Bharata Natya Shastra

UNIT-1 BHARATA’S NATY NATYASH ASHAST ASTRA RA Structure 1. 0

Objectives

1. 1

Introduction 1.1.1

Aesthe Aestheti tics cs in in Indi Indian an and and Weste Western rn Contex Contextt

1.2

Bharata, ta, th the Autho thor of of th the Natyashastr Natyashastra a

1. 3

Commentat tators ors on the the Natyashastra Natyashastra

1. 4

Aim of the Natyashastra Natyashastra

1.5

Date of Com Compo possition tion of the the Natyashastra Natyashastra

1. 6

Division of the Natyashastr Natyashastra a

1. 7

Limitation of the Natyashas Natyashastra tra

1.8

Subj Subjec ectt mat matter ter of the the fi first rst chap chapte terr of of the the Natyashas Natyashastra tra::

1.9

The Origin of Drama

1.10

Let Us Us Sum Up

1.11 .11

Review ques uestion tionss

1.12 1.12

Bibliogr ography

1.0

O b j e ct i v e s

The present unit aims at giving giving the necessary details to the students student s so as to enable them to have the answers to t o the following following questions: —

What What were were the circums circumstances tances which which led led to the creation creation of the Nayash the Nayashastr astra; a; and for whom was it created?

—

Into how many many parts is is this this Nayashastra divided. divided. Are there so many parts that it cannot be b e fully fully grasped?

—

What What are various various arts, necessary necessary for the presentation presentation of drama. drama.

1. 1

Introduction

Poetics Poetics is one of o f the fields of knowledge in which Indian scholarship has made significant significant contributions, the other ot her being the Indian religion, religion, philosophy, philosophy, art and literature. Unlike Unlike them, 1

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however, Indian poetics has not been properly prope rly appreciated by scholars. It has not received the acclaim accorded accor ded to the other ot her fields fields of ancient Indian Indian knowledge. There is indeed indeed a need to counter and correct the de-intellectualized de-intellectualized mind mind by arguing for and developing applicational model model from Indian Sanskrit literary theories theo ries to a wide variety variety of English English texts. Despite favourable gesture of o f the U.G.C. U.G.C. to promote pro mote Sanskrit literary literary theories within the existing thinking of Indian academy acade my,, problems pro blems still persist in the mind of “the Educat Ed ucated ed Indian” who out rightly rightly rejects the Indian literary theories. The scholars of English, English, in the East E ast and in the West West as well, teach teac h the translated western west ern classics Homer Iliad (Iliad ), ), Virgil ( Aeneid ) Plato ( Republic), Republic), Aristo Aristotle tle ( Theory of Poetry and Fine Arts), Arts), Longinus (On (On the Sublime), Sublime), Horace ( Ars ( Ars Poetica or Art or Art of Poetry), Poetry), Quintilian ( Institutio Oratoria or Oratoria or The Education of an Orator ), ), Dante ( Divine Comedy Comedy and and De De VulgarioEloqioe VulgarioEloqioe or or Of the th e Vulgar Vulgar Tongue or Of Writing in Vernacu Vernacular lar ) ) with a kind of elevated feeling. Not only the Weste Western rn classics, we teach even e ven the translated works wo rks of the Western Western modern writers Ferdinand de Saussure ( The Course in General Linguistics) Linguistics) Roman Jakobson (art (articl icles es on matters matter s of grammar grammar and phonology phonology in Slavoni Slavonicc languages languages), ), Jacques Jacques Lacan, Lacan, psyc psychoana hoanaly lyst, st, Jacques Jacques Derrida, Derrida, Mikhai Mikhaill Bakhtin, Bakhtin, Rolland Barthes, Michael Foucault and many others ot hers with the same feelings feelings of elevation. But when we turn to teach our own Sanskrit literary literary theories, it is is a matter of lamentati lamentation, on, we dismiss the same venture as ‘revivalism’. Sanskrit theories theories are the result result of tap or tap or devotion devotion of ancient Indian Acaryas from Acarya Bharat to Panditraj Jagannath and deal with each part of the literary text systematically systematically. These theories the ories have viability viability and and validity validity in modern situation situat ion too. too . They are not suited s uited to Indian context cont ext only but are universally valid. valid. Unhesitatingly, Unhesitatingly, it can be said that t hat these theories t heories can profitabl profitably y be appli applied to Western texts. But while while applyi applying ng them we should should be very cautious. cautious. We should not apply them blindly blindly as it has been observed in the efforts efforts made so far. far. In general, these theories have been applied applied as patents. Such exercises can hardly hardly succeed, for they are based on false premises. premises. If the applicational models are developed from Sanskrit theories theo ries and are applied in right perspective, perspec tive, they can help develop a genuine Indian literary criticism. These models shall offer preferable alternatives of Weste Western rn models. They will will focu focuss on the t he significant significant area of intersection between bet ween the Indian and Western thinking thinking i.e. their t heir views on the analysis and appreciation of o f literary expression. expres sion. They will stimulate an inspiration inspiration to to examine English texts in the light of classical concepts.

1.1.1 Aesthetics in Indian and Western Context The word wo rd “aesthetics” origi o riginall nally y meant pertaini pert aining ng to things perceptible by senses, things material, as opposed oppose d to things t hings thinkable thinkable or immater immaterial. ial. In western weste rn context, context , particularly from from Hegelian point of view, “aesthetics” means “the philosophy of fine arts” which seems to mean “a theory of beautiful in general, general, whether in art or o r in nature. There beauty beaut y has been been studied by different thinkers at different times and accordingly there are different theories. The earliest theories theo ries are hedonistic, rigoristic and moralistic or pedagogic which represent represe nt a study of the 2


proble problem m from from the point point of view view of the the end end of art. art. The The theori theories es of imi imitation, tation, illusion, usion, and and ideal dealiz ized ed representation representat ion represent a study stud y from from the point of view of the artist. The theories theo ries of confused cognition, inference and mysticism mysticism represent a study stud y of the problem pro blem from the point po int of view of the spectator. specta tor. All All these theories have been propounded on the basis of o f the architecture, sculpture, painti painting, ng, musi musicc and drama. drama. In the context co ntext of o f India, aesthetics means “science and philosophy philosophy of fine art.” It is science of fine fine art because the pro problem blem of art is originally originally a problem of technique of art. The T he works, wherein the philosop philosophy hy of art is discussed, are primarily primarily concerned with techni tec hnique; que; and the philosophy philosophy is closely related to it. It is philosophy of fin finee art is because the experience that a work of o f art arouses in an aesthete is accounted for in terms of different different schools of phil philosophic osophic thought thought in India India and also also because because the authoriti authorities es on three three arts, poetry, poetry, musi musicc and architecture, hold that art presents the Absolute Absolute as conceiv co nceived ed by them. Thus there are three schools of o f philosophy philosophy of art: i) Rasa-Brahma-vada (schoo Rasa-Brahma-vada (schooll dealing dealing with the experience of o f absolute in literature) ii). Nad-Brah Nad-Brahma-v ma-vada ada(school (school dealing with the experience of absolute in music. iii) iii) Vastu-Brahma-vada(school Vastu-Brahma-vada(school dealing with the experience of absolute in architecture) . And fine fine art is the art which presents the absolute abso lute in sensuous garb and aesthetical relation, relation, as distinct from the utilitarian, with a work of which gives rise or leads to experience of the absolute. Like western theories, we have Indian theories also which have been propounded prima primari rily ly and main mainly ly in relation relation to the product product of the dramati dramaticc art. Bharata Bharata gives gives all other arts subordinate position to the dramatic art because there is no such lore, experience, experience, spiritual spiritual discipline, discipline, science, art, craft and object as is not employed employed on some occasion or the other in dramatic dramatic presentation. Bharata encounters all issues related to dramaturgy in in his treatise, Natyashastra.

1.2

Bhar Bh arat ata, a, the Auth Autho or of of tth he Natyashastra

Bharata Bharat a Muni, is is acknowledged to be a legendary author of the Natyashastr the Natyashastra, a, the first first Sanskrit work on dramaturgy dramatu rgy.. The treatise treat ise says says that Bharata was the one who popularized the Natyaveda, the Natyaveda, created created by Brahm, on the earth. He is also said to have collected all the material of earlier acharyas (ancient acharyas (ancient teachers) like like Tumburu, Narada and Nandi and gave the t he Nayas Nayashas hastr tra a a complete coherence by making making additions, alterations altera tions and adaptations adaptat ions according accord ing to the t he requirements requirements of time and space. It is clear from the text that later it was the sons and the followers followers of Bharata who transmitted transmitted the art of the theater to the world. Abhinava Abhinava Gupta Gupta uses the name ¸Adi-Bharata ¸Adi-Bharata for Bharata as the sons and the followers followers of Bharata were called called Bharatas, the actors.

1.3

Com Commentators on the Natyashastra

There was quite a large number of commentaries on the Nayashastr the Nayashastra a of Bharata. But all of them are unf unfort ortunately unately lost, lost, excepting e xcepting the Abhin the Abhinava ava Bharata Bharata of of Abhinavagupta. Abhinavagupta. In 3


fact, our only o nly source of information information about them and their authors is the Abhinav the Abhinavaa- Bharata Bharata itself. The information information available about them t hem is is in the pages from 12 120 0 to 129 of “Abhinavagupta :An Historical and Philosophical Study”. Besides Abhinavagupta, there are only three commentators. The earliest commentator commentator of the Nat the Natyas yashast hastra ra is Lolata who gives the theory of the aropevada (att aropevada (attributi ribution). on). Lolata has been said to subscribe subscribe to uttara- mimansa of mimansa of Vedantic philosophy which considers the t he world wor ld asmitthya as mitthya (unreal). (unreal). Shankuka happens to be the second commentator commentator of Bharata. Some scholars consider consider him him to be the supporter of prachya-nyaya prachya-nyaya (old system of logic)due logic)due to his employm employment ent of citraturaganyaya (picturecitraturaganyaya (picturehorse-logic) while while others hold that he was a supporter suppor ter of bauddha-nyaya ( bauddhabauddha- logic)in asmuch as the citra-nyaya (picturecitra-nyaya (picture-logic). logic). Be that as it may this this much is is certain certain that he subscribed to the concept of o f nyaya (logic). nyaya (logic). The third t hird commentator of Bharat is Acharya Acharya Bhattanayayaka who gave the theory of bhuktivada bhuktivada (theory of taste) based on sadharan sadh aran ikarana ikara na (generalization). The next renowned re nowned exegete exege te of Bharata is Abhinavagupta Abhinavagupta of roug roughly hly later half of the 10th and first half of the 11th C.E. His concept of rasa has rasa has a profoundly p rofoundly philosophical philosophical basi basis. s. His His concept concept ofatmaprakasha of atmaprakasha(self-consciousness) (self-consciousness) is the expansion of o f Shaiva Shaiva philosophy in which which Paramashiva Par amashiva is is equated equat ed with atma (soul) atma (soul) equipped with prak with prakasha asha (light). (light). There are post-Abhinavaacaryas post-Abhinava acaryas also also who have dealt with rasa in their celebrated works. Among Among them the most important important is Mammat Mammat whose treatise Kavyaprakasha treatise Kavyaprakasha has attracted a host of learned annotators. The next post-Abhinava acarya is Bhanudatt Bhanudattaa who broad broadlly suppo support rtiing Bhara Bharatt clai claims ms our atten attenti tion on by his his unam unambi bigu guous ous enun enunci ciati ation on ofrasa ofrasa (aesthetic (aesthetic sentiment) in his Ras his Rasa-t a-tara arangin nginii. Another post-Abhi post -Abhinava nava acarya is acarya is Vishwanat Vishwanath, h, widely known for his famous definition definition of poetry: po etry: vakyam rasatmakam kavyam, defines kavyam, defines rasa ((aesthetic rasa ((aesthetic sentiment) in his Sahityadarapana. The last distinguished name in the history of rasa deliberation is Panditaraja Jagannath of the 17th century C.E. whose celebrated treatise Rasagangadhar Rasagangadhar exercises exercises the minds of readers today by its complicated erudite style.

1. 4

Aim of the Natyashastra

The Nayas The Nayashast hastra ra known known as Natyaveda as Natyaveda or the t he fifth fifth V Veda eda,, is a classical manual on the theory and practice of Indian Indian aesthetics— theatre, music, music, dance, da nce, poetic poet ics, s, gestures gestur es and many other other allied allied arts— arts— given by Bharat Muni. Muni. The Nayas Nayasha hast stra ra pri prim maril arily aim aims at givi giving ng the neces necessa sary ry directions to actors act ors so as to enable them creditably to acquit acqu it themselves themselves in acting out their parts; parts; and to the dramati dramatists sts to enabl enablee them to write write flawl lawless ess drama dramas. s. It also also aims aims at helpi helping ng the aesthete, who is eager to enjoy the beautiful beautiful and afraid afraid of the study of theVedas the Vedas and and Pur Purana anass, which show the ways of realization of the main objectives of human life. life.

1. 5

Date of composition of the Natyashastra

As far as the date of this work is concerned, there t here is no unanimity unanimity about its specif spec ific ic date. However However there are two t wo views based on religious belief and linguistic analysis analysis and references to decide the date of this work. According to the religious view, it is believed that it was 4


created by Brahma, Brahma, in compliance compliance with with the request of the gods headed by Indra to produce prod uce something that would give delight to the eyes and please the ears. It is also believed that Brahma took the element of song from the Samaveda, Samaveda, the tandava (vigorous tandava (vigorous dance) from Shiva, Shiva, the t he lashya (grace) lashya (grace)from from Parvati and compiled compiled the Nayash the Nayashastr astra a. As regards the view based on linguistic analysis and references, there is again no unanimity about its specific date. The scholarly opinion varies placing it anywhere from 2nd century B.C.E. to 2nd century C.E. The T he amalgam of three distinct styles of writing found in the Nayashastra Nayashastra: (1) Anuvansha (1) Anuvansha or or Anubandha Anubandha verses verses in the arya, Upajati and Upajati and Anushttuubh Anushttuubh meters; (2) Sutra bhashya (prose) bhashya (prose);; (3) Karika (3) Karikass indicates indicates an early date date for its composition but does not help help us to determ determin inee it specifi specifical callly. Sin Since ce there are reference referencess and quotations quotations in certain import important ant works of o f Kalidasa, Kalidasa, Anandavardhana, Anandavardhana, Mammata, Bana, Damodaragupta, Damodarag upta, it seems that the Natyas the Natyashastr hastra a is a work anterior a nterior to the fifth fifth century C.E. The terminology used in the Nat the Natyas yashas hastra tra for acting, costume, m music, usic, dance gestur gestures es and musical instruments also supports suppo rts this date dat e of this work. The Natyas Natyashas hastra tra knows knows musical instruments of the harps harp s variety only and has a musical musical theory based upon up on them alone, hence we may conclude that it was formulated before the arrival of the zither which appears in sculpture around 3rd century B.C.E. But, aass it denotes music by the word gandharv word gandharva a or the science of gan of gandhar dharvas vas who who had no relation to music in the Vedic Vedic Samhitas and the Brahmanas, it must belong to a per period iod well after after the t he Brahmanas. The relationship of the gandh the gandharvas arvas with with music begins begins with the epics and the Pura the Puranas. nas. V Valmiki almiki,, in his earliest written writ ten portions po rtions of o f the Ramayana, Ramayana, has has used so many technical terms of music (such as sr as sruti, uti, sthana, sthana, murchchh murchchhana, ana, jati, sanmmurchana, sanmmurchana, angahara, atodya etc.). As poetry does not no t create technical technical terms but takes them from shas from shastras tras,, it is safe to presume that the Nayas the Nayashastr hastra a was compiled well after the t he Brahmanas but aro around und the same time as the earlier version version of o f Valmi Valmiki’ ki’ss Ramayana Ramayana(( 5th to 4th century B.C.E.).

1. 6

Division of the the Nayashastra

The available text, which is based on the manuscript of the Abhinavabharati, the Abhinavabharati, a th commentary of Abhinavagupt Abhinavaguptaa (11 century C.E.), C.E. ), is divided into into thirty-six t hirty-six chapters chapte rs having the following major contents: Origins of Natyaveda (science of dramatic performance), and the concept of anukarana (imitat (imitation)of ion)of life life for dramatic presentation. Three kinds kinds of theatre buildings buildings and their ritual consecration by the sponsor, a rich person or a king. king. Purvaranga Purvaranga (prelimi (preliminary nary performance) performance) in nineteen parts t o please the gods go ds and the audience, definition of eight rasas (aesthetic sentiments) — shrigara — shrigara (erotic (erotic love), vira (heroism), karuna (pathos), karuna (pathos), hasya (laughter), hasya (laughter), bibhatsa (disgust, bibhatsa (disgust, bhayanaka (fear), bhayanaka (fear), raudra (wrath), and adbhuta (wonder), adbhuta (wonder), sthayi sthayi bhavas (basic bhavas (basic sentiments), vibhavas (causes vibhavas (causes and 5


determinants of the rise of an emotion) and anubhavas (gestures) anubhavas (gestures) and sanchari and sanchari bhavas (transitory (transitor y emotions) emotions) as crucial elements elements of the emotional experience experience in theatre. Four kinds of abhinayas (acting/expression)— abhinayas (acting/expression)— angika abhinaya (bodily abhinaya (bodily expression) to depict emotions/feelings of a character charact er being played by the actor, acto r, vacika abhinaya (linguistic (linguistic expression) to express emotions/feeli emotions/feelings, ngs, tone, tone, diction, pitch of o f a particular character, aharya abhinaya (costumes (cost umes of the character characterss and stage decoration) decorat ion) to enhance expression, sattv sattvika ika abhina abhinaya ya (voluntary (voluntary changes expressed by the presence of o f tears, mark of horripi horripilation, lation, change of facial color, trembl tr embling ing of lips, enhancing of nostrils nostr ils)) to express exp ress the deepest deepe st emotions of a character. It is the highest highest kind of acting; two kinds of dharmis dharmis (theatrical representations)— lokadharmi (art lokadharmi (artisti isticc representation of the ordinary world or the rreal eal life) life) and natyadharmi (artistic natyadharmi (artistic representat repr esentation ion of the imaginary imaginary worlds like sva like svarrga (heavens), ga (heavens), pat patala ala (underworld); four kinds of o f vrittis (modes vrittis (modes of productions)— bharati (do bharati (domi minance nance of spoken contents) kaishiki (dominance kaishiki (dominance of dance and music) sattvati music) sattvati (dominance (dominance of elevated and heroic feelings) and arabhati (dominance arabhati (dominance of violent and conflictual actions, and the four pravrittis pravrittis — avanti, avanti, dakshinatya, dakshinatya, panchali and magadhi (the tastes of audiences in various various parts of India); India); four kinds kinds of atodyas (musical instruments used on the stage); ganam stage); ganam or or dhruvas (songs dhruvas (songs sung in the course of o f dramatic action at five five junctures— praveshik junctures— praveshik i (song sung before the entry of a character), naishkramiki (song sung to sooth soo th emotions of the audience after a very moving moving or shocking scene),akshepiki scene), akshepiki (song (song sung to create an intervention) and antara (song sung in between episodes to entertain the audience); and finally ranga (theatre house) (chapter 2). Dasarupakas (the ten types of plays plays extending from from one act play to ten act plays.) Itivritta Itivritta (structur (structuree of the dramatic dramatic plot), the stages of action, the nature of episodes and the interconnected emotional emotional states of o f the hero . Nayakas (heroes) and nayikas (heroines). nayikas (heroines). Svaras (musical (musical notes) gramas notes) gramas (musical scales) and atodyavidhi (ways of playing playing musical instruments like the strings, flutes, drums and cymbals).

1.7 1.7

Limitation of Natyashastra

Bharata wrote wrot e his work with a view to giving necessary instructions instructions to dramatists and actors. Larger portion po rtion of the work is devoted to the four types of acting ( Abhinaya Abhinaya). ). For the prese present nt we shal shalll restri restrict ct ourse oursellves ves to expou expound ndiing his his view view from from the point point of view view of the dram dramatist. atist. We shall, therefore, attempt at tempt to state stat e : (i) What is it it that the t he dramatist presents pre sents in the drama?, (i (ii) i)

What are its consti-tuents and how are they t hey related?, related?, (ii ( iii) i) What What is the method of dramatising dramatising an imaginary imaginary or historical plot?, (iv) What are the subjective conditions, necessary nece ssary in in the spectato spect ator, r, for getting gett ing aesthetic experien experience ce from dramatic presentation?

6


1.8

Subj Su bjec ectt mat matte terr of of th the firs firstt cha chapt pter er of the the Natyashastra

1.

Salutations

2.

Sages questions

3.

Bharata’s answers

4.

The Natyaveda Natyaveda and Bharata’s hundred sons

5.

Three styles

6.

Creation and names of Apsaras Apsaras

7.

Svat Svatii and and Na Narad rada en engage agement to hel help Br Brahma hma

8.

The The Ban Banne nerr festi festiv val of Indr Indraa and and the the first rst prod product uctio ion n of a pla play y

9.

The The pl please eased d god godss rew ewaard Bharaat raat’’s par party ty

10.

Vighnas attack Vighnas attack the actors

11.

Indra dra come omes to thei theirr prot proteection tion

12. 12.

The The ori origi gin n of of the the fi first rst pl playh ayhouse ouse

13.

Dif Different erent gods gods asked asked to prote protect ct dif different erent parts parts of the play playhou house se as as well well as the actor actorss

14.

Brahma pacifies the Vighnas

15. 15.

The The char charaacter cteriistic tic of a drama ama

16.

Offering puja to puja to the gods of the stage.

