the BCAA’s, and glutamine, for example. Regardless of such additives, protein supplements, as a group, are not intended to serve as meal replacements, and many labels contain a disclaimer to that effect. The reason disclaimers are printed on the labels of low-calorie, high-protein products is to caution consumers that these products are not intended for use as the sole source of calories. Using these products this way may be unhealthy. In addition, most protein supplements contain a "Supplement Facts" panel, which categorizes them as dietary supplements. Dietary supplements are intended to supplement the diet, not to serve as meals. Most protein supplements are potent, consisting of 85-percent or more protein. Many athletes use them between meals, adding them to other drinks or even to foods such as oatmeal and pancakes, or using them as high-protein, low-calorie snacks. However you choose to use your protein supplement, purchasing a high-quality product is the first step. Protein Quality Supplement manufacturers make numerous claims about their products, presenting different ratings like protein efficiency ratios (PER’s), and processing nomenclature such as "micro-filtered, ionized-fractionated protein isolates" to bolster product intrigue. But, as a consumer how are you to know exactly where the sources of protein-for example, soy, egg, casein, and whey-rank in terms of quality? And how big are the differences between them? Consumers are constantly confronted with new "miracle" protein supplements claiming to be the best, with each one also purporting to have scientific literature backing it up.


Supplement manufacturers use various protein-rating methods to support the claims they make about their protein products. These methods, which are intended to determine protein quality (growth-promoting ability), include PER, net protein utilization (NPU), net protein ratio (NPR), biological value (BV), and protein-digestibility-corrected amino-acid score (PDCAAS). BV, which essentially is the amount of protein retained in the body relative to the amount absorbed, is the most often used method because it assesses digestibility as well as protein-utilization efficiency. When confronted with these methods in advertisements, in articles, or on product labels, keep two things in mind: First, the values were established at very low protein intakes. And second, there are significant differences between how humans and animals utilize protein, and many of these rating systems are based either on animal studies or just theoretical human-amino-acid needs. Protein quality is related to the amounts of the various amino acids contained in the product. Because athletes use more of certain amino acids, such as the BCAA’s and glutamine, protein powders with higher amounts of these are considered to be of a higher quality for human performance. When comparing protein powders to food-source proteins, keep in mind that other nutrients, such as creatine found in high amounts in red meat, can affect muscle growth, recovery, energy, and strength, and may thus also influence the growth-promoting potential of the protein. In fact, it is interesting to note that the ancient Olympians, who were mostly strength athletes, apparently craved high-meat diets, as do today's power lifters, bodybuilders, and other strength athletes. We now know that in addition to their higher protein needs, these athletes can boost their performance with a higher dietary intake of creatine, which is found mostly in red meat. So, protein powders for bodybuilders and strength athletes are designed to be a more effective than food sources of protein. However, food sources of protein should be the foundation of your protein intake, topped off by protein powders, and other specialized protein containing multi-ingredient supplements. Additional Factors Other factors contributing to a protein's nutritive value are the nutritional and metabolic status of the individual consuming it, and his or her total daily intake of calories and protein. The relative value or quality of any given protein is highly dependent on the total quantity of calories and protein being consume. Metabolic status is itself influenced by the health of the individual, as well as by the physical (including training) and emotional stresses the individual is under. Certainly for athletes, the amount of the BCAA’s consumed per day affects the overall performance of the dietary proteins consumed. Accordingly, supplements that have a high BCAA content, either naturally or through the addition of extra BCAA’s, are more beneficial for athletes than those that don't. A further nutritional factor is the use of hydrolysates. Hydrolysates are proteins that have been partially digested by enzymatic hydrolysis. There are different degrees of hydrolysis, with the resulting hydrolysates containing small fragments of the original proteins, such as di- and tripeptides, which are quickly, easily, and completely absorbed. Hydrolysates are


basically predigested and may offer the advantage of quicker assimilation. For athletes with high daily food intakes, speeding up digestion and absorption can leave more time for training and other activities. Which protein product is best for you depends on many factors, including your health, training level, overall diet, taste preferences, and even pocketbook. Companies such as, Sports Nutrition Pharmacy, Higher Power, Awesome Muscles, MuscleTech, BSN, MHP, TwinLab, EAS, Champion Nutrition, Weider, Optimum Nutrition, Designer Protein, and Universal are among the companies selling quality protein powders. Whichever brand of protein you choose, include its regular consumption in your daily diet and you'll be amazed at the beneficial results you will experience in a short period of time. Sustained-Release Protein In addition to protein ingredient quality and combination innovations, the use of sustainedrelease technology has been utilized to create the first sustained-release protein powder, called Probolic-SR. This product uses a patented micro-feed technology that extends the release profile of the amino acids over a 12 hour period. In doing so the idea is to deliver a steady stream of amino acids to the body to provide building blocks for protein and prolong anabolism; tissue and muscle building.

MRP AND PROTEIN NUTRITION BARS Similar to the powders and ready to drink MRPs and protein drinks, is the sports nutrition bar products. These products are also designed to provide the athlete with high quality nutrition to meet a variety of special needs. Some are designed to be a complete meal or snack, while others to be a source of low fat, high quality protein. In addition to nutrient composition and quality, is taste and texture is an important feature. The better a nutrition bar tastes and the more enjoyable it is to eat, the chances are you will be able to include it as part of your sports nutrition program. Nutrition bars add to the diversity of food / supplement types, versus the previously reviewed drinks or pudding type products. As sports nutrition bars can offer athletes a convenient source of quality nutrition, it is worth taking the time to select the type(s) of sports nutrition bars that are best suited to your personal needs and preferences. Stock up on them, and keep them handy, at home, in your travel bag and at work. The following page presents some examples of this growing category of sports nutrition products.


EXAMPLES OF SOME MEAL REPLACEMENT AND PROTEIN NUTRITION BAR PRODUCTS


SPECIALTY PRODUCTS While the MRPs and protein powders, RTDs, and bar products are primarily designed to be a source of quality macronutrients and micronutrients, the specialty products can be more specific and sophisticated in design, ingredient composition, and purpose. Metabolic Optimizers Traditionally metabolic optimizers are nutritionally complete powders, containing combinations of protein, fat, carbohydrate, vitamins, minerals, herbs, and metabolites to aid in promoting the growth and the recovery of muscle tissue and promote athletic metabolic functioning. They are designed to be taken at different times during the day. Some just before or with meals, some between meals, others before and after exercise. Whatever the timing or use, products using metabolic optimizing formulation principals can be a beneficial choice for athletes of all types. As a historical note the term "metabolic optimizer" is synonymous with a product called Metabolol, invented by Michael Zumpano. In the early 1980s, Mr. Zumpano, a bodybuilder, author of training and nutrition articles and books, and founder of Champion Nutrition, sought to create a comprehensive powdered supplement that would supply the essential nutrients as well as optimize the anabolism. This metabolic optimizer would stimulate the anabolic metabolism, energy production, improve muscle growth and recovery, and increase athletic performance, in particular for bodybuilders and strength athletes. In addition to including essential nutrients, Mr. Zumpano sought to provide ingredients with high bioavailability and multiple metabolic functioning. Here are examples of the Metabolol and related products that established a sports nutrition category that continues to grow and diversify.

Growth Hormone Promoters This is a specialized category of products that are designed to promote growth hormone production in the body. This product type sometimes confuses people outside the industry, where they think that these products contain growth hormone; however they do not. From your reading in Part One, it was noted that some of the amino acids have been shown to promote, stimulate and elevate growth hormone production in the body. Before synthetic growth hormone was invented, researchers sought to find a nutritional solution to help people, especially children, to increase their growth hormone levels to normal or above normal to ensure proper growth and development. Part Two – Page 2 - 13 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

This body of clinical research eventually caught the attention of sports nutrition companies. The thinking behind these products is that if growth hormone levels can be increased and maintained, then this would increase the growth benefits associated with growth hormone and related growth substances in the body such as Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs). It is interesting to note that the clinical research usually administered the growth hormone promoting amino acids in divided dosages during the day. Typically, growth hormone levels were measured to increase after the dosages, and over the weeks or months of the study periods, to display an overall progressive average increase. Some formulas are also designed to be taken in the evening. Like other sports nutrition ingredients, taking a good quality product consistently is the key to successful results. One of the companies considered to be a pioneer and leader in this category of products is MPH (Maximum Human Performance). Gerard Dente, founder of MPH, a former competitive bodybuilder, and college football player, originally sought the use of GH stimulators to improve his own bodybuilding results. Once he found a formula that worked best, and confirmed its effectiveness with clinical testing, this led to creating a product that other athletes could benefit from using, called Secretagogue-One. The company also created the Secretagogue Gold formula with additional ingredients for a wider range of beneficial effects.

Creatine As reviewed in Part One, creatine is the most effect and well researched of the muscle and strength increasing ergogenic aids. It works on its own, and in combination with other ingredients. If you are a bodybuilder or other strength athlete, taking quality creatine supplement is essential for improving muscle building results and strength athletic performance. Here is an example of some creatine and creatine containing products.


Nitric Oxide Stimulators Products to help promote and support the production of nitric oxide have grown in popularity in recent years. As reviewed in the arginine section in Part One, arginine was used to stimulate nitric oxide (NO) production in people who had erectile dysfunction related to poor blood circulation. Arginine has also been used in clinical settings to improve blood flow in people with cardiovascular diseases. As use of nitric oxide stimulating products is new to athletes, future research will help to determine the benefits for various types of athletes. Currently bodybuilding and strength athletes are reported to be the primary users of these products. In addition to specific NO products, other products containing adequate amounts of arginine will also promote NO production. Here is an example of some of the NO specific products.


CHAPTER 2.2 SPECIAL FEATURES SPECIAL FEATURE: Muscle Precursor Cell Activation and Development As previously mentioned through out this book, new scientific discoveries and research often lead to new product development opportunities. During the past several years, researchers have made a few important discoveries about how cells in the body mature, live, die, and replenish themselves, over and over again. Most noteworthy for the athlete, in particular bodybuilders and strength athletes are the recent insights about how skeletal muscle fibers are renewed and maintained, and how new muscle fibers develop; yes new muscle fibers. The story begins with taking a look deep in side muscles, right down to the microscopic level. Nestled among muscles fibers are millions of smaller, sphere-like cells, called muscle precursor cells. The muscle precursor cells are resting in reserve, to be activated from their dormant state, to begin the process of NEW muscle fiber cell replenishment and growth. It was originally thought that the resistance training stimulus alone was the only way to active muscle precursor cells. Based on the most recent research, there is also a nutrient and physiological dependent series of events that are involved in the activation, proliferation,, differentiation and maturation of muscle fibers cells. Furthermore, muscle fiber precursor cell development is maximized in the evening, during sleep, under the proper nutrient, hormonal and quality of sleep conditions. One company that has been leading the field of bodybuilding and sports nutrition product development, Maximum Human Performance, has recently introduced a product based on maximizing muscle fiber precursor cell activation, through the stages to maturation, during sleep. The following information provides more information about this new scientific breakthrough product, called Cyclin-GF. This represents a new category of muscle building products. Dormant muscle precursor cell activation will be changing the future of bodybuilding. Cyclin-GF is the biggest muscle building breakthrough of the decade.


Overview Illustration of The Main Stages of Muscle Growth and Regeneration


CYCLIN-GF is designed to trigger and support Muscle Precursor Cell development leading to new muscle fibers. Activating these MPCs can initiate tremendous gains in muscle size through the activation, recruitment and development of new muscle tissue. The latest research developments in muscle fiber cell replenishment and growth has revealed:

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Stored deep within muscle tissue are a vast supply of millions and millions of Muscle Precursor Cells (MPCs). Many of these Muscle Precursor Cells are in a silent or dormant state, waiting to learn their destiny. They can either be activated to kick start “new muscle fiber growth” or they can remain dormant and eventually be sentenced for cell death. Upon activation, Muscle Precursor Cells begin dividing and forming pools of myoblast cells that are programmed to become muscle fibers (myofibers), but only under the ideal anabolic hormone conditions. Moreover, MPCs that are activated typically don’t achieve maturity due to inadequate nutritive activation, growth promoting factors, suboptimal anabolic conditions and high levels of undesirable muscle cell suppressing arrestor substances. Prior to the discovery of MPC activation and the development of CYCLIN-GF, we were only tapping into a fraction of our muscle building potential, because of millions of inactive Muscle Precursor Cells. The MHP research team has discovered how to activate these dormant but precious Muscle Precursor Cells and promote the anabolic internal environment necessary to stimulate Muscle Precursor Cell activation and carry them through the vital growth phases needed to achieve massive muscle fiber maturity.

Muscle Precursor Cell (MPC) Activation and Muscle Cell Maturity Based on both MHP’s and Nobel Prize winning research in physiology, the discovery of Muscle Precursor Cell activation and the key controlling factors needed to achieve new muscle fiber maturity instantly became a scientific advancement in muscle building. MPC activation has introduced a new pathway for growth beyond any other discovery. One major realization from these research efforts was the discovery that deep inside muscle cells, there resides a population of specialized cells called Muscle Precursor Cells (MPCs) that can be activated to repair existing muscle cells as well as create new muscle cells. This new understanding of the Muscle Precursor Cell phenomenon is what prompted the revolutionary development of the first ever MPC activator product called CYCLIN-GF. Based on the new body of research data about Muscle Precursor Cells (MPCs), it was determined that the muscle cell growth process involves a nutrient-hormone driven series of precise metabolic events that creates the proper stimulus and nocturnal nutritivehormonal internal environment necessary for the activation and maturation of Muscle Precursor Cells into larger fully developed muscle fibers. It was after this discovery that the MHP research team realized that a highly specialized technological advance was necessary to carry a dormant Muscle Precursor Cell (MPC) through the 4 stages necessary to develop a fully mature new muscle fiber, refer to illustration for graphical overview.


Inducing Deep Anabolic Sleep To Awaken New Muscle Growth When researchers examined the critical growth rate factors needed to occur in order to activate and develop a Muscle Precursor Cell (MPC) into a fully-grown muscle cell, they found that the greatest window of opportunity resided at night. They found a relationship between sleep quantity and quality and the anabolic cascade of hormones needed to grow new muscle. One of the multiple functions CYCLIN-GF is designed for, is to promote deep REM (rapid eye movement) phase sleep and stimulate MPC activation while simultaneously stimulating a cascade of anabolic hormones and co-factors for the maturation and development of new muscle tissue. Summary of Key Research Findings Leading to the Development of Cyclin-GF Cyclins Cyclins are a group of “special protein substances” Nobel Prize winning research determined that cyclins are essential in the regulation of the muscle cell cycle from MPC activation to maturation. Actively dividing cells are vital for growth, tissue repair and maintenance and cyclins play a major role in this nutrient dependent process. Nutrients and hormones control the production and function of these cell cycle regulators and influence cell growth. They can promote cyclin activity, leading to increased MPC proliferation during early stage muscle fiber development. Optimum cyclin activity is also vital in the replenishment of the MPC population to ensure adequate supply for subsequent muscle fiber growth and repair needs. Critical Insulin-like Growth Factors: IGF-1 and IGF-2: During the research project, important insights about muscle cell anabolism were revealed based on the new understanding on how muscle cell fibers regenerate and grow. This includes maximization of the IGF-1 and IGF-2 production and completion of the anabolic cascade stimulus. Coordinate control of the muscle fiber growth and regeneration process occurs by distinct IGF-1 and IGF-2 activated pathways. The most recent research reports that increasing levels of both IGF-1 and IGF-2 are vital for muscle growth, repair and maintenance. Key scientific insights were derived from examining people and research animals that had naturally low or naturally high IGF-1 and IGF-2 levels. The results: when IGF-1 and IGF-2 levels were low, muscle mass and strength were stunted and reduced. When IGF-1 and IGF-2 levels were high, muscle mass and strength was higher than normal. This research was further collaborated by studies that used substances to actually reduce or stimulate the production of IGF-1 and IGF-2. Again, researchers reported that when IGF-1 and IGF-2 levels were lower, muscle size and strength was reduced. When IGF-1 and IGF-2 levels were higher, muscle size and strength were increased. The Anabolic Cascade and Muscle Fibers From these new discoveries, it was further revealed that insulin-like growth factor IGF-1 and IGF-2 regulate muscle fiber growth and development in distinct phase and the proper nutritional-hormonal matrix is required for the “feed forward” cascade that drives MPCs through the myoblast and myofiber stages required for muscle growth and regeneration.


Also of vital importance is reducing adverse cellular environment factors caused by arrestors that suppress the vital muscle growth processes; as reviewed below. First, in the early regeneration phase, IGF-1 is involved in the activation of MPCs and proliferation of myoblast cells. Second, in the late regeneration phase muscle fiber enlargement and maturation occurs, which is controlled by IGF-2. Muscle fibers that are IGF-2 sensitized can contain more receptors for stimulation of increased nutrient uptake, increasing fiber growth and hypertrophy. Maximizing the Anabolic Cascade Research also revealed that it is not just one event, or one ingredient or one hormone that maximizes the nighttime muscle fiber growth process. There are multiple events that occur in a series and require a cascade of nutritive substrates and promoters to initiate the process and keep it moving along for maximum muscle growth. The process begins with the nocturnal stimulation of peak anabolic cascade hormone production; GH and IGF-1 followed by peak IGF-2 production. Also important is the Leutinizing Hormone (LH) and testosterone production that occurs during deep sleep. This LH-Testosterone enhances the anabolic cascade and contributes to the overall muscle growth and renewal processes. Once activated by adequate levels of GH, IGF-1 and key nutritive substrate, MPCs develop into specialized myoblast cells. These myoblast cells are programmed to become new muscle fibers under favorable nighttime muscle tissue anabolic conditions. Once activated, MPCs rapidly proliferate increasing in number. During the process they migrate and align themselves along side existing muscle fibers. Once in position, they await differentiation signals and then start developing into myotubes, a period called “early regeneration”. Under the proper anabolic conditions, muscle fiber enlargement and maturation occurs to form mature myofibers during the vital, IGF-2 driven “late regeneration” period. Overcoming Damaging Muscle Cell Arrestors There have been scientific reports that the circulating levels of inflammatory substances resulting from intense exercise and the “daily grind” can exert anti-anabolic and catabolic effects, which can suppress MPC activation. Therefore, a primary goal for maximizing the anabolic cascade effect is accomplished by reducing levels of damaging and growth suppressing muscle cell arrestors: cortisol, inflammatory cytokines and oxygen radical species. Fortunately, natural anti-inflammatory and neutralizing substances can be employed to counteract these effects, thereby evoking conditions more favorable for optimum muscle cell growth. The substances that suppress or prevent muscle cell activation, growth and maturation are collectively termed arrestors. These negative growth factors include cell-damaging biochemicals such as cortisol, inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species. Levels of arrestors rise during the day as a consequence of physical activity, bodybuilding and other athletic training. At night, the cell arrestor levels can remain high when specific nutritive substrates are missing, anabolic hormones are low and quality of sleep is poor.


For example, during the day cortisol is needed to release stored energy and stored nutrients based on your body’s high activity demands. But at night if cortisol and other muscle cell arrestors remain high, they suppress can MPC activation and maturity. The CYCLIN-GF formula contains ingredients to reduce levels of cell arrestors, thereby improving conditions favorable for MPC activation and maturation yielding maximum muscle growth.


SPECIAL FEATURE: The Ultimate Bodybuilding and Strength Athlete Super-Stack Sports Nutrition Pharmacy’s Explosive Growth Blend (EGB) was designed for the competitive bodybuilding and strength athlete. The goal was to create an effective muscle building and strength increasing product, with research proven ingredients, for fast and effective results. EBG is a marvel of sports nutrition research science and product development technology.

When you look around on the internet and in stores, and talk to your workout friends and teammates, you will find a diversity of sports nutrition product combinations they are using. Based on your Part One reading it becomes clear that for the best results you need the right combination of research proven ingredients in effective dosages. When it comes to building muscle mass and strength, there are indeed a variety of research proven ingredients to improve your results, in addition to an effective nutrition and training program. Explosive Growth Blend (EGB) is a premium, value-added muscle building and performance enhancing formula custom designed with ingredients proven to work, based on over 100 research studies conduced around the world. EGB contains Best Quality Ingredients for Best Results. This scientific approach of using multiple research proven ingredients for multiple benefits is what makes EGB most effective. The following information will provide insights about the EGB formula. Simply put, it is like taking all of the best top selling specialty sports nutrition products you read about in ads and testimonial articles about the top bodybuilders, but instead, EGB is conveniently in one special custom formulation. Additionally EGB is loaded with nutritional extras. EGB’s multiple-ingredient massive formula is designed to produce multiple benefits bodybuilders and other strength athletes wanting to improve gains in muscle mass and strength. Along with bodybuilding or other athletic training and nutrition programs, here is a summary of just “some” of significant benefits reports in the scientific studies conducted using the ingredients contained in EGB: Greater gains in increasing FFM (Fat Free Mass, which includes muscle mass), Increased muscle fiber size (hypertrophy), Increased muscle mass, Increased myosin muscle fiber content, Improved strength training adaptations, Improved limb blood flow, Reduced ammonia levels, Reduced lactate levels, Raised lactate threshold, Improved rate of training induced gains, Improved maximal strength and power, Improved work performed during maximal effort muscle contractions, Improved anaerobic power, Improved single-effort sprint performance, Improved multiple sprint performance, Improved work performed during repetitive sprint performance, Improved performance during exercise of high to maximal intensity, Increased number of weightlifting repetitions and sets, Increased gains in vertical jump height and power, Increased 1 Repetition Maximum (1 RM), Increased peak force and peak


power, Reduced pain levels, Reduction in joint tenderness, Reduction in joint swelling, Improved physical performance, Increased flexibility / range of motion, Reduction of connective tissue degradation, Joint health improvements, Enhanced synthesis of connective tissues, Increase fatty acid metabolism, Improved protein synthesis and muscle tissue growth.

Why Was EGB Developed? Most people are struggling to find the combination of supplements that works best to get additional gains in muscle and strength, above what training and conventional nutrition alone provide. So, based on decades of research and experience, this lead to the creation of the EGB formula, for total bodybuilding results. EGB is the one sports nutrition supplement you need to take as part of your athletic training and healthy performance nutrition program. Who Was EGB Developed For? The grand vision behind EBG was to provide a comprehensive All-In-One solution for competitive bodybuilders and other strength athletes to make significantly improved gains, naturally. EGB is for individuals who are intermediate to advanced bodybuilding & strength athletes, and who are training 4 or more times a week for serious improvements. EGB is also suitable for the fitness bodybuilder who wants to get faster and better results. More About The EGB Formula The EGB formula includes a massive amount of the top bodybuilding and strength performance ingredients, for example: Pure Whey Protein Isolate (full profile amino acids)+ BCAA's+ Leucine + Extra Glutamine + Extra Arginine + RG-Creatine + Nitric Oxide Stimulators + Anabolic promoters + Secretagogues + Glucosamine + Hydrolyzed Collagen + Taurine + additional Essential Amino Acids + Neurostimulators + Anabolic and energy Multivitamins and Multiminerals + Bioflavonoids + Ferulic Acid + Fat Metabolizers and Energizers like CLA, Green Tea and Carnitine, plus many more awesome muscle building ingredients. It could take dozens of products and over $159 to try to duplicate what's in the awesome EGB Proprietary Anabolic Complex. This makes EGB an effective bodybuilding and strength sport supplement, plus convenient and economical for you.

The Experimenting Was Done For You The reality is that most people spend a lot of money experimenting on their own with different supplement combinations, but never seem to get it right. Are you really happy with the results you have been getting using other products? Based on actual consumer demand, people wanted us to research the facts and develop the ultimate product that worked best for them. With EGB the experimenting is already done for you. All you have to do is follow the instructions, and focus on your training and nutrition programs to maximize your results. Breaking The Anabolic Code Was Key During the extensive product development research project, an important discovery was made about how the body grows muscles and other tissues. This research effort lead to the development of the anabolic cascade and anabolic maximization theories which dictate that certain metabolic agents are required to be consumed throughout the day to result in maximum total body building effects. This approach actually focuses on how to


best make your genetics work for you so you can experience the best results. Taking EBG three times a day before or with meals enables your body to assimilate EGB's potent ingredients and experience optimum muscle growth. Users report they experience the "Anabolic Surge" after taking EGB due to its potent ingredient composition. This really lets you know EGB is working fast. EGB therefore promotes the super-pump, but much, much more, including supporting your anabolic hormone production, and triggering the all important mTOR protein synthesis pathway, which actually controls certain muscle protein synthesis pathways. Fat Metabolism Fuels Muscle Building Explosive Growth Blend is additionally topped off with research verified fat metabolizing ingredients to give you the best of both worlds; extreme muscle building support and fat metabolism. EGB contains CLA (conjugated linoleic acid is the ultimate “lean lipid”), essential fatty acids, Carnitol (ALC and Carnitine complex), choline and thermogenics, like Green Tea. This puts you in control of the quality of your gains. Increase muscle mass and develop muscle definition during mass building training phases. Build muscle mass and reduce body fat during extreme cutting up phases. Plus, your body will be more anabolic and energetic when you are metabolizing your body fat better. Some of EGB’s ingredients are listed as a proprietary blend format to keep the details a secret so competitors don’t try to duplicate the unique formulation. Here is a glimpse of some of the featured ingredients contained in EGB: 200 mcg of Chromium (as chromium picolinate) 24 grams of purified whey protein isolate 16 grams of BCAA’s (with 12 grams of Leucine) 10 grams of Research Grade Creatine 5 grams of glutamine 4 grams of arginine/AAKG 1 gram glucosamine 4 grams hydrolyzed collagen

3 grams CLA 2 grams of carnitine and Acetyl L Carnitine 1 gram of thermogenics Over 1 gram of bioflavonoids Over 20 essential growth and energy multivitamins and multiminerals. Plus grams and grams of extras, like taurine, essential amino acids, OKG, Phosphatidylcholine, ferulic acid, etc


Good Tasting and Mixes Easy With all of the potent ingredients packed in to the EGB formula, you are probably wondering how it tastes. Well if you like chocolate flavor, it tastes great, and is functional too. For example, there is plenty of cocoa added to the flavor system, which also contains beneficial bioactives called polyphenols, with added antioxidant protection and circulatory system health benefits. EGB also contains some glucose (also called dextrose) and maltodextrin for flavor and function; the GlucoPlex Dual Phased Energy System. When taken before or with meals, the dextrose and maltodextrin contained in each scoop will help stimulate insulin production to help your cells take up the EGB formula ingredients better and also get more assimilation from the meal you ingest following EGB consumption.


SPECIAL FEATURE: East Meets West In The Quest For Boosting

Testosterone Levels Naturally Since the ban on androstenidione and related testosterone precursor products, there has been a next generation of testosterone boosting products introduced into the sports nutrition market. The following is an overview of the Higher Power brand M1T2 formula. This product is reported to be based on a combination of traditional Asian herbalism, topped off with Westernized sports nutrition technology.

The original M1T formula became a legend in its own time, and Bodybuilding.com's top selling product. As a result of the discontinued use of pro-hormones in supplements, the Higher Power research team sought to develop a product so powerful that it would be worthy of bearing the M1T name. The primary goal was to develop a product that would enhance testosterone and other anabolic substance production similar to or better than the M1T product. After months of research and development, the Higher Power team found that a formula using natural traditional medicine substances and extracts worked best, which also included AAKG. The new M1T2 formula contains a complex of herbal and special ingredients that increases the levels of anabolic hormones in the body. The M1T2 formula includes new and traditional male hormone increasers to support building muscle, strength, increase energy, stamina and virility while stimulating fat metabolism, in association with a training and nutrition program. The key M1T2 ingredients include a proprietary blend of:Tongkat Ali extract, 3,5,4Trihydroxystilbene, L-Arginine Alpha-Ketoglutarate, Tribulus Terrestris 40%, Jujube P.E., Polygonum Multiflorum extract 5:1, Polyrachis Ant extract 5:1. This is a special blend of high quality ingredients that are so powerful you will feel them going to work the first day you start to use M1T2. The same reason some of these potent ingredients are highly regarded as aphrodisiacs, is why they work for stimulating anabolic processes that are best for extremely massive muscle building. You may be familiar with some of these highly sought after anabolic promoting ingredients like Tribulus and Tongkat. But what makes M1T2 extra special is the additional bio-hormonal enhancing synergistic ingredients such as Polygonum multiflorum and Polyrachis Ant, which are unique and highly regarded ingredients used in Asian for traditional medicine for centuries for boosting anabolic hormone production, energy, vitality, and a host of other benefits you can read more about in the information that follows. M1T2 Detailed Overview M1T2 Formula helps to elevate the level of key hormones, such as testosterone and luteinizing Hormone (LH is a gonad stimulating hormone produced by the pituitary gland). A significant benefit of M1T2 Formula is the stimulation of hormone production to a balanced level, without over stimulating the secretion of hormones. The liver is a major synthesizer of important hormone precursors and also in the redistribution of hormones Part Two – Page 2 - 26 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

circulating through your body in the blood stream. M1T2 Formula has a stimulating effect on the liver where cholesterol is eventually converted in glands into master hormones such as testosterone. M1T2 Formula will have a major positive influence on cholesterol and other products of the liver. The increase in testosterone levels by M1T2 Formula will promote protein synthesis, positive nitrogen balance, as well as faster recuperation and recovery from muscular stress. M1T2 formula therefore has a positive effect on strength and stamina. Testosterone is proven to build muscle size and strength. M1T2 Formula has been designed to supply the supplements necessary for high testosterone production while also providing protection against side effects. Athletes are looking to M1T2 Formula as a possible natural and safer alternative to steroids as a means to increase size, strength, and performance. M1T2 Helps With: Increase Testosterone levels Stamina Muscle repair, rebuild and growth Increase energy Decrease body fat Increase muscle mass Strength

Tribulus Terrestris is an herb also known as the puncture vine, and has been used for centuries in Europe as a treatment for healthy sexual function and as a stimulant to help support sexual drive. On the athletic front, this potent herb has been studied and observed to enhance LH (luteinizing hormone) production and raise testosterone levels. The increased testosterone levels by Tribulus Terrestris will have a positive effect on strength and stamina. Athletes are using Tribulus Terrestris to help ensure their own natural levels of testosterone are at a normal level at all times. Tribulus Terrestris does not work the way prohormones such as Androstenedione and DHEA. It is a natural stimulant of LH, and other substances in the body. In fact, a person that has used a prohormone can use Tribulus Terrestris on the "off cycle" to help their own testosterone levels return to normal, which is what the prohormone will suppress. On the "off cycle", many men feel weak, tired, and moody because their own natural testosterone levels have been suppressed. Stamina, self-confidence and general well-being are all reported to improve with a Tribulus extract. Some research evidence suggests that the herb may also be useful for help maintain healthy cholesterol through its action on the liver. Tongkat Ali, also known as Long Jack, has been shown to support male hormonal balance (including testosterone availability) according to animal studies. Tongkat Ali is a Southeast Asian botanical used traditionally to enhance energy levels, endurance and stamina, and to reduce occasional mental fatigue. Tongkat Ali helps to increase testosterone, energy, and muscle mass. Testosterone is the most important of the male sex hormones, which are known as androgens, and are produced in the gonads. Women produce testosterone, but much less the amount produced in men. In both sexes, testosterone stimulates metabolism, promotes lipogenesis (burning of fat), increases the formation of red blood cells, and accelerates muscle growth. In the case of Tongkat Ali, its is a natural plant agent which causes the body to produce its own testosterone. As if Part Two – Page 2 - 27 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

increasing testosterone weren't enough, Tongkat Ali extract is also reported to increase ATP production. ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is the basic unit of energy in the body, responsible for keeping us alive and going. By increasing ATP, overall energy and vitality are increased. Most people want more energy, and Tongkat Ali provides it, without hyperstimulation, jittery nerves, or insomnia. 3,5,4-Trihydroxystilbene belongs to the phytoalexin class of phytochemicals and functions as a moderate antioxidant, quenching free radical damage linked aging. 3,5,4Trihydroxystilbene is an effective inhibitor of aromatase as well as an antagonist of the estrogen receptor. This greatly reduces the amount of estrogen activity and results in higher natural levels of testosterone which is critical to building muscle mass. It will modulate the estrogen system in your body and give you the exact results you want to help you reduce body fat and increase lean mass. Preliminary research results demonstrate that 3,5,4-Trihydroxystilbene may have antioxidant properties. Arginine alpha-ketoglutarate (AAKG) is a salt formed by combining two molecules of the amino acid Arginine and one molecule of alpha-ketoglutarate. Because it is involved in amino acid synthesis, protein availability and nitric oxide production, many athletes supplement with AAKG as a way to increase muscle mass and strength. Arginine AlphaKetoglutarate is suitable for bodybuilders, athletes and regular gym users wanting to gain muscle size and strength, get a better muscle "pump" while working out. Arginine AlphaKetoglutarate acts to stimulate the production of nitric oxide in your body. Nitric oxide acts as your body's master "cell-signaling" molecule, directing and ordering a complex array of activities. It regulates blood flow, muscle contraction, nerve signaling and muscle growth, just to name a few. The functions of this molecule are very impressive. Wider blood vessels carry more blood to muscles and tissues, delivering increased amounts of protein, carbohydrate and the various anabolic hormones (such as growth hormone and testosterone) needed for muscle growth. When nitric oxide is present in the muscles, it activates "gene-expression" and turns on the body's muscle-building mechanism (commonly called protein synthesis). In addition, the previously discussed herbal extracts were found in laboratory studies to further enhance nitric oxide releasing and associated benefits. Zizyphys jujube (jujube, Chinese jujube, red date or Chinese date), as long been grown for their excellent fruit. Natives to Asia where there are many cultivars grown for fruit. However, it has become naturalized in many other warm temperate regions. It was brought into the Mediterranean in ancient Roman times. In China it has the reputation of one of the five principal fruits. Zizyphys jujube fruit with amino acids increase and maintain the body's natural nitric oxide levels. Zizyphys jujube acts as an adaptogen by encouraging normal functioning of the adrenal glands, allowing them to function optimally when challenged by stress. Zizyphys jujube has been shown to enhance mental acuity and physical endurance without the letdown that comes with caffeinated products. Research has shown that Zizyphys jujube improves the use of oxygen by the exercising muscle. This means that a person is able to maintain exercise longer and recovery from workouts is much quicker.


Polygonum Multiflorum, originally from China, can also be found growing throughout Japan, Taiwan and elsewhere. The root of the Polygonum Multiflorum plant is used medicinally in traditional Chinese medicine. The mechanism of action of Polygonum Multiflorum is related to the fact that it has also been shown to be a progesterone receptor antagonist in the literature. This results in maintenance of higher testosterone levels. This progesterone modulation will give you increased natural hormonal response and fuel your fat burning, lean mass increasing furnace. Polyrachis Ant has been widely used and very highly regarded in China as a tonic for over 3000 years, and has been considered a superior ingredient of the highest order. Polyrachis Ant literally means "black horse". Records dating back thousands of years report that numerous emperors and noblemen have consumed ant tonics. “Ant” has been referred to in a number of famous Chinese medicinal classics, including Li Shi Chen's Ben Cao Gang Mu, where the great master praised ants as a superior tonic with excellent curative powers. It has been universally regarded as a superb Liver and Kidney tonic of the highest order. Its name, which it received in ancient times, means "black horse." It has been said that "Ginseng may be the King of Herbs, but Ant is considered the Herb of Kings!" Polyrachis is reported to produce various beneficial effects including: increased strength, energy, stamina; strengthens the nervous system, digestive functions, detoxification functions and muscular system; boosts mental and physical energy. In summary the Higher Power Elite M1T2 Anabolic Activating formula represents the next generation of anabolic hormone enhancing products. Products like M1T2 contain botanical ingredients that have been used throughout history, and in more recently in the U.S.A. As with all maters related to health, testing this and other similar products and nutrition practices is best accomplished under the supervision of your doctor to monitor your health. Sample of Scientific References Related to M1T2: -Hamed AI, Oleszek W, Stochmal A, Pizza C, Piacente S. "Steroidal saponins from the aerial parts of Tribulus pentandrus" Forssk. Phytochemistry. 2004 Nov;65(21):2935-45. Conrad J, Dinchev D, Klaiber I, Mika S, Kostova I, Kraus W. "A novel furostanol saponin from Tribulus terrestris of Bulgarian origin." Fitoterapia. 2004 Mar;75(2):117-22. -McKay D. "Nutrients and botanicals for erectile...: examining the evidence." Altern Med Rev. 2004 Mar;9(1):4-16. -Huang JW, Tan CH, Jiang SH, Zhu DY. "Terrestrinins A and B, two new steroid saponins from Tribulus terrestris." J Asian Nat Prod Res. 2003 Dec;5(4):285-90. -De Combarieu E, Fuzzati N, Lovati M, Mercalli E. "Furostanol saponins from Tribulus terrestris." Fitoterapia. 2003 Sep;74(6):583-91. -Gauthaman K, Ganesan AP, Prasad RN. "Sexual effects of puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris) extract (protodioscin): an evaluation using a rat model." J Altern Complement Med. 2003 Apr;9(2):257-65. -Sun W, Gao J, Tu G, Guo Z, Zhang Y. :A new steroidal saponin from Tribulus terrestris Linn." Nat Prod Lett. 2002 Aug;16(4):243-276 -Gauthaman K, Adaikan PG, Prasad RN. Aphrodisiac properties of Tribulus Terrestris extract (Protodioscin) in normal and castrated rats. Life Sci. 2002 Aug 9;71(12):1385-96. -Ganzera M, Bedir E, Khan IA. "Determination of steroidal saponins in Tribulus terrestris by reversed-phase highperformance liquid chromatography and evaporative light scattering detection." J Pharm Sci. 2001 Nov;90(11):1752-8. -Cai L, Wu Y, Zhang J, Pei F, Xu Y, Xie S, Xu D. Steroidal saponins from Tribulus terrestris. Planta Med. 2001 Mar;67(2):196-8 -Zarkova S. Tribestan: experimental and clinical investigations. Sofia, Bulgaria: Sopharma Chemical Pharmaceutical Research Institute, 1981. -Adaikan PG, Gauthaman K, Prasad RN, Ng SC.Proerectile pharmacological effects of Tribulus terrestris extract on the rabbit corpus cavernosum.Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2000 Jan;29(1):22-6.


Additional Products in the Androstenedione Replacement Category containing Tribulus, other botanicals and cofactors


CHAPTER 2.3 BODYBUILDING.COM’s SUPPLEMENT AWARDS As a leader in training and nutrition information, in 2005, Bodybuilding.com started an annual supplement product awards review. The selection was based primary on customer surveys (65%), along with review from experts and their employees. The results are presented below in short. As sports supplement science is evolving based on independent scientific studies to measure the effectiveness of ingredients and combinations of ingredients, in addition to the sports nutrition approaches as reviewed in this book, you may find it interesting to know about the results of this popularity / best selling review and rating process. Keep in mind that the participants are predominantly athletes and fitness enthusiasts that are active in bodybuilding and strength sports.

Here is an overview of the Bodybuilding.com 2006 awards. Refer to the Bodybuilding.com awards website for more information. Bodybuilding.com Supplement Award Winners

What Are The Awards? • • • • • • • • •

The Awards Where For The Following Categories: Supplement of the year • Protein of the year • Creatine of the year • Glutamine of the year • Protein Bar of the year • Multivitamin of the year • Muscle Builder of the year • Best New product • Break-Out Brand of the year •

Fat Loss product of the year Best Overall brand Best New brand Nitric Oxide product of the year Joint product of the year Energy Enhancer of the year Labels of the year Best Ads of the year Tanning product of the year


How Was It Scored? The Scoring Was Based On The Following: The nominees will be chosen based on the best sellers in that award category from January 1st, 2006 to August 10th, 2006. The final scoring was based on: Experts *

25%

Visitor Survey 65% Employees

10%

* Experts included over 400 writers, top level pro and amateur bodybuilders, personal trainers, industry experts, and more! They were chosen based on their unbiased position in the industry and their expert knowledge.

The following presents the advertisement that listed the winners of the awards in the respective categories, followed by listing of the first place winners. You can visit the award website to view the second and third place winners. 2006 was the second year that Bodybuilding.com had this supplement awards contest; the 2005 results are also located at the website. In addition to supplement categories the awards also included tanning products of interest to bodybuilders, and other categories of general interest, such as best ads of the year and best labels of the year.



Supplement Of The Year - Optimum 100% Whey Winner 2nd year in a row! AND Protein Powder Of The Year - Optimum 100% Whey Winner 2nd year in a row!

Brand Of The Year - BSN AND Best Labels Of The Year - BSN Winner 2nd year in a row!

Muscle Builder Of The Year - BSN NO-Xplode Winner 2nd year in a row! AND Nitric Oxide Product Of The Year - BSN NO-Xplode

Fat Loss Product Of The Year - Nutrex Lipo 6 Winner 2nd year in a row! AND Energy Enhancer Of The Year - Nutrex Lipo 6

Creatine Product Of The Year - BSN CellMass Winner 2nd year in a row!


Protein Bar Of The Year - Next Detour Bars

New Product Of The Year - MuscleTech Anator P70

New Brand Of The Year - USPlabs

Glutamine Product Of The Year - Prolab Glutamine Powder

Multi-Vitamin Of The Year - Universal Animal Pak Winner 2nd year in a row! AND Best Ads Of The Year - Universal Nutrition


Joint Supplement Of The Year - Universal Animal Flex

Tanning Product Of The Year - Pro Tan Instant

Break-Out Brand Of The Year - Xyience


PART THREE PERFORMANCE NUTRITION APPROACHES AND GUIDE TO ATHLETIC FAT LOSS Solving the Weight Loss Puzzle

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CHAPTER 3.1 PERFORMANCE NUTRITION APPROACHES The primary focus of this book is the ingredients used in bodybuilding and sports supplements. In particular, the ingredients that have been proven to provide a benefit based on independent research studies. But, as discussed in Part One, sports supplements are intended to supplement the diet. Therefore, in order for sports supplements to work best your daily nutrition program must be adequate too. This chapter will provide some basic information about sports nutrition approaches, along with additional information about sports supplements. Significant advancements in nutrition science have been made during the past decade, starting out the 21st century in a new, much needed direction. Eating for general health has advanced from merely satisfying hunger, meeting caloric intake needs, and ingestion of the bare nutrient essentials for survival, toward achieving optimum health, peak physical & mental performance, longevity and disease prevention. When it comes to nutrition for athletic performance, athletes need to maintain a foundation of healthy eating practices for optimum health, topped off with the special nutrition needs of athletes, considering their sport specific nutrition and supplement programs. For peak athletic performance this means focusing on what the body actually needs on an individualized basis, versus the national nutrition average intake approach. It is important to realize that while the government’s recent healthy eating guidelines, “2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans”, has come a long way, they are still not intended to meet everybody’s specific needs, especially those of athletes. However, with this in mind, these newest dietary guidelines are useful and contain examples of establishing a healthy nutrition foundation, and is included in the appendix for your reference. One major issue regarding the 2005 guidelines, and previous ones published by the government, is that they recommend a diet that is too low in protein. In comparison, over 2 decades ago my sports nutrition model included protein intake guidelines that were athlete specific, and higher than the government’s minimum RDA guidelines (Recommended Dietary Allowances). This was once considered out-side-the-box thinking. But, as the field of sports nutrition science evolved, and other scientists started using the model and considering the specific needs of the individual athlete, independent researchers eventually agreed to this dynamic nutrition approach. Today, it has become text book knowledge that athletes in general require more protein, and there are different protein needs for different groups of athletes, with strength athletes requiring the highest protein intake.


Regarding the government’s recommendations on protein intake, while the RDA minimum intake guidelines are still considered too low, other government groups acknowledge the need for higher than average protein intakes, especially for active people. For example, the military nutrition guidelines recognize that more protein is required for active people, and their standard recommendation is about double the intake that is recommend for the general population. Also the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) guidelines recommend a diet that is higher in protein. When looking at the recent growing body of research on higher protein diets, as prompted by weight loss researchers testing the higher protein weight loss diets, multiple health benefits are associated with increasing dietary protein above the RDA, in addition to providing building blocks for muscle and other body structures and biochemicals. Why so much introductory information about protein? Because protein is often deficient in an athlete’s diet, and being an extremely important macronutrient requires special attention and effort to ensure adequate intake, especially during the athletic season and pre-season. From my work in sports nutrition starting in the 1970’s, I sought to create a nutrition model of sports nutrition based on the bio-energetics and specific needs of athletes, versus the RDA’s average nutrition intake approach. Athletes are above average and require nutrition that is also above average. It is easy to appreciate the differences in nutrition requirements when comparing a marathon runner with a weightlifter. The type of physical activity influences the body at many levels (including anatomy and physiology) and creates the demand for the nutrient composition intake needed. So while there will always be some individual differences, most endurance athletes, from their training, will categorically require a similar intake of macronutrients, micronutrients and additional “nutritional ergogenic aids”. The same is true for weightlifters, and so on, with the athletes participating in sports between these two bio-energetic extremes also having some different requirements. Nutrition for athletes is truly dynamic, which led me to developing the Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance approach. This was the first approach that quantified sports nutrition, so I had to create special nutrition examples, as the general nutrition guidelines were not suitable. However, as the 2005 dietary guidelines have also become more scientific and “optimum nutrition” based, I included a copy of this in the appendix as a resource for helping to create an eating plan for the off season, to provide additional reference information for general healthy eating guidelines, and to apply the Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance concepts with. This will also assist when dealing with health professionals, as most health professionals are familiar with the 2005 guidelines, more so than they are with the science of sports nutrition. The following information will provide an overview of the Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance Approach. Keep in mind that while approaching sports nutrition from a bioenergetic and morphological model is viable, each individual has to make an effort to finetune their food and supplement intake based on their individual needs and health status.


This is best accomplished by working with a health practitioner. For example, the macronutrient model is straight forward, but when it comes to the micronutrient intake (vitamins and minerals) many athletes have inadequate intakes, and may require shortterm higher level intake to overcome these deficiencies. This requires identifying the specific essential nutrient inadequacies, followed by proper nutrient intake therapy; usually requiring high dosages for several weeks to a few months. Additionally, many people have food allergies or intolerances that can adversely affect health and athletic performance, and this also needs to be determined by a health professional. The primary points reviewed in this chapter will be: Review of the Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance Approach (DNMP) Issues regarding the macronutrients; protein, carbohydrates, and fats. Daily nutrition examples using the DNMP approach. Nutrient reference information.

Sports Nutrition is a Skill What the thousands of scientific studies conducted over the past few decades have shown is that if you engage in athletic training and competition, the demands of your physical activity will create a special nutrition need. Your athletic conditioning therefore determines what food and supplements will work best for your specific physical conditioning program. For example, a marathon runner needs to eat different amounts of protein, carbohydrates and fat than a powerlifter does. However, all athletes need to follow the rules of healthy eating as well as modify their dietary intake to enable them to achieve maximum performance. Becoming a master at planning and implementing your athletic nutrition program is just as important as perfecting your training program, skills, and athletic performance. It will take some effort on your part to construct a sports nutrition program that works best for you, but the payoff of being the best athlete you can be is worth the effort. Keep a food diary and become aware of your nutrition – athletic performance relationship. The information in this chapter and book will help to get you off to a good start, but, ultimately fine-tuning your nutrition program based on your individual needs is required to achieve your personal maximum athletic performance.

Dynamic Nutrition For Maximum Performance Approach The Dynamic Nutrition Approach, A Bio-energetic Model To Performance Nutrition When you train for a particular sport, you are conditioning your muscles to produce strength and contractions that generate motion specific to your sport objectives. For example, a marathon runner needs to display a lower intensity muscular output that can be sustained for long time periods. Compare this to the explosive strength needed for a hundred meter sprinter to run a short distance as fast as humanly possible. In the sprinter, the muscles are much larger and there is a high intensity muscle output over a very short Part Three Page 3 - 4 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

period of time. This explosive strength generates tremendous power and relies on different energy systems and muscle fiber types. This means that the type of physical conditioning you perform results in developing your athletic abilities, and influences muscle size, muscle fiber development, and bio-energetic conditioning of your muscles So, your athletic training shapes your anatomy and physiology, which creates certain nutrition requirements. Unless you are an exercise physiologist you my not be aware of these scientific insights, but these are very important concepts for you to realize. Once you take the time to understand them, it will help you in your athletic endeavors and later on in life when you are constructing your physical conditioning program for health and longevity reasons.

How Does Exercise Effect Your Muscle Fiber Development And Composition? In general, skeletal muscles are composed of two types of muscle fibers, which are classified as slow-twitch and fast-twitch. Slow-twitch muscle fibers are the ones preferentially developed when you undertake long distance training. This includes walking, running, cycling or swimming long distances. This type of physical conditioning results in smaller muscles, which have a lot of mitochondria packed into each slow-twitch muscle fiber. This type of muscle development also has more blood vessels needed to supply oxygen for aerobic metabolism, and to quickly clear away metabolic wastes, under conditions of continuous physical activity. A well conditioned oxidative athlete burns plenty of energy dense fatty acids for energy, in addition to high energy carbohydrates, and can maintain continuous movement for a long period of time. Take note, that glucose is also an important energy source for oxidative athletes, as well as some amino acids, in particular the BCAA’s as duration of exercise increases. Strength athletes require conditioning that will preferentially develop fast-twitch muscle fibers. Fast-twitch muscle fibers are capable of performing large output of strength over a short period of time. However, as a consequence of this, anaerobic waste products build up and cause muscle fatigue to quickly set in and impair strength performance. Fast-twitch muscle fibers have some oxidative capacity, the extent of which depends on how you train your body. The large muscles of power athletes are conditioned to utilize anaerobic energy pathways, such as the immediate energy systems, which use readily available adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP, also called phosphocreatine). Moreover, energy is derived from glycolysis which makes energy from muscle glycogen (glucose) to manufacture ATP molecules. Of course, remember that all athletes are always using fatty acids for energy too, however, strength athletes tend to be more conditioned and inclined to use muscle glycogen during exercise. This is one reason why strength athletes need to make sure that they are following a lower fat diet when compared to oxidative athletes. In fact, this frustrates a lot of people who are well conditioned strength training athletes, who have to battle to keep their body fat low. In most cases, they are eating too much of the wrong foods, usually too much fat. Part Three Page 3 - 5 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Dietary / Sports Nutrition Supplements Are Part Of The Dynamic Nutrition Approach Scientific studies show that in addition to well known benefits of maintaining healthy eating, you can also enhance your physical and mental performance with sports nutrition supplements. Protein supplements offer athletes a convenient and economical way to get daily high quality protein intake. For strength athletes there are additional supplements that can be helpful for optimum muscle growth and muscle repair, such as creatine, extra amino acids, hydrolyzed collagen, and more listed below. For maximum aerobic energy, which is of interest to long distance athletes, there are special energy drinks that can be used, plus special metabolites, such as carnitine and co-enzyme Q10. Recent research supports the use of supplement nutrition therapy to help reduce pain and inflammation, and help healing injuries. These therapeutic supplement agents include different herbs, amino acids like phenylalanine, bioflavonoids, antioxidants, curcumin, and a special metabolite that has been shown to build and repair connective tissues, called glucosamine. The effectiveness and safety of supplements is always going to be dependent upon your specific state of health and your level of physical activity. It is also contingent upon the fact that you are following the product’s directions, and not over-dosing any of the supplements you are taking. Concerning vitamins and minerals, these products have been sold and used for many decades, and have an excellent safety record when taken as directed. However, the guidelines contained in this book may not be suitable to everyone, and need to be verified working with your health professional. When it comes to the newer, more novel products that fall under the banner of ergogenic aids such as creatine, CLA, and BHMB, some of these supplements do not have a long history of use, or are not thoroughly researched for long periods of time. Keep in mind that most of the research studies on supplements are only performed over short periods of time; a few weeks, or a few to several months. Also, most of the research was conducted using males. This means that the long-term effects of using some supplements has not been determined, also what is ideal for males or females. However, metabolite ingredients like creatine, CLA, and BHMB are found in the diet naturally or made by the body, so there is some evidence to their biological importance and safety, even when long-term studies are lacking. As a general rule, it is always important to follow the usage directions provided on the bottles of dietary supplements. For many of the essential vitamins and minerals you will find recommended daily values (DV) on the labels. In most instances the total intake of vitamins and minerals will need to be ingested from a combination of foods and supplements in “at least” 100% of the daily values, and typically in higher amounts for most athletes. When it comes to the newer or novel metabolite supplements found on the market such as creatine, while these nutrients are found naturally in the diet, and are made and used in your body, more care is needed for their safe use, especially for duration of use.


Review the information in Part One to be acquainted with the foods and nutrients you are ingesting, and when you have questions with specific products contact the manufacturers to confirm what the best safe and effective dosage is for you. It is always a wise practice to be under the supervision of your personal doctor, team physician, or other health professional to ensure a safe and effective sports nutrition and supplement program that will work for you. For purposes of health and playing by the rules, if you are a competitive athlete, make sure to let your coach and team doctor know what foods, supplements and medication you are using. Even conventional foods (especially beverages, caffeine containing foods and herbal teas for example) may contain a substance that is banned by your sports organization.

Keep It Simple And Be Consistent Athletes lead hectic lifestyles, with very full schedules. Making the things you do every day as easy as possible, like nutrition, should be a primary goal. When you take a look around at nutrition programs and supplement schedules in other books and in articles, keeping up with some of them can be overwhelming, often impossible from a practical standpoint. In fact, it is a common occurrence that people get highly motivate at the start to try to stick to these complicated programs, but after a few weeks, give up, and the quality of their nutrition declines in the process. There needs to be a balance between the structure and function of the nutrition program As a general rule, consistency is more important than complexity. You have to determine a meal and supplement foundation that you can realistically follow each day. In the nutrition examples in this chapter, I provide a foundation meal plan example that uses a 5 meal/snack per day schedule as the starting point, with room for a 6th meal, snack, or sports nutrition supplement in the evening based on your individual needs and preferences. For most people, fitting in 5 eating occasions a day is challenging. People often end up skipping daytime meals, and try to play nutritional intake catch-up in the evening. It is important to consume most of your calories during the day. Regarding supplement intake, the rule for most supplements is the same as for foods, be consistent day to day. Also, most supplements, in particular the vitamins, minerals, metabolites, protein/amino acids, and botanicals, are best consumed in 2 to 3 divided dosages to maintain consistent levels in the body. They can be taken just before and or with meals. So, timing your meals with your supplements around your work/school and training schedules can help simplify your nutrition program and reduce the need for following complicated hour by hour food or supplement intake schedules. However, for some sports, especially approaching major competitions, following a more complicated program may be required for several or more weeks, and is more achievable when you have your day-to-day sports nutrition program in place as a foundation. One tip that helps most people stick to their sports nutrition program, aside from planning, is to get one of those small portable cooler bags to help to implement the plan. Keep it stocked up with your portable daily meal(s), along with some fruit, vegetables, water, energy drink, high protein meal replacement drink or bar, protein supplement, and other supplements you plan on using that day.


RATIONALE BEHIND THE PERFORMANCE NUTRITION PLANS The table on the following two pages summarizes the main types of bio-energetic needs and macronutrient profiles to best meet the energy, growth, recovery and performance demands. Keep in mind that these are categories to serve as a starting point. Each individual will have slightly different nutrition needs. You can modify the macronutrient intake to best suit your individual needs. However, by using this bio-energetic nutrition model you can increase your success rate, compared to taking years of trial and error, or from following general nutrition guidelines for nonathletes. This summary also follows the Dynamic Nutrition’s Hierarchical approach. In other words, when you are designing a performance eating plan, I have found that the following approach will make the work easy for you. Step 1: determine your body composition; percent body fat mass and percent lean body mass. Step 2: determine you daily caloric expenditure range; training days and non-training days. Step 3: determine the bioenergetics your sport primarily requires for peak performance. I have included some examples of sports in the table below. Step 4: Determine your daily protein intake needs and the foods and supplements to achieve it. Remember from your Part One reading that nitrogen balance differs between different athletes. This gives a scientific reason for making protein intake a priority for performance diets, in addition to other bio-energetic and anatomy based factors. Step 5: Determine your daily carbohydrate needs and the foods and supplements to achieve it. Remember to plan for carbohydrate beverage intake before and/or during and after practice and competitions. And modulate carbohydrate type and amount with meals and snacks to attain your specific nutrition goals. All athletes require a high intake of carbohydrates for peak performance. Step 6: Determine your fat intake and determine what foods and cooking methods will best achieve this. Keeping fat intake under 30 percent of total daily calories will be an ongoing skill to master. Stick to your bio-energetic performance eating plan the best you can during your pre and competition seasons. For certain sports maintaining fat intake about 15-20 percent of total daily calories can be challenging, and requires extra effort to make sure you are ingesting adequate amounts of the essential fatty acids.; linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids. Step 7: Maintain proper fluid and nutrient intake to meet your daily needs, as determined by the amount of physical activity, environmental factors, and your specific training and health needs. Step 8: Maintain intake of dietary supplements and sports supplements based on your individual needs and sports specific performance requirements. Step 9: Be consistent. Consistency is key for a successful sports nutrition program. Step 10: Be a champion. Being a champion is more than winning. It is about living a certain lifestyle that leads to winning. This lifestyle includes a constant effort of improvement of all the factors (planning, physical, mental, athletic training, nutritional, spiritual, medical, social, etc.) that results in being the best you can be. Planning is a major part of success in sports and life. Implementing your plan is one thing, the other is measuring the outcome and identifying both strengths and areas of improvement on a regular basis.

The following table provides an overview of the bio-energetic based macronutrient composition sports nutrition model. It is for short-term use, pre-season and competition season. Keep in mind as with all models and approaches, this is a general starting point that requires fine-tuning based on the exact nutrition needs of the individual athlete.


PERFORMANCE NUTRITION PLAN

SPORT BIO-ENERGETIC TYPE

30% Protein 55% Carbohydrates 15% Fat

Anaerobic - Immediate Energy Sports

Baseball Bodybuilding Boxing Football Gymnastics Martial Arts Powerlifting Running, Sprint Skiing, All Down Hill Events Swimming, Sprit Events Track & Field, Power/Sprint Events Weight Lifting Wrestling

25% Protein 55% Carbohydrates 20% Fat Basketball Bowling Cycling – Sprint Dancing, Power Equestrian, Power Field Hockey, Power Players Fitness, Power Exercisers Golf Hockey, Ice Motor Sports Racket Sports Rock Climbing Running, Mid-Distance Skiing, Mid-Distance Soccer, Power Positions Swimming, Mid-Distance Tennis Track & Field, Mid-Distance Events Volleyball

Sports that demand explosive strength and power (immediately available ATP and CP); anaerobic energy is primarily used in one sustained all out effort, or repeated bursts of all out effort. Large strength athlete muscles are comprised of mostly fast twitch muscle fibers. High protein intake is required to maintain positive nitrogen balance and repair fragile fast twitch muscle fibers that strength athletes have more of. Low fat, high carbohydrate intake is suggested, because these athletes utilize mostly muscle glycogen to replenish ATP and CP stores during exercise, which is carbohydrate dependent. Some of these sports, such as boxing and wrestling also require oxidative generated energy, but under conditions of short-term, and high intensity effort, which still utilizes a high amount of carbohydrate derived energy.

Anaerobic - Glycolytic Sports Sports that require explosive strength and power is required on a highly repetitive basis. Muscle glycogen is a primary source of energy. High protein is required to maintain positive nitrogen balance and repair fast twitch muscle fibers. Carbohydrate is still the primary energy source during exercise, but with longer duration, and for some sports with increasing continuous movement, fatty acids become relied upon for energy too.


20% Protein 60% Carbohydrates 20% Fat Cycling – Mid-Distance Dancing, Stamina Equestrian, Mid-Distance Field Hockey, Mid-Distance Players Fitness, Stamina Exercisers Soccer, Mid-Distance Positions Swimming, Long-Distance

15% Protein 60% Carbohydrates 25% Fat Cycling, Long-Distance Fitness, Endurance Exercisers Running, Long-Distance Skiing, Long-Distance Track & Field, Long-Distance Events Triathlon Ultra-long distance cycling, swimming, and other events

Anaerobic Glycolytic – Oxidative Sports Sports where the aerobic pathway is the predominant energy source, but glycolysis is also relied upon. Fatty acids and muscle glycogen therefore become important energy sources. Moderate protein intake is required to maintain positive nitrogen balance and repair muscle fibers. This is a good daily intake macronutrient composition for cross-training sports, or multi-energetic sports, as well as for general health and fitness.

Oxidative Sports Sports where oxidative endurance is required for long distance / duration athletic events and training. Slow twitch muscle fibers predominate. High intake of carbohydrates are required to maintain glycogen stores. As endurance athletes utilize a high amount of fatty acids for energy, moderate dietary fat intake is recommended. Protein intake is lowest for this athlete group, but is about twice as high compared to non-athletes. Slow-twitch muscle fibers tend to be more resistant to “breakdown” when compared to fast-twitch muscle fibers.

Keep in mind that as with most models they are intended to serve as examples and starting points. Based on individual needs, some fine-tuning of the macronutrient composition percentages may be required to best suit your particular needs. Additionally, these guidelines are intended for healthy adult athletes, not for children, nonathletes, or people with health concerns or disorders. These guidelines can be used in the pre-season or season, or longer depending on the athletes training schedule. For off season athletic people and fitness, a nutrition program with in the following macronutrient ranges is suitable for most people: 15-30% Protein, 50-60% carbohydrates, and 20-25% fats. Another point is that the percentages of macronutrients does not have to be maintained for each meal. As indicated below, most athletes will practice macronutrient modulation during the day, in particular before exercise and during exercise. Additionally, the day before and or day of competition increasing carbohydrate consumption can help to ensure adequate glycogen stores, and peak energy production.


MACRONUTRIENTS – SOME SUMMARY POINTS In addition to the information in Part One, this section will review some final points regarding macronutrients, followed by a section that presents examples of generalized sport specific daily meal plans. To begin, the following reference tables provide a summary of how the different macronutrient percentages result in total daily grams, based on different caloric intakes. This provides a quick summary that can be used for nutrition planning. Total Daily Caloric Intake Example Values 2,000 Calories 2,500 Calories 3,000 Calories 3,500 Calories 4,000 Calories Total Daily Caloric Intake Example Values 2,000 Calories 2,500 Calories 3,000 Calories 3,500 Calories 4,000 Calories

Protein Daily Intake At 15% of Total Daily Calories (Calories and Amount) 300 Cals, 75 grams 375 Cals, 94 grams 450 Cals, 113 grams 525 Cals, 131 grams 600 Cals, 150 grams




Protein Daily Intake was calculated as follows, Total Daily Caloric Intake times 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, or 0.30. Example: 3,000 Calories X 0.20 = 600 Calories. Protein Daily Intake in grams was calculated as follows, Total Daily Caloric Intake divided by 4 calories per gram. Example: 600 Calories / 4 calories per gram = 150 grams

Total Daily Caloric Intake Example Values 2,000 Calories 2,500 Calories 3,000 Calories 3,500 Calories 4,000 Calories 4,500 Calories

Carbohydrate Daily Intake At 55% of Total Daily Calories (Calories and Amount) 1,100 Cals, 275 grams 1,375 Cals, 374 grams 1,650 Cals, 413 grams 1,925 Cals, 481 grams 2,200 Cals, 550 grams 2,475 Cals, 619 grams

Carbohydrate Daily Intake At 60% of Total Daily Calories (Calories and Amount) 1200 Cals, 300 grams 1,500 Cals, 375 grams 1,800 Cals, 450 grams 2,100 Cals, 525 grams 2,400 Cals, 600 grams 2,700 Cals, 675 grams

Carbohydrate Daily Intake was calculated as follows, Total Daily Caloric Intake times 0.55 or 0.60. Example: 3,000 Calories X 0.60 = 1,800 Calories. Carbohydrate Daily Intake in grams was calculated as follows, Total Daily Caloric Intake divided by 4 calories per gram. Example: 1,800 Calories / 4 calories per gram = 450 grams

Total Daily Caloric Intake Example Values

Fat Daily Intake At 15% of Total Daily Calories (Calories and Amount)



2,000 Calories 2,500 Calories 3,000 Calories 3,500 Calories 4,000 Calories

300 Cals, 33 grams 375 Cals, 42 grams 450 Cals, 50 grams 525 Cals, 58 grams 600 Cals, 67 grams



Fat Daily Intake was calculated as follows, Total Daily Caloric Intake times 0.15, 0.20, or 0.25. Example: 3,000 Calories X 0.20 = 600 Calories. Fat Daily Intake in grams was calculated as follows, Total Daily Caloric Intake divided by 9 calories per gram. Example: 600 Calories / 9 calories per gram = 67 grams


CARBOHYDRATES As carbohydrates, in particular glucose, are a primary source of energy for all athletes their daily adequate intake is vital for peak athletic performance. For the “anaerobic” and “aerobic” athletes, glucose is the primarily high energy fuel source. As previously mentioned, during strenuous, short-term strength athletic activities glucose is a primary fuel for anaerobic energy production. However, glucose is also a primary fuel for aerobic energy production too, in addition to fatty acids, and to a minor extent, amino acids, like the BCAA’s. With longer duration aerobic (oxidative) athletic events, fatty acids are also a major contributor of energy production, however, glucose, helps maintain athletic performance at a higher level. Now, with this in mind, the major significance of this is for competitive athletes during competition / events who need to attain and maintain the highest possible peak performance levels. Nonathletes during fitness exercise or even athletes during practice sessions, still want to strive to get their pre-exercise and exercise carbohydrate and other nutrient intake at optimum levels, but is less critical if you slip-up. Also, the guidelines were created with the elite athlete in mind, who is engaged in maximum effort physical performance. Most people during fitness exercise and recreational sports are exercising at a low to moderate level of output, and can do so under a range of nutrition conditions. With this in mind here are some Pre-event, Event, and Post-event nutrition issues to consider. These also will apply to practice sessions, however, pre-event meals require higher levels of carbohydrates that will deviate from the standard daily macronutrient percentages in the example programs. Pre-Event Meal Always maintain adequate hydration as reviewed in Part One. While all athletes should get their pre-event meal composition and timing perfected, it is most important for athletes who are undergoing long duration events that may deplete their glycogen supplies during athletic events and training, usually events lasing 1 hour or more. However, all athletes should strive to time the pre-event meal in a way where it has cleared their gastrointestinal system, because if food is still being digested, this will divert blood and energy away from exercising muscles, and could also create gastrointestinal upset, resulting in decreasing athletic performance. The primary goal of the pre-event meal is to be high in carbohydrates to make sure adequate glycogen stores are present when the athlete starts their competition. The preevent meal therefore has to be timed properly, so it is completely digested and absorbed in to the body, before the athletic event begins. This may take 3 to 4 hours, assuming the meal is high in carbohydrates, 70% or more, and consists of carbohydrates that are easily digested, and low in fiber and fat, because these nutrients can slow down digestion. (70% to 90% carbohydrates, 10% to 20% protein, 10% or less fat). Choose high carbohydrate foods such as pasta, bread, potatoes, bananas, oatmeal and pancakes. The amount of calories of the pre-event meal will depend on your size and daily calorie use. For example, pre-event meal caloric content of 600 to 1,000 Calorie is a range that


will be suitable for many athletes. Note that athletes should not rely solely on just the preevent meal on the day of the competition for ensuring adequate glycogen stores, and must practice following their sport specific nutrition plans, including adequate caloric intake every day for best results. Some athletes, especially the ultra endurance athletes with events lasting over 3 hours long, try to also ingest an energy drink or high carbohydrate nutrition bar 2 hours or even as close as 1 hour before the event. However, if this is not timed right, the ingested nutrients may not be cleared from the gastrointestinal system at the time the even begins. Also, ingesting carbohydrates and other nutrients could cause a rapid rise in insulin, and fall in glucose levels, that will make the athlete hypoglycemic at the beginning of the event, which may reduce their initial athletic performance; this important but less critical during practice/training. Getting the pre-even carbohydrate program just right will take some testing prior to the athletic event. Aside from competition days, the everyday pre-exercise meals still should be higher in carbohydrates, moderate in protein, and low in fat and fiber. However, some athletes and fitness exercisers with hectic schedules, and pressed for time, may have to bend the rules of athletic eating now and then. Signs of eating a pre-exercise or pre-event meal that is too large or too soon before exercise activity will include stomach bloating, belching, burping and tasting the meal, acid reflux, gastrointestinal upset, and reduced athletic performance. If you find that your pre-exercise meal is dragging you down during a workout, cut back on your exercise intensity, or take a break to finish digesting the meal. Another important point about having food in your stomach during exercise is that this will reduce your ability for hydration during exercise. Also, during digestion water is needed, and this will divert water needed for cooling exercising muscles. Also blood flow is diverted to the gastrointestinal system when digesting a meal, so if food is still undergoing digestion at the start and during exercise, less blood will be available to be circulated to exercising muscles. Carbohydrate Intake During Long Duration Events and Exercise As reviewed in Part One, the practice and research of ingesting carbohydrate / mineral electrolyte beverages during training and events primarily came into being working with long distance, endurance athletes, such as marathon runners and long distance cyclists. So, many of the serving sizes and amounts of beverages determined to work best was based primarily on research with athletes of medium to small body weight, and also under conditions of continuous exercise. As the importance of glycogen maintenance is important for all athletes, larger athletes, such as basketball players and football players, can start with the middle to upper limit of the guideline range, and working with their team nutrition expert, experiment with determining if a higher amount is suitable. There is a multiple goal when ingesting carbohydrate beverages during events and exercise, the first is to maintain hydration and replace water lost from sweating. Another goal is providing the body with an external source of carbohydrates to spare the use of glycogen stores, so they won’t get depleted during exercise. Also, to replenish the body


with sodium, chloride, potassium that is lost from sweating. The longer the duration of exercise or events, the more critical this replenishment balancing becomes. Generally, athletes exercising or in events lasting longer than an hour will benefit from a carbohydrate containing beverage. Similar to water intake the range of carbohydrate beverage intake is about 6 to 12 ounces every 15 to 20 minutes. Carbohydrate beverages need to be dilute; 4 to 8% solutions. This is about what most sports beverages contain, but you can check with the manufacturer to confirm this. Higher percentage solutions may also be suitable depending on the individual’s beverage digestion ability during physical activity. Regarding the type of carbohydrate, for elite level performance up to a couple to a few hours in duration, glucose containing beverages will provide the fastest available energy. However, most beverages on the market now include glucose, with some fructose from sugar or added fructose. Aside from taking more time to be used for energy in the body, fructose has been reported to potentially cause gastrointestinal upset when ingested during exercise, in amounts similar to the recommendations for glucose. So avoid, or minimize fructose containing beverages during these events. As the intensity of the continuous exercise is low to moderate, and longer in duration, over about 2.5 hours, then the mixed carbohydrate source may have an advantage, as some recent research indicates that the total amount of ingested carbohydrate per hour that can be used for energy may be at a higher rate of use, in test beverages containing high amounts of glucose, with some minor amounts of fructose. Each athlete needs to evaluate what works best for them. Especially ultra-endurance athletes who as a group have very special event nutrition needs that can only be determined working directly with a sports nutrition expert. On a dry weight basis, the amount of ingested carbohydrate per hour from an energy beverage, is between 30 to 60 grams. However, larger athletes over 170 pounds will likely have the ability to use higher amounts per hour. Also, this general rule is for trying to achieve peak performance during athletic competition events, while also maintaining peak rehydration. During regular training, higher amounts of carbohydrate intake per hour may be tolerated, but need to be evaluated on a case by case basis. Research also revealed that under certain circumstances a short chain complex carbohydrate called maltodextrin can be used in sports beverages as an energy supply. This could be suitable in low to medium intensity sports, of long duration, in particular 2.5 hours or more in duration, or for recreational athletes, or during training. If other endurance athletes are interested in maltodextrin, or combinations of glucose, fructose and maltodextrin, they should experiment by comparing the different carbohydrate containing beverages during practice, to determine what works best from them, well in advance of the event. Regarding glycemic index, as discussed in Part One, athletes will generally consume diets containing carbohydrates with high to medium GI values. This is primarily due to the fact


that they are consuming higher amounts of foods, and need to maintain a more rapid rate of digestion and nutrient replenishment. However, for athletes requiring to lose body fat, or maintain weight for a particular weight class, ingesting carbohydrates with mostly medium to low GI values will result in slowing down the digestion and nutrient absorption rate, and can result in causing the body to use more fat for energy production. In sports like bodybuilding where peak performance is not required, but low body fat levels are, during the contest preparation phase eating foods and meals with low GI’s should help promote losing body fat at a greater rate and maintaining lower body fat levels. Regarding the pre-event meal, when low GI meals are compared to high GI meals, the low GI meals result in an increased rate of fatty acid utilization during exercise. However, when a carbohydrate energy beverage is consumed during exercise, this will cancel out differences between high or low GI pre-event meals. Pre-event meal aside, athletic performance is always significantly improved more so when carbohydrate energy drinks are consumed during exercise, compared to just ingesting water, regardless of the composition of pre-event meal. Post-Event and Exercise Meal There are some misconceptions about post-exercise eating. One is that you only have a very short window of opportunity to replenish glycogen, some people are led to think it is a matter of minutes, but its longer. It is true that during the period of time after exercise the glycogen replenishment can be at a higher rate, but the time of this window is up to 2 hours. Additionally, glycogen stores are also replenished ongoing, from meal to meal. Therefore, it is beneficial to be able to time your post-exercise or even meal to be consumed within 20 minutes to 2 hours after exercise. Also, you can try consuming a post-workout beverage that contains carbohydrates and protein, first, followed by a complete post-exercise meal. This will get carbohydrates, protein, and other nutrients into your body fast, in an easy to digest hydrated form for rehydration, in addition to plain water intake. The best post-exercise meal or sports nutrition drinks for post-exercise consumption are high in carbohydrates and moderate in protein, and low in fat, something that will be easily and quickly digested. Also high glycemic index carbohydrates will further increase the rate of glycogen replenishment in the post-exercise period. Some athletes may also need to increase their consumption of salty foods, to help replace the sodium lost during high sweat loss exercise or events, also potassium, and other essential vitamins and minerals. This is why consuming a complete post-exercise meal with your supplements is desirable for optimum nutrient replenishment. The GI value of meals following the post-exercise meals are less critical and can range from high to medium to low GI values based on your nutritional preference. Generally, for weight loss, or athletes with weight management issues, medium to lower GI meals will promote better appetite control and higher rate of fat metabolism.