1.9 1.9

The O Orrigin of Dr Drama

As has already been been told to ld the first first chapter deals with the origin of drama of drama or Naty or Natyave aveda da (science of dramatic performance). performance). This chapter chapt er has answers to the questions quest ions raised raised by the pupils pupils of Bharata. The pupils pupils asked Bharata questions after they had witnessed witnessed the first first drama staged by him. him. The T he first first question quest ion was: what were the t he circumstances, circumstances, which led to the t he creation creat ion of the fifth fifth Veda; Veda; and for whom was it created? creat ed? The reason why they put this question quest ion may be stated stat ed as follows: The pupils had witnessed the drama and they had analysed the effect effect that t hat it had on them. They had realised that it brings brings about abou t identifi identification cation with the focus of the dramatic situation, situation, to the t he effect effect that the audience realise through experience (because of identifi identification) cation) that the four recognised objects or goals of humanity, (1) Dharma (1) Dharma (2) (2) Artha Artha (3) (3) Kama Kama and and (4) Moksa, Moksa, ought to be pursued. Thus, they had known that it instructs instructs and, therefore, admitted that the t he work, dealing with the ways and means of presenting present ing it, was rightly call called ed the Veda. Veda. Hence the question q uestion arose aro se in their minds minds “Why has the Natya the Natya Veda been eda been created ?”. For, its 7


purpose purpose to instruct nstruct people people as regards regards the desirab desirabil iliity of pursui pursuing ng the well well recogni recognised sed goals goals of human life life was already served by the existing four V Vedas. edas. Creation, Creat ion, of the fifthVeda fifthVeda,, therefore, seemed to them unnecessary. unnecessary. Therefore, they asked the t he question: “Why was the fifthVeda fifthVeda created ?”. But if there be some, so me, who cannot be instructed through t hrough the Veda, Veda, “who are they t hey ?”. Hence the subsidiary question : “For whom was it created ?”. The other othe r questions raised by the pupils pupils of Bharata were: Into how many parts is this Natya this Natya Veda Veda divided? divided? Are there so many parts that it cannot be fully grasped graspe d ? What are the various arts, art s, necessary for the presentation presentat ion of drama? Of how many parts is drama drama made? Is it an an organic organic whole or merely merely a jumbl jumble? e? What are the various means of knowledge, necessary for knowing the different parts of drama ? And if if drama is an organic orga nic whole and not a mere jumble, “Is there any special means of knowing the inter-co nnection of part s ?” And And if so “What is it ?” How are the t he diffe different rent parts of o f drama to be presented ? These and allied allied questions quest ions Bharata attempts attempt s in his Natyashaastra his Natyashaastra or Natyaveda or Natyaveda.. The answers to first three questions are given in the very first first chapter. The answer to the first first question quest ion may may be stated as follows:

The circumstances, which which led to the t he creation of Drama-turgy, Drama-turgy, were the t he products produc ts of time. During Treta Yuga, Yuga, when Vaivasvata Manvantara Ma nvantara was was running, the gods, headed by Indra, approached appro ached Brahma with a request to him to create a play-thing, play-thing, which may be pleasing pleasing to both bo th the eye and the ear and lead people automati auto maticall cally y to follow the path of duty dut y, without the need of any external compulsion, compulsion, such suc h as the order of o f a king. king. The reason reaso n why there arose aro se the necessity for such a play-thing was that Treta Treta Yuga is uga is domineered over by Rajas by Rajas,, the quality of action, prompted by selfish desires and emotions and, therefore, the common experience is a mixture mixture of pleasure and pain, d during uring thisYuga thisYuga.. The need for a play p lay-thing -thing arises only among those, whose experience is a mixture of pleasure and pain, the latter being

proportionately propor tionately more than the former. former. For, play-thi play-thing ng is for diversion. diversion. And one desires desires to divert the t he mind only from from what is painful. Such a diversion was necessary nec essary for humanity. humanity. For, Fo r, humanity, humanity, being under the influence of Rajas of Rajas,, was deviating from the right path, pointed out by the Vedas, Vedas, and was ignoring the rites due to gods g ods.. They, They, therefore, there fore, felt the necessity of bringing bringing humanity humanity to the the right path. This could not be achieved achieved through thro ugh Vedic Vedic instruction; because the Shudras were Shudras were excluded from the circle of Vedic Vedic study. The gods, ttherefore, herefore, wanted an instrument of o f instruct instruction ion such as could be utilised for instructing all, irrespect irrespective ive of caste. They T hey thought that tha t it would wo uld be different different in form from that of categorical categ orical imperative. imperative. They also thought that t hat it would not be a mere command, which which is unpleasant unpleasant to t o hear and equally equally unpleasant to carry o out. ut. Rather it would delightfull delightfully y instruct, would wou ld cover the t he undesirable tone of comman co mmand d under pleasant sights and 8


sounds; sounds ; itit would wou ld administer administer the, bitter pill of instruction under the sweet coating coat ing of sugar; it would mix the bitter medicine of instruct instruction ion with sweet milk milk so as to t o make it palatable. These were w ere the circumstances, circumsta nces, which led to the t he creation creat ion of the fifth Veda by Brahma at the request of o f gods. It was created for those, who did not readily follow follow the path, pointed out by the Vedas, Vedas, or the Shudras, Shudras, who were w ere debarred from reading reading and hearing the Vedas. Vedas. The reply to the second question que stion : “Into how many parts is the Natya the Natya Veda divided eda divided ‘?” is that primarily primarily there are ar e four parts, part s, deali dea ling ng with the following topics : (1) Art of effective effective speech or recitation (2) Art of music, music, (3) Art of acting and (4) Rasas (4) Rasas.. And reply to the third question, “How are the various parts connected co nnected ?” is that drama, with the science or theory of which, the Natya the Natya Veda Veda is is concerned, primarily presents Rasa presents Rasa,, and the three arts are the means of its its effective presentatio presentation. n. Thus, it is an organic whole.The reply to the fourth question q uestion is that it is apprehended apprehe nded directly ‘through ‘throug h eyes and ears. And the reply to the last question quest ion covers the whole work. If we look at the t he traditional account of o f the origin of the Natyas the Natyashastr hastra a from modern point point of view view,, we find ind that it contai contains relev relevant ant answe answers rs to some some pertin pertinen entt questi questions ons that that arise arise in modern minds as they approach the problem of aesthetics. 1.

The first first questi question, on, that that is is ans answer wered ed here here,, is is “Wh “What at are are the the aesthe aestheti ticc sense sensess ?” ?” And And Bharata declares de clares that aesthetic aesthet ic senses are only two (i) eye and (ii) (ii) ear. He excludes touch, taste and smell from from aesthetic senses, operating oper ating in getting aesthetic experience from dramatic presentation. For, the former for mer are the only senses, which which can operate in relation to an object that is common to many. many. What is the object of touch to uch or taste of one cannot be the object of the same senses of other persons. But whole audience audience can have in common common what is addressed tto o eyes or ears.

2.

Anoth Another er questi question, on, tha thatt is ans answe wered red here here,, is is “Wha “Whatt is the the end end of dra dram matic atic art ?’ ?’And And the reply is that the end o off dramatic art is instruction, not no t directly, but indirectly indirectly,, through th rough presentati presentation on of what is pleasi pleasing ng to eyes eyes and ears. ears. It does not directl directly y command, command, but it makes the audience experience the goodness of virtuous path, through t hrough identification identification with the focus of o f the dramatic situation. It administers administers the medicine medicine of instruction, but it either coats coat s it with sugar or mixes it up with the milk milk of pleasant sight and sound so that bitterness bitte rness of medicine medicine is not experienced.

3

Bhar Bharata ata mai maint ntai ains ns that that the aspe aspect ct of sens sensuou uouss plea pleasur suree is is unde undeni niab ablle in in the the expe experi rien ence ce from dramatic presentation. presentation. But it constitutes only the starting point. Thus he gives right place to both bot h (i) Hedonistic and (i (ii) i) Pedagogic Pedagog ic theories of art in hi hiss aesthetics.

4.

He hol holds ds that drama drama is is simp simply ly a play play or play play-thi -thing ng,, whi which ch is meant meant for diver diverti ting ng the mind mind from what worries or troubles it.

5.

The The most most essen essenti tial al subj subjective ective condi conditi tion on for for aesth aestheti eticc experi experienc ence, e, accord accordiing to hi him, is that the t he mind mind of the spectator spectat or should not be occupied with excessive excessive personal pleasure 9


or pain. 6.

He rec recogn ogniises ses the the im importan portance ce of wom women on on the the stage stage.. For, For, the the corr correc ectt expre express ssiion of emotion, for instance, blush at the t he sight sight of o f the object of love, is not possible unless the emotion, from fro m which which such a physical change proceeds, proce eds, be actually act ually present prese nt in the heart. heart . But there are certainfeelings, certain feelings, which are peculiar to fair sex only. only. Hence for for their accurate accura te and life-li life-like ke presentation present ation women wo men are necessary for stage. stage .

1.10 Let Us Sum Up The broad division division of the subject-matter is iinto nto (i) what drama presents i.e. Rasaand Rasa and (ii) the means of its presenta-tio pre senta-tion. n. The latter latte r is technically technically called called abhinaya (acting). It brings what is intended intended to be presented, as if it it were, face to face with the spectator. spectat or. It leads to as certain cert ain a knowledge which is divided divided into four fo ur types : (i) Angika (i) Angika i.e. i.e. acting, consisting co nsisting in in the movement of the parts p arts of body. iii) iii)Vachika Vachika i.e. i.e. acting, act ing, consisting consisting in the appropriate appro priate movement of speech-organs, speec h-organs, involved involved in effective recitation. (ii ( iii) i) Sattvika i.e. acting, act ing, consisting in in the action of mind, involved in the various emotive states, which find expression in involuntary physi physical cal changes, changes, such as change change of colour, colour, tremor tremor,, horri horripil pilation ation etc. (iv) (iv) Aharya Aharya i.e. all the means of presentation other than t han those belonging belonging to the psycho-physical psycho-physical constituents of the actors themselves. themselves. It includes (i) all that is used for giving giving appropriate appro priate look of the characters of a drama to individual individual actors, such suc h as paints, dress, ornaments etc. : (ii) all all that is necessary for

presenting scene of action : (iii) (iii) all the mecha-ni mecha-nical cal contrivances contrivances to present present such such means means of transport arid communication communication as Vimana (Aeroplane) Vimana (Aeroplane) etc. It also deals with with construction construc tion of the stage and a nd method of its management. management. There is considerable space given to sections on dance and music, both instrumental and vocal. Necessary qualifications of actors and the stage-manager are a re also given given at some length. It discusses ten te n types of drama, extending from from one act play p layss to ten act plays. It deals with the method of dramatisation and types of hero, heroine and adversary. It also states stat es the recognised types t ypes of aesthetic experience, different different persisti persisting ng and transi transitory emotions emotions and psycho-ph psycho-phys ysiical movem movements ents and situati situations, ons, necessar necessary y to arouse aro use them. them.

1.11 1.11 Revi Review ew qu ques esti tio ons 1.

Write rite a note note on the the origi origin n of drama drama as gi given ven in in the first irst cha chapte pterr of the the Natyashas Natyashastra. tra.

2.

How does does Bhar Bharata ata sati satisf sfy y his his pupi pupills whe when n the the latt latter er ask ask questi question onss to the the former ormer regarding the origi o rigin n of drama? dr ama?

3.

If we look at the the tra tradi diti tion onal al acco accoun untt of the the ori origin gin of the the Natyashastr Natyashastra a from modern point point of view iew, we find find that that it contai contains ns relev relevan antt answe answers rs to some some perti pertine nent nt questi questions ons that that arise in in mode modern rn minds minds as they approach approac h the problem of aesthetics. aesthet ics. Discuss.

4.

Write rite a note note on on the the broa broad d divi divisi sion on of the the sub subjject ect matt matter er of the the Natyashastra Natyashastra..

10


1.12 Bib Biblio liograph raphy y 1.

Ghosh Ghosh,, M. Natyas Natyasha hastr stra. a. Kolkat olkata: a: Mani Manish shaa Gran Granth thal alay aya, a, 1967. 1967.

2.

Gupt, Gupt, Bha Bharat rat.. Drama Dramati ticc Conce Concepts pts Gree Greek k and and Indi Indian an : A Study Study of the the Poeti Poetics cs and and the the Nayasha Nayashastra stra.. Delhi: Delhi: D. K. Printworld, Printwor ld, 1994.

3.

Kavi, Ra Ramakrishna. (E (Ed.) Bharata Bharata Muni, Nayashastram Nayashastra m with Abhinavabharat Abhinavabharati. i. Gaekwad’s Oriental Oriental Series. Series. Baroda: Baroda : Oriental Institute, Institute, vol. (1956), vol. II (1 (1934), 934), vol IV (1964).

4.

Pancha Panchall, Govar Govardha dhan. n. The The Theatr Theatres es of Bhara Bharata ta and and Some Some Aspe Aspects cts of Sansk Sanskri ritt Play Play- producti production. on. Delhi Delhi:: Munsh Munshir iram am Manohar Manoharla lall, 1986. 1986.

5.

Pandey Pandey,, K. K. C. Compar Comparati ative ve Ae Aesth stheti etics, cs, Vol.I: ol.I: Indi Indian an Ae Aesth stheti etics cs.. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series,1995.

6.

Trip Tripathi athi,, R S. A Criti Critical cal Approac Approach h to Classi Classical cal Indi Indian Poeti Poetics. cs. Delhi Delhi:: Chaukh Chaukham ambh bhaa Orientalia, 1984. ____________

11


UNIT-2

RASADHY RASADHYAYAS OF NATY NATYASHAS ASHASTRA TRA Structure 2. 0

Objectives

2. 1

Introduction

2. 2

Constituents of of rasa 2.2.1

Sthayi bhavas (basic bhavas (basic mental states)

2.2.2

Vibhavas

2.2.3 Anubhavas Anubhavas ( ( voluntary gestures) 2.2.4

Sattvikas ( Sattvikas (Invol Involuntary untary gestures)

2.2.5

Vyabhicharibhavas (tr Vyabhicharibhavas (transi ansient ent emotions)

2. 3

Number of Rasas

2.4

Ill Illustr ustrat atiion of the the con const stiituen tuents ts of of rasas

2.5

Bhava or Bhava or abhasas (semblance abhasas (semblance of rasa) rasa)

2.6

Rasa as an objective objective entity entity

2.7

Rasanubhuti Rasanubhuti (rasa (rasa realization) 2.7.1 Kavya prayojana prayojana ( purpose of poetry). 2.7. 2.7.2 2

Sta States tes of of the the Mi Mind

2.7.3 Rasadasha Rasadasha (relishable (relishable state) 2.7.4

Natur ture ofrasa of rasa

2.7. 2.7.5 5

Four our ki kinds of ( jnana) jnana) knowledge

2.7.6

Sadharanikarana (Generalization) Sadharanikarana (Generalization)

2.7.7

Factor tors ofrasavighna of rasavighna (obstructions (obstructions to rasa experience) rasa experience)

2. 8

Let Us Sum Up

2. 9

Review Questions

2.10 2.10

Bibliogr ography

2. 0

O b j e ct i v e s The present uni u nitt aims at explainin explaining g giving giving the necessary detail det ailss to the students so as to 12


enable them to have the answers to t o the following following questions: quest ions: —

how do the sentim sentiments ents in dramati dramaticc art attain attain their their special special quali qualities; ties;

—

what are the constituen constituents ts of rasa; rasa;

—

What What are bhavas (sentiments) bhavas (sentiments) and abhinayas (histrionic abhinayas (histrionic representation);and

—

how rasanubhuti ( rasa realization) rasa realization) takes place.

2. 1

Introduction

The main topics, dealt with in the Natya-s the Natya-shastr hastra, a, are are four only o nly,, acting, act ing, dance, music and rasa (aesthetic rasa (aesthetic sentiment) where rasa is rasa is the central subject, the first three being the means of presentation of rasa . In . In the Nat the Natyash yashast astra ra , rasa (aesthet rasa (aesthetic ic sentiment) sentiment) has been elevated elevated to to a full-fl full-fledge edged d theory called rasa siddhanta. The siddhanta. The greatest gre atest merit of this theory consists in the fact that it has erected its magnifi magnificent cent edifice on the solid foundation of o f the commonalty of bhava (human bhava (human feelings feelings and emotions) classified into two, two , sthayi sthayi bhava (basic mental mental states) state s) and vyabhicari and vyabhicari bhava (transitory bhava (transitory emotion). Like the first chapter which is an answer to the questions raised by the pupils of Bharata, the t he Rasadhyayas (sixth (sixth and seventh chapters) chapte rs) also deal with the inquiries made made by them. These inquiries inquiries are about abo ut bhavas (the bhavas (the sentiments), sthayi sentiments), sthayi bhavas (basic sentiments) and abhinaya (the histrionic histrionic representation), rasa (aesthetic pleasure) pleasure) etc..

2.2 2.2

Constituents of of rasa 2.2.1 Sthayi bhavas (basic mental states)

Bharata holds ho lds that each one of us is fitted with a built-in built-in structure struct ure of sthayi of sthayi bhavas (basic sentiments) which are the modified forms of basic drives or instincts as a result of centuries centur ies of evolutionary process proc ess of humanization and social living. living. These sthayi sthayi bhavas bhavas(basic (basic mental states), stat es), which are chiefly eight in number— rati (erotic rati (erotic love), shoka love), shoka (grief), (grief), krodha (wrath), utsaha (energy), utsaha (energy), bhaya (fear), bhaya (fear), hasya (humour), hasya (humour), jugup jugupsa sa (disgust)—are (disgust)—are heightened to rasadasha (a rasadasha (a relishabl relishablee state) by the poet so that we have one rasa (aesthet rasa (aesthetic ic sentiment) sentiment) corresponding to each of them. them. The correspondingrasas correspondingrasas (aesthetic (aesthetic sentiments)of sentiments)of the st the sthayi hayi bhavas ( basic sentiments) are are shrangar shrangar (erotic), (erotic), karuna (pathetic), karuna (pathetic), raudra (anger), vira (heroic), bhayanaka (fear), bhayanaka (fear),hasya hasya (laughter), (laughter), bibhatsa (disgust), bibhatsa (disgust), adbhuta (wonder) The poet succeeds succeeds in doing doing this this by resorting resorting to the the devices devices of concretiz concretizati ation. on.

2.2.2 Vibhavas Bharata has ha s put it in his Natya-shast his Natya-shastra ra : “vibhavanubhavavyabhicharisamyogata rasanishapattih” rasanishapattih” (the savouring savouring of the emotion is possible possible through through the combination combination or integration integrat ion of these elements: vibhava (causes vibhava (causes and determinants of the rise of an emotion) anubhava 13


(gestures (gest ures expressive express ive of what is going on in the heart or the mind mind of main characters, charact ers, like casting a terrif terr ified ied glance, heaving heaving a sigh or involuntarily involuntarily shedding a tear) tear ) and vyabhicharibhavas (transitory (tra nsitory emotions which go along with and consequently reinforce reinforce prevailing mood or emotional disposition). The vibhavas (causes vibhavas (causes and determinants de terminants of the rise of an emotion)are emotion)are of two kinds: alamban and alamban and uddipan (features or circumstances circumstances that accentuate accentuat e the feeli feelings ngs of alamban ( alamban ( hero or heroine). The alamban (support alamban (supporting ing causes, usually usually the hero or the hero heroine ine or such obj o bjects) ects) are again of two types— t ypes— vishaylamban (person vishaylamban (person or o bject of the rise rise of an emotion or the person or object for whom the emotion emotion is awakened)and awakened) and ashramban (person ashramban (person in whom the emotion is awakened).Through the conjun co njunction ction of these t hese elements elements the poet po et activates, with some kind of empathetic empathetic induction, the propensity of sthayi bhavas (basic bhavas (basic sentiments) in the reader and the movement movement it is consumm consummated, ated, the sah the sahri ridaya daya (sensitive reader) reade r) experiences an afflatus afflatus or transport transpo rt which is designed as rasa (aesthetic sentiment).

2.2.3 Anubhavas Anubhavas ( voluntary gestures) Anubhavas Anubhavas (gest (gestures ures expressive express ive of what is going on in the heart or the mind of main main characters) are the t he physical physical changes changes due to the rise of an emotion. In actual life life they are known as effect of emotion.. emotion.. These changes are vo voluntary luntary as they can be produced by an effort of the will. They are called anubhavas called anubhavas because because i) they communi communicate cate the basic emotion to the t he characters, present on the t he stage ii) ii) they make make known the nature nat ure of emotion in the hero hero iii) iii) they make the spectator spectat or experience expe rience an identical identical emotion .

2.2.4 Sattvikas Sattvi kas (Involuntary gestures) Like anubhavas there anubhavas there are sattvikas whi sattvikas which ch are nothing more than anubhavas. anubhavas. But while anubhavas are anubhavas are voluntary, sattvik voluntary, sattvikas as are are involuntary as they can take t ake place only when the concerned emotion is actually actually present in the heart. They are unmistakable unmistakable reflections reflections of inner inner emotive emot ive state. They T hey are eight in number: ‘sveda’ or or perspiration perspiration or stupefection stupefection ‘stambha’ or ‘kumpa’ or or tremor ‘ashru’ or or tears ‘romancha’ or or horripilation horripilation ‘pralaya’ or or swoon ‘vaivanya’ or or pallor ‘ svarabhanga’ svarabhanga’ or or change of voice 14


2.2.5 Vyabhicharibhavas Vyabhicharibhavas (transient emotions) Bharata has used bhavas or bhavanas in bhavanas in a technical sense from the point of view of the spectato r. They are called called mental mental states which pervade the mind of the spectato r as a perfume perfume does with with the cloth. cloth. They are of two types: types:vyabhicharibhavas vyabhicharibhavas (transient (transient emotions) and sthay and sthayibhavas ibhavas (basic (basic mental states).Vyabhicharibhavas states).Vyabhicharibhavas are are transi t ransient ent emotions. They are like waves, which rise from the ocean of the basic mental state and subside into the same. Though they are mental states, they t hey appear as it were embodied. These supporting feelings feelings are short lived and they can enter into alliance alliance with a number number of sthayi of sthayi bhavas. There bhavas. There are thirty three vyabhicharibhavas: vyabhicharibhavas : ‘nirveda’ or or discouragement discouragement indicated by tears, sighs, pensiveness, pensiveness, etc ‘glani’ or or interna internall weakness weaknes s by weak w eak voice, lusterless eyes, sleeplessness, gait ‘shanka’ or or apprehension appre hension by unsteady unstead y look looks, s, hesitating movements ‘asuya’ or or jealousy by decrying others’ merits ‘mada’ or or intoxication by laughing, laughing, singing, singing, sneezing, hiccough ‘srama’ or or exhaustion exhaus tion by heavy breaths, twisting of limbs ‘alasya’ or or sloth by moroseness, moroseness, sleeplessness, sleeplessness, disinterest disinterest in work ‘dianya’ depression depr ession by dullness, absentmindedness, negligence negligence of o f cleanliness cleanliness ‘chinta’ or or anxiety by by deep breathing, meditation, meditation, sighing, agony ‘moha’ or or distraction distract ion by reeling reeling sensations and staggering looks ‘smrti’ or or remembrance by knitting knitting of eyebrows eyebrow s , nodding of head ‘dhrti’ or or composure compo sure by general indiff indifference erence to grief g rief or passion etc. et c. ‘vridness’ of of a or bashfulness by dullness dullness of o f eyes, scratching scr atching of nails ‘chapalata’ or o r inconstancy by by harsh words. rebuke, vapulation ‘harsha or ‘harsha or joy by brightness brightness of o f loo looks, ks, horripil hor ripilation ation ‘avega’ or or agitation agitat ion by distress distress in limbs, limbs, tightening of clothes ‘jadata’ or or stupor stu por by loss of movement and energy, blank blank gazes ‘garva or ‘garva or pride by irresponsiveness, haughty ha ughty manners. Sarcastic Sarca stic smiles smiles dismay by deep breathing, loss of energy ‘vishada or ‘vishada or dismay ‘autsukya’ autsukya’ or eagerness eager ness by sighs, sighs, drowsiness, dro wsiness, thinking ‘nirada’ or sleep by obvious obvious gestures 15


‘apasamara’ or or catalepsy by throbbing throbbing , tremor t remor , perspirati p erspiration on ‘supta’ or or dreami drea ming ng by obvious ensuants ensuant s ‘vibodha’ or o r wakefulness by yawning ‘amarsha’ or or anger by evident evident gestures ‘avahittaha, ‘avahittaha , or dissimulation by break in speech, feigned pat ience ‘ugrata o ‘ugrata orr vehemence by acrimony, acrimony, scoldin sco lding, g, threatening t hreatening ‘mati or ‘mati or rationality by coolness of o f behaviour, behaviour, ascertaini ascerta ining ng meaning ‘vyadhi’ or or sickness by evident symptoms ‘unmada or ‘unmada or insanity by by evident behaviour ‘marana or ‘marana or death by evident symp symptoms toms ‘trasa or trasa or terror by evident evident symptoms ‘vitarka’ or or reasoning re asoning by evident evident symptoms sympto ms

2. 3

Number of Rasas

Since it is the sthayi which which attains to rasahood, the number of rasas corresponds rasas corresponds to the number of the sthayis sthayis. Below is furnished a table, demonstrating the t he sthayis sthayis and their corresponding rasas. rasas. Bharata considers eight eight rasas to which which three more rasas have rasas have been added by Udabhta and Abhi Abhinavagupta navagupta as given below: below: ‘rati’ or or love giving giving rise to ‘shringar’ or or the erotic ‘shoka’ or or grief to ‘karuna’ or or the pathetic ‘krodha’ or or wrath to ‘raudra ‘raudra’’ or the furious ‘utsaha or ‘utsaha or energy to ‘vira’ the ‘vira’ the heroic

Bharata

‘bhaya’ fear fear to ‘bhayanaka’ or or the terribl t erriblee or humour to ‘hasya’ or or the comic co mic ‘hasa’ or ‘jugupsa’ or or disgust to ‘bibhatsa’ or or loathsome ‘vishamaya’ or or wonder to ‘adbhuta’ ‘adbhuta’ or or the marvellous marvellous ‘sama’ or to ‘shanta’ or ‘shanta’ or the mental tranquili tranqu ility ty

Udabhata & Abhinavagupta

‘bhagavadarati’ or ‘bhagavadarati’ or to ‘bhakti’ ‘bhakti’ or or love towards God

later

‘apatyarati’ or or to ‘vatsalya love towards children

acaryas

16


2.4

Illu Illust stra rati tion on Of Th The Con Const stit itu uen ents ts Of Of Rasas

In technical language all the constituents of rasa are rasa are known as rasa prapanca (paraphernalia of rasa). These rasa). These constituents const ituents are illustrated illustrate d in the following following lines of the poem, poe m, “The Eve of St. Agnes”: Thus whispering, his warm, unnerved arm Sank in her pillow. pillow. Shaded was her dream By the dusk curtains: ‘twas a midni midnight ght charm Impossible to melt as iced stream; The lustrous lustro us salvers in the moonlight gleam Broad golden go lden fringe fringe upon the carpet lies: It seem’d s eem’d he never could co uld redeem redee m his his lady’s lady’s eyes; So mused a while, while, entoil’ ento il’d d in woofed fantasies. In terms of rasa formulation, rasa formulation, Alambana vibhava: Madeline vibhava: Madeline and Porphyro i)Visayalambana i)Visayalambana or or the t he object of o f the emotion: Madeline Madeline ii) ii) Asralambana Asralambana or the or the subject or person in whom the emotion resides: Porphyro Uddipan vibhavas or vibhavas or stimulating stimulating factors or o r determinants : azure-lidded sleep, the shining shining salvers, the t he falling falling of the silver silver light, of the moon on o n her bed through thro ugh the window, the broad golden fringes, fringes, adorning ado rning the carpet Anubhav Anubhavas as or or the visible visible effects, indicative of the rise of emotion: sinking sinking of o f Porphyro’s unnerved arms a rms in Madeline’s Madeline’s pillow pillow and his gaze ga ze on o n her slumbering charms Vyabhicharis o Vyabhicharis orr transi t ransitory tory emotions: can be recognized as despair despa ir,, weakness, anxiety anxiety,, apprehension, agitation, eagerness, reasonin reaso ning, g, dreaming etc arisi ar ising ng in the lover’s heart. Sattavikas or Sattavikas or dispositional reactions or o r physical changes: perspiration, persp iration, tremor can be visualized

2. 5

Bhava Or Or Abhasas Abhasas (Semblance Of Rasa) Rasa )

When the sanc the sanchar hari/s i/s is/are is/are delineated principally principally rather than temporarily t emporarily,, the t he sthayi is merely awakened failing failing to reach the magnitude o off rasa due rasa due to not no t being nourished byvibhavas byvibhavas etc., etc., we have bhavas. bhavas. For example, the love or rati towards gods or preceptor. 17


Abhasas are Abhasas are associated with rasa and rasa and bhava and bhava and so are ar e they called rasabhasa and bhavabhasa. bhavabhasa. When the concerned emotions are delineated delineated in respect of o f persons who are normally normally not regarded as appropriate objects of those t hose emotion, we haverasabhasas have rasabhasas.. Examplewhen nayika is nayika is in in love with many persons perso ns simultaneously simultaneo usly.. Different rasas and rasas and sthayis sthayis have have their own abhasas alli abhasas allied ed to concerned vibhavas. vibhavas. It can also also be said that when w hen an emotion emotion or feeling feeling is is delineated delineated in persons who are not usually usually considered repository of that emotion, emotion, we have rasabhasas. rasabhasas. Emotion E motion like like bashfulness depicted in a prostitute pro stitute is an example example of o frasabhasas. rasabhasas.

2. 6

Rasa formula and Eliot’s Objective Correlative

Eliot’s Eliot’s objective correlative appears to t o be a direct modern version of o f the rasa formula of Bharata. The T he entire poetic mechanism, mechanism, as stressed in the rasa-sutra, rasa-sutra, is oriented towards to wards enabling the emotional emotional content cont ent to be realized and recaptured by the sahradaya the sahradaya or or a gifted gifted reader. This is also the purpose purpo se of Eliot in formulating formulating the concept of objecti o bjective ve correlative. In his essay on “Hamlet”, “Hamlet”, Eliot formulates a canon cano n of the portrayal portra yal of an emotion in poetry. He states: stat es: “The only o nly way of expressing express ing emotion in the form of art is by finding finding an “objective correlative”, in other words, wo rds, a set of objects, a situation, a chain c hain of events , which shal shalll be the formula of that particular emotion, such that when the external facts, which must terminate terminate in sensory senso ry experience, are ar e given, the emotion emot ion is immedi immediately ately evoked.” evok ed.” An example from the play, play, Macbeth can Macbeth can be seen here. In order to convey the full sense of Lady Macbeth’s mental malady in the last last Act of Macbeth of Macbeth,, Shakespeare Shakesp eare merely makes makes her do over again aga in what she had done before. This unconscious repetition of her past actions is the obje o bjective ctive correlative, the objective equivalent equivalent of her present agony in the heart. Her dark luster eyes and the burning burning taper in her hand aid the effect of this objectificati objectification. on. In other words wo rds the agony ago ny expressed as such is made so objective here that tha t it can be as well seen by the eyes as felt felt by the heart. heart .

2. 7

Rasanubhuti Rasan ubhuti (rasa realization) 2.7.1 Kavya Prayojana ( Purpose Of Poetry)

Since the very beginni beg inning, ng, the Indian acaryas (scholars) acaryas (scholars) have examined and enunciated this experience of the absolute in terms of kavya kavya prayojana (the purpose of poetry). To them, kavya prayojana is to impart this experience. Bharat in his answer to the question, “what is the end of dramatic art” includes this experience. experience. He holds that dramatic presentation prima primari rily ly aims aims at givi giving ng rise rise to t o aestheti aestheticc experi experience ence in the aesthete aesthete and later this this experi experien ence ce is followed followed by moral moral improvement. improvement. He H e further says that dramatic presentation imparts pleasure to all who are unhappy, unhappy, tired, bereaved and ascetic. This account shows that poetry poet ry helps helps in in promoting promoting all the good ends of life, life, both mundane mundane and supramundan supramundanee and imparts impartsanand anand (immediate pleasure) to sahr to sahrdaya. daya. Indian Indian tradition of o f critical critical appreciation appreciat ion has crystallized crystallized ultimately in the acceptance acceptan ce of anand as as the function and purpose purpos e of poetry. Abhinavagupa divides anand into into three classes: vishayanand, kavyanand and kavyanand and 18


paramanand. paramanand. Of these, first is related related to the t he satisfaction satisfaction of the material material appetites and stands at the lowermost rung of o f the ladder. ladder. The third is related related to the attainm atta inment ent of Communion Communion with the Brahma (the Absolute Being) and and occupies the topmost to pmost status. The seco second ndkavyanand kavyanand or or rasanand or or brahmanandsahodara falls brahmanandsahodara falls intermediate between the two. It is for common people. people. Now the word powers— abhida, abhida, laksna and laksna and vyanjana and vyanjana and the word wo rd itself becomes becomes Brahma. It creates crea tes a state st ate of o f bliss in in the reader/ reade r/ spectator spect ator and helps in having an impersonalized impersonalized and ineffable ineffable judgment. This experience is bot both h a means of achieving perfect mental balance and ultimate salvation. salvation. Bhattanayaka, Bhat tanayaka, Abhinav Abhinavagupta agupta and Vishwanath Vishwanath consider this thisanand anand in in close connection with rasa. rasa. Abhinavagupt Abhinavaguptaa declares rasa ra sa as akin to the experience expe rience of divinity. divinity. Vishwanat Vishwanath h agrees with Abhinavagupta, Abhinavagupta , by calling callingkavyarasa kavyarasa as brahmasvadasahodara brahmasvadasahodara.( .( In Indian aesthetics this rasa or rasa or anand has has been understood as kavyanand or or rasanand or rasanand or brahmanandsahodara which brahmanandsahodara which can be translated as art ar t experience. Anand experience. Anand is closely associated with rasa which rasa which is is the soul so ul of Kavypurusha. Kavypurusha. It crumbles crumbles down discrimination. discrimination. It is because of this rasa or anand , kavya is different different from fro m jagat jagat (world) (world) . It is again because because of this this rasa or anand Acarya anand Acarya Mammat Mammat holds Kavi’s Kavi’s creation to be greater greate r than that of God. Unlike Unlike Kavya, jagat lacks lacks thisrasa this rasa or anand anand . There is only o nly either pleasure or pain in jagat. This kavi has extraordinary or say superhuman power. power. In this regard he is said said to be greater than a yogi even even in relation to their respective states and approaches to t o this world. world. To To know this one needs needs to know kno w the process of the composition of thekavya. the kavya.

2.7.2 States of the Mind There are five aspects— srasti sras ti (creation), stithi sti thi (preservation), samha sa mha r (transformation), tirobhava (diffusion) tirobhava (diffusion) and anugraha (grace)— anugraha (grace)— involved involved in the composition of a poem. Here sra Here srasti sti is is aesthetic intuition intuition that charges the po et; stithi et; stithi den denotes otes objects of inspiration which captivate the mind mind of the poet; poe t; samha samhar r is is indication indication of o f expression which is the depth of the poet; tirobhava is tirobhava is resulting res ulting stimul st imulation ation which diffuses diffuses illusion illusion and finally finally anugraha i anugraha iss the manifestation manifestation of the universal rhythm. All these aspects aspec ts are not found in every poem. Kavya poem. Kavya which has these aspects offers truth, meaning and knowledge; kavya lacking lacking them is not a poem po em but merely a verse. The ability ability of recognizing the universal rhythm takes place in a particular state of o f mind mind of a poet. poet . There are five states of o f the mind mind and the mind mind changes over from one state st ate to t o another anot her at a fast speed. speed . Sometim So metimes es it is is kshipt (sensitive and agitative), sometim somet imes es moodh (insensitive (insensitive and dull), sometimes vikshipt (interruptive (interruptive and disturbed), sometim so metimes es ekagra (concentrative and poi pointed) nted) and sometimes sometimesniruddha niruddha (meditative i.e. a state st ate of total to tal stillness). stillness). Of the five, niruddha is niruddha is the highest. It can further be divided divided into two sub-states : sam : samprajna prajnata ta (conscious) (conscious) and asamprajnata (trans-conscious). The second state is concerned, it is the final final state of yogis. In this state a y yogi ogi becomes thoughtless. As far far as the first first state is concerned, it is is the state of the poet as he is able to concentrate his mind mind on gross as a s well as the subtle elements elements of nature(earth, nature(ea rth, water, wate r, light light etc.) He can c an know the real nature and character of various objects and material materialss of nature nature and achieve achieve his his purpose for himself himself and society. society. In Indian aesthetics aest hetics he has been considered askranta as kranta darsinaha (capable darsinaha (capable 19


of looking both into tthe he past and the future. Bhattanayaka, Abhinavagupta’ Abhinavagupta’ss teacher considers him as a rishi who rishi who had darshana ( darshana ( inner inner view of Invisible Invisible Truths).

2.7.3 Rasadasha (Relishable State) How is rasa produced rasa produced? ? According According to the ancient theorists each of o f us is fitted with a built-i built-in n structure of ‘sthayi bhavas’ or or basic mental states which are the t he modified modified forms of basic basic drives drives or instin instincts cts as a result result of centuries centuries of evolutionar evolutionary y process of humani humanizati zation on and social living. living. These sthay These sthayibhavas ibhavas (pe (perman rmanent ent emotions) e motions)’ ’ , which are chiefl c hiefly y eight in number, are heightened to a relishabl relishablee state called ‘rasadasha’ by by the poet so that we w e have onerasa one rasa or emotion corresponding corres ponding to each of them. It is is the sthayi the sthayi bhava which bhava which is the basis of o f rasa. Vibhava, anubhava and anubhava and vyabhicharibhava awaken vyabhicharibhava awaken this innate emotion bringing it into a relishable flavo flavour ur called rasa. rasa. This flavou flavourr or stat s tatee remains subjective unless it is delineated by the poet in kavya where kavya where he objectifies objectifies his his experience. experience. S K De, defining defining this state, holds: It is practically admitted on all hands, on semi-psychological considerations of poetry, that the rasa is a state stat e of relish in the reader, of the principal sentiment in in the composition, compos ition, a subjective condition o off his his mind, mind, which is brought aabout bout when the principal or permanent mood ( sthayib sthayibhav hava a) is brought into a relishable relishable condition through the three elementsvibhava, elements vibhava, anubhava and anubhava and vyabhicharibhava exhibited vyabhicharibhava exhibited in the drama. The poet succeeds in doing this by resorting to the devices of concretization as as has already been discussed.

2.7.4 Nature of Rasa Now the question question arises arises whether whether therasa the rasa is is produced produce d or illumi illuminated nated by the vibhavas etc. The answer an swer is in negative. They are neither rasa produce rasa producers rs nor ill illumin uminator ator.. They are just just the awakeners of the st the sthay hayii and help in the relishability of rasa. Rasa generated and manifested through throug h them. It is is alaukika. alaukika. Now the second seco nd question arises whether rasa depends on sab on sabda da and artha (wor artha (word d and meaning). The answer is in negative as rasa is rasa is not sabda not sabdartha rtha bas based ed.. It is based on four kinds of expression: aharya (expression aharya (expression through costume) , , satvik satvika a (expression through voluntary emotional changes) changes) , , angika angika ( ( expression through body) , , vachika vachika (verbal (verbal expression). In this process the spectator spectat or changes fromlaukik from laukik (worldly (wo rldly)into )into alaukik (super-human) (super-human) and hence now the spectator gets anand even anand even in weeping. Here it is notewort note worthy hy that the spectator spectat or transcends the world but does do es not enter into a divi divine ne a world. Herecitta Here citta has has two 18 states: dipti (state (stat e of luminosity) luminosity) and pighalana pighalana (st (state ate of o f liquefaction) liquefaction) . The former state arouses the rasas of bhayanaka, vira, hasya etc hasya etc while while the latter latter arouses the rasas of o f karuna, shringar shringara a etc.Citta etc.Citta is is like sealing sealing wax which w hich melts melts in the company c ompany of heat. Like sealing wax, citta also citta also melts and converts co nverts into a liquid liquid form. Rasa melts itse itself lf and liquefies liquefies rajas and rajas and tamas and now reader’s reader’s chitta experiences 20


rasa. rasa. It is because rajas and rajas and tamas that tamas that the citta have citta have different different experiences exper iences of life life.. In fact, rajas and rajas and tamas limit tamas limit one’s realization but the moment these gunas these gunas are are melted, the limitations of citta are citta are removed and we have rasa. The rasa. The liquefaction of chitta takes chitta takes place due to the mixture mixture of rajas and rajas and tamas which get subdued for the time time being, affording affording scope for the sattva sattva to inundate inundate the inner inner consciousness.

2.7.5 Four Kinds Of ( ( Jnana) Jnana) Knowledge There are four fou r kinds of ( jnana ( jnana)) knowledge familiar in worldly experience.20 The first is samyaka is samyaka jnana(exact jnana(exact knowledge) know ledge) in which there is absolute absolute certainty cert ainty as to the object of knowledge. The second is mitthya is mitthya jnan jnana a (false knowledge) in in the actual actu al object object of o f knowledge is repudiated. The third t hird is sam is samsha shaya ya jnan jnana a (doubtful (do ubtful knowledge) in which there is no definite definite apprehension of the object of knowledge. The fourth is sadrashya is sadrashya jnana (resemblant jnana (resemblant knowledge) in which resemblan resemblance ce of o f the object of knowledge is recognized in another object. In kavya, these kavya, these four fo ur kinds of o f knowledge familiar familiar in worldly experience fail to explain the nature of rasaubhuti or rasaubhuti or anand. In order to explain the nature of rasaubhuti or rasaubhuti or anand, Shankuka has pressed into service the analogy of thechitraturanganyaya the chitraturanganyaya (logic (logic of the picture21 horse). It is extraordinary extrao rdinary,, forming a distinct species in itself. itself. Looking Look ing at the picture pictu re of a horse, one o ne does not assume a ssume that it is is a real horse; one does not fail to understand that it is a horse; one does not, further, further, harbour any doubt whether it is a horse; and likewise, likewise, one does not think that it resembles resembles a horse. All All that suggests that the despite the perception of the t he pictur picturee –horse –horse not confronti confronting ng to any of the four four types types of knowle knowledge, dge, it strikes strikes as real real or livi living ng creates delight delight in us. Accordingly Accordingly, the t he sama samajika jika comes to regard the nata as the real hero and associates the rasa with rasa with him him on the line of picture-horse picture -horse logic. That is the secr secret et of his dramatic enjoyment.

Sadharanikarana (Generalization) 2.7.6 2.7.6 Sadharanikarana When the vibhavas, vibhavas, the anubhavas, anubhavas, the vyabhicharis and vyabhicharis and the sthayi the sthayi,, all abandon their local, individual, individual, or temporal tempora l association or limitation limitationss and acquire a sort so rt of o f generality, generality, rather than universality, we have sadhara have sadharanikaran nikarana a or generali g eneralization. zation. This suggests that the hero and the t he heroine cease to be particular individuals, individuals, confined withi within n particular intervals of time and space and appears appear s before us as ordinary lover and beloved. Accordingly theirrati theirrati or love becomes the love of ordinary ord inary man and woman. It is after this generalization has taken place in the mind mind of the sahr the sahrdaya daya that that the rasa the rasa is is tasted. The process, co nnected with the three word functions— abidha, abidha, bhavana or bhavana or bhavakatva a bhavakatva and nd bhog bhog or or bhojkatva is bhojkatva is inter internal nal and impercept imperceptibl ible, e, without letting the sahr the sahrdaya daya realize realize or perceive the stages of transition from the first first to the second and from the second to the third. Accordingly Accordingly rasanubhuti is a cumulative cumulative psychic experience, impregnated impregnated withanand with anand . Now we are away from the world world where where we are eithe eitherr subj subjective, ective, objecti objective ve or neutra neutral. l. Now we transcen transcend d these these states—s states—subj ubjecti ective, ve, objecti objective ve,, neutral neutral—an —and d have haveekakibhava(single ekakibhava(single 21


emotion). Now vibhava, anubhava, vyabhicari and vyabhicari and the sthayi, the sthayi, all abandon their local, individual or temporal associations or limitations and acquire a sort of generality, rather universality. universality. Accordingly Acco rdingly,, the sthayi the sthayi becomes becomes the respected emotion emotion of ordinary men and women. It is after this generalization genera lization has taken in the mind mind of the sah the sahra radaya daya that that rasa is tasted, giving giving rise to psychic repose. According to Bat tanayaka this process proces s is connected with the three word- function— abhidha (primary abhidha (primary meaning), bhavana or bhavakatva bhavakatva and bhoga or bhojakatva . bhojakatva . Bhavana Bhavana or or bhavakatva , bhavakatva , which liquefies liquefies rajas and rajas and tamas, tamas, adds uniqueness uniqueness to abhidha and generalization of vibhavas and vibhavas and sthayi sthayi take take place and internal inter nal crisis crisis due to selfish interests, interest s, is dissipated. Now No w the third function o off word liquefies the psyche. All these processes, connected with with three word-functions word-functions,, happen happen internal internally ly,, imper imperceptib ceptibly ly,, without without letting the sahr the sahrdaya daya realize realize the subtle stages of the transition t ransition from the first first to t o the second seco nd and from the second to the third. Accordingly Accordingly, rasa reali r ealization zation is a cumulative cumulative psychic experience, impregnated with anand . This state stat e of the t he samajika samajika is bhagnavaranacitavastha bhagnavaranacitavastha.. Now let us know who experien experiences cesrasa rasa.. It is sahr is sahrdaya daya who who shares “the sad lucidity of soul” which Arnold speaks of. Unless the reader has an adequate degree d egree of intellectual intellectual and emotional equipment, he may not be able to establish that rapport with the poet which is essential essent ial for the realization of rasa. Thus rasa. Thus he must be saman be samanadhar adharma ma i.e. i.e. of the nature of the poet hims himsel elf. f. There There may may be a diff differen erence ce of degree, degree, but not of kind, kind, in sensi sensitiv tivity ity and capacity capacity for imaginativ imaginativee contemplation. co ntemplation. Explaining Explaining to sah to sahrada radaya ya,, Abhinav Abhinavagupta agupta remarks re marks that those , who by constant reading rea ding of practice of reading poetry have acquired in their cleansed mirrormirrorlike like minds, minds, the capacity to identify identify themselves themselves with the poet and are thus attuned at tuned to the poet’ poet ’s heart, are sahr are sahradaya. adaya. But But it is again impossi impossible ble for for a reader to attune at tune to the heart of the poet if he is is not to savas to savasana ana i.e. i.e. one who has vasana (desires) which which are of two types— idantini idantini (desires related to the past lives and prapt and praptakali akalikk ( desires desires of the present p resent life). life). Abhinavagupt Abhinavaguptaa holds that sth that sthayib ayibhava havass reside inherently inherent ly in in the human chitta (psyche) chitta (psyche) in the shape of vasanas (desires) and transmit transmit from generation to generation generation of o f mankind mankind.. He adds that they are evoked under the impact impact of art or poetry po etry in such a manner as to be animatedly felt felt and experienced. A child has the desires des ires related to the past lives but the desires des ires of this life life have have not developed deve loped in him fully fully so far. Hence he h e cannot experience rasa. Rasa is Rasa is associated with atma while atma while riti, alamkara, alamkara, vakroktidharanikarana takes place place and aucitya are aucitya are associated a ssociated with body. body. Rasanubhuti Rasanubhuti takes take s place in a generalized sense, rather than t han universalized universalized way. . At the time of rasanubhuti, sadharanikarana sadharanikarana takes place. Now there is a progression progression from laukika (worldly laukika (worldly)) to alaukika (super-human). alaukika (super-human). Let it be stated here that rasanubhuti is alaukika expeience. alaukika expeience. It is different different from fro m the experience of a yogi. During this progression sabda progression sabda itself itself becomes Brahma. becomes Brahma. But But it is not Brahmanand , rather it is kavyanand because because this state of anand is is temporary tempor ary unlike unlike that of Brahm of Brahmanand. anand. All the sth the sthayib ayibhava havass are not pleasurable, sok pleasurable, soka, a, bhaya bhaya, and jugu and jugupsa psa etc etc are unpleasant emotions in practical practical life, life, then how their depiction in poetry poet ry be be regarded regarded as pleasant. pleasant. Vishwanath Vishwanath holds that the depiction of these emotions may produce grief gr ief due to lokasamsrayat that that is 22


association with material world, but they become become alaukik (unworldly) as a result of kavyasamsrayat. In kavya the subjects acquire the complexi co mplexion on vibhavas vibhavas and afford anand , leaving leaving their origin o riginal al material flavour. flavour. It is further to say that situations s ituations of life life and situation situat ion as delineated in poetry fundamentally differ differ in in taste tast e and complexion. Poetry Poe try has its own culture cu lture and its characteristics. charact eristics. The emotions of life life undergo a type of processing proces sing in poetry poet ry,, resulting in sublimity. sublimity. And in asmuch as kavya is manas vyapara (a vyapara (a mental business), business), the t he sahr sahradaya adaya is is is moved by poetic poet ic portrayals portra yals in in a manner and depth as seldom se ldom characterizes character izes life’ life’ss practical pract ical experiences. experiences. It is this this speciality speciality of the poetic poet ic culture that absorbs and overwhel o verwhelms ms the sahr sahrday daya a’s mind mind or inner self self for the time being. He might might become forgetful, as well, well, of o f all the exterior objects or concerns concer ns of life. life. This is the state of rasanubhuti , rasanubhuti , this is is the state st ate of sattvodr of sattvodreka eka and also a lso of internal inter nal luminosity. luminosity.