As previously mentioned for athletes who are concerned about weight loss and weight maintenance, such as bodybuilders, weightlifters, powerlifters, gymnasts, and boxers, finding the appropriate GI intake balance can help promote fat loss, weight maintenance, and performance. For these athletes, ingesting foods and meals primarily in low to medium GI range will be a good starting point. Use high GI foods periodically when quicker glucose replenishment is required. PROTEIN QUALITY As reviewed in Part One, protein quality is primarily depends on the amino acids it contains. For the general nonathletic population the standards reviewed to rate protein are useful. But, for athletes, needing higher amounts of certain amino acids, like arginine, glutamine, and the BCAA’s (leucine, isoleucine and valine), to increase the “athletic protein quality”. Concerning foods, animal protein sources tend to be complete in indispensable amino acids and also plentiful in the dispensable amino acids, and are rated as high quality proteins. Plant sources tend to be deficient in one or more of the indispensable amino acids. However, when combined correctly two or more plant source proteins can together create a complete high quality protein source. Some of the notable high quality food protein sources include low fat dairy (in particular whey and casein), eggs, fish, poultry, and low fat meats. Refer to the table in the following Food Lists section for more examples of protein foods. The primary goal for athletes is to consume a diet that consists of high quality food proteins, and use protein containing sports supplements, like MRPs, protein powders, and specialty protein/amino acids containing blends to help attain the required protein intake and to super-charge your amino acid intake. The goal is to also consume the most efficient protein sources that are high in amino acids important to health and athletic performance, growth and recovery. So, sports nutrition products containing high quality protein ingredients, along with nutrient cofactors, are most effective. Based on research with athletes taking various protein supplements, whey protein isolate, and whey protein isolate with extra added amino acids has proven to be effective in promoting greater gains in strength and muscle mass as part of a resistance training program. Egg and casein products, as well as whey combined with egg protein and casein have also proven to be effective. Chapter 1.4 contains reviews about whey protein related research. Some types of soy protein supplements have also been shown to be effective for athletes. Soy protein in general is a healthy protein, most noted for promoting good health and helping prevent cardiovascular diseases, and for women, helping to relieve menopausal symptoms. When “isolate” processing technology was being used for creating purer protein products, and eventually used to create a soy protein isolate. One of the most popular soy protein isolate products is called Supro, by Solae. Because “soy protein isolate” is considered complete by protein quality rating standards, scientists expected it to provide benefits for athletes.


In scientific studies using Supro soy protein with male and female athletes, all the athletes had improved muscle mass, decreased body fat, and improved performance, metabolism, and health during the study periods. So, while the various marketers of the different types of protein products present their promotional stories, Supro brand protein is one of the few that has been clinically tested in adult Olympic athletes to provide measurable results in just a few weeks. The studies that showed the best results used about 60 to 70 grams per day of Supro in addition to a balanced diet. A more recent study published in 2006 reported the results of comparing whey protein with soy protein supplements among resistance training young (ages 18 to 35) female and male adults. In this study the whey and soy supplement intake was at a high rate of daily intake, 1.2 grams per kilogram of body weight per day. After the 6 week study period increases in lean body mass and strength were reported for both the whey and soy protein groups. So based on these two and other studies, a quality soy protein isolate taken in high amounts can be effective in producing anabolic growth effects and other health and performance benefits. Whey versus soy. In a research study reported in the 2004 Nutrition Journal, researchers compared the effects of whey protein versus soy protein containing nutrition bars, using male subjects ages 19-25. These male subjects followed a strength training program for 9 weeks. The subjects consumed 3 nutrition bars per day, which contained 11 grams of either whey protein or soy protein per bar, for a total of 33 grams of protein a day, in addition to their regular diet. At the end of the study, both the whey and soy protein groups increased lean body mass more than the control group subjects who were just following their regular diets. When comparing the increases in lean body mass of the whey versus soy groups, the whey protein subjects gained more lean body mass than the soy protein subjects. The researchers also measured antioxidant levels in the subjects, and found that antioxidant status of the soy protein subjects was better maintained compared to the control group or the whey protein group. So while whey protein may have an anabolic advantage, high quality soy protein isolate offers athletes a plant protein alternative to animal based proteins. The scientific research discoveries also provide a basis for including both whey protein and soy isolate protein in a sports nutrition program for some athletes. FATS Part One, Chapter 3.2 and the 2005 Dietary Guidelines in the appendix review a variety of information regarding maintaining adequate intakes of essential fats, and avoiding or minimizing intake of the fats that can become unhealthy at higher levels of intake.

DYNAMIC NUTRITION SUPPLEMENT AND EATING PLAN EXAMPLES Athletes have many challenges to overcome to create their personalized winning training and nutrition programs. The prescribed diet is one of them. In one regard, books filled with examples of many recipes provides some useful information, plus fills up pages and pages. But, how realistic are these recipes or meal plan examples to follow?


Based on my experience I have found that most prescribed diet plans found in books and articles do not work for a few reasons. Prescribed diets that are found in books, which include recipes and special foods prescribed over a several week period are hard to follow. Lets face it, most people try them for a few days, find following them frustrating, and shortly return to their old ways of eating. It seems that unless you are confined to an institution, where someone else is preparing all your meals every day, it is hard to follow most prescribed diets. Additionally, many of the prescribed diets include foods you may not want to eat, which is another factor for their high failure rate. Finally, when confronted with real life situations, (eating out, eating over friend’s houses, or traveling) it is near impossible to follow a month long eating plan that someone else created without knowing your individual preferences or situations. With this in mind the following sample sports nutrition plans use daily menu “template” examples, with food category lists to assist you in selecting foods to meet your sportspecific daily fat, protein and carbohydrate intake goals. The daily diet examples show you how to spread out your caloric intake on training days, and demonstrate example foods you can eat to meet your sport-specific daily nutrient intake. This provides a nutrition framework for you to work with to create the eating plan that works best for you. Additionally, there are two primary caloric examples for each of the four different athlete category nutrition types; 2,500 Calories per day and 3,500 Calories per day. Owing to the fact that the daily diet examples are dynamic, you can easily add or subtract foods from these example diets to match your individual daily caloric intake. Individuals with enormous daily caloric requirements, like 5,000 Calories per day, or 7,000 Calories per day, can simply double the amount of portions in the example 2,500 Calorie and 3,500 Calorie example diets, respectively. However, as previously mentioned, for athletes using higher amounts of calories per day, some adjustments may be required to protein and fat percentage intake as determined by their exact individual needs. The menu template examples use 5 eating occasions per day, and indicates adding a 6th evening eating occasions. This 5 to 6 daily frequency of meal/snacks is suitable and practical for most people. Based on your preference, you can certainly add additional eating occasions. However, make sure that your eating frequency allows time for your gastrointestinal system to clear for exercise sessions and competitions. When following the dietary guidelines, do not persecute yourself if you deviate from your plan. It is to be expected. Just start back on the right track with your next meal. But to be successful you will have to do some planning, making sure that your refrigerator and pantry are well stocked with the foods you need. Meeting your daily nutrition goals may also mean packing food to take with you for your snacks and meals while out of the house. You will find that the nice thing about the performance nutrition examples is that they are summarized in a one page table per calorie example, which you can keep with you and utilize when eating out. Additionally, the food category lists include common foods to get you started, ones that are considered wholesome, for the most part. To make the plans


work the best, you need to add your favorite foods to the list, and figure out how much of them to eat to meet your daily caloric and macronutrient goals. Many grocery foods have the nutrition information you need on their labels in the Nutrition Facts box. Another thing to remember when constructing your personal nutrition plans is not to become overly concerned if you find that you cannot always get your nutrition intake to exactly meet your target caloric and macronutrient goals. You should realize that its okay to be a little flexible in the calculations. Additionally, you should realize that when scientists calculate the energy and macronutrient content of foods there are a lot of assumptions made, and an acceptable range of error is to be expected. This means that when dealing with foods, the nutrition content information is not exact. However, when dealing with dietary supplements, the information is usually more accurate compared with whole foods. But be aware that a margin of error of up to minus or plus 10% is typical, and even up to a 20% margin of error has been know to occur. The example diets demonstrate how to spread out the calories throughout training days. Notice that if you are following a 30-55-15 diet, this does not mean that each meal consists of 30% protein, 55% carbohydrate, and 15% fat. This is the total daily intake goal. The way the diets are structured you will be focusing on eating more carbohydrates around your training time of day. When working the following nutrition plan examples, remember that you can certainly modify them to meet your exact individual nutrition and supplement needs. Also note that these plans are meant as examples for healthy adults, for only a few months at a time, for pre-season and during the competitive seasons. Most athletes and other people involved in fitness and on a quest for better health, can follow a 20% protein, 60% carbohydrate, and 20% fat diet on the off season. But because long distance athletes tend to train all year-round, they can stick to their 15% protein, 60% carbohydrate, and 25% fat diet all year, except as otherwise directed by their health practitioner. Also, remember that the best macronutrient composition to eat 4 to 2 hours before practice and competitions is low fat, moderate protein and high in carbohydrates: 10-20% protein, 70-90% carbohydrate, and 0-10% fat. Don’t wait until right before a competition to figure out what pre-game meal works best for you. Work on perfecting it every day, with your pre-practice meal. The following first presents the generalized sports nutrition examples for each bioenergetic category, followed by foods lists, and followed by a sports supplement guidelines overview. Chapter 3.2 Reviews issues related to weight loss / fat loss. The following information can be useful to help plan your sports nutrition program working with your health professional.


30% Protein, 55% Carbohydrate, 15% Fat, Performance Nutrition Guidelines The 30% protein, 55% carbohydrate, 15% fat, daily nutrition guidelines is recommended for strength and power athletes, driven by the very short-term, immediate energy system. Athletes such as football players, powerlifters, sprinters and bodybuilders will do best following this nutrition plan during the season. However, other athletes that rely heavily on the anaerobic energy system, but also short-term oxidative, such as wrestlers and boxers, can use this as a starting point. Higher protein intake, requires drinking more water. Also making sure adequate intake of the essential vitamins and minerals is maintained. When training or competing, these athletes rely primarily on the immediate and anaerobic glycolytic energy systems. They have massive muscles, with highly developed fast-twitch muscle fibers. Because of this, these athletes require a high amount of protein to maintain positive nitrogen balance and to repair their fragile fast-twitch muscle fibers. Since muscle glycogen is the primary energy source used for replenishing the ATP and CP stores, a diet low in fat and rich in carbohydrates is indicated. Low in fat, because not much fat is used up during training and competition. Rich in carbohydrates, because the muscle’s supply of glycogen needs to be restored everyday, or performance and recovery will be impaired. The proper profile of micronutrients and ergogenic nutrients from supplements needs to be just right for optimum performance of the explosive power athlete. The following table will provide some guidelines that can be useful in planning your daily dietary nutrient intake, and is intended for information purposes only, for healthy adult athletes. Remember to always check with your healthcare practitioner before taking supplements or following a new nutrition plan, especially for individuals who are pregnant or breast feeding, chronically ill, elderly, under 18 years old, taking any medications. These guidelines may not be suitable for everybody, and are intended for short-term use, by healthy adults, during the athletic season. Only use supplements as directed by the manufacturer and or your health care professional.


Example - with typical late afternoon / early evening training session 2500 Calories Per Day 30% Protein, 750 Cals, 188 grams 55% Carbohydrate, 1375 Cals, 344 grams 15% Fat, 375 Calories, 42 grams BREAKFAST - Meal Goal: 500 cals, 40g P, 62.5g C, 10g F Take Explosive Growth Blend and additional multivitamin/mineral supplements. - 2 cups Egg alternative Vegetable Omelet, 200 cals, 28g P 20g C, 0g F - 1 slice Canadian Bacon, 86 cals, 12g P, 0g C, 4g F. - 4 oz Boiled potato, pulp, 117 cals, 2g P, 28g C, 0g F. - 1/2 tbsp Butter or margarine, 50 cals, 0g P, 0g C, 6g F - 6 oz Grapefruit juice, 60 cals, 0g P, 15g C, 0g F MORNING SNACK - Protein nutrition bar or drink, 225 cals, 30g P, 15g C, 5g F. LUNCH - Meal Goal: 500 cals, 40 g P, 62.5 g C, 10g F Take Explosive Growth Blend and additional multivitamin/mineral supplements. - 1 orange, medium, 62 cals, 1g P, 13g C, 0g F - 2 slices, bread, whole grain, 170 cals, 8g P, 34g C, 3g F. - 4 oz chicken breast, no skin, 124 cals, 26g P, 0g C, 2g F. - 1 tbsp, Salad Dressing, oil & vinegar, 45 cals, 0g P, 1g C, 4g F. - 2 oz, Lettuce, iceberg, trimmed, 8 cals, 0.5g P, 1.5g C, 0g F. - 4 oz, broccoli spears, 30 cals, 4g P, 6g C, 0g F. - 2 oz carrot, raw, 24 cals, 1g P, 6g C, 0g F. PRE-TRAINING SNACK – 2.5 to 1 hours before training. - Protein Bar or Drink, 225 cals, 30 g P, 15 g C, 5 g F.

Be mindful that actual food intake may not exactly meet the target goals; come as close as possible.

Use this example template to plan your own meals, snacks and supplement intake schedule. Make sure to consume adequate water. Make adjustments to caloric intake and eating schedule based on additional workout sessions during the day. NOTES

At 15 minutes before or at start of training, begin ingesting energy beverage intake in divided dosages as previously mentioned above in carbohydrate section; about 16 oz total, spread out during workout and post workout, 400 cals, 0g P, 100g C, 0g F. Adjust intake based on your individual workout requirements. DINNER - Meal Goal: 650 cals, 48g P, 87.5g C, 12g F. Take Explosive Growth Blend and additional multivitamin/mineral supplements. - 1 pork chop, 220 cals, 22g P, 0g C, 4g F. - 8 oz, Baked Beans, Barbecue, 260 cals, 15g P, 48g C, 6g F. - 6 oz Spinach, 36 cals, 5g P, 6g C, 0.6g F. - 1 Tomato, 26 cals, 1g P, 5.7g C, 0.4g F - 8 oz Skim Milk, 86 cals, 8.4g P, 11.9g C, 0.4g F - 4 oz, fruit cocktail, canned, in light syrup, Cals 65, 0.5g P, 16.9g C, 0.1g F. ADDITIONAL MEALS / SNACKS Additional Calories from late evening protein supplements, snack or small meal before bedtime. Add to 2,500 Calorie per day example or redistributed some calories from example meals. Adjust caloric intake to meet your daily caloric intake requirements. The all in one Super-Stack Explosive Growth Blend was used in the above example, plus optional extra multivitamin/mineral supplement depending on your individual needs. Note that this adds about 350 extra calories per day to the total caloric intake. Refer to Part Two for more details about this product. OR - You can also create your own supplement stack, using a selection of individual products. The Higher Power product line offers a wide selection.


Example - with typical late afternoon / early evening training session 3500 Calories Per Day 30% Protein, 1050 Cals, 263 grams 55% Carbohydrate, 1925 Cals, 481 grams 15% Fat, 525 Calories, 58 grams


BREAKFAST - Meal Goal: 573 Cals, 51g P, 64g C, 13g F. Take Explosive Growth Blend and additional vitamin, mineral supplements. - 2 1/2cups Egg alternative Vegetable Omelet, 250 cals, 35 g P, 25g C, 0gF. - 1 slice Canadian Bacon, 86 cals, 12g P, 0g C, 4g F. - 4 oz Boiled potato pulp, 117 cals, 2g P, 28 g C, 0g F. - 2/3 tbsp Butter or margarine, 81 cals, 0g P, 0g C, 9g F. - 12 oz Grapefruit Juice, 120 cals, 30g P, 15g C, 0g F. MORNING SNACK - High Protein Meal Replacement Nutrition Drink or Bar, 470 calories, 40g P, 64g C, 6g F. LUNCH - Meal Goal: 573 Cals, 51g P, 64g C, 13g F. Take Explosive Growth Blend and additional vitamin, mineral supplements. - 1 orange, medium, 62 cals, 1g P, 13g C, 0g F - 2 slices, bread, whole grain, 170 cals, 8g P, 34g C, 3g F. - 6 oz chicken breast, no skin, 186 cals, 39g P, 0g C, 2.5g F. - 1 1/2 tbsp, Salad Dressing, oil & vinegar, 67 cals, 0g P, 1.5g C, 6g F. - 2 oz, Lettuce, iceberg, trimmed, 8 cals, 0.5g P, 1.5g C, 0g F. - 4 oz, broccoli spears, 30 cals, 4g P, 6g C, 0g F. - 2 oz carrot, raw, 24 cals, 1g P, 6g C, 0g F. PRE-TRAINING SNACK – 2.5 to 1 hours before training. - Protein Drink, Medium Calorie, 470 cals, 40g P, 55g C, 10g F.

Use this example template to plan your own meals, snacks and supplement intake schedule. Make sure to consume adequate water. Make adjustments to caloric intake and eating schedule based on additional workout sessions during the day. Notes

At 15 minutes before or at start of training, begin ingesting energy beverage intake in divided dosages as previously mentioned above in carbohydrate section; about 20 oz total, spread out during workout and post workout, 500 cals, 0g P, 125g C, 0g F. Adjust intake based on your individual workout requirements. DINNER - Meal Goal: 914 cals, 81g P, 100g C, 20g F. Take Explosive Growth Blend and additional vitamin, mineral supplements. - 2 1/2 pork chops, 550 cals, 53g P, 0g C, 10g F. - 8 oz, Baked Beans, Barbecue, 260 cals, 15g P, 48g C, 6g F. - 6 oz Spinach, 36 cals, 5g P, 6g C, 0.6g F. - 1 Tomato, 26 cals, 1g P, 5.7g C, 0.4g F - 8 oz Skim Milk, 86 cals, 8.4g P, 11.9g C, 0.4g F - 4 oz, fruit cocktail, canned, in light syrup, Cals 65, 0.5g P, 16.9g C, 0.1g F. ADDITIONAL MEALS / SNACKS Additional Calories from late evening protein supplements, snack or small meal before bedtime. Add to 3,500 Calorie per day example or redistributed some calories from example meals. Adjust caloric intake to meet your daily caloric intake requirements.

The all in one Super-Stack Explosive Growth Blend was used in the above example, plus optional extra multivitamin/mineral supplement depending on your individual needs. Note that this adds about 350 extra calories per day to the total caloric intake. Refer to Part Two for more details about this product. OR - You can also create your own supplement stack, using a selection of individual products. The Higher Power product line offers a wide selection.


25% Protein, 55% Carbohydrate, 20% Fat Performance Nutrition Guidelines 25% protein, 55% carbohydrate, 20% fat daily nutrition plan is recommended for individuals who participate in sports and fitness activities that require explosive strength and power on a sustained or highly repetitive basis. When training for or during competition, these individuals rely primarily on the glycolytic energy systems. Muscle glycogen is their primary source of energy. These individuals need to consume large amounts of protein to maintain a positive nitrogen balance and to repair their fragile fasttwitch muscle fibers. Higher protein intake, requires drinking more water. Also making sure adequate intake of the essential vitamins and minerals is maintained. The following table will provide some guidelines that can be useful in planning your daily dietary nutrient intake, and is intended for information purposes only, for healthy adult athletes. Remember to always check with your healthcare practitioner before taking supplements or following a new nutrition plan, especially for individuals who are pregnant or breast feeding, chronically ill, elderly, under 18 years old, taking any medications. These guidelines may not be suitable for everybody, and are intended for short-term use, by healthy adults, during the athletic season. Only use supplements as directed by the manufacturer and or your health care professional.




BREAKFAST - Meal Goal: 465 cals, 27g P, 60g C, 13g F Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 1 cup Egg alternative Vegetable Omelet, 100 cals, 14g P 10g C, 0g F - 1 slice Canadian Bacon, 86 cals, 12g P, 0g C, 4g F. - 4 oz Boiled potato, pulp, 117 cals, 2g P, 28g C, 0g F. - 2/3 tbsp Butter or margarine, 81 cals, 0g P, 0g C, 9g F - 9 oz Grapefruit juice, 90 cals, 0g P, 22.5g C, 0g F MORNING SNACK - Protein Nutrition Bar or Drink, 225 cals, 30g P, 15g C, 5g F. LUNCH - Meal Goal: 465 cals, 27g P, 60g C, 13g F Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 1 orange, medium, 62 cals, 1g P, 13g C, 0g F - 2 slices, bread, whole grain, 170 cals, 8g P, 34g C, 3g F. - 2 oz chicken breast, no skin, 62 cals, 13g P, 0g C, 1g F. - 2 tbsp., Salad Dressing, oil & vinegar, 90 cals, 0g P, 2g C, 8g F. - 2 oz, Lettuce, iceberg, trimmed, 8 cals, 0.5g P, 1.5g C, 0g F. - 4 oz, broccoli spears, 30 cals, 4g P, 6g C, 0g F. - 2 oz carrot, raw, 24 cals, 1g P, 6g C, 0g F. - 1 tomato, 4.75 oz, 26 cals, 1g P, 5.7g C, 0.4g F. PRE-TRAINING SNACK – 2.5 to 1 hours before training. - Protein Drink, 225 cals, 30 g P, 15 g C, 5 g F.


At 15 minutes before or at start of training, begin ingesting energy beverage intake in divided dosages as previously mentioned above in carbohydrate section; about 16 oz total, spread out during workout and post workout, 400 cals, 0g P, 100g C, 0g F. Adjust intake based on your individual workout requirements. DINNER - Meal Goal: 724 cals, 42g P, 94g C, 20g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 3 oz Beef, Bottom Round, prime, untrimmed, 192 cals, 17.1g P, 0g C, 13.2g F. - 2 oz pasta, 210 cals, 9g P, 41g C, 1g F. - 4 oz pasta sauce, Mushroom Thick and Hearty, 100 cals, 2g P, 15g C, 3g F. - 12 oz Spinach, 72 cals, 9.6g P, 12g C, 1.2g F. - 8 oz Skim Milk, 86 cals, 8.4g P, 11.9g C, 0.4g F - 4 oz, fruit cocktail, canned, in light syrup, Cals 65, 0.5g P, 16.9g C, 0.1g F. ADDITIONAL MEALS / SNACKS Additional Calories from late evening protein supplements, snack or small meal before bedtime. Add to 2,500 Calorie per day example or redistributed some calories from example meals. Adjust caloric intake to meet your daily caloric intake requirements. The all in one Super-Stack Explosive Growth Blend was used in the above example, plus optional extra multivitamin/mineral supplement depending on your individual needs. Note that this adds about 350 extra calories per day to the total caloric intake. Refer to Part Two for more details about this product. OR - You can also create your own supplement stack, using a selection of individual products. The Higher Power product line offers a wide selection.


Example - with typical late afternoon / early evening training session 3500 Calories Per Day 25% Protein, 875 Cals, 219 grams 55% Carbohydrate, 1925 Cals, 481 grams 20% Fat, 700 Calories, 78 grams BREAKFAST - Meal Goal: 579 cals, 38.5g P, 61g C, 18.5g F Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 1 1/2cups Egg alternative Vegetable Omelet, 150 cals, 21 g P, 15g C, 0gF. - 1 slice Canadian Bacon, 86 cals, 12g P, 0g C, 4g F. - 4 oz Boiled potato pulp, 117 cals, 2g P, 28 g C, 0g F. - 1 tbsp Butter or margarine, 100 cals, 0g P, 0g C, 11.4g F. - 6 oz Grapefruit Juice, 60 cals, 0g P, 15g C, 0g F. - 4 oz Milk, 2%, 60 cals, 4g P, 5.5g C, 2g F. MORNING SNACK - High Protein Meal Replacement Bar or Drink 470 calories, 40g P, 64g C, 6g F. LUNCH- Meal Goal: 579 cals, 38.5g P, 61g C, 18.5g F Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 1 orange, medium, 62 cals, 1g P, 13g C, 0g F - 1 roll, Hoagie, 210 cals, 8g P, 34g C, 5g F. - 4 oz chicken breast, no skin, 124 cals, 26g P, 0g C, 2g F. - 3 tbsp., Salad Dressing, oil & vinegar, 135 cals, 0g P, 3g C, 12g F. - 2 oz, Lettuce, iceberg, trimmed, 8 cals, 0.5g P, 1.5g C, 0g F. - 4 oz, broccoli spears, 30 cals, 4g P, 6g C, 0g F. - 2 oz carrot, raw, 24 cals, 1g P, 6g C, 0g F.



PRE-TRAINING SNACK – 2.5 to 1 hours before training. - High Protein Meal Replacement Drink or Bar, 470 cals, 40g P, 55g C, 10g F. At 15 minutes before or at start of training, begin ingesting energy beverage intake in divided dosages as previously mentioned above in carbohydrate section; about 20 oz total, spread out during workout and post workout, 500 cals, 0g P, 125g C, 0g F. Adjust intake based on your individual workout requirements. DINNER - Meal Goal: 901 cals, 62g P, 98g C, 29g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 5 oz Beef, Bottom Round, prime, trimmed, 225 cals, 31g P, 0g C, 10.5g F. - 2 oz pasta, 210 cals, 9g P, 41g C, 1g F. - 1/2 tbsp olive oil, cals 60, 0g P, 0g C, 7g F. - 4 oz pasta sauce, Mushroom Thick and Hearty, 100 cals, 2g P, 15g C, 3g F. - 12 oz Spinach, 72 cals, 9.6g P, 12g C, 1.2g F. - 8 oz Milk, whole, 150 cals, 8g P, 11g C, 8g F - 4 oz, fruit cocktail, canned, in light syrup, Cals 65, 0.5g P, 16.9g C, 0.1g F. ADDITIONAL MEALS / SNACKS Additional Calories from late evening protein supplements, snack or small meal before bedtime. Add to 3,500 Calorie per day example or redistributed some calories from example meals. Adjust caloric intake to meet your daily caloric intake requirements. The all in one Super-Stack Explosive Growth Blend was used in the above example, plus optional extra multivitamin/mineral supplement depending on your individual needs. Note that this adds about 350 extra calories per day to the total caloric intake. Refer to Part Two for more details about this product. OR - You can also create your own supplement stack, using a selection of individual products. The Higher Power product line offers a wide selection.


20% Protein, 60% Carbohydrate, 20% Fat Performance Nutrition Guidelines 20% protein, 60% carbohydrate, 20% fat daily nutrition plan is recommended for individuals who participate in sports or fitness activities that require explosive strength and power on a sustained or highly repetitive basis. However, while these individuals rely to some extent on the glycolytic energy systems, they also depend primarily on the oxidative energy systems. Fatty acids as well as muscle glycogen are their primary fuel sources during activity. Therefore, these athletes need to consume just moderate amounts of protein to maintain positive nitrogen balance and to repair their fragile fast-twitch muscle fibers. Higher protein intake, requires drinking more water. Also making sure adequate intake of the essential vitamins and minerals is maintained. The following table will provide some guidelines that can be useful in planning your daily dietary nutrient intake, and is intended for information purposes only, for healthy adult athletes. Remember to always check with your healthcare practitioner before taking supplements or following a new nutrition plan, especially for individuals who are pregnant or breast feeding, chronically ill, elderly, under 18 years old, taking any medications. These guidelines may not be suitable for everybody, and are intended for short-term use, by healthy adults, during the athletic season. Only use supplements as directed by the manufacturer and or your health care professional.


Example - with typical late afternoon / early evening training session 2500 Calories Per Day 20% Protein, 500 Cals, 125 grams 60% Carbohydrate, 1500 Cals, 375 grams 20% Fat, 500 Calories, 56 grams BREAKFAST - Meal Goal: 474.5 cals, 23.5g P, 67g C, 12.5g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 3 pancakes, buttermilk, prepared, 200 cals, 6g P, 28g C, 7g F. - 3 oz ham, fresh, trimmed, 117 cals, 18g P, 0g C, 4.5g F. - 8 oz Vegetable juice, 35 cals, 1g P, 8g C, 0g F. - 3 1/2 tbsp Pancake Syrup, lite, 87.5 cals, 0g P, 24g C, 0g F. MORNING SNACK - 1 Nutrition Bar, 270 cals, 12g P, 45g C, 6g F. LUNCH - Meal Goal: 474.5 cals, 23.5g P, 67g C, 12.5g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 1/2 oz American cheese, 55 cals, 3 g P, 0.5 g C, 4.5g F - 1 sandwich roll, 123 cals, 4.5g P, 21.6g C, 3.3 g F - 3 slices, turkey, 60 cals, 12g P, 0.9 g C, 1.2g F - 2 oz Iceberg lettuce, trimmed, 8 cals, 0.6g P, 1.2g C, 0.2g F. - 3 tbsp mustard, 48 cals, 3g P, 3g C, 3g F. - 2 oz Apricot Dried, 140 cals, 2g P, 35g C, 0g F. PRE-TRAINING SNACK – 2.5 to 1 hours before training. - Protein Drink, 225 cals, 30g P, 15g C, 5g F.


Use this example template to plan your own meals, snacks and supplement intake schedule. Make sure to consume adequate water. Make adjustments to caloric intake and eating schedule based on additional workout sessions during the day.

At 15 minutes before or at start of training, begin ingesting energy beverage intake in divided dosages as previously mentioned above in carbohydrate section; about 16 oz total, spread out during workout and post workout, 300 cals, 0g P, 100g C, 0g F. Adjust intake based on your individual workout requirements. DINNER - Meal Goal: 748 cals, 36g P, 106g C, 20g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 4 oz tuna, bluefin, 164 cals, 26.4 g P, 0g C, 5.6g F. - 1 tomato, 4.75 oz, 26 cals, 1g P, 5.7g C, 0.4g F. - 8 oz Iceberg lettuce, trimmed, 32 cals, 2.4g P, 4.8g C, 0.8g F. - 2 oz onion, trimmed, 22 cals, 0.6g P, 4.8g C, 0.2g F - 3 oz brown rice, 309 cals, 6.9g P, 66g C, 3g F. - 6 oz cauliflower, 42 cals, 2.4g P, 8.4g C, 0.6 g F. - 2 tbsp Salad dressing, oil & vinegar, 90 cals, 0g P, 2 g C, 8g F. - 3 oz grape juice, 60 cals, 0g P, 15g C, 0g F. ADDITIONAL MEALS / SNACKS Additional Calories from late evening protein supplements, snack or small meal before bedtime. Add to 2,500 Calorie per day example or redistributed some calories from example meals. Adjust caloric intake to meet your daily caloric intake requirements.

Higher Power brand offers a wide selection of sports nutrition products, including products for promoting improved oxidative endurance athletic performance.


Notes



BREAKFAST - Meal Goal: 489 cals, 36g P, 52.5g C, 15g F Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 3 pancakes, buttermilk, prepared, 200 cals, 6g P, 28g C, 7g F. - 4 oz ham, fresh, trimmed, 156 cals, 24g P, 0g C, 6g F. - 8 oz skim milk, 86 cals, 8g P, 11.9g C, 0.4g F. - 2 tbsp Pancake syrup,, lite, 50 cals, 0g P, 14g C, 0g F. MORNING SNACK - 1 Food Bar, 440 cals, 16g P, 68g C, 12g F. LUNCH - Meal Goal: 489 cals, 36g P, 52.5g C, 15g F Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 1/2 oz American Cheese, 55 cals, 3 g P, 0.5g C, 4.5 g F. - 1 sandwich roll, 123 cals, 4.5g P, 21.6 g C, 3.3 g F - 6 slices, turkey, 120 cals, 24 g P, 1.8g C, 2.4g F. - 2 oz Iceberg lettuce, trimmed, 8 cals, 0.6g P, 1.2g C, 0.2g F. - 3 tbsp mustard, 48 cals, 3g P, 3g C, 3g F. - 1 banana, w/o skin, 105 cals, 1.2g P, 26.7g C, 0.6g F. PRE-TRAINING SNACK – 2.5 to 1 hours before training. - High Protein Meal Replacement drink or bar, 548 cals, 30g P, 80g C, 12g F.


At 15 minutes before or at start of training, begin ingesting energy beverage intake in divided dosages as previously mentioned above in carbohydrate section; about 20 oz total, spread out during workout and post workout, 500 cals, 0g P, 125g C, 0g F. Adjust intake based on your individual workout requirements. DINNER - Meal Goal: 932 cals, 57g P, 122g C, 24g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 6 oz tuna, bluefin, 246 cals, 39.6 g P, 0g C, 8.4g F. - 1 tomato, 4.75 oz, 26 cals, 1g P, 5.7g C, 0.4g F. - 8 oz Iceberg lettuce, trimmed, 32 cals, 2.4g P, 4.8g C, 0.8g F. - 2 oz onion, trimmed, 22 cals, 0.6g P, 4.8g C, 0.2g F. - 1 oz garbanzo bean, 103 cals, 5.5g P, 17.2 g C, 1.7g F. - 3 oz brown rice, 309 cals, 6.9g P, 66g C, 3g F. - 6 oz cauliflower, 42 cals, 2.4g P, 8.4g C, 0.6 g F. - 2 tbsp Salad dressing, oil & vinegar, 90 cals, 0g P, 2 g C, 8g F. - 3 oz grape juice, 60 cals, 0g P, 15g C, 0g F. ADDITIONAL MEALS / SNACKS Additional Calories from late evening protein supplements, snack or small meal before bedtime. Add to 3,500 Calorie per day example or redistributed some calories from example meals. Adjust caloric intake to meet your daily caloric intake requirements.



Notes

15% Protein, 60% Carbohydrate, 25% Fat Performance Nutrition Guidelines 15% protein, 60% carbohydrate, 25% fat daily nutrition plan is recommended for individuals who participate in aerobic sports or fitness activities. When training or during competition, these individuals rely primarily on oxidative energy systems. Their muscles are composed of highly developed slow-twitch muscle fibers. Because of this, these individuals need to consume large amounts of carbohydrates to maintain their glycogen stores, due to the long duration of training and events. However, fatty acids are also their primary source of energy, so they should consume a moderate amount of healthy fats and oils. The amount of protein for this group of individuals is the lowest of the four plans, but is still about two times more than nonathletes require. Higher protein intake, requires drinking more water. Also making sure adequate intake of the essential vitamins and minerals is maintained. The following table will provide some guidelines that can be useful in planning your daily dietary nutrient intake, and is intended for information purposes only, for healthy adult athletes. Remember to always check with your healthcare practitioner before taking supplements or following a new nutrition plan, especially for individuals who are pregnant or breast feeding, chronically ill, elderly, under 18 years old, taking any medications. These guidelines may not be suitable for everybody, and are intended for short-term use, by healthy adults, during the athletic season. Only use supplements as directed by the manufacturer and or your health care professional.


Example - with typical late afternoon / early evening training session 2500 Calories Per Day 15% Protein, 375 Cals, 94 grams 60% Carbohydrate, 1500 Cals, 375 grams 25% Fat, 625 Calories, 69 grams BREAKFAST - Meal Goal: 464 cals, 20g P, 58.5g C, 16.5g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 3 pancakes, prepared, 200 cals, 6g P, 28g C, 7g F. - 2 oz ham, fresh, trimmed, 78 cals, 12g P, 0g C, 3g F. - 12 oz Vegetable juice, 70 cals, 2g P, 16g C, 0g F. - 2 tbsp Pancake Syrup, lite, 50 cals, 0g P, 14g C, 0g F. - 1/2 tbsp butter or margarine, 50 cals, 0g P, 0g C, 5.5g F. MORNING SNACK - 1 energy bar, 230 cals, 10g P, 45g C, 2.5g F. LUNCH - Meal Goal: 464 cals, 20g P, 58.5g C, 16.5g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 1 oz American cheese, 110 cals, 6g P, 1g C, 9g F - 1 sandwich roll, 123 cals, 4.5g P, 21.6g C, 3.3 g F - 2 slices, turkey, 40 cals, 8g P, 0.6 g C, 0.8g F - 2 oz Iceberg lettuce, trimmed, 8 cals, 0.6g P, 1.2g C, 0.2g F. - 2 tbsp mustard, 32 cals, 2g P, 2g C, 2g F. - 2 oz Apricot Dried, 140 cals, 2g P, 35g C, 0g F. PRE-TRAINING SNACK – 2.5 to 1 hours before training. - 1 Nutrition Bar, 270 cals, 12 g P, 45 g C, 6 g F.



At 15 minutes before or at start of training, begin ingesting energy beverage intake in divided dosages as previously mentioned above in carbohydrate section; about 16 oz total, spread out during workout and post workout, 300 cals, 0g P, 100g C, 0g F. Adjust intake based on your individual workout requirements. DINNER - Meal Goal: 743 cals, 32g P, 93g C, 27g F. Within 30 minutes to 2 hours. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 3 oz tuna, bluefin, 123 cals, 19.8g P, 0g C, 4.2g F. - 1 tomato, 4.75 oz, 26 cals, 1g P, 5.7g C, 0.4g F. - 4 oz Iceberg lettuce, trimmed, 16 cals, 1.2g P, 2.4g C, 0.4g F. - 2 oz onion, trimmed, 22 cals, 0.6g P, 4.8g C, 0.2g F - 3 oz brown rice, 309 cals, 6.9g P, 66g C, 3g F. - 6 oz cauliflower, 42 cals, 2.4g P, 8.4g C, 0.6 g F. - 4 tbsp Salad dressing, oil & vinegar, 180 cals, 0g P, 4 g C, 16g F. ADDITIONAL MEALS / SNACKS Additional Calories from late evening protein supplements, snack or small meal before bedtime. Add to 2,500 Calorie per day example or redistributed some calories from example meals. Adjust caloric intake to meet your daily caloric intake requirements.



Notes


Be mindful that actual food intake may not exactly meet the target goals; come as close as possible

BREAKFAST - Meal Goal: 590.5 cals, 24g P, 77.5g C, 20.5g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 3 pancakes, buttermilk, prepared, 200 cals, 6g P, 28g C, 7g F. - 3 oz ham, fresh, trimmed, 117 cals, 18g P, 0g C, 4.5g F. - 12 oz Vegetable juice, 70 cals, 2g P, 16g C, 0g F. - 4 tbsp Pancake Syrup, lite, 100 cals, 0g P, 25g C, 0g F. - 2/3 tbsp butter or margarine, 81 cals, 0g P, 0g C, 9g F. MORNING SNACK - 1 Food Bar, 440 cals, 16g P, 68g C, 12g F. LUNCH - Meal Goal: 590.5 cals, 24g P, 77.5g C, 20.5g F. Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 1 oz slice American cheese, 110 cals, 6g P, 1g C, 9g F - 1 sandwich roll, 123 cals, 4.5g P, 21.6g C, 3.3 g F - 3 slices, turkey, 60 cals, 10g P, 0.6 g C, 1.2g F - 2 oz Iceberg lettuce, trimmed, 8 cals, 0.6g P, 1.2g C, 0.2g F. - 2 tbsp mustard, 32 cals, 2g P, 2g C, 2g F. - 2 oz Apricot Dried, 140 cals, 2g P, 35g C, 0g F. - 1/3 tbsp safflower oil, 40 cals, 0g P, 0g C, 4.5g F. - 6 oz grapefruit juice, 60 cals, 0g P, 15g C, 0g F. PRE-TRAINING SNACK – 2.5 to 1 hours before training. - High Protein Meal Replacement drink or bar, 548 cals, 30g P, 80g C, 12g F.


At 15 minutes before or at start of training, begin ingesting energy beverage intake in divided dosages as previously mentioned above in carbohydrate section; about 20 oz total, spread out during workout and post workout, 500 cals, 0g P, 125g C, 0g F. Adjust intake based on your individual workout requirements. DINNER - Meal Goal: 924 cals, 37g P, 122g C, 32g F Take vitamin, mineral, ergogenic supplements. - 3 oz tuna, bluefin, 123 cals, 19.8g P, 0g C, 4.2g F. - 1 tomato, 4.75 oz, 26 cals, 1g P, 5.7g C, 0.4g F. - 4 oz Iceberg lettuce, trimmed, 16 cals, 1.2g P, 2.4g C, 0.4g F. - 2 oz onion, trimmed, 22 cals, 0.6g P, 4.8g C, 0.2g F - 4 oz brown rice, 412 cals, 9.2g P, 88g C, 4g F. - 6 oz cauliflower, 42 cals, 2.4g P, 8.4g C, 0.6 g F. - 5 tbsp Salad dressing, oil & vinegar, 225 cals, 0g P, 5 g C, 20g F. ADDITIONAL MEALS / SNACKS Additional Calories from late evening protein supplements, snack or small meal before bedtime. Add to 3,500 Calorie per day example or redistributed some calories from example meals. Adjust caloric intake to meet your daily caloric intake requirements.



FOOD LISTS The following page contains food lists that can be used to make food substitutions to the eating plans listed above. You should also include your favorite foods, and foods that are healthy and readily available in your region. Add these foods to the lists. Additionally, refer to Appendix 1, which is the 2005 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. This contains some additional information about nutrition that you can include into your sports nutrition plan, or to follow in the off-season.


HIGH PROTEIN FOODS - Beef, Lamb, Poultry, Fish, Pork, Eggs. FOOD SERVING SIZE CALS Abalone 3 oz 89 Bacon Alternative (Louis Rich) Turkey 1 strip 32 Bacon Bits (Hormel) 1 oz 117 Bacon, Canadian-Style 1 slices 86 Bass, Freshwater 1 oz 32 Bass, Sea 1 oz 27 Beef, Flank, untrimmed 1 oz 51 Beef, Bottom Round, prime, trimmed 1 oz 45 Beef, Bottom Round, prime, untrimmed 1 oz 64 Beef, Sirloin, prime, trimmed 1 oz 44 Beef, Tenderloin, choice, untrimmed 1 oz 82 Beef, Corned (Hilshire Farm) 1 oz 31 Beef, Roast, sliced (Healthy Deli) 1 oz 30 Buffalo 1 oz 40 Bluefish 1 oz 35 Burger, vegetarian, Harvest Burger (Green 1 burger 140 Giant) Chicken, breast, no skin 1 oz 31 Chicken, breast, with skin 1 oz 49 Chicken, sliced, (Tyson) hickory smoked 1 slice 25 Cod 1 oz 23 Deer 1 oz 34 Egg, chicken 1 large 34 Egg,, white 1 large 17 Egg, Alternative (Fleishmann’s) Egg 1/2 cup 50 Beaters vegetable omelet Flounder 3 oz 77 Frankfurter, low fat, (Healthy Choice) 1 frank 60 Halibut 1 oz 31 Ham, fresh trimmed 1 oz 39 Ham, sliced (Kahn’s) 1 slice 30 Pork, Tenderloin, trimmed 1 oz 34 Pork Chops (Master Choice) 1 chop 120 Tofu, soybean curd cake 1 oz 22 Tuna, bluefin 1 oz 41 Tuna, canned in soybean oil, solid, 2 oz 150 drained (Star-Kist) Tuna, canned, white, in water, drained, 2 oz 70 diet (Star-Kist) Turkey, light meat, no skin 1 oz 33 Turkey, dark meat, no skin 1 oz 35 Turkey, sliced, (Tyson) 1 slice 20 ADDITIONAL:


PRO 14.5 2.4 12 11.3 5.3 5.2 5.6 6.2 5.7 6 5 6 6.4 6.5 5.7 18

CARB 5.1 0.3 1 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 8

FAT 0.7 2.4 7 3.9 1 0.6 3 2.1 4.4 2 6.7 0.4 0.4 1.3 1.2 4

6.5 5.9 4 5 6.4 6.4 3.5 7

0 0 0.8 0 0 0 0.3 5

0.4 2.6 1 0.2 0.7 0.7 0 0

16 6 5.9 6 5 5.9 22 2.3 6.6 13

0 6 0 0 1 0 0 0.5 0 0

1 1.5 0.6 1.5 1 1 4 1.4 1.4 13

15

0

1

6.7 5.7 4

0 0 0.3

0.4 1.2 0.4

FOODS HIGH IN COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES - Breads, crackers, cereals, grains, starchy vegetables, and starchy fruits. FOOD SERVING SIZE CALS PRO CARB FAT Bagel, Onion 3.5 inch diameter 1 bagel 195 7.5 37.9 1.1 Bagel, Plain 3.5 inch diameter 1 bagel 195 7.5 37.9 1.1 Bagel, Frozen (Lender’s) 1 bagel 150 6 30 1 Bagel Chips (Burns & Ricker) 1 oz 130 4 20 4 Biscuit, commercially baked 1 oz 107 1.8 13.8 4.7 Hamburger bun 1 bun 123 3.7 21.6 2.2 Bread, white 1 slice 70 3 13 1 Bread, whole wheat 1 slice 60 3 11 1 Bread, Bran 1 oz 100 4 19 1 Bread, Fresh 1 oz 78 2.5 14.7 0.9 Bread, whole grain 1 slice 85 3.9 17.4 1.6 Bread, Rye 1 slice 80 3 16 1 Cake, Free & Light frozen (Sara Lee) 1/8 cake 110 2 26 0 Cake, pound, Free & Light (Sara Lee) 1/10 cake 70 1 17 0 Cereal, All Bran extra fiber (Kellogg’s) 1 oz 50 4 22 0 Cereal, Basic 4 (General Mills) 3/4 cup 130 3 28 2 Cereal, Corn Flakes 1 oz 110 2.3 24.4 0.1 Cereal, Grape-nuts (Post) 1 oz 101 3.3 23.3 0.1 Cereal MultiGrain Cheerios (General Mills) 1 oz 100 2 23 1 Cracker, saltine (Premium) Fat-free 4 crackers 50 1 12 0 English Muffin, plain (Thomas’) 1 muffin 130 4.3 25.4 1.3 Frankfurter bun 1 bun 123 3.7 21.6 2.2 Oatmeal, plain, instant 1 oz 100 5.8 18 2 Roll, Hoagie 1 roll 210 8 34 5 Roll, Kaiser 1 roll 184 7 35.4 2.9 Roll, Sandwich 1 roll 123 4.5 21.6 3.3 Grits, dry (Arrowhead Mills) 2 oz 200 5 43 1 Pancake, buttermilk, (Hungry Jack), 3 pancakes 200 6 28 7 prepared, with skim milk, oil, egg whites Pancake, extra light, (Hungry Jack), 3 pancakes 170 6 28 4 prepared with skim milk, oil, egg whites Pasta linguine and spaghetti, dry 2 oz 210 9 41 1 Popcorn, microwave, (Jiffy Pop), Natural, 4 cups 140 3 17 7 popped. Popcorn, microwave, (Jolly Time), light 3 cups 60 2 12 2 Potato, baked in skin 4 oz 124 2.6 28.6 0.1 Potato, boiled, no skin 4 oz 99 2.1 22.8 0.1 Potato, sweet, baked , pulp only 4 oz 117 2 27.5 0.1 Pretzels, most types 1 oz 110 3 23 1 Rice, Brown, dry 1 oz 103 2.3 22 1 Rice, White, dry 1 oz 105 2 23 0.2 ADDITIONAL:


VEGETABLES and BEANS FOOD Adzuki Bean, raw Arugula Baked Beans, canned , Tomato (Campbell’s) Baked Beans, canned, Barbecue (B&M) Baked Beans, canned, pea, small (Friends) Baked Beans, canned, Showboat (Bush’s Best) Baked Beans, canned, Vegetarian (B&M) Black Bean, raw Broccoli, fresh, raw, trimmed Broccoli, frozen, spears (Birds Eye) Cabbage, raw Carrot, raw Cauliflower, raw Celery, raw Corn, Frozen (Health Valley) Garbanzo Bean, raw Lettuce, Iceberg, trimmed Lettuce, Romaine, trimmed Lima Bean, raw Lima Bean, frozen (Green Giant) Onion, raw, trimmed Spinach, untrimmed Tomato, 2 3/4inch dia, 4.75 oz ADDITIONAL:

SERVING SIZE 1 oz 1 leaf 8 oz

CALS 93 1 200

PRO 5.6 0.1 10

CARB 17.8 0.1 43

FAT tr 0 3

8 oz 8 oz

260 360

15 17

48 62

6 4

8 oz

160

12

38

<1

8 oz 1 oz 1 oz 4 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1/2 cup 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1/2 cup 1 oz 1 oz 1 tomato

230 97 8 30 5 12 7 5 76 103 4 5 32 80 11 6 26

14 6.1 0.8 4 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.2 2 5.5 0.3 0.5 2 6 0.3 0.2 1

50 17.7 1.5 6 0.9 2.9 1.4 1 17 17.2 0.6 0.7 5.7 18 2.4 1 5.7

3 0.4 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0 0 1.7 0.1 0.1 0.2 0 .1 0.1 0.4


Fruit - Whole fruits and sauces. FOOD Apple Sauce (Mott’s) Natural Apricot pitted Apricot Dried (Del Monte) Asparagus Frozen (Birds Eye) Blueberry Fruit Cocktail, canned, in light syrup Grapefruit Orange Pasta Sauce, (Hunt’s), Homestyle Pasta Sauce, (Ragu), Mushroom Thick and Hearty. ADDITIONAL:

SERVING SIZE 6 oz 1 oz 2 oz 3.3 oz 1 oz 4 oz 1/2 fruit 1 med 4 oz 4 oz

CALS 80 14 140 25 16 65 50 62 60 100


PRO 0 0.4 2 3 0.2 0.5 1 1.2 2 2

CARB 20 3.2 35 4 4 16.9 13 15.5 10 15

FAT 0 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.1 0 0 2 3

DAIRY - cheese, milk, yogurt FOOD Cheese, American Cheese, American Cheddar Cheese, Parmesan, graded Cheese, Swiss Cottage Cheese, large curd Cottage Cheese, large curd, 1% Cottage Cheese, large curd, 2 % Cream Cheese Cream Cheese, fat-free Butter, Salted Milk, Skim Milk, 1 % Milk, 2 % Milk, Whole Yogurt, Plain (Dannon) lowfat Yogurt, Plain (Dannon), nonfat Yogurt, Mixed Berry (Breyers) lowfat ADDITIONAL:

SERVING SIZE 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 4 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 oz 1 tbsp 8 oz 8 oz 8 oz 8 oz 8 oz 8 oz 8 oz

CALS 110 113 128 105 117 20 25 98 30 100 86 102 121 150 140 110 250


PRO 6 7 11.6 8 14.1 3.5 3.9 2.1 6 0.1 8.4 8 8.1 8 10 11 9

CARB 1 0.4 1 1 3 0.8 1 0.7 2 0 11.9 11.7 11.7 11 16 16 48

FAT 9 9.3 8.4 7.7 5.1 0.3 0.5 9.8 0 11.4 0.4 2.6 4.7 8 4 0 2

SPREADS and SAUCES FOOD Catsup Margarine (Land O’Lakes), Mayonnaise Mustard Olive oil Pancake syrup (Hungry Jack), lite Pancake syrup (Hungry jack), regular Safflower oil Salad Dressing, (Kraft), Blue Cheese “Free” Salad Dressing, (Kraft), French, reduced calorie Salad Dressing, (Seven Seas), oil & vinegar Salad Dressing, (Wish-Bone), Blue Cheese, Chunky Salad Dressing, (Wish-Bone), Italian Steak Sauce, (A1) ADDITIONAL:

SERVING SIZE 1 tbsp 1 tbsp 1 tbsp 1 tbsp 1 tbsp 2 tbsp 2 tbsp 1 tbsp 1 tbsp

CALS 16 35 100 10 120 50 100 120 16

PRO 0.2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

CARB 4.1 0 0 1 0 14 26 0 4

FAT 0.1 4 11 1 14 0 0 14 0

1 tbsp

20

0

3

1

1 tbsp

45

0

1

4

1 tbsp

75

0.4

0.7

7.9

1 tbsp 1 tbsp

46 18

0 0

1.5 4

4.5 0


BEVERAGES FOOD Apple Juice (Knudsen & Sons) Natural Apple Juice (Ocean Spray) Apple Grape Juice (Red Cheek) Banana, w/o skin Cranberry Juice Carbohydrate Sports Drink, Low calorie Carbohydrate Sports Drink, Medium Calorie Carbohydrate Sports Drink, High Calorie Grape Juice Grapefruit Juice Green Tea, Fresh Brewed, Unsweetened Orange Juice Vegetable Juice (V8) Water ADDITIONAL:

SERVING SIZE 8 oz 6 oz 6 oz 1 fruit 8 oz 8 oz 8 oz

CALS 85 90 109 105 125 50 100

PRO <1 0 0.3 1.2 <1 0 0

CARB 21 23 27 26.7 31 13 25

FAT 0 0 0 0.6 0 0 0

16 oz 6 oz 6 oz Any Size 6 oz 6 oz Any Size

400 120 60 0 120 35 0

0 0 1 0 0 1 0

100 30 15 0 30 8 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0


MIXED FOODS FOOD Beef, corned, hash (Libby’s) canned Chili, canned, w/ chicken (Stagg) Chili, canned, vegetarian (Health Valley) Food-bar, (Earth Grains), Banana apple walnut “Bagel Power Bar” Food-bar, Pemmician, carob-cocoa, Bear Valley Food-bar, raspberry, fat free (Health Valley) Pizza, frozen, (Lean Cuisine), Three Cheese Protein Drink, Low Calorie, powder Protein Drink, Medium Calorie Protein Drink, High Calorie Protein Nutrition Bar, Low Calorie Protein Nutrition Bar, Medium Calorie Protein Nutrition Bar, High Calorie Power Bar ADDITIONAL:

SERVING SIZE

CALS

PRO

CARB

FAT

8 oz 7.5 oz 5 oz 1 BAR

420 200 90 270

19 14 10 12

21 21 12 45

28 6 0 6

1 bar

440

16

68

12

1 bar

140

3

33

0

5.5 oz

330

23

38

10

2 oz 4 oz 5 oz 1 bar 1 bar 1 bar 1 bar

225 470 548 225 470 548 230

30 40 30 30 40 30 10

15 64 80 15 64 80 45

5 6 12 5 6 12 2.5


TIPS SECTION This section has been designed to help you stay with your program and provide information that can be used at home or when traveling. Tips are included on cooking, eating out, general eating and when traveling. Write in new tips that you develop yourself or obtain from reading other material. Also refer to Chapter 3.2, which contains additional nutrition tips for health and weight maintenance.

Cooking Tips Avoid the use of MSG (Monosodium Glutamate). Always trim any excess fats and skins from meats and poultry if you are trying to reduce fat intake. Broil, bake, and grill foods; this will reduce excess fat. Use spray cooking oils such as Pam rather than regular oils (one tbsp. of oil equals 120 calories and 14 grams of fat). Use low-fat cheese made from low-fat milk instead of regular processed cheese. Use non-stick frying pans - with little oil, pressure cooker, oven, steamer baskets, microwave, boil, slow cookers, roast racks to cook foods. Eat wholesome, organic foods whenever possible.

Eating Out Tips Choose restaurants that offer a variety of foods in your meal plan. Ask to have sauces and dressings served on the side. Seafood restaurants offer low-fat, healthy meals. At steak houses, order a lean cut of meat such as filet, ground steak, or grilled skinless chicken breast, preferably broiled. For Chinese food, choose steamed vegetables with, seafood, chicken or beef. Remember restaurant servings tend to vary in size; be aware of portion size.

General Tips Plan to eat meals at approximately the same time every day. This will increase the efficiency of the body's digestive process. Eat fresh foods and whole foods whenever possible. Keep a food diary to keep track of what you are eating. Try not to eat in front of the TV or when reading the paper etc. This will allow you to focus on enjoying the meal and concentrate on eating. There is a tendency to overeat and not chew food properly when distracted. Don't skip meals. Plan meals ahead of time and stay on a consistent schedule. This will keep you from becoming uncontrollably hungry and will help the body's digestive system work more efficiently. Drink more caloric-free beverages, such as water, unsweetened fresh brewed tea (especially green tea), no calorie flavored water or seltzer to maintain proper fluid intake.

Traveling Tips Always have your personal size cooler bag with you, containing the beverages, MRP’s, nutrition bars, fruit, vegetables, supplements, and meal you plan on eating when away from your home. Prepare lunch if you know you'll be on the road. Don't put yourself in a position where there is no healthy food available. Order special meals when making plane reservations. Kosher food plates, fruit plates, and other meals are available when pre-ordered through a travel agent. Bring bottled water and energy drinks with you to insure your daily water intake requirement.


BODYBUILDING AND SPORTS NUTRITION SUPPLEMENTS This following information provides an overview regarding nutrient supplement intake, and safety. From your reading in Part One you know that there are a diversity of nutrients and substances found to be essential for health and useful for improving athletic performance. As with your daily food intake goals, your supplement and total nutrition intake goals should focus on what has been proven to be most effective, based on research study evidence, as your foundation nutrition program. Once this is established you can measure the potential performance enhancing effects of additional sports supplement ingredients and types. One point of historical value is that it is easy to get caught up in an endless search for a magic pill. This is why it is important to put your effort and resources into first establishing a nutrition and supplement program that is based on scientific evidence of effectiveness, and avoid random and advertising driven searching. To accomplish this goal, a sports supplement program should include both the time-tested nutrients/approaches, as well as the new valid nutrition approaches. Once you start using and perfecting the scientific approach for your nutrition and training programs, you can measure for yourself if a product or method has produced the positive effects on your performance, strength, or muscle mass. In general for strength sports, you can usually expect a measurable result in a few days to a few weeks when taking the right products and following an effective sports nutrition program. For agility sports and endurance sports it usually takes longer, several weeks to a few months. But, for both general types of athletes, the beneficial results should continue to build over the months and years. So while it is human nature to want an immediate fast benefit, the best overall results may come more slowly, over time. So, don’t leave your athletic performance to chance, work with your coach / trainer to establish body composition and performance measurements to keep track of your progress on a regular basis, so you can measure the effectiveness of your nutrition and training programs.

Sports Supplement Effectiveness and Safety Regarding the nutrients themselves found in food and supplements, there are dietary intake issues based on both sides of the dietary intake equation; inadequate consumption (not enough) and over consumption (too much). In general foods and supplements have an excellent safety record. In reviewing effectiveness and safety issues, the point is to establish a performance enhancing range of effective intake for nutrients and related substances, so you will be ingesting enough to make a positive difference, but not excessive amounts that might not be providing any extra benefits, or may possibly develop rare, but unwanted side effects from over consumption. This phenomenon may be new to some people, where an essential nutrient is vital to life, but can potentially cause adverse side effects if consumed in excessive amounts. As the following reference chart below illustrates, when nutrient intake levels are low (to the left), Part Three Page 3 - 42 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

nutrient deficiency diseases or conditions can develop. When nutrient intake is too high (to the right), the risk of potential nutrient over consumption related side effects may occur. Theoretically, the nutrient intake zone between the lowest level and the highest level is the optimum health zone and athletic performance intake zone. However, for whatever reason, the National Academy of Sciences / government sets nutrient intake standards at the lowest level of intake, even below the level where inadequate nutrient intake is estimated to occur, the EAR and RDA values are actually in the risk of inadequacy area, as seen in the illustration.

EAR is Estimated Average Requirement. RDA is Recommended Dietary Allowances. UL is Tolerable Upper Intake

On the right side, a wide margin of safety is built into the UL guidelines, meaning that the UL amounts of a nutrient they declared is well below the point at which an adverse event has been observed in scientific studies, even a minor one like gastrointestinal upset. They are also established on average size, non-athletic people, for long-term intake purposes. Technically, the UL is an estimated upper value of intake representing the point at which is the highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population. At intakes above the UL, the risk of adverse effects may increase. This is due to the fact that these are general guidelines are used for health planning at the national level. It is recognized that individuals, or groups of individuals with special dietary needs, such as athletes, will have different nutrient intake needs and sensitivities. The activity level of an individual, their size, and their current nutrient status will all factor in when determining the optimum range if intake for nutrients. It is also interesting to note that just in 1997 they started to publish the UL, and for some of the essential nutrients no UL’s could be established because there was no research that supported any adverse effects. So while the government adopted system is useful for general nutrition intake purposes, the DRI guidelines and nutrient intakes can be too low, or inadequate for athletes, especially for larger and more active athletes. Additionally, dietary intake surveys conducted among athletes consistently report about how most athlete’s diets are deficient in one or more of the essential vitamins and minerals. When a person is deficient in a nutrient it is sometimes required to ingest amounts of the nutrient in large amounts to overcome and correct the nutrient deficiency. This underscores the importance of working Part Three Page 3 - 43 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

under the supervision of a health professional to determine the exact needs of an individual and to monitor their health when using self prescribed nutrition and training programs. For reference / educational purposes, the following tables can be useful in planning your sports supplement programs, during the preseason and season. Table A is a general list of nutrients that are of primary importance for athletes, and grouped according to Strength and Muscle Building sports and Oxidative Endurance sports. The majority of sports supplements is similar between the two groups of athletes. But, there are also some distinctive and important differences with certain sports supplement ingredients. Table A Strength Performance and Muscle Building

Oxidative Endurance Performance

Primary: Multivitamins Multiminerals Extra Antioxidants Extra chromium Protein Supplements (amino acids) Extra BCAA’s (leucine, isoleucine, valine) Extra Arginine, glutamine, taurine Creatine Glucosamine Hydrolyzed collagen Bioflavonoids

Primary: Multivitamins Multiminerals Extra Antioxidants Extra Chromium Energy Drinks Protein Supplements (amino acids) Extra BCAA’s (leucine, isoleucine, valine) Carnitine Coenzyme Q10 Bioflavonoids Octacosanol

Additional: Carnitine OKG (ornithine alpha-keto-glutarate) CLA (Conjugated Linoleic Acid) Ferulic Acid BHMB

Additional: Caffeine Glycerol Adaptogens, e.g. Ginseng, rhodiola Glucosamine / CS Hydrolyzed collagen Glutamine

Additional For Maximum Anaerobic Energy Performance: Blood buffers, e.g., sodium bicarbonate (on an experimental basis; use with caution). Adaptogens, egg, ginseng, rhodiola Extra Vitamin B3 (niacin) Energy Drinks Octacosanol (for strength sports where improved reaction time is desired).

Note: refer to Part One for detailed information about these nutrients and sports supplement ingredients.