2.7.7 Factors Of Rasavighna Of Rasavighna (Obstructions (Obstructions To Rasa To Rasa Experience) Experience) In In Abhinavabharati Abhinavabharati , , Abhinavagupta Abhinavagupta locates seven factors: i)

ref refusal usal by the the spe spect ctat ator or or reade readerr to to conce concede de the the ex existen stence ce of the the rasa

ii)

his his gett gettiing overpo overpowe were red d by feel eelings ngs of pai pain and and plea pleasu sure re

iii)

engro engross ssme ment nt in perso persona nall plea pleasur sures es or affl affliictions ctions

iv)

absen bsence ce of the the mea mean ns of of perf perfec ecti tion onss

v)

absence of of animated ted pe perfe rfecti ctions ons

vi)

del delineat neatiion of non non sent sentiient ent obj objects ects or of of vyabhicharis which vyabhicharis which depend upon sthay upon sthayii

vii)

spec spectat tator’ or’ss incerti certitu tude de as to the the rasa purposed rasa purposed by the poet

2.8

Let Us Sum Up

Bharata holds that rasa is an objective entity entity,, tasted tast ed and enjoyed by the beholders beholders on the stage. It is the transformation of the sthayi the sthayi bhava (basic bhava (basic mental mental state) but whose sthayi whose sthayi bhava( basi bhava( basicc mental mental state)? —the hero’s, hero’s, the poet’s, poet’s, the actor’s, the spectator’s. The poet poet comes to acquire or imbibe the sthayi the sthayi bhava (basic sentiment) from the story selected, which means the hero’ hero ’s sthayi bhava (basic bhava (basic sentiment) becomes the poet’s poet’s sthayi bhava (basic mental state) during creation. The actor evokes evo kes this sthayi this sthayi bhava of bhava of the hero hero by anusandhan (quest) for herohood in or arope (att arope (attribution) ribution) of herohood to t o himself himself or abhimana (considering (considering himself himself ) as hero on the t he stage. Now the sam the samaji ajik k (spectator) (spectat or) relishes relishes this emotion. This means that the rasa (aesthetic rasa (aesthetic sentiment) sentiment) resides not in them rather in the specatator specatat or who has rasanubhuti (an rasanubhuti (an aesthetic experience) impregnated with anand (pleasure) (pleasure) through sadharanikaran sadharanikaran (generalization) when the vibhavas vibhavas (dramatic situations) , anubhavas (gestures) and vyabhicharis (transitory vyabhicharis (transitory emotions)and sthayi emotions)and sthayi bhava (basic bhava (basic mental state), all abandon their local, individual, individual, or temporal t emporal association or limitations limitations and acquire a sort of generality, generality, rather than t han universality universality.. This realization takes deep roots ro ots in the spectator, spect ator, because beca use 23


he objectively objective ly views the actions act ions and emotions of o f the adversary adversa ry,, who is necessarily neces sarily a man man of no princi principl ple, e, and sees how lack of adheren adherence ce to moral moral princ princip iples les inevita nevitabl bly y leads to suff suffering ering and destruction, destru ction, irrespective irrespect ive of the power and a nd position of the man man and, therefore, is dissuaded from the path of o f sin.

2.9 2.9

Review Ques tions

1.

Rasa Siddhanta is Siddhanta is such a doctrine do ctrine of Indian Indian Sanskrit poetics that has received received an extraordinary extrao rdinary importance. importance. How Ho w far far do you agree to this t his statement?

2.

Write a detai tailed note ote on Bhara arata’ ta’s rasa siddhanata.

3.

Write a de detai tailed not notee on on the the natu ature ofrasa of rasa .

4.

What ar are the the constituents of rasa according to Bharata ? Write Write a detailed det ailed note.

5.

Elucidate the the concept of sadharan sadharanikar ikaran an or or generalization. Why iiss sadharan sadharanikar ikaran an or generalization necessary necessary and what is is its its place in in rasanubhuti or rasa-realisation. rasa-realisation.

6.

Define the concept of sahridaya sahridaya in in relation to t o rasanubhuti or rasanubhuti or rasa-realisation. rasa-realisation.

2.10 Bibli ibliog ogra raph phy y 1.

Ghosh Ghosh,, M. NatyaNatya-sh shas astra tra.. Kolk Kolkata ata:: Mani Manish shaa Gran Grantha thallaya, aya, 1967. 1967.

2.

Gupt, Gupt, Bha Bhara rat. t. Dram Dramati aticc Conce Concepts pts Greek Greek an and Indi Indian an : A Stud Study y of the the Poeti Poetics cs and and the the Nayashas Nayashastra tra.. Delhi: Delhi: D. K. Printworld, Printworld, 1994. 199 4.

3.

Kavi Ka vi,, Ramakr Ramakris ishn hna. a. (Ed.) (Ed.) Bhara Bharata ta Muni Muni,, NatyaNatya-sha shastra stram m wi with Abhi Abhina nava vabh bhara arati ti..

4.

Gaekwa Gaek wad’ d’ss Orien Oriental tal Seri Series. es. Baroda: Baroda: Ori Orien ental tal Insti Institute tute,, vol. vol. (1956) (1956),, vol. vol. II (1934 (1934), ), vol vol IV (1964).

5.

Panch Panchal al,, Govar Govardh dhan an.. The The Theatr Theatres es of Bhara Bharata ta and and Some Some Aspe Aspects cts of San Sansk skri ritt Play Play- producti production. on. Delhi Delhi:: Munshi Munshiram ram Manohar Manoharllal, al, 1986. 1986.

6.

Pand Pandey ey,, K.C. K.C.Co Com mpara parati tiv veA eAes esth thet etiics, cs, Vol Vol.I .I:: Indi Indian an Aes Aesth thet etiics. cs. Varanasi: aranasi: Chowkhamba Chow khamba Sanskrit Series,1995.

7.

Trip Tripathi athi,, R S. A Criti Critical cal Approac Approach h to Class Classiical Indi Indian Poeti Poetics. cs. Del Delhi hi:: Chaukh Chaukham ambh bhaa Orientalia, 1984. _____________

24


UNIT-3 ACARYA KUNTAKA KUNTAKA’S ’S VAKROKTIJIVITAM Structure 3. 0

Objectives

3. 1

Introduction

3. 2

The Vakroktijivitam of Acarya Acarya Kuntaka Kunta ka

3. 3

Classification tion of Vakrokti 3.3.1

Varna-vinyâsa-vakratâ (Phonetic obliquity)

3.3.2 Pada-pûrvârddh Pada-pûrvârddha-vakratâ a-vakratâ ( Lexical obliquity) 3.3.3 Pada-parâr Pada-parârddha-va ddha-vakratâ kratâ (Grammatical obli o bliquity) quity) 3.3.4

vâkya-vakratâ (Sentential obliquity)

3.3.5 Prakarana-vakratâ Prakarana-vakratâ (Episodic obliquity) obliquity) 3.3.6 Prabandha Prabandha- vakratâ vakratâ (compositional (compos itional obliquity) obliquity) 3. 4

Let Us Sum up

3. 5

Review Questions

3. 6

Bibliography

3.0

O b j e ct i v e s The objectives objectives of the present unit are to t o enable the student to:

—

make an assessment assessment of a text

—

explore explore a signi signifi fican cantt area intersecti ntersection on between between the India Indian n and western western thinki thinking. ng.

3. 1

Introduction

Vakrokti (obliquity) Vakrokti (obliquity) is a concept of Sanskrit poetics for making an assessment of Tho ugh all the Sanskrit ācāryas like Bharata, Bhāmaha, Dandin, Vāman, kāvya (literature). Though Rudrata, Ānandavardhana, Abhinavagupta, vakrokti, Abhinavagupta, Bhoja, Bho ja, Rājaśekhara Rājaśekhara and others othe rs dealt withvakrokti, it was Ācārya Kuntaka Kuntaka who elevated this this concept to a full-f full-fledged ledged theory in his treatise trea tise Vakroktij ī vitam vitam written in the first half of the eleventh eleventh century centu ry for the purpose p urpose of o f making making an assessment of kāvya (literature) (literature).The .The word ‘vakrokti ‘vakrokti’’ consists of two components co mponents — ‘vakra’ ‘vakra’ and ‘ukti’— ‘ukti’— the first first of o f which which means ‘crooked, ‘crooke d, indirect or o r unique’ and the second seco nd means ‘expression ‘expression or o r speech’. speec h’. Thus the literal literal meaning meaning of o f vakrokti is vakrokti is ‘crooked or o r indirect indirect speech’. s peech’. 25


In modern vocabulary vakrokti has vakrokti has been translated t ranslated as obl o bliquity iquity.. The earliest earliest use of vakrokti is discernible in Athar in Atharvaved vaveda a and Agni and Agnipura purana na in in which itit is used in the sense of crookedness. cro okedness. Later the Sanskrit poets used vakrokti used vakrokti in in their own ways. ways. Subandhu used the wordvaidagdhya word vaidagdhya in the sense of vakrokti; vakrokti; Amar ū and Bāna used vakrokti in the sense of humorous remark — the former in the description descript ion of the condition of his heroine who had become beco me angry with with her husband for the first time, and the latter in a bantering humorous speech made by Candrap ī da da about the t he quarrel of the parrot and jealous mainā. The parrot, addressing Candrap īda, said that she also understo od all oblique oblique statement and could co uld make use of witty remarks. Thus in literature vakrokti was regarded as dhvani alan alank āra or ra or sabd sabd ālan lank āra which ra which has has two types - ślena vakrokti (obliquity vakrokti (obliquity of intonation) and k āku vakrokti (obliquity vakrokti (obliquity of paronomasia). The Sanskrit ācāryas anlysed vakrokti in vakrokti in their own ways, saying that it sets off o ff to advantage all a ll figures of speech. They considered vakrokti to vakrokti to be present p resent in all alan alank āras and ras and emphasized the oblique o blique quality quality of language of o f a poet. To them, the m, obliquity was the essential es sential distinguishing distinguishing feature of poetry po etry.. Thus now vakrokti became vakrokti became a unique utte utterance, rance, transcending the common modes of speech and integrated with charm.

3. 2

The Vakroktijivitam of Acarya Kuntaka

The most exhaustive treatment of vakokti was vakokti was attempted at tempted by Acarya Acarya Kuntaka in the first half of the tenth century centur y in his his treatise treat ise the Vakroktijivitam. He Vakroktijivitam. He devotes nearly near ly the whole of his text which has has four chapters, with the exception of the introductor introd uctory y portion of the First chapter, to t o the t he definition, definition, classi c lassifi fication cation and a nd illustrat illustration ion of six varietiesvakrokti. varieties vakrokti. He He has classified vakrkt ā into forty nine sub-varieties under six major major heads, heads , such as var na-vinyā sa-vakrat sa-vakrat ā (phonetic (phonet ic obliquity) obliquity) pada-p pada-pūrvārddha-vakrat ā (lexical obliquity), padaobliquity), pada-par par ārddha-vakrat ā (grammatical obliquity), vākya-vakrat ā (sentential (sentent ial obliquity), prakara obliquity), prakarana-vakrat ā (episodic obliquity) and prabandhaand prabandha- vakrat ā (compositional obliquity) . The second chapter takes up for detailed consideration consideration the first three varieties varieties of vakrokti . vakrokti . In the third chapter is dealt with vākya-vakrat ā (sentential obliquity), and in the fourth prakara fourth prakarana-vakrat ā (episodic (episod ic obliquity) and prabandhaand prabandha- vakrat ā (compositional (compos itional obliquity) obliquity) In this t his way, way, vakrokti comes vakrokti comes to embrace the entire gamut of the poetic po etic art. This T his divisi division, on, which starts with tthe he unique use of phonemes or syllabl syllables es and ends up with the handling handling or o r managing of the composition as a whole, ascertains ascert ains that Kuntaka’s approach approac h to poetry po etry is very minute minute and scientific. scientific. Propoundin Propo unding g his theory theo ry mainly mainly in in this sense mentioned above, he went too far in making making vakrokti the vakrokti the soul of poetry as the title of the boo book, k, Vakroktijivitam itself Vakroktijivitam itself unfolds. unfolds. He mustered courage to blaze a new trail of critical appraisal and proclaimed vakrokti to vakrokti to be the life of poetry. poetry. Kuntak Kuntakaa eleva elevated ted it to the status of a fullfull-fl fledged edged princi principl plee of poetic poetic assess assessme ment nt in his his treatise. He defined defined vakrokti as ‘vakrokti-raiva vaidagdhyabhangibhaniti uccayate’. That is to say an utterance, utt erance, characterised charact erised by wit wit or o r ingenuity isvakrokti. isvakrokti. Kuntaka, Kuntaka, however, ho wever, means more than what this definition conveys. To him uniqueness of expression, born of poet’s compositional skill, adorning both word and meaning is vakrokti. vakrokti. It is an indispensable character in the texture text ure of o f poetry; it is a striking mode mode of o f speech; it it is the result of a talented 26


poet or in other words itit depends depends upon kavi-vyā pāra (the ra (the poetic poe tic function of a poet ); it is a poetic poetic expres expressi sion on of speech speech as disti distingu nguis ished hed from express expression ion or speec speech, h, either either of the ordinar ordinary y work-a-day work-a-d ay life life or of o f the scientific scientific laboratory, the scho scholasti lasticc class-room class-roo m and the philosophical text-book; text-boo k; it is also recognised as the embel e mbelli lishment shment of the word and its meaning, meaning, the physi ph ysical cal constituent of poetry; it facilitates the expression to give a kind of unique pleasure to the sahrdaya. Kuntaka seems to adds that there is no line line of demarcation demarcation betweenvakrokti between vakrokti and poetry; they have invariabl invariably y the same same character character assimi assimilated lated with with each other To To conclude, every charming charming feature of poetry must be recognised as vakrokti; vakrokti; Thus vakrat ā separates poetry from other forms of expression, and is co-existent with the delightful delightful nature of poetry. p oetry. It consists of the t he peculiar peculiar turn tu rn given to any expression due to the kavivyā pāra , ra , which may may be explained explained as an act of o f imagination imagination on the part of the poet. poe t. In this way w ay,, vakrat ā is totall tot ally y related related to and a nd is the result of poet’s p oet’s genius. genius. Mere vakrat ā does not make poetry poe try.. It must delight the mi mind nd of the reader who is responsive responsive to the true beauty beaut y of poetry. poetry. The The test of vakrokti is vakrokti is its contribution to camatk āra (aesthetic enjoyment) experienced by the reader. reader. Kuntaka designatesvakrokti designates vakrokti as as ‘vicitrabhidhā ,’ which which transcends abhidhā (the ordin ord inary ary connotation). connotation).

3.3

Clas Classi sifi fica cati tio on of of Vak Vakrrokti 3.3.1 Varna-vinyā sa-vakrat sa-vakrat ā ā (Phonetic obliquity)

(Phonet ic obliquity obliquity) is one of the six six varieties of vakrat ā Var na-vinyā sa-vakrat ā (Phonetic (obliquity), (obliquity), , the other five five being the pada-p the pada-pūrvārddha-vakrat ā (lexical obliquity), padaobliquity), pada par ārddha-vakrat ā (grammatical obliquity), vākya-vakrat ā (sentential (sentent ial obliquity), obliquity), prakarana prakaranavakrat ā (episodic obliquity) and prabandhaand prabandha- vakrat ā (compositional (compo sitional obliquity) as given by vitam written in the first half of the eleventh century Ācārya Kuntaka Kuntaka in his treatise treat ise Vakroktijī vitam for the purpose pur pose of o f making making an assessment of kāvya (literat (literature). ure). In I n this this vakratā, Kuntaka has included all possibl poss iblee arrangement of o f phonemes or consonants conso nants inkāvya. The first first kind of arrangement arrang ement is the free and irregular repetition repet ition of simil similar ar or identical varnas (phonemes varnas (phonemes or consonants) co nsonants) at varying varying intervals intervals and this arrangement gives texture and beauty to the expressi expression. on. Kuntaka Kuntaka further further divide dividess it into into three sub-vari sub-varietie etiess — repetiti repetition on of one varna, varna, repetition of two varnas and varnas and repetition of more more than two varnas. varnas. The second kind of varna-vinyā sa-vakrat ā too has three sub-varieties sub-varieties : (i) when stops are combined combined with their homorganic homor ganic nasals; (ii) (ii) when liquids are doubled and; and ; (iii) (iii) when consonants consonant s become conjunct with ‘ra’ etc. Kuntaka also a lso includes includes the arrangement of varnas without varnas without any interval employed artistically by the writer for a high poet ic charm. He calls calls it the third t hird sub-variety of varna-vinyā sa-vakrat sa-vakrat ā . The fourth sub-variety sub-variety,, according to Kuntaka, is the repetition repetition of new var G a ho lds that a discontinuance of earlier repetition of varnas and varnas and choice of new Gas. s. He holds ones also impart impart beauty beaut y to the expression. Mentioning Mentioning the sub-varieties ofvarna-viny ofvarna-vinyā savakrat ā , he remarks that t hat chime also falls falls under it, and adds a dds that chime should be affected affected 27


without extra effort; it should be ado rned with syllables syllables which are are not harsh; it should be in consonance consona nce with feelings feelings conveyed; and lastly it it should sho uld be with propriety pro priety.. All these sub-varieties of varna-vinyā sa-vakr sa-vakrat at ā have innumerable charming effects in determining determining precise precise nature of attributes att ributes and style based on them. But they t hey need a careful attention attent ion as they have their own o wn limitations. limitations. Kuntaka is fully fully aware of o f these limitations. limitations. He holds that the arrangement arrangement of varnas should varnas should not violate pro propriety priety and should be in consonance conso nance with the feelings feelings conveyed. It should be without extra effort, adorned with syllabl syllables es which are not harsh. It should be very carefully chosen and should not be tarnished by unattractive varnas. varnas. The writer should sho uld beautify his his work by the repetition repet ition of novelvarnas novel varnas.. And, finally, finally, lucidity lucidity should be maintain maintained ed at any a ny cost. Kuntaka says that writers use these sub-varieties of varna-vinyā sa-vakrat sa-vakrat ā in order to impart impart beauty to the poetic poet ic expression. expression. They are, in fact, used for various variou s kinds of effects in v various arious ways. Coleridge’s poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner demonstrates the sound-effect sound-effect caused by the phonetic obliquity. obliquity. In the lines : “ The fair breeze blew, blew, the white foam flew/the furrow followed free;” the sound /b/ is indicative indicative of explosion and /f/ suggests a movemen mo vementt with quickness and friction. friction. The sound /d/ repeated in the line line ‘day after day, day after day’ suggests suggest s monotony mono tony and immobili immobility. ty.

3.3.2 Pada-p ūrv ā rddha-vakrat rddha-vakrat ā ā ( Lexical obliquity) Pada-pūrvārddha-vakrat ā ( Lexical obliquity) is found in the basal forms of the words. According to Kuntaka, it comprises all effects effects based on the writer’s choice of the words — the choice which is guided guided by strangeness, strang eness, evocativeness, evocat iveness, commonness or freshness of words. There are words that t hat can impart impart strangeness and freshness freshness to a writer’s writer’s utterance. There are other words which which make make kāvya one of the joys “in “in widest commonalty spread”, spread” , by their very plainness plainness and commonness. There are yet other o ther words word s which make make kāvya richly and deeply evocative — one o ne with the soul-stress so ul-stress that lies lies in the music of the words. Finall Finally y, there are a re words which w hich become luminous luminous centres of o f transfigured meaning and of imaginative imaginative association — quintessential words. Such words wo rds are the t he wealth of the vocabulary ofkavya ofkavya.. It is a kind of divine divine sureness of instinct instinct that enables a writer to select the appropriate appro priate word from one of these categor cat egories. ies. The temperament of a writer has also some so me affini affinity ty with certain categor categories ies of words and this is one of the bases on which poetic styles are formed. One has only to examine examine the poetic po etic vocabulary of writers in order orde r to realise the affini affinity ty that exists between betwee n certain types of poetic po etic temperament and clusters of poetic vocabulary. vocabulary. Kuntaka defines defines that when the words of o f common usage are employed employed so as to t o include include an attribution at tribution of associate meaning other than the primary ones, we have pada-p have pada-pūrvārddha-vakrat ā. This includes various sub-varieties : r ū hi-vaicitrya -vakrat ā (obliquity of usage), pary usage), paryā ya-vakrat ya-vakrat ā (obli (o bliquity quity of synonym s ynonym), ), upacāra-vakrat ā (obliquity of transference), vi transference), vi śesana-vakrat ā (obliquity of adjective), sanvrti-va sanvrti-vakrat krat ā (obliquity of concealment), vrtti-vakrat concealment), vrtti-vakrat ā (obli (o bliquity quity of o f indeclinable), indeclinable), linga linga28


vaicitrya-vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of gender), kriy gender), kriyā-vaicitrya-vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of verb). Rūhi-vaicitrya-vakrat ā (obliquity of usage) is the first sub-variety of pada pūrvārddha-vakrat ā. In this regard, Kuntaka says that when a conventional denotation of words inheres connotation o off even improbable improbable meaning meaning or includes exaggeration exaggerat ion of an attribute in the writer’s attempt to express extraordinary derision derision or supreme exaltation exaltation of the object, we have r ūhi-vaicitrya -vakrat ā. It lies lies in the infinitude infinitude of o f usage. The writer, with his individual individual power, power, empl employs oys the common common usage in such a way that t hat it gives gives a new meani meaning ng which which may be improbable improbable or exaggerated. Dhvan exaggerated. Dhvanii ācāryas have analysed a nalysed it inarth in arthāntar-sankramita vācyadhvani (partial transformation of o f meaning) meaning) takes. In fact, the t he obliquity obliquity of usage lies in in the transformation of o f the conventional meaning. meaning. In this transformation, the connotatio co nnotation n of improbable improbable meaning meaning is imposed imposed upon upo n the words which are obsolete, dead or of o f common common usage. Kuntaka Kunta ka says that words are important not only for for what they denote, that t hat is, for the meaning which which they themselves actually convey, but also for what they connote, connote , what they suggest. suggest . Thus through this vakratā the poet poe t can glimpse glimpse a vast unknown unkno wn that waits at the t he limi limitt of our familiar familiar worlds. Paryā ya-vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of synonym) which Kuntaka explains in in the second chapter of his Vakroktijī vitam, vitam, encounters the oblique use of synonyms. He holds that in k āvya the use of synonyms synonyms takes place in diff different erent ways, like like when it is an integral part of of a litera literall meaning; meaning; when it nourishes tthe he literal literal meaning to its climax; climax; when it or its ad adjective jective beautifi beautifies es the expression expression and gives gives a meanin meaning g diff different erent from the literal literal one; when the literal literal meaning achieves achieves excellence by its own splendour; when it is employed employed to express expres s some impossible impossible meaning; and when it is employed in conjunction with a figure of o f speech. In I n every language we have many words word s conveying the similar similar meaning, meaning, though t hough they the y have different different implications and associations. Such words are called synonyms. Usage confers certain properti properties es and and associ associati ation on on certai certain n words words whi which give give dif differen ferentt shade shadess of meani eaning and and disti distinc nctt associations. Kuntaka Kunt aka says that the writer should be aware of these different shades of meaning meaning in them and and should use them accurately. accurately. Each word wo rd has its own spiri s piritt and music. No writer wr iter other othe r than the writer is more more sensitive to the various dimensions dimensions of the word. It is he who unmasks the internal vibration of words word s and employs them in such a way so as to exalt the beauty of the poetic expressi expression. on. Poets aim aim at depicti depicting ng the objects, objects, abstractions abstractions or feel feelin ings gs with sincerity and honesty honest y. They employ synonyms synonyms or a chain of images so that tha t the object described can become vividly clear to the reader. Upacāra-vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of transference) deals with the introduction intro duction of o f human faculty in inanimate inanimate objects with oblique use of diction. In thisvakrat this vakrat ā, a word is used in its its secondary sense to refer to an object with which it is is not directly associated. Kuntaka defining defining this vakratā says that when the st ated and the impli implied, ed, though tho ugh apparently far far removed from each other, other, have a common attribute, howsoe h owsoever ver slight which may may be and lends lends itself to hyperbolic treatment, imparting charm and delight in kāvya., we have upacāra-vakrat ā . In it the epithet is transferred transferred from the appropriate noun to modify modify another which it it does not reall r eally y 29


belong belong to. This sub-variety sub-variety treats the abstract phenomena phenomena and the inanim inanimate ate objects metaphorically. metaphorically. Here both the objects, o bjects, stated sta ted and implied, implied, have difference difference in their basic basic natures and basic properties. If one is concrete, other o ther is abstract; abstract ; if if one is animate, animate, other ot her is inanim inanimate; ate; if one is solid, other ot her is liquid. liquid. In I n this way, implied implied is an imaginative imaginative knowledge, formulated formulated on the basis of the stated. And And there is a progression from the external to the internal internal and a talented poet po et by using using this shift shift impart impartss a captivating effect in in kāvya. According to Kuntaka, adjectives also have a signifi significant cant value in the composition of kāvya. It is the oblique use of adjectives that heightens the beauty of a verb or case and gives liveliness liveliness and picturesqueness picturesque ness to the poetic poet ic language. Kuntaka terms this oblique use of adjectives as viśesana-vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of adjectives). adjectives). He holds that it is is the right use of adjectives due to whichrasa which rasa reaches reaches its its climax. climax. Talented Talented poets poet s are conscious of the fact fact that the adjectives adject ives explore explore and a nd find find out all a ll the possibi po ssibilities lities of language in order to communicate the t he poeti poeticc exper experie ienc nce. e. They They contri contribu bute te memora emorabl blen eness ess and and evoca evocati tive vene ness ss to imagina aginati tive ve mea meani ning ng in kāvya. The T he language, indeed, becomes dead and incapable incapable of communicating communicating new poetic content, content , if the writer fails fails to recognize reco gnize the function of the devices likevi like viśer ana-vakrat ana-vakrat ā. The true test te st of a writer is to be seen in his his use of adjectives because adjectives are those thos e words which can easily be altered in polishing polishing a piece of o f litera literature. ture. Sanvrti-vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of concealment) concealment) operates operate s in kāvya when the subject of description description is screened by the use of pronoun and so on, o n, in order to t o achieve excellence excellence of expression. The writer uses pronouns prono uns for concealment because because they are a re of implicit implicit nature and point out screened position of the object being described. This use of pronouns is necessitated by the t he poet’ poet ’s keenness to t o convey co nvey infi infinite nite specialty of the object being described. t hat art lies concealing art. He explains all possibl poss iblee Ācā Ācārya Kuntaka is fully aware of the fact that kinds of this vakrat ā in kāvya : 1.

When When an an extra extraordi ordinar nary y beauti beautifful obj object ect is is contem contempl plated ated direc directl tly y, there there is is a loss loss in in its its beauty. beauty. So in order to check this this loss loss and enhance the beauty, beauty, the writer writer employs employs pronouns pronouns to screen screen contemp contempllation. ation.

2.

Someti Sometime mess when when the the words fail ail to to expl explain ain the the natura naturall beau beauty ty of an object, object, whi which ch has has received its excellence, the writer employs employs to accelerate accelerat e the beauty of expression. express ion.

3.

Someti Sometime mess an extraor extraordi dinar nary y deli delicate object, object, due to its its exces excessi sive ve qual qualities, ties, starts starts vibrating with with beauty not by description but by sheer use of o f pronouns.

4.

The The objec objects ts whic which h are are only only worth worth-e -exp xperi erienc enciing by by sens senses es and and inex inexpl plic icab able le by words, words, are expressed expresse d by this device.

5.

It is is not not possi possibl blee to descri describe be an object object perc percepti eptibl blee by by the experi experien ence ce of of senses senses.. In such a case , the writer uses this device.

6.

When When an an obj object, havin having g a fla flaw w in in its its natur naturee or due due to poet’ poet’ss desi desire re of descri describi bing ng it, it, fai fails ls

30


to be equated with a great sin or evil, it is sscreened creened by pronouns. 7.

Someti Sometime mess there there is a doubt doubt that that an object, object, due to the writer’ writer’ss desi desire re of descri describi bing ng it, it, may be be a victim of inferior inferior expression. In such a case poet poe t uses thisvakrat thisvakrat ā in k āvya vya to protect prote ct the beauty of expression. expression.

As far as vrtti-vakrat ā (obliquity of indeclinable) indeclinable) is is concerned, it is used in in relation to the compound words, w ords, secondary derivatives or suffixes suffixes which form such derivatives derivatives and participl participles es and so on. Kuntaka says that when when the indecli indeclinabl nables es dominate dominate and heighten heighten the expression, we have vrtti-vakrat ā . Among indeclinabl indeclinables, es, compound word is a key figure figure and provides a base to obliquity obliquity.. As such, the obliquity obliquity of compound wo word rd is a comprehensi co mprehensive ve subject and needs an elaborate description. Regarding the form of obliquity obliquity of compound words Dr Nagendra gives two answers. First answer may denote the selection of all striking words as every good the writer forms a new striking striking word by combinin combining g two words wo rds together. to gether. Second Seco nd answer may be the beauty which lies in the structure stru cture of this new unit. unit. Here richness of beauty mainly mainly lies lies in the structure structu re of compound co mpound word and has nothing special to do with its meaning. meaning. This analysis analysis sets forth broad broa d and extensiv ext ensivee view of o f Kuntaka. According to him, him, the t he obliquity obliquity of compound word means means a rich r ichness ness of beauty born o out ut of o f new formation of compound word phraseolog p hraseology y which makes the whole atmosphere comprehensible. c omprehensible. As has already been referred to, the secondary derivatives derivatives and participles participles are also related to thisvakrat this vakrat ā. The secondary derivatives de rivatives are formed by suffixes. suffixes. As far far as participles p articiples are concerned, concern ed, they t hey hardly need an explanatory note. One more aspect, aspec t, that t hat falls falls under thisvakrat thisvakrat ā, is the use us e of slang. They are, nonetheless, formed like secondary derivatives. In a word, now we can say, in general, that, according to Kuntaka, the t he obliquity obliquity of indeclina indeclinable ble means a formation formation of o f new structures struc tures like compound words, wor ds, secondary seco ndary derivatives, participles and slangs which, with a propriety propriety of meani meaning ng and emotion, emotion, impart impart beauty beauty to the expressi expression on in kāvya. Linga-vaicitrya-vakrat ā (obliquity of gender) is another sub-variety of pada pūrvārddha-vakrat ā. It occurs in kāvya when a gender is employed in such a way as to enhance the beauty of expression. It operates at three levels. First, when words belonging to two hetrogeneous hetro geneous genders are brought bro ught together to gether and used without distin d istinction ction in a generalised way; second, when the femini feminine ne gender is used, ignoring ignor ing an other possible po ssible gender, merely for the sake of excellence in the expression and third, when keeping in view the meaning of expression, the existence e xistence of the gender described, is avoided and a particular word is employed to enhance the beauty beaut y of kāvya. Kuntaka holds ho lds that the third t hird level level of this this vakratā, which has most striking st riking role in kāvya, is employed employed by a talented poet. It increases the potency of the t he meaning meaning and acts ac ts in association asso ciation with figures of speech like, like, simile, simile, metaphor, meta phor, personifi pers onification cation etc. Kriyā-vaicitrya-vakrat ā ( obli o bliquity quity of verb) is pertaining to the speciality of verb, which can be realized in no less than five forms. forms. These T hese forms consist of o fvakrata which is seen when there is a cohesion co hesion of the subject with the t he verb; when another subject attains a ttains excellence

31


in relation to the same verb; when the adverbials go to quality it; when metaphorical superimposition superimposition heightens the beauty of the verb-form and; when the direct object, tho ugh concealed, gets g ets charmingly charmingly communicate communicated. d. The writers coin new expressions by exploiting these forms in their dif different ferent combi co mbinations nations which construct construc t various images images in their poetry poet ry.. They employ verb-forms verb-forms associated assoc iated with subjects and objects which come direct from the intense communication communication with the th e living living world in which which he had lived, moved and had his being. Study shorter short er poems po ems of your choice cho ice in the light light the t he sub-varieties if this obliquity obliquity..

3.3.3 Pada-par ā rddha-vakrat ā ā rddha-vakrat ā (Grammatical obliquity) In kāvya, kāvya, Ācārya Kuntaka holds, the t he writer is also also guided by the consideration of special tense, case, number, person, voice, prefix, suffix and particle. He discusses these various sources sourc es in his treatment of vakratā in the inflectional inflectional forms of substantives. subst antives. This variety of vakratā includes includes all possibilities possibilities of varying the grammatical constructions construct ions of an expression express ion dhvani. Defining and most of o f them have been included included by Ānandavardhana in his treatment of o f dhvani. it, Kuntaka says that when several forms forms of literary literary turns occur together t ogether in such a way as to enhance the beauty of o f one another, anothe r, they produce artistic a rtistic charm, reminiscent reminiscent of o f myriad-faced myriad-faced beauty beauty.. Ac Accordi cording ng to Kunt Kuntaka, aka, this this charm charm is termed termed as pada-par pada-par ārddha-vakrat ā which bears many sub-varieties like k āla-vaicitraya-vakrat ā (obliquity of tense), k āraka-vakrat ā (obliquity of case) s case) sānkhya-vakrat ā (obliquity of number) purusa-vakrat number) purusa-vakrat ā (obliquity of person), upagraha-vakrat person), upagraha-vakrat ā (obliquity of voice), upasarga-vakrat ā (obliquity of prefix), prefix), pratyaya-vakrat pratyaya-vakrat ā (obli (o bliquity quity of suffix), nipāta-vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of particle). Kuntaka states that when in kāvya, expression attains att ains excellence excellence due to the striking use of a tense in a particular context cont ext and the reader reade r feels transported, transport ed, it is called calledkâla-vaicitryakâla-vaicitryavakratâ (obliquity (obliquity of tense). In this vakrata, the vakrata, the writer expresses himself himself in in the tense te nse other than the one ordinarily ordinarily required. And And a talented t alented or gifted the writer, by contemplating the past or future act ion in the present, produces charm and beauty in in his expression. expression. One point po int is worth wort h noting here that pro priety is strictly to be observed in the employment of the tense. tense . Hence, Kuntaka emphasized upon the capitulation of the tense under agreed conditi co ndition on which means means a mutual relationship relationship between the t he tense and the t he context. The historical present, present, as discussed in the Western poetics, is quite similar to Kuntaka’s k āla-vaicitraya-vakrat ā . In both the cases, cases, the past past inciden ncidents ts and and happen happenin ings gs are contem contemplated plated in the first first form of the verb verb so as to produce charming effect. Such experiment, undoubtedly, enhances the beauty of t alented writer is very conscious of time time and place. place. He turns to the remote in in time time kāvya. A talented and place. He does doe s so for two t wo reasons: reaso ns: firstly, firstly, his longing longing for the past provides him an escape from the corking cor king cares and corroding co rroding anxieties of the wo rld; secondly, secondly, it satisfies his cravin craving g for the uncommon and the strange. He finds finds in the past enough beauty and joy to feed the waning flame flame of his his soul. His interest in the past satisf sat isfies ies the emotional sense of o f wonder on one o ne hand and the intellectu intellectual al sense of curiosity curiosity on the other. ot her. He, rebelling rebelling against the immediate immediate past, finds finds an antiquari antiquarian an interest interest in the remote remote past. past. This This past proves fruitful fruitful in suggesting suggesting 32


themes and satisfies satisfies the craving for the mysterious, as well as for the picturesque. It fascinates fascinates imagination imagination by its its romantic stories. sto ries. For example in the over-charged ove r-charged atmosphere a tmosphere of o f the Middle Middle Ages, the Romantic Romantic writers sought the virgin virgin sources o f romantic effect effect and of a strange st range beauty beauty and of things things likel likely y or remote. remote. These These writers writers took up the past past experi experienc ences es as subje subject ct of their works work s and infused them with an alluring charm by their way of presentation. K āraka-vakrat ā (obliquity of case) is based ba sed on the oblique oblique transposition transp osition of the cases.Kuntaka cases. Kuntaka says that whe when n an ordinary case is employed inkāvya by the writer as a main main case or vice-versa or the cases are t ransposed, we have k āraka - vakrat ā. The beauty or strikingness, strikingness, produced pro duced by this vakratā, depends solely on the transposition transpo sition of the cases which aims at heightening heightening the poetic po etic expression. According to him, this transposition of case animates the subject symbolical symbolically ly and makes it more functional poeticall poet ically y. Like k āraka-vakrat ā , s , sānkhya-vakrat ā (obliquity of number) number) too functions on the basis of the oblique transposition of numbers . Kuntaka holds that a vakratā which, the writer employs, out o ut of his fascination for the strikingness s trikingness in his his kāv ya, to transpose the numbers numbers kāv ya, — singular singular number number is changed into into plural number number and vice-versa vice-versa — is called called s sānkhyavakrat ā. This interchange of two opposite o pposite numbers imparts imparts beauty and charm to the poetic po etic expression and consequently conseque ntly the meaning meaning gets its heightened he ightened form. Sometimes poet, in order to t o attain sublimity sublimity in kāvya, transposes transpose s persons also. This style of expression, according to Kuntaka, is purusa purusa-vakr vakrat at ā (obliquity (obliquity of person). In poetic expression, expression, it causes heightened heightened emotions. emotions. In this this regard, Kuntaka further further says that the charm, beauty or strikingn st rikingness ess is an indispensable indispensable outcome outco me of this transposition of persons. perso ns. The appropriate appro priate use of the obliquity obliquity of person is possible only in in epic poetry but at the same time it is not true to negate its role ro le completely completely in other forms of kāvya. In fact, this sub-variety of pada-par of pada-par ārddha-vakrat ā is a psychological psycholog ical expression and its strikingness str ikingness is discernibl discerniblee in all kinds kinds of o f kāvya. Another sub-variety of this vakrat ā is upagraha-vakrat ā (obliquity of voice). Obviously Obviously it it works upon the two modes or o r voices of roots root s — active and passive. passive. Active Active mode expresses that the action depends upon upo n the subject, while while passive mode tells that the action depends upon u pon some other ot her faculty. faculty. According to Kuntaka, these t hese voices have an import important ant role in kāv ya. ya. He holds that sometimes either of the modes or voices vo ices is employed employed by poet specificall specifically y in order to produce beauty in kāvya. The last sub-variety of of pada-par pada-par ārddha-vakrat ā, is nipāta-vakrat ā (obliquity of particl particle). e). Like Like the above mentioned entioned two sub-v sub-vari arieti eties es of pada-p of pada-par ar ārddha-vakrat ā, nipātavakrat ā is also also concerned concerned with the oblique oblique use of particle. Though a particle is an independe independent nt component compone nt or merely an exclamatory sound and has no grammatical bond bond with words, it plays plays an important important role in kāvya. A talented writer uses this t his particle to denote ssome ome strong feelings feelings or emotions e motions of joy, joy, melancholy,patho melancholy,pathos, s, wonder wo nder and mystery etc.in kāvya. A particle, remains inactive in in isolation but in conjunction conjunction with a word, word, it vibrates vibrate s with a force and inte intensifi nsifies es 33


the meaning. This is is why, according to Kuntaka, Kunt aka, the t he combination of particle and word which enhances the beauty o off expression, is calledupasarga-vakrat called upasarga-vakrat ā. Study shorter short er poems po ems of your choice cho ice in the light light the t he sub-varieties if this obliquity obliquity..

3.3.4 vā kya-vakrat kya-vakrat ā ā (Sentential obliquity) Vākya-vakrat ā , as the name itself expresses, operates o perates at the level ofv ofvākya (sentence) kya (sentence) to deal with vastu (contents vastu (contents or subject-matter). Defining it, Kuntaka writes that when the vastu is vastu is described in a way conducive to beauty beau ty by virtue of the charming charming words, we have vākya or vastu-vakrat ā. Kuntaka Kuntaka holds that vastu, vastu, replete with beauty, serve an integral purpose in a poetic composition. composition. The The vastu of vastu of the composition may be sahaj be sahajā (natural), division on of vastu, vastu, Kuntaka has divided divided vākya-vakrat ā āhārya (imposed). On the basis of this divisi into two sub-varieties : sahaj : sahajā-vakrat ā (natural obliquity) and āhārya-vakrat ā (imposed obliquity). When the vastu, vastu, replete replet e with innate beauty beaut y, is described without without heavy embellishment embellishment in a simple style, style, it has sah has sahaj ajā-vakrat ā. Now No w the writer, by his natural power of contempl co ntemplating ating the natural objects o bjects lively lively,, allures the heart of the sensitiv se nsitivee reader. In this connection, co nnection, Kuntaka, putting putting a rider, rider, says says that the vastu, vastu, which is to be described, should be conductive to beauty by virtue virtue of its own natural natural allu alluri ring ng charm charm.. In other words, words, it shoul should d have have an appeal appeal to heart heart by its own natural beauty. A talented poet is competent enough in making this vastu and vastu and is characteristics characte ristics more alluring. alluring. This means that the natural natur al charm of the vastu still vastu still requires the labour of the writer’s function. Kuntaka’s saha Kuntaka’s sahajjā-vakrat ā seems to have a paradox because, on one hand, he considers charm or beaut y of thevastu the vastu as as the creation cr eation of poet’s poe t’s labour while, on the other, o ther, he says that the charm lies in in the vastu itself. itself. Kuntaka, avoiding avoiding this paradox, para dox, accepts both the objective and subjective substances. He establishes a harmonious harmonious relationship between the writer writer and the subject-m subject-matter atter and gives gives equal importance importance to both the subjectsubjectmatter and the t he writer. writer. According According to him, him, as has already been said, the beauty is the result of the relationship between the poet’ poet ’s function and the vastu. vastu. Thus he pays equal import importance ance to both, without without consideri considering ng them primar primary y and secondary secondary.. The writer writer,, as as indeed indeed any true artist, artist, sees or conceives conceives the very same thing not in the same way as common people. In the case of the latter, all things things stand in some relations relations to his personal interests interests,, which should be understood understoo d to connote co nnote also scientific scientific interest interest in them as subj subjects ects of o f his his knowledge. But for tthe he writer, the object has no connection co nnection with his or anybody’s anybody’s interest, not even as an object o bject of knowledge; he has a vision of the things in itself itself in in its true nature. nature . This critique of Kuntaka Kuntak a bears new dimensions of vākya-vakrat ā. Undoubtedly, the natural charm of the vastu i vastu iss the result of the writer’s function. function. A literary piece piece is nothing but a manifestation manifestation of the writer writer’’s own soul, so ul, executed by his his poetic poet ic function in a most natural natu ral and simple simple way. Some ancient Indian ācāryas consider vākya-vakrat ā as svabh as svabhāvokti alank āra. ra. The ordinary or dinary nature nature of things which Kuntaka callsvastu calls vastu or vākya vakrat ā, is just an alankāra (figure (figure of speech) to t o Bhāmaha Bhāmaha and other ot her ācāryas. Kuntaka, unlike Bhāmaha, description, without striking striking graceful qualities, qualities, shall not be heart-appealin heart-app ealing g to a sahr sahrday daya a (sensitive reader). reader) . 34


Supporting his argume argument, nt, he says that as a painting, painting, drawn on a bad distinguishes distinguishesala ala A k kā ra from vastu. vastu. According According to Kuntaka, svabh Kuntaka, svabhāvokti alank āra is ra is not a figure figure of speech, but an act of o f figure figure of speech. He argues that if the ordinary nature of o f things things is treated as sva as svabh bhāvokti alank āra, ra, then anybody can describe this natur naturee of an object. Such S uch description would not require any poetic poet ic art or function. Consequent Co nsequently ly,, this canvas, fails fails to attain att ain excellence, excellence, an ordinary object, heaped with figures figures of speech too, cannot transcend the various shades of beauty. beauty. Hence, Hence, the natural beauty of thevastu the vastu,, which is termed as vastu-vakrat ā, should be considered as an act of figures figures of speech employed in tune with the message to be conveyed. In this way, Kuntaka gives his consent for the employment of all possible alank possible alank āras in kāvya. But at the t he same time, time, he also says that when the subject-matter has natural beauty, beauty, it should not no t be heavily hea vily embellished embellished with alank āra like ra like metaphor metaphor etc. Otherwise, it may cause a harm to the natural beauty of the subject-matter. subject-matt er. There are instances instances in kāvya, where, even without embel e mbellish lishment ment or figures of speech, an extraordinary extrao rdinary beauty is is observed. The obliquity of nature is a device by which the writer heightens such instances in kāvya. The ordinary nature of things, as available in the world, forms the material for the play of the writer’s imagination. imagination. The writer’s writer ’s eye alone can see it and his imagination imagination alone can embody the striking and special aspect of things. In fact “Nature’s world is brazen; the writers only deliver it golden”. It I t is the function of a writer to reveal reve al the hidden beaut beauty y of the object. While While the writer is under the finer influence influence of o f life, life, he feels so intense intensely ly and vividly that his feelings feelings spontaneo spo ntaneously usly find find utterances utte rances in an unadorned language. obliquity) is the second sub-variety of vākya-vakrat ā. Ā hārya vakrat ā (Imposed obliquity) When the expression att ains a heightened beauty beaut y due to the use of skill, skill, we have āhārya vakrat ā. Here the skill means technical art acquired acqu ired by the poet. This excels the beauty of individual individual elements elements such as words, meaning, attributes attr ibutes and embellishm embellishment. ent. The subject-matter subject-matte r is not entirely an imaginative imaginative matt matter, er, rather it has its own power po wer in itit but with no attractio at traction. n. The writer, by his his art, imagines imagines a divine divine beauty beaut y in itit and its character char acter becomes potent pote nt and prominent, pr ominent, manifesting a new form of beauty. Thus the subject-matter and the writer’s art are complementary complementary to each o ther to arrive arrive at the t he same end. According According to Kuntaka, art is not different from arthālank āra (figure of sense). It transforms the subject-matter and describes it in various various ways. In other o ther words, word s, the writer wr iter describes the subject-matter in many ways ways based on the kinds of this obliquity produced by arthālank āra. ra. Kuntaka admits admits a thousand varieties varieties of it and includes includes the t he whole lot of alank āra in ra in it. it. But B ut he considers co nsiders their use relevant so far as they produce produc e grandeur and beaut y. This is why, why, he holds that the t he writer should not eempl mploy oy them arbitrarily to describe the subject-matter. subject-matte r. By introducing an element of strangeness into what one speaks spea ks or hears everyday, everyday, thealank the alank āras satisfy ras satisfy a basic demand of human nature — that for a pleasant surprise. surpr ise. This obliquity obliquity is is effective effective only when itit appears appe ars in disguise, disguise, that is to say, say, when it is shaded by the brilli brilliance ance of style of the writer. In a plain p lain style, style, it makes all the show, throwing the rest of the utterance utte rance into shade. Though Thoug h a writer writer for special spec ial reasons, may now and then renounce the t he use of o f figurative figurative language, it remains remains true tr ue that this is the characteristic and habitual mode mode of utterance, uttera nce, not only of poetry poet ry,, but of all emotional prose. pros e. 35


Kuntaka describes few other kinds of vakrat ā also based on t he subjectsubjectmatter — animate animate and inanimate. inanimate. Animate Animate has two sub-kinds — primary and secondary. The primary primary subject-matter subject-matter includes includes deities, deities, devils, super-human beings beings and men while while the secondary second ary subject-matter covers cover s birds and animals animals or beasts. beast s. As far as the subject-matter, based based on inanimate inanimate objects, objects, is is concerned, concerned, itit incl includes udes the objects objects of Nature i.e. i.e. water, water, trees, flowers flowers etc. Thus T hus Kuntaka, maintaini maintaining ng the t he hierarchy in in the selection of the subject-matter, first places deities, devils, super-human super-hu man beings, beings, and men. The animates like birds birds and beasts beast s fall fall in the secondary seco ndary subject-matter. Althoug Although h all the figures have their own nature, natu re, the t he poet, poet , by his art, introduces in them an element of strangeness which satisfies the basic demand of human nature. Like all the animate animate objects, Kuntaka empl e mploys oys inanimate inanimate objects, too, t oo, as the subject of kavya, kavya, consideri co nsidering ng them as stimulants in the production product ion ofrasa of rasa.. In this t his way, way, the subject- matter has its its two kinds — nature dominated subject and and rasa dominated subject subject . Besides them, Kuntak Kuntakaa also includes the means of attainin att aining g salvation —dharma, —dharma, (righteousness) artha (worldly artha (worldly possessions) , , k āma (desire) ma (desire) , mok c c a (salvation) — , too, as the subjectmatter. Study shorter short er poems po ems of your choice cho ice in the light light the t he sub-varieties if this obliquity obliquity..