Tables B-1 and B-2 provide some examples of specific nutrient intake ranges, based on safety and effectiveness. The exact range of intake required for particular athlete will depend on many factors. These ranges are intended to provide a framework that can be used in planning when working with health professionals. The exact nutrient intake will depend on the size and physical activity of an athlete, their base diet, state of health, individual biochemistry & physiology, and if any nutrient deficiencies are present. Part Three Page 3 - 44 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

TABLE B-1. BODYBUILDING & STRENGTH SPORTS DAILY DIETARY SUPPLEMENT EXAMPLE GUIDELINES NUTRIENT

Vitamin A (preformed) Beta Carotene Vitamin B1 (thiamin) Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) Vitamin B3 (niacin) Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) Biotin Folate Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Boron Calcium Chromium Copper Iodine Iron Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Phosphorus Potassium Selenium Zinc Arginine Glutamine Ornithine Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) Alpha-linolenic acid Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) Eiocosapentaenoic acid (EPA) Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) Linoleic acid BHMB Bioflavonoids Choline Creatine monohydrate Ferulic acid CLA L-carnitine Glucosamine ADDITIONAL:

SUPPLEMENT RANGE OF INTAKE TOTAL DAILY

PERSONAL NOTES

2,500 to 10,000 IU 2 to 15 mg 5 to 90 mg 5 to 90 mg 10 to 90 mg 5 to 100 mg 2 to 90 mg 3 to120 mcg 125 to 300 mcg 400 to 800 mcg 500 to 2,000 mg 200 to 800 IU 100 to 600 IU 60 to 160 mcg 2 to 8 mg 200 to 1,500 mg 200 to 500 mcg 1 to 4 mg 75 to 200 mcg 8 to 50 mg 80 to 500 mg 1 to 11 mg 35 to 200 mcg 150 to 1,000 mg 50 to 1,000 mg 35 to 200 mcg 7.5 to 40 mg 1,000 to 5,000 mg 5,000 to 10,000 mg 1,000 to 5,000 mg 5 to 20 grams 1,000 to 3,000 mg 250 to 750 mg 250 to 750 mg 400 to 800 mg 3,000 to 6,000 mg 1,500 to 3,000 mg 200 to 1,200 mg 100 to 2,000 mg 5,000 to 10,000 mg 30 to 200 mg 3,000 to 6,000 mg 500 to 2,000 mg 500 to 1,500 mg

mg = milligrams, mcg = micrograms, g = grams. Note: This information is for educational purposes only. The example guidelines are for model healthy adult athletes, for short-term use during periods of athletic training. Typically, the exact nutrition requirements for each person will differ, and for best results should be determined working with a health care professional. Use supplements as directed by the manufacturer or your health care professional. Most supplements need to be taken with water and can be taken with meals. Also, take most supplements in divided dosages 2 or more times a day to maintain sustained intake and levels of nutrients.


TABLE B-2 OXIDATIVE ENDURANCE SPORTS DAILY DIETARY SUPPLEMENT EXAMPLE GUIDELINES NUTRIENT

Vitamin A (preformed) Beta Carotene Vitamin B1 (thiamin) Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) Vitamin B3 (niacin) Vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid) Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) Biotin Folate Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Boron Calcium Chromium Copper Iodine Iron Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Phosphorus Potassium Selenium Zinc Glutamic acid Glutamine Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) Alpha-linolenic acid Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) Eiocosapentaenoic acid (EPA) Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) Linoleic acid Bioflavonoids Choline Coenzyme Q10 L-carnitine Glucosamine Octacosanol ADDITIONAL:

SUPPLEMENT RANGE OF INTAKE TOTAL DAILY

PERSONAL NOTES

2,500 to 10,000 IU 10 to 25 mg 30 to 125 mg 30 to 125 mg 10 to 20 mg 100 to 190 mg 20 to 80 mg 12 to 120 mcg 125 to 200 mcg 400 to 800 mcg 500 to 2,000 mg 400 to 800 IU 200 to 900 IU 60 to 160 mcg 2 to 8 mg 200 to 1,500 mg 200 to 500 mcg 1 to 4 mg 75 to 200 mcg 7.5 to 40 mg 250 to 500 mg 1 to 11mg 35 to 200 mcg 150 to 800 mg 50 to 1,000 mg 35 to 200 mcg 7.5 to 40 mg 1,000 to 1,500 mg 1,000 to 5,000 mg 5 to 20 grams 500 to 2,000 mg 400 to 1,000 mg 400 to 1,000 mg 200 to 500 mg 500 to 2,000 mg 500 to 1,500 mg 500 to 2,000 mg 60 to 300 mg 2,000 to 4,000 mg 500 to 1,500 mg 1,000 to 6,000 mcg

mg = milligrams, mcg = micrograms, g = grams. Note: This information is for educational purposes only. The example guidelines are for model healthy adult athletes, for short-term use during periods of athletic training. Typically, the exact nutrition requirements for each person will differ, and for best results should be determined working with a health care professional. Use supplements as directed by the manufacturer or your health care professional. Most supplements need to be taken with water and can be taken with meals. Also, take most supplements in divided dosages 2 or more times a day to maintain sustained intake and levels of nutrients.


Tables C-1 and C-2 contain a collection of vitamin and mineral nutrient intake reference values that can be useful when for planning a healthy and effective sports nutrition program. The Daily Values and Dietary Reference Intakes are included. These represent a minimum intake for healthy adults. They are typically based on non-athletic adults, in about a body weight range of 60 to 75 kilograms (132 to 165 pounds). The Tolerable Upper Intake, UL, values are also included for reference. As previously mentioned, the ULs are the upper amount of daily nutrient intake that would likely not result in producing any nutrient excess intake side effects. The DV, DRI and UL values are for total nutrient intake, from foods and supplements. For, comparison, some other independent upper intake values are included in these tables. The values for upper vitamin and mineral intakes as determined by the Council for Responsible Nutrition and the Canadian government. These values were determined just for supplement intake, and consider that there will also be a baseline of nutrient intake from conventional food dietary sources. In my previous sports nutrition books and course text book, I established the Performance Daily Intake range for the vitamins and minerals. The tables also contain these nutrient range values, modified for this general reader guide version. The intent of the PDI’s was to provide a safe and effective range of minimum and maximum vitamin and mineral intake, as athletes typically require higher nutrient intakes than recommended by the DV and DRI guidelines. The PDIs were intended to help with planning total dietary vitamin and mineral intake from foods and supplements. Again, for each person the exact dietary intake of these nutrients can only be determined working with a health care professional, so the PDI ranges are useful for planning purposes. The PDI guidelines were also intended for healthy, active athletes, for short-term use during the athletic pre-season and season. Based on many dietary survey intakes conducted among athletes, it is reported that most athletes are usually deficient in several essential nutrients. These dietary survey intakes use the lower amount DV or DRI values in making their determination. So, considering that most athletes have higher than average nutrient intake requirements, when you consider this need for higher nutrient intakes, many athletes’ diets can be deficient in most of the essential vitamins and minerals. Note that when individuals are determined to be deficient in a nutrient, very high short-term intake of that nutrient may be required as determined by your health care professional, which may be higher than the upper nutrient intake levels presented in these tables. In general, the lower to middle PDI intake range is suitable for athletes 165 pounds and under, and the middle to upper PDI intake range is suitable for athletes over 165 pounds. However, the exact intake will vary based on the needs of the individual. Regarding gender differences, when it comes to athletes, men and women of similar body weight / lean body mass, have similar nutrient intake requirements. Also, remember that some dosage ranges are have sport specific issues, and review Part One for details. For example, niacin intake levels should be adequate but on the lower end of the PDI intake range for endurance athletes due to the possible increased rate of glycogen depletion.


Table C-1 Vitamin Intake Reference Information Summary USA Minimum and Upper Vitamin Reference Intakes (total intake from food and supplements)

Daily Values Total Intake Vitamin A (preformed) Beta-Carotene Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin (Nicotinic Acid) (Nicotinamide) Vitamin B6 Folate Vitamin B12 Pantothenic Acid Biotin Choline

DRI* Men Total Intake 900 mcg (3,000 IU)

700 mcg (2,330 IU)

Tolerable Upper Intake Total Intake 3,000 mcg 10,000 IU

Not Established

Not Established

Not Established

Not Established

60 mg 400 IU

90 mg 15 mcg 600 IU 15 mg 120 mcg 1.2 mg 1.3 mg 16 mg

75 mg 15 mcg 600 IU 15 mg 90 mcg 1.1 mg 1.1 mg 14 mg

2,000 mg 50 mcg 2,000 IU 1,000 mg

5,000 IU

30 IU 80 mcg 1.5 mg 1.7 mg 20 mg

2 mg 400 mcg 6 mcg 10 mg 300 mcg Not Established

1.7 mg 400 mcg 2.4 mcg 5 mg 30 mcg 550 mg

DRI* Women Total Intake

1.5 mg 400 mcg 2.4 mcg 5 mg 30 mcg 425 mg

Not Established Not Established Not Established

Vitamin Reference Intakes (intake from supplements) Council for Responsible Nutrition and Canadian CRN Canadian for Supplements For Supplements 3,000 mcg 10,000 IU 25 mg 2,000 mg 60 mcg 2,400 IU 1,600 IU (1,000 mg) 10,000 mcg 100 mg 200 mg

35 mg

100 mg 1,000 mcg Not Established Not Established Not Established

3.5 g

500 mg / 250 mg SR 1,500 mg 100 mg 1,000 mcg 3,000 mcg 1,000 mg 2,500 mcg Not Established

10,000 IU Not Established

1,500 mg I,000 IU 1,000 IU

Performance Daily Intake (PDI) 2007 Guide Version

PDI – 2007 Consumer Version (Performance Daily Intake range, including all nutrient sources; foods and supplements). 5,000 to 15,000 IU 5 to 30 mg 500 to 3,000 mg 400 to 1,000 IU

100 mg 100 mg 500 mg

200 IU to 1,000 IU 80 to 180 mcg 15 to 135 mg 15 to 135 mg 20 to 100 mg

250 mg 1,000 mcg 1,000 mcg 500 mg 500 mcg 1,000 mg

10 to 100 mg 400 to 1,200 mcg 12 to 200 mcg 20 to 200 mg 300 to 600 mcg 600 to 2,500 mg

Not Established

mg = milligrams, mcg = micrograms, g = grams. Note: This information is for educational purposes only. The example guidelines are for model healthy adult athletes, for short-term use during periods of athletic training. Typically, the exact nutrition requirements for each person differ, and for best results should be determined working with a health care professional. * = highest DRI reported on a gender basis, excluding pregnant or lactating women. DRI (Dietary Reference Intakes) includes Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI). References: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and nd Sulfate (2004). Vitamin and Mineral Safety, 2 Edition, Council for Responsible Nutrition, Washington, D.C., 2004. Health Canada.


Table C-2 Mineral Intake Reference Information Summary USA Minimum and Upper Mineral Reference Intakes (total intake from food and supplements)

Daily Values Total Intake Calcium Chromium Copper Iodine Iron Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Phosphorus Selenium Zinc Potassium Sodium Chloride Boron Vanadium

1,000 mg 120 mcg 2 mg 150 mcg 18 mg 400 mg 2 mg 75 mcg 1,000 mg 70 mcg 15 mg 3,500 mg 2,400 mg 3,400 mg

DRI* Men Total Intake 1,200 mg 35 mcg 0.9 mg 150 mcg 11 mg 420 mg 2.3 mg 45 mcg 1,250 mg 55 mcg 11 mg 4,700 mg 1,500 mg 2,300 mg

DRI* Women Total Intake 1,200 mg 25 mcg 0.9 mg 150 mcg 18 mg 320 mg 1.8 mg 45 mcg 1,250 mg 55 mcg 8 mg 4,700 mg 1,500 mg 2,300 mg

Not Established

Not Established

Not Established

Not Established

Not Established

Not Established

Tolerable Upper Intake Total Intake 2,500 mg Not Established

10 mg 1,100 mcg 45 mg 350 mg 11 mg 2,000 mcg 4,000 mg 400 mcg 40 mg Not Established

2,300 mg 3,600 mg 20 mg 1.8 mg

Mineral Reference Intakes (intake from supplements) Council for Responsible Nutrition and Canadian CRN Canadian for Supplements For Supplements

Performance Daily Intake (PDI) 2007 Guide Version

1,500 mg 1,000 mcg 9 mg 500 mcg 60 mg 400 mg 10 mg 350 mcg 1,500 mg 200 mcg 30 mg 1,500 mg

1,200 to 2,600 mg 200 mcg to 600 mcg 3 to 6 mg 150 to 400 mcg 18 to 60 mg 400 to 800 mg 4 to 30 mg 100 to 300 mcg 1,000 to 4,000 mg 100 to 400 mcg 15 to 60 mg 3,500 to 4,700 mg 2,500 to 4,500 mg + 3,400 to 4,500 mg + 6 to 12 mg

Not Established Not Established

1,500 mg 500 mcg 5 mg 500 mcg 35 mg 500 mg 30 mg 50 mcg 1,000 mg 200 mcg Not Established

780 mg 100 mg 1,000 mg

6 mg

Not Established

Not Established

Not Established

PDI – 2007 Consumer Version (Performance Daily Intake range, including all nutrient sources; foods and supplements).

Not Established

mg = milligrams, mcg = micrograms, g = grams. Note: This information is for educational purposes only. The example guidelines are for model healthy adult athletes, for short-term use during periods of athletic training. Typically, the exact nutrition requirements for each person differ, and for best results should be determined working with a health care professional. * indicates the highest DRI was included as reported on a gender basis, excluding pregnant or lactating women. + indicates that dietary intake requirement for sodium and chloride can be periodically higher for individuals who lose sodium and chloride in excess or when in extremely hot or prolonged strenuous conditions. Extra sodium and or chloride intake may be required, estimated to be several or more additional grams for replenishment of these minerals lost from sweating and excretion. Also, note that some individuals can be sensitive to high sodium chloride intake levels, and high sodium chloride intake may cause high blood pressure in these sensitive individuals. DRI (Dietary Reference Intakes) includes Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) and Adequate Intakes (AI). References: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate nd (2004). Vitamin and Mineral Safety, 2 Edition, Council for Responsible Nutrition, Washington, D.C., 2004. Health Canada.


CHAPTER 3.2 GUIDE TO ATHLETIC FAT LOSS Solving the Weight Loss Puzzle ATTENTION. The following information and guidelines may help you to improve your weight loss and weight management. The following list of precautions must be followed carefully: Have your physician monitor your health on a regular basis. This information is not intended to be used by infants, children, adolescents, or by pregnant or lactating women or people who are taking medication or have a health problem. The information presented herein is in no way a substitute for medical or other professional counseling. Each individual may respond differently to the guidelines and therefore they may not be appropriate for everyone. Neither the publisher nor author is engaged in rendering professional medical advice or services to the individual reader. The ideas, procedures, and suggestions contained herein are not intended as a substitute for consulting with your physician or other health professional. All matters regarding your health require medical supervision. Neither the author nor the publisher shall be liable for any loss, injury, or damage allegedly arising from any information or suggestion in this guide.

In every athlete’s career, there comes a time when a modification in body composition is desired; i.e., weight gain or weight loss. For maximum performance and results, body composition changes must be specifically targeted. This means for weight loss, the actual goal is fat loss. For weight gain, increase in muscle mass is the primary goal, with little or no gain in body fat. As it turns out, the best way for athletes to accomplish these goals is the same for everybody else too. There are thousands of products and services on the market for fat loss and muscle gain in the form of books, videos, audio cassettes, magazines, nutritional products, articles, exercise equipment, pre-packaged meals, pharmaceuticals, support groups, medical services, and seminars. Billions and billions of dollars are spent each year by people wanting to lose weight and those who want to gain weight. In the process, people sometimes lose out in some way; either in time, money, impaired athletic performance, or diminished health and energy. Loss of body fat with maintenance or increase in lean body will produce the most desirable results for everyone. This chapter presents information and guidelines that may be useful for attaining your body composition goal.

SOLVING THE WEIGHT LOSS PUZZLE Losing weight has become an American pastime, with other overeating and junk food eating nations catching up. When determining the optimum fat loss approach for athletes, a review of traditional methods will help shed some light on how to best approach this task. Surprisingly, when researching the facts, it became evident that traditional fat loss approaches vary in food and nutrient composition in a fad based way. These popular fad diets are not designed or intended for athletes who need to maintain optimum health and peak performance. The popular weight loss methods are primarily developed for people who need to lose weight fast for health reasons, or for the would-be dieter who wants to trim down to look better. These common diets are typically very low in caloric consumption (too low for most athletes), unbalanced in food composition, and deficient in essential nutrients. Part Three Page 3 - 50 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Weight Loss Demystified A short review of my personal experience sorting through the weight loss fads and practices used in the medical community, eventually led me on a quest to determine what works best. It was back in 1970 that I was first confronted with the issue of weight management. Not because I was over weight, but because I decided to join the wrestling team. Up until that point, my focus was on building strength and lean body mass for strength sports performance and health. This was a time when applying the scientific approach to health and athletic performance was in its infancy. When it came to losing weight, the practices of the day were borderline barbaric. Low calorie and semi-starvation diets were common. For athletes making weight, the use of diuretics, laxatives, purging a meal, and sweating in saunas and sweat suits were the practices also relied upon. When turning to the popular weight loss books on the shelves, it seemed that every expert had a different approach. After reading dozens of books, this just did not make much sense. How could all of these experts have a different approach? Taking the scientific approach, I performed a comparative survey of the different diets of the day. Looking at what the different programs consisted of in terms of calories and nutrients. After gathering this data, the trend was clear, all of these diets were simply prescribing low calorie diets (too low), usually in the 1,600 to 1,000 calorie a day range. They also provided structured eating plans. Even today, out of the hundreds of diet books on the market they all have these two factors in common; low calorie and structured plans. Ironically this is also why these popular diets ultimately fail. Also, these diets are deficient in essential nutrients. First, looking at the structured plan aspect of popular diets, this is destined for a high rate of failure. Why? People end up eating the foods they love, the foods they are most often exposed to in their life. So, following a structured plan that someone else created without knowing about you, is usually destined for failure. Second, low calorie diets eventually lower your metabolic rate, or calorie burning rate. The weight loss on these popular, and even medical diets, is not quality weight loss. It is from lean body mass, water weight and also body fat mass. Lean body mass includes bone, muscle, and tissues that make up your body. It is not good to lose lean body mass, you need to maintain it and even build it. When someone stays on these low calorie fad diets long enough, their calorie using ability is reduced, then, when they return to healthy eating and start to increase their caloric intake, they may start regaining body fat faster than before. These are primary reasons why fad diets fail. When turning to the medical community the approaches are similar to the fad diet scene. The most common weight loss approaches used in clinics are low calorie diets, some are very low calorie diets. While body weight is lost, damaging effects to the body can occur on many levels, including metabolic, hormonal, and structural. Part Three Page 3 - 51 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

It is interesting to note that it was not until 1998 that the first “official” weight loss guide was published by the National Institutes of Health. Titled “Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults”, this report reviewed various approaches used for weight loss, including, diet, exercise, behavior, surgery and drugs. The diets reviewed in this report were the same low calorie to very low calorie diets used in medical settings. The major problem from the fad diets and clinical weight loss approaches is that they do not approach weight loss from a performance nutrition standpoint. Also, another short coming, especially with the clinical approaches, is they are not measuring body composition to determine where the weight loss is coming from; body fat, water weight or lean body mass. They recommend using the BMI (body mass index), which is a general assessment of overweightness or obesity; reviewed later in this chapter. The athlete weight loss solution is the same as with performance nutrition; individualized and bio-energetic specific.

Athletic Fat Loss For most athletes, losing excess body fat is easy following the athletic fat loss approach. This approach focuses on targeting loss of body fat, while maintaining health and performance. However, please note that it is always best to lose body fat and make body weight adjustments during the off season and early preseason. It is better to start the season at the proper bodyweight. One key goal is to focus on using stored body fat for energy. While calorie restriction will be part of the athletic fat loss program, eating foods, exercise, meal time, and use of supplements can be used to increase the rate of fat metabolism and body fat utilization, while preserving or even building lean body mass. Understanding Where Weight Loss Can Come From The three main ways your body losses weight are: Loss/reduction of net body water content, through dehydration. Loss/reduction of lean body mass, from muscle, bone, organs, glands, and other non-fat tissues Loss/reduction of body fat stores. Dehydration is not a recommended type of weight loss, but is a common method used in many of the popular fad diets, because it results in an immediate reduction in total body weight. Dehydration is detrimental to both health and athletic performance, and should be avoided. However, wrestlers, boxers, and other athletes that need to “make weight” for athletic competition commonly resort to this extreme weight loss method as a last minute resort. Losing just a few pounds during the last few hours prior to competition to make it into a specific weight division may not be harmful, as long as you are in a good state of hydration to begin with. But, most of these weight loss desperate athletes are chronically dehydrated. In most cases, you can re-hydrate your body after the weigh-ins. Ideally though, dehydration to make weight should be totally avoided. Part Three Page 3 - 52 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Lean body mass weight loss can result from cutting back on the calories too much, losing weight too fast, not eating the proper proportions of macronutrients, and not properly exercising. Lean body mass weight loss comes primarily from the breakdown of muscle tissue; but bone and connective tissue can also be effected, and lose tissue mass. Loss in lean body mass is a very detrimental type of weight loss for the athlete, or anybody for that matter. Loss of lean body mass also reduces your metabolic rate, and jeopardizes body structure and function. As endurance / aerobic type exercise (low intensity, long duration) has a muscle fiber reducing effect, reduction in lean body mass may occur if you start increasing your aerobic exercise, especially for strength athletes. While this may not be of importance to endurance athletes, strength athletes can end up losing lean body mass that they spent years building with resistance training. Body Composition In addition to weighing yourself a few times a day, to best keep track where your weight loss is coming from (body fat, water weight, or lean body mass), get your body composition measured on a regular basis. Using your body composition measurements you can track the relationship between calorie reduction, nutrition and exercise to determine what best combination results in losing just body fat, while maintaining or building lean body mass. So, keeping track of your body composition is vital for effective body fat reduction. Note that body weight fluctuations that occur within a day are mostly from water weight, in particular the weight lost during exercise. Also food intake and the time it takes to pass through your gastrointestinal system can contributed to the major daily weigh fluctuations. So, taking note of these daily fluctuations is important to determine your hydration status. In addition to tracking body weight, the body composition method that uses skin fold measurements provides insights of your body fat reduction. This is accomplished from the fact that the skin fold measurement measures both skin thickness and the fat below the skin (subcutaneous fat). Therefore, as your skin fold measurements decrease, this is a direct measure that your body fat is decreasing, in addition to reviewing the percent body fat mass and lean body mass measurements, reviewing the skin fold measurements will provide more information that is useful for maintaining targeted fat loss. If using multiple measurements is new to you, once you start tracking the different measurements, the usefulness of using these different measurements will become more apparent. Calorie Intake Using your sports specific nutrition program, or the standard eating plan later in this chapter, calorie reduction needs to be calculated from your daily caloric expenditure. In this way, your caloric intake will be individualized, versus the generic low calorie fad diet approaches. Also, this makes your calorie reduction dynamic, as each day your caloric intake maybe different, for example 3,500 calories on training days, and 2,500 calories on nontraining days. Ideally, calorie reduction should not come from protein, and should come selectively from simple or complex carbohydrates and nonessential fats. Protein consumption should stay Part Three Page 3 - 53 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

at the level recommended for your sport during the season. Protein has an added bonus of stimulating the thermogenic effect, meaning that it takes the body more calories to process protein then it can derive from the breakdown of protein. Start with small reductions in caloric intake, about 10% of total daily calories. For the 2,500 calorie per day example diet, this would be 250 calories and for the 3,500 calorie per day example diet this would be 350 calories. Based on how your body responds to this initial calorie reduction in terms of rate of fat loss, you may have to make additional reductions in caloric intake, which could be up to 20% reduction in total daily caloric intake. It is best not to lower the total daily caloric intake too low, as this could trigger your body’s metabolism to make hormonal changes that would lead to lowering your metabolic rate. While the minimum caloric intake that will trigger metabolic rate lower is different for each person, when total daily caloric intake goes below 1,800 calories per day these undesirable metabolic effects are likely to occur. It is more desirable to maintain a moderate to high level of activity to keep your total daily caloric expenditure rate high. Also, in the below section, you can take supplements like carnitine, which can increase the rate at which your body uses body fat, thereby increasing the use of stored body fat. You can also use calorie modulation to maintain caloric consumption above the critical low point of intake. For example, on training days and other high activity days when your total caloric rate is high, a larger calorie reduction will usually be above the 1,800 calorie minimum. Then on your lower activity days, if the amount of calorie reduction you are using may result in being below 1,800 calories per day, you can make adjustments to your amount of caloric reduction to be above the 1,800 calorie threshold. So, using calorie modulation can help to keep your metabolic rate normally functioning, and you can avoid the potential metabolic lowering that is common with the fad lower calorie diets. Meal Frequency and Size Similar to the performance nutrition diets, the fat loss diet should be structured in a similar way. Spreading out total caloric intake over at least 5 meals/snacks is the standard starting point. However, if you find that after a week of calorie reduction you are not losing body fat, or the rate of loss is slow, this may be an indication that your insulin levels are too high on average. As insulin tends to prevent the use of body fat stores, some people may have to reallocate their caloric intake to be consumed 4 meals per day. By reducing meal frequency, this will provide greater gaps between meals, and give your body a chance to start metabolizing body fat stores. Also, meal size is very important. You want to consume the calories you will be using after the meal. When you keep caloric intake structured throughout the day in this way, your body becomes conditioned to using the calories from the meal for energy and growth. On the other hand, if when you eat excess calories during a meal, your body needs to store the excess calories as body fat, you actually condition your body to be a fat building machine. The goal during weight loss and weight maintenance is conditioning your body to be a fat burning machine. This is best accomplished by keeping calories to match your caloric needs after the meal. Part Three Page 3 - 54 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Fat Loss Foods Are there really foods that can help lose body fat? Yes, eating the right foods can help to increase your rate of fat loss and decrease fat storage. Eating higher quantity of foods that take more energy to digest, and are high volume and low in calorie content, tend to increase the fat loss process. While your standard sports specific nutrition programs consist of healthy foods and dietary practices, here are some additional tips for fine-tuning your eating for improving fat loss results: Eat more low calorie, nonstarchy vegetables that provide high volume, such as lettuce & other leafy vegetables, broccoli, cauliflower, peppers, celery, etc. Eat more low fat foods, especially foods lower in saturated fats. Eat lean protein foods that are low in total fat and low in saturated fats. Reduce consumption of simple carbohydrates. Consume fewer fruits, and eat fruits that are lower in calories and simple carbohydrates per serving. Avoid or minimize drinking carbohydrate containing beverages. Drink plenty of water and other noncalorie containing beverages; unsweetened fresh brewed tea (green, oolong and black) contain ingredients that are beneficial to digestion and thermogenic, which can help increase your rate of calorie burning and fat metabolism. Choose complex carbohydrate containing foods with low to medium glycemic index values. Increase your dietary fiber intake by eating foods higher in fiber and fiber supplements. Consume nutrient dense diet products, such as high quality meal replacement drinks and nutrition bars, in addition to other prepared diet foods with high protein content. Do not skip meals. Use dietary supplements to help improve appetite control, increase metabolic rate, increase rate of fat burning and other fat loss benefits reviewed in the below section of this chapter.

Exercise and Fat Loss Here is a fact that surprises most people, you can lose weight/body fat without exercise, from just calorie reduction alone. However, the healthier way is to include exercise as part of any fat loss program. For athletes, exercise is part of your lifestyle, and leading a physically active lifestyle, whether endurance or strength sport athletes, will make reducing body fat easier. Regarding the type of exercise, in general, endurance type exercise that is low intensity and longer in duration, will cause the body to use more fat for energy and may increase the rate of fat loss. Generally speaking, continuous exercise 45 minutes or longer will metabolize more fat for energy. Strength athletes usually need to avoid long duration aerobic type exercise, as this type of exercise can adversely effect their strength performance. This is more important for strength athletes in sports requiring maintenance of lean body mass, like bodybuilding, and athletes in sports that require maximum strength performance, like powerlifting, weight lifting, shot put, and football players. With proper calorie reduction and supplement use, most strength athletes can successfully reduce body fat along with their strength training and sports training programs. However, if the rate of fat loss is coming slower than Part Three Page 3 - 55 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

desired try performing circuit training, which combines resistance training with aerobic training. Then the next type of exercise to try would be high intensity interval type aerobic training. For most strength athletes properly performed interval aerobic exercise will improve the rate of fat loss, while maintaining lean body mass and strength. If a greater rate of fat loss is still desired, then start including conventional aerobic exercise 45 minutes to 60 minutes in duration, keeping close track on how this is effecting your body composition and strength performance. Cycle Your Fat Loss With Periods Of Weight Maintenance As you lose body fat, your body sends chemical messages to its control center that body weight is being lost. The body may respond by slowing your metabolism down in an effort to put the breaks on weight loss. Exercise will help prevent this, as will maintaining an adequate intake of protein, carbohydrates and fats. However, just as people plateau when building muscle mass, they often reach a plateau when losing weight. If this happens to you, then return to a weight maintenance diet where calorie consumption is balanced with daily caloric expenditure for a week; in other words caloric intake that equals your daily caloric expenditure. Then after a week start back on your body fat calorie reduction diet again. This will help stimulate your metabolism to increase, and make your body able to burn more calories again. Additional Calorie Reduction Points to Consider As previously mentioned, pre-season and in-season athletes should follow their sport specific nutrition plans. If you are in the off season, and want to ease up on the sports specific nutrition plans, the following page presents an overview of a generic eating plan that provides about 20% protein, 60% carbohydrates, and 20% fat. Adjustments can be made to this basic eating plan to suit your individual caloric and macronutrient intake needs. This 20-20-60 plan is a good starting point for general health and fitness too. In order to maintain adequate protein and essential fatty acid intake, sometimes selectively reducing calories just from carbohydrates may be required. However, keep in mind that with reduced carbohydrate intake, athletic performance can be reduced. Also, reducing carbohydrate intake can result in glycogen depletion and hypoglycemia, so it should be approached with caution, especially for physically active people. For example, the 10 to 20% reduction in daily caloric intake can be accomplished by reducing just carbohydrate intake to 50% or 40% of total daily calories. From a mathematics standpoint, this would automatically increase the relative percentages of protein and fat intake. During the fat loss phase you can also experiment with modulating carbohydrate intake on training and nontraining days; higher/normal carbohydrate intake on training days, and reduced carbohydrate intake on nontrainng days. Whatever method of calorie reduction you choose, from all macronutrients, or selectively from carbohydrates and or fats, it is important to make sure you are ingesting adequate amounts of all of the essential nutrients, from foods and supplements. In order to maintain lean body mass and athletic performance it is ideal for athletes to allow enough time to plan for minor calorie restriction, causing a slower weekly rate of body fat loss. For best results, working with your health care professional, use the scientific approach and measure body composition at least once a week to determine where the weight loss is coming from; body fat and or lean body mass. With this data you can make adjustments to your nutrition and exercise programs to just target loss of body fat, while maintaining or even increasing your lean body mass.


DAILY FOOD INTAKE GOALS (Weight Loss Focused). Listed below are food guidelines that range between 2500 calories per day to 3500 calories per day, and are designed for a reference individual of 175 pounds, who is lean. If you are lighter or heavier you can adjust the daily caloric intake by adding or subtracting about 1 serving from each food category. Spread out food intake over 5 or more meals per day to match you caloric demands following the meal. Following these food intake guidelines results in a 20% Protein, 60% Carbohydrate, 20% Fat diet. FOOD GROUP FRUITS Citrus, melon, berries and other fruits

SUGGESTED SERVINGS, per day 4 to 6 servings Fresh fruit preferred

VEGETABLES Dark-green leafy vegetables

5 to 8 servings Include a diversity of vegetables each day

COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES Bread, Cereal, Grains, Pasta, and starchy vegetables.

11 TO 14 servings Include several servings of whole grain products daily

1 slice of bread. 1/2 hamburger bun or English muffin. 1 small roll, biscuit or muffin. 4 crackers. 1/2 cup cooked cereal, rice or pasta. 1 ounce of breakfast cereal. During weight loss strive to include foods with medium to low glycemic index values.

HIGH PROTEIN FOODS Meat, poultry, fish

3 to 4 servings Choose lean cuts of meat, trim the fat, skinless chicken and turkey or fish, over fatty meats

DAIRY Milk cheese, yogurt

2 to 3 servings per day Choose low fat dairy products whenever possible to reduce fat intake Drink 8 to 12, 8 ounce glasses of water each day, or more id required. See guidelines in chapter 1.6. Minimize consumption of dietary fats, saturated fats and cholesterol

Amounts per serving should range 5 to 7 ounces of cooked lean meat, poultry, or fish a day. Count 1 egg, 1/2 cup cooked beans, or 2 tablespoons of peanut butter as 1 ounce of meat. 1 cup milk, 8 ounces yogurt, 1 1/2 ounces cheese.

WATER/FLUIDS

FATS

SWEETS/SUGAR

Minimize high ingestion of sugar and foods containing high sugar content and high glycemic index foods.

ALCOHOL

Avoid drinking alcoholic beverages during the athletic season. If you choose to drink alcoholic beverages in the off season then do so in moderation.


EXAMPLE OF SERVING SIZE 1 whole fruit (like apple, banana. pear, orange); 1/2 grapefruit; 1/2 melon wedge; 3/4 cup of juice; 1/2 cup of berries; 1/2 cup cooked or canned fruit; 1/4 cup dried fruit. 1/2 cup cooked vegetables 1/2 cup chopped raw vegetables 1 cup leafy raw vegetables like lettuce or spinach

Plain filtered water, diluted fruit juices, low cal beverages. Use food preparation methods that use little or no added fats or oils. Maintain intake of complex carbohydrates, and more medium to low glycemic index foods. Ingest simple carbs from fruits and for special energetic purposes. Drinks containing 1 to 2 ounces of alcohol per day are considered to be moderate consumption.

ADDITIONAL WEIGHT LOSS INFORMATION The following information is a general overview of some of the topics related to weight loss and weight maintenance for everybody. While most people reading this book are athletic and maintain a healthy body weight, after their athletic careers, former athletes can experience weight gain, becoming overweight or even obese. In addition to the other weight loss information in this chapter, the following information and tips can help create a lifestyle of habits that will help you to maintain a healthy body weight, and avoid putting on extra pounds of fat.

What Are The Health Risks Of Being Overweight? While most people are inclined to lose weight to look and feel better, many people are instructed by their doctors to lose weight because they are at risk for developing a disease. Or may already have developed a disease and their doctor wants to stop the progression of the overweight related disease and perhaps even cure it. Excess weight (body fat) can put you at higher risk for: type 2 diabetes (high blood sugar) high blood pressure heart disease and stroke some types of cancer sleep apnea (when breathing stops for short periods during sleep) osteoarthritis (wearing away of the joints) gallbladder disease

Are You Overweight (Over-Fat)? Overweight refers to an excess of body weight, but not necessarily body fat. Obesity means an excessively high proportion of body fat. Health professionals use a generalized measurement called body mass index (BMI) to classify an adult's weight as healthy, overweight, or obese. BMI describes body weight relative to height and is correlated with total body fat content in most adults. But an easy way to determine if you are over-fat is to see how much body fat you have by pinching your skin fold. If you can pinch more than an inch of abdominal body fat, chances are you have too much body fat, and need to lose some. Also note that for people who are athletic with more muscle, especially people who lift weights (resistance training), the BMI will probably overestimate your level of fatness. It is best to get your body fat determined by a training individual for best results. To determine your approximate BMI, multiply your weight in pounds by 703, then divide the result by your height in inches, and divide that result by your height in inches a second time. A BMI from 18.5 up to 25 is considered in the healthy range, from 25 up to 30 is overweight, and 30 or higher is obese. Generally, the higher a person's BMI, the greater the risk for health problems, according to the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI). However, there are some exceptions. For example, very muscular people, like body builders, may have a BMI greater than 25 or even 30, but this reflects increased muscle rather than fat. It is excess body fat that leads to the health problems such as type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol.


In addition to a high BMI, having excess abdominal body fat is a health risk. Men with a waist of more than 40 inches around and women with a waist of 35 inches or more are at risk for health problems. Healthy Weight: BMI from 18.5 up to 25 refers to healthy weight. Overweight: BMI from 25 up to 30 refers to overweight. Obese: BMI 30 or higher refers to obesity. Obese persons are also overweight. However, there are limitations to the BMI approach. It does not measure a person’s actual body composition, that is, body fat mass and lean body mass. Also, for most athletic people with extra muscle mass, the BMI will usually erroneously be a higher number, and inaccurately place them in an overweight or even obese category. There are a number of methods available for measuring body composition to accurately determine body fat mass and percentage. A common method uses calipers to measure skin folds. Consult your doctor or other health or fitness practitioner about measuring and keeping track of your body composition to determine the actual body weight being lost; body fat versus lean body mass. This way you can fine-tune your nutrition and exercise program to cause loss in body fat mass, while maintaining or building your lean body mass. There are even do-it-yourself products for measuring body composition.

What Makes People Overweight/Obese? People gain weight when the number of calories they eat is more than the number of calories their bodies use. Many factors can play a part in weight gain. Here are some of them. Habits. Eating too many calories can become a habit. So can choosing activities like watching TV instead of being physically active; so over time, these habits can lead to weight gain. Genes. Overweight and obesity tend to run in families. Although families often share diet and physical activity habits that can play a role in obesity, their shared genes increase the chance that family members will be overweight. Illness. Some diseases can lead to weight gain or obesity. These include hypothyroidism, Cushing's syndrome, and depression. Talk to your health care provider if you think you have a health problem that could be causing you to gain weight. Medicine. Some medicines can lead to weight gain. Ask your health care provider or pharmacist about the side effects of any medication you are taking. The world around you. You can find food and messages about food at home, at work, at shopping centers, on TV, and at family and social events. People may eat too much just because food is always there. On top of that in our modern world of remote controlled televisions, door-to-door transportation, drive-in banks, and escalators, makes it easy to be physically inactive. Emotions. Many people eat when they are bored, sad, angry, or stressed, even when they are not hungry just to fill their time.

Here Are Some Weight Loss Dieting Myths Myth: Fad diets work for permanent weight loss Fact: Fad diets are not the best way to lose weight and keep it off. Fad diets often promise quick weight loss or tell you to cut certain foods out of your diet. You may lose weight at first on one of these diets. But diets that strictly limit calories or food choices are hard to follow. Most people quickly get tired of them and regain any lost weight. Fad diets may be unhealthy because they may not provide all of the nutrients your body needs. Also, losing Part Three Page 3 - 59 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

weight at a very rapid rate (more than 3 pounds a week after the first couple weeks) may increase your risk for developing gallstones (clusters of solid material in the gallbladder that can be painful). Tip: Research suggests that losing ½ to 2 pounds a week of “body fat” by making healthy food choices, eating moderate portions, and building physical activity into your daily life is the best way to lose weight and keep it off. By adopting healthy eating and physical activity habits, you may also lower your risk for developing type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and high blood pressure. Myth: High-protein/low-carbohydrate diets are a healthy way to lose weight The long-term health effects of a high-protein/low-carbohydrate diet are unknown. But getting most of your daily calories from high-protein foods like meat, eggs, and cheese is not a balanced eating plan. You may be eating too much fat and cholesterol, which may raise heart disease risk. You may be eating too few fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, which may lead to constipation due to lack of dietary fiber. Following a high-protein/lowcarbohydrate diet may also make you feel nauseous, tired, and weak. Eating fewer than 130 grams of carbohydrate a day can lead to the buildup of ketones (partially brokendown fats) in your blood. A buildup of ketones in your blood (called ketosis) can cause your body to produce high levels of uric acid, which is a risk factor for gout (a painful swelling of the joints) and kidney stones. Ketosis may be especially risky for pregnant women and people with diabetes or kidney disease. Additionally when ketosis sets in, this sends starvation messages to your body that trigger lowering the metabolic rate and also trigger the use of muscle tissue for energy; things a healthy athletic weight loss program should avoid. Tip: High-protein/low-carbohydrate diets are often low in calories because food choices are strictly limited, so they may cause short-term weight loss. But a reduced-calorie eating plan that includes recommended amounts of carbohydrate, protein, and fat will also allow you to lose weight. By following a balanced eating plan, you will not have to stop eating whole classes of foods, such as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables—and miss the key nutrients they contain. You may also find it easier to stick with a diet or eating plan that includes a greater variety of foods. Medical studies show that a diet with extra protein and low fat can help improve your weight loss success and appetite control. However, adequate carbohydrate consumption is vital to help maintain good health and energy levels along with good protein intake and reduced fat intake. Myth: Starches are fattening and should be limited when trying to lose weight Many foods high in starch, like bread, rice, pasta, cereals, beans, fruits, and some vegetables (like potatoes and yams) are low in fat and calories. They become high in fat and calories when eaten in large portion sizes or when covered with high-fat toppings like butter, sour cream, or mayonnaise. Foods high in starch (also called complex carbohydrates) are an important source of energy for your body.


Tip: A healthy eating plan is one that: Emphasizes fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products. Includes lean meats, poultry, fish, beans, eggs, and nuts. Is low in saturated fats, trans fat, cholesterol, salt (sodium), and added sugars. Myth: I can lose weight while eating whatever I want To lose weight, you need to use more calories than you eat. It is possible to eat any kind of food you want and lose weight. You need to limit the number of calories you eat every day and/or increase your daily physical activity. Portion control is the key. Try eating smaller amounts of food and choosing foods that are low in calories. Tip: When trying to lose weight, you can still eat your favorite foods—as long as you pay attention to the total number of calories that you eat, and include more healthy foods in your diet. Myth: Low-fat or nonfat means no calories A low-fat or nonfat food is often lower in calories than the same size portion of the full-fat product. But many processed low-fat or nonfat foods have just as many calories as the full-fat version of the same food or even more calories. They may contain added sugar, flour, or starch thickeners to improve flavor and texture after fat is removed. These ingredients add calories. Tip: Read the Nutrition Facts Panel on a food package to find out how many calories are in a serving. Check the serving size too it may be less than you are used to eating. Myth: Skipping meals is a good way to lose weight Studies show that people who skip breakfast and eat fewer times during the day tend to be heavier than people who eat a healthy breakfast and eat four or five times a day. This may be because people who skip meals tend to feel hungrier later on, and eat more than they normally would. It may also be that eating many small meals throughout the day helps people control their appetites. Tip: Eat small meals throughout the day that include a variety of healthy, low-fat, lowcalorie foods. Myth: Lifting weights is not good to do if you want to lose weight, because it will make you "bulk up"

Lifting weights or doing strengthening activities like push-ups and crunches on a regular basis can actually help you maintain or lose weight. These activities can help you build muscle, and muscle burns more calories than body fat. So if you have more muscle, you burn more calories—even sitting still. Doing strengthening activities 2 or 3 days a week will not "bulk you up." Only intense strength training, combined with a certain genetic background, can build very large muscles. Tip: In addition to doing at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity (like walking 2 miles in 30 minutes) on most days of the week, try to do strengthening activities Part Three Page 3 - 61 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

2 to 3 days a week. You can lift weights, use large rubber bands (resistance bands), do push-ups or sit-ups, or do household or garden tasks that make you lift or dig. Athletes of course, will be performing a more rigorous training program. Myth: Nuts are fattening and you should not eat them if you want to lose weight

In small amounts, nuts can be part of a healthy weight-loss program. Nuts are high in calories and fat. However, most nuts contain healthy fats that do not clog arteries. Nuts are also good sources of protein, dietary fiber, and minerals including magnesium and copper. Tip: Enjoy small portions of nuts, as they are calorie dense and you need to make sure not to over eat them. Myth: Eating red meat is bad for your health and makes it harder to lose weight

Eating lean meat in small amounts can be part of a healthy weight-loss plan. Red meat, pork, chicken, and fish contain some cholesterol and saturated fat (the least healthy kind of fat). But, they also contain healthy essential nutrients like protein, iron, and zinc. Tip: Choose cuts of meat that are lower in fat and trim all visible fat. Lower fat meats include pork tenderloin and beef round steak, tenderloin, sirloin tip, flank steak, and extra lean ground beef. Also, pay attention to portion size. Three ounces of meat or poultry is the size of a deck of cards. Myth: Dairy products are fattening and unhealthy

Low-fat and nonfat milk, yogurt, and cheese are just as nutritious as whole milk dairy products, but they are lower in fat and calories. Dairy products have many nutrients your body needs. They offer protein to build muscles and help organs work properly, and calcium to strengthen bones. Most milk and some yogurt products are fortified with vitamin D to help your body use calcium. Tip: The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming 3 cups per day of fatfree/low-fat milk or equivalent milk products. If you cannot digest lactose (the sugar found in dairy products), choose low-lactose or lactose-free dairy products, or other foods and beverages that offer calcium and vitamin D, as follows. Calcium: calcium supplements, fortified fruit juice, soy-based beverage, or tofu made with calcium sulfate; canned salmon; dark leafy greens like collards or kale Vitamin D: vitamin D supplements, fortified fruit juice, soy-based beverage, or cereal (getting some sunlight on your skin also gives you a small amount of vitamin D

Lessons From Those Successful At Losing Weight Although many people who lose weight may eventually gain it back, it's a myth that this happens to everyone, according to Rena Wing, Ph.D., a professor of psychiatry at Brown Medical School in Providence, R.I. Wing, the co-developer of a research study known as the National Weight Control Registry, has worked to deflate this myth. Stored in the registry's database is information about the weight-control behaviors of more than 3,000 American adults who have lost an average of 60 pounds and have kept it off for an average of six years. Part Three Page 3 - 62 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

How Did They Lose The Excess Body Fat? The successful weight losers report four common behaviors: They eat a low-calorie, low-fat diet, They monitor themselves by weighing in frequently, They are very physically active, and They eat breakfast. Six years after their weight loss, most of the registry's successful losers still report eating a low-calorie, low-fat diet. They also exercise for about an hour or more a day, expending about 2,800 calories per week on a variety of physical activities. Setting a Goal The first step to weight loss is setting a realistic goal, your health care provider can determine your healthy weight. Studies show that you can improve your health with just a small amount of weight loss, for example, physical activity in combination with reduced calorie consumption can lead to the 5 to 10 percent weight loss necessary to achieve remission of the obesity-associated complications. Even these moderate weight losses can improve blood pressure and help control diabetes and high cholesterol in obese or overweight adults. To reach your goal safely, plan to lose weight gradually. A weight loss of one-half to two pounds a week is usually safe, according to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2000. This can be achieved by decreasing the calories eaten or increasing the calories used by 250 or more, depending on current calorie intake. (Some people with serious health problems due to obesity may lose weight more rapidly under a doctor's supervision.) If you plan to lose more than 15 to 20 pounds, have any health problems, or take medication on a regular basis, see your health care professional before you begin a weight-loss program. Look at What You Eat Now Write down what you eat for a few days to get a good picture of what you're taking in. By looking at what you eat and how much you're eating, you can figure out what adjustments you need to make. Also try to detect if there are types of foods, certain time of the day, or situations when you overeat. Create a plan to deal with these overeating episodes. Start With Small Changes You don't have to go cold turkey. In the end, you want to achieve a long-term healthy lifestyle. Small changes over time are the most likely to stick. If you want to eat more vegetables, then try to add one more serving by mixing it in. Add bits of broccoli to something you already eat like pizza or soup. If you need more whole grains, add barley, whole wheat pasta, or brown rice to your soup. When you think about what you need to get more of, the other things tend to fall into place. If you have some baby carrots with lunch or add a banana to your cereal in the morning, you're going to feel full longer. You won't need a food that's high in sugar or fat an hour later. Also, look for healthier versions of what you like to eat. If you like luncheon meat sandwiches, try a reduced-fat version. If you like the convenience of frozen dinners,


look for ones with lower sodium. If you love fast-food meals, try a salad as your side dish instead of French fries. Pick one or two changes to start with. Once the changes have become habits, which usually happens in about three or several weeks, then try adding one or two more. In a few months you will find that you made substantial lifestyle changes. Control Portion Sizes Understanding the serving size on the Nutrition Facts label is important for controlling portions. Someone may have a large bottled drink, assuming it's one serving. When you look closely at the label, it's actually two servings. And if you consume two servings of a product, you have to multiply all the numbers by two. When the servings go up, so do the calories, fat, sugar, and salt. Also, try dishing out a smaller serving on to your plate or using smaller plates. When you put more food in front of you, you'll eat it because it's there. Here are some other ways to limit portions: Split a meal or dessert with a friend at a restaurant, get a doggie bag for half of your meal, get in the habit of having one helping, and ask for salad dressing, butter, and sauces on the side so you can control how much you use. Know Your Fats Fat provides flavor and makes you feel full. It also provides energy, and essential fatty acids for healthy skin, and helps the body absorb the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. But fat also has nine calories per gram, compared to four calories per gram in carbohydrates and protein. If you eat too much fat every day, you may get more calories than your body needs, and too many calories can contribute to weight gain. Too much saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol in the diet increases the risk of unhealthy blood cholesterol levels, which may increase the risk of heart disease; people should lower all three, not just one or the other. Saturated fat is found mainly in foods from animals. Major sources of saturated fats are cheese, beef, and milk. Trans fat results when manufacturers add hydrogen to vegetable oil to increase the food's shelf life and flavor. Trans fat can be found in vegetable shortenings, some margarines, crackers, cookies, and other snack foods. Cholesterol is a fat-like substance in foods from animal sources such as meat, poultry, egg yolks, milk, and milk products. Most of your fats should come from polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as those that occur in fish, nuts, soybean, corn, canola, olive, and other vegetable oils. This type of fat does not raise the risk of heart disease and may be beneficial when consumed in moderation. Make Choices That Are Lean, Low-fat, or Fat-free When buying meat, poultry, milk, or milk products, choose versions that are lean, low-fat, or fat-free. Choose lean meats like chicken without the skin and lean beef or pork with the fat trimmed off. If you frequently drink whole milk, switch to 1 percent milk or skim milk. Many people don't taste a difference. Some mix whole milk with lower-fat milk for a while


so the taste buds can adjust. This doesn't mean you can never eat or drink the full-fat versions; that's where the discretionary calories come in. Other tips to reduce saturated fat include cooking with non-stick sprays and using olive, safflower, or canola oils instead of lard or butter. Eat more fish, which is usually lower in saturated fat than meat. Bake, grill, and broil food instead of frying it because more fat is absorbed into the food when frying. You could also try more meatless entrees like veggie burgers and add flavor to food with low-fat beans instead of butter. Focus on Fresh Fruit The Dietary Guidelines recommend two cups of fruit per day at the 2,000-calorie reference diet. Fruit intake and recommended amounts of other food groups vary at different calorie levels. An example of two cups of fruit includes: one small banana, one large orange, and one-fourth cup of dried apricots or peaches. Eat a variety of fruits—fresh fruits being the best choice. The whole fruit has more fiber, it's more filling, and it's naturally sweet. Still, some juices, such as tomato, orange and prune, are a good source of potassium. Ways to incorporate fruit in your diet include adding it to your cereal, eating it as a snack with low-fat yogurt or a low-fat dip, or making a fruit smoothie for dessert by mixing low-fat milk with fresh or frozen fruit such as strawberries or peaches. Also, your family is more likely to eat fruit if you put it out on the kitchen table. Eat Your Veggies The Dietary Guidelines recommend two and one-half cups of vegetables per day if you eat 2,000 calories each day. Adding vegetables to foods such as meatloaf, lasagna, omelets, stir-fry dishes, and casseroles. Frozen chopped greens such as spinach, and peas, carrots, and corn are easy to add. Also, add dark leafy green lettuce to sandwiches. Involve kids by letting them help pick vegetables in different colors when you're shopping. Get a variety of dark green vegetables such as broccoli, spinach, and greens; orange and deep yellow vegetables such as carrots, winter squash, and sweet potatoes; starchy vegetables like corn; legumes, such as dry beans, peas, chickpeas, pinto beans, kidney beans, and tofu; and other vegetables, such as tomatoes and onions. Eat Your Grains Whole Like fruits and vegetables, whole grains are a good source of vitamins, minerals, and fiber. The Dietary Guidelines recommend at least three ounces of whole grains per day. One slice of bread, one cup of breakfast cereal, or one-half cup of cooked rice or pasta are each equivalent to about one ounce. Tanner suggests baked whole-grain corn tortilla chips or whole-grain cereal with low-fat milk as good snacks. In general, most or all of the grains you consume should come from whole grains. For many, but not all, whole grain products, the words "whole" or "whole grain" will appear before the grain ingredient's name. The whole grain must be the first ingredient listed in the ingredients list on the food package. The following are some whole grains: whole wheat, whole oats or oatmeal, whole-grain corn, popcorn, wild rice, brown rice,


buckwheat, whole rye, bulgur or cracked wheat, whole-grain barley, and millet. Wholegrain foods cannot necessarily be identified by their color or by names such as brown bread, nine-grain bread, hearty grains bread, or mixed grain bread. Health food stores are a great place to shop for whole grain products that are also organic, which means free of added chemicals. Some, grocery stores even have health food sections where you can find organic whole grain foods, in addition to the conventional whole grain foods. Lower Sodium and Increase Potassium Higher salt intake is linked to higher blood pressure, which can raise the risk of stroke, heart disease, and kidney disease. The Dietary Guidelines recommend that people consume less than 2,300 milligrams of sodium per day (approximately one teaspoon of salt). There are other recommendations for certain populations that tend to be more sensitive to salt. For example, people with high blood pressure, blacks, and middle-aged and older adults should consume no more than 1,500 milligrams of sodium each day. However, note that competitive athletes will typically require higher than average intake of sodium, as well as other essential nutrients. Most of the sodium people eat comes from processed foods. Use the Nutrition Facts label on food products: 5%DV or less for sodium means the food is low in sodium and 20%DV or more means it's high. Compare similar products and choose the option with a lower amount of sodium. Most people won't notice a taste difference. Consistently consuming lower-salt products will help taste buds adapt, and you will enjoy these foods as much or more than higher-salt options. Prepare foods with little salt. The DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) eating plan from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute recommends giving flavor to food with herbs, spices, lemon, lime, vinegar, and salt-free seasoning blends. Consult with your physician before using salt substitutes because their main ingredient, potassium chloride, can be harmful to some people with certain medical conditions. Also, increase potassium-rich foods such as sweet potatoes, tomato juice, orange juice, bananas, spinach, winter squash, cantaloupe, and tomato puree. Potassium counteracts some of sodium's effect on blood pressure. Limit Added Sugars The Dietary Guidelines recommend choosing and preparing food and beverages with little added sugars. Added sugars are sugars and syrups added to foods and beverages in processing or preparation, not the naturally occurring sugars in fruits or milk. Major sources of added sugars in the American diet include regular soft drinks, candy, cake, cookies, pies, and fruit drinks. In the ingredients list on food products, sugar may be listed as brown sugar, corn syrup, glucose, sucrose, honey, or molasses. Be sure to check the sugar in low-fat and fat-free products, which sometimes contain a lot of sugar. Instead of drinking regular soda and sugary fruit drinks, try water, flavored water, unsweetened green tea (also oolong tea and black tea); unsweetened herbal teas; diet Part Three Page 3 - 66 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

soda, low-fat or fat-free milk, water. For snacks and desserts, try fresh fruit. Most people are pleasantly surprised that fruit is great for satisfying a sweet tooth. If ice cream is calling your name, don't have it in the freezer. Make it harder to get by having to go out for it. Then it can be an occasional treat. Also choose low fat ice cream and ice cream alternatives. A serving of low fat yogurt with some whipped cream on top will satisfy your “ice cream craving”, and you will end up eating fewer calories, that are more nutritious. Differences in Saturated Fat and Calorie Content of Commonly Consumed Foods Food Category

Portion

Saturated Fat Content (grams)

Calories

Cheese • Regular cheddar • Low-fat cheddar

1 oz. 1 oz.

6.0 1.2

114 49

Ground Beef • Regular (25% fat) • Low-fat (5% fat)

3 oz. (cooked) 3 oz. (cooked)

6.1 2.6

236 148

Milk • Whole (3.24%) • Low-fat (1%)

1 cup 1 cup

4.6 1.5

146 102

Breads • Croissant (medium) • Bagel, oat bran (4")

1 medium 1 medium

6.6 0.2

231 227

Frozen desserts • Regular ice cream • Frozen yogurt, low-fat

1/2 cup 1/2 cup

4.9 2.0

145 110

Table spreads • Butter • Soft margarine, zero trans fat

1 teaspoon 1 teaspoon

2.4 0.7

34 25

Chicken • Fried leg with skin • Roasted breast with no skin

3 oz. (cooked) 3 oz. (cooked)

3.3 0.9

212 140

Fish • Fried • Baked

3 oz. 3 oz.

2.8 1.5

195 129


Some Nutrient Content Claims Found On Food Product Labels, and What They Really Mean fat-free

less than 0.5 grams of fat per serving

low-fat

3 grams or less per serving (if the serving size is 30 grams or less or 2 tablespoons or less, no more than 3 grams of fat per 50 grams of the food)

light

one-third fewer calories or half the fat of the "regular" version

low-sodium

140 milligrams or less per serving (if the serving size is 30 grams or less or 2 tablespoons or less, no more than 140 milligrams of sodium per 50 grams of the food)

lightly salted

at least 50 percent less sodium per serving than the "regular" version

reduced

when describing fat, sodium, or calorie content, the food must have at least 25 percent less of these nutrients than the "regular" version

Additional Weight Loss Nutrition Tips Nutrition – Beverage Tips Choose to drink fat free milk over whole milk. Drink water before a meal. Drink diet soda, if at all, water is better. Drink several cups of plain warm water, or with lemon, or warm unsweetened green tea or oolong or black tea or herbal tea through the day. Avoid fruit juices; eat fresh fruit. Except low calorie, low sugar fruit juices like tomato juice during periods of weight loss. Ask for salad dressing "on the side". Ask your sweetie to bring you fruit or flowers instead of chocolate. Avoid food portions larger than your fist. Bake or broil fish. Choose a checkout line without a candy display. Choose to eat fruit for dessert. Conduct an inventory of your meal/snack and physical activity patterns. Consume alcoholic beverages in moderation, if at all. Cut back on added fats or oils in cooking or spreads. Cut high-calorie foods like cheese and chocolate into smaller pieces and only eat a few pieces. Don't eat late at night. Don't eat seconds. Don't skip breakfast. Don't skip meals. Eat before grocery shopping. Eat before you get too hungry. Eat half your dessert or none at all. Eat leaner red meat & poultry. Eat more celery sticks. Eat off smaller plates. Eat sweet foods in small amounts. Every time you eat a meal, sit down, chew slowly, and pay attention to flavors and textures. Flavor foods with herbs, spices, and other low fat seasonings. Grill, steam or bake instead of frying. If main dishes are too big, choose an appetizer or a side dish instead. Include several servings of whole grain food daily. Increase the fiber in your diet. Instead of eating out, bring a healthy, low calorie lunch to work. Eat more carrots, less carrot “cake”. Refrigerate prepared soups before you eat them. As the soup cools, the fat will rise to the top, skim it off the surface for reduced fat content. Part Three Page 3 - 68 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Remove skin from poultry before cooking to lower fat content. Replace high-saturated fat/high calorie seasonings with herbs grown in a small herb garden in your kitchen window. Replace sugar sweetened beverages with water and add a twist of lemon or lime. Share an entree with a friend. Skip buffets. Snack on fruits and vegetables. Speak up for the salad bar when your coworkers are picking a restaurant for lunch, and remember calories count, so pay attention to how much and what you eat. Start taking a multivitamin / multimineral. Ask for nutrition information (for example, calories, saturated fat, and sodium) before you order when eating out. Choose foods that are steamed, broiled, baked, roasted, poached, or stir-fried, but not deep-fat fried. Share food, such as a main dish or dessert, with your dining partner. Take part of the food home with you and refrigerate immediately. You may want to ask for a take-home container when the meal arrives. Spoon half the meal into it, so you're more likely to eat only what's left on your plate. Request your meal to be served without gravy, sauces, butter or margarine. Ask for salad dressing on the side, and use only small amounts of full-fat dressings. Stop eating when you are full. Substitute vegetables for other ingredients in your sandwich. Top your favorite cereal with apples or bananas. Try a green salad instead of fries. Try brown rice or whole-wheat pasta. Try your burger with just lettuce, tomato, and onion. Use nonfat or low-fat sour cream, mayo, sauces, dressings, and other condiments. Use vegetable oils over solid (saturated) fats. When eating out, ask your server to put half your entrée in a to-go bag. When eating out, choose a small or medium portion.

Guidelines For Personal Exercise Programs Making A Commitment The decision to carry out a physical fitness program cannot be taken lightly. It requires a lifelong commitment of time and effort. Exercise must become one of those things that you do without question, like bathing and brushing your teeth. Unless you are convinced of the benefits of fitness and the risks of unfitness, you will not succeed. Patience is essential. Don’t try to do too much too soon and don’t quit before you have a chance to experience the rewards of improved fitness. You can’t regain in a few days or weeks what you have lost in years of sedentary living, but you can get it back if you persevere. And the prize is worth the price. In the following pages you will find the basic information you need to begin and maintain a personal physical fitness program. These guidelines are intended for the average healthy adult. It tells you what your goals should be and how often, how long and how hard you must exercise to achieve them. It also includes information that will make your workouts easier, safer and more satisfying. The rest is up to you.


Checking Your Health Before starting an exercise program you should consult your physician, who may or may not recommend a graded exercise test. Other conditions that indicate a need for medical clearance are: High blood pressure. Heart trouble. Family history of early stroke or heart attack deaths. Frequent dizzy spells. Extreme breathlessness after mild exertion.

Arthritis or other bone problems. Severe muscular, ligament or tendon problems. Other known or suspected disease. Vigorous exercise involves minimal health risks for persons in good health or those following a doctor’s advice. Far greater risks are presented by habitual inactivity and obesity. Defining Fitness Physical fitness is to the human body what fine tuning is to an engine. It enables us to perform up to our potential. Fitness can be described as a condition that helps us look, feel and do our best. More specifically, it is: The ability to perform daily tasks vigorously and alertly, with energy left over for enjoying leisuretime activities and meeting emergency demands. It is the ability to endure, to bear up, to withstand stress, to carry on in circumstances where an unfit person could not continue, and is a major basis for good health and well-being. Being fit will also help prevent the development of certain diseases and can even help cure diseases.

Physical fitness involves the performance of the heart and lungs, and the muscles of the body. And, since what we do with our bodies also affects what we can do with our minds, fitness influences to some degree qualities such as mental alertness and emotional stability. As you undertake your fitness program, it’s important to remember that fitness is an individual quality that varies from person to person. It is influenced by age, sex, heredity, personal habits, exercise and eating practices. You can’t do anything about the first three factors. However, it is within your power to change and improve the others where needed. Knowing The Basics Physical fitness is most easily understood by examining its components, or “parts.” There is widespread agreement that these components are basic: Cardiorespiratory Endurance - the ability to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and to remove wastes, over sustained periods of time. Long runs and swims are among the methods employed in measuring this component. Muscular Strength - the ability of a muscle to exert force for a brief period of time. Upper-body strength, for example, can be measured by various weight-lifting exercises. Muscular Endurance - the ability of a muscle, or a group of muscles, to sustain repeated contractions or to continue applying force against a fixed object. Pushups are often used to test endurance of arm and shoulder muscles. Flexibility - the ability to move joints and use muscles through their full range of motion. The sit-and- reach test is a good measure of flexibility of the lower back and backs of the upper legs. Part Three Page 3 - 70 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Body Composition is often considered a component of fitness. It refers to the makeup of the body in terms of lean body mass (muscle, bone, vital tissue and organs) and body fat mass. An optimal ratio of fat to lean mass is an indication of fitness, and the right types of exercises will help you decrease body fat and increase or maintain muscle mass.

Workout Schedule Basics How often, how long and how hard you exercise, and what kinds of exercises you do should be determined by what you are trying to accomplish. Your goals, your present fitness level, age, health, skills, interest and convenience are among the factors you should consider. For example, an athlete training for high-level competition would follow a different program than a person whose goals are good health and the ability to meet work and recreational needs. Your exercise program should include something from each of the four basic fitness components described previously. Each workout should begin with a warm-up and end with a cool down. As a general rule, space your workouts throughout the week and avoid consecutive days of hard exercise. Here are the amounts of activity necessary for the average healthy person to maintain a minimum level of overall fitness. Included are some of the popular exercises for each category. WARMUP - 5-10 minutes of exercise such as walking, slow jogging, knee lifts, arm circles or trunk rotations. Low intensity movements that simulate movements to be used in the activity can also be included in the warmup. MUSCULAR STRENGTH - a minimum of two 20-minute sessions per week that include exercises for all the major muscle groups. Lifting weights is the most effective way to increase strength. MUSCULAR ENDURANCE - at least three 30-minute sessions each week that include exercises such as calisthenics, pushups, sit-ups, pull-ups, and weight training for all the major muscle groups. CARDIORESPIRATORY ENDURANCE - at least three 20-minute bouts of continuous aerobic (activity requiring oxygen) rhythmic exercise each week. Popular aerobic conditioning activities include brisk walking, jogging, swimming, cycling, rope-jumping, rowing, cross-country skiing, and some continuous action games like racquetball and handball. FLEXIBILITY - 10-12 minutes of daily stretching exercises performed slowly, without a bouncing motion. This can be included after a warm-up or during a cool down. COOL DOWN - a minimum of 5-10 minutes of slow walking, low-level exercise, combined with stretching.

A Matter Of Principle The keys to selecting the right kinds of exercises for developing and maintaining each of the basic components of fitness are found in these principles: SPECIFICITY - pick the right kind of activities to affect each component. Strength training results in specific strength changes. Also, train for the specific activity you’re interested in. For example, optimal swimming performance is best achieved when the muscles involved in swimming are trained for the movements required. It does not necessarily follow that a good runner is a good swimmer. OVERLOAD - work hard enough, at levels that are vigorous and long enough to overload your body above its resting level, to bring about improvement. REGULARITY - you can’t hoard physical fitness. At least three balanced workouts a week are necessary to maintain a desirable level of fitness. PROGRESSION - increase the intensity, frequency and/or duration of activity over periods of time in order to improve.

Some activities can be used to fulfill more than one of your basic exercise requirements. For example, in addition to increasing cardiorespiratory endurance, running builds Part Three Page 3 - 71 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

muscular endurance in the legs, and swimming develops the arm, shoulder and chest muscles. If you select the proper activities, it is possible to fit parts of your muscular endurance workout into your cardiorespiratory workout and save time. Measuring Your Heart Rate Heart rate is widely accepted as a good method for measuring intensity during running, swimming, cycling, and other aerobic activities. Exercise that doesn’t raise your heart rate to a certain level and keep it there for 20 minutes won’t contribute significantly to cardiovascular fitness. The heart rate you should maintain is called your target heart rate. There are several ways of arriving at this figure. One of the simplest is: maximum heart rate (220 - age) x 70%. Thus, the target heart rate for a 40 year-old would be 126. Some methods for figuring the target rate take individual differences into consideration. Here is one of them: Subtract age from 220 to find maximum heart rate. Subtract resting heart rate (see below) from maximum heart rate to determine heart rate reserve. Take 70% of heart rate reserve to determine heart rate raise. Add heart rate raise to resting heart rate to find target rate. Resting heart rate should be determined by taking your pulse after sitting quietly for five minutes. When checking heart rate during a workout, take your pulse within five seconds after interrupting exercise because it starts to go down once you stop moving. Count pulse for 10 seconds and multiply by six to get the per-minute rate. Consult with your doctor to confirm what exercising heart is right for you. Controlling Your Weight The key to weight control is keeping energy intake (food) and energy output (physical activity) in balance. When you consume only as many calories as your body needs, your weight will usually remain constant. If you take in more calories than your body needs, you will put on excess fat. If you expend more energy than you take in you will burn excess fat. Exercise plays an important role in weight control by increasing energy output, calling on stored calories for extra fuel. Recent studies show that not only does exercise increase metabolism during a workout, but it causes your metabolism to stay increased for a period of time after exercising, allowing you to burn more calories. How much exercise is needed to make a difference in your weight depends on the amount and type of activity, and on how much you eat. Aerobic exercise burns body fat. A medium-sized adult would have to walk more than 30 miles to burn up 3,500 calories, the equivalent of one pound of fat. Although that may seem like a lot, you don’t have to walk the 30 miles all at once. Walking a mile a day for 30 days will achieve the same result, providing you don’t increase your food intake to negate the effects of walking. If you consume 100 calories a day more than your body needs, you will gain approximately 10 pounds in a year. You could take that weight off, or keep it off, by doing


30 minutes of moderate exercise daily. The combination of exercise and diet offers the most flexible and effective approach to weight loss and weight maintenance. Since muscle tissue weighs more than fat tissue, and exercise develops muscle to a certain degree, your bathroom scale won’t necessarily tell you whether or not you are “fat.” Well-muscled individuals, with relatively little body fat, invariably are “overweight” according to standard weight charts. If you are doing a regular program of strength training, your muscles will increase in weight, and possibly your overall weight will increase. Body composition is a better indicator of your condition than body weight. Lack of physical activity causes muscles to get soft, and if food intake is not decreased, added body weight is almost always fat. Once-active people, who continue to eat as they always have after settling into sedentary lifestyles, tend to suffer from “creeping obesity.” Exercise Clothing All exercise clothing should be loose-fitting to permit freedom of movement, and should make the wearer feel comfortable and self-assured. As a general rule, you should wear lighter clothes than temperatures might indicate. Exercise generates great amounts of body heat. Light-colored clothing that reflects the sun’s rays is cooler in the summer, and dark clothes are warmer in winter. When the weather is very cold, it’s better to wear several layers of light clothing than one or two heavy layers. The extra layers help trap heat, and it’s easy to shed one of them if you become too warm. In cold weather, and in hot, sunny weather, it’s a good idea to wear something on your head. Wool watch or ski caps are recommended for winter wear, and some form of tennis or sailor’s hat that provides shade and can be soaked in water is good for summer. Never wear rubberized or plastic clothing, such garments interfere with the evaporation of perspiration and can cause body temperature to rise to dangerous levels. The most important item of equipment for the runner is a pair of sturdy, properly-fitting running shoes. Training shoes with heavy, cushioned soles and arch supports are preferable to flimsy sneakers and light racing flats. When To Exercise The hour just before the evening meal is a popular time for exercise. The late afternoon workout provides a welcome change of pace at the end of the work day and helps dissolve the day’s worries and tensions. Another popular time to work out is early morning, before the work day begins. Advocates of the early start say it makes them more alert and energetic on the job, which is supported by research studies. Among the factors you should consider in developing your workout schedule are personal preference, job and family responsibilities, availability of exercise facilities and weather. It’s important to schedule your workouts for a time when there is little chance that you will have to cancel or interrupt them because of other demands on your time. You should not exercise strenuously during extremely hot, humid weather or within two hours after eating. Heat and/or digestion both make heavy demands on the circulatory system, and in combination with exercise can be an overtaxing double load. Part Three Page 3 - 73 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Exercise Made Easy For best weight loss and weight maintenance results it is recommend you find your balance between food and physical activity. Consuming more calories than you expend leads to weight gain. More than half of all Americans don't get the recommended amount of physical activity. To reduce the risk of chronic disease in adulthood, engage in at least 30 minutes of moderate activity a day on most days of the week. Children and adolescents should engage in at least 60 minutes a day on most, and preferably all, days of the week. To manage body weight and prevent gradual weight gain, people should exercise about 60 minutes at a moderate to vigorous intensity on most days of the week, while not exceeding recommendations for caloric intake. Sixty to 90 minutes may be needed to maintain weight loss. The more vigorous the activity and the longer the duration, the more health benefits you'll get. But every little bit counts. Here are some examples of easy ways to work exercise into your day: Take a 10-minute walk after breakfast, lunch, and dinner to reach the goal of 30 minutes per day. Park your car in the farthest spot when you run errands. Take a family walk after dinner. Walk your dog. Do yard work. Wash your car by hand. Pace the sidelines at kids' athletic games. Ask a friend to exercise with you. Run around and play with your children for 30 minutes a day. Walk briskly at the mall. Take the stairs instead of the elevator.