3.3.5 Prakarana-vakra Prakarana -vakrat t ā ā (Episodic obliquity) This vakrat This vakrat ā deals with the oblique use of prakar of prakarana ana (episode). Kuntaka says says that when the intended object is capable of maintaini maintaining ng suspense all along and is the product p roduct of the unique, boundless bound less poetic poet ic skill skill underlying underlying it, we have prakar prakarana ana -vakra -vakrat t ā (episodic obli o bliquity). quity). Here he means to say is that the writer, overwhelmed with the zest of creation, creates creat es an alluring alluring charm in the subject - matter. According Accord ing to him, this very charm is nothing but pr but prak akar arana ana -vakrat ā. He describes de scribes the following nine nine sub-varieties of this vakrata : vakrata : bhāvapūrnasthiti vakrat ā (obliquity of emot emotional ional states) states ) , , utapādya l āvanya vakratā (obliquity of modified source story ), prakarana upak ārya-upak āraka bhāva vakrat ā (obliquity of episodic relationship) , , viśismha prakarna vakrat ā (obliquity of particular part icular event and episode) , episode) , angirasa nisyandanikasa vakrat ā (obliquity of dominant rasa), rasa), apradhāna prasanga vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of secondary seco ndary episodes), prakaran episodes), prakaranātara vakrat ā (obliquity of play within within play), sandhi vinive śa vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of juncture) junctu re) According to Kuntaka, bhāvapūrnasthiti vakrat ā (obliquity of emotional emot ional state) stat e) is concerned with the state of a talented poet. Now the words or expression expression come out with with a wild wild gust of enthusiasm. In other words, wo rds, now the th e writer is filled filled with a kind kind of frenzy which gives an alluring alluring charm and strikingness. It leads to loftiness of utterance utte rance and so it is an indispensable device employed employed in in a good composition. compo sition. Kuntaka holds that a prakarana (episode or o r incident) is merely merely a desert. desert . It is the emotions that t hat infuse music music of life in in it. The talented writer creates creat es such emotional states state s in the episodes of his composition. Longinus, affirming affirming the role of such states, stat es, says that “nothing “not hing makes so much for grandeur as true t rue emotion in the right place, for it inspires the words, wo rds, as it were, wer e, with a wild gust of o f mild mild enthusiasm and 36


fills fills them with wit h divine divine frenzy”. This is why, he prefers the Ili the Iliad ad to to the Odyssey and Odyssey and Dem Demos osthen thenes es to Cicero . Cicero . Like stately thoughts, thoughts, stately emotions, emotions, it may be assumed , also belong to the loftiest souls. But they have to be ‘true emotions’ and ‘in the right place’. Kuntaka values the emotional states for aesthetic transport which which they cause. He, therefore, offers an artistic explanation for emotional appeal in the composition. composition. It is worth-mentio worth-mentioning ning here that Kuntaka Kunt aka accepts these emotional states merely as emotional emotional utterances utterance s of the characters. To him, him, the emotional states state s are the responses respo nses of characters charact ers to various circumstances circumstanc es in human life, life, which which they are put in. He adds that such emotional flows are very important in kāvya to cause a great charm. Utapādya l āvanya vakrat ā (obliquity of modified modified source sour ce story) sto ry) is another anot her subvariety which which is associated with the source sour ce of the kāvya. The pictures of o f life, life, portrayed port rayed by the writers, are ar e not faithful copies, accurately accura tely rendered in words. They The y are modified modified by a predominant imagination. imagination. They become striking striking by associated assoc iated thoughts thought s or images images awakened by that imagination, imagination, or when they t hey have the effect effect of o f reducing multitudes multitudes to t o unity, unity, or o r succession to an instant. In I n this way, way, imagination plays an importa important nt role ro le in transforming or changing the source so urce material of the composition. The present sub-variety su b-variety is is based on o n the writer’ writer ’s imagination. imagination. By it he may may change the details of the source story st ory to make the charac characterization terization more consistent; he may give give a hint for future development; he may insert insert events of o f his own creation. Besides the invention of something new, he may significantly significantly rearrange rearra nge the source so urce story sto ry.. Now the t he writer also aims at introducing introdu cing universal element in the source story stor y. He makes the th ekāvya not mere reproductions reprod uctions of facts but truths trut hs embedded embedded with those thos e facts that apply to all places and times. He has in his mind, mind, the things as they were or are, are , things as they are said or thought to be and things things as they ought to be. In other words, what is past or presen present, t, what what is is commonl commonly y belie believed ved and what what is ideal. deal. In this this connecti connection, on, Kuntaka’ Kuntaka’ss views views equate equate with with those of Aris Aristotl totle. e. Aristotle holds that “it is not the function of the poet t o relate what has happened, but what may happen, — what is a possible according to the law of probability or necessity”. The writer and the historian differ differ not by writing writing in verse or prose pro se but the true difference is is that the historian relates to what has happened, happe ned, while while the poet holds what may happen. Kuntaka Kuntak a says that this t his imagin imaginative ative or inventive inventive change beautifies beautifies the episode so much so that t hat it, being being replaced rep laced with aesthetic delight, appears to t o be the soul so ul of the composition. compos ition. Consequently, Consequently, a sensiti s ensitive ve reader experiences an aesthetic aesthetic transport. transport . Kalidasa Kalidasa made use u se of o f utapadya lavanya vakrata (obliquity vakrata (obliquity of modifi modified ed source so urce story st ory ) in the play Abhijnan Abhijnan shakuntalam.His poetic poet ic genius, aided by his deep dramatic d ramatic insight insight quickly qu ickly saw that the t he story sto ry though simple and unromantic in its fform. orm. It was wa s pre-eminently fitte fitted d to be the nucleus of such dramatic situations and incidents incidents as would wo uld stir up the hearts of the reader read er and produce produ ce a magical effect effect upon upo n him. him. And who can say that he was wrong wr ong in his his selection? If the reader read er reads this t his matchless drama again and again, it never loses its charm char m for him. He relishes it with with renewed taste, t aste, his soul sou l remains remains uplifted as he proceeds. proceed s. The play becomes so much enraptured with its beauties beaut ies that it is held held fast as by a spell and is soon lost in the greater great er

37


soul of the dramatist. Goethe’s words that ‘the soul so ul is is charmed, enraptured, feasted and fed ‘, are literally literally true to t o this t his illustrious illustrious production product ion of Kalidasa. What Kuntaka values most in prakar in prakarana ana vakrat ā is the mutual relationship relationsh ip in episodes which he calls prakarana calls prakarana upak ārya-upak āraka bhāva vakrat ā (obliquity of episodic relationship). Defining Defining it, he writes that t hat an a n organic unity u nity which which strikingly underlines underlines various incidents incidents described in different different parts of the works work s leading leading to the intended end, each bound to the other by a relationship relationship of mutual mutual assistance, assistance, reveals reveals the essence essence of creative creative originality originality which which is most detectable detect able in the case of rare poetic poet ic geniuses who are endowed with the gift of an extraordinary extrao rdinary creative creat ive imagination. imagination. Here Her e he means that all incidents should be complementary complementary to one-another o ne-another in a kāvya. They should assist a ssist one another mutuall mutu ally y in achieving achieving the intended end. The T he incidents incidents do not have their t heir existence in isolation isolation in the composition. Rather, they t hey exist meaningfully meaningfully by the relationship of mutual assistance. assista nce. Vi Viśismha prakarna vakratā (obliquity (obliquity of particular event and episode), ep isode), as the t he title itself unfolds, is concerned concer ned with the oblique use of event and episode. Defining Defining it , Kuntaka says that when a meaning meaning in the episodes episodes of a kavya, kavya, even being repeated again and again, embellished embellished with new new kind of ornaments each time, produces pro duces a striking beauty, we have this sub-variety of prakar of prakarna na vakratā. At this level level Kuntaka Kuntak a himself had a question ques tion in his his mind : Shall the repetition repet ition of expression, express ion, consisting co nsisting of the same meaning, not be a blemish in in itself? Kuntaka, answering this question, says that, t hat, ordinaril o rdinarily y, this kind of o f repetition is a flaw but the writer of a high talent, uses this repetition as a device to renew the object each tim t ime. e. In fact, this is the result resu lt of a state stat e of the impassioned impassioned writer who, who , charged with passions, does do es not count the repetition of the same meaning meaning in in the composition. Likewise, a sensitive sensitive reader, too, t oo, is carried away by an impassioned impassioned utterance. utte rance. This type of exaggerated exaggerat ed description of things or episodes take place in the epics or the works of o f great length and magnitude. magnitude. To a great extent, these all a llusions usions have the functions of Homeric Ho meric simi similes. les. Like Homeric similes, similes, they t hey are employed to raise out some glorious images or sentiments sentiments to t o heighten the main sstory tory of o f the composition. composition. They amuse the reader by sublime sublime kind of entertainm enterta inment ent and relax the mind mind of the reader reade r by frequently disengaging disengaging him from too painful painful an attention to t o the princi p rinciple ple subject, and by leading leading him into their agreeable ag reeable images. Angirasa Angirasa nisyanda nisyandanikas nikasa a vakrat vakrat ā ( obliquity obliquity of domin d ominant ant rasa) is the consummation of angirasa which generally generally takes place in epic poems or works of o f such scale and compass. Indian ācāryas interpreted kāvya in terms of o f rasa. rasa. According to them, it is the experience of the intended domi do minant nant angirasa which is is the achievement achievement of o f the sahrdaya, being the ultimate result of his response to any work of eminence. It is an artistic truism that a writer has an eye, from the very outset, o on n the nourishment nourishment of the angirasa and angirasa and all his compositional compo sitional skills skills and cautions are directed directed to the concretization of that emotion. Careful readers will will agree to the fact that the atmosphere created c reated and promoted pro moted in the story, contributes substantially substantially to the evocation of the intended emotion. Here, apart from the parts and episodes of the plot, the character of the hero, exercises e xercises a major major role. ro le. Accord Accordingl ingly y in in our investigation, we shall sha ll try to 38


follow follow and discover how tthe he atmosphere intended by the playwright playwright develops and engrosses engross es the reader / spectator spectato r or can overpower the spectator spectato r if he he has been to witness the performance on the stage. In this regard Kuntaka Kuntaka says that when a particular episode episode contributes to the consummation of angirasa in such a way as has not been manif manifested ested by any other episode of o f either of the parts — former and latter — of the composition, we have this sub-variety of prakarna vakratā . The savouring of the domi do minant nant emotion is possible through the combi co mbination nation or integration integrat ion of these elements: ‘vibhava’, ‘vibhava’, ‘anubhava’ and and ‘vyabichari bhava’ . In Kalidas’s Kalidas’s play the forest maiden, Shakuntala Shakunt ala as well as the infatuat infatuated ed king is is ‘alamban.’ By By ‘uddipan’ are are meant such features or circumstances that accentuat e the feelings feelings of‘alamban of ‘alamban,, which, in effect, effect, would mean the hero or the heroine. The sylvan surroundings or the spring season will easily serve as ‘uddipan’ for the erotic emotion or ‘rati’. ‘Anubhavas’ signify the various gestures expressive of what is going on in the heart or the mind of main characters, like casting a terrified glance, heaving a sigh or o r involuntarily involuntarily shedding a tear. Then there t here are ancillary ancillary feelings feelings which go along with and consequently consequent ly reinforce prevailing mood or emotional emotion al disposition. These support supp orting ing feelings feelings are called ‘vyabhicharis’ or ‘sancharis’ because because they are short lived lived and they can enter into alliance alliance with a number of of stha sthayi yi bhavas’ bhavas’ . The enduring passion in Dushyanta’s Dushyanta’s heart is ‘rati’or longing for Shakuntala, he is , however, ho wever, continually continually subject to such vyabhicharis as ‘ullas’, ‘ullas’, (exihilarati (exihilaration), on), ‘chapalata’ (fi ( ficklemi cklemindedness), ndedness), and ‘vyakulata’, ‘vyakulata’, (nervousness). Apradhāna prasanga vakrat ā (secondary (seco ndary episode) also contributes to the meaning meaning of kāvya, if it is arranged properly prope rly.. A talented writer write r inducts a charming small small reference reference or o r event within an episode for the t he sake of achieving achieving the primary aim. aim. He arranges interesting intere sting and meaningful meaningful secondary references or episodes within within the episodes of his kāvya . The induction of the secondary second ary references or episodes is not merely decorative. decorat ive. They are employed integrally to attain the main purpose of the compositi co mposition. on. Kuntaka unfol u nfolds ds that when apradhāna prasanga vakrat ā is arranged integrally integrally within an episode to nurse the purpose purpo se of the composition, composition, we have this sub-variety of prakarna of prakarna vakratā. There are many incidents incidents which are dexterously intervowen in the construction construct ion of the play play, Abhij Abhijnan nansha shakuntal kuntalam am,, which which shows shows this this obliq obliquity uity.. These These are, the pursuit pursuit of Shakuntal Shakuntalaa by a bee and her conseque consequent nt flurry flurry which which skilf skilful ully ly made the fit occasion occasion for the King King to make make his appearance appearanc e in Act I; the seizure of the skirts of o f her garment by a fawn (Act IV.); IV.); the singing in the beginning of Act V which indirect indirectly ly hints hints at a t the t he forgetting forget ting by the King of his former wife w ife and which makes makes him as as though thou gh love-lorn love-lorn though he could not acco unt for the cause; the t he unexpected recovery reco very of the ring, ring, the picture of o f the heroine and the consequent mental state of the King (Act VI.); VI.) ; the soliloquy and the swoon swo on of the King on hearing of the deat h of a rich merchant who died childless childless (Act VI.). provision of episode within within an episode episode inkavya in kavya in order Ācārya Kuntaka makes a provision to achieve a particular part icular meaning. meaning. Explaining Explaining this vakratā, Kuntaka says says that a talented talented writer 39


employs prakar employs prakaran anātara vakrat ā ( obliquity obliquity of play within play), for a specific specific purpose. purpo se. For this device, a set of actors other ot her than the characters character s already employed, employed, is introdu introduced ced in the composition. composition. These actors use the audience audience as the source material material for their enactment enactment in the t he compostion. Kuntaka, Kuntak a, emphasizing emphasizing upon this t his device, device, holds it to be an importa important nt presentation presentat ion as it helps in getting the intended end. en d. Sandhi vinive śa vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of juncture) includes includes different different stages or junctions which take place in kāvya. A sandhi (juncture) sandhi (juncture) is a combination combination of different different phases of main action actio n with its its subsidiaries. sub sidiaries. It marks the divi d ivision sion of the dramatic dra matic actions. It I t is generally held held that the t he formation of junctures depends upon upo n different different stages st ages of action — commencement, commencement, success, certainty certainty of success and attainmen attainmentt of fruit. fruit. Indian Indian ācāryas endeavour, prospect of success, call them as mukha sandhi, prati-mukh—sandhi , garbha-sandhi, avamar vimar śa or vimar śa sandhi sandhi and nirvahan-sandhi . nirvahan-sandhi . Kuntaka includes includes san sandhidhi- vinive vinive śa (arrangement of junctures) among the sub-varieties of pra of prakar karana-v ana-vakr akrat at ā. He says that the junctures should be arranged in accordance with the rasa and the matter matt er should sho uld be modified modified accordingl accord ingly y. If the t he results are excellent, excellent, Kuntaka would not bother about rules. He says that the poet should not have excessive craze for observing rules even when when the junctures are inopportune, inoppo rtune, provided pro vided the episode reveals re veals a unique charm of originality. originality. The canonists hold that t hat the junctures should be utilized utilized in the architectonics of the plot if that contributes co ntributes to the successful management management thereof. But if it it constructs the flow flow of the plot, then t hen alteration alteration can be restored to t o at the t he writer’s writer’s discretion. discretion. That T hat is, the junctures are not to t o be compi co mpiled led with merely merely for for the t he sake of conf co nformity ormity with the authority of the rules. The canonists canonists prescribe that where two junctures have to be śa are to be ignored; abandoned, garbha abandoned, garbha and and vimar ignored; where three junctures are to t o be left out, prati-mukha prati-mukha, garbha and garbha and vimar abandoned. The paramount constraints co nstraints upon śa should be abandoned. the writer, what Kuntaka Kuntak a has already emphasized upon, is that he should be always subservient to a unique charm and and accordingly, accordingly, the junctures are never to t o be contrived at the cost of o f the composition. The obli o bliquity quity of juncture can be seen in the play, play, Abhijnanashakuntalam. Abhijnanashakuntalam.The The play begins begins with with the benedic benediction. tion. At the end of the prelude, prelude, Dushyan Dushyanta, ta, hero ofdhirodatta ofdhirodatta class, class, begins begins the play play.. The mukha-sandhi commences mukha-sandhi commences and ends with Act II. It brings brings together the hero and the t he heroine and love strikes root roo t in the hearts of o f both. Their union in marriage marriage is the final final object, and the who whole le machinery machinery is is to be directed direct ed towards to wards its achievement. The ground gr ound for the seed see d is prepared when the t he Yaikhanasha Yaikhanasha says to the t he King”May you get a son” and it is cast when he further tells the King King about the t he departure departu re of Kanva Rishi Rishi “just having having entrusted to his daughter, Shakuntala” Shakuntala” The The prati The prati-mukha -mukha-sand -sandhi hi commences with the interac interaction tion between between the King King and Madhavya Madhavya,, king’ king’ss confi confidential dential compani companion on when when the former former conside considers rs the latter unfortunate unfortunat e for not seeing the beatiful Shakuntala Shakunt ala and terminates with the close of the Act III. We We have the bindu (the drop) in that the stream of the main main action, though obstructed obstr ucted by such incidents as the talk about the t he chase, the double do uble call of duty requiring the King’s attendance on the queen mother and his presence at the hermitage to ward off the

obstacles to the t he holy rites and pro-ceeds pro-c eeds unhindered, unhindered, as is impl implied ied by the words of the King 40


“Madhavya, “Madhavya, You You have not seen the fruit of your eyes.” We have the yatna yatna (endeavour) for the princi principal pal end when the King King says says to Vidusha idushaka ka n the Act II, “ Friend Friend,, some some of the sages have have recognized me , think therefore, under what pretext pret ext I may again visit visit the hermitage. hermitage.”” The garbha garbha-san sandhi dhi (catastasis) (catastasis) takes up the whole of Act IV and extends as far far as the instructions instructions passed passed by Gautami Gautami to Shakun Shakuntal talaa when the king king refuses refuses to recogni recognize ze her in the fifth fifth Act. It consists of the curse of Durvasas which which mars mars the hope of success which, which, however, is still still presen presentt in the words of Ka Kanv nvaa who who says says to Shakun Shakuntal talaa in the fAct fAct IV, IV, “Placed “Placed in the the honorab honorable le position position of the wife wife of a husband husband of a noble birth…..you birth…..you will will not min mind d the separation from me.” The avamar vimarsha-sandhi(peripateia) spreads over the remainder remainder of the śa or vimarsha-sandhi(peripateia) Act V and the whole of the Act VI. Here the certain certain attainment attainment of the desired end is is thwarted thwar ted by the curse curs e of Duvasas taking effect and the King’s King’s becoming oblivious oblivious of his marriage with Shakuntala. Shakunt ala. The way to t o the final final catastro catas trophe, phe, however, is is paved by the invitation invitation of Indra. The nirvahan-sandhi (catastrophe) nirvahan-sandhi (catastrophe) occupies the last Act wherein the various diverging diverging incidents incidents converge to one o ne end,viz., end, viz., the happy happ y union union of o f the King with with his Queen and son.

vakra t ā ā (compositional obliquity) 3.3.6 Prabandha- vakrat Prabandha- vakrat ā (compositional (compo sitional obliquity) is the last last variety of vakrat ā (obliquity). This variety is said to bear the t he beauty of o f the combined complex of the five varieties — varna-vinyā sa-vakrat ā (phonetic obliquity), pada-p ūrvārddha-vakrat ā ( lexical obliquity), pada-par obliquity), pada-par ārddha-vakrat ā (grammatical obliquity), vākya-vakrat ā (sentential obliquity), prakarana-vakrat obliquity), prakarana-vakrat ā (episodic obliquity). These sub-varieties sub-var ieties may be stated in the following way : rasāntara-vakrat ā (obliquity of changing the rasa) rasa) ,. ,. samā pana-vakrat ā (obliquity of winding winding up the story), stor y), kathā-viccheda-vakrat ā (obliquity of intending end), anusāE gika-phal-va gika- phal-vakrat krat ā (obliquity of contingent objective), nāmakarana-vakrat ā (obliquity of title), and tulya-kathā-vakrat ā (obliquity of identical subject). Rasāntara-vakrat ā (obliquity of changing the rasa) rasa) is the soul of the whole kāvya. All the episodes of o f plot are organized in accordance with the principal principalan an gī rasa rasa (dominant emotion) and, likewise, likewise, the whole who le story is constructed. construct ed. This may cause a monotony monoto ny in in the expression. expression. Hence, the t he writer, in in order to t o prevent the t he monotony of expression, expression, alters the determined rasa by rasa by changing the events. This aesthetic change requires an extraordinary compositional compos itional skill. skill. Regarding this vakratā, Kuntaka says that when a poet, po et, ignoring ignoring the determined rasa makes rasa makes a provisi pro vision on of another anot her rasa so rasa so as to make his work delightful, d elightful, we have this sub-variety of prabandha-vakrat of prabandha-vakrat ā. Needless to say, that rasa is the soul of composition composition and for the sake of its unhampered unhampered overfl o verflow, ow, the poet poe t arranges the t he whole plot. He, being inspired inspired by the desire of novelty nove lty,, sometim so metimes es makes such a remarkable change in the source story stor y that it starts start s reverberating with alluring alluring charm and delight. delight. Such an arrangement a rrangement or change has not only a natural power of persuasion and of giving pleasure but also the marvellous marvellous power of exalting exalting the soul so ul and swaying swaying the hearts heart s of men. In other o ther words, wo rds, it can be said that this t his sub-variety sub-variety underlines how the change ofrasa of rasa contributes contributes to the consumm co nsummation ation 41


of an gīrasa poe t makes a provision of other rasas in rasas in his kāvya gīrasa. Kuntaka holds that a talented poet only to achieve this objective. object ive. Ānandavardhana’s postulation of ang ī r asa in a long poem of īrasa narrative variety is the same device. Its function also is to overwhelm the sahr the sahrdaya daya (the sensitive sensitive reader) after he has finished finished the composition. From the very nature and magnitude magnitude of o f the composition, it stands to reason that there should be be plurali plurality ty of rasas in rasas in the narrative so as to assist the overfl o verflow ow of the an gīrasa ot her rasas are rasas are delineated in a manner that gīrasa. But if the other impairs the relish of the angirasa and emotional complex, we have artistic demerit. The canonists have, accordingl accor dingly y, identified a relationship between betw een different different rasas some rasas some of which, are mutuall mutu ally y agreeable and some disagreeable. Kuntaka Kunta ka includes only the mutuall mutu ally y agreeable rasas in rasas in this sub-variety of vakratā. These rasas can rasas can be designated designate d as friendlyrasas friendly rasas . . Simi Similarly larly the mutually mutu ally disagreeable rasas can rasas can be designated as hostil host ilee rasas. rasas. This naturally natur ally means that in a poem, it is the friendly rasas which rasas which should should be accommodated so as to augment and strengthen the an gī rasa. rasa. Keats’s The Eve Of St Agnes can Agnes can exemplify exemplify this sub-variety. Here the biting cold, the dancing of revellers, the howling of the wind, the silence and gloo gloom m of the long long corridors co rridors of o f the immense immense castle are all suggestive of suspense. This T his atmosphere is replete with the strokes str okes of bhayânaka rasa. rasa. Thereafter, the adbhuta rasa is rasa is produced when Porphyro sees Madeline, Madeline, ‘ so pure of a thing, so free from mort mortal al taint’ and kneeling down, grows gro ws faint. faint. The atmosphere at mosphere enhances the warmth of love that exists between two lovers when they both are lost in their own exquisite world of love. Keats describes this love-laden love-laden scene in the poem po em when both the lovers meet in the night. Samā pana-vakrat pana-vakrat ā (obliquity (obliquity of winding winding up the story) deals deals with the writer to the partic particul ular ar part of the source for the purpose purpose of achie achievi ving ng the intended ntended end inkāvya. Kuntaka says that when a writer, in order orde r to give g ive up the insipidi insipidity ty of the latter part, pa rt, winds up the story st ory with a particular episode of the source s ource story sto ry,, which determines determines matchlessly matchlessly the character o f the protagonist, prot agonist, we have this sub-variety of prabandh of prabandha-vakrat a-vakrat ā. The writer does so when different different parts part s of the source story sto ry are not equally reli relishable, shable, i. e., the former part pa rt can be more relishable relishable than the latter or o r vice-versa. In such a condition, the t he talented writer, leaving the insipid insipid part of the story sto ry,, picks up the relishable part and expands it for his composition. In it, he aims at the delineation of the protagonist’s excellence. The moment he sees his protagonist, attaini atta ining ng excellence, he win winds ds up the co mposition irresp irrespective ective of the stage stag e of the story. This winding winding up, produces p roduces a kind ofvakrat of vakrat ā in the composition. composition. This obliquity can be seen in Shelley’s Promethe Prometheus us Unbound Unbound . The poet, here, avoids depicting the former part being it insipid. insipid. The subject of the poem, po em, as indicated by the title, is the unbinding unbinding of Prometheus. After After the t he release of Prometheus the real action starts with the hero’s spiritual evolution. Kath Kathā-viccheda-vakrat ā (o bli bliquity quity of inten intendi ding ng end) end) is concer concerne ned d with with the conti conting ngen entt result and contingency or suddenness of result inkāvya. By considering this sub-variety sub-variet y, as one of the important devices of o f composition, Kuntaka has proved pro ved himself himself to be a genuine 42


behold beholder er of beauty beauty.. He says says that a talente talented d writer writer,, in in order to attain attain the excell excellence ence of another another event, uses us es this device. device. This attainment att ainment of excellence is is the intended end. For this, t his, the writer dissects the natural development of the source story and achieves his intended end in the middle of the source so urce story. st ory. He expresses himself that when an event, event , concealing concealing the relation of the source sou rce story stor y, produces prod uces an unhampered fl flow ow ofrasa of rasa and achieves the intended aim, there in the middle only, only, we have this sub-variety sub-va riety of prabandha-vakrat ā. This obliquity is not merely an aesthetic aest hetic imagination; imagination; rather, rat her, it has a psychological effect also as it depends upon up on the contingen cont ingentt result and contingenc co ntingency y or suddenness of result that t hat acts as a stimulant stimulant with with a dramatic effect. Keats’s Endymion Keats’s Endymion is is also one of o f the best best poems po ems to demonstrate demonstr ate this sub-variety of prabandha prabandha-vakr -vakrata ata (co (compositional mpositional obliquity). obliquity). The poem po em is based upon the cclassical lassical episode episode of the love of moon-goddess, Cynthia, for a shepherd-prince. According to this classical story, story, Cynthia Cynthia descends descends from heaven to kiss her beloved Endymion who is sleeping in everlasting sleep. This is is bare circumstance on o n which Keats’s Keats’s imagination imagination works. wo rks. In the t he last part of the poem, poem, Endymi Endymion on meets an Indian Indian mai maiden and fal falls in love love with with her. her. They They journey journey through through the air on flying horses and Endymion dreams of Cynthia who appears to him as Moon. The Indian maiden maiden disappears, and Endymion Endymion soon so on finds himself himself once again on Mt. Mt . Latmos. He is pereplexe pereplexed, d, and fails fails to unders understand tand how he can love both Cynthi Cynthia, a, the Moon and and the the Indian Indian maiden. maiden. Here all of a sudd sudden, en, the poet po et achieves achieves the t he aim as all three are identifi identified ed as one o ne and so he closes the story, leaving leaving the rest part untouched. unto uched. This contingent result makes the poem delightful. Anusāngika-phal-vakrat ā (o (o bliquity bliquity of contingent contingent objective) objective) is the result of the protagoni protago nist st ‘s actions actions performed performed and objectives objectives obtained obtained in kāvya. Kuntaka says that a writer begins his work or story with an intention, but the protagonist prot agonist obtains obt ains extra results as his contingent objectives, objectives, unknown in the source story. story. The achievement achievement of such obje o bjectives ctives enhance the excellence excellence of both the protagonist prot agonist and the work. wo rk. Kuntaka defines defines it saying that when the protagonist, protago nist, during his his course of o f action for the proposed propo sed result, is made to obtain o btain different different results of o f the same worth, we have this sub-variety sub-variety of pra of prabandh bandha-va a-vakrat krat ā. This role of protagonist prot agonist , in which he obtains different different results resu lts as his objective along along with that of the intended one, elevates the status of the protagonist and makes the work vibrate with a remarkable strikingness. The secret of this obliquity obliquity lies lies in the inquisitiveness inquisitiveness of human nature. Man loves strangeness because be cause it satisfi sat isfies es the basic demand of human nature — that for a pleas pleasan antt surpr surpris ise. e. A talen talented ted writer writer neve neverr fail fails to recogn recogniz izee this this psyc psychol hologi ogica call fact and, and, there therefo fore re,, he proves pro ves his compositional compos itional skill skill by arranging all the eepisodes pisodes accordingly. accordingly. Keats’s poem, The Eve of St. Agnes exemplifi Agnes exemplifies es this obliquity o bliquity.. Here Her e Madeline does doe s not have only o nly a dream of lover but unites also with him. Conversely, Conversely, Porphyro Porp hyro does not only see Madeline but unites with her. N āmakarana-vakrat ā (obliquity of title) is the oblique oblique use of o f title of a kāvya. Kuntaka holds that the title of kāvya is also replete with a kind of vakratā. He adds that sometim so metimes es 43


even a symbolic symbolic mark or name of the source sou rce story sto ry produces a remarkable beauty. The title of the work attracts att racts the reader due to its striking striking meani meaning. ng. Hence, a great writer entitles his his kāvya in such a way that it vibrates with strikingness, indicating the tilt being given to it. Kuntaka says that the title does not have merely a ceremonial ceremonial purpose. The purpose pu rpose of a good goo d title is to unlock u nlock and underline underline the soul of the work; it enables the reader to know the main idea in either of the ways — symbolic symbolic or literal. literal. In a way, way, it is the skill skill or art of the writer which Kuntaka calls ca lls nāmakarana-vakrat ā. The title of the t he play is Atha is Atha Abhijnanashakuntalam. Abhijnanashakuntalam. Atha is Atha is invariably invariably used at the beginni beginning ng of Sanskrit Sanskrit works as iti is iti is used to mark their close. close. It I t has the additional sense of auspiciousness, having first first emanated from fro m the throat of Brahma along with the sacred sacre d syllable syllable Aum. Aum. Next the word abhijnana in abhijnana in the title t itle signifi signifies es ‘a token t oken of o f recognition ( in the t he play this token of recognition is ring) which is instrumental in bringing about the final recognition of Shakuntala by the King. Thus the title of the play has obliquity which Kuntaka calls namakarana-vakrata (obliquity namakarana-vakrata (obliquity of title). Tulya-kath ā-vakrat ā (obliquity of identical subject) is the last sub-variety of prabandha-vakrat prabandha-vakrat ā. According to Ācā Ācārya Kuntaka, the whole work may be oblique, with new instructions and ways of success. He holds that even when great writers compose co mpose different different literary literary works, wor ks, based on an identical theme, each one of o f them, possesses infini infinite te individual individual beauty. beauty. The The reason is that the poets have their their own approaches to and and view view of looking looking at an identical subject and because beca use of o f their individuality individuality,, they give entirely ent irely a new design. Thus the t he manifestation manifestation of this sub-variety of prabandha-vakrat prabandha-vakrat ā is born out of innate innate and natural state of the writer ’s mind mind and art. art . Compare the t he following following poems po ems to see this t his obliquity. obliquity. Southey’ Southe y’ss “A Vision Vision of Judgement” to Byron’s Byron’s “Vision “Vision of Judgement” Jud gement”written written on the Character of King George III, Wordsworth’ ordswo rth’ s poem, “Peter Bell: A Tale to Shelley’s “Peter the Third”, Boccaccio’s story to Keats’s “Isabella”

3. 4

Let Us Sum Up

Kuntaka was aware of some of the crucial problems pertaining to the language of poetry , whic which h he called called vakrokti (obliquity). vakrokti (obliquity). He made several explanatory but penetrating penet rating contribution on many issues, issues, having a distinct distinct bearing on poetry and poetic p oetic expression, that still still confront modern scholars. Although he does not use the t he terminology of modern criticism, criticism, linguistics linguistics and stylistics, his formulation formulation on on poetry poet ry are seminal, seminal, and in certain respect respect his approach appro ach is more comprehensiv co mprehensive. e.

3 .5

Review Qu Ques tions

1.

Defining vakrokti, describe descr ibe briefly briefly its its nature natu re and kinds.

2.

Elucidate the concept of of vakrokti. 44


3.

Appr Apprec eciiate ate any any poem poem of your choi choice ce in the the li light ght ofVakrokti ofVakrokti Siddhanta.

4.

Write a note ote on on any any two two of of the the fol folllowi owing: i)Varna-viny i)Varna-vinyā sa-vakrat sa-vakrat ā (Phonetic obliquity) ii)Pada-p ūrvārddha-vakrat ā (lexical obliquity), iii)Pada-par ārddha-vakrat ā (grammatical obli o bliquity), quity), iv)P ākya-vakrat ā (sentential obliquity), v)Prakarana-vakrat ā (episodic obliquity) and vi)Prabandha- vakrat ā (compositional obliquity)

3. 8

Bibliography

1.

Kuntaka, Ācārya. Vakroktij ī vitam ed. K. Krishnamoorthi, Dharwar: Dharwar ī vitam University. 1977.

2.

Tiwar Tiwarii, R. R. S. A Criti Critica call Appr Approac oach h to Class Classiical cal Indi Indian an Liter Literatu ature re.. Delhi & Varanasi;Chaukhamba Orantalia. Orant alia. 1984.

3.

Patha Pathak, k, R. S. Obl Oblique Poet Poetry ry in Ind Indiian and and Wester estern n Poeti Poetics cs.. New Del Delhi hi:: Bahr Bahrii Publication Publication Pvt Ltd. 1988.

4.

Sharm Sharma, a, Shr Shrawa awan n K. K. Kunta Kuntaka’ ka’ss Vakrokti akrokti Siddh Siddhant anta: a: Towards owards an an Appre Appreci ciati ation on of English Poetry Poet ry.. Meerut: Shalabh Publishing Publishing House, 2004. 2004 . De,S. K., Sanskrit Poetics, 2 Vols. Calcutta. Calcutta. 1960. 1960. ____________ ____________

45


UNIT-4 ARISTOTLE: THE POETICS (I) Structure 4. 0

Objectives

4. 1

Introduction

4. 2

Views on Poetry 4.2.1

Plato

4.2. 4.2.2 2

Aristotle tle

4.3 4.3

Introd troduc ucti tion on to Aristotl totlee’s Poetics

4. 4

Theory ory of fine arts

4.5

Views on on Poet oetic Truth

4. 6

4.5.1 4.5.1

Poet Poetry ry v/s Histor story y

4.5.2 4.5.2

Poet, Poet, Poe Poetr try y and and Hi Histor story y

4.5.3 4.5.3

Poetr Poetry y is Uni Universa ersall

4.5.4

Poetry Poetry- Pleas Pleasiing and and Appea Appealling ing

Views on Tragedy 4.6.1 4.6.1

Trage ragedy dy as an Im Imitati tation on

4.6.2 4.6.2

Katha athars rsiis or Purg Purgat atiion

4.6.3 4.6.3

Six Six Par Parts ts of Trage ragedy dy

4.6.4 4.6.4

The The D Dra ram mati atic U Uni niti ties es

4.6.5 4.6.5

Uni Unity ofActi ction

4.6.6 4.6.6

Uni Unities ties of Time and and Plac Placee

4.6.7

Arti Artisti sticc Ornam Ornament ent and and Form Form of of Ac Acti tion on

4. 7

Let Us Sum Up

4. 8

Review Questions

4. 9

Bibliography

4. 0

O b j e ct i v e s The objectives objectives of the present unit unit are to : 46


—provide —provide a critic critical al assessm assessment ent of the treatise treatise of Aristotle’ Aristotle’ss The Poetics —focus —focus on the main issues issues poetry and tragedy: tragedy: mime mimesis sis,, catharsi catharsis, s, plot, plot, character character,, unities and function of art.

4. 1

I ntroduction

Aristotle Aristotle (384-322, B. C.) was born at Stagira, in Macedon, where his his father was physici physician an to the king king Amynats Amynats II. Sent to Athens Athens in in 367, he studied under Plato for twenty years. Then after after a period of twelve twelve years, he was appointed appointed by Phil Philip ip of Macedon tutor t o the future Alexander Alexander the great g reat in 342 and seven years later he returned returne d to Athens where he opened a school scho ol in the Lyceum Lyceum grove gro ve outside the city. Hi Hiss extant works wo rks are believed believed to have been been the notes notes he used used for his his lectures. ectures. They They cover cover logic, ogic, ethic ethics, s, metaphy etaphysi sics, cs, phys physic ics, s, zoology zoology,, politics politics,, rhetoric rhetoric and poetics. poetics. Aristotle Aristotle’’s Poetics, Poetics, virtually unknown during the middle middle ages, came into prominence pr ominence in the middle middle of the 16th century and contributed to the rise of neoclassicism. classicism. It has left its mark on the critical writings of Sydney, Sydney, Dryden and Dr. Johnson. Aristotle Aristot le is is believed to have written writt en nearly half a dozen critical treatises, treat ises, of which only two are extant— Poetics Poetics and and Rhet Rhetoric oric,, the former dealing with with the art of poetry and the latter latt er with the art of speaking. Poetics speaking. Poetics,, however, howe ver, deals with many more more problems p roblems than Rhetoric than Rhetoric and has therefore attracted greater attention att ention than the latter. latter. He leaves the reader in no doubt dou bt as to the nature and purpose pu rpose of o f Poetics. It is not a mere enunciation of the principles of the poetic art. Its conclusi conclusions ons are firml firmly y rooted in the Greek Literature, Literature, till till then known, known, and are actually ill illustrat ustrated ed from it. His approach, appro ach, therefore, t herefore, is the scientific scientific one of o f observation and analysis. analysis. Taking Taking the whole body of extant Greek literature, literat ure, Aristotle deduces conclusions co nclusions from it that in varying varying degrees apply to literature as a whole. So they do not necessarily necessarily cover literature produced later and in other countries. There is considerable force in Dryden’s statement concerning the purpose purpo se of tragedy that, had Aristotle Aristotle seen English tragedies, he might might have changed his mind. mind. This is not to t o deny de ny that many of Aristotle’s conclusions on the nature nat ure of o f poetry and drama drama are of general general appli application cation and are as true today as they were were in his his own day. day. His purpose in writing writing Poet Poetics ics and and Rhet Rhetoric oric was to sort so rt out o ut those tho se principles principles from established established practice practice that made made for a good poet and a good orator. orator.

4.2 4.2

Views on on Poetry 4.2.1 Plato

Plato, Plato , the teacher teac her of Aristotle, Aristot le, provides the basis upon which Aristotle’s theory of poetry flourish flourishes. es. Plato, the most most celebrated discipl disciplee of Socrates, holds inthe in the Republic Republic ‘Ideas are the ultimate ultimate reali re ality’. ty’. Things are conceived as ideas before they take practical prac tical shape as things. For example, a tree is nothing more more than t han a concrete embodiment of its its image in in idea. The idea of o f everything everything therefore there fore is its original pattern and t hing hing itself is copy. copy. As copy ever falls short of the origin o riginal, al, it is once removed from reality. reality. Now art—li art —literat terature, ure, painting, 47


sculpture- reproduces but things ‘as mere pastim pastime’, e’, the first in words, tthe he next in colors and the last in stone. So S o it merely copies a copy: it is twice removed from reality. reality. He was perhaps, the first to see se e that all art is imitation imitation or o r mimesis, mimesis, imitating imitating the objects object s of life life or Nature, Nat ure, and that there are two t wo kinds of art-the art- the fine fine arts, like literature, literature, painting, painting, sculpture sculptu re and music which which are indulged in for for mere pleasure and a nd the useful arts like medicine, medicine, agriculture agricultur e and cookery cook ery that cooperate with Nature. This naturally leads Plato to t o consider the function of poetry. Although Although it pleases, mere pleasure, pleasure, he he says, cannot be its object. He cannot conceive conceive of art as divorced divorced from morals. morals. Everywhere Everywhere therefore he suggests truth t ruth as the test of poetry: what contribution it makes to the knowledge of o f virtue. Only in this this way itit could cou ld mould mould character charact er and promote pro mote the interests interest s of the state. stat e. Pleasure, even of the highest kind, ranks low in Plato’ Plato ’s scale of value. A poet is a good go od artist only o nly in so far as he is a goo good d teacher. In a famous passage inThe in The Republ Republic ic he he says, ‘W ‘Wee must look for artists who are able out of o f the goodness of their own natures natures to trace t race the nature of beauty and perfection, that t hat so our young men, like persons who live live in a healthy place, place, may be perpetu perpetual allly inf influenced uenced by good. good. Poetic Poetic truth must be the the highe highest st truthtruth- ideal deal form forms of justic ustice, e, goodness, beauty and the like’.

4.2.2 Aristotle Aristotle was the most distinguished distinguished disciple disciple of Plato who refuted the t he charges framed by his his teacher teacher,, Plato Plato very polit politel ely y. Like Like Plato Plato too, he beli believes eves that there there is a natural natural pleasur pleasuree in imitation imitation which is an inborn instinct in man, man, constituting co nstituting the one o ne difference difference between bet ween him and the lower animals. It is this pleasure pleasur e in imitation imitation that enables the child to learn his earliest earliest lessons lesso ns in speech and conduct co nduct from fro m those around aro und him. him. They are imitated by him because there t here is pleasure in doing so. A poet poe t or an artist a rtist is just a grown gro wn up child indulging indulging in imitation imitation for the pleasure p leasure it affords. But the t he poet’s imitations imitations or picture p icture of life life are not unreal-‘twice unrea l-‘twice removed from reality’reality’as Plato believed. On the co ntrary, they reveal truths of a permanent o r universal kind. kind. To prove prove this this Aristotl Aristotlee insti nstitutes tutes a compari comparison son betwee between n poetry poetry and and history history.. It is not the functi unction on of the poet to t o relate what has happened, but what may happen-what is possible according to the law of probabil proba bility ity or necessity. The poet poe t and the t he historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose. prose. The The true dif difference ference is that one relates relates what what has happened happened,, the other what what may may happen happen.. Poetry Poet ry,, therefore, there fore, is a more philosophical and a higher higher thing than history: for poetry po etry tends to express the universal, universal, history the particular. particular. History records particular particular persons, perso ns, places or things: poetry poe try infuses infuses a universal u niversal appeal into into them by stressing what they t hey have in common common with all persons, all places or all things things in the same set of o f circumstances. The pictures picture s of poetry poe try therefore are not mere reproduction of facts but truths t ruths embedded in in those facts that apply app ly to all places and times. This is the meaning meaning Aristo Aristotle tle gives to imitat imitation; ion; thereby answering Plato’s Plat o’s severest charge against poetry. po etry. The end of the fine art, according to Aristotle’s doctrine, is a certain pleasurable impression impression produced upon up on the mind of the hearer or the spectator. spectato r. Each kind of poetry carries with it a distinctive pleasure pleasur e which is the criterion c riterion by which the work is judged. A tragic trag ic vision vision 48


has an inherent capacity c apacity of call ca lling ing forth pity and fear; t his quality quality must be impressed by the poet on the drama dramati ticc materi material al and and if it is artisti artistical callly done, done, the pecul peculiar iar pleas pleasure ure arisi arising ng out of the the union of the pitiable pitiable and the t he terrible will will be awakened in the mind mind of every one who possesses normal human sympathies sympathies and faculties. The test of o f artistic merit in in a tragedy traged y is the degree deg ree in which it fulfil fulfilss this, its distinctive function. All All the rules prescribed pr escribed by Aristot Aristotle le for the tragic t ragic poet flow from from the same same prima primary ry requi requirementrement-those those whic which h determ determin inee the proper proper construc construction tion of the plot, the charact character er of the ideal hero, the t he best form of recognition and the like. like. The state stat e of pleasurable feeling feeling is not an accidental result, but is inherent inherently ly related to t o the object which w hich calls itit forth. Though Though the pleasure of the t he percipient is necessary to the t he fulfil fulfillment lment of the function of any art, art , the subjective impression impression has in it an a n enduring and universal u niversal element. element.