Reduce Stress In Your Life Many people feel stress in their daily lives. Stress can cause you to overeat, feel tired, and not want to do anything. Regular physical activity can give you more energy. Try some of these other ideas to help relieve stress and stay on track with your fitness and nutrition goals: Get plenty of sleep. Practice deep breathing and relaxing your muscles one at a time. Take a break and go for a walk. Take short stretch breaks throughout the day. Try taking a yoga or tai chi class to energize yourself and reduce stress. Try a new hobby, like a pottery class or any activity that sparks your interest. Surround yourself with people whose company you enjoy. A balanced eating plan, regular physical activity, and stress relief can help you stay healthy for life. Reward and acknowledge your efforts with non-food rewards. Make a grocery list before you shop. Take your body measurements to gauge progress.


More Exercise And Physical Activity Tips Walk to work. Ask a friend to exercise with you. Bicycle to the store instead of driving. Bike to the barbershop or beauty salon instead of driving. Buy a set of hand weights and play a round of Simon Says with your kids - you do it with the weights, they do without. Visit museums, the zoo, or an aquarium. You and your family can walk for hours and not realize it. Carry your groceries instead of pushing a cart. Choose activities you enjoy & you'll be more likely to stick with them. Choose an activity that fits into your daily life. Clean your closet and donate clothes that are too big. Dance to music. Do sit-ups in front of the TV. Do yard work. Exercise with a video if the weather is bad. Explore new physical activities. Take a hike. Fetch the newspaper yourself. Get off a bus stop early & walk. Go for a half-hour walk instead of watching TV. If you find it difficult to be active after work, try it before work. Keep a pair of comfortable walking or running shoes in your car and office. Make a Saturday morning walk a group habit. Make time in your day for physical activity. Mow lawn with push mower. Pace the sidelines at kids' athletic games. Park farther from destination and walk. Perform gardening or home repair activities. Play with your kids 30 minutes a day. Replace Sunday drive with Sunday walk. Run when running errands. Sit up straight at work. Skate to work instead of driving. Stretch before bed to give you more energy when you wake.

Swim with your kids. Take a walk or do desk exercises instead of a cigarette or coffee break. Take dog to the park. Take family walk after dinner. Take small trips on foot to get your body moving. Take the long way to the water cooler. Take your dog on longer walks. Use a snow shovel instead of a snow blower. Vary your activities, for interest and to broaden the range of benefits. Walk briskly in the mall. Walk briskly through the mall and shop 'til you drop the pounds. Walk during lunch hour. Walk instead of driving whenever you can. Walk instead of sitting around. Walk the beach instead of sunbathing. Walk to a co-worker's desk instead of emailing or calling them. Walk to your place of worship instead of driving. Wash the car by hand. When walking, go up the hills instead of around them. Work around the house. Get a dog and walk it. Join an exercise group. Stay active in winter. Play with your kids. Walk kids to school. Take stairs instead of the escalator.


NUTRITIONAL WEIGHT LOSS AIDS The use of nutritional weight loss aids can be very useful to assist in accomplishing your fat loss goals. Nutritional weight loss aids include: Meal replacement drinks Meal replacement nutrition bars Protein drinks and bars Specialty diet foods Fiber drinks and other high fiber products Wholesome health foods / organic foods A variety of dietary supplement weight loss aids to help with appetite control, increase calorie expenditure, increase rate of stored body fat utilization, reduce fatty acid absorption, increase lean body mass, and slow down digestion of carbohydrates. As previously mentioned though, there are no magic pills. Losing body fat is a goal that requires a diversified approach of nutrition, exercise, positive thinking and lifestyle modification to result in using your body fat stores for energy. Calorie reduction is a major factor, which requires good meal planning habits and appetite control. Making your body better at using fatty acids for energy is also a major goal. This chapter will focus on the primary dietary supplement nutritional weight loss aids. These popular ingredients and combinations tend to also be the ones surrounded in confusion. The conventional food weight loss aids, diet products, are more straight forward in their composition and understanding as they mostly contain various combinations of the micronutrients and macronutrients. Dietary supplement weight loss aids may also contain these essential nutrient ingredients, but usually contain specialty ingredients, such as botanicals and metabolites. While this book and chapter is about nutrition, to appreciate the development and current state of dietary supplement type weight loss aids available for sale, the story of a drug ingredient will help to shed some light. The weight loss drug in question is ephedrine, which led to the use of ephedrine containing botanicals, such as ephedra, which led to the use of other botanicals and ingredients to duplicate and/or enhance the thermogenic and appetite control effects of ephedrine.

The Ephedrine / Ephedra Weight Loss Legacy Despite the recent ban of ephedrine containing botanical supplement products, the reputation of this weight loss aid lives on, with many companies touting that they have “ephedra” alternatives or the next generation weight loss products. To fully appreciate the state of the supplement weight loss aid marketplace, a short overview of the initial scientific discoveries starting the thermogenic weight loss product trend will be enlightening.


In 1972, Dr. Eriksen, a Danish general practitioner in the town of Elsinore, noted a loss of appetite and weight in asthmatic patients who were taking a compound containing ephedrine, caffeine and phenobarbitol. As word got out about his observations on weight loss, the “Elsinore pill” was soon prescribed as an anti-obesity agent. As its use grew, a number of skin reactions were reported, some of them serious. These effects were believed to be caused by the phenobarbitol. Then, in 1981, Danish researcher Axel Malcohow-Moller conducted a study on a modified version of the “Elsinore pill,” without phenobarbitol, containing the following ingredients per tablet: Caffeine sodium benzoate Ephedrine sodium Thiamin sodium Ascorbic acid Potassium carbonate Magnesium oxide

50 mg 50 mg 3 mg 50 mg 50 mg 80 mg

Two tablets were taken three times a day during the study period, versus a placebo group and a group taking diethylpropion (12.5 mg per tablet). All patients followed a 1,200-kcal diet per day. The median weight loss after 12 weeks was 4.1 kg for the placebo treatment (n=33, no withdrawals), 8.4 kg for the diethylpropion treatment (n=50, 4 withdrawals), and 8.1 kg for the Elsinore pill treatment (n=49, 4 withdrawals). Side effects observed for the “Elsinore pill” and diethylpropion treatment included agitation, tremors, insomnia, diarrhea, constipation, urination complaints and dryness of mouth. There were several withdrawals from the study due to side effects, and a patient experienced intolerance to alcohol. In 1981, a well-designed study confirmed the weight loss effectiveness of the ephedrinecaffeine combination. Skin reactions were not observed during the 12-week-long study period. No effect on blood pressure or pulse was seen. The next significant study using the combination of ephedrine and caffeine was conducted in 1986 by A. G. Dulloo, who has since conducted numerous studies on thermogenic agents, including the recent discovery of the thermogenic activity of green tea polyphenols. In this study, an 8% increase in metabolic rate was measured in patients taking the ephedrine – caffeine combination. What was learned during this research was that ephedrine stimulates the production of adrenaline and noradrenaline, which in turn stimulates the production of a substance called cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate). Increased cAMP levels in the cells, is related to increasing thermogenesis. However, like with production of other substances in the body, there is a feedback mechanism that controls the levels of production to keep the body working in a zone of operation. With regard to ephedrine stimulated production of Part Three Page 3 - 77 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

cAMP, eventually an enzyme called phosphodiesterase is produced that breaks down cAMP so levels will not be elevated too high. To keep the thermogenic effects of ephedrine going, researchers sought a way to interfere with phosphodiesterase. Caffeine is a substance known to do this, so experiments were conducted using ephedrine and caffeine. The results showed that this combination actually increased thermogenesis more than ephedrine or caffeine alone, and resulted in greater loss in body fat, in conjunction with calorie restriction. A final point to this story concerns aspirin. Another negative feedback substance is involved in slowing down the ephedrine thermogenic effect. Eventually, levels of certain prostaglandins increase, which slows down the adrenaline and noradrenaline ephedrine stimulated production. Researchers determined that aspirin has the ability to block the prostaglandin production, which can override this negative feedback control mechanism. This lead to the testing of the combination of ephedrine, caffeine and aspirin. In research studies using the combination of drugs, the total daily dosage ranged between 60 to 150 mg of ephedrine per day, 60 to 600 mg of caffeine per day, and 330 mg aspirin per day. The total daily dosages were divided in to 3 equal smaller separate dosages, taken before meals; about 20 to 50 mg ephedrine, 20 to 300 mg caffeine, and 110 aspirin per dose. Why Ephedra? Ephedra actually has a long history of use for weight loss. Japanese researchers have confirmed the thermogenic action of an ephedra-containing, traditional Japanese antiobesity botanical drug, called bufu-tsusho-san, reported to be used for 2,000 years in Japan. Its formula contains 18 botanical drug ingredients: scutellariae radix, glycyrrhizae radix, platycodi radix, gypsum fibrosum, atractylodis rhizoma, rhei rhizoma, schizonepetae spica, gardeniae fructus, paeoniae radix, cnidii rhizoma, angelicae radix, menthae herba, ledebouriellae radix, ephedrae herba, forsythiae fructus, zingiberis rhizoma, kadinum and natrium sulfuricum. Chinese medicine also reports the use of ephedra for weight control, as well as other uses. So, while modern researchers stumbled on the weight loss power of ephedrine, this actually reconfirms what ancient health practitioners have know for thousands of years. But, what led to the popular use of ephedra containing dietary supplement weight loss aids was the modern research on ephedrine and combinations with other drugs. Even though the research conducted using the ephedrine, caffeine, and aspirin combinations was found to be effective in losing weight, drug approval for this combination was not attained. So, as the ephedra plant contains ephedrine, clever dietary supplement formulators created various ephedra containing products to emulate the weight loss properties of the drugs. Ephedra with ephedrine, guarana with caffeine, and white willow bark with aspirin like substances is an example of a botanical product ingredient Part Three Page 3 - 78 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

combination in this pursuit. Before the ephedra ban, some good research studies were conducted to prove the weight loss effects. Here is a short overview of some of the research and expert opinions about ephedra containing products. Research Finds That Ephedra-Containing Products Are Safe And Effective Researchers at the prestigious Harvard and Columbia Universities was involved researching ephedra/ephedrine containing products. Research published by the Harvard and Columbia university scientists found that supplements containing ephedra and guarana were effective weight loss aids. The researchers found that ephedra, when combined with caffeine (often found in supplements in the form of guarana), lowered body weight and fat and body mass index. Additionally, the combination of ephedra and guarana was found to have dramatic fat and weight loss results for healthy, overweight subjects. It is important to note that results from 19 other clinical trials have also found that ephedra, or ephedra’s main active ingredient, ephedrine, are safe and beneficial for weight loss, with minor side effects for healthy people. A panel of experts completed a review of the herb and concluded that there is no association between serious adverse events and ephedra when consumed as directed. Safe Use Of Ephedra Dietary Supplements Established By Medical Experts Medical experts announced in December 2000 that ephedra-containing products are safe at a total daily dosage of up to 90 mg of ephedrine alkaloids, divided into smaller doses of up to 30 mg. Findings are based on the conclusions of a comprehensive, science-based risk analysis performed by Cantox Health Sciences International, a world-renowned, independent scientific consulting firm. Cantox assessed all available scientific information—focusing on 19 clinical trials, together with the critical data from the Harvard and Columbia trial mentioned above. Other key data included adverse event reports (AERs) collected by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). “The information reported here today is a win for consumers, a win for regulators and a win for the industry. Consumers can continue to use ephedra supplements for weight management; the FDA has a credible scientific basis for implementing sound regulatory policy on ephedra; and the industry is committed to continuing self-regulatory initiatives that benefit consumers,” said John Cordaro, President and Chief Executive Officer of the Council for Responsible Nutrition (CRN). The CRN commissioned Cantox to perform the risk assessment analysis. John Hathcock, Ph.D., Vice President of Nutritional and Regulatory Science for CRN, explained the three conditions for safe ephedra supplement use: dosage limits, effective labeling and post-market monitoring. “A dosage of 90 mg of ephedra per day, taken in divided doses of 30 mg, caused no observed adverse effects—the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL). The report also identified a 150 mg total daily dosage as the lowest


level at which moderate adverse effects were first observed—the Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level (LOAEL),” explained Hathcock. State lawmakers in Ohio were so sure of ephedra’s safety that they allow for a 100 mg a day dosage, ten more milligrams than recommended by the Council for Responsible Nutrition. Ohio’s policy underscores the opinions of many medical and scientific experts who have long held that ephedra is a safe and effective weight loss aid when it is marketed and consumed responsibly. Keep in mind that the nonprescription drug ephedrine has been in use for may decades. Public meetings held by the Office of Women’s Health during September 2000 provided further evidence in support of the safety and effectiveness of ephedra-containing products. A seven-member team of medical experts determined that these products are safe when used correctly. Noted weight loss and ephedra expert, Dr. Astrup, of Copenhagen Denmark, noted his research studies found that the combination of ephedrine and caffeine are indeed an effective weight loss combination. Experts advise that people using ephedra products pay close attention to the directions on the labels of products they are using to ensure maximum safety and effectiveness. Ephedra Was Still Banned In light of this research, regulators still decided to prohibit the use of ephedra and other ephedrine containing plants as dietary supplement ingredients, primarily due to potential side effects. However, herbalists are permitted to use ephedra, and it is wise to have medial supervision when undertaking a weight loss program, or when taking products with potential side effects. Also, it is reported that people are taking matters into their own hands, and duplicating the drug formulas used in the original research by taking individual nonprescription ephedrine, caffeine and aspirin products. Some of the notable side effects reported to occur from the research review conducted and published in the RAND report were noted: “There is sufficient evidence from short-term controlled trials to conclude that the use of ephedrine and/or the use of ephedra or ephedrine plus caffeine is associated with two to three times the risk of nausea, vomiting, psychiatric symptoms such as anxiety and change in mood, autonomic hyperactivity, and palpitations.” RAND report citation: Shekelle P, Morton, S., Maglione M, et al. Ephedra and Ephedrine for Weight Loss and Athletic Performance Enhancement: Clinical Efficacy and Side Effects. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 76 (Prepared by Southern California Evidence-based Practice Center, RAND, under Contract No 290-97-0001, Task Order No. 9). AHRQ Publication No. 03-E022. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. February 2003.

As with other ingestible products, side effects primarily depend on the individual. Check product labels and manufacturer’s for additional warnings and proper use instructions. The Ephedra / Ephedrine Effect During the ephedra debate years, there were several comprehensive research reviews conducted to present evidence of ephedra / ephedrine’s safety and effectiveness. A few points of interest were noted. The major weight loss effect was ephedrine’s appetite Part Three Page 3 - 80 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

control. Second to this was the thermogenic, increased caloric burning effect. It was noted that ephedrine also helps promote the liberation of fatty acids from body fat stores and causes the body to use more fat for energy. It was also noted that calorie restriction was required to result in loss of body fat. Some research also reported a possible lean body mass sparing effect.

Dietary Supplement Weight Loss Aid Summary Numerous scientific studies have been conducted on losing body fat. Many of these weight loss studies have found that certain dietary supplements can be used to help control your appetite, and increase your rate of losing body fat. But keep in mind that what works best is to first follow a healthy nutrition plan, calorie restriction, use your regular or sports specific nutritional supplements, engage in regular exercise, and follow the fat loss tips mentioned above. If you still find that you are having trouble losing body fat, then start to include some of the weight loss supplements into your program. Including the right supplement weight loss aid or combination of different products can usually help you lose body fat at a faster rate, and promote other beneficial effects, such as improved appetite control, increased energy, and maintenance or increasing lean body mass. The best supplements to start with are high quality protein-meal replacement drinks and nutrition bar meal replacements. These drinks are packed with protein and other essential nutrients, and are low in fat. There is a wide range of these protein meal-replacement drinks to suit your nutritional needs and budget. Some are high in carbohydrates, while others are lower in carbohydrates. During your weight loss program, if you are trying to reduce carbohydrate intake, you can try using protein-meal replacements that are lower in carbohydrates and total calories. Some types are also especially designed to include other fat burning nutrients, discussed below. Start using a protein meal-replacement to substitute a meal that you may be skipping, or a meal when your tend to over eat, or as a nutritious snack. You can also use meal-replacement nutrition bars in a similar manner. However, make sure you read the labels and check that the sugar and saturated fat content is not too high. They should be high in protein, contain other essential nutrients, and low in calories. There are many supplements that help improve your body’s metabolic rate. Even some simple vitamins and minerals will help. Chromium is a trace mineral which has been shown to assist insulin in moving nutrients into your cells to be used as energy, instead of being stored as excess body fat. Insulin is the hormone that signals cells to let in nutrients that are circulating around the blood stream after a meal. Getting adequate chromium will allow insulin to function at full capacity. This means getting more nutrients into your cells, where they can be used for energy and growth, instead of being circulated back to the liver, and converted to fat. Natural appetite suppressants are leading the category of weight loss supplements. A relative new comer, 5-HTP, which is used primarily to ease anxiety, also helps with appetite control. The dietary supplement, sold in the United States and in Italy, and has been investigated for multiple indications such as migraine, depression, anxiety, fibromyalgia, hypertension, insomnia and obesity. 5-HTP occurs naturally in the human


body and the seeds of the plant known as Griffonia simplicifolia. 5-HTP is the amino acid precursor of serotonin. Normal levels of serotonin are important for emotional well-being, may play a role in appetite suppression, and decreased carbohydrate and fat intake. Recent research has found that 5-HTP has an immediate effect on reducing feelings of hunger and promoting satiety, and reducing food intake. An amino acid called L-phenylalanine is also reported to help reduce cravings and appetite. This appetite control effect is noted to be of particular significance to people who tend to crave carbohydrates. Next on the list is Garcinia camobgia, also called Brindall Berry. This botanical can help control appetite and may also block the formation of fat from carbohydrates in the liver. Garcinia contains a substance called (-)-hydroxycitric acid (or (-)-hydroxycitrate, HCA). During the 1970’s, in their search for a novel weight loss aid, the pharmaceutical giant Hoffmann La Roche discovered that HCA displays a few intriguing anti-obesity functions in the body. For example, HCA reduces the rate of formation of fat from carbohydrates by interfering with an enzyme called ATP-citrate lyase; HCA has been found to exert an anorexic effect (lowers appetite), and may stimulate thermogenesis. It appears to be most effective for people who have gained weight from overeating carbohydrate foods. White kidney bean extract from the plant Phaseolus vulgaris, is reported to block the enzyme that digests complex carbohydrates, alpha-amylase. This is turn may slow down the rate of complex carbohydrate digestion, and could reduce the GI of carbohydrate foods in a meal, and lower average insulin levels. In Germany this extract is also reported to have diuretic action, which may be involved in reducing body water weight. Then there is the group of supplements sold under the heading of lipotropics and fat metabolizers. These diet supplements contain ingredients that help stimulate the body to use more fat for energy. Recent clinical studies revealed that along with diet and exercise, L-carnitine supplements resulted in losing more fat, then from diet and exercise alone. L-carnitine has been shown to help increase the rate of fat loss in some people. When fatty acids enter into the cell, carnitine carries them into a special cellular structure where fats are used to make energy. In this way, supplemental amounts of carnitine are shown to help stimulate your fat burning metabolism, and you lose fat at a faster rate. Carnitine is also demonstrated to promote increased endurance. Other fat fighting nutrients used in product include choline, inositol, and L-methionine. Supplement companies also offer botanical diuretics to help reduce excess water weight. Traditionally, diuretics are used in the treatment of menstrual distress, edema, and hypertension. Dieters have also turned to diuretics to help reduce edema and the bloated feelings, common to being overweight. As a result of this, you can find on the shelves weight loss aid supplements containing botanical diuretics, such as, Uva ursi, Buchu, Cornsilk, Juniper berry, and Hydrangea. The use of these types of supplements by athletes should be avoided, unless under doctor supervision. While it is satisfying to see quick results on the scale, remember that much of the weight lost is from water, and will quickly return as fast as you lost it.


Fiber and fat absorbing supplements are a better weight loss aid category. Eating more fibrous foods, such as non-starchy vegetables, and taking fiber supplements, like psyllium, guar gum, and citrus pectin, will help improve your digestion and appetite control. Studies have shown that a special “marine fiber” concentrate called chitosan can help absorb and lock on to some ingested fats, thereby keeping some of them from entering your body. Nutritionists have concluded that as you increase your fiber intake, you decrease the amount of calories absorbed into the body. This is true for all kinds of diets. So, increase fiber intake. The last major weight loss aid supplement category has been the subject of controversy in the media and by the FDA for several years. This category includes the so called, ‘thermogenic aids”. Just as exercise will boost your calorie burning rate, so can some of the foods and botanical supplements you eat. Thermogenic supplements stimulate your body to burn up more fatty acids, increasing your metabolic rate. Many people also experience improved appetite control. They include; caffeine and caffeine containing botanicals, such as green tea, guarana, kola nut and yerba mate, and also green tea’s EGCG (epigallocatechin gallate) compound, having been reported to cause a thermogenic effect. Another thermogenic botanical growing in popularity is Coleus forskohlli, which contains a primary active ingredient called forskolin. Another thermogenic substance with clinical research demonstrating fat loss effects is called 7-keto DHEA (which is a trade name of the biochemical 3-acetyl-7-oxodehydroepiandrosterone). This substance is a metabolite of the pro-hormone DHEA. It is important to note that while DHEA can be converted to testosterone or estrogen, 7-keto DHEA does not. 7-keto is reported to increase thermogenic enzymes in the liver that stimulate fatty acid use for energy. In clinical studies 7-keto was shown to increase loss of body fat along with calorie restriction at a greater rate when compared to the placebo group. Research also reported maintenance of lean body mass.


Nutrition / Dietary Supplement Weight Loss Aids Summary This section contains a summary of nutrition and dietary supplement product types and ingredients reported to be useful weight loss and weight maintenance aids, based on scientific evidence. These supplement diet aids may help a person to stick to a caloriereduced diet, or increase the amount of fat lost while on a calorie restricted diet. Always consult your doctor prior to starting a weight loss program. Also, be sure to involve your doctor in every aspect of your weight loss program to monitor your health. The following table provides a quick summary of some notable nutritional weight loss aids and ingredients found on the shelves. Refer to the product labels for use instructions or contact the manufacturer of the particular product you are interested in using as a weight loss aid. One or more of these ingredients is typically combined together in weight loss products. Using one or more of these ingredients should be determined working with your health care professional. Nutritional Wt. Loss Aid(s) Ingredient(s) Multi Vitamin/Mineral Supplements, essential fatty acids. Protein Rich Meal Replacements and Nutrition Bars L-carnitine 5-HTP Garcinia (hydroxycitrate) Extra chromium Fiber supplements Phaseolus vulgaris L-tyrosine L-phenylalanine Chitosan CLA (Conjugated Linoleic Acid) Caffeine containing thermogenic aids 7-KETO

Daily Dosage Range Examples (Confirm personal needs working with your health care professional) Maintain sports specific supplement intake as recommended by your health care professional. At least 20 grams of protein per serving 1 gram to 3 grams 50 mg to 300 mg 500 mg to 750 mg, three times a day with meals. 300 mcg to 600 mcg 10 grams to 30 grams Use as directed by manufacturer / health professional 500 mg to 1,500 mg 500 mg to 1,500 mg Use as directed with meals 1 to 3 grams a day

Use as directed by manufacturer / health professional 50 mg to 200 mg

Comments

Intake of vitamins and minerals is essential for optimum metabolic function, fat metabolism, and health. Use in addition to a healthy meal plan.

Helps to burn more fat. Helps control appetite. Helps control appetite, and slows the conversion of carbohydrates to fats in the liver. Improves insulin function Take with meals, slows down digestion, improves satiety. Reduce activity of carbohydrate digesting enzyme, and slow down carbohydrate absorption. Helps with appetite control. Helps with appetite control. Absorbs fat in the intestines, to prevent or slow its absorption into the body. Reported to reduce fat accumulation, and build lean body mass. Help increase your metabolic rate (increases the calories you burn). A metabolite shown to aid in weight loss by increasing thermogenesis without nervous system stimulant effects.

g = grams, mg = milligrams, mcg = micrograms


EXAMPLES OF NUTRITIONAL WEIGHT LOSS AID PRODUCTS


APPENDIX A1. Perpetual EXERCISE LOG SHEET A2. Perpetual NUTRITION LOG SHEET A3. Bodybuilding And Football Training DVD Examples A4. Tips On Increasing Muscle Growth Rate A5. 2005 Dietary Guidelines A6. Creatine Research Overview Article A7. Glossary A8. References

PERPETUAL EXERCISE LOG SHEET (Print As Needed) DATE:

AM / PM

BODY PART

EXERCISE

SET 1 Wt

Rep

SET 2 Wt

Rep

SET 3 Wt

Rep

SET 4 Wt

Aerobic Exercise Performed:

SET 5 Wt

Rep

Heart Rate: % Body Fat:

% Lean Body Mass:

Training / Exercise Notes:

VISIT BODYBUILDING.COM TO PURCHASE YOUR FAVORITE SPORTS NUTRITION PRODUCTS AT DISCOUNT PRICES

Appendix - A1

SET 6 Wt

Rep

Duration of

Aerobic Exercise: Body Weight:

Rep

PERPETUAL NUTRITION LOG SHEET C ALORIES

PROTEIN

C ARBS

BREAKFAST

ME AL / FOODS / SUPPLEMENTS

(Print As Needed)

Supplements:

LUNCH

SNACK

Supplements:

Supplements:

DINNER

SNACK

Supplements:

SNACK

Supplements:

Supplements:

D ATE:

TOT ALS

VISIT BODYBUILDING.COM TO PURCHASE YOUR FAVORITE SPORTS NUTRITION PRODUCTS AT DISCOUNT PRICES

Appendix – A2

F AT

APPENDIX 3 Bodybuilding And Football Training DVD Examples

Joe Weider's Bodybuilding Training System DVD Featuring The World's Best Selling Bodybuilding System! Mega DVD Edition! 4-DVDs & CD-ROM

Available from Bodybuiding.com at a special discount price Click Here to Order Features Joe Weider and 47 IFBB Bodybuilding champions and fitness experts. 6.5 hours long, 10 training sessions. See the legendary bodybuilding champions!

Click Here For Video Clip Preview Article Weider Health and Fitness is releasing for the first time Joe Weider’s Bodybuilding Training System: the most complete and best-selling bodybuilding training instructional video series ever created on DVD to do muscle building training and nutrition right. Now, with more people than ever in the gym doing resistance training, the new DVD format enables bodybuilding, fitness and sports enthusiasts a chance to benefit from this most comprehensive instructional series. For over seven decades, the legendary Weider System has been the secret of champion bodybuilding athletes throughout the world. The rock-solid, time-tested Weider System has led millions of men and women to successfully train to build muscle and strength for bodybuilding, strength sports and fitness. This multi-DVD collection brings together fitness experts and the biggest bodybuilding stars; all the great athletes of their time at the peak of their careers. The Mega DVD Edition includes appearances and one-onone instructional presentations from Joe Weider and a cast of famous champion IFBB bodybuilders and sports medical experts. It also includes a bonus system guide, nutrition log and training log on CD-ROM. This is your chance to train like never before! Joe Weider’s Bodybuilding Training System is not available in any store, nor in any other DVD collection. FEATURING:

• • • • •

4 DVDs, plus 1 CD-ROM 10 training sessions, packed with nearly 6.5 hours of comprehensive bodybuilding training information Featuring Joe Weider and 47 IFBB champions and fitness experts who teach and demonstrate the Weider System 90 exercise demonstration and routines 4 full-body workout programs

• • •

46-page System Program Guide, complete with a Weider Dictionary of important terms Perpetual training log to plan and track your workout and nutrition programs Originally over a $200 value, now on DVD for $59.99 ??" available at Bodybuilding.com

4 DVD’S WITH 6.5 HOURS OF CONTENT, INCLUDING: Session 1. Introduction: The Weider System Session 2. Basic Bodybuilding Techniques Session 3. Back & Biceps Session 4. Chest & Triceps Session 5. Legs & Shoulders Session 6. Detail Training: Calves, Abs & Forearms Session 7. Mass & Strength Training Session 8. Nutrition & Diet Session 9. Advanced Training: The Weider Principles Session 10. Training Safe & Smart Session 1. Introduction: The Weider System. Reviews the origins and history of bodybuilding, explains why bodybuilding is the most effective and efficient method of exercise, and the development of the Weider System, along with previews of Sessions 2 through 10. Session 2. Basic Bodybuilding Techniques. Contains information to get you started on basic bodybuilding techniques and about the body, such as: how muscles adopt to exercise, progressive resistance weight training, about sets, reps and split system training, about rest and recuperation, about free weights vs. machines, and quality training techniques. Also reviews and presents how to create a bodybuilding training program, just like the champions.

Session 3. Back & Biceps. Reviews the muscles of the back and what they do, back training techniques and exercises, the biceps muscles and what they do, and biceps training techniques and exercises. Session 4. Chest & Triceps. Reviews the muscles of the chest and what they do, chest training techniques and exercises, the triceps muscles and what they do, triceps training techniques and exercises. Session 5. Legs & Shoulders. Reviews the muscles of the hips, quadriceps and hamstrings and what they do, leg training techniques, the muscles of the shoulders and what they do, and shoulder training techniques. Session 6. Detail Training: Calves, Abs & Forearms. Reviews the muscles of the calves and what they do, calf training techniques and exercises, the muscles of the abs and what they do, abs training techniques and exercises, the muscles of the forearms and what they do, forearm training techniques and exercises. Session 7. Mass & Strength Training. Reveals mass training techniques and principles to build awesome muscle size and strength. Reviews mass versus quality workouts, strength versus power, and compensatory acceleration, along with top mass building exercises. Session 8. Nutrition & Diet. Covers the vital A to Z’s of nutrition for massing up and muscle definition ??" the macronutrients, proteins, carbohydrates and fats, how much to eat and when to eat, about losing fat and maintaining muscle, the importance of avoiding carbohydrate deprivation, and year round consistency for best results. Session 9. Advanced Training: The Weider Principles. The Weider Principles are the foundation of successful bodybuilding. Each principle is reviewed in detail, and also included in the System Program Guide for easy reference. The Weider Training Principals help to plan your training cycle, arrange your workouts, and perform each exercise. Some of the training principles include the Split-System Training Principle, Holistic Training Principle, Instinctive Training Principle, and Muscle Priority Training Principle. Session 10. Training Safe & Smart. This session reviews expert tips and approaches for safe training. Included are presentations about workout clothing, straps, wraps, and belts, and basic sports-medicine principles, such as how to recognize and deal with minor injuries, common types of injuries and therapy. Covers expert tips on preventing injuries, proper warmup and stretching. A WORLD RENOWNED SERIES Originally brought to life in a comprehensive set of 10 videos, the athletes and fitness experts visually presented the Weider System for the public in a way

which was never done before. Little was it known at the time, that this was going to be the greatest documentation of all time. You will see superstar athletes like Franco Columbu, Lou Ferrigno, Lee Labrada, Cory Everson, Frank Zane and other greats presenting the system; and that’s a one-of-a-kind classic presented in a digitally re-mastered format. Joe Weider and his champions show you step-by-step how to develop and follow an effective “bodybuilding” resistance training program that will result in building an awesome physique. Legendary bodybuilding champions appearing on the DVD’s include: Achim Albrecht Erika Andersch Shelley Beatti Tim Belknap Francis Benfatto Sharron Bruneau Boyer Coe Franco Columbu Rick Ciotti Diana Dennis Paul Dillet Cory Everson Lou Ferrigno Rich Gaspari Frank Hillebrand Raye Hollitt Renel Janvier Tonya Knight Drorit Kernes Lee Labrada Mike Matarazzo Rachel McLish Lenda Murray Bob Paris Reg Park Shawn Ray Sandy Riddell Arnold Schwarzenegger Vince Taylor Flex Wheeler Dorian Yates Frank Zane

ABOUT JOE WEIDER As the Father of Modern Bodybuilding, Joe Weider has trained and mentored the greatest athletes in the sport worldwide. Joe is co-founder of the fifth largest international sport federation; IFBB, and creator of the biggest, most prestigious professional bodybuilding event; Joe Weider’s Olympia. As a fitness magazine publisher, Joe launched leading titles including Muscle & Fitness, Flex, Shape and Men’s Fitness. Celebrating over 70 years of excellence, Weider Health + Fitness continues to provide people around the globe with wellness solutions and products.

Bill Grant’s Old school Bodybuilding Training series Total body training DVD Legendary Bodybuilding Champion Bill Grant, Mr. World, Mr. America Reveals His Championship Bodybuilding Program Including: His Advanced Competition Program & New Maintenance / Amateur Bodybuilding Program

Bill Grant is Mr. Bodybuilding. As a national and world professional bodybuilding champion, Bill Grant has over 4 decades of bodybuilding training experience. For the first time ever, Bill shares his competition bodybuilding program, and also includes his new maintenance / amateur bodybuilding program. Bill makes an energetic presentation, and gives one-on-one weight training instructions as he performs the exercises. You will actually witness for yourself how this legendary professional bodybuilder does each exercise and set. This DVD is instructional, motivational, educational, and entertaining. At age 60 Bill Grant has maintained his championship bodybuilding physique for 40 years. Here are some actual images from the DVD showing Bill’s awesome muscle development and the definition he maintains everyday at age 60, using his bodybuilding training programs on this DVD

Bill’s DVD is Available at: Pro Videos

FOOTBALL SPEED, STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING EXERCISE PROGRAM Click to Order: Training Videos Click Here for Two part article overview http://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/apis1.htm

Click Here for Two part audio interview with John Wilkins http://www.bodybuilding.com/fun/wilkinsfootballinterview.htm

Includes: 1 DVD with 69 Speed, Strength and Conditioning Exercises for Improved Football Athletic Performance with Detailed Step By Step Presentation of the Exercises 1 CD ROM with Instruction Manual and Audio Interview Files with John Wilkins Talking About This Special Football Training Program Bringing Personalized Athletic Training Directly to You. You can spend hundreds of dollars a month going to the Health and Body Athletic Training Facility in Sparta, New Jersey. Or for a fraction of this cost, purchase this unique and comprehensive DVD of the Football Speed, Strength and Conditioning program developed and used at Health & Body. You get the DVD with 69 Specialized Football Training Exercises 1 hour 18 minutes total running time. Plus you also get the CD ROM with the Speed, Strength and Conditioning Training Manual, with 2 MPA format audio interviews with John Wilkins Want more information? You can read the two part article about this specialize and proven effective Football Speed, Strength and Training program, developed by expert personal fitness and athletic trainer John Wilkins and preview some of the exercise video clips. You can also listen to his interview. 43 Speed and Conditioning Exercises: CORE BODY - Sprinter Abs, Russian Twists, Leg Lowers, Knee Tucks, V-ups (Military Sit-up), Toe Touch Crunch. Snake

Stretch, Hip Flexor Stretch, Supermans, Rollover V-Sit, Hip Circuit (up/down, Forward and back). DYNAMIC STRETCHES - High Knee Pulls, Quad Stretches (moving), Leg Cradles, Leg Swings, Leg Swings with a Twist, Cross-over Side Lunge, Inch Worms, Rock Climbing Stretches, Straight Leg, Toe Touches. DYNAMIC WARM-UP - High Knee Carioca, Side Shuffle, High Knees, Front Skip (for Height), Front Skip (for Distance), Front Skips (for Distance and Speed), Power Jumps (Knees to Chest for Height), Power Jumps (Knees to Chest for Speed), Single Leg Power Jumps (for Height), Power Jumps (Single Leg for Speed), Frog Jumps, Frog Jumps, (with Hands on Ground). UPPER BODY PLYOS - Close/Wide pushups on Bosu Ball, Up, Up, Down, Down on Box, Up, Up, Down, Down From Side on Bosu Ball, Superman Up, Down with a Jump, Up, Down From Pushup Position With a Jump, Squat Thrust Up, Down with a Jump, Mountain Climber Up, Down with a Power Jump. SLEDS FOR POWER AND EXPLOSIVENESS - Sled Pull, Backward Sled Pull, Side Shuffle Sled Pull, High Knee Lunge Sled Pull. 26 Strength Training and Conditioning Exercises: Bench Press, Inclined Dumbbell Press (Alternating), Bosu Power Pushups, Power Shrugs with Hex Bar, Power Rear Delt with Hex Bar, Power Press with Hex Bar, Front/Press Raise Circuit with Plate, Wheel Turns with Plate, Bent-over Rows with Hex Bar, Pull-ups Neutral Grip, Pull-ups / Chin-ups, Lat Pulldowns with V-Bar, Squats for Form, Squats for Form with Bar, Squat Using Squat Rack, Bosu Ball Squat with Bar, Lunge Circuit with Bar, Wall Sit with Bosu Ball, Walking Lunge with Weights Overhead, Deadlift with Hex Bar, Power Clean with Stomp, Hang Clean with Stomp, Tire Fips, Stiff Leg Deadlift, Romanian Deadlift, Hamstring Lower.

Tips On Increasing Muscle Growth Rate

Appendix A4 – Page 1 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Avoid Skipping Meals Obvious enough, but people still do this. In order to be more anabolic and promote positive nitrogen balance, eating several meals per day does the trick. When you skip meals, your catabolic processes start to dominate, which means breaking down your body’s protein and energy stores. Eating meals stimulates your insulin, which in turn activates your body’s cells to uptake more of the essential nutrients you need for tissue growth and maximize your energy stores.

Ingest Enough Protein Protein is a primary macronutrient needed for muscle growth, yet most people still comeup short ingesting adequate amounts of this vital macronutrient. A good rule to follow for macronutrient intake during bodybuilding preseason and season training is to maintain a daily average intake of calories as 25%-30% Protein, 50%-55% Carbohydrate and 15%20% Fat. Don’t beat yourself up tying to get the calculation percentages of the foods and supplements you ingest100% accurate, because most food content labels and tables have a wide margin of error, typically plus or minus 10% but can be up to 20%. Aim for the range, and most importantly, day-to-day consistency. Current research indicates that the best protein supplements for going super-anabolic contain pure whey protein isolate, fortified with the branch chain amino acids, in particular with the branched chain amino acid, leucine, like Explosive Growth Blend has. Whey protein concentrate would be next on the list, but leucine fortified, whey protein isolate is on the top of the list.

Ingest Enough Calories Even when your protein intake is correct, and other aspects of your nutrition and training are on target, something as simple as not ingesting sufficient calories will have antianabolic effects. This mostly occurs when people are getting ready for contests or on a weight loss program for other reasons. This is why it is important to allow plenty of time for reduction of body fat, because if you reduce your daily calories too much, you will also lose hard earned muscle mass. Keep track of your body composition a few times per week to know where changes in your weight are coming from; body fat or lean body mass, and plan, plan months in advance. If you are a competitive bodybuilder, you need to follow periodized year-round planning. Drink Enough Water Obvious, but often neglected, is being well hydrated. The body needs to be well hydrated 24/7 to work properly. Your physical and mental abilities start to decline even with just a few percent loss of body water. Make sure your water intake matches your hydration needs, all day long. But, as with any nutrient, also don’t over do it and become


over hydrated. Like with your other food and supplement intake, keeping well hydrated is a balancing act.

Avoid Overcooking Foods You spend your hard-earned money on eating out, or buying expensive good protein sources, the last thing you want to do is have the cooking method ruin the nutrition content. The way you cook can adversely affect the nutrition content of the foods you eat. Generally speaking, the higher the heat, the more those precious organic nutrients, like vitamins, proteins, creatine, and essential fatty acids, are broken down and altered during the high heat cooking processes. High heat cooking methods to minimize during periods of being super-anabolic included grilling, pan frying, high-heat oven, and deepfrying. Lower heat cooking methods include boiling, slow cooker / crock pot, steaming, and microwaving.

Avoid Eating Too Fast When you eat too fast, your digestive processes become disrupted, which may lead to causing progressive gastrointestinal problems. Eating right starts with taking adequate time to chew your food thoroughly; in a calm eating environment. Avoid “inhaling” your food on the run or cramming big chunks of food into your mouth. Chew your food the way your mouth is designed too eat; slowly, until the food in your mouth is mixed with saliva, and the chewed food forms a semi-liquid food mass that is easy to swallow.

Bodybuilding and Sports Supplements Use the sports supplements with ingredients proven to increase muscle mass and strength, like high quality protein, extra amino acids such as leucine, and creatine, for example. Include a complete super-stack of supplements, with the special proven ergogenic ingredients and also ensure adequate intake of the vitamins and minerals too. Be consistent, and use your supplements on a regular basis for best results.

Avoid Drinking Alcoholic Beverages When you want to be super-anabolic, you need to abstain from drinking alcoholic beverages. In addition to the well know adverse health and adverse performance effects (dehydration and nervous system sedation, for example) alcohol also interferes with protein synthesis. Alcohol interferes in the important mTOR protein synthesis control pathway and reduces protein synthesis, including your rate of muscle growth.

Avoid Ingesting Too Much Caffeine Regular intake of caffeine reduces your muscles strength and resistance training performance by slowing down the muscle contraction and relaxation cycle. High intake of caffeine also displaces calcium absorption, which may partially explain the adverse Appendix A4 – Page 3 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

effect to muscle contractions, as calcium plays an important role in nervous system function, as well as bone growth and structure. Therefore, the chronic, day after day ingestion of high amounts of caffeine should be avoided during these serious superanabolic periods of training. If you consume caffeine, keeping total daily caffeine intake under 300 milligrams per day is a starting point, but you need to determine what works best for your individual needs.

Workout Enough The number of times per week you can resistance your muscles for maximum growth in size and strength will vary from individual to individual. In general, each muscle can be resistance trained at least twice a week, varying the intensity of the workloads from training session to training sessions. Once every 4 to 5 days after high intensity resistance training, and 2 to 4 days after medium to light intensity training. Fine-tuning your resistance program takes effort, and is best achieved with the help of a strength training coach or fitness trainer who has experience with training bodybuilders. Keep track of your results by measuring body composition on a regular basis, and determine you rate of lean body mass gains, in relationship to your workout program. Explore your anabolic limits. Periodize your program into 8 to 12 week cycles, to test the different programs of workout frequency and intensity.

Take Adequate Rest Each Day For muscle building, rest is vital for recovery and muscle growth after those strenuous workouts. During the day, try to relax as much as possible. Get at least 8 hours of quality sleep per night. A short mid-day nap can also help to boost testosterone levels, as sleep has been determined to be one of the regulators of testosterone production.

Minimize Aerobic Exercise Exercise that is low intensity and long in duration, like cycling, treadmills, running, walking, etc, should be avoided or minimized during periods of training to be superanabolic. For cardiovascular health benefits, you can schedule a few moderate intensity resistance training sessions per week, during which you can keep up a fast pace, and minimize rest between sets to keep your heart rate up during these resistance training sessions. Remember that for maximum muscle growth, training in the anaerobic zone is ideal, and a tradeoff between anaerobic conditioning and aerobic conditioning in required to become super-anabolic. Use your nutrition plan to minimize and or reduce body fat levels. When you start including aerobic exercise into your training program, this can have anti-anabolic effects, by reducing muscle fiber size.

Workout with Heavy Workloads Your skeletal muscles get stronger and larger with exercising with progressively increasing workloads. Lifting heavy workloads stimulates the large fast-twitch muscle


fibers to grow. In general, each muscle group should be exercised using heavy workloads every once a week, but your tolerance to heavy workloads needs should be evaluated by an expert for best results. Alternating low repetition heavy workload workouts with medium to high repetition medium to low workload workouts can ease the stress and provide for complete muscle fiber development. In an interview with Ronnie Coleman on ProBodybuilding Weekly, Mr. Olympia talked about how he was squatting up to 800 pounds during his workouts, to build his massive legs. Keep in mind it takes years to get to this level of strength performance, but this is what it usually takes to build large muscle mass.

Keep Track of Your Results Keep track of your gains in muscle mass and strength. Have your body composition measured once every week or two. Know where your body composition changes are occurring from; lean body mass or body fat mass. Keep track of your training and nutrition programs using the exercise and nutrition log sheets provided with in this appendix. Take the scientific approach and determine what training, nutrition and supplement programs work best to promote the best gains in your muscle mass and strength.

Work With Experts Training and nutrition for optimum bodybuilding / muscle building results is an art and science. The science is using scientifically proven training and nutrition methods; the art is fine-tuning these programs based on your personal requirements. If you are serious about getting the best results (fastest, safest, and economical), it is wise to work with an experienced fitness trainer and nutritionist to establish your winning training and nutrition program. You can also attend seminars and purchase educational nutrition and training products to learn what works and what to avoid. Also, try contacting the local bodybuilding contest promoter who may be able to help with your training or refer you to an expert. But, watch out for gimmicks, and also keep in mind that everybody has differences, so exactly following someone else’s program might not work to produce the best results for you; another reason why working with an expert to monitor your progress is best.

Visit Bodybuilding.com Make sure to visit Bodybuilding.com on a regular basis, to check on the latest training and nutrition information for muscle building, and for updates to this book.


this appendix contains selected chapters from the 2005 dietary guidelines for Americans from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services U.S. Department of Agriculture. this provides additional information about food composition and healthy nutrition. these dietary guidelines are generalized based on providing a model of healthy nutrition and intended primarily for policy makers and health professionals rather than the general public. however, selected chapters are provided here for reference purposes, as they contain useful information about healthy nutrition and provide insights about the evolving approach of nutrition policy making. note however that athletes and other people with special dietary concerns require nutrition modifications to these general guidelines that best suit their individual needs. these guidelines are intended to promote health and help to prevent nutrition related diseases. they are not intended to be a sole source nutrition plan that meets everybody's individual needs, especially for athletes who have special nutrition requirements compared to the general public.

Appendix A5 - Page 1

1

chapter

1

Background and Purpose of the

Dietary Guidelines for Americans

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans [Dietary Guidelines], first published in 1980, provides sciencebased advice to promote health and to reduce risk for chronic diseases through diet and physical activity. The recommendations contained within the Dietary Guidelines are targeted to the general public over 2 years of age who are living in the United States. Because of its focus on health promotion and risk reduction, the Dietary Guidelines form the basis of federal food, nutrition education, and information programs. By law (Public Law 101445, Title III, 7 U.S.C. 5301 et seq.), the Dietary Guidelines is reviewed, updated if necessary, and published every 5 years. The process to create the Dietary Guidelines is a joint effort of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and has evolved to include three stages.

In the first stage, an external scientific Advisory Committee appointed by the two Departments conducted an analysis of new scientific information and prepared a report summa rizing its findings.2 The Advisory Committee’s report was made available to the public and Government agencies for comment. The Committee’s analysis was the primary resource for development of the Dietary Guidelines by the Departments. A significant amount of the new scientific information used by the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC) was based on the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) reports published since 2000 by the Institute of Medicine (IOM), in particular the macronutrient report and the fluid and electrolyte report. During the second stage, the Departments jointly devel oped Key Recommendations based on the Advisory Committee’s report and public and agency comments.

2 For more information about the process, summary data, and the resources used by the Advisory Committee, see the 2005 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee Report (2005 DGAC Report) at http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines.

D I E TA R Y G U I D E L I N E S F O R A M E R I C A N S , 2 0 0 5


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The Dietary Guidelines details these sciencebased policy recommendations. Finally, in the third stage, the two Departments developed messages communicating the Dietary Guidelines to the general public. Because of the threepart process used to develop and communicate the 2005 Dietary Guidelines, this publication and the report of the DGAC differ in scope and purpose compared to reports for previous versions of the Guidelines. The 2005 DGAC report is a detailed scientific analysis that identifies key issues such as energy balance, the conse quences of a sedentary lifestyle, and the need to emphasize certain food choices to address nutrition issues for the American public. The scientific report was used to develop the Dietary Guidelines jointly between the two Departments, and this publication forms the basis of recommendations that will be used by USDA and HHS for program and policy development. Thus it is a publication oriented toward policymakers, nutrition educators, nutritionists and healthcare providers rather than to the general public, as with previous versions of the Dietary Guidelines, and contains more technical information. New sections in the Dietary Guidelines, consistent with its use for program development, are a glossary of terms and appendixes with detailed information about the USDA Food Guide and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Eating Plan as well as tables listing sources of some nutrients. Consumer messages have been developed to educate the public about the Key Recommendations in the Dietary Guidelines and will be used in materials targeted for consumers separate from this publication. In organizing the Dietary Guidelines for the Departments, chapters 2 to 10 were given titles that characterize the topic of each section, and the Dietary Guidelines itself is presented as an integrated set of Key Recommendations in each topic area. These Key Recommendations are based on a preponder ance of the scientific evidence of nutritional factors that are important for lowering risk of chronic disease and promoting health. To optimize the beneficial impact of these recommendations on health, the Guidelines should be implemented in their entirety.

IMPORTANCE OF THE DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR HEALTH PROMOTION AND DISEASE PREVENTION Good nutrition is vital to good health and is absolutely essential for the healthy growth and development of children and adolescents. Major causes of morbidity and mortality in the United States are related to poor diet and a sedentary lifestyle. Specific diseases and conditions linked to poor diet include cardiovascular disease, hyper tension, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, overweight and obesity, osteoporosis, constipation, diverticular disease, iron deficiency anemia, oral disease, malnutrition, and some cancers. Lack of physical activity has been associ ated with cardiovascular disease, hypertension, overweight and obesity, osteoporosis, diabetes, and certain cancers. Furthermore, muscle strengthening and improving balance can reduce falls and increase functional status among older adults. Together with physical activity, a highquality diet that does not provide excess calories should enhance the health of most individuals. Poor diet and physical inactivity, resulting in an energy imbalance (more calories consumed than expended), are the most important factors contributing to the increase in overweight and obesity in this country. Moreover, over weight and obesity are major risk factors for certain chronic diseases such as diabetes. In 1999–2002, 65 percent of U.S. adults were overweight, an increase from 56 percent in 1988–1994. Data from 1999–2002 also showed that 30 percent of adults were obese, an increase from 23 percent in an earlier survey. Dramatic increases in the prevalence of overweight have occurred in children and adolescents of both sexes, with approximately 16 percent of children and adolescents aged 6 to 19 years considered to be over weight (1999–2002).3 In order to reverse this trend, many Americans need to consume fewer calories, be more active, and make wiser choices within and among food groups. The Dietary Guidelines provides a framework to promote healthier lifestyles (see ch. 3). Given the importance of a balanced diet to health, the intent of the Dietary Guidelines is to summarize and synthesize knowledge regarding individual nutrients and

3 Hedley AA, Ogden CL, Johnson CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, Flegal KM. Prevalence of overweight and obesity among U.S. children, adolescents, and adults, 19992002. Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) 291(23):28472850, 2004.



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food components into recommendations for an overall pattern of eating that can be adopted by the general public. These patterns are exemplified by the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan (see ch. 2 and app. A). The Dietary Guidelines is applicable to the food preferences of different racial/ethnic groups, vegetarians, and other groups. This concept of balanced eating patterns should be utilized in planning diets for various population groups. There is a growing body of evidence which demonstrates that following a diet that complies with the Dietary Guidelines may reduce the risk of chronic disease. Recently, it was reported that dietary patterns consistent with recommended dietary guidance were associated with a lower risk of mortality among individuals age 45 years and older in the United States.4 The authors of the study estimated that about 16 percent and 9 percent of mortality from any cause in men and women, respectively, could be eliminated by the adoption of desirable dietary behaviors. Currently, adherence to the Dietary Guidelines is low among the U.S. population. Data from USDA illustrate the degree of change in the overall dietary pattern of Americans needed to be consistent with a food pattern encouraged by the Dietary Guidelines (fig. 1). A basic premise of the Dietary Guidelines is that nutrient needs should be met primarily through consuming foods. Foods provide an array of nutrients (as well as phyto chemicals, antioxidants, etc.) and other compounds that may have beneficial effects on health. In some cases, forti fied foods may be useful sources of one or more nutrients that otherwise might be consumed in less than recom mended amounts. Supplements may be useful when they fill a specific identified nutrient gap that cannot or is not otherwise being met by the individual’s intake of food. Nutrient supplements cannot replace a healthful diet. Individuals who are already consuming the recommended amount of a nutrient in food will not achieve any addi tional health benefit if they also take the nutrient as a supplement. In fact, in some cases, supplements and fortified foods may cause intakes to exceed the safe levels of nutrients. Another important premise of the Dietary Guidelines is that foods should be prepared and handled in such a way that reduces risk of foodborne illness.

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USES OF THE DIETARY GUIDELINES The Dietary Guidelines is intended primarily for use by policymakers, healthcare providers, nutritionists, and nutrition educators. While the Dietary Guidelines was developed for healthy Americans 2 years of age and older, where appropriate, the needs of specific population groups have been addressed. In addition, other individuals may find this report helpful in making healthful choices. As noted previously, the recommendations contained within the Dietary Guidelines will aid the public in reducing their risk for obesity and chronic disease. Specific uses of the Dietary Guidelines include: Development of Educational Materials and Communications.

The information in the Dietary Guidelines is useful for the development of educational materials. For example, the federal dietary guidancerelated publications are required by law to be based on the Dietary Guidelines. In addition, this publication will guide the development of messages to communicate the Dietary Guidelines to the public. Finally, the USDA Food Guide, the food label, and Nutrition Facts Panel provide information that is useful for imple menting the key recommendations in the Dietary Guidelines and should be integrated into educational and communi cation messages. Development of NutritionRelated Programs.

The Dietary Guidelines aids policymakers in designing and implementing nutritionrelated programs. The Federal Government bases its nutrition programs, such as the National Child Nutrition Programs or the Elderly Nutrition Program, on the Dietary Guidelines. Development of Authoritative Statements.

The Dietary Guidelines has the potential to provide authoritative statements as provided for in the Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act (FDAMA). Because the recommendations are interrelated and mutu ally dependent, the statements in this publication should be used together in the context of an overall healthful diet. Likewise, because the Dietary Guidelines contains discussions about emerging science, only statements included in the Executive Summary and the highlighted boxes entitled “Key Recommendations,” which reflect the preponderance of scientific evidence, can be used for identification of authoritative statements.

Kant AK, Graubard BI, Schatzkin A. Dietary patterns predict mortality in a national cohort: The national health interview surveys, 1987 and 1992. Journal of Nutrition (J Nutr) 134:17931799, 2004.



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a,b

FIGURE 1. Percent Increase or Decrease From Current Consumption (Zero Line) to Recommended Intakes

A graphical depiction of the degree of change in average daily food consumption by Americans that would be needed to be consistent with the food patterns encouraged by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. The zero line represents average consumption levels from each food group or subgroup by females 31 to 50 years of age and males 31 to 50 years of age. Bars above the zero line represent recommended increases in food group consumption, while bars below the line represent recommended decreases.

400 Percent change from current consumption

Food Groups and Oils

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 50

Fruit Group

Vegetable Group

Grain Group

Actual change from consumption to recommended intakes: +0.8 cups +0.9 cups +0.1 oz Females +1.2 cups +0.9 cups 1.0 oz Males

Meat & Bean Group

Milk Group

Oils

+0.4 oz 1.4 oz

+1.6 cups +1.2 cups

+0.4 g 4.2 g

400 Percent change from current consumption

Subgroups, Solid Fats, and Added Sugars

Females 3150 (1800 calories) Males 3150 (2200 calories)

350

350

Females 3150 (1800 calories) Males 3150 (2200 calories)

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 50 100

Dark green Orange

Legumes

Starchy

Other

Vegetables Actual change from consumption to recommended intakes: +0.3 cups +0.2 cups +0.3 cups 0.1 cups +0.1 cups Females +0.3 cups +0.2 cups +0.2 cups +0.2 cups +0.0 cups Males

Whole grains

Enriched grains Grains

+2.2 oz +2.6 oz

2.1 oz 3.6 oz

Solid fats

Added sugars

Discretionary Calories 18 g 27 g

14 tsp 18 tsp

a USDA Food Guide in comparison to National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 20012002 consumption data. b Increases in amounts of some food groups are offset by decreases in amounts of solid fats (i.e., saturated and trans fats) and added sugars so that total calorie intake is at the recommended level.



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chapter

2

Adequate Nutrients

Within Calorie Needs

OVERVIEW Many Americans consume more calories than they need without meeting recommended intakes for a number of nutrients. This circumstance means that most people need to choose meals and snacks that are high in nutrients but low to moderate in energy content; that is, meeting nutrient recommendations must go hand in hand with keeping calories under control. Doing so offers important benefits—normal growth and develop ment of children, health promotion for people of all ages, and reduction of risk for a number of chronic diseases that are major public health problems.


Based on dietary intake data or evidence of public health problems, intake levels of the following nutrients may be of concern for: • Adults: calcium, potassium, fiber, magnesium, and vitamins A (as carotenoids), C, and E, • Children and adolescents: calcium, potassium, fiber, magnesium, and vitamin E, • Specific population groups (see below): vitamin B12, iron, folic acid, and vitamins E and D. At the same time, in general, Americans consume too many calories and too much saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, added sugars, and salt.


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KEY RECOMMENDATIONS

DISCUSSION Meeting Recommended Intakes Within Energy Needs A basic premise of the Dietary Guidelines is that food guidance should recommend diets that will provide all the nutrients needed for growth and health. To this end, food guidance should encourage individuals to achieve the most recent nutrient intake recommendations of the Institute of Medicine, referred to collectively as the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs). Tables of the DRIs are provided at http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf.

• Consume a variety of nutrientdense foods and bever ages within and among the basic food groups while choosing foods that limit the intake of saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, added sugars, salt, and alcohol. • Meet recommended intakes within energy needs by adopting a balanced eating pattern, such as the USDA Food Guide or the DASH Eating Plan. Key Recommendations for Specific Population Groups

An additional premise of the Dietary Guidelines is that the nutrients consumed should come primarily from foods. Foods contain not only the vitamins and minerals that are often found in supplements, but also hundreds of naturally occurring substances, including carotenoids, flavonoids and isoflavones, and protease inhibitors that may protect against chronic health conditions. There are instances when fortified foods may be advantageous, as identified in this chapter. These include providing additional sources of certain nutrients that might otherwise be present only in low amounts in some food sources, providing nutrients in highly bioavailable forms, and where the fortification addresses a documented public health need.

• People over age 50. Consume vitamin B12 in its crystalline form (i.e., fortified foods or supplements). • Women of childbearing age who may become pregnant. Eat foods high in hemeiron and/or consume ironrich plant foods or ironfortified foods with an enhancer of iron absorption, such as vitamin Crich foods. • Women of childbearing age who may become pregnant and those in the first trimester of pregnancy. Consume adequate synthetic folic acid daily (from fortified foods or supplements) in addition to food forms of folate from a varied diet. • Older adults, people with dark skin, and people exposed to insufficient ultraviolet band radiation (i.e., sunlight). Consume extra vitamin D from vitamin Dfortified foods and/or supplements.

Two examples of eating patterns that exemplify the Dietary Guidelines are the DASH Eating Plan and the USDA Food Guide. These two similar eating patterns are designed to integrate dietary recommendations into a healthy way to eat and are used in the Dietary Guidelines to provide examples of how nutrientfocused recommendations can be expressed in terms of food choices. Both the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan differ in important ways from common food consumption patterns in the United States. In general, they include: • More dark green vegetables, orange vegetables, legumes, fruits, whole grains, and lowfat milk and milk products. • Less refined grains, total fats (especially cholesterol, and saturated and trans fats), added sugars, and calories.

Both the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan are constructed across a range of calorie levels to meet the nutrient needs of various age and gender groups. Table 1 provides food intake recommendations, and table 2 provides nutrient profiles for both the DASH Eating Plan and the USDA Food Guide at the 2,000calorie level. These tables illustrate the many similarities between the two eating patterns. Additional calorie levels are shown in appendixes A1 and A2 for the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan. The exact amounts of foods in these plans do not need to be achieved every day, but on average, over time. Table 3 can aid in identification of an individual’s caloric requirement based on gender, age, and physical activity level.



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Variety Among and Within Food Groups Each basic food group5 is the major contributor of at least one nutrient while making substantial contributions of many other nutrients. Because each food group provides a wide array of nutrients in substantial amounts, it is important to include all food groups in the daily diet. Both illustrative eating patterns include a variety of nutrient dense foods within the major food groups. Selecting a variety of foods within the grain, vegetable, fruit, and meat groups may help to ensure that an adequate amount of nutrients and other potentially beneficial substances are consumed. For example, fish contains varying amounts of fatty acids that may be beneficial in reducing cardiovas cular disease risk (see ch. 6).

…meeting nutrient recommendations must go hand in hand with keeping calories under control.

NutrientDense Foods

Nutrientdense foods are those foods that provide substan tial amounts of vitamins and minerals (micronutrients) and relatively few calories. Foods that are low in nutrient density are foods that supply calories but relatively small amounts of micronutrients, sometimes none at all. The greater the consumption of foods or beverages that are low in nutrient density, the more difficult it is to consume enough nutrients without gaining weight, especially for sedentary individuals. The consumption of added sugars, saturated and trans fats, and alcohol provides calories while providing little, if any, of the essential nutrients. (See ch. 7 for additional information on added sugars, ch. 6 for information on fats, and ch. 9 for information on alcohol.) Selecting lowfat forms of foods in each group and forms free of added sugars—in other words nutrientdense versions of foods—provides individuals a way to meet their nutrient needs while avoiding the overconsumption of calories and of food components such as saturated fats. However, Americans generally do not eat nutrientdense forms of foods. Most people will exceed calorie recom mendations if they consistently choose higher fat foods within the food groups—even if they do not have dessert, sweetened beverages, or alcoholic beverages. If only nutrientdense foods are selected from each food group in the amounts proposed, a small amount of calories

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can be consumed as added fats or sugars, alcohol, or other foods—the discretionary calorie allowance. Appendixes A2 and A3 show the maximum discretionary calorie allowance that can be accommodated at each calorie level in the USDA Food Guide. Eating in accordance with the USDA Food Guide or the DASH Eating Plan will also keep intakes of saturated fat, total fat, and cholesterol within the limits recommended in chapter 6. Nutrients of Concern

The actual prevalence of inadequacy for a nutrient can be determined only if an Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) has been established and the distribution of usual dietary intake can be obtained. If such data are not avail able for a nutrient but there is evidence for a public health problem associated with low intakes, a nutrient might still be considered to be of concern. Based on these considerations, dietary intakes of the follow ing nutrients may be low enough to be of concern for: • Adults: calcium, potassium, fiber, magnesium, and vitamins A (as carotenoids), C, and E, • Children and adolescents: calcium, potassium, fiber, magnesium, and vitamin E, • Specific population groups: vitamin B12, iron, folic acid, and vitamins E and D.

The food groups in the USDA Food Guide are grains; vegetables; fruits; milk, yogurt, and cheese; and meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts. Food groups in the DASH Eating Plan are grains and grain products; vegetables; fruits; lowfat or fatfree dairy; meat, poultry, and fish; and nuts, seeds, and dry beans.



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Efforts may be warranted to promote increased dietary intakes of potassium, fiber, and possibly vitamin E, regard less of age; increased intakes of calcium and possibly vitamins A (as carotenoids) and C and magnesium by adults; efforts are warranted to increase intakes of calcium and possibly magnesium by children age 9 years or older. Efforts may be especially warranted to improve the dietary intakes of adolescent females in general. Food sources of these nutrients are shown in appendix B. Low intakes of fiber tend to reflect low intakes of whole grains, fruits, and vegetables. Low intakes of calcium tend to reflect low intakes of milk and milk products. Low intakes of vitamins A (as carotenoids) and C and magne sium tend to reflect low intakes of fruits and vegetables. Selecting fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lowfat and fatfree milk and milk products in the amounts suggested by the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan will provide adequate amounts of these nutrients. Most Americans of all ages also need to increase their potassium intake. To meet the recommended potassium intake levels, potassiumrich foods from the fruit, vegetable, and dairy groups must be selected in both the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan. Foods that can help increase potassium intake are listed in table 5 (ch. 5) and appendix B1.

using the USDA Food Guide, selecting foods that are lower in sodium than others is especially necessary to meet the recommended intake level at calorie levels of 2,600/day and above. Food choices that are lower in sodium are identi fied in chapter 8. Considerations for Specific Population Groups People Over 50 and Vitamin B12

Although a substantial proportion of individuals over age 50 have reduced ability to absorb naturally occurring vitamin B12, they are able to absorb the crystalline form. Thus, all individuals over the age of 50 should be encour aged to meet their Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) (2.4 µg/day) for vitamin B12 by eating foods fortified with vitamin B12 such as fortified cereals, or by taking the crystalline form of vitamin B12 supplements. Women and Iron

Based on blood values, substantial numbers of adolescent females and women of childbearing age are iron deficient. Thus, these groups should eat foods high in hemeiron (e.g., meats) and/or consume ironrich plant foods (e.g., spinach) or ironfortified foods with an enhancer of iron absorption, such as foods rich in vitamin C (e.g., orange juice). Appendix B3 lists foods that can help increase iron intake and gives their iron and calorie content. Women and Folic Acid

Most Americans may need to increase their consumption of foods rich in vitamin E (αtocopherol) while decreasing their intake of foods high in energy but low in nutrients. The vitamin E content in both the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan is greater than current consump tion, and specific vitamin Erich foods need to be included in the eating patterns to meet the recommended intake of vitamin E. Foods that can help increase vitamin E intake are listed in appendix B2, along with their calorie content. Breakfast cereal that is fortified with vitamin E is an option for individuals seeking to increase their vitamin E intake while consuming a lowfat diet. In addition, most Americans need to decrease sodium intake. The DASH Eating Plan provides guidance on how to keep sodium intakes within recommendations. When

Since folic acid reduces the risk of the neural tube defects, spina bifida, and anencephaly, a daily intake of 400 µg/day of synthetic folic acid (from fortified foods or supplements in addition to food forms of folate from a varied diet) is recommended for women of childbearing age who may become pregnant. Pregnant women should consume 600 µg/day of synthetic folic acid (from fortified foods or supplements) in addition to food forms of folate from a varied diet. It is not known whether the same level of protection could be achieved by using food that is natu rally rich in folate. Special Groups and Vitamin D

Adequate vitamin D status, which depends on dietary intake and cutaneous synthesis, is important for optimal calcium absorption, and it can reduce the risk for bone



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loss. Two functionally relevant measures indicate that optimal serum 25hydroxyvitamin D may be as high as 80 nmol/L. The elderly and individuals with dark skin (because the ability to synthesize vitamin D from exposure to sunlight varies with degree of skin pigmentation) are at a greater risk of low serum 25hydroxyvitamin D concen trations. Also at risk are those exposed to insufficient ultraviolet radiation (i.e., sunlight) for the cutaneous production of vitamin D (e.g., housebound individuals). For individuals within the highrisk groups, substantially higher daily intakes of vitamin D (i.e., 25 µg or 1,000 International Units (IU) of vitamin D per day) have been recommended to reach and maintain serum 25hydroxyvit amin D values at 80 nmol/L. Three cups of vitamin D fortified milk (7.5 µg or 300 IU), 1 cup of vitamin Dfortified orange juice (2.5 µg or 100 IU), and 15 µg (600 IU) of supplemental vitamin D would provide 25 µg (1,000 IU) of vitamin D daily. Fluid

The combination of thirst and normal drinking behavior, especially the consumption of fluids with meals, is usually sufficient to maintain normal hydration. Healthy individ uals who have routine access to fluids and who are not exposed to heat stress consume adequate water to meet their needs. Purposeful drinking is warranted for individuals who are exposed to heat stress or perform sustained vigorous activity (see ch. 4). Flexibility of Food Patterns for Varied Food Preferences

The USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan are flexible to permit food choices based on individual and cultural food preferences, cost, and availability. Both can also accommodate varied types of cuisines and special needs due to common food allergies. Two adaptations of the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan are:

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Vegetarian Choices

Vegetarians of all types can achieve recommended nutrient intakes through careful selection of foods. These individuals should give special attention to their intakes of protein, iron, and vitamin B12, as well as calcium and vitamin D if avoiding milk products. In addition, vegetarians could select only nuts, seeds, and legumes from the meat and beans group, or they could include eggs if so desired. At the 2,000calorie level, they could choose about 1.5 ounces of nuts and 2/3 cup legumes instead of 5.5 ounces of meat, poultry, and/or fish. One egg, 1/2 ounce of nuts, or 1/4 cup of legumes is considered equivalent to 1 ounce of meat, poultry, or fish in the USDA Food Guide. Substitutions for Milk and Milk Products

Since milk and milk products provide more than 70 percent of the calcium consumed by Americans, guidance on other choices of dietary calcium is needed for those who do not consume the recommended amount of milk products. Milk product consumption has been associated with overall diet quality and adequacy of intake of many nutri ents, including calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, iron, riboflavin, vitamin A, folate, and vitamin D. People may avoid milk products because of allergies, cultural prac tices, taste, or other reasons. Those who avoid all milk products need to choose rich sources of the nutrients provided by milk, including potassium, vitamin A, and magnesium in addition to calcium and vitamin D (see app. B). Some nondairy sources of calcium are shown in appendix B4. The bioavailability of the calcium in these foods varies. Those who avoid milk because of its lactose content may obtain all the nutrients provided by the milk group by using lactosereduced or lowlactose milk products, taking small servings of milk several times a day, taking the enzyme lactase before consuming milk products, or eating other calciumrich foods. For additional information, see appendixes B4 and B5 and NIH Publication No. 032751.6

NIH Publication No. 032751, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, March 2003. http://diges tive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/lactoseintolerance/index.htm.



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a

TABLE 1. Sample USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan at the 2,000Calorie Level

Amounts of various food groups that are recommended each day or each week in the USDA Food Guide and in the DASH Eating Plan (amounts are daily unless otherwise specified) at the 2,000calorie level. Also identified are equivalent amounts for different food choices in each group. To follow either eating pattern, food choices over time should provide these amounts of food from each group on average. b

Food Groups and Subgroups

USDA Food Guide Amount

DASH Eating Plan Amount

Equivalent Amounts

Fruit Group

2 cups (4 servings)

2 to 2.5 cups (4 to 5 servings)

1/2 cup equivalent is: • 1/2 cup fresh, frozen, or canned fruit • 1 med fruit • 1/4 cup dried fruit • USDA: 1/2 cup fruit juice • DASH: 3/4 cup fruit juice

Vegetable Group • Dark green vegetables • Orange vegetables • Legumes (dry beans) • Starchy vegetables • Other vegetables

2.5 cups (5 servings) 3 cups/week 2 cups/week 3 cups/week 3 cups/week 6.5 cups/week

2 to 2.5 cups (4 to 5 servings)

1/2

Grain Group • Whole grains • Other grains

6 ounceequivalents 3 ounceequivalents 3 ounceequivalents

7 to 8 ounceequivalents (7 to 8 servings)

1 ounceequivalent is: • 1 slice bread • 1 cup dry cereal • 1/2 cup cooked rice, pasta, cereal • DASH: 1 oz dry cereal (1/2 –11/4 cup depending on cereal type—check label)

Meat and Beans Group

5.5 ounceequivalents

6 ounces or less meat, poultry, fish

1 ounceequivalent is: • 1 ounce of cooked lean meats, poultry, fish • 1 egg • USDA: 1/4 cup cooked dry beans or tofu, 1 Tbsp peanut butter, 1/2 oz nuts or seeds • DASH: 11/2 oz nuts, 1/2 oz seeds, 1/2 cup cooked dry beans

4 to 5 servings per week c nuts, seeds, and dry beans

cup equivalent is: • 1/2 cup of cutup raw or cooked vegetable • 1 cup raw leafy vegetable • USDA: 1/2 cup vegetable juice • DASH: 3/4 cup vegetable juice

Milk Group

3 cups

2 to 3 cups

1 cup equivalent is: • 1 cup lowfat/fatfree milk, yogurt • 11/2 oz of lowfat or fatfree natural cheese • 2 oz of lowfat or fatfree processed cheese

Oils

24 grams (6 tsp)

8 to 12 grams (2 to 3 tsp)

1 tsp equivalent is: • DASH: 1 tsp soft margarine • 1 Tbsp lowfat mayo • 2 Tbsp light salad dressing • 1 tsp vegetable oil

Discretionary Calorie Allowance • Example of distribution: d Solid fat Added sugars

267 calories 18 grams 8 tsp

~2 tsp (5 Tbsp per week)

1 Tbsp added sugar equivalent is: • DASH: 1 Tbsp jelly or jam • 1/2 oz jelly beans • 8 oz lemonade

a All servings are per day unless otherwise noted. USDA vegetable subgroup amounts and amounts of DASH nuts, seeds, and dry beans are per week. b The 2,000calorie USDA Food Guide is appropriate for many sedentary males 51 to 70 years of age, sedentary females 19 to 30 years of age, and for some other gender/age groups who are more physically active. See table 3 for information about gender/age/activity levels and appropriate calorie intakes. See appendixes A2 and A3 for more information on the food groups, amounts, and food intake patterns at other calorie levels. c In the DASH Eating Plan, nuts, seeds, and dry beans are a separate food group from meat, poultry, and fish. d The oils listed in this table are not considered to be part of discretionary calories because they are a major source of the vitamin E and polyunsaturated fatty acids, including the essential fatty acids, in the food pattern. In contrast, solid fats (i.e., saturated and trans fats) are listed separately as a source of discretionary calories.



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TABLE 2. Comparison of Selected Nutrients in the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) Eating Plana, the USDA Food Guideb, and Nutrient Intakes Recommended Per Day by the Institute of Medicine (IOM)c Estimated nutrient levels in the DASH Eating Plan and the USDA Food Guide at the 2,000-calorie level, as well as the nutrient intake levels recom mended by the Institute of Medicine for females 19—30 years of age. Nutrient

DASH Eating Plan (2,000 kcals)

USDA Food Guide (2,000 kcals)

IOM Recommendations for Females 19 to 30

Protein, g

108

91

RDA: 46

Protein, % kcal

21

18

AMDR: 10—35

Carbohydrate, g

288

271

RDA: 130

Carbohydrate, % kcal

57

55

AMDR: 45—65

Total fat, g

48

65

—

Total fat, % kcal

22

29

AMDR: 20—35

Saturated fat, g

10

17

—

5

7.8

ALAPd

21

24

—

Saturated fat, % kcal Monounsaturated fat, g Monounsaturated fat, % kcal

10

11

—

Polyunsaturated fat, g

12

20

—

Polyunsaturated fat, % kcal

5.5

9.0

—

Linoleic acid, g

11

18

AI: 12

Alpha-linolenic acid, g

1

1.7

AI: 1.1

136

230

ALAPd

30

31

AI: 28e

Potassium, mg

4,706

4,044

AI: 4,700

Sodium, mg

2,329f

1,779

AI: 1,500, UL: <2,300

Calcium, mg

1,619

1,316

AI: 1,000

500

380

RDA: 310

2

1.5

RDA: 0.9

Cholesterol, mg Total dietary fiber, g

Magnesium, mg Copper, mg Iron, mg Phosphorus, mg

21

18

RDA: 18

2,066

1,740

RDA: 700

Zinc, mg

14

14

RDA: 8

Thiamin, mg

2.0

2.0

RDA: 1.1

Riboflavin, mg

2.8

2.8

RDA: 1.1

Niacin equivalents, mg

31

22

RDA: 14

Vitamin B6, mg

3.4

2.4

RDA: 1.3

Vitamin B12, μg

7.1

8.3

RDA: 2.4

Vitamin C, mg Vitamin E (AT)

g h

Vitamin A, μg (RAE)

181

155

RDA: 75

16.5

9.5

RDA: 15.0

851

1,052

RDA: 700

a DASH nutrient values are based on a 1-week menu of the DASH Eating Plan. NIH publication No. 03-4082. www.nhlbi.nih.gov.

b USDA nutrient values are based on population-weighted averages of typical food choices within each food group or subgroup.

c Recommended intakes for adult females 19—30; RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; AI = Adequate Intake; AMDR = Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range; UL = Upper Limit.

d As Low As Possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet.

e Amount listed is based on 14 g dietary fiber/1,000 kcal.

f The DASH Eating Plan also can be used to follow at 1,500 mg sodium per day.

g AT = mg d-α-tocopherol

h RAE = Retinol Activity Equivalents



12

TABLE 3. Estimated Calorie Requirements (in Kilocalories) for Each Gender and Age Group at Three Levels of Physical Activitya Estimated amounts of calories needed to maintain energy balance for various gender and age groups at three different levels of physical activity. The esti mates are rounded to the nearest 200 calories and were determined using the Institute of Medicine equation. Activity Levelb,c,d Gender

Age (years)

Sedentaryb

Child

2–3

1,000

1,000–1,400

1,000–1,400

Female

4–8

1,200

1,400–1,600

1,400–1,800

Male

Moderately Activec e

Actived e

9–13

1,600

1,600–2,000

1,800–2,200

14–18

1,800

2,000

2,400

19–30

2,000

2,000–2,200

2,400

31–50

1,800

2,000

2,200

51+

1,600

1,800

2,000–2,200

4–8

1,400

1,400–1,600

1,600–2,000

9–13

1,800

1,800–2,200

2,000–2,600

14–18

2,200

2,400–2,800

2,800–3,200

19–30

2,400

2,600–2,800

3,000

31–50

2,200

2,400–2,600

2,800–3,000

51+

2,000

2,200–2,400

2,400–2,800

a These levels are based on Estimated Energy Requirements (EER) from the Institute of Medicine Dietary Reference Intakes macronutrients report, 2002, calculated by gender, age, and activity level for referencesized individuals. “Reference size,” as determined by IOM, is based on median height and weight for ages up to age 18 years of age and median height and weight for that height to give a BMI of 21.5 for adult females and 22.5 for adult males. b Sedentary means a lifestyle that includes only the light physical activity associated with typical daytoday life. c Moderately active means a lifestyle that includes physical activity equivalent to walking about 1.5 to 3 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to the light physical activity associated with typical daytoday life d Active means a lifestyle that includes physical activity equivalent to walking more than 3 miles per day at 3 to 4 miles per hour, in addition to the light physical activity associated with typical dayto day life. e The calorie ranges shown are to accommodate needs of different ages within the group. For children and adolescents, more calories are needed at older ages. For adults, fewer calories are needed at older ages.



13

chapter

3

Weight Management

OVERVIEW The prevalence of obesity in the United States has doubled in the past two decades. Nearly onethird of adults are obese, that is, they have a body mass index (BMI ) of 30 or greater. One of the fastest growing segments of the population is that with a BMI >– 30 with accompanying comorbidities. Over the last two decades, the prevalence of overweight among children and adolescents has increased substantially; it is estimated that as many as 16 percent of children and adolescents are overweight, representing a doubling of the rate among children and tripling of the rate among adoles cents. A high prevalence of overweight and obesity is of great public health concern because excess body fat leads to a higher risk for premature death, type 2


diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, cardiovascular disease, stroke, gall bladder disease, respiratory dysfunc tion, gout, osteoarthritis, and certain kinds of cancers. Ideally, the goal for adults is to achieve and maintain a body weight that optimizes their health. However, for obese adults, even modest weight loss (e.g., 10 pounds) has health benefits, and the prevention of further weight gain is very important. For overweight children and adolescents, the goal is to slow the rate of weight gain while achieving normal growth and development. Maintaining a healthy weight throughout childhood may reduce the risk of becoming an overweight or obese adult. Eating fewer calories while increasing physical activity are the keys to controlling body weight.


14

While overweight and obesity are currently significant public health issues, not all Americans need to lose weight. People at a healthy weight should strive to maintain their weight, and underweight individuals may need to increase their weight.

DISCUSSION Overweight and obesity in the United States among adults and children has increased significantly over the last two decades. Those following typical American eating and activity patterns are likely to be consuming diets in excess of their energy requirements. However, caloric intake is only one side of the energy balance equation. Caloric expenditure needs to be in balance with caloric intake to maintain body weight and must exceed caloric intake to achieve weight loss (see tables 3 and 4). To reverse the trend toward obesity, most Americans need to eat fewer calories, be more active, and make wiser food choices. Prevention of weight gain is critical because while the behaviors required are the same, the extent of the behav iors required to lose weight makes weight loss more challenging than prevention of weight gain. Since many adults gain weight slowly over time, even small decreases in calorie intake can help avoid weight gain, especially if accompanied by increased physical activity. For example, for most adults a reduction of 50 to 100 calories per day may prevent gradual weight gain, whereas a reduction of 500 calories or more per day is a common initial goal in weightloss programs. Similarly, up to 60 minutes of moderate to vigorousintensity physical activity per day may be needed to prevent weight gain, but as much as 60 to 90 minutes of moderateintensity physical activity per day is recommended to sustain weight loss for previously overweight people. It is advisable for men over age 40, women over age 50, and those with a history of chronic diseases such as heart disease or diabetes to consult with a healthcare provider before starting a vigorous exercise program. However, many people can safely increase their physical activity without consulting a healthcare provider.7

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS • To maintain body weight in a healthy range, balance calories from foods and beverages with calories expended. • To prevent gradual weight gain over time, make small decreases in food and beverage calories and increase physical activity. Key Recommendations for Specific Population Groups

• Those who need to lose weight. Aim for a slow, steady weight loss by decreasing calorie intake while main taining an adequate nutrient intake and increasing physical activity. • Overweight children. Reduce the rate of body weight gain while allowing growth and development. Consult a healthcare provider before placing a child on a weightreduction diet. • Pregnant women. Ensure appropriate weight gain as specified by a healthcare provider. • Breastfeeding women. Moderate weight reduction is safe and does not compromise weight gain of the nursing infant. • Overweight adults and overweight children with chronic diseases and/or on medication. Consult a healthcare provider about weight loss strategies prior to starting a weightreduction program to ensure appropriate management of other health conditions.

Monitoring body fat regularly can be a useful strategy for assessing the need to adjust caloric intake and energy expenditure. Two surrogate measures used to approximate body fat are BMI (adults and children) and waist circum ference (adults).8 BMI is defined as weight in kilograms divided by height, in meters, squared. For adults, weight status is based on the absolute BMI level (fig. 2). For children and adolescents, weight status is determined by the comparison of the individual’s BMI with age and genderspecific percentile values (see fig. 3 for a sample boys’ growth curve). Additional growth curves can be

7

For more information on recommendations to consult a healthcare provider, see Physical Activity and Public Health—A Recommendation from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine, JAMA 273:402407, 1995. http://wonder.cdc.gov/wonder/prevguid/p0000391/P0000391.asp.

8

NIH Publication Number 004084, The Practical Guide: Identification, Evaluation and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, October 2000. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/prctgd_c.pdf



15

found at http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts. BMI is more accurate at approximating body fat than is measuring body weight alone. However, BMI has some limitations. BMI overestimates body fat in people who are very muscular and underestimates body fat in people who have lost muscle mass. The relationship between BMI and body fat varies somewhat with age, gender, and ethnicity. In addi tion, for adults, BMI is a better predictor of a population’s 8 disease risk than an individual’s risk of chronic disease. For children gaining excess weight, small decreases in energy intake reduce the rate at which they gain weight (body fat), thus improving their BMI percentile over time. As another surrogate measure, waist circumference can approximate abdominal fat but should be measured very carefully. Fat located in the abdominal region is associated 8 with a greater health risk than peripheral fat. Some proposed calorielowering strategies include eating foods that are low in calories for a given measure of food (e.g., many kinds of vegetables and fruits and some soups). However, when making changes to improve nutrient intake, one needs to make substitutions to avoid excessive calorie intake. The healthiest way to reduce calorie intake is to reduce one’s intake of added sugars, fats, and alcohol, which all provide calories but few or no essential nutrients (for more information, see chs. 6, 7, and 9). Special attention should be given to portion sizes, which have increased significantly over the past two decades (http://hin.nhlbi.nih.gov/portion/index.htm). Though there are no empirical studies to show a causal relationship between increased portion sizes and obesity, there are studies showing that controlling portion sizes helps limit calorie intake, particularly when eating caloriedense foods (foods that are high in calories for a given measure of food). Therefore, it is essential that the public understand how portion sizes compare to a recommended amount of food (i.e., serving) from each food group at a specific caloric level. The understanding of serving size and portion size is important in following either the DASH Eating Plan or the USDA Food Guide (see app. A). When using packaged foods with nutrient labels, people should pay attention

8

Eating fewer calories while increasing physical activity are the keys to controlling body weight.

to the units for serving sizes and how they compare to the serving sizes in the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan. Lifestyle change in diet and physical activity is the best first choice for weight loss. A reduction in 500 calories or more per day is commonly needed. When it comes to body weight control, it is calories that count—not the proportions of fat, carbohydrates, and protein in the diet. However, when individuals are losing weight, they should follow a diet that is within the Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR) for fat, carbohydrates, and protein, which are 20 to 35 percent of total calories, 45 to 65 percent of total calories, and 10 to 35 percent of total calories, respectively. Diets that provide very low or very high amounts of protein, carbohydrates, or fat are likely to provide low amounts of some nutrients and are not advisable for longterm use. Although these kinds of weight loss diets have been shown to result in weight reduction, the maintenance of a reduced weight ultimately will depend on a change in lifestyle. Successful and sustainable weight loss and weight maintenance strate gies require attention to both sides of the energy balance equation (i.e., caloric intake and energy expenditure).

NIH Publication Number 004084, The Practical Guide: Identification, Evaluation and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, October 2000. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/obesity/prctgd_c.pdf



16

TABLE 4. Calories/Hour Expended in Common Physical Activities Some examples of physical activities commonly engaged in and the average amount of calories a 154pound individual will expend by engaging in each activity for 1 hour. The expenditure value encompasses both resting metabolic rate calories and activity expenditure. Some of the activities can constitute either moderate or vigorousintensity physical activity depending on the rate at which they are carried out (for walking and bicycling). Moderate Physical Activity

Approximate Calories/Hr for a 154 lb Persona

Hiking

370

Light gardening/yard work

330

Dancing

330

Golf (walking and carrying clubs)

330

Bicycling (<10 mph)

290

Walking (3.5 mph)

280

Weight lifting (general light workout)

220

Stretching

180

Vigorous Physical Activity

Approximate Calories/Hr for a 154 lb Persona

Running/jogging (5 mph)

590

Bicycling (>10 mph)

590

Swimming (slow freestyle laps)

510

Aerobics

480

Walking (4.5 mph)

460

Heavy yard work (chopping wood)

440

Weight lifting (vigorous effort)

440

Basketball (vigorous)

440

a Calories burned per hour will be higher for persons who weigh more than 154 lbs (70 kg) and lower for persons who weigh less. Source: Adapted from the 2005 DGAC Report.



17

FI G UR E 2 . Adult BMI Chart Locate the height of interest in the left-most column and read across the row for that height to the weight of interest. Follow the column of the weight up to the top row that lists the BMI. BMI of 18.5—24.9 is the healthy weight range, BMI of 25—29.9 is the overweight range, and BMI of 30 and above is in the obese range.

BMI

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

Weight in Pounds

Height 4'10"

91

96

100

105

110

115

119

124

129

134

138

143

148

153

158

162

167

4'11"

94

99

104

109

114

119

124

128

133

138

143

148

153

158

163

168

173

5'

97

102

107

112

118

123

128

133

138

143

148

153

158

163

158

174

179

5'1"

100

106

111

116

122

127

132

137

143

148

153

158

164

169

174

180

185

5'2"

104

109

115

120

126

131

136

142

147

153

158

164

169

175

180

186

191

5'3"

107

113

118

124

130

135

141

146

152

158

163

169

175

180

186

191

197

5'4"

110

116

122

128

134

140

145

151

157

163

169

174

180

186

192

197

204

5'5"

114

120

126

132

138

144

150

156

162

168

174

180

186

192

198

204

210

5'6"

118

124

130

136

142

148

155

161

167

173

179

186

192

198

204

210

216

5'7"

121

127

134

140

146

153

159

166

172

178

185

191

198

204

211

217

223

5'8"

125

131

138

144

151

158

164

171

177

184

190

197

203

210

216

223

230

5'9"

128

135

142

149

155

162

169

176

182

189

196

203

209

216

223

230

236

5'10"

132

139

146

153

160

167

174

181

188

195

202

209

216

222

229

236

243

5'11"

136

143

150

157

165

172

179

186

193

200

208

215

222

229

236

243

250

6'

1 40

147

154

162

169

177

184

191

199

206

213

221

228

235

242

250

258

6'1"

144

151

159

166

174

182

189

197

204

212

219

227

235

242

250

257

265

6'2'

148

155

163

171

179

186

194

202

210

218

225

233

241

249

256

264

272

6'3'

152

160

168

176

184

192

200

208

216

224

232

240

248

256

264

272

279

Healthy Weight

Overweight

Obese

Source: Evidence Report of Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults, 1998. NIH/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI).



18

FIGURE 3. Example of Boys’ BMI Growth Curve (2 to 20 years): Boys’ Body Mass IndexForAge Percentiles Calculate the BMI for an individual child using the following: BMI = Weight (kg)/(Height [cm])2 x 10,000 or BMI = Weight (lb)/(Height [in])2 x 703 Find the age of the child on the bottom, xaxis, and read up the chart from that age to the calculated BMI on the left and right, yaxis. The curve that is closest to the spot where the age and BMI of the child meet on the graph indicate the BMI percentile for this child relative to the population.

Published May 30, 2000 (modified 10/16/00). Source: Developed by the National Center for Health Statistics in collaboration with the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts (2000). Other growth charts are available at this source.



19

chapter

4

Physical Activity OVERVIEW Americans tend to be relatively inactive. In 2002, 25 percent of adult Americans did not participate in any leisure time physical activities in the past month,9 and in 2003, 38 percent of students in grades 9 to 12 viewed television 3 or more hours per day.10 Regular physical activity and physical fitness make important contributions to one’s health, sense of well-being, and maintenance of a healthy body weight. Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles resulting in energy expenditure (http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/ physical/terms/index.htm). In contrast, physical fitness is

a multi-component trait related to the ability to perform physical activity. Maintenance of good physical fitness enables one to meet the physical demands of work and leisure comfortably. People with higher levels of physical fitness are also at lower risk of developing chronic disease. Conversely, a sedentary lifestyle increases risk for over weight and obesity and many chronic diseases, including coronary artery disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer. Overall, mortality rates from all causes of death are lower in physically active people than in sedentary people. Also, physical activity can aid in managing mild to moderate depression and anxiety.

9

Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, Surveillance for Certain Health Behaviors Among Selected Local Areas—United States, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2002, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 53, No SS-05. http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/.

10

Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance—United States, 2003 MMWR 53(SS-2):1–29, 2004. http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/yrbs/.



20

DISCUSSION

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS

Regular physical activity has been shown to reduce the risk of certain chronic diseases, including high blood pressure, stroke, coronary artery disease, type 2 diabetes, colon cancer and osteoporosis. Therefore, to reduce the risk of chronic disease, it is recommended that adults engage in at least 30 minutes of moderateintensity phys ical activity on most, preferably all, days of the week. For most people, greater health benefits can be obtained by engaging in physical activity of more vigorous intensity or of longer duration. In addition, physical activity appears to promote psychological wellbeing and reduce feelings of mild to moderate depression and anxiety. Regular physical activity is also a key factor in achieving and maintaining a healthy body weight for adults and children. To prevent the gradual accumulation of excess weight in adulthood, up to 30 additional minutes per day may be required over the 30 minutes for reduction of chronic disease risk and other health benefits. That is, approximately 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity physical activity on most days of the week may be needed to prevent unhealthy weight gain (see table 4 for some examples of moderate and vigorousintensity physical activities). While moderateintensity physical activity can achieve the desired goal, vigorousintensity physical activity generally provides more benefits than moderateintensity physical activity. Control of caloric intake is also advisable. However, to sustain weight loss for previously overweight/obese people, about 60 to 90 minutes of moderateintensity physical activity per day is recommended. Most adults do not need to see their healthcare provider before starting a moderateintensity physical activity program. However, men older than 40 years and women older than 50 years who plan a vigorous program or who have either chronic disease or risk factors for chronic disease should consult their physician to design a safe, effective program. It is also important during leisure time to limit sedentary behaviors, such as television watching and video viewing, and replace them with activities requiring more movement. Reducing these sedentary activities appears to be helpful in treating and preventing overweight among children and adolescents.

• Engage in regular physical activity and reduce sedentary activities to promote health, psychological wellbeing, and a healthy body weight. • To reduce the risk of chronic disease in adulthood: Engage in at least 30 minutes of moderateintensity physical activity, above usual activity, at work or home on most days of the week. • For most people, greater health benefits can be obtained by engaging in physical activity of more vigorous intensity or longer duration. • To help manage body weight and prevent gradual, unhealthy body weight gain in adulthood: Engage in approximately 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity activity on most days of the week while not exceeding caloric intake requirements. • To sustain weight loss in adulthood: Participate in at least 60 to 90 minutes of daily moderateintensity physical activity while not exceeding caloric intake requirements. Some people may need to consult with a healthcare provider before participating in this level of activity. • Achieve physical fitness by including cardiovascular conditioning, stretching exercises for flexibility, and resistance exercises or calisthenics for muscle strength and endurance. Key Recommendations for Specific Population Groups

• Children and adolescents. Engage in at least 60 minutes of physical activity on most, preferably all, days of the week. • Pregnant women. In the absence of medical or obstetric complications, incorporate 30 minutes or more of moderateintensity physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week. Avoid activities with a high risk of falling or abdominal trauma. • Breastfeeding women. Be aware that neither acute nor regular exercise adversely affects the mother’s ability to successfully breastfeed. • Older adults. Participate in regular physical activity to reduce functional declines associated with aging and to achieve the other benefits of physical activity identified for all adults.



21

Different intensities and types of exercise confer different benefits. Vigorous physical activity (e.g., jogging or other aerobic exercise) provides greater benefits for physical fitness than does moderate physical activity and burns more calories per unit of time. Resistance exercise (such as weight training, using weight machines, and resistance band workouts) increases muscular strength and endurance and maintains or increases muscle mass. These benefits are seen in adolescents, adults, and older adults who perform resistance exercises on 2 or more days per week. Also, weightbearing exercise has the potential to reduce the risk of osteoporosis by increasing peak bone mass during growth, maintaining peak bone mass during adult hood, and reducing the rate of bone loss during aging. In addition, regular exercise can help prevent falls, which is of particular importance for older adults. The barrier often given for a failure to be physically active is lack of time. Setting aside 30 to 60 consecutive minutes each day for planned exercise is one way to obtain physical activity, but it is not the only way. Physical activity may include short bouts (e.g., 10minute bouts) of moderateintensity activity. The accumulated total is what is important—both for health and for burning calories. Physical activity can be accumulated through three to six 10minute bouts over the course of a day.

Proper hydration is important when participating in phys ical activity. Two steps that help avoid dehydration during prolonged physical activity or when it is hot include: (1) consuming fluid regularly during the activity and (2) drinking several glasses of water or other fluid after the physical activity is completed (see chs. 2 and 8).

Regular physical activity and physical fitness make important contri butions to one’s health, sense of wellbeing, and maintenance of a healthy body weight.

Elevating the level of daily physical activity may also provide indirect nutritional benefits. A sedentary lifestyle limits the number of calories that can be consumed without gaining weight. The higher a person’s physical activity level, the higher his or her energy requirement and the easier it is to plan a daily food intake pattern that meets recommended nutrient requirements.



23

chapter

5

Food Groups To Encourage

OVERVIEW Increased intakes of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fatfree or lowfat milk and milk products are likely to have important health benefits for most Americans. While protein is an important macronutrient in the diet, most Americans are already currently consuming enough (AMDR = 10 to 35 percent of calories) and do not need to increase their intake. As such, protein consumption, while important for nutrient adequacy, is not a focus of this document. Although associations have been identified between specific food groups (e.g., fruits and vegetables) and reduced risk for chronic diseases, the effects are inter related and the health benefits should be considered in


the context of an overall healthy diet that does not exceed calorie needs (such as the USDA Food Guide or the DASH Eating Plan; see ch. 2). The strength of the evidence for the association between increased intake of fruits and vegetables and reduced risk of chronic diseases is variable and depends on the specific disease, but an array of evidence points to beneficial health effects. Compared with the many people who consume a dietary pattern with only small amounts of fruits and vegetables, those who eat more generous amounts as part of a healthful diet are likely to have reduced risk of chronic diseases, including stroke and perhaps other cardiovas


24

cular diseases, type 2 diabetes, and cancers in certain sites (oral cavity and pharynx, larynx, lung, esophagus, stomach, and colonrectum). Diets rich in foods containing fiber, such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. Diets rich in milk and milk products can reduce the risk of low bone mass throughout the life cycle. The consumption of milk products is especially important for children and adoles cents who are building their peak bone mass and developing lifelong habits. Although each of these food groups may have a different relationship with disease outcomes, the adequate consumption of all food groups contributes to overall health.

DISCUSSION Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and milk products are all important to a healthful diet and can be good sources of the nutrients of concern (see ch. 2). When increasing intake of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fatfree or lowfat milk and milk products, it is important to decrease one’s intake of lessnutrientdense foods to control calorie intake. The 2,000calorie level used in the discussion is a reference level only; it is not a recommended calorie intake because many Americans should be consuming fewer calories to maintain a healthy weight. Fruits and Vegetables

Four and onehalf cups (nine servings) of fruits and vegetables are recommended daily for the reference 2,000calorie level, with higher or lower amounts depending on the caloric level. This results in a range of 21/2 to 61/2 cups (5 to 13 servings) of fruits and vegetables each day for the 1,200 to 3,200calorie levels11 (app. A2). Fruits and vegetables provide a variety of micronutrients and fiber. Table 5 provides a list of fruits and vegetables that are good sources of vitamins A (as carotenoids) and C, folate, and potassium. In the fruit group, consumption of whole fruits (fresh, frozen, canned, dried) rather than fruit juice for the majority of the total daily amount is suggested to ensure adequate fiber intake. Different vegetables are rich in different nutrients. In the vegetable group, weekly intake of specific amounts from each of five vegetable subgroups (dark green, orange, legumes [dry beans],

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS • Consume a sufficient amount of fruits and vegetables while staying within energy needs. Two cups of fruit and 21/2 cups of vegetables per day are recommended for a reference 2,000calorie intake, with higher or lower amounts depending on the calorie level. • Choose a variety of fruits and vegetables each day. In particular, select from all five vegetable subgroups (dark green, orange, legumes, starchy vegetables, and other vegetables) several times a week. • Consume 3 or more ounceequivalents of wholegrain products per day, with the rest of the recommended grains coming from enriched or wholegrain products. In general, at least half the grains should come from whole grains. • Consume 3 cups per day of fatfree or lowfat milk or equivalent milk products. Key Recommendations for Specific Population Groups

• Children and adolescents. Consume wholegrain prod ucts often; at least half the grains should be whole grains. Children 2 to 8 years should consume 2 cups per day of fatfree or lowfat milk or equivalent milk products. Children 9 years of age and older should consume 3 cups per day of fatfree or lowfat milk or equivalent milk products.

starchy, and other vegetables)12 is recommended for adequate nutrient intake. Each subgroup provides a some what different array of nutrients. In the USDA Food Guide at the reference 2,000calorie level, the following weekly amounts are recommended: Dark green vegetables 3 cups/week Orange vegetables 2 cups/week Legumes (dry beans) 3 cups/week Starchy vegetables 3 cups/week Other vegetables 61/2 cups/week Most current consumption patterns do not achieve the recommended intakes of many of these vegetables. The DASH Eating Plan and the USDA Food Guide suggest increasing intakes of dark green vegetables, orange

11

See appendix A2 and table D116 from the 2005 DGAC Report (or USDA website) for information on children age 2 to 3 years.

12

Includes all fresh, frozen, canned, cooked, or raw forms of vegetables. Examples of vegetables are dark green (broccoli, spinach, most greens); orange (carrots, sweetpotatoes, winter squash, pumpkin); legumes (dry beans, chickpeas, tofu); starchy (corn, white potatoes, green peas); other (tomatoes, cabbage, celery, cucumber, lettuce, onions, peppers, green beans, cauliflower, mush rooms, summer squash).



25

vegetables, and legumes (dry beans) as part of the overall recommendation to have an adequate intake of fruits and vegetables (see ch. 2). Whole Grains

In addition to fruits and vegetables, whole grains are an important source of fiber and other nutrients. Whole grains, as well as foods made from them, consist of the entire grain seed, usually called the kernel. The kernel is made of three components—the bran, the germ, and the endosperm. If the kernel has been cracked, crushed, or flaked, then it must retain nearly the same relative propor tions of bran, germ, and endosperm as the original grain to be called whole grain. In the grainrefining process, most of the bran and some of the germ is removed, resulting in the loss of dietary fiber (also known as cereal fiber), vitamins, minerals, lignans, phytoestrogens, phenolic compounds, and phytic acid. Some manufac turers add bran to grain products to increase the dietary fiber content. Refined grains are the resulting product of the grainrefining processing. Most refined grains are enriched before being further processed into foods. Enriched refined grain products that conform to standards of identity are required by law to be fortified with folic acid, as well as thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron. Food manufacturers may fortify wholegrain foods where regulations permit the addition of folic acid. Currently, a number of wholegrain, readytoeat breakfast cereals are fortified with folic acid. As illustrated by the comparison of wholewheat and enriched white flours in table 6, many nutrients occur at higher or similar levels in whole grains when compared to enriched grains, but whole grains have less folate unless they have been fortified with folic acid. Consuming at least 3 or more ounceequivalents of whole grains per day can reduce the risk of several chronic diseases and may help with weight maintenance. Thus, daily intake of at least 3 ounceequivalents of whole grains per day is recommended by substituting whole grains for refined grains. However, because three servings may be difficult for younger children to achieve, it is recommended that they increase whole grains into their diets as they grow. At all calorie levels, all age groups


Increased intakes of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fatfree or lowfat milk and milk products are likely to have important health benefits for most Americans.

should consume at least half the grains as whole grains to achieve the fiber recommendation. All grain servings can be wholegrain; however, it is advisable to include some folatefortified products, such as folatefortified wholegrain cereals, in these wholegrain choices. Whole grains cannot be identified by the color of the food; labelreading skills are needed. Table 7 identifies names of whole grains that are available in the United States. For information about the ingredients in wholegrain and enrichedgrain products, read the ingredient list on the food label. For many wholegrain products, the words “whole” or “whole grain” will appear before the grain ingredient’s name. The whole grain should be the first ingredient listed. Wheat flour, enriched flour, and degermi nated cornmeal are not whole grains. The Food and Drug Administration requires foods that bear the wholegrain health claim to (1) contain 51 percent or more wholegrain ingredients by weight per reference amount and (2) be low in fat.


26

Milk and Milk Products

Another source of nutrients is milk and milk products. Milk product consumption has been associated with overall diet quality and adequacy of intake of many nutri ents. The intake of milk products is especially important to bone health during childhood and adolescence. Studies specifically on milk and other milk products, such as yogurt and cheese, showed a positive relationship between the intake of milk and milk products and bone mineral content or bone mineral density in one or more skeletal sites (see table 1 for information on equivalent amounts of milk products).

Adults and children should not avoid milk and milk prod ucts because of concerns that these foods lead to weight gain. There are many fatfree and lowfat choices without added sugars that are available and consistent with an overall healthy dietary plan. If a person wants to consider milk alternatives because of lactose intolerance, the most reliable and easiest ways to derive the health benefits associated with milk and milk product consumption is to choose alternatives within the milk food group, such as yogurt or lactosefree milk, or to consume the enzyme lactase prior to the consumption of milk products. For individuals who choose to or must avoid all milk products (e.g., individuals with lactose intolerance, vegans), non dairy calciumcontaining alternatives may be selected to help meet calcium needs (app. B4).

TABLE 5. Fruits, Vegetables, and Legumes (Dry Beans) That Contain Vitamin A (Carotenoids), Vitamin C, Folate, and Potassium Many of the fruits, vegetables, and legumes (beans) are considered to be important sources of vitamin A (as carotenoids), vitamin C, and potassium in the adult population. Intakes of these nutrients, based on dietary intake data or evidence of public health problems, may be of concern. Also listed are sources of naturally occurring folate, a nutrient considered to be of concern for women of childbearing age and those in the first trimester of pregnancy. Folic acid fortified grain products, not listed in this table, are also good sources. Sources of vitamin A (carotenoids) (see app. B6) Bright orange vegetables like carrots, sweetpotatoes, and pumpkin • Tomatoes and tomato products, red sweet pepper • Leafy greens such as spinach, collards, turnip greens, kale, beet and mustard greens, green leaf lettuce, and romaine • Orange fruits like mango, cantaloupe, apricots, and red or pink grapefruit •

Sources of vitamin C • Citrus fruits and juices, kiwi fruit, strawberries, guava, papaya, and cantaloupe • Broccoli, peppers, tomatoes, cabbage (especially Chinese cabbage), brussels sprouts, and potatoes • Leafy greens such as romaine, turnip greens, and spinach Sources of folate • Cooked dry beans and peas • Oranges and orange juice • Deep green leaves like spinach and mustard greens Sources of potassium (see app. B1) • Baked white or sweetpotatoes, cooked greens (such as spinach), winter (orange) squash • Bananas, plantains, many dried fruits, oranges and orange juice, cantaloupe, and honeydew melons • Cooked dry beans • Soybeans (green and mature) • Tomato products (sauce, paste, puree) • Beet greens



27

TABLE 6. Comparison of 100 Grams of WholeGrain Wheat Flour and Enriched, Bleached, White, AllPurpose Flour Some of the nutrients of concern and the fortification nutrients in 100 percent wholewheat flour and enriched, bleached, allpurpose white (wheat) flour. Dietary fiber, calcium, magnesium and potassium, nutrients of concern, occur in much higher concentrations in the wholewheat flour on a 100gram basis (percent). The fortification nutrients—thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron—are similar in concentration between the two flours, but folate, as Dietary Folate Equivalent (DFE), µg, is higher in the enriched white flour. 100 Percent WholeGrain Wheat Flour

Enriched, Bleached, AllPurpose White Flour

339.0

364.0

Dietary fiber, g

12.2

2.7

Calcium, mg

34.0

15.0

Magnesium, mg

138.0

22.0

Potassium, mg

405.0

107.0

Folate, DFE, µg

44.0

291.0

Thiamin, mg

0.5

0.8

Riboflavin, mg

0.2

0.5

Niacin, mg

6.4

5.9

Iron, mg

3.9

4.6

Calories, kcal

Source: Agricultural Research Service Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 17.



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TABLE 7. Whole Grains Available in the United States Whole grains that are consumed in the United States either as a single food (e.g., wild rice, popcorn) or as an ingredient in a multiingredient food (e.g., in multigrain breads). This listing of whole grains was determined from a breakdown of foods reported consumed in nationwide food consumption surveys, by amount consumed. The foods are listed in approximate order of amount consumed, but the order may change over time. In addition, other whole grains may be consumed that are not yet represented in the surveys. Whole wheat Whole oats/oatmeal Wholegrain corn Popcorn Brown rice Whole rye Wholegrain barley Wild rice Buckwheat Triticale Bulgur (cracked wheat) Millet Quinoa Sorghum Source: Agriculture Research Service Database for CSFII 1994–1996.



29

chapter

6

Fats OVERVIEW

DISCUSSION

Fats and oils are part of a healthful diet, but the type of fat makes a difference to heart health, and the total amount of fat consumed is also important. High intake of saturated fats, trans fats, and cholesterol increases the risk of unhealthy blood lipid levels, which, in turn, may increase the risk of coronary heart disease. A high intake of fat (greater than 35 percent of calories) generally increases saturated fat intake and makes it more difficult to avoid consuming excess calories. A low intake of fats and oils (less than 20 percent of calories) increases the risk of inadequate intakes of vitamin E and of essential fatty acids and may contribute to unfavorable changes in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) blood cholesterol and triglycerides.

Fats supply energy and essential fatty acids and serve as a carrier for the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and carotenoids. Fats serve as building blocks of membranes and play a key regulatory role in numerous biological functions. Dietary fat is found in foods derived from both plants and animals. The recommended total fat intake is between 20 and 35 percent of calories for adults. A fat intake of 30 to 35 percent of calories is recommended for children 2 to 3 years of age and 25 to 35 percent of calories for children and adolescents 4 to 18 years of age. Few Americans consume less than 20 percent of calories from fat. Fat intakes that exceed 35 percent of calories are associated with both total increased saturated fat and calorie intakes.



30

To decrease their risk of elevated lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in the blood, most Americans need to decrease their intakes of saturated fat and trans fats, and many need to decrease their dietary intake of cholesterol. Because men tend to have higher intakes of dietary cholesterol, it is especially important for them to meet this recommendation. Populationbased studies of American diets show that intake of saturated fat is more excessive than intake of trans fats and cholesterol. Therefore, it is most important for Americans to decrease their intake of saturated fat. However, intake of all three should be decreased to meet recommendations. Table 8 shows, for selected calorie levels, the maximum gram amounts of saturated fat to consume to keep saturated fat intake below 10 percent of total calorie intake. This table may be useful when combined with labelreading guidance. Table 9 gives a few practical examples of the differences in the saturated fat content of different forms of commonly consumed foods. Table 10 provides the major dietary sources of saturated fats in the U.S. diet listed in decreasing order. Diets can be planned to meet nutrient recommendations for linoleic acid and αlinolenic acid while providing very low amounts of saturated fatty acids. Based on 1994–1996 data, the estimated average daily intake of trans fats in the United States was about 2.6 percent of total energy intake. Processed foods and oils provide approximately 80 percent of trans fats in the diet, compared to 20 percent that occur naturally in food from animal sources. Table 11 provides the major dietary sources of trans fats listed in decreasing order. Trans fat content of certain processed foods has changed and is likely to continue to change as the industry reformulates products. Because the trans fatty acids produced in the partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils account for more than 80 percent of total intake, the food industry has an important role in decreasing trans fatty acid content of the food supply. Limited consumption of foods made with processed sources of trans fats provides the most effective means of reducing intake of trans fats. By looking at the food label, consumers can select products that are lowest in saturated fat, trans fats,13 and cholesterol. To meet the total fat recommendation of 20 to 35 percent of calories, most dietary fats should come from sources of

13

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS • Consume less than 10 percent of calories from saturated fatty acids and less than 300 mg/day of cholesterol, and keep trans fatty acid consumption as low as possible. • Keep total fat intake between 20 to 35 percent of calo ries, with most fats coming from sources of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils. • When selecting and preparing meat, poultry, dry beans, and milk or milk products, make choices that are lean, lowfat, or fatfree. • Limit intake of fats and oils high in saturated and/or trans fatty acids, and choose products low in such fats and oils. Key Recommendations for Specific Population Groups

• Children and adolescents. Keep total fat intake between 30 to 35 percent of calories for children 2 to 3 years of age and between 25 to 35 percent of calo ries for children and adolescents 4 to 18 years of age, with most fats coming from sources of polyunsatu rated and monounsaturated fatty acids, such as fish, nuts, and vegetable oils.

polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. Sources of omega6 polyunsaturated fatty acids are liquid vegetable oils, including soybean oil, corn oil, and safflower oil. Plant sources of omega3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (αlinolenic acid) include soybean oil, canola oil, walnuts, and flaxseed. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are omega3 fatty acids that are contained in fish and shellfish. Fish that naturally contain more oil (e.g., salmon, trout, herring) are higher in EPA and DHA than are lean fish (e.g., cod, haddock, catfish). Limited evidence suggests an association between consumption of fatty acids in fish and reduced risks of mortality from cardiovascular disease for the general population. Other sources of EPA and DHA may provide similar benefits; however, more research is needed. Plant sources that are rich in monounsaturated fatty acids include vegetable oils (e.g., canola, olive, high oleic safflower, and sunflower oils) that are liquid at room temperature and nuts.

Including the amount of trans fats on the Nutrition Facts Panel is voluntary until January 2006.



31

Considerations for Specific Population Groups

Evidence suggests that consuming approximately two servings of fish per week (approximately 8 ounces total) may reduce the risk of mortality from coronary heart disease and that consuming EPA and DHA may reduce the risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease in people who have already experienced a cardiac event. Federal and State advisories provide current information about lowering exposure to environmental contaminants in fish. For example, methylmercury is a heavy metal toxin found in varying levels in nearly all fish and shellfish. For most people, the risk from mercury by eating fish and shellfish is not a health concern. However, some fish contain higher levels of mercury that may harm an unborn baby or young child's developing nervous system. The risks from mercury in fish and shellfish depend on the amount of fish eaten and the levels of mercury in the fish. Therefore, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency are advising women of childbearing age who may become pregnant, pregnant women, nursing mothers, and young children to avoid some types of fish and shellfish and eat fish and shellfish that are lower in mercury. For more information, call FDA’s food information line tollfree at 1888SAFEFOOD or visit http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html.

TABLE 8. Maximum Daily Amounts of Saturated Fat To Keep Saturated Fat Below 10 Percent of Total Calorie Intake

…most Americans need to decrease their intakes of saturated fat and trans fats, and many need to decrease their dietary intake of cholesterol.

Lower intakes (less than 7 percent of calories from satu rated fat and less than 200 mg/day of cholesterol) are recommended as part of a therapeutic diet for adults with elevated LDL blood cholesterol (i.e., above their LDL blood cholesterol goal [see table 12]). People with an elevated LDL blood cholesterol level should be under the care of a healthcare provider.

Total Calorie Intake

1,600

Limit on Saturated Fat Intake 18 g or less

The maximum gram amounts of saturated fat that can be consumed to keep saturated fat intake below 10 percent of total calorie intake for selected calorie levels. A 2,000calorie example is included for consistency

a

2,000

20 g or less

2,200

24 g or less

with the food label. This table may be useful when combined with label reading guidance.

a

2,500

25 g or less

2,800

31 g or less

a Percent Daily Values on the Nutrition Facts Panel of food labels are based on a 2,000calorie diet. Values for 2,000 and 2,500 calories are rounded to the nearest 5 grams to be consistent with the Nutrition Facts Panel.



32

TABLE 9. Differences in Saturated Fat and Calorie Content of Commonly Consumed Foods This table shows a few practical examples of the differences in the saturated fat content of different forms of commonly consumed foods. Comparisons are made between foods in the same food group (e.g., regular cheddar cheese and lowfat cheddar cheese), illustrating that lower saturated fat choices can be made within the same food group. Food Category

Portion

Saturated Fat Content (grams)

Calories

• Regular cheddar cheese

1 oz

6.0

114

• Lowfat cheddar cheese

1 oz

1.2

49

• Regular ground beef (25% fat)

3 oz (cooked)

6.1

236

• Extra lean ground beef (5% fat)

3 oz (cooked)

2.6

148

• Whole milk (3.24%)

1 cup

4.6

146

• Lowfat (1%) milk

1 cup

1.5

102

• Croissant (med)

1 medium

6.6

231

• Bagel, oat bran (4")

1 medium

0.2

227

Cheese

Ground beef

Milk

Breads

Frozen desserts • Regular ice cream

1/2

cup

4.9

145

• Frozen yogurt, lowfat

1/2

cup

2.0

110

• Butter

1 tsp

2.4

34

• Soft margarine with zero trans

1 tsp

0.7

25

• Fried chicken (leg with skin)

3 oz (cooked)

3.3

212

• Roasted chicken (breast no skin)

3 oz (cooked)

0.9

140

• Fried fish

3 oz

2.8

195

• Baked fish

3 oz

1.5

129

Table spreads

Chicken

Fish

Source: ARS Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 17.



33

TABLE 10. Contribution of Various Foods to Saturated Fat Intake in the American Diet (Mean Intake = 25.5 g) The major dietary sources of saturated fats in the U.S. diet listed in decreasing order. Food Group

Contribution (percent of total sat fat consumed)

Cheese

13.1

Beef

11.7

Milk

a

7.8

Oils

4.9

Ice cream/sherbet/frozen yogurt

4.7

Cakes/cookies/quick breads/doughnuts

4.7

Butter

4.6 b

Other fats

4.4

Salad dressings/mayonnaise

3.7

Poultry

3.6

Margarine

3.2

Sausage

3.1

Potato chips/corn chips/popcorn

2.9

Yeast bread

2.6

Eggs

2.3

a The milk category includes all milk, including whole milk, lowfat milk, and fatfree milk.

b Shortening and animal fats

Source: Adapted from Cotton PA, Subar AF, Friday JE, Cook A, Dietary Sources of Nutrients among U.S. Adults, 1994–1996. JADA 104:921931, 2004.



34

TABLE 11. Contribution of Various Foods to Trans Fat Intake in the American Diet (Mean Intake = 5.84 g) The major dietary sources of trans fats listed in decreasing order. Processed foods and oils provide approximately 80 percent of trans fats in the diet, compared to 20 percent that occur naturally in food from animal sources. Trans fats content of certain processed foods has changed and is likely to continue to change as the industry reformulates products. Food Group

Contribution (percent of total trans fats consumed)

Cakes, cookies, crackers, pies, bread, etc.

40

Animal products

21

Margarine

17

Fried potatoes

8

Potato chips, corn chips, popcorn

5

Household shortening

4

a

Other

5

a Includes breakfast cereal and candy. USDA analysis reported 0 grams of trans fats in salad dressing. Source: Adapted from Federal Register notice. Food Labeling; Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling; Consumer Research To Consider Nutrient Content and Health Claims and Possible Footnote or Disclosure Statements; Final Rule and Proposed Rule. Vol. 68, No. 133, p. 4143341506, July 11, 2003. Data collected 19941996.

TABLE 12. Relationship Between LDL Blood Cholesterol Goal and the Level of Coronary Heart Disease Risk Information for adults with elevated LDL blood cholesterol. LDL blood cholesterol goals for these individuals are related to the level of coronary heart disease risk. People with an elevated LDL blood cholesterol value should make therapeutic lifestyle changes (diet, physical activity, weight control) under the care of a healthcare provider to lower LDL blood cholesterol. If Someone Has:

LDL Blood Cholesterol Goal Is: a

CHD or CHD risk equivalent

Less than 100 mg/dL b

Two or more risk factors other than elevated LDL blood cholesterol b

Zero or one risk factor other than elevated LDL blood cholesterol

Less than 130 mg/dL Less than 160 mg/dL

a CHD (coronary heart disease) risk equivalent = presence of clinical atherosclerotic disease that confers high risk for CHD events: Clinical CHD Symptomatic carotid artery disease Peripheral arterial disease Abdominal aortic aneurysm Diabetes Two or more risk factors with >20% risk for CHD (or myocardial infarction or CHD death) within 10 years b Major risk factors that affect your LDL goal: Cigarette smoking High blood pressure (140/90 mmHg or higher or on blood pressure medication) Low HDL blood cholesterol (less than 40 mg/dL) Family history of early heart disease (heart disease in father or brother before age 55; heart disease in mother or sister before age 65) Age (men 45 years or older; women 55 years or older) Source: NIH Publication No. 013290, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Cholesterol Education Program Brochure, High Blood Cholesterol What You Need to Know, May 2001. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/chol/hbc_what.htm.



35

chapter

7 7

Carbohydrates

OVERVIEW Carbohydrates are part of a healthful diet. The AMDR for carbohydrates is 45 to 65 percent of total calories. Dietary fiber is composed of nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin intrinsic and intact in plants. Diets rich in dietary fiber have been shown to have a number of beneficial effects, including decreased risk of coronary heart disease and improvement in laxation. There is also interest in the potential relationship between diets containing fiberrich foods and lower risk of type 2 diabetes. Sugars and starches supply energy to the body in the form of glucose, which is the only energy source for red blood cells and is the preferred energy source for the brain, central nervous system, placenta, and fetus. Sugars can be naturally present in foods (such as the fructose in fruit or the lactose in milk) or added to the food. Added sugars, also


known as caloric sweeteners, are sugars and syrups that are added to foods at the table or during processing or preparation (such as high fructose corn syrup in sweet ened beverages and baked products). Although the body’s response to sugars does not depend on whether they are naturally present in a food or added to the food, added sugars supply calories but few or no nutrients. Consequently, it is important to choose carbohydrates wisely. Foods in the basic food groups that provide carbohydrates—fruits, vegetables, grains, and milk—are important sources of many nutrients. Choosing plenty of these foods, within the context of a caloriecontrolled diet, can promote health and reduce chronic disease risk. However, the greater the consumption of foods containing large amounts of added sugars, the more difficult it is to


36

consume enough nutrients without gaining weight. Consumption of added sugars provides calories while providing little, if any, of the essential nutrients.

DISCUSSION The recommended dietary fiber intake is 14 grams per 1,000 calories consumed. Initially, some Americans will find it challenging to achieve this level of intake. However, making fiberrich food choices more often will move people toward this goal and is likely to confer significant health benefits. The majority of servings from the fruit group should come from whole fruit (fresh, frozen, canned, dried) rather than juice. Increasing the proportion of fruit that is eaten in the form of whole fruit rather than juice is desirable to increase fiber intake. However, inclusion of some juice, such as orange juice, can help meet recommended levels of potas sium intake. Appendixes B1 and B8 list some of the best sources of potassium and dietary fiber, respectively. Legumes—such as dry beans and peas—are especially rich in fiber and should be consumed several times per week. They are considered part of both the vegetable group and the meat and beans group as they contain nutrients found in each of these food groups. Consuming at least half the recommended grain servings as whole grains is important, for all ages, at each calorie level, to meet the fiber recommendation. Consuming at least 3 ounceequivalents of whole grains per day can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, may help with weight maintenance, and may lower risk for other chronic diseases. Thus, at lower calorie levels, adults should consume more than half (specifically, at least 3 ounce equivalents) of whole grains per day, by substituting

Diets rich in dietary fiber have been shown to have a number of beneficial effects.

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS • Choose fiberrich fruits, vegetables, and whole grains often. • Choose and prepare foods and beverages with little added sugars or caloric sweeteners, such as amounts suggested by the USDA Food Guide and the DASH Eating Plan. • Reduce the incidence of dental caries by practicing good oral hygiene and consuming sugar and starch containing foods and beverages less frequently.

whole grains for refined grains. (See table 7 for a list of whole grains available in the United States.) Individuals who consume food or beverages high in added sugars tend to consume more calories than those who consume food or beverages low in added sugars; they also tend to consume lower amounts of micronutrients. Although more research is needed, available prospective studies show a positive association between the consumption of calorically sweetened beverages and weight gain. For this reason, decreased intake of such foods, especially bever ages with caloric sweeteners, is recommended to reduce calorie intake and help achieve recommended nutrient intakes and weight control. Total discretionary calories should not exceed the allowance for any given calorie level, as shown in the USDA Food Guide (see ch. 2). The discretionary calorie allowance covers all calories from added sugars, alcohol, and the additional fat found in even moderate fat choices from the milk and meat group. For example, the 2,000 calorie pattern includes only about 267 discretionary calories. At 29 percent of calories from total fat (including 18 g of solid fat), if no alcohol is consumed, then only 8 teaspoons (32 g) of added sugars can be afforded. This is less than the amount in a typical 12ounce calorically sweetened soft drink. If fat is decreased to 22 percent of calories, then 18 teaspoons (72 g) of added sugars is allowed. If fat is increased to 35 percent of calories, then no allowance remains for added sugars, even if alcohol is not consumed. In some cases, small amounts of sugars added to nutrient dense foods, such as breakfast cereals and reducedfat milk products, may increase a person’s intake of such



37

products help reduce the risk of dental caries. Most bottled water is not fluoridated. With the increase in consumption of bottled water, there is concern that Americans may not be getting enough fluoride for maintenance of oral health. A combined approach of reducing the frequency and duration of exposure to fermentable carbohydrate intake and optimizing oral hygiene practices, such as drinking fluoridated water and brushing and flossing teeth, is the most effective way to reduce incidence of dental caries.

…the greater the consumption of foods containing large amounts of added sugars, the more difficult it is to consume enough nutrients without gaining weight.

Considerations for Specific Population Groups Older Adults

Dietary fiber is important for laxation. Since constipation may affect up to 20 percent of people over 65 years of age, older adults should choose to consume foods rich in dietary fiber. Other causes of constipation among this age group may include drug interactions with laxation and lack of appropriate hydration (see ch. 2). Children

foods by enhancing the palatability of these products, thus improving nutrient intake without contributing excessive calories. The major sources of added sugars are listed in table 13 (app. A3 provides examples of how added sugars can fit into the discretionary calorie allowance). The Nutrition Facts Panel on the food label provides the amount of total sugars but does not list added sugars separately. People should examine the ingredient list to find out whether a food contains added sugars. The ingre dient list is usually located under the Nutrition Facts Panel or on the side of a food label. Ingredients are listed in order of predominance, by weight; that is, the ingredient with the greatest contribution to the product weight is listed first and the ingredient contributing the least amount is listed last. Table 14 lists ingredients that are included in the term “added sugars.”14 Sugars and starches contribute to dental caries by providing substrate for bacterial fermentation in the mouth. Thus, the frequency and duration of consumption of starches and sugars can be important factors because they increase exposure to cariogenic substrates. Drinking fluoridated water and/or using fluoridecontaining dental hygiene 14

Carbohydrate intakes of children need special considera tions with regard to obtaining sufficient amounts of fiber, avoiding excessive amounts of calories from added sugars, and preventing dental caries. Several cross sectional surveys on U.S. children and adolescents have found inadequate dietary fiber intakes, which could be improved by increasing consumption of whole fruits, vegetables, and wholegrain products. Sugars can improve the palatability of foods and beverages that otherwise might not be consumed. This may explain why the consumption of sweetened dairy foods and beverages and presweetened cereals is positively associated with childrens’ and adolescents’ nutrient intake. However, beverages with caloric sweeteners, sugars and sweets, and other sweetened foods that provide little or no nutrients are negatively associated with diet quality and can contribute to excessive energy intakes, affirming the importance of reducing added sugar intake substantially from current levels. Most of the studies of preschool children suggest a positive association between sucrose consumption and dental caries, though other factors (particularly infrequent brushing or not using fluoridated toothpaste) are more predictive of caries outcome than is sugar consumption.

For information on amounts of added sugars in some common foods, see KrebsSmith, SM. Choose beverages and foods to moderate your intake of sugars: measurement requires quantification. The Journal of Nutrition (J Nutr) 131(2SI): 527S535S, 2001.



38

TABLE 13. Major Sources of Added Sugars (Caloric Sweeteners) in the American Diet Food groups that contribute more than 5 percent of the added sugars to the American diet in decreasing order. Food Categories

Contribution to Added Sugars Intake (percent of total added sugars consumed)

Regular soft drinks

33.0

Sugars and candy

16.1

Cakes, cookies, pies

12.9

Fruit drinks (fruitades and fruit punch)

9.7

Dairy desserts and milk products

8.6

(ice cream, sweetened yogurt, and sweetened milk) Other grains (cinnamon toast and honeynut waffles)

5.8

Source: Guthrie and Morton, Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 2000.

TABLE 14. Names for Added Sugars That Appear on Food Labels Some of the names for added sugars that may be in processed foods and listed on the label ingredients list. Brown sugar

Invert sugar

Corn sweetener

Lactose

Corn syrup

Maltose

Dextrose

Malt syrup

Fructose

Molasses

Fruit juice concentrates

Raw sugar

Glucose

Sucrose

Highfructose corn syrup

Sugar

Honey

Syrup



39

chapter

8

Sodium and Potassium

OVERVIEW On average, the higher an individual’s salt (sodium chloride) intake, the higher an individual’s blood pressure. Nearly all Americans consume substantially more salt than they need. Decreasing salt intake is advisable to reduce the risk of elevated blood pressure. Keeping blood pressure in the normal range reduces an individual’s risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, and kidney disease. Many American adults will develop hypertension (high blood pressure) during their lifetime. Lifestyle changes can prevent or delay the onset of high blood pressure and can lower elevated blood pressure. These changes include reducing salt intake, increasing potassium


intake, losing excess body weight, increasing physical activity, and eating an overall healthful diet.

DISCUSSION Salt is sodium chloride. Food labels list sodium rather than salt content. When reading a Nutrition Facts Panel on a food product, look for the sodium content. Foods that are low in sodium (less than 140 mg or 5 percent of the Daily Value [DV]) are low in salt. Common sources of sodium found in the food supply are provided in figure 4. On average, the natural salt content of food accounts for only about 10 percent of total intake,


40

while discretionary salt use (i.e., salt added at the table or while cooking) provides another 5 to 10 percent of total intake. Approximately 75 percent is derived from salt added by manufacturers. In addition, foods served by food establishments may be high in sodium. It is important to read the food label and determine the sodium content of food, which can vary by several hundreds of milligrams in similar foods. For example, the sodium content in regular tomato soup may be 700 mg per cup in one brand and 1,100 mg per cup in another brand. Reading labels, comparing sodium contents of foods, and purchasing the lower sodium brand may be one strategy to lower total sodium intake (see table 15 for examples of these foods).

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS

An individual’s preference for salt is not fixed. After consuming foods lower in salt for a period of time, taste for salt tends to decrease. Use of other flavorings may satisfy an individual’s taste. While salt substitutes containing potassium chloride may be useful for some individuals, they can be harmful to people with certain medical conditions. These individuals should consult a healthcare provider before trying salt substitutes.

during food processing and on changes in food selection (e.g., more fresh, lessprocessed items, less sodiumdense foods) and preparation.

Discretionary salt use is fairly stable, even when foods offered are lower in sodium than typical foods consumed. When consumers are offered a lower sodium product, they typically do not add table salt to compensate for the lower sodium content, even when available. Therefore, any program for reducing the salt consumption of a population should concentrate primarily on reducing the salt used

Lifestyle changes can prevent or delay the onset of high blood pressure and can lower elevated blood pressure.

• Consume less than 2,300 mg (approximately 1 tsp of salt) of sodium per day. • Choose and prepare foods with little salt. At the same time, consume potassiumrich foods, such as fruits and vegetables. Key Recommendations for Specific Population Groups

• Individuals with hypertension, blacks, and middleaged and older adults. Aim to consume no more than 1,500 mg of sodium per day, and meet the potassium recom mendation (4,700 mg/day) with food.

Reducing salt intake is one of several ways that people may lower their blood pressure. The relationship between salt intake and blood pressure is direct and progressive without an apparent threshold. On average, the higher a person’s salt intake, the higher the blood pressure. Reducing blood pressure, ideally to the normal range, reduces the risk of stroke, heart disease, heart failure, and kidney disease. Another dietary measure to lower blood pressure is to consume a diet rich in potassium. A potassiumrich diet also blunts the effects of salt on blood pressure, may reduce the risk of developing kidney stones, and possibly decrease bone loss with age. The recommended intake of potassium for adolescents and adults is 4,700 mg/day. Recommended intakes for potassium for children 1 to 3 years of age is 3,000 mg/day, 4 to 8 years of age is 3,800 mg/day, and 9 to 13 years of age is 4,500 mg/day. Potassium should come from food sources. Fruits and vegetables, which are rich in potassium with its bicarbonate precursors, favorably affect acidbase metabolism, which may reduce risk of kidney stones and bone loss. Potassium rich fruits and vegetables include leafy green vegetables, fruit from vines, and root vegetables. Meat, milk, and cereal products also contain potassium, but may not have the same effect on acidbase metabolism. Dietary sources of potassium are listed in table 5 and appendix B1.



41

Considerations for Specific Population Groups

Individuals With Hypertension, Blacks, and MiddleAged and Older Adults. Some individuals tend to be more salt sensitive than others, including people with hypertension, blacks, and middleaged and older adults. Because blacks commonly have a relatively low intake of potassium and a high prevalence of elevated blood pressure and salt sensi tivity, this population subgroup may especially benefit from an increased dietary intake of potassium. Dietary potassium can lower blood pressure and blunt the effects of salt on blood pressure in some individuals. While salt substitutes containing potassium chloride may be useful for some individuals, they can be harmful to people with certain medical conditions. These individuals should consult a healthcare provider before using salt substitutes.



42

FIGURE 4. Sources of Dietary Sodium The relative amounts of dietary sodium in the American diet. 77% Food Processing

12% Naturally Occurring

6% At the Table

5% During Cooking

Source: Mattes RD, Donnelly D. Relative contributions of dietary sodium sources. J Am Coll Nutr. 1991 Aug;10(4):38393.

TABLE 15. Range of Sodium Content for Selected Foods The ranges of sodium content for selected foods available in the retail market. This table is provided to exemplify the importance of reading the food label to determine the sodium content of food, which can vary by several hundreds of milligrams in similar foods. Food Group

Serving Size

Range (mg)

Breads, all types

1 oz

95–210

Frozen pizza, plain, cheese

4 oz

450–1200

c

2–160

Salad dressing, regular fat, all types

2 Tbsp

110–505

Salsa

2 Tbsp

150–240

8 oz

700–1260

Tomato juice

8 oz (~1 c)

340–1040

a

1 oz (28.4 g)

120–180

a

1 oz (28.4 g)

105–160

1 oz (28.4 g)

290–560

Frozen vegetables, all types

1/2

Soup (tomato), reconstituted

Potato chips

Tortilla chips Pretzels

a

a All snack foods are regular flavor, salted.

Source: Agricultural Research Service Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 17 and recent manufacturers label data from retail market surveys. Serving sizes were standardized to be compa

rable among brands within a food. Pizza and bread slices vary in size and weight across brands.

Note: None of the examples provided were labeled lowsodium products.



47

chapter

10

Food Safety OVERVIEW

DISCUSSION

Avoiding foods that are contaminated with harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins, and chemical and physical contaminants are vital for healthful eating. The signs and symptoms of foodborne illness range from gastrointestinal symptoms, such as upset stomach, diarrhea, fever, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and dehydration, to more severe systemic illness, such as paralysis and meningitis. It is estimated that every year about 76 million people in the United States become ill from pathogens in food; of these, about 5,000 die. Consumers can take simple measures to reduce their risk of foodborne illness, especially in the home.

The most important food safety problem is microbial foodborne illness. All those who handle food, including farmers, food producers, individuals who work in markets and food service establishments, and other food preparers, have a responsibility to keep food as safe as possible. To keep food safe, people who prepare food should clean hands, food contact surfaces, and fruits and vegetables; separate raw, cooked, and ready-to-eat foods; cook foods to a safe internal temperature; chill perishable food promptly; and defrost food properly. For more important information on cooking, cleaning, separating, and chilling, see www.fightbac.org.



48

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS

Consumers can take simple measures to reduce their risk of foodborne illness, especially in the home. When preparing and consuming food, it is essential to wash hands often, particularly before and after preparing food, especially after handling raw meat, poultry, eggs, or seafood. A good hand washing protocol includes wetting hands; applying soap; rubbing hands vigorously together for 20 seconds; rinsing hands thoroughly under clean, running warm water; and drying hands completely using a clean disposable or cloth towel. Washing may be the only method that consumers have to reduce pathogen load on fresh produce that will not be either peeled or subsequently cooked. A good protocol for washing fresh fruits and vegetables includes removing and discarding outer leaves, washing produce just before cooking or eating, washing under running potable water, scrubbing with a clean brush or with hands, and drying the fruits or vegetables using a clean disposable or cloth towel. Free moisture on produce may promote survival and growth of microbial populations. Therefore, drying the food is critical if the item will not be eaten or cooked right away. People should read the labels of bagged produce to deter mine if it is readytoeat. Readytoeat, prewashed bagged produce can be used without further washing if kept refrigerated and used by the “useby” date. If desired, prewashed, readytoeat produce can be washed again. Raw meat and poultry should not be washed because this creates the danger of crosscontamination and is not neces sary. Washing these foods can allow most bacteria that are present on the surface of the meat or poultry to spread to readytoeat foods, kitchen utensils, and counter surfaces.

• To avoid microbial foodborne illness: • Clean hands, food contact surfaces, and fruits and vegetables. Meat and poultry should not be washed or rinsed. • Separate raw, cooked, and readytoeat foods while shopping, preparing, or storing foods. • Cook foods to a safe temperature to kill microorganisms. • Chill (refrigerate) perishable food promptly and defrost foods properly. • Avoid raw (unpasteurized) milk or any products made from unpasteurized milk, raw or partially cooked eggs or foods containing raw eggs, raw or undercooked meat and poultry, unpasteurized juices, and raw sprouts. Key Recommendations for Specific Population Groups

• Infants and young children, pregnant women, older adults, and those who are immunocompromised. Do not eat or drink raw (unpasteurized) milk or any products made from unpasteurized milk, raw or partially cooked eggs or foods containing raw eggs, raw or undercooked meat and poultry, raw or undercooked fish or shellfish, unpasteurized juices, and raw sprouts. • Pregnant women, older adults, and those who are immunocompromised: Only eat certain deli meats and frankfurters that have been reheated to steaming hot.

It is important to separate raw, cooked, and readytoeat foods while shopping, preparing, or storing. This prevents crosscontamination from one food to another. In addition, refrigerator surfaces can become contaminated from high risk foods such as raw meats, poultry, fish, uncooked hot dogs, certain deli meats, or raw vegetables. If not cleaned, contaminated refrigerator surfaces can, in turn, serve as a vehicle for contaminating other foods. Uncooked and undercooked meat, poultry and eggs and egg products are potentially unsafe. Raw meat, poultry and eggs should always be cooked to a safe internal temperature (see fig. 5). The best way to tell if meat, poultry and egg dishes are cooked safely is to use a food ther mometer. Leftover refrigerator foods should also be reheated to the proper internal temperature. Bacteria grow



49

most rapidly in the range of 40°F and 140°F. To keep food out of this danger zone, keep cold food cold (below 40°F) and hot food hot (above 140°F). Figure 5 provides informa tion for temperature rules for proper cooking and food handling. Proper cooking makes most uncooked foods safe. The refrigerator should be set at no higher than 40°F and the freezer at 0°F, and these temperatures should be checked with an appliance thermometer. Refrigerated leftovers may become unsafe within 3 to 4 days. Despite the appearance of a food, it may not be safe to eat. Not all bacterial growth causes a food’s surface to discolor or smell bad. It may be unsafe to taste fresh or leftover food items when there is any doubt about their safety. Safe disposal of the food is indicated if there is a question about whether or not a food is safe to eat. “If in doubt— throw it out.” Considerations for Specific Population Groups

Some people may be at high risk for developing foodborne illness. These include pregnant women and their fetuses, young children, older adults, people with weakened immune systems, and individuals with certain chronic illnesses. These people should pay extra attention to food safety advice.


For example, pregnant women, older adults, and those who are immunocompromised are at risk of developing listeriosis, a potentially lifethreatening illness caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. Some deli meats and frankfurters that have not been reheated to steaming hot and some readytoeat foods are associated with liste riosis and pose a highrisk to certain individuals. All these foods should be heated to a safe internal temperature. In addition, these individuals should take special care not to eat or drink raw (unpasteurized) milk or any products made from unpasteurized milk (such as some soft cheeses), raw or partially cooked eggs or foods containing raw eggs, raw or undercooked meat and poultry, unpasteurized juices, and raw sprouts. They should also avoid raw or undercooked fish or shellfish. New information on food safety is constantly emerging. Recommendations and precautions for people at high risk are updated as scientists learn more about preventing foodborne illness. Individuals in highrisk categories should seek guidance from a healthcare provider. In addition, up todate information is available at the Government’s food safety website at www.foodsafety.gov.


50

Appendixes



51

a

APPENDIX A. EATING PATTERNS 1,600, 2,000, 2600, and 3,100Calorie Levels a Appendix A1: The DASH Eating Plan at 1,600, 2,000, 2600, and 3,100Calorie Levels The DASH eating plan is based on 1,600, 2,000, 2,600 and 3,100 calories. The number of daily servings in a food group vary depending on caloric needs (see Table 3 on page 12 to determine caloric needs). This chart can aid in planning menus and food selection in restaurants and grocery stores.

Food Groups

b

Grains

1,600 Calories

2,000 Calories

2,600 Calories

3,100 Calories

Serving Sizes

Examples and Notes

Significance of Each Food Group to the DASH Eating Plan

6

7—8

10—11

12—13

1 slice bread,

Whole wheat bread,

Major sources of

servings

servings

servings

servings

English muffin, pita

energy and fiber

1 oz dry cereal, 1/2

cup cooked rice, c

pasta, or cereal

bread, bagel, cereals, grits, oatmeal, crackers, unsalted pretzels, and popcorn

Vegetables

3—4

4—5

5—6

6

1 cup raw leafy vegetable Tomatoes, potatoes,

servings

servings

servings

servings

1/2

cup cooked vegetable carrots, green peas,

6 oz vegetable juice

squash, broccoli,

Rich sources of potassium, magnesium, and fiber

turnip greens, collards, kale, spinach, artichokes, green beans, lima beans, sweetpotatoes Fruits

4

4—5

5—6

6

servings

servings

servings

servings

6 oz fruit juice 1 medium fruit 1/4

cup dried fruit

1/2

cup fresh, frozen,

or canned fruit

Apricots, bananas,

Important sources of

dates, grapes, oranges,

potassium,

orange juice, grapefruit,

magnesium, and fiber

grapefruit juice, mangoes, melons, peaches, pineapples, prunes, raisins, strawberries, tangerines

Lowfat or fatfree

2—3

2—3

3

3—4

8 oz milk

Fatfree or lowfat milk,

Major sources of

dairy foods

servings

servings

servings

servings

1 cup yogurt

fatfree or lowfat

calcium and protein

11/2 oz cheese

buttermilk, fatfree or lowfat regular or frozen yogurt, low fat and fatfree cheese



52

Appendix A1: Continued

Food Groups

1,600 Calories

2,000 Calories

2,600 Calories

3,100 Calories

Serving Sizes

Examples and Notes

Significance of Each Food Group to the DASH Eating Plan

Meat, poultry, fish

1—2 servings

2 or less servings

2 servings

2—3 servings

3 oz cooked meats, poultry, or fish

Select only lean; trim away visible fats; broil, roast, or boil instead of frying; remove skin from poultry

Rich sources of protein and magnesium

Nuts, seeds, legumes 3—4 servings/ week

4—5 servings/ week

1 serving

1 serving

1/3

cup or 11/2 oz nuts 2 Tbsp or 1/2 oz seeds 1/2 cup cooked dry beans or peas

Almonds, filberts, mixed nuts, peanuts, walnuts, sunflower seeds, kidney beans, lentils

Rich sources of energy, magnesium, potassium, protein, and fiber DASH has 27 percent of calories as fat (low in saturated fat), including fat in or added to foods

d

Fat and oils

2 servings

2—3 servings

3 servings

4 servings

1 tsp soft margarine 1 Tbsp lowfat mayonnaise 2 Tbsp light salad dressing 1 tsp vegetable oil

Soft margarine, lowfat mayonnaise, light salad dressing, vegetable oil (such as olive, corn, canola, or safflower)

Sweets

0 servings

5 servings/ week

2 servings

2 servings

1 Tbsp sugar 1 Tbsp jelly or jam 1/2 oz jelly beans 8 oz lemonade

Maple syrup, sugar, Sweets should jelly, jam, be low in fat fruitflavored gelatin, jelly beans, hard candy, fruit punch sorbet, ices

a NIH publication No. 034082; Karanja NM et al. JADA 8:S19—27, 1999.

b Whole grains are recommended for most servings to meet fiber recommendations.

c Equals 1/2 —11/4 cups, depending on cereal type. Check the product’s Nutrition Facts Label.

d Fat content changes serving counts for fats and oils: For example, 1 Tbsp of regular salad dressing equals 1 serving; 1 Tbsp of a lowfat dressing equals 1/2 serving; 1 Tbsp of a fatfree dressing

equals 0 servings.



53

Appendix A2. USDA Food Guide The suggested amounts of food to consume from the basic food groups, subgroups, and oils to meet recommended nutrient intakes at 12 different calorie levels. Nutrient and energy contributions from each group are calculated according to the nutrientdense forms of foods in each group (e.g., lean meats and fatfree milk). The table also shows the discretionary calorie allowance that can be accommodated within each calorie level, in addition to the suggested amounts of nutrientdense forms of foods in each group. Daily Amount of Food From Each Group (vegetable subgroup amounts are per week) Calorie Level

1,000

1

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

2,600

2,800

3,000

3,200

Food group amounts shown in cup (c) or ounceequivalents (ozeq), with number of servings (srv) in parentheses when

Food Group

it differs from the other units. See note for quantity equivalents for foods in each group.2 Oils are shown in grams (g). Fruits 3

Vegetables

1 c (2 srv)

1 c (2 srv)

1.5 c (3 srv)

1.5 c (3 srv)

1.5 c (3 srv)

2 c (4 srv)

2 c (4 srv)

2 c (4 srv)

2 c (4 srv)

2.5 c (5 srv)

2.5 c (5 srv)

2.5 c (5 srv)

1c (2 srv)

1.5 c (3 srv)

1.5 c (3 srv)

2 c (4 srv)

2.5 c (5 srv)

2.5 c (5 srv)

3 c (6 srv)

3 c (6 srv)

3.5 c (7 srv)

3.5 c (7 srv)

4 c (8 srv)

4 c (8 srv)

2 c/wk 3 c/wk 1.5 c/wk 2 c/wk 2.5 c/wk 3 c/wk 2.5 c/wk 3 c/wk 5.5 c/wk 6.5 c/wk

3 c/wk 2 c/wk 3 c/wk 3 c/wk 6.5 c/wk

3 c/wk 2 c/wk 3 c/wk 6 c/wk 7 c/wk

3 c/wk 2 c/wk 3 c/wk 6 c/wk 7 c/wk

3 c/wk 2.5 c/wk 3.5 c/wk 7 c/wk 8.5 c/wk

3 c/wk 3 c/wk 3 c/wk 2.5 c/wk 2.5 c/wk 2.5 c/wk 3.5 c/wk 3.5 c/wk 3.5 c/wk 7 c/wk 9 c/wk 9 c/wk 8.5 c/wk 10 c/wk 10 c/wk

Dark green veg. 1 c/wk 1.5 c/wk 1.5 c/wk Orange veg. .5 c/wk 1 c/wk 1 c/wk Legumes .5 c/wk 1 c/wk 1 c/wk Starchy veg. 1.5 c/wk 2.5 c/wk 2.5 c/wk Other veg. 3.5 c/wk 4.5 c/wk 4.5 c/wk 4

Grains

3 ozeq

4 ozeq

5 ozeq

5 ozeq

6 ozeq

6 ozeq

7 ozeq

8 ozeq

9 ozeq

10 ozeq

10 ozeq

10 ozeq

1.5 1.5

2 2

2.5 2.5

3 2

3 3

3 3

3.5 3.5

4 4

4.5 4.5

5 5

5 5

5 5

2 ozeq

3 ozeq

4 ozeq

5 ozeq

6 ozeq 6.5 ozeq 6.5 ozeq

7 ozeq

7 ozeq

7 ozeq

Milk

2c

2c

2c

3 c

3 c

3 c

3 c

3 c

3 c

3 c

3 c

3 c

5

15 g

17 g

17 g

22 g

24 g

27 g

29 g

31 g

34 g

36 g

44 g

51g

165

171

171

132

195

267

290

362

410

426

512

648

Whole grains Other grains Lean meat and beans

Oils

5 ozeq 5.5 ozeq

Discretionary 6

calorie allowance



54

Notes for Appendix A2: 1 Food items included in each group and subgroup: Fruits

All fresh, frozen, canned, and dried fruits and fruit juices: for example, oranges and orange juice, apples and apple juice, bananas, grapes, melons, berries, raisins. In developing the food patterns, only fruits and juices with no added sugars or fats were used. See note 6 on discretionary calories if products with added sugars or fats are consumed.

Vegetables

In developing the food patterns, only vegetables with no added fats or sugars were used. See note 6 on discretionary calories if products with added fats or sugars are consumed.

• Dark green vegetables All fresh, frozen, and canned dark green vegetables, cooked or raw: for example, broccoli; spinach; romaine; collard, turnip,and mustard greens. • Orange vegetables

All fresh, frozen, and canned orange and deep yellow vegetables, cooked or raw: for example, carrots, sweetpotatoes, winter squash, and pumpkin.

• Legumes (dry beans and peas)

All cooked dry beans and peas and soybean products: for example, pinto beans, kidney beans, lentils, chickpeas, tofu.

(See comment under meat and beans group about counting legumes in the vegetable or the meat and beans group.)

• Starchy vegetables

All fresh, frozen, and canned starchy vegetables: for example, white potatoes, corn, green peas.

• Other vegetables

All fresh, frozen, and canned other vegetables, cooked or raw: for example, tomatoes, tomato juice, lettuce, green beans, onions.

Grains

In developing the food patterns, only grains in lowfat and lowsugar forms were used. See note 6 on discretionary calories if products that are higher in fat and/or added sugars are consumed.

• Whole grains

All wholegrain products and whole grains used as ingredients: for example, wholewheat and rye breads, wholegrain cereals and crackers, oatmeal, and brown rice.

• Other grains

All refined grain products and refined grains used as ingredients: for example, white breads, enriched grain cereals and crackers, enriched pasta, white rice.

Meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts (meat & beans)

All meat, poultry, fish, dry beans and peas, eggs, nuts, seeds. Most choices should be lean or lowfat. See note 6 on discretionary calories if higher fat products are consumed.

Dry beans and peas and soybean products are considered part of this group as well as the vegetable group, but should be counted in one group only.

Milk, yogurt, and cheese (milk)

All milks, yogurts, frozen yogurts, dairy desserts, cheeses (except cream cheese), including lactosefree and lactosereduced products. Most choices should be fatfree or lowfat. In developing the food patterns, only fatfree milk was used. See note 6 on discretionary calories if lowfat, reducedfat, or whole milk or milk products—or milk products that contain added sugars are consumed. Calciumfortified soy beverages are an option for those who want a nondairy calcium source.

2 Quantity equivalents for each food group: Grains

The following each count as 1 ounceequivalent (1 serving) of grains: 1/2 cup cooked rice, pasta, or cooked cereal; 1 ounce dry pasta or rice; 1 slice bread; 1 small muffin (1 oz); 1 cup readytoeat cereal flakes.

Fruits and vegetables

The following each count as 1 cup (2 servings) of fruits or vegetables: 1 cup cutup raw or cooked fruit or vegetable, 1 cup fruit or vegetable juice, 2 cups leafy salad greens.

Meat and beans

The following each count as 1 ounceequivalent: 1 ounce lean meat, poultry, or fish; 1 egg; 1/4 cup cooked dry beans or tofu; 1 Tbsp peanut butter; 1/2 ounce nuts or seeds.

Milk

The following each count as 1 cup (1 serving) of milk: 1 cup milk or yogurt, 11/2 ounces natural cheese such as Cheddar cheese or 2 ounces processed cheese.

Discretionary calories must be counted for all choices, except fatfree milk.

3 Explanation of vegetable subgroup amounts: Vegetable subgroup amounts are shown in this table as weekly amounts, because it would be difficult for consumers to select foods from each subgroup daily. A daily amount that is oneseventh of the weekly amount listed is used in calculations of nutrient and energy levels in each pattern. 4 Explanation of grain subgroup amounts: The whole grain subgroup amounts shown in this table represent at least three 1ounce servings and onehalf of the total amount as whole grains for all calorie levels of 1,600 and above. This is the minimum suggested amount of whole grains to consume as part of the food patterns. More whole grains up to all of the grains recommended may be selected, with offsetting decreases in the amounts of other (enriched) grains. In patterns designed for younger children (1,000, 1,200, and 1,400 calories), onehalf of the total amount of grains is shown as whole grains. 5 Explanation of oils: Oils (including soft margarine with zero trans fat) shown in this table represent the amounts that are added to foods during processing, cooking, or at the table. Oils and soft margarines include vegetable oils and soft vegetable oil table spreads that have no trans fats. The amounts of oils listed in this table are not considered to be part of discretionary calories because they are a major source of the vitamin E and polyunsaturated fatty acids, including the essential fatty acids, in the food pattern. In contrast, solid fats are listed separately in the discretionary calorie table (appendix A3) because, compared with oils, they are higher in saturated fatty acids and lower in vitamin E and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, including essential fatty acids. The amounts of each type of fat in the food intake pattern were based on 60% oils and/or soft margarines with no trans fats and 40% solid fat. The amounts in typical American diets are about 42% oils or soft margarines and about 58% solid fats. 6 Explanation of discretionary calorie allowance: The discretionary calorie allowance is the remaining amount of calories in each food pattern after selecting the specified number of nutrientdense forms of foods in each food group. The number of discretionary calories assumes that food items in each food group are selected in nutrientdense forms (that is, forms that are fatfree or lowfat and that contain no added sugars). Solid fat and sugar calories always need to be counted as discretionary calories, as in the following examples: • The fat in lowfat, reduced fat, or whole milk or milk products or cheese and the sugar and fat in chocolate milk, ice cream, pudding, etc. • The fat in higher fat meats (e.g., ground beef with more than 5% fat by weight, poultry with skin, higher fat luncheon meats, sausages) • The sugars added to fruits and fruit juices with added sugars or fruits canned in syrup • The added fat and/or sugars in vegetables prepared with added fat or sugars • The added fats and/or sugars in grain products containing higher levels of fats and/or sugars (e.g., sweetened cereals, higher fat crackers, pies and other pastries, cakes, cookies) Total discretionary calories should be limited to the amounts shown in the table at each calorie level. The number of discretionary calories is lower in the 1,600calorie pattern than in the 1,000, 1,200, and 1,400calorie patterns. These lower calorie patterns are designed to meet the nutrient needs of children 2 to 8 years old. The nutrient goals for the 1,600calorie pattern are set to meet the needs of adult women, which are higher and require that more calories be used in selections from the basic food groups. Additional information about discretionary calories, including an example of the division of these calories between solid fats and added sugars, is provided in appendix A3.



55

Appendix A3. Discretionary Calorie Allowance in the USDA Food Guide The discretionary calorie allowance is the remaining amount of calories in each calorie level after nutrientdense forms of foods in each food group are selected. This table shows the number of discretionary calories remaining in each calorie level if nutrientdense foods are selected. Those trying to lose weight may choose not to use discretionary calories. For those wanting to maintain their weight, discretionary calories may be used to increase the amount of food selected from each food group; to consume foods that are not in the lowest fat form (such as 2% milk or mediumfat meat) or that contain added sugars; to add oil, fat, or sugars to foods; or to consume alcohol. The table shows an example of how these calories may be divided between solid fats and added sugars. Discretionary calories that remain at each calorie level Food Guide calorie level Discretionary 1 calories

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

2,000

2,200

2,400

2,600

2,800

3,000

3,200

165

171

171

132

195

267

290

362

410

426

512

648

Example of division of discretionary calories: Solid fats are shown in grams (g); added sugars in grams (g) and teaspoons (tsp). 2

Solid fats

3

Added sugars

11 g

14 g

14 g

11 g

15 g

18 g

19 g

22 g

24 g

24 g

29 g

34 g

20 g (5 tsp)

16 g (4 tsp)

16 g (4 tsp)

12 g (3 tsp)

20 g (5 tsp)

32 g (8 tsp)

36 g (9 tsp)

48 g (12 tsp)

56 g (14 tsp)

60 g (15 tsp)

72g (18 tsp)

96 g (24 tsp)

1 Discretionary calories: In developing the Food Guide, food items in nutrientdense forms (that is, forms that are fatfree or lowfat and that contain no added sugars) were used. The number of discretionary calories assumes that food items in each food group are selected in nutrientdense forms. Solid fat and sugar calories always need to be counted as discretionary calories, as in the following examples: The fat in lowfat, reduced fat, or whole milk or milk products or cheese and the sugar and fat in chocolate milk, ice cream, pudding, etc. The fat in higher fat meats (e.g., ground beef with more than 5% fat by weight, poultry with skin, higher fat luncheon meats, sausages) The sugars added to fruits and fruit juices with added sugars or fruits canned in syrup The added fat and/or sugars in vegetables prepared with added fat or sugars The added fats and/or sugars in grain products containing higher levels of fats and/or sugars (e.g., sweetened cereals, higher fat crackers, pies and other pastries, cakes, cookies) Total discretionary calories should be limited to the amounts shown in the table at each calorie level. The number of discretionary calories is lower in the 1,600 calorie pattern than in the 1,000, 1,200, and 1,400calorie patterns. These lower calorie patterns are designed to meet the nutrient needs of children 2 to 8 years old. The nutrient goals for the 1,600 calorie pattern are set to meet the needs of adult women, which are higher and require that more calories be used in selections from the basic food groups. The calories assigned to discretionary calories may be used to increase intake from the basic food groups; to select foods from these groups that are higher in fat or with added sugars; to add oils, solid fats, or sugars to foods or beverages; or to consume alcohol. See note 2 on limits for solid fats. 2 Solid fats: Amounts of solid fats listed in the table represent about 7 to 8% of calories from saturated fat. Foods in each food group are represented in their lowest fat forms, such as fatfree milk and skinless chicken. Solid fats shown in this table represent the amounts of fats that may be added in cooking or at the table, and fats consumed when higher fat items are selected from the food groups (e.g., whole milk instead of fatfree milk, chicken with skin, or cookies instead of bread), without exceeding the recommended limits on saturated fat intake. Solid fats include meat and poultry fats eaten either as part of the meat or poultry product or separately; milk fat such as that in whole milk, cheese, and butter; shortenings used in baked products; and hard margarines. Solid fats and oils are separated because their fatty acid compositions differ. Solid fats are higher in saturated fatty acids, and commonly consumed oils and soft margarines with no trans fats are higher in vitamin E and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, including essential fatty acids. Oils listed in appendix A2 are not considered to be part of the discretionary calorie allowance because they are a major source of the essential fatty acids and vitamin E in the food pattern. The gram weights for solid fats are the amounts of these products that can be included in the pattern and are not identical to the amount of lipids in these items, because some products

(margarines, butter) contain water or other ingredients, in addition to lipids.

3 Added sugars: Added sugars are the sugars and syrups added to foods and beverages in processing or preparation, not the naturally occurring sugars in fruits or milk. The amounts of added sugars suggested in the example are NOT specific recommendations for amounts of added sugars to consume, but rather represent the amounts that can be included at each calorie level without over consuming calories. The suggested amounts of added sugars may be helpful as part of the Food Guide to allow for some sweetened foods or beverages, without exceeding energy needs. This use of added sugars as a calorie balance requires two assumptions: (1) that selections are made from all food groups in accordance with the suggested amounts and (2) that additional fats are used in the amounts shown, which, together with the fats in the core food groups, represent about 2730% of calories from fat.



56

APPENDIX B. FOOD SOURCES OF SELECTED NUTRIENTS Appendix B1. Food Sources of Potassium Food Sources of Potassium ranked by milligrams of potassium per standard amount, also showing calories in the standard amount. (The AI for adults is 4,700 mg/day potassium.) Food, Standard Amount

Potassium (mg)

Calories

Sweetpotato, baked, 1 potato (146 g)

694

131

Tomato paste, 1/4 cup

664

54

Beet greens, cooked, cup

655

19

Potato, baked, flesh, 1 potato (156 g)

610

145

White beans, canned, 1/2 cup

595

153

Yogurt, plain, nonfat, 8oz container

579

127

Tomato puree, cup

549

48

Clams, canned, 3 oz

534

126

1/2

1/2

Yogurt, plain, lowfat, 8oz container

531

143

Prune juice, 3/4 cup

530

136

Carrot juice, 3/4 cup

517

71

Blackstrap molasses, 1 Tbsp

498

47

Halibut, cooked, 3 oz

490

119

Soybeans, green, cooked, 1/2 cup

485

127

Tuna, yellowfin, cooked, 3 oz

484

118

Lima beans, cooked, 1/2 cup

484

104

Winter squash, cooked, 1/2 cup

448

40

Soybeans, mature, cooked, 1/2 cup

443

149

Rockfish, Pacific, cooked, 3 oz

442

103

Cod, Pacific, cooked, 3 oz

439

89

Bananas, 1 medium

422

105

Spinach, cooked, 1/2 cup

419

21

Tomato juice, cup

417

31

Tomato sauce, 1/2 cup

405

39

3/4

Peaches, dried, uncooked, 1/4 cup

398

96

Prunes, stewed, 1/2 cup

398

133

Milk, nonfat, 1 cup

382

83

Pork chop, center loin, cooked, 3 oz

382

197

Apricots, dried, uncooked, 1/4 cup

378

78

Rainbow trout, farmed, cooked, 3 oz

375

144

Pork loin, center rib (roasts), lean, roasted, 3 oz

371

190

Buttermilk, cultured, lowfat, 1 cup

370

98

Cantaloupe, medium

368

47

1%—2% milk, 1 cup

366

102—122

1/4

Honeydew melon, 1/8 medium

365

58

Lentils, cooked, 1/2 cup

365

115

Plantains, cooked, 1/2 cup slices

358

90

Kidney beans, cooked, 1/2 cup

358

112

Orange juice, 3/4 cup

355

85

Split peas, cooked, 1/2 cup

355

116

Yogurt, plain, whole milk, 8 oz container

352

138

Source: Nutrient values from Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 17. Foods are from ARS single nutrient reports, sorted in descending order by nutrient content in terms of common household measures. Food items and weights in the single nutrient reports are adapted from those in 2002 revision of USDA Home and Garden Bulletin No. 72, Nutritive Value of Foods. Mixed dishes and multiple preparations of the same food item have been omitted from this table.



57

Appendix B2. Food Sources of Vitamin E Food Sources of Vitamin E ranked by milligrams of vitamin E per standard amount; also calories in the standard amount. (All provide > 10% of RDA for vitamin E for adults, which is 15 mg α–tocopherol [AT]/day.) Food, Standard Amount

AT (mg)

Calories

Fortified readytoeat cereals, ~1 oz

1.6—12.8

90—107

Sunflower seeds, dry roasted, 1 oz

7.4

165

Almonds, 1 oz

7.3

164

Sunflower oil, high linoleic, 1 Tbsp

5.6

120

Cottonseed oil, 1 Tbsp

4.8

120

Safflower oil, high oleic, 1 Tbsp

4.6

120

Hazelnuts (filberts), 1 oz

4.3

178

Mixed nuts, dry roasted, 1 oz

3.1

168

Turnip greens, frozen, cooked, 1/2 cup

2.9

24

Tomato paste, cup

2.8

54

Pine nuts, 1 oz

2.6

191

Peanut butter, 2 Tbsp

2.5

192

Tomato puree, 1/2 cup

2.5

48

1/4

Tomato sauce, cup

2.5

39

Canola oil, 1 Tbsp

2.4

124

1/2

Wheat germ, toasted, plain, 2 Tbsp

2.3

54

Peanuts, 1 oz

2.2

166

Avocado, raw, 1/2 avocado

2.1

161

Carrot juice, canned, 3/4 cup

2.1

71

Peanut oil, 1 Tbsp

2.1

119

Corn oil, 1 Tbsp

1.9

120

Olive oil, 1 Tbsp

1.9

119

Spinach, cooked, 1/2 cup

1.9

21

Dandelion greens, cooked, cup

1.8

18

Sardine, Atlantic, in oil, drained, 3 oz

1.7

177

1/2

Blue crab, cooked/canned, 3 oz

1.6

84

Brazil nuts, 1 oz

1.6

186

Herring, Atlantic, pickled, 3 oz

1.5

222




58

Appendix B3. Food Sources of Iron Food Sources of Iron ranked by milligrams of iron per standard amount; also calories in the standard amount. (All are > 10% of RDA for teen and adult females, which is 18 mg/day.) Food, Standard Amount

Iron (mg)

Calories

23.8

126

Fortified readytoeat cereals (various), ~ 1 oz

1.8 —21.1

54—127

Oysters, eastern, wild, cooked, moist heat, 3 oz

10.2

116

5.2—9.9

134—235

4.9—8.1

Varies

Clams, canned, drained, 3 oz

Organ meats (liver, giblets), various, cooked, 3 oz

a

Fortified instant cooked cereals (various), 1 packet Soybeans, mature, cooked, cup

4.4

149

Pumpkin and squash seed kernels, roasted, 1 oz

4.2

148

White beans, canned, cup

3.9

153

Blackstrap molasses, 1 Tbsp

3.5

47

1/2

Lentils, cooked, cup

3.3

115

Spinach, cooked from fresh, 1/2 cup

3.2

21

1/2

1/2

Beef, chuck, blade roast, lean, cooked, 3 oz

3.1

215

Beef, bottom round, lean, 0” fat, all grades, cooked, 3 oz

2.8

182

Kidney beans, cooked, 1/2 cup

2.6

112

Sardines, canned in oil, drained, 3 oz

2.5

177

Beef, rib, lean, 1/4” fat, all grades, 3 oz

2.4

195

Chickpeas, cooked, 1/2 cup

2.4

134

Duck, meat only, roasted, 3 oz

2.3

171

Lamb, shoulder, arm, lean, 1/4 ” fat, choice, cooked, 3 oz

2.3

237

Prune juice, 3/4 cup

2.3

136

Shrimp, canned, 3 oz

2.3

102

Cowpeas, cooked, cup

2.2

100

Ground beef, 15% fat, cooked, 3 oz

2.2

212

Tomato puree, cup

2.2

48


2.2

108


2.2

127

Navy beans, cooked, 1/2 cup

2.1

127

1/2

1/2

Refried beans, cup

2.1

118

Beef, top sirloin, lean, 0” fat, all grades, cooked, 3 oz

2.0

156


2.0

54

1/2

a High in cholesterol. Source: Nutrient values from Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 17. Foods are from ARS single nutrient reports, sorted in descending order by nutrient content in terms of common household measures. Food items and weights in the single nutrient reports are adapted from those in 2002 revision of USDA Home and Garden Bulletin No. 72, Nutritive Value of Foods. Mixed dishes and multiple preparations of the same food item have been omitted from this table.



59

Appendix B4. NonDairy Food Sources of Calcium NonDairy Food Sources of Calcium ranked by milligrams of calcium per standard amount; also calories in the standard amount. The bioavailability may a

vary. (The AI for adults is 1,000 mg/day.) Food, Standard Amount

Fortified readytoeat cereals (various), 1 oz

Calcium (mg)

Calories

236–1043

88–106

Soy beverage, calcium fortified, 1 cup

368

98

Sardines, Atlantic, in oil, drained, 3 oz

325

177

b

Tofu, firm, prepared with nigari , 1/2 cup

253

88

Pink salmon, canned, with bone, 3 oz

181

118

Collards, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

178

31

Molasses, blackstrap, 1 Tbsp

172

47

Spinach, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

146

30


130

127

Turnip greens, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

124

24

Ocean perch, Atlantic, cooked, 3 oz

116

103

99—110

97—157

106

80


96

153

Kale, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

90

20

Okra, cooked from frozen, cup

88

26


88

149

Blue crab, canned, 3 oz

86

84

Beet greens, cooked from fresh, 1/2 cup

82

19

Oatmeal, plain and flavored, instant, fortified, 1 packet prepared Cowpeas, cooked, 1/2 cup 1/2

1/2

Pakchoi, Chinese cabbage, cooked from fresh, cup

79

10

Clams, canned, 3 oz

78

126

1/2

Dandelion greens, cooked from fresh, 1/2 cup

74

17

Rainbow trout, farmed, cooked, 3 oz

73

144

a Both calcium content and bioavailability should be considered when selecting dietary sources of calcium. Some plant foods have calcium that is well absorbed, but the large quantity of plant foods that would be needed to provide as much calcium as in a glass of milk may be unachievable for many. Many other calciumfortified foods are available, but the percentage of calcium that can be absorbed is unavailable for many of them. b

Calcium sulfate and magnesium chloride.




60

Appendix B5. Food Sources of Calcium Food Sources of Calcium ranked by milligrams of calcium per standard amount; also calories in the standard amount. (All are > 20% of AI for adults 1950, which is 1,000 mg/day.) Food, Standard Amount

Calcium (mg)

Calories

Plain yogurt, nonfat (13 g protein/8 oz), 8oz container

452

127

Romano cheese, 1.5 oz

452

165

Pasteurized process Swiss cheese, 2 oz

438

190

Plain yogurt, lowfat (12 g protein/8 oz), 8oz container

415

143

Fruit yogurt, lowfat (10 g protein/8 oz), 8oz container

345

232

Swiss cheese, 1.5 oz

336

162

Ricotta cheese, part skim, cup

335

170

Pasteurized process American cheese food, 2 oz

323

188

Provolone cheese, 1.5 oz

321

150

Mozzarella cheese, partskim, 1.5 oz

311

129

Cheddar cheese, 1.5 oz

307

171

Fatfree (skim) milk, 1 cup

306

83

Muenster cheese, 1.5 oz

305

156

1% lowfat milk, 1 cup

290

102

Lowfat chocolate milk (1%), 1 cup

288

158

2% reduced fat milk, 1 cup

285

122

Reduced fat chocolate milk (2%), 1 cup

285

180

Buttermilk, lowfat, 1 cup

284

98

Chocolate milk, 1 cup

280

208

Whole milk, 1 cup

276

146

Yogurt, plain, whole milk (8 g protein/8 oz), 8oz container

275

138

Ricotta cheese, whole milk, 1/2 cup

255

214

Blue cheese, 1.5 oz

225

150

Mozzarella cheese, whole milk, 1.5 oz

215

128

Feta cheese, 1.5 oz

210

113

1/2




61

Appendix B6. Food Sources of Vitamin A Food Sources of Vitamin A ranked by micrograms Retinol Activity Equivalents (RAE) of vitamin A per standard amount; also calories in the standard amount. (All are > 20% of RDA for adult men, which is 900 mg/day RAE.) Food, Standard Amount a

Organ meats (liver, giblets), various, cooked, 3 oz

Vitamin A (µg RAE)

Calories

1490—9126

134—235

Carrot juice, 3 /4 cup

1692

71

Sweetpotato with peel, baked, 1 medium

1096

103

953

42

Pumpkin, canned, 1/2 cup Carrots, cooked from fresh, cup

671

27

Spinach, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

573

30

Collards, cooked from frozen, cup

489

31

Kale, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

478

20

Mixed vegetables, canned, 1/2 cup

474

40

Turnip greens, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

441

24

1/2

1/2

Instant cooked cereals, fortified, prepared, 1 packet

285—376

75—97

Various readytoeat cereals, with added vit. A, ~1 oz

180—376

100—117

Carrot, raw, 1 small

301

20

Beet greens, cooked, 1/2 cup

276

19

Winter squash, cooked, cup

268

38

Dandelion greens, cooked, 1/2 cup

260

18

Cantaloupe, raw, medium melon

233

46

Mustard greens, cooked, 1/2 cup

221

11

Pickled herring, 3 oz

219

222

Red sweet pepper, cooked, 1/2 cup

186

19

Chinese cabbage, cooked, cup

180

10

1/2

1/4

1/2

a High in cholesterol. Source: Nutrient values from Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 17. Foods are from ARS single nutrient reports, sorted in descending order by nutrient content in terms of common household measures. Food items and weights in the single nutrient reports are adapted from those in 2002 revision of USDA Home and Garden Bulletin No. 72, Nutritive Value of Foods. Mixed dishes and multiple preparations of the same food item have been omitted from this table.



62

Appendix B7. Food Sources of Magnesium Food Sources of Magnesium ranked by milligrams of magnesium per standard amount; also calories in the standard amount. (All are > 10% of RDA for adult men, which is 420 mg/day.) Food, Standard Amount

Magnesium (mg)

Calories

151

148

Brazil nuts, 1 oz

107

186

Bran readytoeat cereal (100%), ~1 oz

103

74

Pumpkin and squash seed kernels, roasted, 1 oz

Halibut, cooked, 3 oz

91

119

Quinoa, dry, 1/4 cup

89

159

Spinach, canned, 1/2 cup

81

25

Almonds, 1 oz

78

164

Spinach, cooked from fresh, 1/2 cup

78

20

Buckwheat flour, 1/4 cup

75

101

Cashews, dry roasted, 1 oz

74

163


74

149

Pine nuts, dried, 1 oz

71

191

Mixed nuts, oil roasted, with peanuts, 1 oz

67

175

White beans, canned, 1/2 cup

67

154

Pollock, walleye, cooked, 3 oz

62

96

Black beans, cooked, cup

60

114

Bulgur, dry, 1/4 cup

57

120

1/2

Oat bran, raw, 1/4 cup

55

58


54

127

Tuna, yellowfin, cooked, 3 oz

54

118

Artichokes (hearts), cooked, 1/2 cup

50

42

Peanuts, dry roasted, 1 oz

50

166

Lima beans, baby, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

50

95

Beet greens, cooked, cup

49

19

Navy beans, cooked, 1/2 cup

48

127

Tofu, firm, prepared with nigari , 1/2 cup

47

88

Okra, cooked from frozen, 1/2 cup

47

26

Soy beverage, 1 cup

47

127

Cowpeas, cooked, 1/2 cup

46

100

Hazelnuts, 1 oz

46

178

Oat bran muffin, 1 oz

45

77

Great northern beans, cooked, cup

44

104

Oat bran, cooked, 1/2 cup

44

44

1/2

a

1/2

Buckwheat groats, roasted, cooked, cup

43

78

Brown rice, cooked, 1/2 cup

42

108

Haddock, cooked, 3 oz

42

95

1/2

a Calcium sulfate and magnesium chloride. Source: Nutrient values from Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 17. Foods are from ARS single nutrient reports, sorted in descending order by nutrient content in terms of common household measures. Food items and weights in the single nutrient reports are adapted from those in 2002 revision of USDA Home and Garden Bulletin No. 72, Nutritive Value of Foods. Mixed dishes and multiple preparations of the same food item have been omitted from this table.



63

Appendix B8. Food Sources of Dietary Fiber Food Sources of Dietary Fiber ranked by grams of dietary fiber per standard amount; also calories in the standard amount. (All are >10% of AI for adult women, which is 25 grams/day.) Food, Standard Amount Navy beans, cooked, 1/2 cup

Dietary Fiber (g)

Calories

9.5

128

Bran readytoeat cereal (100%), cup

8.8

78

Kidney beans, canned, 1/2 cup

8.2

109

Split peas, cooked, 1/2 cup

8.1

116

Lentils, cooked, 1/2 cup

7.8

115

1/2

Black beans, cooked, 1/2 cup

7.5

114

Pinto beans, cooked, 1/2 cup

7.7

122


6.6

108

Artichoke, globe, cooked, 1 each

6.5

60


6.3

154

Chickpeas, cooked, 1/2 cup

6.2

135

1/2

Great northern beans, cooked, cup

6.2

105

Cowpeas, cooked, 1/2 cup

5.6

100

1/2

Soybeans, mature, cooked, 1/2 cup Bran readytoeat cereals, various, ~1 oz

5.2

149

2.6—5.0

90—108

Crackers, rye wafers, plain, 2 wafers

5.0

74

Sweetpotato, baked, with peel, l medium (146 g)

4.8

131

Asian pear, raw, 1 small

4.4

51

Green peas, cooked, 1/2 cup

4.4

67

Wholewheat English muffin, 1 each

4.4

134

Pear, raw, 1 small

4.3

81

Bulgur, cooked, cup

4.1

76

Mixed vegetables, cooked, 1/2 cup

4.0

59

Raspberries, raw, 1/2 cup

4.0

32

Sweetpotato, boiled, no peel, 1 medium (156 g)

3.9

119

Blackberries, raw, 1/2 cup

3.8

31

Potato, baked, with skin, 1 medium

3.8

161

1/2


3.8

127

Stewed prunes, 1/2 cup

3.8

133

Figs, dried, 1/4 cup

3.7

93

Dates, 1/4 cup

3.6

126

Oat bran, raw, 1/4 cup

3.6

58

Pumpkin, canned, 1/2 cup

3.6

42

Spinach, frozen, cooked, cup

3.5

30

2.8—3.4

96

Almonds, 1 oz

3.3

164

Apple with skin, raw, 1 medium

3.3

72

Brussels sprouts, frozen, cooked, cup

3.2

33

Wholewheat spaghetti, cooked, 1/2 cup

3.1

87

1/2

Shredded wheat readytoeat cereals, various, ~1 oz

1/2



64

Appendix B8: Continued

Food, Standard Amount Banana, 1 medium

Dietary Fiber (g)

Calories

3.1

105

Orange, raw, 1 medium

3.1

62

Oat bran muffin, 1 small

3.0

178

Guava, 1 medium

3.0

37

Pearled barley, cooked, 1/2 cup

3.0

97

Sauerkraut, canned, solids, and liquids, cup

3.0

23


2.9

54

1/2

Winter squash, cooked, 1/2 cup

2.9

38

Broccoli, cooked, 1/2 cup

2.8

26

Parsnips, cooked, chopped, 1/2 cup

2.8

55

Turnip greens, cooked, 1/2 cup

2.5

15

Collards, cooked, cup

2.7

25

Okra, frozen, cooked, 1/2 cup

2.6

26

2.5

42

1/2

Peas, ediblepodded, cooked, cup 1/2

Source: ARS Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 17. Foods are from single nutrient reports, which are sorted either by food description or in descending order by nutrient content in terms of common household measures. The food items and weights in these reports are adapted from those in 2002 revision of USDA Home and Garden Bulletin No. 72, Nutritive Value of Foods. Mixed dishes and multiple preparations of the same food item have been omitted.



65

Appendix B9. Food Sources of Vitamin C Food Sources of Vitamin C ranked by milligrams of vitamin C per standard amount; also calories in the standard amount. (All provide > 20% of RDA for adult men, which is 90 mg/day.) Food, Standard Amount Guava, raw, 1/2 cup

Vitamin C (mg)

Calories

188

56

Red sweet pepper, raw, cup

142

20

Red sweet pepper, cooked, 1/2 cup

116

19

Kiwi fruit, 1 medium

70

46

Orange, raw, 1 medium

70

62

61—93

79—84

60

15

1/2

Orange juice,

3 /4

cup

Green pepper, sweet, raw, 1/2 cup Green pepper, sweet, cooked, cup

51

19

50—70

71—86

Vegetable juice cocktail, 3 /4 cup

50

34

Strawberries, raw, 1/2 cup

49

27

Brussels sprouts, cooked, cup

48

28

Cantaloupe, 1/4 medium

47

51

1/2

Grapefruit juice, 3 /4 cup

1/2

Papaya, raw, medium

47

30

Kohlrabi, cooked, 1/2 cup

45

24

Broccoli, raw, cup

39

15

Edible pod peas, cooked, 1/2 cup

38

34

1/4

1/2

Broccoli, cooked, 1/2 cup

37

26

Sweetpotato, canned, 1/2 cup

34

116

Tomato juice, 3 /4 cup

33

31

Cauliflower, cooked, 1/2 cup

28

17

Pineapple, raw, cup

28

37

Kale, cooked, 1/2 cup

27

18

Mango, cup

23

54

1/2

1/2




67

APPENDIX C. GLOSSARY OF TERMS Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDR)—Range of intake

Chronic Diseases—such as heart disease, cancer, and diabetes—are the

for a particular energy source that is associated with reduced risk of chronic

leading causes of death and disability in the United States. These diseases

disease while providing intakes of essential nutrients. If an individual

account for 7 of every 10 deaths and affect the quality of life of 90 million

consumes in excess of the AMDR, there is a potential of increasing the risk

Americans. Although chronic diseases are among the most common and

of chronic diseases and/or insufficient intakes of essential nutrients.

costly health problems, they are also among the most preventable. Adopting healthy behaviors such as eating nutritious foods, being physically

Added Sugars—Sugars and syrups that are added to foods during processing or preparation. Added sugars do not include naturally occurring

active, and avoiding tobacco use can prevent or control the devastating effects of these diseases.

sugars such as those that occur in milk and fruits. Coronary Heart Disease—A narrowing of the small blood vessels that Adequate Intakes (AI)—A recommended average daily nutrient intake level

supply blood and oxygen to the heart (coronary arteries).

based on observed or experimentally determined approximations or esti mates of mean nutrient intake by a group (or groups) of apparently

Daily Food Intake Pattern—Identifies the types and amounts of foods that

healthy people. The AI is used when the Estimated Average Requirement

are recommended to be eaten each day and that meet specific nutritional

cannot be determined.

goals. (Federal Register Notice, vol. 68, no. 176, p. 53536, Thursday, September 11, 2003)

Basic Food Groups—In the USDA food intake patterns, the basic food groups are grains; fruits; vegetables; milk, yogurt, and cheese; and meat,

Danger Zone—The temperature that allows bacteria to multiply rapidly and

poultry, fish, dried peas and beans, eggs, and nuts. In the DASH Eating Plan,

produce toxins, between 40°F and 140°F. To keep food out of this danger

nuts, seeds, and dry beans are a separate food group from meat, poultry,

zone, keep cold food cold and hot food hot. Keep food cold in the refriger

fish, and eggs.

ator, in coolers, or on ice in the service line. Keep hot food in the oven, in heated chafing dishes, or in preheated steam tables, warming trays, and/or

Body Mass Index (BMI)—BMI is a practical measure for approximating total body fat and is a measure of weight in relation to height. It is calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters. Cardiovascular Disease—Refers to diseases of the heart and diseases of the blood vessel system (arteries, capillaries, veins) within a person’s entire body, such as the brain, legs, and lungs.

slow cookers. Never leave perishable foods, such as meat, poultry, eggs, and casseroles, in the danger zone longer than 2 hours or longer than 1 hour in temperatures above 90°F. Dietary Fiber—Nonstarch polysaccharides and lignin that are not digested by enzymes in the small intestine. Dietary fiber typically refers to nondi gestable carbohydrates from plant foods.

Cholesterol—A sterol present in all animal tissues. Free cholesterol is a component of cell membranes and serves as a precursor for steroid hormones, including estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone, and bile acids. Humans are able to synthesize sufficient cholesterol to meet biologic require ments, and there is no evidence for a dietary requirement for cholesterol. • Dietary cholesterol—Consumed from foods of animal origin, including meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and dairy products. Plant foods, such as grains, fruits and vegetables, and oils from these sources contain no dietary cholesterol.

Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs)—A set of nutrientbased reference values that expand upon and replace the former Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in the United States and the Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs) in Canada. They are actually a set of four reference values: Estimated Average Requirements (EARs), RDAs, AIs, and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs). Discretionary Calorie Allowance—The balance of calories remaining in a person’s energy allowance after accounting for the number of calories needed to meet recommended nutrient intakes through consumption of

• Serum cholesterol—Travels in the blood in distinct particles containing both lipids and proteins. Three major classes of lipoproteins are found in the serum of a fasting individual: lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), and verylowdensity lipoprotein (VLDL).

foods in lowfat or no added sugar forms. The discretionary calorie allowance may be used in selecting forms of foods that are not the most nutrientdense (e.g., whole milk rather than fatfree milk) or may be addi tions to foods (e.g., salad dressing, sugar, butter).

Another lipoprotein class, intermediatedensity lipoprotein (IDL), resides between VLDL and LDL; in clinical practice, IDL is included in the LDL measurement.



68

Energy Allowance—A person’s energy allowance is the calorie intake at

Listeriosis—A serious infection caused by eating food contaminated with the

which weight maintenance occurs.

bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, which has recently been recognized as

Estimated Average Requirements—EAR is the average daily nutrient intake level estimated to meet the requirement of half the healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group.

an important public health problem in the United States. The disease affects primarily pregnant women, their fetuses, newborns, and adults with weak ened immune systems. Listeria is killed by pasteurization and cooking; however, in certain readytoeat foods, such as hot dogs and deli meats,

Estimated Energy Requirement—The EER represents the average dietary

contamination may occur after cooking/manufacture but before packaging.

energy intake that will maintain energy balance in a healthy person of a

Listeria monocytogenes can survive at refrigerated temperatures.

given gender, age, weight, height, and physical activity level.

Macronutrient—The dietary macronutrient groups are carbohydrates,

FDAMA—The Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act, enacted Nov. 21, 1997, amended the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act relating to the regulation of food, drugs, devices, and biological products. With the passage of FDAMA, Congress enhanced FDA’s mission in ways that recog nized the Agency would be operating in a 21st century characterized by

proteins, and fats. Micronutrient—Vitamins and minerals that are required in the human diet in very small amounts. Moderate Physical Activity—Any activity that burns 3.5 to 7 kcal/min or the equivalent of 3 to 6 metabolic equivalents (METs) and results in

increasing technological, trade, and public health complexities. FightBAC!—A national public education campaign to promote food safety to consumers and educate them on how to handle and prepare food safely. In this campaign, pathogens are represented by a cartoonlike bacteria char acter named “BAC.”

achieving 60 to 73 percent of peak heart rate. An estimate of a person’s peak heart rate can be obtained by subtracting the person’s age from 220. Examples of moderate physical activity include walking briskly, mowing the lawn, dancing, swimming, or bicycling on level terrain. A person should feel some exertion but should be able to carry on a conversation comfort

Foodborne Disease—Caused by consuming contaminated foods or bever ages. Many different diseasecausing microbes, or pathogens, can contaminate foods, so there are many different foodborne infections. In addition, poisonous chemicals, or other harmful substances, can cause foodborne diseases if they are present in food. The most commonly recog nized foodborne infections are those caused by the bacteria Campylobacter,

ably during the activity. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids—Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) have one double bond. Plant sources that are rich in MUFAs include vegetable oils (e.g., canola oil, olive oil, high oleic safflower and sunflower oils) that are liquid at room temperature and nuts.

Salmonella, and E. coli O157:H7, and by a group of viruses called calicivirus,

NutrientDense Foods—Nutrientdense foods are those that provide

also known as the Norwalk and Norwalklike viruses.

substantial amounts of vitamins and minerals and relatively fewer calories.

Heme Iron—One of two forms of iron occurring in foods. Heme iron is

OunceEquivalent—In the grains food group, the amount of a food counted

bound within the ironcarrying proteins (hemoglobin and myoglobin) found

as equal to a oneounce slice of bread; in the meat, poultry, fish, dry beans,

in meat, poultry, and fish. While it contributes a smaller portion of iron to

eggs, and nuts food group, the amount of food counted as equal to one

typical American diets than nonheme iron, a larger proportion of heme

ounce of cooked meat, poultry, or fish. Examples are listed in table 1 and

iron is absorbed.

appendix A1.

High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS)—A corn sweetener derived from the wet

n6 PUFAs—Linoleic acid, one of the n6 fatty acids, is required but cannot

milling of corn. Cornstarch is converted to a syrup that is nearly all dextrose.

be synthesized by humans and, therefore, is considered essential in the diet.

HFCS is found in numerous foods and beverages on the grocery store shelves.

Primary sources are liquid vegetable oils, including soybean oil, corn oil,

Hydrogenation—A chemical reaction that adds hydrogen atoms to an unsaturated fat, thus saturating it and making it solid at room temperature. LeisureTime Physical Activity—Physical activity that is performed during exercise, recreation, or any additional time other than that associated with one’s regular job duties, occupation, or transportation.

and safflower oil. n3 PUFAs—αlinolenic acid is an n3 fatty acid that is required because it is not synthesized by humans and, therefore, is considered essential in the diet. It is obtained from plant sources, including soybean oil, canola oil, walnuts, and flaxseed. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are long chain n3 fatty acids that are contained in fish and shellfish.



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Pathogen—Any microorganism that can cause or is capable of causing disease. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids—Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have two or more double bonds and may be of two types, based on the position of the first double bond.

Vegetarian—There are several categories of vegetarians, all of whom avoid meat and/or animal products. The vegan or total vegetarian diet includes only foods from plants: fruits, vegetables, legumes (dried beans and peas), grains, seeds, and nuts. The lactovegetarian diet includes plant foods plus cheese and other dairy products. The ovolactovegetarian (or lactoovovege

Portion Size—The amount of a food consumed in one eating occasion. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)—The dietary intake level that is

tarian) diet also includes eggs. Semivegetarians do not eat red meat but include chicken and fish with plant foods, dairy products, and eggs.

sufficient to meet the nutrient requirement of nearly all (97 to 98 percent)

Vigorous Physical Activity—Any activity that burns more than 7 kcal/min or

healthy individuals in a particular life stage and gender group.

the equivalent of 6 or more metabolic equivalents (METs) and results in

Resistance Exercise—Anaerobic training, including weight training, weight machine use, and resistance band workouts. Resistance training will increase strength, muscular endurance, and muscle size, while running and jogging will not.

achieving 74 to 88 percent of peak heart rate. An estimate of a person’s peak heart rate can be obtained by subtracting the person’s age from 220. Examples of vigorous physical activity include jogging, mowing the lawn with a nonmotorized push mower, chopping wood, participating in high impact aerobic dancing, swimming continuous laps, or bicycling uphill.

Saturated Fatty Acids—Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds. They

Vigorousintensity physical activity may be intense enough to represent a

primarily come from animal products such as meat and dairy products. In

substantial challenge to an individual and results in a significant increase in

general, animal fats are solid at room temperature.

heart and breathing rate.

Sedentary Behaviors—In scientific literature, sedentary is often defined in

WeightBearing Exercise—Any activity one performs that works bones and

terms of little or no physical activity during leisure time. A sedentary lifestyle

muscles against gravity, including walking, running, hiking, dancing, gymnas

is a lifestyle characterized by little or no physical activity.

tics, and soccer.

Serving Size—A standardized amount of a food, such as a cup or an

Whole Grains—Foods made from the entire grain seed, usually called the

ounce, used in providing dietary guidance or in making comparisons

kernel, which consists of the bran, germ, and endosperm. If the kernel has

among similar foods.

been cracked, crushed, or flaked, it must retain nearly the same relative

Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL)—The highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no risk of adverse health affects for nearly all indi

proportions of bran, germ, and endosperm as the original grain in order to 16

be called whole grain.

viduals in a particular life stage and gender group. As intake increases above the UL, the potential risk of adverse health affects increases. Trans fatty acids—Trans fatty acids, or trans fats, are unsaturated fatty acids that contain at least one nonconjugated double bond in the trans configu ration. Sources of trans fatty acids include hydrogenated/partially hydrogenated vegetable oils that are used to make shortening and commer cially prepared baked goods, snack foods, fried foods, and margarine. Trans fatty acids also are present in foods that come from ruminant animals (e.g., cattle and sheep). Such foods include dairy products, beef, and lamb.

16

AACC Press Release, AACC To Create ConsumerFriendly Whole Grain Definition, March 5, 2004. http://www.aaccnet.org/news/CFWholeGrain.asp.



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APPENDIX D. ACRONYMS AI—Adequate Intakes AMDR—Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range ARS—Agricultural Research Service BMI—Body Mass Index CSFII—Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals DASH—Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension DFE—Dietary Folate Equivalent DHA—Docosahexaenoic acid DRI—Dietary Reference Intake DV—Daily Value EAR—Estimated Average Requirement EER—Estimated Energy Requirement EPA—Eicosapentaenoic acid FDA—Food and Drug Administration FDAMA—Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act HDL—Highdensity lipoprotein HHS—U.S. Department of Health and Human Services IU—International unit LDL—Lowdensity lipoprotein RAE—Retinol Activity Equivalent RDA—Recommended Dietary Allowance USDA—U.S. Department of Agriculture



Creatine Super Feature Article This Creatine Super Feature Article was written to help clear-up the conflicting information surrounding this important bodybuilding and strength athlete sports nutrition product ingredient. To accomplish this education goal, this Super Feature Article is presented in the following Parts. Part 1: Introduction Part 2: Creatine Overview Part 3: Creatine and the Muscle Fiber Connection Part 4: Creatine Research Overview Part 5 – Recent Creatine Research Reviews, Focus on Body Composition and Strength Part 6 – Recent Creatine Research Reviews, Focus on Improvements in Athletic Performance Part 7 – Creatine Use Guide To get the most out of this information, read the entire article as it includes a diversity of extra information you will find useful for understanding the anatomy, physiology, and bio-energetics of muscles, in addition to being the most comprehensive review article every written about creatine. In addition to the massive amount of information for you to read, two very useful summary tables are included: The Summary of Beneficial Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation table. This table includes a summary of the major conclusions about how creatine supplementation improves body composition, physiology, physical performance and athletic performance. It also reports on which sports creatine works best for. (Page 19) The Creatine Dosing & Use Guide Summary table contains information on using creatine based on what the research studies concluded. (Page 38)

Part 1: Introduction The scientific community is onboard with recognizing the benefits athletes can experience from taking a creatine monohydrate supplement. In fact, creatine monohydrate has received more attention and has been subjected to more research studies then any other sports supplement being sold. Over 200 clinical studies have been conducted using creatine monohydrate in just over a decade. Not bad when you consider that the majority of the research was conducted at universities, without the mega-dollars from the pharmaceutical industry. By now, creatine monohydrate has as much research behind it as most of the billion dollar drugs. When you take a look at the science behind creatine monohydrate, there is little room for controversy. But somewhere along the way since creatine’s debut as a muscle building sports supplement, more controversy and confusion has arisen in the popular press, than has clarity of creatine’s purpose and proper use. From a sports scientist’s standpoint this is strange, because when you look at the trend in the scientific journals that have been reporting on the beneficial results of numerous research studies for over a decade, evidence is mounting to support the effectiveness of creatine monohydrate. So, when you read through this super feature article, you will discover it is part educational, part scientific review and part use guide, and suits the needs of many. Some people might just want the ata-glance use information, and there others who want to learn and get insights about the research, how the body works, and the about science of why creatine monohydrate works. Appendix – A6 Page 1 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Some of the creatine facts you will learn about include: • Why creatine works? • What creatine really does in the body. • Which athletes will benefit most from taking a creatine supplement. • Do you need to take creatine forever? • Does creatine works for men and women? • Does creatine work for the young and old? • Does creatine have other beneficial health effects? • What is the science behind creatine? • How do scientists take the studies and reach conclusions from them? • Are there really any harmful side effects from taking a creatine monohydrate supplement? What may surprise you knowing is that the effects creatine has in the body is much more than the cell volumizing effects it was first touted for. For example, in addition to the findings of other research reviewed herein, one of the most recent research studies concluded that the research subjects supplemented with creatine monohydrate experienced an increase in the levels of mRNA for IGF-1 and IGF-2. [Deldicque L, Louis M, Theisen D, Nielens H, Dehoux M, Thissen JP, Rennie MJ, Francaux M. “Increased IGF mRNA in human skeletal muscle after creatine supplementation.” Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005 May;37(5):731-6.]

Part 2 provides an overview about creatine to help give you the big CREATINE picture. Then, due to the fact that creatine works best for certain types of athletes, with certain types of muscle fiber development (primarily strength athletes), Included, is a section about muscle fiber anatomy and physiology. If this subject matter is new to you, you may have to read it a few times to catch on. The time spent will be worth it, because this knowledge will benefit your training and nutrition program in other ways, in addition to understanding what creatine works best for, and besides the muscle building benefits, what research studies discovered creatine can help significantly improve athletic performance. Yes, depending on the bio-energetic nature of your sport, you can improve your athletic performance starting in just a week or two of taking a creatine monohydrate supplement, and increasingly more benefits with continued creatine use. For the extremely inquisitive /scientific reader, there are research overview parts that contain key findings of the most recent creatine scientific research studies. So, in addition to a long list of references, you can review the highlights of these research studies, so you can get a glimpse in to how the scientific process works. Finally, after reading through all of this information, there is part that contains information about what the numerous research studies support the best way to take creatine, and what sports creatine is good for improving athletic performance for, in addition to creatine’s well know effects in improving the rate of muscle growth and strength in association with a resistance training program. Also, keep in mind that this article is not intended for use as a substitute for consultation with a qualified medical practitioner. If you have symptoms of any illness, it is essential that you see your doctor without delay. You should work closely with your doctor and other health professional to monitor your health and determine what is best for you.

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Part 2: Creatine Overview One of the best kept secrets in the sports nutrition industry is “research grade” creatine monohydrate; the highest quality of creatine used in research studies. The results of the research studies spanning over a decade continue to substantiate that research grade creatine works to help increase strength and muscle size at a faster rate. So one of the important points to getting results from taking creatine monohydrate is to get a product that meets research grade quality, meaning it is full potency, soluble, purified, and free from impurities. What about the magazine ads? Each month after you read through the fitness and bodybuilding magazines, you may find many of the ads for sports nutrition products perplexing, some of them outright fantasy. These days more than ever the market place has become a new-ingredient horse-race; you know, products with new and different combinations of ingredients making “I’m better” claims. Tragically, too many people, too often, get diverted away from what scientific studies prove work best, to get you to try some new product of the month instead. Getting results in bodybuilding and sports performance is about doing what works best, and sticking to it – perseverance. Sure, you want to be open-minded and test new approaches and products. But, you do not want to stop doing what works best at the sake of trying something new. And for strength and muscle creatine is proven be one of the sports nutrition ingredients that work best. How do you know what works and what does not? Second question is; what should I take? Well, taking products with research proven ingredients, the ones with scientific studies backing their claims, is a good starting point. Now, this does not mean that ingredients without comprehensive scientific studies do not work. When formulating and inventing products based on biochemical and physiological premises, as well as through testing and evaluation with all sorts of research, including gathering information from people like you, pumping iron day in and day out to get big and strong, and keep good notes on how your bodies respond to new nutrition products. But, when making a final decision about an ingredient, the ones that have the most human clinical studies usually win the selection race, with an occasional exception. This leads to the creatine story, keeping in mind that no one ingredient will do it all for you; many nutrients working together will provide the best results. What about creatine? From reading through the magazine ads it is easy to get the impression that the marketers of some novel types of creatine or creatine alternative products like to take a stab at creatine monohydrate’s time-tested and research proven reputation, to make their products appear better then they really are. When comparing this non-science to the dozens and dozens of good clinical studies conducted using creatine monohydrate, it turns out that creatine monohydrate remains one of the best strength and muscle building supplements you can purchase, assuming you are getting a quality product; note that a poor quality creatine products is a main reason why people don’t always experience the results that they should. As discussed below, research grade creatine is best. When you get a high quality sports nutrition product, you will get results. Too often however, companies create product with the appearance of being scientific and high quality, but are actually over priced and low quality. This is tragic, as the scientific research does indeed conclude that there are many ingredients that will significantly improve your muscle building, strength building, and sports performance, in addition to promoting good health. So hopefully, this special super-feature article will help empower you with the knowledge you need to determine what is best to achieve you specific goals. To underscore this point about the proven effectiveness of creatine monohydrate, recently a team of independent scientists, headed by Ira Wolinsky, Ph.D., of the University of Houston, and Judy Driskell, Ph.D., R.D., of the University of Nebraska, put creatine monohydrate on the top of their “What Works for Strength and Muscle Mass” sports supplement list. Appendix – A6 Page 3 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Creatine monohydrate made the Class “A” rating of these prominent researchers, along with some of the other bodybuilding essentials I will be reviewing in other special reports. This distinguished group of scientists who conducted the massive research review on creatine included Richard B. Kreider, Ph.D., who is a leading creatine researcher and supporter of using creatine as an ergogenic aid for sports performance and muscle building. These and other top sports scientists reviewed the creatine research and concluded the following about the effectiveness of creatine monohydrate: • • • • • • • • •

Promotes greater gains in increasing FFM (Fat Free Mass, which includes muscle mass). Increases muscle fiber size; hypertrophy. Increases muscle mass. Increases myosin. Improves maximal strength. Improves maximal power. Improves single-effort sprint performance. Improves worked performed during repetitive sprint performance. Improving performance during exercise of high to maximal intensity.

The combined results of the research studies prove that by taking creatine monohydrate you can get bigger, stronger muscles, better performing muscles, faster. Theses studies reveal that creatine users consistently experience greater gains and improvements over the people who were not taking creatine in the studies. This means that creatine has been scientifically proven to produce statistically significant results, over and over again. Why Does Creatine Work Improving muscle bioenergetics is one of the main ways creatine works. One thing that occurs in your muscles from engaging in strength sports and resistance training is that you stimulate your type II muscle fibers to grow. The type II muscle fibers are the ones that can get big in size and generate fast, strong muscle contractions; they can contract very fast to generate tremendous power, when compared to slow-twitch muscle fibers which contract a slower rate of speed. For example, a 100 meter sprinter has big muscles to blast off of the starting line and run as fast as possible for a short distance. This takes big large, well conditioned fast-twitch muscles. Compare this to the marathon runner, who is faster then most people, but runs half as fast as the sprinter, but can do it for much longer. This is because marathon runners have well conditioned their type I, slow-twitch muscle fibers, with very little type II muscle fiber development. Type I muscle fibers contract slower when compared to Type II muscle fibers, they also have the ability to keep contracting for longer periods of time, at this lower level of intensity. But, there is more to this story to understand why and how creatine fits in to the big-strong muscle picture. There are at least two kinds of Type II muscle fibers, Type IIa and Type IIb. Type IIa muscle fibers are also called fast-twitch oxidative glycolytic, FOG for short. At this point you may be detecting a trend in muscle fiber terminology. Exercise physiologists have classified these muscle fibers based on their ability to generate energy and muscle tissue contraction characteristics. Simply put, Type IIa muscle fibers have the ability to generate muscle contractions, which results in strength output over a certain period of time. The glycolytic and oxidative capacity of the Type IIa muscle cells can help produce energy to keep these strong, but not strongest, muscle contractions going for a sustained period of time. Glycolytic refers to the splitting of glucose in the muscle fiber to create energy. Fasttwitch muscle fibers are able to split glucose very rapidly to help regenerate ATP quickly to sustain strong muscle contractions. Fast-twitch muscle fibers also contain high amounts of creatine and the Appendix – A6 Page 4 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

high energy molecule phosphocreatine (PCr), also referred to as creatine phosphate (CP); note that the scientific community periodically changes terminology. Historically, scientists used the term creatine phosphate, but more recently they started to use phosphocreatine. Now, Type IIb muscle fibers, called fast-twitch glycolytic (FG), are where creatine supplements have a major benefit. Type IIb muscle fibers are very large and they store plenty of ATP and PCr in their cellular fluid. This immediate chemical energy reservoir can be used to generate a tremendous muscle contraction of maximum effort energy for a few seconds, then the reservoir of ATP & PCr gets depleted, the ability of the Type IIb muscles to generated maximum effort is reduced. The muscle fiber then has to make new ATP from primarily glucose, which takes time, and fatigue eventually sets in. Type IIa, fast-twitch oxidative glycolytic muscle fibers also benefit from creatine supplementation. So, for maximum, explosive muscle contractions you need two things, well developed Type IIa and IIb muscle fibers (which takes time and smart effort), and muscle fibers that are loaded up with a large supply of ready to use ATP and PCr. It is during these first seconds of all-out effort when the PCr (phosphocreatine) is used to make more ATP as fast as possible to keep the maximum effort going. However, eventually this immediate power-house of energy gets depleted, and the muscle’s capacity to sustain all-out effort is reduced. Taking creatine supplements results in loading up your all of you muscle fibers, in particular the Type IIb muscle fibers with phosphocreatine. This creatine loading gives your muscles ability to work harder and store more strength/power generating PCr. The net result is to stimulate faster gains in strength and muscle mass. This is why creatine is best for strength and bodybuilding athletes, in order to promote Type II muscle fiber strength and size development progress. As you develop larger and better conditioned Type II muscle fibers, the benefits of taking a creatine monohydrate supplement will become even more important. It is this specific muscle development from progressive strength training and strength nutrition that needs to be customized to best accomplish your muscle fiber development goals. In addition to creatine, there are other supplements that can also maximize and improve this process, in different ways. Creatine supplementation is an example of good applied sports nutrition science. Depending on your level of training and experience, you can actually start feeling the benefits of research grade creatine the very first day, including better quality workouts and faster recovery. Improvements in muscle size and hardness are seen within a few days. Is Creatine Safe? YES, according to the most recent research reports. Based on the creatine research reviews mentioned above, the team of independent experts concluded that creatine is indeed safe. One of the most recent studies to demonstrate the safety of creatine was conducted over a 21 month period of time. In this study, conducted by Dr. Kreider and coworkers, they examined the long-term effects of Division IA football players taking an average of 5 g per day. The researchers concluded that longterm creatine supplementation did not appear to adversely affect the measures of health status in the creatine taking athletes, when compared to athletes who did not take creatine. Furthermore additional benefits were revealed from this landmark long-term creatine study. According to Dr. Kreider and coworkers, when compared to the group of football players who did not take creatine, the football players who took creatine actually had fewer episodes of cramping, dehydration, muscle tightness, muscle pulls and strains, non-contact joint injuries, contact injuries, illness, number of missed practices due to injury, players lost for the season, and total injuries or missed practices. Therefore, this research indicates that creatine supplementation during athletic training and competition may actually help reduce athletic injuries and adverse effects of athletic training. Finally, the safety of creatine supplements is additionally confirmed in the hundreds of studies in which it was used with human research subjects. Appendix – A6 Page 5 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

In fact one of the most recent studies hot-off-the press provides further support of the safety of creatine, under conditions of a long-term study, conducted by Groeneveld and coworkers [Groeneveld GJ, Beijer C, Veldink JH, Kalmijn S, Wokke JH, van den Berg LH. “Few adverse effects of long-term creatine supplementation in a placebo-controlled trial.” Int J Sports Med. 2005 May;26(4):307-13. In this study, the

researchers performed a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of creatine monohydrate, with patients taking 10 grams of creatine a day for a period of 310 days or a placebo. The patients were questioned periodically and their plasma urea concentrations and urinary creatine and albumin concentrations were measured. Groeneveld and coworkers found that there were no significant differences in side effects between the group taking the creatine monohydrate supplement compared to the group of people who were taking the placebo. Out of the almost 200 research subjects only 3 experienced side effects like nausea and diarrhea which caused them to discontinue the use of creatine. These side effects disappeared after creatine use was stopped. Regarding metabolic factors, the long-term use of creatine supplement did not increase the plasma urea levels or albumin levels. Who Does Creatine Work For? Creatine monohydrate works for strength sport athletes and anyone who is resistance training to increase muscle mass and strength. Creatine works best for bodybuilding, weightlifting, powerlifting and other competition strength sports, such as boxing, wrestling, martial arts, football, baseball, track and field strength/sprint events, other sprint related sports, including sprint swimming and soccer; Part 4 has a nice summary table about this. If Creatine is Made by the Body, Then Why Take a Creatine Supplement? Yes, creatine is manufactured in your body. Creatine is manufactured in your body from the amino acids arginine and glycine. These amino acids react to form a compound called guanidinoacetate, which gets turned in to creatine when it receives a methyl group from S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe). Also, ornithine is produced via this biochemical pathway. Creatine is also chemically known as: N(Aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine; N-amidinosarcosine; N-methyl-N-guanylglycine; and methylglycocyamine. At room temperature about 1 gram of creatine can dissolve in 75 milliliters, and as the temperature of the liquid is increased more creatine can be dissolved per volume of water. Creatine is also present in some of the foods you eat; mostly from meat and fish, and available in sports supplements, mainly as creatine monohydrate. Your body produces creatine primarily in the liver, this creatine then enters the blood stream, and is delivered throughout the body for use by muscles and other parts of the body. However, the research has determined that the body does not make enough creatine for optimum muscle growth and strength performance; the body only makes about 1 to 3 grams of creatine per day. In fact, dietary creatine has always been an important source of supplemental creatine. In this regard it is interesting to note that throughout history, strength athletes are legendary for consuming large amounts of meat. Well, meat also contains creatine. Eat more meat, and increase your intake of creatine; one of the studies I review actually compares the creatine intake from food and supplements, keep reading to see what form works best. In modern times however, the practice of cooking actually reduces the amount of creatine in meat; the heating converts some of the creatine to its breakdown product called creatinine. There is about 5 grams of creatine in 2.2 pounds of raw meat. So it is not very practical to rely upon dietary sources of creatine for reliably increasing the body’s creatine levels. At some point, a scientist probably thought; let’s see what happens when creatine supplements are ingested. The observations were that the total muscle content of creatine is increased, and phosphocreatine content was also increased. Appendix – A6 Page 6 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

So, creatine monohydrate supplements are consumed to increase the body's stores of creatine and phosphocreatine. PCr is produced in the body by the combination of creatine and phosphate. In the body, PCr is stored in muscle tissue along with ATP. Together, PCr and ATP store the chemical energy of the body. The more energy they store, the better the muscles can perform in short-term maximum-strength events.

Part 3: Creatine and the Muscle Fiber Connection This part will take you through a short course in the science of weight training (resistance training) as it relates to muscle fiber development and bio-energetics. Familiarizing yourself with some of these terms and concepts will help provide an understanding of the link between resistance training, nutrition, muscle fiber development and how creatine supplementation fits in. It also presents some of the basic muscle physiology and biomechanics concepts, and the underlying reasons of how and why certain types of exercise will condition your body (muscles) in different ways. I will also explain you how creatine fits in to the muscle fiber picture, and how it works at the biochemical level of muscle function. Confusion Abounds About Resistance Training (Exercise) Puzzlement about resistance training is still too common despite the advancements in resistance training science. It is more common to see people who are training ineffectively with weight lifting equipment, then to see people who are training correctly for specific strength and muscle building goals; seems unbelievable but true. There are a few reasons for this. First, it’s human nature to want to do it yourself. So, armed with a little bit of knowledge, most people try to copy what the so-called experts are doing and make-up their own weight training program. In most cases these programs are not based on science or proven principles, or might not even be suitable for your specific goal. I am not suggesting that you should not or could not customize your own weight training routine. By all means do so, but do your homework to make sure that you are following a program that is scientifically based, and both safe and effective to get the best results for your exercise effort and level of fitness. For example, following a resistance training program that bodybuilders follow may get you bigger muscles, but might not get you the specific type of strength development you need to be better at your sport. Another common mistake is that people try all sorts of crazy exercise variations, which in most cases puts them at risk and leads to more exercise related injuries. They put themselves in extreme positions, attempting to shock or “isolate” the muscles in contorted ways. Don’t do this. In the end, a contorted weight training program is counterproductive and will lead to injury, and yield inefficient results. Stick to the basic resistance training exercises that are proven to work the muscle groups most effectively. You may have asked yourself, why are there so many different weight training programs published in books and magazines? Perhaps it is because there are so many different types of machines, free weights and exercise program possibilities. Some programs are better than others. The good ones are based on solid exercise science. They offer clarity for the reader to help them achieve their personal goals. As you get more advanced in your training, you will be ready to add some new exercises so reading how others have achieved their performance-fitness goals in your sport may help you to stay on target, or enable you to discover something new to try. In addition, learning about the scientific insights from research studies is also very important. When you take a close look at the exercises, the repetitions, and sets, there is an underlying similarity among effective weight training methods. In other words, most of the best athletes are training in a Appendix – A6 Page 7 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

similar way, the scientific way. The key to effective resistance training is to follow the best routines that will help you achieve your specific goals, within the least amount of time. Keep mind that professional strength athletes use the same resistance training equipment as everyone else. Everybody follows the same principles of exercising different muscle groups using repetitions and sets. Different body parts may be trained the same days or on different days. Resistance training sessions are followed by periods of rest for those muscles exercised, which is needed to give the muscles you exercised time to recover, and grow. You may be wondering if resistance training is so standardized, then do people get such varying results. When you compare the bodybuilders of past and present, or any group of strength athletes, it is interesting to note that these champions followed scientific resistance training programs “of the day” to build their massive physiques and super-human strength. Modern day resistance trainers on average are much bigger and stronger than their predecessors. Then why are there such differences in the size of their physiques and strength? Some of the extra gains you see in today’s strength athletes stem from a new understanding of muscle anatomy and physiology, plus better nutrition science and sports nutrition products. We have made huge advancements in sports supplement technology, and have refined the strength and bodybuilding diet composition. What you may find surprising is that there have been only a few advancements concerning the weight training equipment used by professional strength athletes. Free weights are still the primary instrument of choice for most of their exercises. They offer the best stimulus for muscle growth, providing a full range of motion, and usually, other muscles in the body are recruited for stability. However, research also indicates that combining free weight exercises, with exercises performed on machines is also beneficial. Machines offer convenience, especially when having to select a workload to exercise with, and provide a means to accomplish some exercises not otherwise possible with free weights. Resistance training machines also provide additional safety for some exercises. Ultimately, the resistance training exercises you use will reflect a balance of what best suits your goals, and what is available to you. Specific Training Yields Specific Results – Keep Your Goals in Mind Today championship bodybuilders and strength athletes can develop massive muscles using a more diversified scientific weight training program -- one that’s not necessarily longer, or harder, but smarter. This is due in part to a new understanding of anatomy and physiology and how growth occurs at the microscopic and biochemical level. With this new knowledge, resistance training programs for other athletes can be designed for stimulating the different types of muscle cells, called muscle fibers, that make up your muscles. If you want a strong, lean, slim muscular body, or a massive, lean muscular body, the secret is in how you train your muscle fibers. Muscle Fiber Anatomy and Physiology is the Key to Success You may find it interesting to know that your muscles are composed of different muscle fiber types, which in turn are programmed to respond differently depending on the type of exercise, frequency of exercise, workload/intensity, and duration of sets and exercise sessions. One type of muscle fiber is called fast-twitch, and it has the potential to significantly increase in size and strength. Fast-twitch muscle fibers can generate explosive power, so whether it’s lifting a heavy load, leaping out of the way to avoid getting hit by a car, doing heavy physical work, or being your best in strength sports, your body will do it better, if you develop more fast-twitch muscle fibers.


Another type of muscle fiber is called slow-twitch muscle fiber. Slow-twitch muscle fibers contract more slowly than fast-twitch muscle fibers do. Genetically, some people have more slow-twitch muscle fibers, while others have more fast-twitch muscle fibers. In the trained individual slow-twitch muscle fibers have the capacity to perform work for a long period of time, with light workloads.

Muscle Fiber Types Summary Type I Muscle Fibers, also called Slow-Twitch or Slow Oxidative (SO) Type I muscle fibers have a high oxidative metabolism capacity. They are highly fatigue resistant, with little capacity for exercise induced hypertrophy, and highly resistance to exercise induced structural damage. They are best conditioned using high repetition training with lighter weights (low intensity workloads) and slow continuous tension movements. They will increase in size with weight training, but not as much as fast twitch muscle fibers will. With progressive long duration training, slow twitch muscle fibers develop higher density of mitochondria, which increases their ability to produce energy from fatty acids and also glucose. They have a small diameter, with high capillary density and low glycogen content, when compared to fast-twitch muscle fibers.

Type IIa Muscle Fibers, also called Fast-Twitch OxidativeGlycolytic or Fast Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG) Type IIa muscle fibers have a balance of oxidative-glycolytic metabolism capacity. They are moderately fatigue resistant, the have a good capacity for exercise induced hypertrophy (increase in the size of the muscle fiber), and moderate resistance to exercise induced structural damage. Development of Type IIa muscle fibers is important for sustained, strength stamina. They respond best to medium repetition training using moderate weight (medium intensity workloads) and fast concentric movements, but slower eccentric movements. They are medium diameter, with intermediate capillary density, and intermediate glycogen content. Type IIa muscle fibers generate most of their muscle contraction energy from glucose.

Another major difference between type I and type II muscle fibers is that type I muscle fibers have larger myoglobin content. Myoglobin stores ready to use oxygen in the muscle fibers.

Type II b Muscle Fibers, also called Fast-Twitch Glycolytic or Fast Glycolytic (FG)

Type IIb muscle fibers have high capacity for glycolytic metabolism, low oxidative capacity, and are highly susceptible to fatigue. They can be trained to store a ready to use supply of immediate energy in the form of ATP and CP. They have great capacity for exercise induced hypertrophy and susceptibility to exercise induced damage. Well developed type IIb muscle fibers have the capacity to generate explosive strength and power. They respond best to high intensity, explosive concentric movements using heavier weights (high intensity workloads), and a slow eccentric movement. When fully developed they have the largest diameter, high glycogen content, and low capillary density. In general, creatine phosphate is the major source of energy for the first several seconds of high intensity activities, and also glucose metabolized via anaerobic glycolysis. Medium intensity and medium duration physical activity starts to depend more on aerobic energy producing pathways.

Type I muscle fibers are the muscle fibers that get fully developed by long distance athletes. In general glucose and free fatty acids are the major fuel sources during long distance type activities that use predominantly type I muscle fibers.

Muscle glycogen is also depleted at a faster rate during high intensity training and athletics. Note: the high energy storage / producing molecules ATP and CP are collectively referred to as phosphagens.


One way long distance exercises develop your slow-twitch muscle fibers by increasing the number of fat burning machinery in the cell, called mitochondria. Distance exercise also stimulates your body to make more blood vessels in your muscles to deliver oxygen and nutrients, and remove waste products at a higher rate. Sports such as long distance running, swimming, cycling, and walking condition slow-twitch muscle fibers, and so they are called aerobic exercises, or oxidative. The reason for this is that plenty of oxygen is needed for the slow-twitch muscle fiber cells to make energy from fats and carbohydrates, to fuel the steady pace muscle contractions, performed over time. In fact, the longer you exercise, and the better conditioned your slow-twitch muscle fibers will be, and the more fat your body will use for energy both during exercise and during rest. From a strength and bodybuilding development standpoint, this low intensity, long duration exercise, provides certain fitness benefits, but does not build-up much muscle mass, or maximum strength potential. In fact, it can have the opposite effects. To illustrate this, think of how a marathon runner is built when compared to a sprinter. They both run fast, but the marathon runner is conditioned to run as fast as possible for a long period of time – usually about a maximum of 12.5 miles per hour. The marathon runner has well developed slow-twitch muscle fibers, but underdeveloped fast-twitch muscle fibers. Some long distance runners actually develop bodies that make them look undernourished. Sprinters on the other hand have trained their bodies to move as fast as possible over a very short distance--100 meters under ten seconds, for a maximum speed of about 22.5 miles per hour. This takes explosive muscle power, and a higher output of energy per second. To develop the capacity to do this, the sprinter needs to build up fast-twitch muscle fibers, which have the capacity to get really big, and generate explosive muscle contractions, for a short period of time before fatigue sets in. Visually sprinters are more muscular and shapely when compared to long distance athletes. And while athletes with highly developed fast-twitch muscle fibers mostly draw upon carbohydrates for energy, they are still able to maintain a low percentage of body fat because these larger muscles need more total calories per day for energy. Sprinters and other strength athletes have the timeless classic body of champions depicted in early Greek and Roman art--the body type that comes from high intensity resistance training. The point of this excursion into muscle anatomy and physiology is to show you that your body has the ability to respond and develop differently depending on the type of exercise, frequency of exercise, intensity of exercise and duration of exercise. For the sake of this overview, heavy intensity resistance or weight training means using heavy workloads (weights, resistance), and expending a lot of energy in a short period of time. When you exercise at heavy intensity, your duration will be limited because muscle fatigue occurs quickly from this type of physical exertion. Light intensity weight or resistance training means using light workloads that can be performed for more repetitions, and longer periods of time. Medium intensity weight or resistance training means using weights somewhere in between heavy and light, with the number of repetitions per set also in the middle range. When following a weight training program using a variety of heavy intensity, medium intensity, and light intensity work loads, you will actually be stimulating increases in strength and muscle growth in all of your muscle fibers; typically what bodybuilders do. Where Creatine Fits In Due to the fact that your muscles are composed of both fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle fibers, this leads to some dynamic muscle building possibilities. But the story gets even more interesting, because there are two primary types of fast-twitch fibers in your muscles. One type, called type IIb (or fast-twitch glycolytic), can be trained to grow to massive proportions and has the ability to store more Appendix – A6 Page 10 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

immediate energy in its cellular liquid, that can then be used to fuel extremely powerful muscle contractions. This immediate energy is used up quickly under extremely heavy workloads, and fatigue sets in within a few seconds when exerting maximum effort. The other type of fast-twitch muscle fiber is called type IIa (or fast-twitch oxidative glycolytic), and is conditioned from weight training with middle intensity workloads, and for a wide range of reps, longer duration. Preferential development of type IIb muscle fibers is important to people who are involved in sports that require extreme bursts of muscle contractions, such as competitive weightlifting, powerlifting, sprinting, football, baseball, shot put, goal keepers, and the like. Your fast-twitch muscle fibers can be developed to perform over a range of heavy to middle to light intensity workloads. The extent to which you need to develop the type IIb muscle fiber energy systems depends on your performance goals, and what energy systems are needed to be best at your activities. When type IIb muscle fibers are exercised correctly they get quite large, and store a resting level of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and creatine phosphate (CP) (also called phosphocreatine (PCr). So, when a powerlifter attempts to squat 1000 pounds for one repetition, as ATP gets depleted, the CP is used to quickly as an immediate source of biochemical energy to replenish and make more ATP very, very quickly. This is one reason why loading up with creatine monohydrate supplements results in increased strength and longer workouts. When you load up your body with higher amounts of creatine, your muscles eventually are able to increase the amount of creatine phosphate stored in them. In the process, muscle fibers also grow larger. Research has revealed that it is also important to keep on taking creatine supplements to maintain this higher then normal amount to total body creatine and creatine phosphate in your muscles. So from taking creatine supplements, during high intensity exercise and sports performance, there is more creatine phosphate to replenish ATP. Now keep in mind that these ATP – CP bioenergetics occurs in short timeframe, measured in seconds. This is why much of the research has proven that taking creatine is most beneficial to strength (Type II muscle fiber athletes) than endurance athletes. From knowing about these muscle fiber bio-energetics, it is easy to understand why sports scientists though it would be beneficial to increase creatine level in an athlete’s body. During the course of over a decade of research, additional benefits of ingesting creatine monohydrate supplements were also revealed, in addition to creatine being a strength athlete performance enhancer as originally thought. Benefits, such as increased muscle size and lean body are what have made creatine supplements one of the most popular and useful strength and bodybuilding supplements in the world. This ready-to-go supply of ATP and CP in your muscle fibers, much of it is in the large Type II fibers, is referred to as the immediate energy source. While it lasts only a few seconds, it is important to explode in to action, and generate tremendous force for short periods of time. Also occurring during these seconds of all out effort is the splitting of glucose in the muscle fiber’s cellular fluid, to assist in the replenishment of ATP and CP. This is the biochemical step that forms pyruvate, or lactic acid as a by product (as further explained below). Once this immediate energy supply of ATP and CP is depleted, the ability to generate high intensity force is reduced, and some time is required for the muscles to rest, clear out waste products, rebuild the ATP – CP, and engage in another high intensity bout of exercise or work. As strength athletes develop their muscles, i.e., more and more type II muscle fibers, the need for creatine supplementation becomes even more important. These bigger muscle fibers require more creatine to help maintain high levels of total creatine and creatine phosphate. So, with progressive Appendix – A6 Page 11 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

strength and muscle size development, keep taking creatine to support your progress and peak athletic performance. Some Additional Muscle Bio-energetics Information As the immediate energy system is getting depleted of its capacity to produce ATP, glucose molecules (glycolytic energy production – producing energy from glucose) the muscle fibers is quickly split in half, which produces more ATP for muscle contractions to continue. If all out effort is maintained, lactic acid eventually builds at a rate faster then it can be cleared away, and muscle fatigue occurs. In the process of this type of exercise, these workloads actually stimulate development of type IIb and type IIa muscle fibers. Keeping in mind that type IIa muscle fibers have the capacity to develop and perform over a range of intensities and duration due to their glycolytic and oxidative abilities. As the workloads are reduced, a moderate intensity weight training set can be performed for a longer duration of time. All of this bioenergetics knowledge is important, because it is your underlying energy system that you are actually training to build up a capacity of your muscles to develop and to store and use energy, to accommodate different types of workloads, and eventually turn chemical energy in to mechanical energy to best suit your athletic needs. Additionally, the rapid production of energy from CP and or glucose in the type II muscle fibers occurs mostly without oxygen, which is why this type of muscular exertion is referred to anaerobic. Slow-twitch muscle fibers metabolize glucose more slowly and completely than fast-twitch muscle fibers, and also use more fatty acids for the production of energy, in addition to glucose. This means that training and developing the slow-twitch muscle fibers will burn fat more readily. As described above, high intensity exercise uses primarily immediately available ATP, CP and glucose from muscle tissue (from glycogen stores) and glucose circulating in the blood stream as supplied from the liver. Therefore, anaerobic type of exercise is not very effective in burning body fat. Studies show that by varying the amounts of anaerobic and aerobic exercise you can achieve a diversity of body composition and performance results, which is ideal for general fitness. However, competitive athletes and bodybuilders have to be more selective, and train to develop their muscles to an extreme point to achieve athletic excellence. Aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways are occurring all of the time, but different energy systems will employ one system more than the other. Depending on how your body is trained to best use the different energy systems is what makes the difference. Let’s look at an example. If you were to lift a one pound weight for several minutes, the slow-twitch muscle fibers in your arm muscle would be supplying most of the energy to do this type of low intensity, long duration work. But if you chose to lift up a thirty pound dumbbell, and began to do reps, your type IIb fast-twitch muscle fibers are activated and anaerobic energy systems are called upon to generate the energy need to produce this short duration, high intensity work. Keep in mind however, that the muscle fiber activation boundaries are not perfectly segregated and that at this level of all-out muscular effort, all of your muscle fibers are at work. The Intensity–Duration Muscle Fiber Connection So, what does all this talk about fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle fibers have to do with you? It opens up new possibilities to how you can use weight training to develop your body best for your sport or personal fitness goals. Let’s face, it’s hard pumping heavy loads of iron. But, maybe you do not need to. Very few athletes need to lift very heavy weights for a few repetitions like powerlifters and Olympic weight-lifters do. When you think about using weight training to improve your sports performance, ask your self if being able to squat 1000 pounds once help, or being able to run a marathon will make you better at your sport? Even in power sports like football there is a balance to Appendix – A6 Page 12 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

developing muscles that can produce powerful muscle contractions, but over and over again for peak athletic performance throughout the entire game. The Bodybuilder When you take a look at a professional competitive bodybuilder you see several types of athletes in one. Most bodybuilders have developed all of their muscle fibers to the maximum possible size, in particular both types of fast-twitch muscle fibers. As they get stronger, they get bigger. Even their warm-up sets contribute to building strength and muscle, in particular type IIa and type I muscle fibers. To illustrate the magnitude of type IIb and type IIa muscle fiber development, let us take a look at some impressive statistics from bodybuilding legend, Arnold Schwarzenegger. In an article from Muscle & Fitness magazine, Arnold was reported to be able to lift the following weights and repetitions in the bench press: 500 pounds for one rep, 405 pounds for eight reps, 315 pounds for 25 reps, and 225 pounds for 60 reps. From a muscle fiber development standpoint Arnold’s ability to lift such an impressive amount of weights for a variety of repetitions is a direct reflection of his diversified muscle fiber development. I think most people would be satisfied with being able to bench press 225 pounds for one repetition. But being able to bench press 225 pounds for 60 repetitions demonstrates the strength-stamina potential that well developed fast-twitch muscle fibers have to offer, especially type IIa muscle fibers. Bodybuilding legend, Ronnie Coleman, is reported to display similar diversified muscle fiber development and wide ranging weight lifting abilities. In fact, in one of his favorite exercises, the dumbbell lateral raise giant set, he is reported to lift (without stopping) 30 pound dumbbells for 25 reps, then 40 pounds for 15 reps, then 50 pounds for 10 reps, and 60 pounds for 8 reps. He performs two of these giant sets, about twice a month, and produced drastic gains in shoulder muscle development. This again demonstrates how variable weight training can be used to stimulate total muscle fiber development. Muscle Fiber Recovery and Growth There is another side to the muscle fiber story that concerns time for recovery; muscle fiber growth and repair. When training with heavy workloads for a few repetitions to develop type IIb muscle fibers, these muscle fibers breakdown, and need a few to several days to fully recover. When, resistance training with medium workloads, targeted at developing type IIa muscle fibers, these muscle fibers are more resistant to exercise induced damage, but still need a few days to recover. When using light workloads, for higher repetitions, less muscle damage occurs, and less rest is needed for muscle fiber recovery and repair. In practice, when the purpose of your resistance training is for maximum muscle building, this means that it is best to alternate the intensity of your weight training sessions from workout to workout for maximum muscle building results. After a high intensity weight training day, you need to wait several days for your type IIb muscle fibers to fully recovery. But in the meantime, your muscles can endure medium and light intensity weight lifting sessions. Ideally, each training day should consist of a combination of high, medium and light resistance training intensities for different muscles. Note however that these training-recover principles vary when applied to training for maximum sports performance, as the primary goal is not training for maximum muscle growth, but maximum sportsspecific muscle performance. But, even in the context of sports performance training, the application of varying high intensity training sessions with medium and low intensity training sessions is viable, as your body cannot withstand the stress of high intensity training, day after day. In fact, Russian scientists developed a technique to determine if their athletes, especially strength athletes, were over-training and if they needed to take a medium to low intensity training day versus a high intensity training day. To do this, the scientists developed a quick test that measured the Appendix – A6 Page 13 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

amounts of testosterone and cortisol in the saliva of the athletes. The athletes would get their saliva tested first thing in the morning. Depending on the relative levels of testosterone and cortisol, the scientists would determine what intensity level of training an athlete can handle that particular day. Generally speaking, when cortisol levels are high, this is an indication of over-training, and a medium to low intensity training day is best. The moral to this story is that training smarter and not necessarily harder is what works best. Too often when the gains slow down, individuals start training harder, and harder, when in fact they might need to be staggering high-medium-low intensity workouts smarter, and make sure that their nutrition and sports supplement programs are adequate. Keep in mind that this approach is being applied at the level of the elite athlete, who trains sometimes several hours a day. So, medium and low intensity training days, does not mean you are not breaking a sweat, you are just not pushing yourself to the maximum limit of your performance, like you would on a high intensity training day / workout. There are some individual dynamics concerning recovery from weight training sessions to also consider. Some people may recover quicker then others. In general, young people recovery quicker then older people, and men recovery quicker then women. So while you can follow general resistance training example programs, ultimately, as you become more advanced, you will need to fine-tune your weight training to best suit your individuality. This is why you need to keep a good training and nutrition log book; using the evidence based, scientific approach. These are just some general rules to keep in mind for muscle building and strength training. Resistance training for sports performance is a bit more complicated. Keep in mind that while advanced bodybuilders have huge muscles, this is just what they are training for. They are not training to improve their performance on the playing field to win powerlifting contests. The research is clear about one thing, that creatine monohydrate will help benefit muscle building, strength building, and strength sports performance efforts. So, if the gains in muscle mass increase have slowed down, working out harder and longer may not be the answer. Resistance training smarter may get you out of the rut that every athlete eventually falls in to. Strength-To-Bodyweight Ratio Most people don’t need to over develop their type IIb muscle fibers for a few reasons. First, it takes a tremendous amount of high intensity training (lifting extremely heavy weights for only a few to several repetitions at a time) to develop them. Second, most people don’t need to exert this huge amount of force in their daily life or recreational activity. And finally, there comes a point where an increase in maximum strength will result in an increase of body weight that is not practical. This is where the concept of strength to body weight is important. Massive type IIb muscle fibers are generally too big and fatigue too quickly, making them impractical for competing in some sports and even performing daily chores. Most people want more strength and a modest amount of muscle size to improve their body build and functional strength, but they don’t need to build the massive physique of a powerlifter, bodybuilder, or football lineman. Even sports that require strength and power don’t really require muscle development to the point of maximum power potential. For example, a football lineman needs a strong massive body to generate explosive muscle contractions and over-power their opponent. But if they were to spend the time in the gym lifting just like a powerlifter, and were able to generate enough force to squat 1000 pounds for one repetition, on the playing field they may only do extremely well for the first few plays. But eventually, would not be able to sustain this maximum burst of power over and over again. After a few more plays, fatigue would set in quicker, because adequate training time was not spent on developing the other fast twitch muscle fibers, type IIa, which give us the ability to produce powerful muscle contractions over and over again, and also to train the type IIb muscle fibers to recover more quickly, and replenish resting ATP and CP (PCr) levels faster. A lineman needs to maintain the same level of Appendix – A6 Page 14 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

explosive strength off the line, perhaps more than 60 times during a game. Looking this example of the football player, it is easy to understand how creatine is an essential supplement to maximize explosive strength performance, and help promote strength stamina, throughout the game, in addition to a sport specific resistance training program. Even in a strength sport like boxing, where explosive power for the knock-out punch is needed, muscle stamina and endurance is also important. Boxers are in the ring slugging it out for 3 minutes at a time, contracting their muscles over and over again as if they are performing a combination weightlifting giant set and short run around the track. Then they only get a minute of rest, and have to perform again for 3 minutes of all out, sustained effort. While powerlifters and bodybuilders are extremely strong athletes, I think you will agree that unless they knocked a well trained boxer out early in the first round, their ability to generate explosive muscle contractions in the second round would greatly be reduced, and continue to be reduced each round thereafter. In fact, true “cross training” employs different types of exercise or sport activities to train your body’s different energy systems, and muscle fibers. Under these terms, the triathlon is not really cross training, because all of the sport activities are aerobic, long distance. None of them require maximum development of the fast-twitch muscle fibers and anaerobic energy systems. A good example of a cross trained athlete is a decathlete. In the decathlon all of the energy systems need to be developed to excel at the different events. For example the shot put requires very short lived, extremely explosive strength. Other anaerobic strength events in the decathlon include the 100 meter sprint, long jump, high jump, 110 meter hurdles, discus, pole vault, and javelin, which need well developed fast twitch muscle fibers, both types. The 400 meter run tests the athlete’s type IIa muscle fiber development. This grueling sport event then ends with a grueling 1,500 meters aerobic run, which also relies on the anaerobic energy systems early in the race, and at the end of the race to sprint to the finish line, but also well developed level of high intensity aerobic performance-fitness; good type I muscle-fiber development. It is interesting to note however, while the decathlete is a tremendous athlete, this all around bio-energetic training does not result in these athletes breaking any specific event world records. This is another example of the delicate balance and precision that is required for sports specific training and muscle development (bio-energetic development). So while you need strength, power, and stamina to repeat the muscle contractions over and over again, to what extent will be determined by your personal-fitness goals. Additionally, research studies have discovered that creatine supplementation can help improve your strength to weight ratio. Maintenance--Use it or You’ll Lose it It is a well know medical fact that disuse of your body will lead to premature aging and premature death. Resistance training your entire body on a regular basis will keep your muscles in good working order. It will stimulate growth and development and keep you looking younger longer. One of the most frequent big-mistakes competitive bodybuilders make is letting up on the intensity of their resistance training the months preceding a contest, and doing too much “aerobic” training. Yes, this helps them to trim the body fat and improve definition. But, in the process they are actually detraining their massive size Type IIb muscle fibers, and can loose valuable muscle mass. The trick is to find that magic balance. High intensity training of a muscle at least once a week is required to build it up and or maintain the muscle fiber development. Regarding aerobic exercise, while the 45 to 60 minutes is ideal to get in the fat burning mode, this aerobic exercise metabolic stimulus will set off signals in your body that favor Type I muscle fiber development, and may counter act Type II muscle fiber growth and maintenance. Ideally, you should try to maintain body fat levels under 10%, in order to make your contest cutting-up phase easier to accomplish. Make your nutrition and supplement program work to help trim the fat, versus having to do too much aerobic exercise. Appendix – A6 Page 15 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Another important point to remember about the “use or lose it” principle is that this is a lifelong commitment. There are no quick fixes to muscle building or weight loss. Once you achieve your strength and bodybuilding goals, this does not mean you stop training. You need to stick with it to experience lifelong benefits. So, when you reach your particular goals, continue training for maintenance. This may mean cutting back on the days and sets of weight training exercises you perform. But try to exercise each muscle group at least once or twice a week for maintenance of strength, muscle size, and the other health benefits of weight training. This goes double for your nutrition and nutrition supplement programs. Following your performance nutrition plan all year round is best. Don’t sell yourself in to the idea that it is okay to let yourself go, and eat all the junk you want on the off-season. Winners of sports and life are consistent year round, and always do things that are best for them to accomplish their goals. Be a winner, and stick to a healthy eating performance nutrition program all the time. Some of the research studies presented in the following chapters also reveal that creatine supplements can help maintain the gains, as well as help promote getting faster and better gains in muscle mass, strength, and athletic performance.

Part 4: Creatine Research Overview The purpose of Part 4 is to provide you with a summary review of the creatine research studies and conclusions of these studies that span 2 decades. When reading through this information keep in mind that while the science process in not perfect, it is an important way to help separate fact from fiction, reality from marketing hype, and what works from what does not work. You can self prescribe different training and nutrition programs based on general scientific principles and what other people have done to achieve the same results (observations) or based on the results of scientific studies. But, how do you know your are doing it the best way? This is what scientific studies are for, to validate or invalidate what we think we know from our observations. Also, keep in mind that science does not always have all of the answers at any giving point in time, due to the fact that the research may not have been performed yet. In sum, the best approach to take to promote health and athletic performance is an evidence based approach. This approach combines the scientific discoveries and scientific insights with case studies and observations at the individual, group and population levels. When taking a metabolite supplement substance like creatine, research is important to verify what the safe and effective levels of consumption really are. This is why it is eventually necessary to reach conclusions of use based on the “body” of scientific research; more than one or a few studies. Speculation is a good starting point, but scientific evidence is needed to verify optimum application. For example, based on the results of numerous scientific studies, it is concluded that taking a certain amount of a creatine monohydrate supplement will yield the desired benefits. In the case of creatine supplementation, the scientific process began more then a century ago when creatine was discovered as a biological substance. Eventually scientists determined the role of creatine in the human body as a building block for the energy producing substance, creatine phosphate (also referred to as phosphocreatine). But it took until the late 1980’s for scientists to start to experiment with creatine supplements to determine the effects creatine would have on the bioenergetics of the human body. It was actually in the early 1990’s that the first independent research studies began to appear in the scientific journals about the effects creatine monohydrate supplement taking had on the body relative Appendix – A6 Page 16 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

to athletic performance. One reason it took so long to get from the point of the discovery of creatine, to creatine supplement taking by humans, is the nature of the scientific process. For one thing, when it comes to humans, the scientific process demands that there is some evidence that experimental substance in question will be safe. This is a lengthy scientific process starts with toxicology experiments being conducted using microbes. Based on the microbe tests, the safety experiments advance to using more complex organisms (animals). Eventually, after the standard testing is completed, which can take decades, assuming a substance is determined to be safe, at which point human testing begins. As more and more scientific studies have been conducted using creatine monohydrate some conclusions have been reached, but at the same time, new questions arise. What started out as a substance thought to help increase strength, the list of benefits from taking creatine monohydrate has grown, and continues to grow from the proliferation of ongoing research studies, which reveal new discovers from taking creatine supplements. The Quest for Growth The quest for growth is not limited to bodybuilders and other athletes. Much of the research conducted using creatine and other growth substances starts using animals. First for safety determination, but also to determine how a potential growth substance works in animals of economic importance, such as those animals grown for human use and consumption; growing bigger cows for example. The practice of doping animals raised for human consumption has become quite controversial in recent years. For example, the human health issues related to the consumption of growth hormone and anabolic steroids found in some animal meats and other animal products, such as milk. There is even research on how creatine and other supplements, like carnitine, promote growth and performance in race animals, such as horses and dogs. While this type of research is useful however, the results cannot be directly applied to humans. Due to animal species differences, scientific research conducted on humans is ultimately required to reach conclusions about the effects a particular substance will have on the human body. About The Creatine Research Reviews The scientific evidence is presented in two ways: first, by providing a summary of what the body of research concludes about how creatine supplementation affects the human in terms of growth, energy production, and athletic performance. This is accomplished primarily from a combination of reporting on the results of single studies, and also scientific review studies. Review studies are very useful in science, as they serve to review and evaluate the results of several or more scientific studies. In the case of creatine supplementation there are now a few review studies that reviewed and evaluated the results of over 200 creatine supplementation studies. The second way the scientific evidence is presented is to actually take you through the results of some of the most recent scientific studies, study by study, that were published during the past few years. In this way you will gain detailed insights in to the most recent results of the actual research performed on creatine supplementation. The scientific process thrives on duplication and validation of the results of previous studies. This is one reason why there are so many studies conducted on creatine, to see if the results of the previous researchers are valid. However, even with this verification process, scientists sometimes screw up. For example, not using a high quality supplement, or using a bad study designs. Sometimes scientists get caught up in the “blind leading the blind” syndrome; however, eventually the scientific truth reveals itself. In the case of creatine supplementation, the scientific truth began to reveal itself from the first human studies, due to that the fact that supplementation with creatine monohydrate produced significantly measurable effects. Appendix – A6 Page 17 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

CREATINE RESEARCH – WEIGHING IN THE EVIDENCE A landmark creatine research review by J.B. Walker, published back in 1979, and this research review focused on the chemistry, biochemistry and functionality of creatine, and was based mostly on research studies that used tissue cultures and animals. In this early research review, Walker proposed the possible bio-energetic effects of creatine loading, and call for more research in this area of focus. Since the early 1990’s, the type of human creatine supplement research has progressed as follows: • To determine what the effects were of creatine supplementation on the levels of total creatine and creatine phosphate in the body. • Continuing research on testing various dosage amounts and duration of use, and the effects on the levels of total creatine and creatine phosphate in the body. • Determination of synergistic ingredients to enhance the uptake and beneficial effects of creatine monohydrate. • The effects of creatine supplementation on body composition. • The effects of creatine supplementation on strength performance and work load ability. • The effects of creatine supplementation in males & females, young and old. • The effects of creatine supplementation on athletic performance. • Determine optimum creatine monohydrate dosing regimens. • Evaluation of new forms of creatine. For the sake of the following research study reviews, unless otherwise noted, creatine means creatine monohydrate. If the study used a different form of creatine, the form is clearly identified. Keep in mind that these recent research studies are in addition to numerous research studies published since 1992, and the results need to be considered in the context of the total body of scientific evidence, as evidenced from the research reviews. Also note that most studies compare one or more experimental groups, creatine taking groups, and compare the results of the creatine takers to a placebo group. Sometimes, research studies even have a control group in addition to the experimental group and placebo taking group. Comparing the results of an experimental group (creatine takers) to the results of a placebo taking group allows the researchers to determine if there are any beneficial effects from taking creatine supplements. In over 85% of the more then 200 clinical studies using creatine monohydrate, significant beneficial effects were observed in the creatine taking groups of individuals. In most of the studies where a significant effect was not observed, this was primarily due to inadequate creatine intake (studies testing the lower range of beneficial intake), or athletes not expected to benefit from taking creatine, such as long-distance endurance athletes. Studies that did not find a significant improvement, did not report a negative effect from creatine use, in other words, creatine either produced either significantly beneficial effects, or neutral effects. Additional study reviews will be presented in Sections 5 (dealing with taking creatine) and 6 (dealing with different forms of creatine). As an aside, at the writing of this 2005 edition, there were no research studies published using creatine ethyl ester; see Section 6 for more information about creatine ethyl ester and other forms of creatine. The following table summarizes the beneficial effects of taking creatine monohydrate supplements, based on observations and creatine research studies published in scientific journals. The list of beneficial effects has grown quite significantly since 1992, when the first benefits of creatine supplementation were reported to increase total creatine and creatine phosphate body content. One thing is clear from all of this research, if you are exercising to improve strength, muscle mass and physical performance, creatine works to enhance these effects more significantly. The most recent Appendix – A6 Page 18 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

research also reports that athletes taking creatine are actually reported to reduce the risk of all injuries, including muscle cramps when compared to taking a placebo. Summary of Beneficial Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation This table includes a summary of the major conclusions about how creatine monohydrate supplementation improves body composition, physiology, physical performance and athletic performance. Body Composition and Athletic Performance Related Athletic Performance Physiology Related Improvements Improvements Sports Improvements Reported In Research Studies: -Improves rate of training induced -Promotes greater gains in Bodybuilding gains. increasing FFM (Fat Free Mass, Football -Improves maximal strength and which includes muscle mass). Handball / Squash power about 15%. -Increases muscle fiber size - Improves work performed during Hockey (hypertrophy). Military Performance maximal effort muscle -Increases muscle mass. Powerlifting contractions about 15%. -Increases myosin muscle fiber Softball / Baseball - Improves anaerobic power. content. Soccer -Improves single-effort sprint - Improves strength training Sprint running performance about 5%. adaptations. Sprint cycling - Improves multiple sprint - Improves limb blood flow. Sprint rowing performance. - Reduced ammonia levels. Weightlifting -Improves worked performed - Reduced lactate levels. Wrestling during repetitive sprint - Raises lactate threshold. performance about 15%. - Reduces cholesterol levels. Sports In Which Improvements -Improves performance during - Reduces homocysteine levels. are Expected Due to the Bioexercise of high to maximal - Increases in muscle satellite energetic Nature of the Sport: intensity. cells (muscle fiber precursor Sports involving short-term - Increased number of cells). sustained or periodic maximum weightlifting repetitions. effort strength and power, such - Increased number of Benefits have been measured in as: weightlifting sets. men and women; young and old Basketball - Greater gains in vertical jump (teenagers to over 70 years of Bobsledding height and power. age); inactive, active and athletic - Increased 1 repetition maximum. Bowling individuals. Boxing - Increased peak force. Canoeing / Kayaking - Increased peak power. Note: creatine supplementation - Reduction of athletic injury rates, Curling has not been shown to increase Decathlon such as: reduced muscle long-term endurance physical / Fencing cramping, reduced dehydration, sport / exercise performance. Golf reduced muscle tightness, Other supplements, such as Ice Skating reduced muscle pulls, reduced carnitine, certain carbohydrates, Lacrosse muscle strains, reduced joint etc. have been reported to Martial Arts injuries, reduced contact injuries, stimulate significant Rodeo reduced illness, reduced number improvements. of missed practices, and reduction Skiing, downhill Tennis in total injuries during the season. Track and Field events that utilize anaerobic energy systems, such as shot put, high jump, long jump, etc. Major Research Reviews Include: Gastelu, D, “Creatine Research Update 2005”, Supplementfacts International LLC, 2005. Greeenhaff, PL. The nutritional biochemistry of creatine. J Nutr Biochem 1997;8:610-618. Juhn, MS and Tarnopolsky, M. Oral creatine supplementation and athletic performance: A critical review. Clin J Sport Med 1998;8:286297. Kreider, RB, Leutholtz, BC and Greenwood, M. Creatine. In Nutritional Ergogenic Aids, CRC Press 2004:81-104. Lemon PW. Dietary creatine supplementation and exercise performance: why inconsistent results? Can J Appl Physiol. 2002 Dec;27(6):663-81. Persky, AM and Gayle, AB. Clinical pharmacology of the dietary supplement creatine monohydrate. Pharmacological Reviews. 2001;53:161-176. Turpin, AA, et al. Systematic and critical evaluation of benefits and possible risks of nutritional ergogenic aids. In Nutritional Ergogenic Aids, CRC Press 2004:469-504 Walker, JB. Creatine: biosynthesis, regulation and function. Adv Enzymol Relat Areas Mol Biol 1979;50:177-242 Williams, MH and Branch, JD. Creatine supplementation and exercise performance: An update. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1998;17(3):216-234. This Table is copyright protected.


CREATINE RESEARCH–THE EARLY YEARS The following is an overview one of the first studies to report the benefits of taking creatine monohydrate supplements, followed by one of the first studies to report on the ability of taking creatine supplements to increase the rate of resynthesis of phosphocreatine in the muscles. This study was undertaken to test if creatine supplement was absorbed, and if continued resulted in an increase in the total creatine pool in muscle. It was conducted by Harris and coworkers, and published in 1992 (1). Additionally, the researchers also sought to determine the effect of exercise upon creatine uptake into muscles. During this study it was found that low doses creatine monohydrate, 1 gram, produced only a modest rise in the plasma creatine concentration. But, 5 grams resulted in a mean peak after 1 hour of 795 mumol/l in three subjects weighing 76-87 kg. Repeated dosing with 5 grams every 2 hours sustained the plasma concentration at around 1000 mumol/l. A single 5 gram dose of corresponds to the creatine content of 1.1 kilograms of fresh, uncooked steak. Supplementation with 5 grams of creatine monohydrate, four or six times a day for 2 or more days resulted in a significant increase in the total creatine content of the quadriceps femoris muscle measured in 17 subjects. The increase in total creatine muscle content was greater for subjects who had lower initial total creatine content. The increase was as much as 50% increase in total muscle creatine content in some individuals. Approximately 20% or more of the creatine taken up was measured as phosphocreatine. There were no changes apparent in the muscle ATP content observed during this study. Which makes sense, as creatine increases creatine phosphate (phosphocreatine) levels in muscles. The results of this is the study that set the stage for other researchers to follow, and lead to the practice of short-term (several days) creatine loading. Then the next significant creatine research study was published in 1994 by group of researchers lead by Greenhaff (2). In this study the researchers actually obtained biopsy samples from the vastus lateralis muscle of eight subjects. These muscle biopsies were obtained after 0, 20, 60, and 120 seconds after recovery from intense electrically evoked isometric contraction. Then 10 days later the same procedure was performed using the other leg. But, this time the subjects ingested 20 grams of creatine per day for the preceding 5 days before the test; that is they creatine loaded. Muscle ATP, phosphocreatine, free Creatine, and lactate concentrations were measured from the biopsy samples. In five of the eight subjects, creatine ingestion substantially increased muscle total creatine concentration, and phosphocreatine resynthesis during recovery. This research data suggest that a dietary-induced increase in muscle total creatine concentration can increase phosphocreatine resynthesis during the 2nd minute of recovery from intense contraction. As this type of research continued, researchers eventually determined that creatine loading and maintenance us, resulted in increases in lean body mass and strength. Parts 5 and 6 will review some of the research findings, including if creatine works in older people and women. Part 4 References (1) Harris RC, Soderlund K, Hultman E. Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clin Sci (Lond). 1992 Sep;83(3):367-74.


(2) Greenhaff PL, Bodin K, Soderlund K, Hultman E. Effect of oral creatine supplementation on skeletal muscle phosphocreatine resynthesis. Am J Physiol. 1994 May;266(5 Pt 1):E725-30.

Part 5 – Recent Creatine Research Reviews, Focus on Body Composition and Strength RECENT CREATINE RESEARCH REVIEWS The following presents reviews of some of the most recent creatine research conducted between 1999 and 2005 using creatine monohydrate. These reviews cover a wide range of research topics, such as, reconfirmation of creatine supplementation causing increases in muscle strength and building; creatine supplementation effects on young and old athletes and nonathletes; effects on sports performance; and effects on men and women. As some of the studies measured multiple benefits of creatine, some athletic benefits are also included in this Part, in addition to Part 6. Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation and Muscle and Strength Building Study Title: “Mg2+-creatine chelate and a low-dose creatine supplementation regimen improve exercise performance.” Selsby and coworkers (3) conducted a double-blind, placebo study using a Creatine monohydrate taking group (2.5 g of Creatine per day), and a Magnesium Creatine taking group (2.5 g of Creatine per day). Pre-treatment data was collected for the bench press 1 repetition maximum (RM) and maximal work completed during a fatigue set at 70% of the 1RM. Following 10 days of Creatine supplementation, follow-up tests were completed and data was collected. After 10 days of supplementation, both the Creatine monohydrate and the magnesium Creatine groups had significantly larger increases in maximal work completed during a set of bench presses at 70% of the one repetition maximum, and 1 repetition maximum, both of these experimental groups were similar. This study provides some evidence that low dosages of creatine monohydrate may be an effective means of enhance muscle strength performance after a period of short-term ingestion. Also, the use of magnesium creatine offered no additional benefits over creatine monohydrate, and compared to higher dosage creatine studies, the improvements were not as big. Note: one issue I have with using a magnesium-creatine chelate is that in order to take in adequate amounts of creatine, you most likely will be taking in too much magnesium. Creatine monohydrate works best, alone or as an ingredient in sophisticated comprehensive formulas like Explosive Growth Blend. Study Title: “Effects of creatine on body composition and strength gains after 4 weeks of resistance training in previously nonresistance-trained humans.” This study by Kilduff and coworkers (4) evaluated the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on muscle strength in conjunction with resistance training in nonresistance-trained males. Nineteen nonresistance-trained males underwent 4 weeks of resistance training 3 days per week. The creatine supplement program they followed was taking 20 grams creatine plus 140 grams glucose per day for a 7 day loading period. This loading period was followed by subjects taking 5 grams creatine and 35 grams glucose per day for a 21 day maintenance period; or a placebo regimen of taking 160 grams glucose per day during the loading period and 40 grams of glucose per day during the maintenance period. Seven of the 9 subjects taking creatine were considered responders based on their increase in strength and body mass. The results of this Kilduff study indicated that creatine supplementation can increase muscle strength in association with strength training but only in subjects whose estimated creatine uptake and body mass are significantly increased, reporting that the greater the creatine uptake and associated body Appendix – A6 Page 21 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

mass changes, the greater the performance gains. This study also illustrates that taking glucose with creatine does not guarantee a better uptake of creatine, as 2 of the 9 subjects did not respond to the creatine plus glucose supplement regimen. Note: based on reviewing 200 studies and working with creatine, observations and research indicate that the small percentage of people who do not respond in a significantly beneficial way to creatine supplementation, may be due in part to their state of muscle fiber development. That is, they do not have adequate type IIb muscle fiber development to benefit from taking creatine supplements in these short-term studies, usually lasing a few to several weeks. Based on longer studies conducted with strength trained athletes, creatine responsiveness is usually 100%.

Study Title: “Creatine supplementation enhances anaerobic ATP synthesis during a single 10 sec maximal handgrip exercise.” This research team led by Kurosawa in 2003 (5), examined forearm muscles of twelve healthy male subjects during a 10 second maximal dynamic handgrip exercise before and after ingestion with 30 grams of creatine monohydrate or placebo per day for 14 days. Creatine supplementation produced an average 11.5% increase in the resting muscle phosphocreatine concentration and a 65.0% increase in the phosphocreatine degradation during exercise, and a 15.1% increase in the mean power output. The results indicate that creatine supplementation enhanced phosphocreatine degradation during exercise. These results support an improvement in performance during exercise associated with the increased phosphocreatine availability for the synthesis of ATP, from creatine supplementation.

Study Title: “Effect of creatine loading on anaerobic performance and skeletal muscle volume in NCAA Division I athletes.” In this study Ziegenfuss and coworkers (6) measured the effects of 3 days of creatine monohydrate supplementation on repeated sprint performance and thigh muscle volume in elite power athletes. Ten male and ten female athletes were randomly assigned to a creatine or placebo group. Subjects completed six maximal 10-second cycle sprints interspersed with 60 seconds of recovery before and after 3 days of creatine supplementation. Creatine supplementation was at the rate of 0.35 grams per kilogram of fat-free mass, or in the placebo group, taking a maltodextrin supplement. Creatine supplementation resulted in statistically significant increases in body mass, about 0.9 kilograms, increased total work during the first sprint, and peak power during sprints 2 to 6, during the 3 day creatine taking period. Total work and peak power values for males were greater than those for the females during the first sprints. However, the reverse was true during the last three sprints. Special muscle imaging data showed a 6.6% increase in thigh volume in five of six creatine taking subjects. The researchers concluded that creatine supplementation can increase thigh muscle volume and enhance cycle sprint performance in elite power athletes, and that this effect is greater in females as sprints were repeated. Note: very impressive results for such a short study period; 3 days.

Study Title: “Effects of creatine loading and prolonged creatine supplementation on body composition, fuel selection, sprint and endurance performance in humans.” This study conducted by van Loon and coworkers (7) evaluated the effects of both creatine monohydrate loading and prolonged supplementation on muscle creatine content, body composition, muscle and whole-body oxidative capacity, substrate utilization during submaximal exercise, and on repeated supramaximal sprint, as Appendix – A6 Page 22 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

well as endurance-type time-trial performance on a cycle ergometer. For this study twenty subjects participated. During the 5-day loading period, 20 grams per day of creatine monohydrate was ingested, followed by a 6 weeks period of ingesting 2 grams per day of creatine. Creatine loading increased muscle free creatine, creatine phosphate and total creatine content. The use of the 2 grams per day maintenance dose, resulted in a decline in both the elevated creatine phosphate and total creatine content and maintenance of the free creatine concentration. Both the short-term and long-term creatine supplementation improved performance during repeated supramaximal sprints on a cycle ergometer. However, whole-body and muscle oxidative capacity, substrate utilization and time-trial performance were not affected. The increase in body mass following creatine loading was maintained for 6 weeks after supplementation and accounted for by a corresponding increase in fat-free mass. This study provides evidence that prolonged creatine supplementation in humans does not increase muscle or whole-body oxidative capacity (endurance) and, as such, does not influence substrate utilization or performance during endurance cycling exercise. But, this study reconfirms that creatine supplementation induces an increase in fat-free body mass.

Study Title: “Differential response of muscle phosphocreatine to creatine supplementation in young and old subjects.” This research study conducted by Rawson and coworkers (8) compared the effects of short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation on muscle phosphocreatine levels, blood and urine creatine levels, and urine creatinine levels in elderly and young subjects. Eight young male subjects average age 24 years, and seven older male subjects average age 70 years. The subjects ingested 20 grams per day of creatine for 5 days. At the start of the study it was observed that the older subjects had significantly higher baseline plasma creatine levels than young subjects (68.5 versus 34.9 micromol per liter). After the creatine supplementation period, urine creatine increased in both groups. Urine creatinine did not change as a result of creatine supplementation. The young males showed a significantly greater increase in muscle phosphocreatine compared with the older males; young males 27.6 mmol kg-1 versus old males 25.7 mmol kg-1 ww. There were no differences in blood or urine creatine between groups in response to creatine supplementation.

Study Title: “Creatine supplementation enhances isometric strength and body composition improvements following strength exercise training in older adults.” Brose and coworkers (9) sought to determine if creatine monohydrate supplementation would enhance the increases in strength and fatfree mass that develop during resistance exercise training in older adults. Twenty-eight healthy men and women over the age of 65 years participated in a whole-body resistance exercise program 3 days per week for 14 weeks. The study participants were randomly assigned, in a double-blind fashion, to receive either creatine monohydrate at 5 grams per day plus 2 grams of dextrose (14 subjects) or placebo of 7 grams of dextrose (14 subjects). At the end of the study period, significant increases in all measurements of strength and functional tasks, and muscle fiber area occurred for both the placebo and creatine taking groups. However, the creatine taking group experienced greater increases in fat-free mass and total body mass. Additionally, the creatine taking group also had a greater increase in isometric knee extension strength in both men and women, and also greater gains in isometric dorsiflexion strength, but in men only. A significant increase in intramuscular total creatine in the creatine taking group was also measured. There were no significant side effects of treatment or exercise training. Appendix – A6 Page 23 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

This study confirms that heavy resistance exercise training can safely increase muscle strength and functional capacity in older adults, and the addition of creatine supplementation can stimulate increases in total and fat-free mass, and gains muscle strength greater then resistance training alone.

Study Title: “Creatine supplementation improves muscular performance in older men.” Researcher Gotshalk and coworkers (10) examined the effects of 7 days of creatine supplementation in normally active older men (59-72 yr) by using a double-blind, placebo-controlled design. These subjects were randomly assigned into creatine (10 subjects) and placebo (8 subjects) groups. The subjects consumed creatine monohydrate supplement at the rate of 0.3 grams per kilogram of body weight. The results indicated that 7 days of creatine supplementation is effective at increasing several indices of muscle performance, including functional tests in older men without adverse side effects. The researchers pointed out that creatine supplementation may be a useful therapeutic strategy for older adults to attenuate loss in muscle strength and performance of functional living tasks.

Study Title: “Creatine supplementation combined with resistance training in older men.” In this study Chrusch and coworkers (11) determined the effect of creatine supplementation combined with resistance training on muscular performance and body composition in older men. Sixteen men average age 70.4 years were assigned to the creatine monohydrate supplement taking group, and fourteen men average age 71.1 years were assigned to the placebo taking group, using a double blind study design. Creatine supplementation for this study consisted of 0.3 grams per kilogram of body weight per day for the first 5 day loading phase, followed by taking creatine consumption at a rate of 0.07 grams per kilogram of body weight per day for the remainder of the study period. Both groups participated in resistance training, consisting of 36 total sessions, at the frequency of 3 times per week, 3 sets of 10 repetitions, 12 exercises. Compared with placebo taking subjects, the creatine taking subjects had significantly greater increases in: • Lean tissue mass; an increase of 3.3 kilograms in the creatine group versus an increase of 1.3 kilograms in the placebo group. • Leg press 1-repetition maximum; creatine group increased an average of 50.1 kilograms versus placebo group increasing by 31.3 kg) • Knee extensions 1 repetition maximum; creatine group increased an average of14.9 kg versus placebo group increasing by 10.7 kg, • Leg press repetition endurance; 47 reps average for the creatine taking group versus placebo 32 reps for the placebo group The researchers concluded that creatine supplementation when combined with resistance training, increases lean tissue mass and improves leg strength, endurance, and average power in men of mean age 70 yr.

Study Title: “Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on myosin heavy chain expression.” Researchers Willoughby and Rosene (12) examined the effects of 12 weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation and heavy resistance training on muscle strength and myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoform mRNA and protein expression.


In this study, twenty-two untrained male subjects were randomly assigned to either a control group, placebo group , or a creatine supplement – resistance training group in a double-blind fashion. Muscle biopsies were obtained before and after 12 weeks of heavy resistance training. The placebo and control groups trained three times a week using three sets of 6-8 repetitions at 85-90% 1-repetition maximum on the leg press, knee extension, and knee curl exercises. The creatine – resistance training group ingested 6 grams per day of creatine for 12 weeks. The following is an overview of the results of this 12 week study: • There were no significant differences for percent body fat between the groups. • Creatine supplement taking and resistance training produced significant increases in total body mass and fat-free mass, thigh volume, muscle strength, and myofibrillar protein, compared to the other groups. • Regarding type I, IIa, and IIx muscle fibers, and MHC mRNA expression, the creatine taking and resistance training group experienced significantly greater improvements compared to the other groups. The researchers concluded that long-term creatine supplementation increases muscle strength and size, possibly as a result of increased myosin heavy chain synthesis.

Study Title: “Comparison of creatine ingestion and resistance training on energy expenditure and limb blood flow.” This research study conducted by Arciero and coworkers (13) determined the effects of 28 days of oral creatine ingestion. Days 1 to 5, subjects ingested 20 grams creatine monohydrate per day, taken in 5 gram dosages, 4 times daily. During days 6 to 28, 10 grams per day was ingested, taken in 5 grams dosages, twice daily. Creatine was taken by people who did not resistance train and people who resistance trained about five hours per week. This study used a double-blind, placebo-controlled design, 30 healthy male volunteers (21 +/- 3 years; 18 to 30 years) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups; pure creatine monohydrate no training (10 males), creatine plus resistance training (10 males), or placebo plus resistance training 10 males). Body composition, body mass, bench and leg press 1 repetition maximum, resting metabolic rate, and forearm and calf limb blood flow were obtained on all 30 subjects on 3 occasions beginning at approximately 6:00 AM following an overnight fast and 24 hours removed from the last training session; baseline (day 0), and 7 days and 29 days following the interventions. No differences existed among groups at baseline for any of the variables measured. The following summarizes the results: • • •

•

Body mass increased significantly in creatine and creatine & resistance training groups, but remained unchanged in the placebo & resistance training group. Fat-free mass increased significantly in the creatine & resistance training group (about 1.7 kilograms) and showed a non-significant tendency to increase in the creatine taking group (0.9 kilograms). Following the 28-day period, all groups significantly increased bench press: creatine (average 77.3 to 83.2 kilograms; creatine & resistance training (average 76.8 to 90.5 kilograms; placebo & resistance training (average 76.0 to 85.5 kilograms), and leg press; creatine (average 205.5 to 238.6 kg; creatine & resistance training (average 167.7 to 238.6 kg; placebo & resistance training (average 200.5 to 255 kg) in 1 repetition maximum muscular strength testing. It was noted that the creatine & resistance training program improved significantly more on the leg press 1RM than the creatine and placebo & resistance training groups, and the bench press 1RM than the creatine group.


• • •

Calf (30%) and forearm (38%) blood flow increased significantly in the creatine & resistance training group, but remained unchanged in the creatine and placebo & resistance training groups. Resting metabolic rate increased in the creatine group (average 1,860.1 to 1,907 kcal/day) and in the creatine & resistance training group (average 1,971.4 to 2,085.7 kcal/day), but remained unchanged in the placebo & resistance training group. Additionally total cholesterol decreased significantly in creatine & resistance training group (9.9%; 172 +/- 27 to 155 mg/dL) compared with the creatine group (174 to 178 mg/dL) and placebo & resistance training group (162 to 161 mg/dL).

These findings provide more evidence that the addition of creatine supplementation to resistance training significantly increases total and fat-free body mass, muscular strength, peripheral blood flow, and resting energy expenditure and even improves blood cholesterol levels.

Study Title: “Effect of two and five days of creatine loading on anaerobic working capacity in women.” This study conducted by Eckerson and coworkers (14) measured the effects of 2 and 5 days of creatine monohydrate loading on anaerobic working capacity in women. Ten physically active women randomly received 2 treatments separated by a 5 week washout period: 1) 18 grams dextrose as placebo; or 2) 5.0 grams of creatine monohydrate plus18 grams of dextrose taken 4 times per day for 5 days. The Creatine supplement increased anaerobic working capacity in the women subjects by 22.1% after 5 days of loading, the placebo did not produce any benefits. A significant increase in body weight was not observed during this 5 day study. These results show that creatine supplementation is effective for increasing anaerobic working capacity in women following 5 days of loading, but did not produce an associated increase in body weight during this short period of time.

Study Title: “Short-term creatine supplementation improves maximum quadriceps contraction in women.” In this research study Kambis and coworkers (15) investigated the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation upon muscle function, thigh circumference, and body weight in women. Twenty-two college-age women participated in the study. Subjects in the creatine taking group ingested 0.5 grams per kilogram of fat free body mass per day of creatine monohydrate, split in to one fourth dosage, taken four times per day, for five days. Resistance exercise was not permitted during this five day period. After the five day ingestion phase was completed, measurements that were taken at the start of the study were taken again. Improvements in muscle strength performance were observed in the creatine taking women, but a significant gain in body mass was not observed in this short-term study. Apparently, the muscle building effects of creatine need longer than a several days to exert an effect on women. However, the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on strength performance were again impressive, especially within a 5 day period.

Study Title: “Effect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetarians.” The purpose of this study conducted by Burke and coworkers (16) was to compare the change in muscle creatine, muscle fiber morphology, body composition, hydration status, and exercise performance between vegetarians and nonvegetarians with 8 weeks of creatine supplementation and resistance training. Due to the lack of meat consumption by among vegetarians, their total creatine levels tend to be lower when compared to meat eating people. Appendix – A6 Page 26 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Eighteen vegetarian and 24 non-vegetarian subjects, age range 19-55 years old, were randomly assigned (double blind) to four groups: • Ten vegetarians taking creatine. • Eight vegetarians taking placebo. • Twelve non-vegetarians taking creatine. • Twelve non-vegetarians taking placebo. All of the subjects participated in the same 8 week resistance-training program. Creatine taking subjects took creatine based on their lean tissue mass at the rate of 0.25 grams per kilogram of lean tissue mass per day for 7 days, and 0.0625 grams per kilogram of lean tissue mass per day for 49 days. Initial biopsy sample results of muscle fiber composition revealed that vegetarian muscle fibers had an initial lower creatine and phosphocreatine content then non-vegetarians (vegetarians were117 mmol per kilogram and nonvegetarians were 130 mmol per kilogram. After the study period, creatine taking subjects experienced a greater increase in phosphocreatine muscle levels, total creatine muscle levels, bench-press strength, isokinetic work, Type II fiber area, and whole-body lean tissue compared with subjects taking placebo. Vegetarians who took creatine had a greater increase in total creatine, phosphocreatine, lean tissue, and total work performance than non-vegetarians. The change in muscle total creatine was significantly correlated with initial muscle total creatine and the change in lean tissue mass and exercise performance. The findings of this study confirm an ergogenic effect of taking creatine during resistance training and suggest that subjects with initially lower levels of muscle total creatine, like the vegetarians, are more responsive to supplementation. Part 5 References (3) Selsby JT, DiSilvestro RA, Devor ST. Mg2+-creatine chelate and a low-dose creatine supplementation regimen improve exercise performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2004 May;18(2):311-5. (4) Kilduff LP, Pitsiladis YP, Tasker L, Attwood J, Hyslop P, Dailly A, Dickson I, Grant S. Effects of creatine on body composition and strength gains after 4 weeks of resistance training in previously nonresistance-trained humans. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003 Dec;13(4):504-20. (5) Kurosawa Y, Hamaoka T, Katsumura T, Kuwamori M, Kimura N, Sako T, Chance B. Creatine supplementation enhances anaerobic ATP synthesis during a single 10 sec maximal handgrip exercise. Mol Cell Biochem. 2003 Feb;244(1-2):105-12. (6) Ziegenfuss TN, Rogers M, Lowery L, Mullins N, Mendel R, Antonio J, Lemon P. Effect of creatine loading on anaerobic performance and skeletal muscle volume in NCAA Division I athletes. Nutrition. 2002 May; 18(5):397402. (7) van Loon LJ, Oosterlaar AM, Hartgens F, Hesselink MK, Snow RJ, Wagenmakers AJ. Effects of creatine loading and prolonged creatine supplementation on body composition, fuel selection, sprint and endurance performance in humans. Clin Sci (Lond). 2003 Feb;104(2):153-62. (8) Rawson ES, Clarkson PM, Price TB, Miles MP. Differential response of muscle phosphocreatine to creatine supplementation in young and old subjects. Acta Physiol Scand. 2002 Jan;174(1):57-65. (9) Brose A, Parise G, Tarnopolsky MA. Creatine supplementation enhances isometric strength and body composition improvements following strength exercise training in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2003 Jan;58(1):11-9. (10) Gotshalk LA, Volek JS, Staron RS, Denegar CR, Hagerman FC, Kraemer WJ. Creatine supplementation improves muscular performance in older men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002 Mar;34(3):537-43. Appendix – A6 Page 27 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

(11) Chrusch MJ, Chilibeck PD, Chad KE, Davison KS, Burke DG. Creatine supplementation combined with resistance training in older men. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001 Dec;33(12):2111-7. (12) Willoughby DS, Rosene J. Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on myosin heavy chain expression. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001 Oct;33(10):1674-81. (13) Arciero PJ, Hannibal NS 3rd, Nindl BC, Gentile CL, Hamed J, Vukovich MD. Comparison of creatine ingestion and resistance training on energy expenditure and limb blood flow. Metabolism. 2001 Dec;50(12):1429-34. (14) Eckerson JM, Stout JR, Moore GA, Stone NJ, Nishimura K, Tamura K. Effect of two and five days of creatine loading on anaerobic working capacity in women. J Strength Cond Res. 2004 Feb;18(1):168-73. (15) Kambis KW, Pizzedaz SK. Short-term creatine supplementation improves maximum quadriceps contraction in women. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003 Mar;13(1):87-96. (16) Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, Candow DG, Mahoney D, Tarnopolsky M. Effect of creatine and weight training on muscle creatine and performance in vegetarians. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003 Nov;35(11):1946-55.


Part 6 – Recent Creatine Research Reviews, Focus on Improvements in Athletic Performance Part 6 reviews some of the recent studies about how creatine improves athletic performance and exercise performance. Also included a review of two studies that examined the beneficial effects creatine supplementation can have for military personnel. The sports/activities included are: Wrestling Swimming Soccer Rowing Spring Cycling Hockey Handball Squash Softball Rugby Military Personnel Performance Note that the benefits of taking creatine monohydrate supplements in bodybuilding, football, powerlifting, and other strength sports is well established and were reviewed in other parts of this article or not specifically reviewed in detail in this super feature article as this is now common knowledge based on the earlier studies conducted throughout the 1990’s. Study Title: “Effects of high dose oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlers.” In this study Kocak and Karli (17) recruited twenty active international level wrestlers participated in this study, age range 22 to 27 years old; 10 in the experimental group and 10 in the placebo group. The daily dosage of creatine monohydrate of 5 grams, 4 times per day or placebo was divided into 4 equal amounts. Every 5 grams of supplement was dissolved in 250 ml water and it was given to the subjects 1 hour before breakfast, lunch, dinner, and workout session. Subjects underwent a 30second Wingate Anaerobic tests until exhaustion in pre- and post-tests. The results of the study concluded that the short-term high dose creatine supplementation had a beneficial, ergogenic effects on improving anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlers. Note: creatine can be very useful for wrestlers, however, note that it will increase lean body mass. Therefore wrestlers who are struggling to lose weight to make weight at a lower weight class, need to keep their eye on the scale when using creatine during the wrestling season. But the next study reveals some interesting performance enhancing effects of short-term creatine supplement use, without out weight gain.

Study Title: “Effects of creatine supplementation during recovery from rapid body mass reduction on metabolism and muscle performance capacity in well-trained wrestlers.” The purpose of this study conducted by Oopik and coworkers (18) was to determine if creatine monohydrate supplementation Appendix – A6 Page 29 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

with carbohydrate ingestion during recovery period after rapid body mass reduction would accelerate the restoration of body mass and physical performance in well-trained wrestlers. This study used a double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over format with five young healthy male wrestlers. These wrestlers reduced their body mass by 4.5-5.3%. Then, during a 17 hour recovery period the wrestlers consumed a controlled diet supplemented in random order with glucose or with glucose plus creatine monohydrate. The results of this study indicated that creatine supplementation with glucose ingestion during the 17 hour recovery period from rapid body mass loss did not accelerate the restoration of body mass. However, the creatine supplementation did stimulate the regain of physical performance in maximal intensity efforts in well-trained wrestlers in this one day test period. Based on the results of this study, wrestlers should experiment with using creatine to enhance performance. Just keep your eye on the scale so you don’t get surprised with a sudden, unwanted increase in body weight the day before a match.

Study Title: “Swim performance following creatine supplementation in Division III athletes.” In this study Selsby and coworkers (19) examined the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation using 8 male and 7 female collegiate Division III swimmers, randomly assigned to a creatine taking or placebo taking groups. The creatine takers took 0.3 grams creatine per kilogram of body mass for a 5 day loading period, and then 2.25 grams of creatine for nine days, regardless of body weight. To test effects of creatine taking on swimming performance, a 50 yard and 100 yard sprint was performed prior to and following the supplementation regimens. The group taking the creatine decreased their finish times in both the 50 yard and 100 yard sprints. As would be expected, this provides scientific evidence that creatine supplementation is effective for increasing swimming sprint performance and speed in the 50 and 100 yard swimming events.

Study Title: “Combined creatine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation enhances interval swimming.” Researchers Mero and coworkers (20) examined the effect of simultaneous supplementation of creatine monohydrate and sodium bicarbonate on consecutive maximal effort swims. Sixteen competitive male and female swimmers completed in a randomized order, two different treatments; a placebo or a combination of creatine and sodium bicarbonate. There was 30 days of washout period between treatments in a double-blind crossover procedure. Both treatments consisted of placebo or creatine supplementation, 20 grams per day, for 6 days. However, in the morning of the seventh day, there was placebo or sodium bicarbonate supplementation, 0.3 grams per kilogram of body weight, during 2 hours before a warm-up for 2 maximal 100 meter freestyle swims. The maximal effort swims were performed with a recovery period of 10 minutes in between. The first swims were similar, but the time of the second versus the first 100 meter swimming time was 0.9 seconds less in the combination group versus the placebo group. Mean blood pH was higher in the combination group than in placebo after supplementation on the test day. Mean blood lactate increased during the swims, but there were no differences in peak blood lactate between the combination group and placebo. The data indicate that creatine loading for several days, with one dosage of sodium bicarbonate on the day before the testing, enhanced performance in consecutive maximal effort swims. Note that bicarbonate loading has been proven in dozens of studies to improve performance in sprint athletes. It has applications with all strength athletes. However, the drawbacks of sodium bicarbonate include Appendix – A6 Page 30 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

high sodium consumption, and occasional diarrhea. The use of other types of carbonates has potential as they can potentially reduce the occurrence of sodium bicarbonate induced diarrhea and high sodium intake. Competitive strength athletes looking for a boost in performance should look in to bicarbonates, in addition to protein, creatine and other strength performance aids.

Study Title: “Creatine supplementation in young soccer players.” The purpose of this study conducted by Ostojic (21) was to examine the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on soccerspecific performance in young soccer players. Twenty young male soccer players (16.6 +/- 1.9 years) participated in the study and were matched and allocated to 2 randomly assigned trials: ingesting creatine monohydrate supplement (3 x 10- gram doses) or placebo for 7 days. Before and after the supplementation each subject underwent a series of soccer specific skill tests: dribble test, sprint-power test, endurance test, and vertical jump test. Specific dribble test times improved significantly in the creatine group. Sprint power test times were significantly improved after creatine-monohydrate supplementation, 2.7 seconds placebo group versus 2.2 seconds creatine group. Vertical jump height was also significantly increased in from taking creatine; 49.2 centimeters in the placebo group versus 55.1 centimeters in the creatine group. There were no changes in specific endurance test results within or between trials. The main findings of this study indicate that supplementation with creatine in young soccer players improved soccer specific skill performance compared with ingestion of placebo. Study Title: “Acute creatine supplementation and performance during a field test simulating match play in elite female soccer players.” This study conducted by Cox and coworkers (22) examined the effects of creatine supplementation on the performance of elite female soccer players. On two occasions, 7 days apart, 12 players performed 5 x 11minute exercise testing blocks interspersed with 1 minute of rest. Each block consisted of 11 all out 20 meter running sprints, 2 agility runs, and 1 precision ball kicking drill, separated by recovery of 20 meter walks, jogs, and runs. The creatine group ingested 20 grams of creatine monohydrate for 6 days; 5 grams, 4 times per day. The placebo group ingested the same dosage of a glucose polymer. After the 6 days of taking creatine a significant increase in body mass was measured, about 1 kilogram on average. No overall change in 20 meter sprint times and agility run times were observed. But the creatine group achieved faster post supplementation times in sprints 11, 13, 14, 16, 21, 23, 25, 32, and 39, and agility runs 3, 5, and 8. The accuracy of shooting the ball was unaffected in both groups. The researchers concluded that short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation improved performance of some repeated sprint and agility tasks simulating soccer match play, and increased body mass significantly.

Study Title: “Effect of creatine supplementation on aerobic performance and anaerobic capacity in elite rowers in the course of endurance training.” The effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on aerobic and anaerobic performance was investigated by Chwalbinska-Montea (23) using 6 elite male rowers during a 7-day training period. The creatine taking athletes took 20 grams of creatine for 5 days. Before and after the test period, subjects performed two exercise tests on a rowing ergometer: (a) incremental exercise consisting of 3-minute stage durations and increased by 50 Watt until exhaustion; and (b) an all-out anaerobic exercise performed against a constant load of 7 Watts/kg. Heart rate and blood lactate concentrations were measured during exercise and recovery. The results of this study were mixed, in that creatine supplementation caused more of a beneficial effect then placebo in some of the parameters tested. Maximal power output did not significantly differ Appendix – A6 Page 31 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

after the treatment in either group. The mean individual lactate threshold rose significantly after creatine treatment. During the anaerobic test the athletes supplemented with creatine were able to continue rowing longer. No significant differences were found between groups in blood lactate after the all-out exercise. The researchers pointed out that the results of this study indicate that in elite rowers creatine supplementation improves endurance, as expressed by the individual lactate threshold, and anaerobic performance, when compared to athletes taking just a placebo.

Study Title: “Effect of recovery interval on multiple-bout sprint cycling performance after acute creatine supplementation.” This study conducted by Cottrell and coworkers (24) examined the effect of varying recovery intervals on multiple-bout, short-duration, high-intensity cycling efforts of adult men supplemented with creatine or a placebo. Creatine monohydrate was taken in daily dosages at the rate of 0.3 grams per kilogram of body weight per day for 7 days. Exercise testing consisted of 8, 15-second bouts of sprint cycling exercise. When compared to the placebo group the subjects taking creatine improved recovery time from repeated sprint cycling when recovery intervals were short in duration, less then 6 minutes.

Study Title: “Oral creatine supplementation improves multiple sprint performance in elite ice-hockey players.” This research study conducted by Jones and coworkers (25) examined the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on multiple sprint cycle and skating performance in ice-hockey players. Sixteen elite ice-hockey players were selected as subjects, and the subjects were randomly assigned to either a creatine group (8 males) or a placebo group (8 males) in a double blind design. Subjects loaded with 5 grams of creatine monohydrate or placebo (glucose) four times per day for 5 days, (20 grams per day). After this loading period a maintenance dose of 5 grams per day for 10 weeks was administered. At the beginning of the study and after 10 days and 10 weeks of supplementation, subjects performed a cycle test involving 5 all-out sprints of 15 seconds duration separated by 15 seconds recovery with the resistance set at 0.075 body mass kilograms; and the performed 6 timed 80-meter skating sprints with the sprints initiated every 30 seconds and a split time taken at 47 meters. No significant changes in any of the tests were observed in the placebo group over the period of study. However, in the creatine group significant results were observed as follows: • In the creatine group, average mean power output over the 5 sprints was significantly higher at 10 days, 1074 Watts, and 10 weeks, 1025 Watts than at the beginning of the study, 890 Watts. • Average peak power output over the 5 sprints improved significantly from the beginning of the study, 1294 Watts, to 10 days, 1572 Watts. • Average on-ice sprint performance was significantly faster at 10 days, 6.88 seconds, and at 10 weeks, 6.96 seconds, when compared to the beginning of the study, 7.17 seconds. The results of this study clearly demonstrate that creatine supplementation has an ergogenic effect in elite ice-hockey players.


Study Title: “Creatine supplementation improves sprint performance in male sprinters.” The purpose of this research study conducted by Skare and coworkers (26) was to evaluate the effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation in well trained male sprinters. The study was performed as a single blind test on 18 sprinters. The study participants consumed either, 20 grams creatine and 20 grams glucose per day (9 males), or 40 grams of glucose per day the placebo group (9 males), divided into 4 equal daily dosages. The effect of creatine on sprint performance was evaluated in two tests, 1 x 100 meters sprint and an intermittent 6 x 60 meter sprint test. The researchers determined the following effects of creatine supplementation: • Increased the 100 meter sprint velocity; 11.68 seconds versus 11.59 seconds. • Reduced the total time of 6 intermittent 60 m sprints; 45.6 seconds versus 45.1 seconds, whereas no changes were observed in the placebo group. • The sprint velocity was significantly increased in 5 out of 6 intermittent 60 meter sprints. The researchers noted that the improved sprint performance suggests an increased availability of energy substrate for performing work, possibly as a result of increased skeletal muscle creatine phosphate.

Study Title: “Effects of creatine supplementation on muscle power, endurance, and sprint performance.” This study conducted by Izquierdo and coworkers (27) examined the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on maximal strength, muscle power production during repetitive highpower-output exercise bouts (MRPB), repeated running sprints, and endurance in handball players. Creatine supplementation was 20 grams per day for 5 days. Nineteen trained male handball players participated in the study, 9 in the creatine group and 10 in the placebo group. The five days of creatine supplementation led to significant improvements in some performance parameters, for example, in lower-body maximal strength, maximal repetitive upper-body and lower-body high-power exercise bouts, and total repetitions performed to fatigue in the repetition maximum set of high power output exercise bouts, as well as enhanced repeated sprint performance and attenuated decline in jumping ability. But, creatine supplementation did not result in any improvement in upper-body maximal strength and in endurance running performance when compared to the results of the players taking the placebo.

Study Title: “Effects of oral creatine supplementation on high intensity, intermittent exercise performance in competitive squash players.” The purpose of this research study conducted by Romer and coworkers (28) was to determine the effects of oral creatine supplementation on high intensity, intermittent exercise performance in competitive squash players. Nine squash players performed an on-court "ghosting" routine that involved 10 sets of 2 repetitions of simulated positional play, each set interspersed with 30 seconds passive recovery. This study used a double blind, crossover design in which the creatine group supplemented 4 times daily for 5 days with 0.075 grams per kilogram of body mass of creatine monohydrate and the placebo group with the same amount of maltodextrin placebo. There was a 4 week washout period separated the crossover of treatments. The creatine supplement group improved: • mean set sprint time by 3.2% over and above the changes noted for the placebo group. • sets 2 to 10 were completed in a significantly shorter time following creatine supplementation compared when the player were taking the placebo. Appendix – A6 Page 33 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

The researchers concluded that their data support existing evidence that creatine supplementation improves high intensity, intermittent exercise performance. In addition, their study provides new evidence that oral creatine supplementation improves exercise performance in competitive squash players.

Study Title: “Effects of creatine loading on muscular strength and endurance of female softball players.” The purpose of this study conducted by Ayoama and coworkers (29) was to determine the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on muscle strength and endurance of trained female softball players. Creatine was taken for 1 week at 20 grams per day, and for 2 weeks at 3 grams per day. The researchers concluded that the creatine taking athletes did not improve the maximal static strength and dynamic peak torque but they did improve the mean strength and endurance of repeated contractions. Also, the effects on females are not so great as those found in males. Additionally, it was determined that the effects of taking creatine may be enhanced by anaerobic exercises performed before the supplementation and the effects would disappear in a week when the supplementation was stopped.

Study Title: “The effects of acute creatine supplementation on multiple sprint cycling and running performance in rugby players.” This study conducted by Ahmun and coworkers (30) was designed to use both mass-supported and mass-dependent activities to assess the effectiveness of acute creatine monohydrate supplementation on a group of highly trained rugby players. A randomized, double-blind, crossover research design was utilized, with subjects receiving 20 g.d(-1) x 5 d of both creatine and a glucose placebo (PL). Subjects were assessed via 10 x 6-second Wingate test and a 10 x 40-m sprint test on separate days, pre-supplementation and post-supplementation. A 28-d washout period separated the two treatments. No significant treatment (p > 0.05) or treatment by test interaction effects (p > 0.05) were observed for peak or minimum power output (W), peak or minimum running velocity (m.s(-1)), or fatigue index (%). No significant differences (p > 0.05) were found post-supplementation for body mass and percentage body fat. Although statistical significance was not achieved for any of the measured parameters, there were small improvements in performance that may be of benefit to rugby players.

Study Title: “The effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on obstacle course and multiple bench press performance.” In this study (31) the military researchers wanted to determine the effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on performance of military training tasks. Two groups of 13 male soldiers each were selected for the creatine taking group and placebo group. The soldiers performed 3 consecutive military obstacle course runs ( approximately 3 minutes over 7 obstacles with a 2 minute rest between runs) followed by a rifle marksmanship task on 3 occasions each separated by 5 days. The soldiers also completed a bench press training program consisting of 5 sets to failure at 70% of 1 repetition maximum. They also answered the Profile of Mood States questionnaire during each test session. Testing was done 3 times. No supplementation was given before test 1.


Creatine supplementation was provided using sports bars, with both groups receiving placebo bars between test 1 and test 2. From test 2 to test 3 the creatine group consumed 24 g per day of creatine monohydrate in sports bars and the placebo group consumed an equal amount creatine free of calories in the placebo sports bars. Five days of creatine supplement ingestion resulted in a significant (14%) increase in total bench press repetitions, but no difference between groups in obstacle course run times for the 3 runs from test 2 to test 3. Marksmanship or mood was not affected by creatine supplementation. Regarding body mass, an increase of 1.4 kg in body mass and a 0.5% decrease in percent body fat were observed in the creatine group. These military researchers concluded that creatine supplementation over 5 days improved performance during a controlled strength test but did not significantly improve military obstacle course performance.

Study Title: “Effect of creatine on performance of militarily relevant tasks and soldier health.” This group of military researchers (32) wanted to determine the short-term effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on performance of military tasks, thermoregulation, and health risks. Male military personnel were randomly assigned to a creatine group (8 males) or a placebo group (8 males). Testing was conducted at the beginning of the study and again after a 6-day loading phase (20 grams of creatine per day), and then again after 4 weeks of taking 6 grams of creatine per day. Measurements included body composition, liver/kidney function tests, core body temperatures during a 10-mile march and 5-mile run, and performance on physical tasks. Results of this military research study included: • Serum and urine creatine increased significantly in the creatine group. • Body mass increased significantly in the creatine group. • Number of pull-ups performed increased significantly in the creatine group. However, there were no significant differences between the creatine and placebo groups for other performance measures, body composition, core body temperature, or other biochemical measures. The military researchers also noted that the use of creatine did not cause acute health problems. Study Title: “The effects of creatine supplementation on cardiovascular, metabolic, and thermoregulatory responses during exercise in the heat in endurance-trained humans.” The effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation on cardiovascular, metabolic, and thermoregulatory responses, and on the capacity of trained humans to perform prolonged exercise in the heat, was examined in this research study conducted by Kilduff and coworkers (33). Twenty-one endurance-trained males performed 2 constant-load exercise tests to exhaustion at 63 VO2max in the heat (ambient temperature: 30.3 C) before and after 7 days of creatine supplementation (20 g creatine per day plus 140 g glucose polymer per day) or placebo drink. Creatine increased intracellular water and reduced thermoregulatory and cardiovascular responses, such as heart rate, rectal temperature, and sweat rate. Time to exhaustion was increased significantly in subjects whose estimated intramuscular creatine levels were substantially increased; responders, 47.3 minutes, versus 51.7 minutes. The researchers concluded that creatine induced hyper-hydration can result in a more efficient thermoregulatory response during prolonged exercise in the heat.


Part 6 References (17) Kocak S, Karli U. Effects of high dose oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Dec;43(4):488-92. (18) Oopik V, Paasuke M, Timpmann S, Medijainen L, Ereline J, Gapejeva J. Effects of creatine supplementation during recovery from rapid body mass reduction on metabolism and muscle performance capacity in well-trained wrestlers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2002 Sep;42(3):330-9. (19) Selsby JT, Beckett KD, Kern M, Devor ST. Swim performance following creatine supplementation in Division III athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2003 Aug; 17(3):421-4. (20) Mero AA, Keskinen KL, Malvela MT, Sallinen JM. Combined creatine and sodium bicarbonate supplementation enhances interval swimming. J Strength Cond Res. 2004 May;18(2):306-10. (21) Ostojic SM. Creatine supplementation in young soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2004 Feb;14(1):95-103. (22) Cox G, Mujika I, Tumilty D, Burke L. Acute creatine supplementation and performance during a field test simulating match play in elite female soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002 Mar;12(1):33-46. (23) Chwalbinska-Moneta J. Effect of creatine supplementation on aerobic performance and anaerobic capacity in elite rowers in the course of endurance training. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003 Jun;13(2):173-83. (24) Cottrell GT, Coast JR, Herb RA. Effect of recovery interval on multiple-bout sprint cycling performance after acute creatine supplementation. J Strength Cond Res. 2002 Feb;16(1):109-16. (25) Jones AM, Atter T, Georg KP. Oral creatine supplementation improves multiple sprint performance in elite ice-hockey players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1999 Sep;39(3):189-96. (26) Skare OC, Skadberg, Wisnes AR. Creatine supplementation improves sprint performance in male sprinters. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2001 Apr;11(2):96-102. (27) Izquierdo M, Ibanez J, Gonzalez-Badillo JJ, Gorostiaga EM. Effects of creatine supplementation on muscle power, endurance, and sprint performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002 Feb;34(2):332-43. (28) Romer LM, Barrington JP, Jeukendrup AE. Effects of oral creatine supplementation on high intensity, intermittent exercise performance in competitive squash players. Int J Sports Med. 2001 Nov;22(8):546-52. (29) Ayoama R, Hiruma E, Sasaki H. Effects of creatine loading on muscular strength and endurance of female softball players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Dec;43(4):481-7. (30) Ahmun RP, Tong RJ, Grimshaw PN. “The effects of acute creatine supplementation on multiple sprint cycling and running performance in rugby players.” J Strength Cond Res. 2005 Feb;19(1):92-7. (31) Warber JP, Tharion WJ, Patton JF, Champagne CM, Mitotti P, Lieberman HR. The effect of creatine monohydrate supplementation on obstacle course and multiple bench press performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2002 Nov;16(4):500-8. (32) Bennett T, Bathalon G, Armstrong D 3rd, Martin B, Coll R, Beck R, Barkdull T, O'Brien K, Deuster PA. Effect of creatine on performance of militarily relevant tasks and soldier health. Mil Med. 2001 Nov;166(11):9961002. (33) Kilduff LP, Georgiades E, James N, Minnion RH, Mitchell M, Kingsmore D, Hadjicharlambous M, Pitsiladis YP. The effects of creatine supplementation on cardiovascular, metabolic, and thermoregulatory responses during exercise in the heat in endurance-trained humans. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2004 Aug;14(4):443-60.


Part 7 – Creatine Use Guide This section presents an overview of the dosing regimens that were clinically validated to produce beneficial effects from ingestion of a creatine monohydrate containing supplement. Creatine monohydrate is the ingredient of choice based on the results of over 200 clinical studies that prove creatine monohydrate works best. Regarding other forms of creatine there is currently no conclusive evidence that these other forms of creatine produce better results than creatine monohydrate. There is evidence that indicated combining creatine monohydrate with other substances may enhance creatine uptake in to the body, which will also be reviewed in this part. There is also the issue regarding the intake of caffeine with creatine, which the research will be reviewed in this part. This part will end with an overview of the safety issues regarding the use of creatine supplementation and a short overview on additional types of creatine, like creatine ethyl ester. Even though there are numerous clinical studies conducted using creatine monohydrate supplementation, there are still some unanswered questions. As indicated in the previous parts, scientists sometimes get caught up in the “blind leading the blind” syndrome. As this related to creatine supplementation, most of the studies have followed a generalized creatine loading period, followed by a lower dosage maintenance period, while other studies have focused their attention on determining what the lowest effective daily dose of creatine that would product beneficial results. Most of the studies have focused on the pharmacological properties of taking creatine supplements; its effects on the body. This leads to a point, which is also underscored by researchers Adam Persky and Gayle Brazeau, from the University of Florida, College of Pharmacy, in their review paper titled “Clinical Pharmacology of the Dietary Supplement Creatine Monohydrate”. Persky and Brazeau point out that there is a future research need to fine-tune our understanding of the “pharmacokinetics” of creatine supplementation. While pharmacology is the general term that encompasses the effects a substance produces in the human body, pharmacokinetics is the study of the bodily absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of substances, in particular drugs, but the principle also applies to nutrients taken for health and athletic performance. The main point regarding this lead-in to creatine dosing and use is due to the fact that pharmacokinetics has not been clearly defined, there may be opportunity to refine the creatine dosing regimen based on future research and fine-tuning of the dynamics of creatine supplements in the human body. As you learned in previous Parts, some of the research studies calculated the creatine dosages based on lean body mass, or body weight. But, the dosages were based on either lean body mass or body weight, meaning that there is no clearly established body weight based dosage method. This body weight dosing approach is an interesting trend, but far from being finalized or confirmed. With this in mind, the following dosage information is based on the results of the majority of research studies reporting beneficial effects of creatine supplementation. This information is for healthy adults, and creatine and other supplement use is best accomplished under doctor supervision, as this or any publication is not intended to replace medical advice or medical supervision.


CREATINE DOSING & USE GUIDE SUMMARY Use under medical supervision for safe and effective results. For healthy individuals only, who are engaged in strength training, muscle building and strength sport training and competition season. Individual results will vary. Preferred Creatine Type: Creatine Monohydrate powder or chewable tablets. Use only high quality research grade / pharmaceutical grade creatine, which are guaranteed free from impurities, such as dicyandiamide, dihydrotriazine, and creatinine. (note: quality results require a quality product, like Higher Power Creatine.) Creatine Dosing: Loading 20 grams per day, less Ingest in 4 to 6 divided Optional. Consumption of Phase (based on ideal than 200 pounds ideal dosages each day. a glucose beverage with body weight.) body weight or upto 30 minutes after Take 60 to 30 minutes creatine consumption. Duration of Use: 7 days. 25 grams per day, 200 before meals. pounds to 300 pounds Can also take a creatine ideal body weight Or take with meals if combination product that gastrointestinal upset is includes glucose, protein, 30 grams per day, over experienced. If amino acids, vitamins, 300 pounds ideal body gastrointestinal upset minerals, and other sports weight persists, reduce the daily nutrition ingredients. Such dosage to the as Explosive Growth maintenance dose Blend™ regimen, realizing that it Avoid mixing acidic will take a few weeks beverages with creatine. longer to achieve increased creatine body levels that will results in the desired benefits. Creatine Dosing: at least 5 grams per day, Ingest in 2 or more Can also take a creatine Maintenance Phase (based less than 200 pounds divided dosages each combination product that on ideal body weight,) ideal body weight day. includes glucose, protein, amino acids, vitamins, Duration of Use: up to 4 at least 7 grams per day, Take 60 to 30 minutes minerals, and other sports months. Followed by 4 or 200 pounds to 300 before meals. nutrition ingredients. more weeks of nonpounds ideal body creatine use. Then repeat weight Or take with meals if Avoid mixing acidic loading/maintenance gastrointestinal upset is beverages with creatine. regimen as required by at least 10 grams per experienced. your training and day, over 300 pounds competition schedule ideal body weight Note: taking creatine with whey protein supplements can significantly improve the benefits. Use a product that contains whey protein isolate for best results. Try Explosive Growth Blend™, which is over 20 of the most effective muscle building products in one convenient formula made using proprietary SynerBlend™ technology. This will get you the best results for less money. Keep a high quality container of pure creatine in your supplement cabinet to use for loading and maintenance and if you want to increase the creatine content of your protein powder or other sports nutrition supplement. For example, Higher Power’s Creatine. Preparation: the best preparation method is dissolving creatine monohydrate powder in to water. Pure creatine monohydrate has a solubility of about 7 to 8 grams in 500 ml of water. Warmer water can dissolve more creatine per ml or water. Consume your creatine solution after mixing the powder into solution. High quality creatine should easily dissolve. A poor dissolving creatine product is a sign that it might not be high quality. Creatine can also be mixed with non-acidic beverages, like milk. Creatine monohydrate can be taken with other supplements, such as vitamins and minerals, protein powders, etc, or as part of a complex supplement formula where creatine monohydrate is one of the ingredients. The most important factor to taking creatine is to be consistent and take it on a regular basis. It takes several days for the muscle cells to increase total creatine and creatine phosphate levels, and using the maintenance dose every day keeps the muscle tissue levels saturated. Avoid continuous and high caffeine consumption while taking creatine supplements. Also avoid or minimize alcohol consumption during training and competition seasons; alcohol interferes with protein synthesis, promotes dehydration, and causes cellular damage. This Table is copyright protected.


CREATINE PLUS OTHER INGREDIENTS Some research studies have examined the effects of combining creatine with other nutrients to determine if creatine uptake is enhanced or if there is a synergistic effect. The following is a review of some of the recent research regarding combining creatine with other nutrients, including protein, carbohydrates, glutamine, magnesium and alpha-lipoic acid. To be comprehensive and objective included are applicable research summaries, weather they reported a synergistic ingredient effect or not, to serve as a handy reference as these studies are sometimes referred to in articles or advertisements. As you will see, some are indeed synergistic. The overall net effect is that creatine is compatible with other nutrients, and adding them together can provide extra benefits. Creatine and Protein Supplementation Study Title: “Combined creatine and protein supplementation in conjunction with resistance training promotes muscle GLUT-4 content and glucose tolerance in humans.” This study was undertaken by Derave and coworkers (34) to determine the effects of creatine monohydrate and creatine plus protein supplementation on GLUT-4 and glycogen content of human skeletal muscle. Note that GLUT stands for glucose transporter. There are 5 main GLUT’s that tend to be tissue specific, and GLUT-4 is more abundant in skeletal muscle tissue and also adipose tissue. This double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was performed using 33 young healthy subjects (26 men and 7 women). The subjects' right legs were immobilized with a cast for 2 wk, followed by a 6-wk resistance training program for the right knee extensor muscles. The participants were supplemented throughout the study with either placebo (maltodextrin) or creatine & maltodextrin, or with creatine plus protein during immobilization and creatine plus protein, maltodextrine, amino acid blend, and multivitamin blend during retraining. Muscle biopsies were taken from the vastus lateralis. The researchers determined that GLUT-4 protein expression was reduced by the immobilization in all groups. During retraining, GLUT-4 content increased in both the creatine (+24%) and creatine-protein (+33%) taking groups, which resulted in higher post training GLUT-4 expression. Compared with the placebo group, the muscle glycogen content was higher in the trained leg in both creatine and creatine-protein groups. Supplements had no effect on GLUT-4 expression or glycogen content in contralateral control legs. Area under the glucose curve during the oral glucose tolerance test was decreased from 232 mmol. per liter per minute at baseline to 170mmol. per liter per minute at the end of the retraining period in creatine-protein group, but it did not change in the creatine or placebo groups. The researchers concluded that creatine intake stimulates GLUT-4 and glycogen content in human muscle only when combined with changes in activity level, and that combined protein and creatine supplementation improved oral glucose tolerance, which is beneficial to both athletes. Effects of Creatine Monohydrate Plus Whey Protein Study Title: “The effect of whey protein supplementation with and without creatine monohydrate combined with resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscle strength.” The purpose of this research study conducted by Burke and coworkers (35) was to measure muscular developments during 6 weeks of resistance training, among 36 males who were randomly assigned to supplementation with whey protein, whey protein and creatine monohydrate, or a placebo (maltodextrin). At the end of the 6 week study period the following results were observed: • Lean body tissue mass increased to a greater extent in the whey-creatine group compared to the other groups; and also in the whey group when just compared to the placebo group: + 4 Appendix – A6 Page 39 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

• •

kg, 6.5% in the whey-creatine group; +2.3 kg, 3.8% in the whey group; and +0.9 kg, 1.5% in the placebo group. Bench press strength increased to a greater extent in the whey-creatine group compared to the other groups: +15.2 kg, 17% in the whey-creatine group; 6.3 kg, 7% in the whey group; and 7.2 kg, 8% in the placebo group. Knee extension peak torque increased significantly with training in the whey-creatine and whey groups, but not for the placebo group.

The researchers also observed that continued training for an additional 6 weeks without supplementation resulted in maintenance of strength and lean tissue mass in all groups. The results of this study revealed a synergistic effect among males taking the whey protein and creatine supplement, which resulted in greater increases in lean tissue mass and bench press performance. Creatine Monohydrate and Alpha-lipoic Acid? Study Title: “Effect of alpha-lipoic acid combined with creatine monohydrate on human skeletal muscle creatine and phosphagen concentration.” The purpose of this study conducted by Burke and coworkers (36) was to determine the effect of alpha-lipoic acid on human skeletal muscle creatine monohydrate uptake by directly measuring intramuscular concentrations of creatine, phosphocreatine, and adenosine triphosphate when creatine monohydrate was co-ingested with alpha-lipoic acid. Muscle biopsies were acquired from the vastus lateralis (a muscle of the upper leg) of 16 male subjects age range from 18 to 32 years. After the initial biopsy, subjects ingested either 20 grams per day of creatine monohydrate, 20 grams per day of creatine monohydrate plus 100 grams per day of sucrose, or 20 grams per day of creatine monohydrate plus 100 grams per day of sucrose plus 1000 milligrams per day of alpha-lipoic acid for 5 days. Body weight increased by 2.1% following the supplement taking, with no differences between the groups. There was a significant increase in total creatine concentration following creatine supplementation, with the group ingesting alpha-lipoic acid showing a significantly greater increase in phosphocreatine. However, as previously mentioned, most of the studies using glucose or other carbs in association with creatine loading do not measure outcomes, such as increases in lean body mass, increases in strength, or increases in athletic performance. For example, in this study the outcome of increasing body weight was the same for all of the groups, so creatine monohydrate worked just as good when compared to the other combination dosages for increasing body weight. Additionally, 1000 milligrams of lipoic acid is very expensive, and as the previous studies demonstrated, combining creatine with whey protein, produces significant and quite impressive synergistic results in increased lean body mass and strength. Magnesium and Creatine? Study Title: “Magnesium-creatine supplementation effects on body water.” This study conducted by Brilla and coworkders (37) evaluated magnesium-creatine supplementation on body water and quadriceps torque. The following supplements were used in this study, in three different groups of subjects: Maltodextrin as the placebo; Magnesium oxide plus Creatine monohydrate, at 800 mg magnesium and 5 grams creatine per day for 2 weeks; Magnesium-creatine chelate, at 800 mg magnesium and 5 grams creatine per day for 2 weeks. Body weight of the subjects increased for both of the magnesium – creatine treatment groups; average increase of 0.75 kilograms in the magnesium oxide – creatine group, and 0.4 kilograms in the magnesium-creatine chelate group. Both treatment groups had increased power. However, these Appendix – A6 Page 40 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

increases were not greater then taking creatine monohydrate alone, when compared to other studies conduced using creatine monohydrate. Creatine and Glutamine Study Title: “The effects of 8 weeks of creatine monohydrate and glutamine supplementation on body composition and performance measures.” This study conducted by Lehmkuhl and coworkers (38) used twenty-nine athletes, 17 men and 12 women, who were collegiate track and field athletes. Ten were randomly assigned to take creatine monohydrate, ten to take creatine monohydrate and glutamine, and nine to take a placebo. The creatine monohydrate taking group received 0.3 grams creatine per kilogram of body mass per day for 1 week, followed by 0.03 g creatine per kilogram of body mass per day for 7 weeks. The creatine monohydrate – glutamine taking group received the same creatine dosage scheme as the creatine monohydrate taking group plus 4 grams of glutamine per day. All 3 treatment groups participated in the same strength and conditioning program during preseason training. Measurements observed during the study included body composition, vertical jump, and cycle performances before and after the 8-week supplementation period. After the study period it was determined that body mass and lean body mass increased at a greater rate for the creatine monohydrate and creatine monohydrate – glutamine taking groups, compared with the placebo treatment. Additionally, the creatine monohydrate and creatine monohydrate – glutamine taking groups exhibited significantly greater improvement in initial rate of power production, compared with the placebo treatment. These results provide evidence that the creatine monohydrate, with or without glutamine produces significant benefits. Creatine And Carbohydrates This subsection deserves some overview commentary, as the research study designs are too cumbersome to present in a way that can be easily understood. To begin, the two 1996 studies that first examined the effects of taking creatine and glucose together were conducted using people who were not strength training. In the 2003 study headed by D. Preen, the same study design was used, one in which the creatine + glucose subjects did not undergo a strength training program (38-40). These studies also do not report significant outcomes that have been previously reported for taking creatine alone, such as increases and strength or athletic performance, as the subjects were not required to exercise during the study period. With one exception, the 2003 study included a group that took creatine and an under went a 60 minute session of cycling exercise each of the 5 creatine loading days. The overall results indicate that taking creatine alone will result in significant increases in total body creatine and phosphocreatine, but that taking creatine with glucose resulted in achieving higher levels during the loading phase. During the maintenance phase, only creatine was ingested, without the ingestion of a glucose drink. In the 1996 studies subjects ingested 20 grams of creatine a day, and 370 grams of glucose per day, in 4 divided dosages. In the 2003 study, on average 144.6 grams of glucose was consumed per day, with the 20 grams of creatine. The glucose beverage was actually consumed 30 minutes after the subjects ingested the creatine solution. Based on the total body of research, creatine monohydrate taken alone is effective. During the loading phase, creatine plus glucose may result in higher levels of creatine and phosphocreatine, under conditions of not exercising. However, more research is needed to compare the effects of creatine versus creatine + glucose loading, while the subjects are undergoing strength training, and comparing the effects on athletic performance.


So, it is optional to take creatine with glucose or other carbohydrates, especially if you take creatine 30 to 60 minutes before a meal, or even with meals, your meal will provide insulin stimulating nutrients. However, most people how are training intensively can probably use some extra glucose to help replenish their muscle glycogen. The take home lesson is that creatine monohydrate on its own produces great results. Taking it with other nutrients like protein, glutamine, glucose, etc, may provide additional benefits. As a consumer, the decision ends up to what you can afford. So purchase the value added formulas when you can afford to do so. But, at the very least taking a multi-vitamin/mineral, protein supplement and creatine supplement is the minimum supplement requirements for bodybuilders and strength athletes in training and competition. Creatine Monohydrate Powder More Is Effective Than Creatine Liquid Study Title: “Creatine serum is not as effective as creatine powder for improving cycle sprint performance in competitive male team-sport athletes.” This study conducted by Gill and coworkers (41) examined the effects of supplementation with either creatine monohydrate powder prepared in solution versus a commercially available creatine liquid. The performance test used in this study was a repeated maximal sprint cycling test; 10 x 6 seconds, 24-second passive rest between sprints. This study used a randomized, double-blind, crossover design. Eleven competitive male athletes supplemented with creatine. The 2 supplementation programs they followed were 1) twenty grams per day for 6 days of creatine powder prepared in solution, or 2) five milliliters per day for 6 days of creatine serum product. The results showed that the subjects taking the creatine powder in solution had an increase in total work (9.6%) and peak power (3.4%) in the cycle sprint. However, there was little change after using the creatine serum supplement product. The results of this study reconfirmed that creatine monohydrate powder can produce an ergogenic effect. The researchers noted that the creatine serum may have been ineffective because there is a substantial conversion of creatine into creatinine when in solution for long periods of time, and that the creatine serum product probably had little creatine remaining in it, versus the freshly prepared drink made using creatine powder. This study illustrates an important point regarding the stability of creatine in solution. When creatine is mixed with water, or other fluids, some of the creatine will eventually start to convert to creatinine. It usually takes a few to several hours for this to start to happen. The rate of this creatine to creatinine conversion is increased as the pH of the liquid is decreased; more acidic fluids. Creatine beverages, made from creatine powder should be consumed with in an hour of mixing the creatine powder in the fluid to ensure that you will be ingesting 100% creatine. You should also avoid mixing creatine with acidic beverages. However, if you need to premix your creatine, you can greatly slow down the conversions of creatine to creatinine by refrigerating your creatine beverage. Creatine Powder, Creatine Lozenge And Creatine From Meat Absorption Comparisons Study Title: “Absorption of creatine supplied as a drink, in meat or in solid form.” In this study Harris and coworkers (42) examined the plasma concentration over 6 hours after the ingestion of 2 grams of creatine (equivalent to 2.3 grams creatine monohydrate) contained in meat, creatine lozenge (crushed in the mouth and swallowed) or in creatine monohydrate supplement prepared with water in five non-users of creatine supplements. The creatine supplement powder prepared with water resulted in a significantly more rapid and higher plasma creatine concentration then from the meat or creatine lozenge. Despite a possibly lower bioavailability, 2.3 grams of creatine monohydrate supplied in either solid form was nonetheless sufficient to raise the plasma concentration five- to six-fold in individuals with a mean body mass of Appendix – A6 Page 42 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

75.6 kg. Also note that one of the military studies reviewed in Part 6, used creatine in the form of a nutrition bar. This offers the creatine taker an alternative to having to prepare creatine beverages. Creatine And Caffeine The research regarding caffeine and creatine also deserves some discussion in light of the complicated research findings. When the notable 1996 study was conducted, see study reference below, the researchers actually thought that caffeine ingestion might enhance creatine uptake. During the 1996 study creatine and phosphocreatine levels increased in both dosage regimens; creatine, and creatine plus caffeine. However, only the creatine group experienced an improvement in muscle strength performance. In both the 1996 and 2002 studies (43 & 44), caffeine intake was very high for a 3 day period, 5 mg per kg of body weight, about 350 mg per day of caffeine intake. Creatine aside, in these and other studies, caffeine intake has been shown to increase the muscle resting time during the muscle contraction cycle. Creatine actually decreases the muscle resting time, which is beneficial for strength athletes as this speeds-up the muscle contraction cycle. During fast repetitive muscle contractions shorting of the muscle resting time from a previous contraction is critical to maximum force output during the next muscle contraction. Also, shorting muscle resting time may increase the number of actin-myosin activation cycles per unit of time and increase total muscle power output. General recommendations regarding caffeine consumption for strength athletes is to minimize and avoid caffeine intake during periods of training and competition. Ingest caffeine sparingly, only periodically, for one day at a time, with a few days in between the next ingestion; if you find that you need to consume it at all. The aforementioned studies measured the effects of a single day of ingesting caffeine (referred to as acute caffeine intake), which did not adversely effect muscle strength performance; however, it did not improve performance significantly. While we are on this subject, alcohol consumption also undermines your muscle building efforts. It actually interferes with protein synthesis. So during those important training and athletic season periods, it is best to avoid caffeine and alcohol intake. The thrill of competition should give you enough of a high. As an aside, moderate caffeine use by endurance athletes has been shown to improve their performance significantly in most studies. Although, keep in mind that caffeine misuse and over consumption is counter productive. Additionally, some sports governing organizations have limits on the levels of caffeine permitted. Check with your organization to make sure you don’t get disqualified from being a caffeine drinker. Creatine Safety As indicated in the Kreider study referenced in Part 2, and in all of the other studies reviewed herein, it turns out that under the conditions of these studies, creatine is proven to be both safe and effective. The reports of creatine causing cramps, are unproven. In fact, the most recent research reports the opposite; creatine use by athletes actually reduces the incidence and duration of muscle cramps. However, even though studies range up to 3 years in length of continuous creatine monohydrate supplement use, there are still unanswered questions regarding all of the potential effects that longterm creatine use may have. So to be on the safe side it is use to plan creatine use during periods of intensive training and during the athlete season, so continuous use lasts up to 4 months in length. Then, abstain from creatine for 4 weeks or more. When you repeat use, follow the standard creatine loading, and maintenance regimens, as after 4 weeks your body returns to near pre-creatine use levels. Creatine supplements should not be used by anyone who has any disease or disorder, without being under strict doctor supervision. People with a history of renal dysfunction or diabetes should avoid creatine supplementation.


In 2003, the results of another study performed using football players also reported no side effects from taking creatine monohydrate supplements. Greenwood, Kreider, Greenwood and Byars recorded the results of Division IA collegiate football players over a 4 month period that included training sessions, practices, and competition. The creatine taking group of football players loaded with creatine monohydrate for 5 days (0.3 g/kg body weight), and during the 115 day maintenance period consumed creatine at the rate of 0.003 g/kg of body weight) (45 & 46). At the end of the is study period the researchers reported that creatine users experienced a reduced incidence of the following when compared to the placebo group: reduced rate of cramping, reduced heat/dehydration, reduced muscle tightness, reduced muscle strains, reduced non-contact injuries, reduced illness, reduced number of missed practices and reduced number of players lost for the season. No Side Effects From Creatine Supplement Taking Study Title: “Creatine supplementation and its effect on musculotendinous stiffness and performance.” This study was undertaken by Watsford and coworkers (47) to determine if any side effects would occur from taking a creatine monohydrate supplement. Twenty men were randomly assigned to a control or an experimental creatine supplement taking group. Subjects were examined for musculotendinous stiffness of the triceps surae and for numerous performance indices before and after the creatine ingestion period. It was determined that the creatine taking group experienced a significant increase in body mass, and also an increase in jump height performance. No increase was found for musculotendinous stiffness from taking creatine. The findings of this study do not support the speculation that creatine supplementation causes muscular strain injuries. Additionally, the increase in jump performance demonstrates the performance enhancement in activities requiring maximal muscle power output. OVERVIEW OF THE OTHER TYPES OF CREATINE SUPPLEMENTS ON THE MARKET The following information is a quick overview of the research studies published, or lack of research studies published using other forms of creatine. You may be wondering why companies would go through the trouble and expense to reinvent something that already works so well; creatine monohydrate. One school of thought is that by connecting a different molecule to creatine, it may get in the body at a faster rate, and increase total creatine and phosphocreatine levels greater than creatine monohydrate. The big question we all want to know the answer too, putting all of the marketing hype aside, is has anyone actually invented a better form of creatine? Answer: NO! At the writing of this article there was no scientific evidence supporting that other forms of creatine work better than creatine monohydrate. This includes the popular creatine ethyl ester HCl (CEE). As it turns out, there is a lack of published research conducted with humans using CEE. Based on data submitted to the FDA by a CEE raw material manufacturer, the FDA noted that according to the rat study, the CEE dissociated in to creatine and ethanol in the gut before being bioavailable to the tissues. The FDA also noted that the rat study data did not show an increase in creatine blood levels in the rats that ingested the CEE. The FDA stated that the study failed to provide data showing that creatine levels were increasing as CEE dissociates and diffuses from the gut into the blood. This study did not clearly demonstrate the relative concentration of CEE, creatine, and ethanol between the gut and blood especially during the first three hours after intake. It is unclear to FDA how creatine/creatinine levels in the urine could be detected yet there were no recorded measurements for creatine in the blood during the first 190 minutes of the experiment. Appendix – A6 Page 44 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

In all fairness to the CEE company, perhaps CEE is not as bioavailable in rats as it might be in humans. However, in this regard it is interesting to note that in the CEE patent, the illustration identifies CEE as “biologically inactive”, then shows some illustrations of what happens to CEE as it moves through the digestive system, where in the intestines the CEE has to be broken down by intestinal enzymes (esterases), and freed in to creatine monohydrate before it can be taken up in to the blood stream and delivered to the muscles. So, putting all of the CEE marketing hype aside, there is currently no scientific evidence that CEE works better than creatine monohydrate. In fact the CEE molecule has to be digested in the intestines to free up creatine monohydrate to be absorbed in to the body. Based on data submitted to the FDA, it appears that this digestion of CEE in the intestines may be incomplete, and in the end not be very bioavailable. Perhaps in the future there will be some humans studies conducted using CEE compared directly to creatine monohydrate to determine if it is safe and effective in humans, and if effective, how it actually compares to the beneficial effects of research proven creatine monohydrate, to look forward to report about in future editions of this article. If you are going to try CEE products, it would probably make sense to do this in the off season, as the expectation of CEE producing benefits is questionable. Creatine-Pyruvate And Cycling Performance? Study Title: “Effects of oral creatine-pyruvate supplementation in cycling performance.” This double-blind study conducted by Van Schuylenbergh and coworkers (48) was performed to evaluate the effects of creatine-pyruvate supplementation on exercise performance in well-trained cyclists. Seven athletes took 3.5grams of creatine-pyruvate twice a day for one week, and seven other athletes took a placebo. It was concluded that one week of creatine-pyruvate supplementation at a rate of 7 grams per day did not beneficially impact on either endurance capacity or intermittent sprint performance in cyclists. Other forms of creatine, such as magnesium-creatine chelate, creatine citrate, and creatine phosphate, have not been shown to perform better than creatine monohydrate. In the case of using creatine compounds with minerals attached to the creatine, such as magnesium or phosphate, there may be a concern of overdosing these minerals. Creatine intake requirement is generally high, especially during the loading phase, which may results in too high an intake of these mineral complexes. IN SUMMARY, based on the available research, for best results, Creatine monohydrate has the most research backing its safety and effectiveness. With proper use, creatine monohydrate supplementation alone or as part of a complete custom formula, containing whey protein isolate, and other beneficial ingredients should be part of the bodybuilder’s and other strength athlete’s nutrition program. Part 7 References (34) Derave W, Eijnde BO, Verbessem P, Ramaekers M, Van Leemputte M, Richter EA, Hespel P. Combined creatine and protein supplementation in conjunction with resistance training promotes muscle GLUT-4 content and glucose tolerance in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2003 May;94(5):1910-6. Epub 2003 Jan 10. (35) Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Davidson KS, Candow DG, Farthing J, Smith-Palmer T. The effect of whey protein supplementation with and without creatine monohydrate combined with resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscle strength. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2001 Sep;11(3):349-64. Appendix – A6 Page 45 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

(36) Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Parise G, Tarnopolsky MA, Candow DG. Effect of alpha-lipoic acid combined with creatine monohydrate on human skeletal muscle creatine and phosphagen concentration. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003 Sep;13(3):294-302. (37) Brilla LR, Giroux MS, Taylor A, Knutzen KM. Magnesium-creatine supplementation effects on body water. Metabolism. 2003 Sep;52(9):1136-40. (38) Lehmkuhl M, Malone M, Justice B, Trone G, Pistilli E, Vinci D, Haff EE, Kilgore JL, Haff GG. The effects of 8 weeks of creatine monohydrate and glutamine supplementation on body composition and performance measures. J Strength Cond Res. 2003 Aug;17(3):425-38. (38) Green AL, Hultman E, Macdonald IA, Sewell DA, Greenhaff PL. Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans. Am J Physiol. 1996 Nov;271(5 Pt 1):E821-6. (39) Green AL, Simpson EJ, Littlewood JJ, Macdonald IA, Greenhaff PL. Carbohydrate ingestion augments creatine retention during creatine feeding in humans. Acta Physiol Scand. 1996 Oct;158(2):195-202. (40) Preen D, Dawson B, Goodman C, Beilby J, Ching S. Creatine supplementation: a comparison of loading and maintenance protocols on creatine uptake by human skeletal muscle. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003 Mar;13(1):97-111. (41) Gill ND, Hall RD, Blazevich AJ. Creatine serum is not as effective as creatine powder for improving cycle sprint performance in competitive male team-sport athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2004 May;18(2):272-5. (42) Harris RC, Nevill M, Harris DB, Fallowfield JL, Bogdanis GC, Wise JA. Absorption of creatine supplied as a drink, in meat or in solid form. (43) Vandenberghe K, Gillis N, Van Leemputte M, Van Hecke P, Vanstapel F, Hespel P. Caffeine counteracts the ergogenic action of muscle creatine loading. J Appl Physiol. 1996 Feb;80(2):452-7. (44) Hespel, P., et al. Opposite actions of caffeine and creatine on muscle relaxation time in humans. J Appl Physiol 2002 92:513-518. (45) Kreider RB, Melton C, Rasmussen CJ, Greenwood M, Lancaster S, Cantler EC, Milnor P, Almada AL. Long-term creatine supplementation does not significantly affect clinical markers of health in athletes. Mol Cell Biochem. 2003 Feb;244(1-2):95-104. (46) Greenwood, M, Kreider, RB, Greenwood, L, and Byars, A. Cramping and injury incidence in collegiate football players are reduced by creatine supplementation. Journal of Athletic Training 2003;38(3):216-219. (47) Watsford ML, Murphy AJ, Spinks WL, Walshe AD. Creatine supplementation and its effect on musculotendinous stiffness and performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2003 Feb;17(1):26-33. (48) Van Schuylenbergh R, Van Leemputte M, Hespel P. Effects of oral creatine-pyruvate supplementation in cycling performance. Int J Sports Med. 2003 Feb;24(2):144-50. Notice: This article is not intended for use as a substitute for consultation with a qualified medical practitioner. If you have symptoms of any illness, it is essential that you see your doctor without delay.


Glossary Acetylcholine. A neurotransmitter that is critical for optimum nervous-system functioning. Adaptive overload stress. A training method in which the body must adjust to increasingly greater amounts of resistance. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). A compound that, when broken down, produces the energy that enables the muscles and other organs to function. Adipose tissue. The anatomical fat found in between the skin and muscle. Aerobic. With oxygen. Aerobic activity. A low-intensity, high-endurance activity that requires oxygen for production of energy and continuous work perform over long distances or periods of time. Aerobic endurance. The ability to maintain aerobic muscle output over long periods of time. Alpha-linolenic acid. An essential fatty acid. Amine. A nitrogen-containing compound in which at least one hydrogen atom has been replaced with a hydrocarbon radical. Ammonia. A nitrogen containing metabolic waste product. Anabolism. The biochemical process in which different molecules combine to form larger, more complex molecules and tissue building. Anaerobic. Without oxygen. Anaerobic activity. A high-intensity, low-endurance activity that requires bursts of energy for power or speed. Anemia. A condition in which the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood is reduced. It is the most common symptom of iron deficiency. Anticatabolic. Describing a substance the prevents catabolism. Antioxidant. A nutrient that has been found to seek out and neutralize free radicals in the body and to stimulate the body to recover more quickly from free-radical damage. Arachidonic acid. A fatty acid that becomes essential when a linoleic-acid deficiency exists. Arteriosclerosis. Hardening of the arteries. Assimilation. Conversion into living tissue. Atherosclerosis. A degenerative illness that causes hardening of the arteries. Beta oxidation. The metabolic process in which fatty acids are used to regenerate adenosine-triphosphate molecules; an oxidative energy system. Bile. A substance secreted by the liver that is essential for the digestion and absorption of fats and for the Appendix A7 – Page 1 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

assimilation of calcium. Bioavailability. The ability of an ingested nutrient to cross from the digestive tract into the bloodstream and then from the bloodstream into the cells in which it will be utilized. Biological value (BV). Both the biological efficiency of a protein and any of a number of methods used to measure a protein's biological efficiency. Blood buffer. A substance that helps maintain the ph balance in the blood. Blood plasma. The liquid part of the blood; the substance in the blood that carries the red blood cells. Blood-brain barrier. A semipermeable membrane that keeps the blood that is circulating in the brain away from the tissue fluids surrounding the brain cells. Calorie. A unit of measurement used to express the energy value of food. The technical definition for one calorie is the amount of heat required at a pressure of one atmosphere to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees Celsius. The unit used in nutritional work is the large calorie (Cal) or kilocalorie (kcal), which is the amount to raise 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius, from 14.5 to 15.5 degrees Celsius. There is about 3,500 calories of energy in 1 pound of body fat. The conversion of calories to joules is made by multiplying calories by 4.184. Cannibalization. The breakdown of muscle tissue by the body for the purpose of obtaining amino acids for other metabolic purposes. Capillary. A tiny blood vessel through which nutrients and waste products travel between the bloodstream and the body's cells. Carbohydrate drink. A sports beverage designed to replenish the glycogen (energy) stores and provide energy substrates to exercising muscles. Carbon dioxide. A metabolic waste product from the breakdown of carbon based molecules. Carcinogen. A substance that is either proven or suspected to cause cancer in humans or laboratory animals. Catabolism. The biochemical process in which complex molecules are broken down for energy production, recycling of their components, or excretion. Catecholamine. One of the substances that function, primarily as neurotransmitters, in the sympathetic and central nervous systems. The substances include dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. Cell membrane. The outer boundary of a cell. Also called the plasma membrane. Cellular replication. The process in which a cell is duplicated for the purpose of creating a new cell. Cellular uptake. Absorption by the cells. Chromosome. A unit, located within the cell nucleus that contains all of a person's genetic information, in the form of genes. Coenzyme. An enzyme cofactor. Cofactor. A substance that must be present for another substance to be able to perform a certain function. Collagen. A simple protein that is the chief component of connective tissue. Appendix A7 – Page 2 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Complete protein. A protein that contains the essential amino acids in amounts sufficient for the maintenance of normal growth rate and body weight. Connective tissue. Tissue that either supports other tissue or joins tissue to tissue, muscle to bone, or bone to bone. It includes cartilage, bone, tendons, ligaments, reticular tissue, areolar tissue, adipose tissue, blood, bone marrow, and lymph. Contraction. The development of tension within a muscle. The two kinds are isotonic, in which the muscle shortens as it becomes tense, and isometric, in which the muscle does not shorten as it becomes tense. Cortisol. A hormone secreted by the adrenal glands that stimulates catabolism. Creatine phosphate. A compound produced in the body, stored in the muscle fibers, and broken down by enzymes to quickly replenish the adenosine-triphosphate stores. Creatinine. A waste product of creatine metabolism. Cross-link. An undesirable bond between molecules that is induced by free radicals and results in deformed molecules that cannot function properly. Cytoplasm. The liquid between the cell membrane and nuclear membrane of a cell. Also called the cytosol. Degenerative illness. An illness that causes the body to deteriorate. Examples are cancer and arthritis. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The substance in the cell nucleus that contains the cell's genetic blueprint and determines the type of life form into which the cell will develop. Diabetes. Diabetes mellitus. A condition in which the body does not properly metabolize carbohydrates due to a lack of or resistance against insulin. Digestive enzyme. An enzyme that acts as catalysts for the breakdown of food components. Di-peptide. Two amino acids linked together. Disaccharide. A simple carbohydrate composed of two sugar molecules. Diuretic. A substance that increases urination. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). An omega-3 fatty acid. Dopamine. A catecholamine that often functions as a neurotransmitter. Ectomorph. The slim, linear body type. Eicosanoid. One of a group of substances that help regulate a wide diversity of physiological processes. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). An omega-3 fatty acid. Electrolyte balance. The ratio of chloride, potassium, sodium, and the other electrolytes in the body. Emulsifier. A substance that, during digestion, helps make fats soluble in aqueous mediums. Endomorph. The soft round body type, with tendency for excess body fat. Endurance. The ability to continue physical activity without undue discomfort. Appendix A7 – Page 3 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Endurance sport. A sport that requires the ability to perform for long periods of time at low intensities, such as marathon running and cross-country skiing. Energy metabolism. A series of chemical reactions that break down foodstuffs and thereby produce energy. Energy supplement. A supplement designed to enhance the mental or physical energy levels. Energy system. A sequence of metabolic reactions that produces energy. Enteric coating. A coating on tablets that delays digestion of the tablets until they pass from the stomach into the intestines. Enzyme. One of a group of protein catalysts that initiate or speed chemical reactions in the body. Epinephrine. A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland that prepares the body for the fight-or-flight reaction. Essential nutrient. A nutrient that the body cannot produce itself or that it cannot produce in sufficient amounts to maintain good health. Excitatory neurotransmitter. A neurotransmitter that acts as a stimulant to the brain or other parts of the nervous system. Extracellular. Outside the cell. Fast-twitch muscle fibers. Muscle fibers that contract quickly, providing short bursts of energy, and therefore are used when strength and power are needed. Fat cell. A cell that stores fatty acids for energy. Fat soluble. Capable of being dissolved in lipid and organic solvents. Free radical. One of the highly reactive molecules that are known to injure cell membranes, cause defects in the de-oxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and contribute to the aging process and a number of degenerative illnesses. Free radicals are byproducts of normal chemical reactions in the body that involve oxygen. Free-form amino acids. Amino acids that are in their free state, or single. Fructose. A simple carbohydrate that is a monosaccharide; also called levulose or fruit sugar. Gluconeogenesis. The metabolic process in which glucose is synthesized. Glucose. A simple carbohydrate that is a monosaccharide. Also called dextrose or grape sugar. Glucose polymer. A processed form of polysaccharides, or complex carbohydrates. Glucose-alanine cycle. An important biochemical process that occurs during exercise to produce energy. Glycogen is broken down to glucose and then to pyruvate, some of which is used directly for energy and the remainder of which is converted to alanine. The alanine is returned to the liver and stored as glucose, then once again broken down to glycogen and then to pyruvate. Glycogen. A complex carbohydrate that occurs only in animals; the form in which glucose is stored in the body. Glycogen depletion. The draining of the body's glycogen stores.


Glycogen replenishment. The refilling of the body's glycogen stores. Glycogen sparing. The saving of glycogen by the body for other functions. Glycogen-bound water. The water that is stored in the muscles along with glycogen. About 3 grams of water must be stored with every 1 gram of glycogen. Glycogenolysis. The metabolic process in which glycogen is broken down. Glycolysis. The metabolic process in which glucose divided in half to pyruvate or lactic acid. Glycolytic energy systems. The energy systems that produce energy through glycolysis. They include nonoxidative glycolysis and oxidative glycolysis. Glycoprotein. A conjugated protein found in blood. Glycosaminoglycans. Long chains of modified sugars that are the main component of proteoglycan. Gram. A measurement of weight equal to approximately one twenty-eighth of an ounce. Hard gainer. A person who has trouble gaining weight. Hemoglobin. The oxygen carrier in red blood cells. Hemolytic anemia. A condition in which the hemoglobin becomes separated from the red blood cells. Hemorrhage. Bleed excessively. Hitting the wall. The sensation felt by marathon runners when they deplete their body's glycogen stores and begin running primarily on stored body fat. Homeostasis. The tendency of the body to maintain an internal equilibrium. Hyaluronic acid. The principal glycosaminoglycan in proteoglycan. Hydrogenation. The process in which unsaturated fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen atoms to make them more solid. Hydrolyzed protein. A protein that has already been broken down, usually by enzymes, and is a mixture of free-form, di-peptide, and tri-peptide amino acids. Hydrostatic weighing. A method for determining body composition that involves weighing the body under water. Hypertension. High blood pressure. Hypoglycemia. Low blood sugar levels. Immediate energy systems. The nonoxidative energy systems that supply immediate energy for bursts of power through the use of immediately available adenosine triphosphate and creatine phosphate. Immunoglobulin. A protein that functions as an antibody in the body's immune system. Incomplete protein. A protein that is usually deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids. Most plant proteins are incomplete.


Insulin resistance. A condition in which the body is resistant against the effects of insulin. Insulin-like growth factors (IGF). Substances that promote growth in the muscles. Intermediary. A substance that plays a role in the middle of a biochemical process. International unit (IU). A measure of potency based on an accepted international standard. It is usually used with beta-carotene and vitamins A, D, and E. Because it is a measure of potency, not weight or volume, the number of milligrams in an IU varies, depending on the substance being measured. Interstitial spaces. The tiny spaces between tissues or organ parts. Intracellular. Inside the cell. Involuntary muscle. A muscle that acts independently of the will, like the smooth muscles of the digestive system. Ketone. An acidic substance produced during the incomplete metabolism of fatty acids. Lactic acid. A byproduct of glycolysis. Lean body mass. All of a body's tissues apart from the body fat-the bones, muscles, organs, blood, and water. Also called fat-free mass. Limiting nutrient. A nutrient that has the ability, through its absence or presence, to restrict the utilization of other nutrients or the functioning of the body. Linoleic acid. An essential fatty acid. Lipolysis. The process in which lipids are broken down into their constituent fatty acids. Lipoprotein. A conjugated protein that transports cholesterol and fats in the blood. Lipotropic agent. A substance that prevents fatty buildup in the liver and helps the body metabolize fat more efficiently. Lymphatic fluid. A clear fluid derived from blood plasma that circulates throughout the body to nourish tissue cells and to return waste matter to the bloodstream. Lymphatic system. The system of vessels that carries the lymphatic fluid through the body. Macronutrient. One of the nutrients that are required daily in large amounts and that are thought of in quantities of ounces and grams. They include carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and water. Macronutrient modulation. The practice of varying the ratio of the macronutrients in the diet to meet specific metabolic needs to enhance performance. Also called macronutrient manipulation. Malabsorption. Incorrect absorption. Medium-chain fatty acid. A fatty acid with a chain of six to twelve carbon atoms. Megadose. An extremely large dose. Mesomorph. The muscular body type. Metabolic booster. A substance whose digestion causes the body to produce more than the normal amount Appendix A7 – Page 6 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

of energy. Also called thermogenic aid. Metabolic pathway. A sequence of metabolic reactions. Metabolic rate. The body's total daily caloric expenditure. Metabolic water. The water that is produced in the body as a result of energy production. Microgram. A measurement of weight equal to one one-thousandth of a milligram. Micronutrient. One of the nutrients present in the diet and the body in small amounts. Micronutrients are measured in milligrams and micrograms. They include the vitamins and minerals. Microtrauma. Small but widespread tears in the muscle cells from training stress. Milligram. A measurement of weight equal to one one-thousandth of a gram. Mitochondrion. The organelle that produces the cellular energy required for metabolism. Monosaccharide. A simple carbohydrate composed of one sugar molecule, such as glucose and fructose. Monounsaturated fatty acid. A fatty acid that has one unsaturated carbon molecule. Muscle fiber. A long muscle cell. Muscle mass. Muscle tissue. Muscle tissue. Tissue that has the ability to contract, either voluntarily or involuntarily. It can be striated or smooth. The three kinds are skeletal muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, and smooth muscle tissue. Neurotransmitter. A chemical substance that helps transmit nerve impulses. Nonessential nutrient. A nutrient that is not considered essential-that is, a nutrient that the body does make in sufficient amounts to maintain good health. Nonoxidative energy systems. The systems that supply energy for high-intensity, low-endurance activities lasting up to several minutes, such as powerlifting and sprinting. They include the immediate energy systems and nonoxidative glycolysis. Nonoxidative glycolysis. The metabolic process in which a glucose molecule is split in half to regenerate adenosine diphosphate back into adenosine triphosphate; a nonoxidative energy system that is the major contributor of energy during near-maximum efforts lasting up to about one and a half minutes. Norepinephrine. A hormone secreted by the adrenal glands for a number of purposes and also released by the sympathetic nerve endings as a neurotransmitter. Nuclear membrane. The membrane surrounding the cell nucleus. Nucleus. The control center of the cell where DNA is found. Organelle. One of the variety of components that make up a cell. The organelles include the cell membrane, nucleus, ribosome, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosome, and mitochondrion. Organic. Biologically produced and containing carbon atoms as part of its structure. Oxidation. A chemical reaction in which an atom or molecule loses electrons or hydrogen atoms. Appendix A7 – Page 7 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Oxidation-reduction reaction. A chemical reaction in which one substance loses electrons or hydrogen atoms while, at the same time, another substance gains electrons or hydrogen atoms. Peptide-bonded amino acids. Amino acids that are linked together. Polypeptide. Four or more amino acids linked together. Polysaccharide. A complex carbohydrate. Polyunsaturated fatty acid. A fatty acid that has more than one unsaturated carbon molecule. Polyunsaturated fatty acids tend to be liquid at room temperature. Precursor. An intermediate substance in the body's production of another substance. Protein supplement. A supplement that supplies extra protein. Pyruvate. A compound that is produced during the glucose-alanine cycle. Some of the pyruvate that is produced is used directly for energy, while the remainder is converted back to alanine, which is eventually converted into glucose and used for energy. Red blood cell. The cell that carries the hemoglobin in blood. Renal. Pertaining to the kidneys. Ribonucleic acid (RNA). The substance that carries the coded genetic information from the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), in the cell nucleus, to the ribosomes, where the instructions are translated into the form of protein molecules. Saturated fatty acid. A fatty acid that has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that it can hold, with no unsaturated carbon molecules. Saturated fatty acids tend to be solid at room temperature. Short-chain fatty acid. A fatty acid with a chain of four to five carbon atoms. Skeletal muscle. One of the muscles that work in conjunction with the skeletal system to create motion. Skin-fold calipers. The specialized calipers used to measure the thickness of skin folds. Skin-fold measurement. A method for determining body composition that involves measuring the thickness of selected folds of skin using special calipers. Slow-twitch muscle fibers. Muscle fibers that produce a steady, low-intensity, repetitive contraction and therefore are used when endurance is needed. Sodium bicarbonate. A bicarbonate that boosts performance in power sports. Somatotropin. Growth hormone. Somatotype. Body type, such as Ectomorphic, Mesomorphic, and Endomorphic. Sports rehydration drink. A drink that replaces water, glucose, and the electrolytes after exercising. Sports nutrition supplement. A dietary supplement with nutritive, health and ergogenic benefits.

Starch. A complex carbohydrate that occurs only in plants, consisting of chains of glucose. Appendix A7 – Page 8 COPYRIGHT PROTECTED

Superoxide dismutase. An major antioxidant molecule that occurs in the human body. Sustained-release tablet. A tablet that releases its contents slowly and continuously over an extended period of time. Synthesis. Formation. Thermogenesis. The process by which the body generates heat from energy production. Thermogenic response. The rise in the metabolic rate. Also known as the thermogenic effect or specific dynamic action (SDA). Transamination reaction. The process in which an amino group is transferred from an amino acid to a molecule, usually to produce another amino acid. Transmethylation. The metabolic process in which an amino acid donates a methyl group to another compound. Tri-peptide. Three amino acids linked together. Ultra-endurance event. An event lasting longer than two hours. Urea cycle. The metabolic process in which ammonia is converted to the waste product urea, which is then excreted from the body. Uric acid. A metabolic waste product. Vasodilator. A substance that increases blood flow. Very long chain fatty acid. A fatty acid with a chain of twenty or more carbon atoms. Voluntary muscle. A muscle that responds to an act of the will. Water soluble. Capable of being dissolved in water.


References

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Gastelu, D “The Complete Nutritional Supplements Buyer’s Guide.” 2000. Three Rivers Press: New York. Gastelu, D and Hatfield, F. “Dynamic Nutrition for Maximum Performance.” 1997. Avery Publishing Group: New York. Gastelu, D and Hatfield, F. “Performance Nutrition: The Complete Guide” Second Edition, 2000. International Sports Sciences Association, Santa Barbara, CA

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Applegate EA, Grivetti LE. Search for the competitive edge: a history of dietary fads and supplements. J Nutr. 1997;127:869S-873S. Arciero PJ, Hannibal NS 3rd, Nindl BC, Gentile CL, Hamed J, Vukovich MD. Comparison of creatine ingestion and resistance training on energy expenditure and limb blood flow. Metabolism. 2001 Dec;50(12):1429-34. Armstrong, L.E., D.L. Costill, and W.J. Fink (1985). Influence of diuretic-induced dehydration on competitive running performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 17:456-461. Armstrong, R. B. "Mechanisms of Exercise-Induced Delayed Onset Muscular Soreness: A Brief Review." Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Vol. 16 (1984), No. 6, pp. 529-538. Armstrong, R. B. "Muscle Damage and Endurance Events." Sports Medicine, Vol. 3 (1986), pp. 370-381. Ashizawa N., R. Fujimura, K. Tokuyama and M. Suzuki. “A bout of resistance exercise increases urinary calcium independently of osteoclastic activation in men.” Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 83 (1998), pp. 1159-1163. Ayoama R, Hiruma E, Sasaki H. Effects of creatine loading on muscular strength and endurance of female softball players. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Dec;43(4):481-7.

Altman, R.D. and K.C. Marcussen (2001). Effects of a ginger extract on knee pain in patients with osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 44:2531–2538.

Azain MJ, Hausman DB, Sisk MB, Flatt WP, Jewell DE. Dietary conjugated linoleic acid reduces rat adipose tissue cell size rather than cell number. J. Nutr. 130:1548-1554 (2000).

American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand. “The recommended quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, and flexibility in healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998 Jun;30(6):975-991.

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