4.3

Intr Intro odu duct ctio ion n to Aris Aristo totl tle’ e’ss Poetics

Aristotle’s Po Aristotle’s Poeti etics cs is is a treatise of about fifty pages, containing twenty-six small chapters. It gives g ives the impression impression of o f being being a summa su mmary ry of his lectures to t o his disciples, disciples, written either by them or by him. him. It is believed believed to have had a second part, part , which is lost. lost. For, it is incomplete incomplete and omits some of the important questions he himself raises, which were reserved for a fuller treatment in the second part. The first first four chapters and the twenty-fif twenty-fifth th are devoted to to poetry poetry,, the the fif fifth in a gener general al way to comedy comedy,, epic epic and and traged tragedy y, the foll followi owing ng fourteen ourteen excl exclusi usive vely ly to tragedy t ragedy,, the next three to poetic diction, the next two to t o epic poetry, and the last to a comparison of epic poetry and tragedy, which in his day was considered to be the most developed form of poetry. Poetry, comedy and epic come in for consideration because a discussion of tragedy would be incomplete incomplete without some references to its parent and sister forms. Aristotle’s Poetics Aristotle’s Poetics is is a window window to t o peep through t hrough the t he world of criticism and to study st udy deeply, read avidly and discuss endlessly e ndlessly the different genres of literat literature ure especiall esp ecially y tragedy traged y, comedy and epic.

4.4

Theory of Fine arts

The term ‘fine ‘fine art’ is not one o ne that has been transmitted to us from the Greeks. Their phrase phrase wa wass the ‘imi ‘imitati tative ve arts’, arts’, ‘modes ‘modes of imitati mitation’ on’,, or someti sometime mess the the ‘lib ‘libera erall arts’. arts’. ‘Imi ‘Imitati tation’ on’ as the common characteristic of fine fine arts, including including poetry, was not originated by Aristotle. In literat literature ure the t he phrase in this application first first occurs o ccurs in Plato, though, thoug h, not improbably improbably,, it may have been already current in popular po pular speech as marking the antithesis antithe sis between fine fine art and a nd industrial production. product ion. The Platonic view that the real world is a weak or imperfect repetition repetit ion of an ideal archetype led to the t he world of reality bei being ng regarded in a special sense, and on a stil st illl lower plane, as world of mere mere imitation. imitation. Aristot Aristotle, le, as his his manner was, accepted the current phrase and interpreted interpreted it anew. anew. The The artist may ‘imitate ‘imitate things things as they ought to be’; he may place place before before him him an unreal unrealize ized d ideal. ideal. A work of art is a likeness or reproduction of an original and not a symbolic representation of it; and this holds good whether the artist draws from a model in in the real world or o r from an unrealized unr ealized ideal in in the mind. mind. The distinction may be shown sho wn by Aristotle’ Aristot le’ss own 49


illustrations. illustrations. A sign sign or symbol symbol has no essential resemblance, resemblance, no natural nat ural connection with tthe he thing signified. signified. Thus spoken wo words rds are symbols of mental mental states, stat es, written writte n words are symbols of spoken words; wo rds; the connection between them t hem is is conventi co nventional. onal. On the o ther hand mental impressions are not signs s igns or symbols, but copies cop ies of external reality, reality, likeness of the things themselves. themselves. In the act of o f sensuous perception objects stamp st amp upon the mind an impress of themselves like like that of a signet ring, and the picture pict ure so engraved engr aved on the memory is compared to a portra po rtrait. it. Thus the creations creatio ns of art are, as it were, pictures which exist for for the t he ‘phantasy’. ‘To imitate imitate nature’, nature ’, in the popular acceptance accepta nce of the phrase, p hrase, is not for Aristot Aristotle le the function of fine art. The actual objects of aesthetic imitation are threefold: the characteristic moral qualities, the permanent disposition dispositio n of the mind, mind, which reveals a certain condition of the will; will; the more transien tra nsientt emotions, e motions, the passing moo moods ds of feeling; feeling; actions in their proper pro per and inward inward sense. An act viewed merely merely as an external process or result, one of o f a series of outward pheno phenom mena, ena, is not the true objec objectt of aesth aestheti eticc imitati mitation. on. ‘Men ‘Men in acti action’ on’ are the objec objects ts imi imitated tated by the fine fine arts: by all all and not merely merely by dramatic dramatic or narrative narrative poetry where where action is more obviously represented. Everything that expresses the mental life, that reveals a rational person personal aliity, ty, wil will fall all with within in thi this larger arger sens sensee of ‘acti ‘action’ on’.. Such Such acti actions ons are are not not neces necessa sari rily lyproce processses ses extending exte nding over a period pe riod of time: t ime: they the y may may realize themselves in a single moment; they may be summed up in a particular moo mood, d, a given situation.

4.5

Views on on Poetic Truth

What is true of fine art in general is explicitly explicitly asserted by Aristo Aristotle tle of poetry poet ry alone, to which in a unique manner it applies. Poetry expresses expre sses most adequat a dequately ely the universal universal element in human nature and in life. life. As a revelation of the universal it it abstracts abst racts from human life life much that is accidental. It liberate liberatess us from the tyranny of physical physical surroundings. surround ings. It can disregard material needs and animal longings. Thought disengages itself from sense and makes itself supreme over things outward. ‘It is not the function function of o f the poet’, says Aristotle, Aristotle, ‘to relate what has happened, but what may happen-what is possible according to the law of probability or necessity’. The poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose. The true difference is that one relates what has happened, the other what may happen. The first distinguishi distinguishing ng mark, then, of poetry poet ry is that it has a higher subject matter than t han history: history: it expresses the universal, not the particular part icular,, the permanent per manent possibilities possibilities of human human nature, it does do es not merely tell the story st ory of the individual individual life. life. History is based upon facts and with these it is primari pr imarily ly concerned; poetry poet ry transforms its facts into into truths. tru ths.

4.5.1 Poet Poetry ry v/s v/s Hist Histor ory y The whole tenor and purpose of The Poetics makes Poetics makes it abundantly clear that poetry po etry is not a mere reproduction reprod uction of empirical empirical fact, fact, a picture p icture of life life with all its trivialities trivialities and accidents. The world world of the possible whi which ch poetry poetr y creates is more intelligent intelligent than t han the world wor ld of experience. The poet presents permanent and eternal facts, free from the elements of unreason which disturb our comprehension of real events and of o f human conduct. In fashioning fashioning his material material he 50


may transcend nature, but he may not contradict her; he must not be disobedient to her habits and principles. principles. He may recreate the t he actual, but he must avoid avo id the lawless, the fantastic, and the impossible. impossible. Poetic truth trut h passes the bounds bou nds of reality reality,, but it does not wantonly violate violate the laws which make make the real rea l world rational. Thus poetry poe try in virtue virtue of its higher subject-matter subject-matte r and of the closer and more organic union of its parts acquires an ideal unity unity that history never possesses; for the prose p rose of o f life life is never wholly wholly elimin eliminated ated from a record recor d of actual actua l facts.

4.5.2 4.5 .2 Poet, Poet, Poe Poetry try and and Histo History ry Aristotle first first considers the nature of the poetic art. Foll Fo llowing owing Plato, he calls the poet an imitator, imitator, like a painter painter or o r any other ot her artist who imitates imitates one of three objects-‘things as they were or are, things as they are said or thought to be, or things t hings as they ought to t o be’: in other words, what is past or present, prese nt, what is commonly commonly believ believed ed and what is ideal. ideal. Like Like Plato too, to o, he believes that there is a nat ural pleasure pleasur e in imitation imitation which is an inborn instinct in man, constituting the t he one difference difference between bet ween him and the lower animals. animals. It is this pleasure in imi imitation tation that enables ena bles the child child to learn his earliest earliest lessons lesso ns in speech and conduct co nduct from those around him. him. They are imitated by him because because there is pleasure in doing so. A poet or an a n artist is just a grown gro wn up child indulging indulging in imitation imitation for the pleasure p leasure it affords. affords. But the t he poet’s imitations imitations or picture picture of life life are not unreal unreal-‘t -‘twi wice ce removed removed from from realit reality’ y’-- as Plato Plato beli believed. eved. On the contrary contrary,, they reveal truths of o f a permanent or universal kind. kind. To prove this Aristotle Aristotle institut institutes es a comparison between between poetry and and history history.. It is not the function unction of the poet to rel relate ate what has happene happened, d, but what may happen-what is possibl poss iblee according accord ing to the law of probabil pro bability ity or necessity. necessity. The poet and the historian histo rian differ differ not by writing in in verse or in prose. pro se. The true tr ue difference difference is that one o ne relates what has happened, t he other what may happen. Poetry, Po etry, therefore, is a more philosop philosophical hical and a higher thing than history: history: for poetry po etry tends to t o express the universal, universal, history the particular. particular. History records recor ds particular persons, perso ns, places or things: poetry poet ry infuses infuses a universal appeal into them by stressing what they t hey have in common common with all persons, all places places or o r all things things in the same set of circumstances. circumstances. The pictures o off poetry therefore are not mere reproduction of facts but truths embedded embedded in those facts facts that apply apply to all all places places and times. times.

4.5.3 Poet Poetry ry is is Unive Universa rsall ‘Poetry ‘Poet ry is more philoso philosophical phical and a higher thing than history’, and ‘higher in scale’, not ‘more serious’, se rious’, for the wo rds apply even to comedy co medy nor again ‘more ‘more moral’, mora l’, which is quite alien alien to the t he context- and the reason of the higher worth of poetry po etry is that it approaches nearer to the universal, which itself itself derives its value from being being a ‘manifestatio ‘manifestation n of the cause’ cau se’ or first principle of things. Poetry Poe try in striving to give universal form form to its own o wn creations creat ions reveals a higher truth than history and on that account accou nt is nearer to philosop philosophy hy.. But though tho ugh it has a philosophi philosophical cal character it is not phil philosophy: osophy: ‘It tends tends to express express the universal universal’. ’. Philosophy Philosophy seeks to discover the universal in the particular, particular, its end is to know and to possess the truth t ruth and in that possession it reposes. repose s. The aim of poetry is to represent the universal through through the particular, particular, to give give a concrete and the living living embodiment embodiment of a universal trut truth. h. The universal of poetry is not 51


an abstract idea, it is particularized particularized to t o sense, it comes before the mind mind clothed in the form of o f the concrete, concrete , presented under the appearance a ppearance of a living living organism whose parts are in vital vital and structural relation to the whole.

4.5. 4 Poetry Poetry-- Pleasing Pleasing and and Appea Appealin ling g The function of poetry as of the other fine arts is to please. Hence poetry should be pleasi pleasing ng both to the poet and and the reader. reader. Besi Besides, des, poetry poetry makes makes an immedi immediate ate appeal appeal to the emotion. Taking Taking tragedy as the highest form of poetry, he says says that it arouses aro uses the emotions of pity pity and fear-p fear-piity at the undese undeserve rved d suffe sufferi rings ngs of the hero hero and fear fear of the worst worst that that may may befa befall ll him. These emotions are aroused with a view to their purgation or catharsis. Everybody has occasions of o f fear and pity in lif life. e. In tragedy t ragedy where the t he sufferings sufferings we witness are not our o ur own, o wn, these emotions emot ions find find a fuller and free free outlet, o utlet, relieving relieving the soul so ul of their excess. It is this that pleas pleases es in a tragic tragic tale tale which which normal normally ly will will be painf painful ul.. Viewed ewed in this this light ight tragedy tragedy is an art that transmutes these t hese disturbing emotions into what Milton Milton calls ‘calm of mind, mind, all passion spent’. So the t he emotional appeal of poetry po etry is not harmful harmful as Plato believed believed but health-giving health-giving and artisticall art istically y satisfying.

4.6 4.6

Views on Tragedy

Poetry Poet ry,, being an imitative imitative art, can imitate imitate two tw o kinds of action: the t he noble actions of good men or the mean actions of bad men. From the former was born t he epic and from the latter the satire. ‘The graver spirits imitated imitated noble actions and the actions of goo d men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of meaner persons, at first composing satires as the former did hymns to the gods and the praises of famous men’. From these in turn arose tragedy and comedy, the graver sort practicing pra cticing the former and satirists the latter. For tragedy trag edy bears bears the the same same relation relation to the epic as comedy comedy to the satire. satire. It follow followss theref therefore ore that the epic and tragedy are superior to t o the t he satire and comedy which which concern themselves with with the t he mean actions of low men. Between themselves themselves tragedy according to Aristotle is superior to the epic, having all the epic elements in a shorter short er compass, with moreover music and spectacular specta cular effects which the epic does not have and being more compact co mpact in design. According to Aristotle, ‘Tragedy is an imitation imitation of an action that is serious, complete and of a certain cert ain magnitude; in languag languagee embellished embellished with each kind of artistic artist ic ornament, t he several kinds being being found in separate separa te parts of the play, in in the play in the form of action, not no t of o f narrative, through throug h pity and and fear effecting effecting the proper katharsis k atharsis or purgation purg ation of these emotion’. By ‘language embellished’ embellished’ Aristotle Aristo tle means language languag e into which rhythm, harmony harmo ny and song enter. By ‘the several kinds of separate parts’, Aristot Aristotle le means that some parts are rendered through the t he medium medium of verse alone, others o thers again with the aid of song. so ng. By serious action Aristot Aristotle le means a tale t ale of suffering exciting pity and fear. Action comprises co mprises all human activities including deeds, thoughts and feelings. It should be complete or self contained, with a beginning, a middle middle and an end. A beginning beginning is that before which the audience or the t he reader does do es not need to be told anything anything to understand the story sto ry.. If something more more is required to understand the 52


story sto ry than the beginning gives, the beginning is unsatisfactory. unsatisfactory. From Fro m it it follows events that would not follow otherwise and that constitute const itute the middle. In their their turn they lead to those other o ther events that cannot but bu t issue from them and that lead to none no ne others after them. t hem. They form the end. If in any play play the beginning can be put in the middle middle or at the end, end , or the middle at the beginnin beginning g or the end, end, or the the end end at the begin beginnin ning g or in in the middl middle, e, the action or plot plot is not complete or one whole (i.e. well-knit) well-knit) but haphazard or loose. Compl Co mpleteness eteness implies implies organic unity or a natural sequence of events that t hat cannot be disturbed. disturbed.

4.6.1 Tragedy as an Imitation In The Rhetoric Ari Rhetoric Aristotle stotle observes o bserves that if a sentence has meter it will be poetry poet ry,, but this is said said in a popular way. The general question whether meter is necessary necessar y for for poetical po etical expression has been raised by many modern critics and poets poet s and has sometim so metimes es been answered in the negative as by Sidney, Sidney, Shelley and Wordswo Wordsworth. rth. In few, few, a work of art is an image image of the impressions impressions or o r ‘phantasy picture’ made by an independent reality upon the mind mind of the artist; a rtist; the reality rea lity thus reflecte reflected d being the facts of o f human life life and human natu nature. re. To this we must make one addition whic w hich h contains the central thought thoug ht of Aristot Aristotle’ le’ss doctrine. do ctrine. Imitative art in its highest form, namely poetry, poe try, is is an expression expres sion of the universal element in human human life. life. ‘Imitation’, in the sense in which which Aristotle Aristotle applies the word to poetry is thus seen to be equivalent equivalent to t o ‘producing’ ‘produc ing’ or ‘creating according to a true idea’, which forms part of the definition of art in general. ‘Imitation’, ‘Imitation’, so understoo under stood d is a creative act. It is the expression of the concrete thing under an image which answers to its true tr ue idea. To seize the universal and to reproduce reprod uce it in simple simple and sensuous form is not to reflect reflect a reality reality already famil familiar iar through sense perception; rather it is a rivalry rivalry of nature, a completion of her unfulfill unfulfilled ed purposes, purpo ses, a correction co rrection of o f her failures. failures. The essence of the poetry po etry is ‘imitation’; ‘imitation’; the melody melody and the t he verse are the t he ‘seasoning’ of the language. They hold a place similar similar to that t hat which ‘external go goods’ ods’ occupy in the Aristo Aristotelian telian definition definition of happiness. Without them a tragedy tr agedy may fulfi fulfill ll its its function, but would wou ld lack its perfect char charm m and fail in in producing prod ucing its full effect effect of pleasurable emotion. e motion. Imitative I mitative or Fine Art in its highest manifestation manifestation namely Poetr Poetry y, is an expression expr ession of the universal element element in human life. life. In other o ther words, it is an idealized idealized image image of o f human life-character, life-character, emotion, emot ion, action-under forms manifest manifest to sense.

4.6.2 Katharsis or Purgation The tragic tr agic katharsis kathar sis involves involves not only o nly the idea of an emotional relief, but the further idea of the purifying purifying of the emotions so reli r elieved. eved. In accepting accept ing this interpret interpretation ation we do not ascribe to tragedy t ragedy a direct moral purpose pur pose and influence. Tragedy, Tragedy, according acco rding to the t he definition, definition, acts on o n the feelings, feelings, not on the will. will. It does not no t make men better, though it removes cert ain hindrances to virtue. The T he refining refining of passion pa ssion under temporary t emporary and artificial artificial excitement excitement is stil st illl far distant from fro m mora morall improvement improvement.. Aristo Aristotle tle would wou ld probably pro bably admit admit that indirectly the drama has a moral influence in enabling the emotional system to throw off some perilous stuff, certain elements elements of o f feeling, feeling, which, if left to themselves, themselves, might develop dangerous energy and impede 53


the free play of those vital functions functions on which the exercise of virtue depends. The excitation of noble emotions emotion s will will probably in time exert an effect up upon on the will. But whatever what ever may be the indirect indirect eff e ffect ect of o f the repeated rep eated operations opera tions of the kathrasis, kat hrasis, we may confidently say that Aristotle in his definition definition of tragedy is thinki t hinking, ng, not of any such remote remot e result, but of o f the immediate immediate end of the art, ar t, of the aesthetic function it fulfil fulfils. s. The tragic tr agic kathrasis requires that t hat suffering suffering shall be exhibited exhibited in one of its comprehensive comprehensive aspects, that t hat the deeds d eeds and fortunes of o f the actors shall attach attac h themselves themselves to large issues and the spectator specta tor himself be lifted lifted above the special case and brought brou ght face to face with universal law law and the t he divine divine plan of the world. A well constructed plot should, therefore, be single single in its its issue rather than do double uble as some maintain. maintain. The change of fortune should be not from bad to goo g ood, d, but reversely from good to bad. It should come about as the result not of vice but of some some great error err or or frailty in in a character either such as we have described described or better rather than worse. The unhappy ending is the only right ending, for it is the t he most tragic t ragic in its effect. A happy ending may please us more but it will not afford the true tragic pleasure- that aroused arou sed by the emotions of pity and fear. fear. There are two ways in which which these emotions may be be arousedaro used- by spectacular means or mere theatrical effects, effects, such as physical physical torture, piteous lamentation, lamentation, beggarly appearance and so on and by the inner inner structure stru cture of o f the plot such as a bro brother ther unknowingl unkno wingly y killi killing ng brother brot her and discovering the fact later, or intending intend ing good and doing do ing evil or a little error visited by a too heavy punishment punishment and so on. It is this latte latterr mode that indicates a superior poet . ‘For the plot ought to t o be so constructed co nstructed that t hat even without the aid of the eye, he who hears the tale told will will thrill horror horro r and melt melt to t o pity at what takes t akes place’. This is the impression impression we should receive from hearing hearing the story sto ry of the Oedipus. But to produce this effect effect by mere spectacle is a less artistic method method and dependent on extraneous extr aneous aids. Those who employ employ spectacular means to create a sense not of the t errible errible but only of the monstrous monstrous are strangers to the purpo se of Tragedy, Tragedy, for we must not demand d emand of Tragedy Tragedy any and every kind of pleasure, but o nly that which is is proper pro per to it. And And since the pleasure which w hich the poet should afford afford is that which comes from pity and fear through imitation, imitation, it is evident that this quality quality must be impressed upon upo n the incidents. Let us then t hen determine determine what are the circumstances which strike us as terrible or pitif p itiful. ul. Actions capable of this effect must happen between persons perso ns who are either friends friends or o r enemies or indifferent indifferent to one o ne another. anot her. If an enemy kills kills an enemy, enemy, there there is nothing to excite e xcite pity either in the act or the the intention-except intention-exc ept so s o far as the t he suffering in itself is pitiful. pitiful. So again ag ain with indifferent indifferent persons. But when the tragic incident incident occurs between those who are near near or dear to one anotheranot her- if for example, a brother kills or intends to kill a brother, a son his father, father, a mother her son, a son his mother or any other deed o f the kind is is done-these are the t he situations to be looked for by the poet.

4.6.3 Six Parts of Tragedy Aristotle finds six constituent parts in tragedy: Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, 54


Spectacle Spect acle and Song. Two of the parts constitute const itute the medium of imitation, imitation, one o ne to the manner and three the t he objects of imitation. imitation. The T he plot is the imi imitat tation ion of the action and the arrangement of the incidents is the chief part of o f tragedy. tragedy. For tragedy t ragedy is an imitation, imitation, not of o f men, men, but of o f action and of life and life consists in action. For Comedy aims is at representing men as worse, Tragedy as better bett er than tha n in actual life. life. Character determines men’s men’s qualities, but it is by their actions that they are happy or the reverse. r everse. Dramatic actions, therefore, is not with a view view to the representation represent ation of character: character characte r comes in as subsidiary subsidiary to the actions. Hence the incidents and the plot are the end of a tragedy and the end is the chief thing of all. To the question whether plot makes a tragedy t ragedy or character, Aristot Aristotle le replies replies that without action there cannot be a tragedy trag edy,, there may be be without character. The tragedies of most of our modern poets fail fail in the renderin rendering g of character character and of poets in in general this is often true. Tragedy Tragedy is written not no t merely to imitate men but to imitate men in action. It is by their deeds performed before before our very very eyes eyes that that we know them rather rather than by what what poet, as in the epic, epic, tells tells of them. them. Hence it is these deeds or incidents incidents woven wo ven in the plot that matter more than their character. charact er. Since, however, deeds deed s issue issue from character, character cha racter is next only in iimportance mportance to t o plot. The plot, then, then, is the first first princi principl plee and as it were, were, the soul of tragedy. tragedy. Chara Character cter holds holds the second second place. place. A simi simila larr fact fact is seen in paintin painting. g. The most beautif beautiful ul colors colors laid laid on confusedl confusedly y will will not give as much pleasure as the chalk outline outline of a portrait. Thus, Tragedy is the imitation imitation of an action and of the agents mainly mainly with a view to the action. Third in order is Thought, Thoug ht, that t hat is the faculty of saying saying what is possible pos sible and pertinent pert inent in given circumstances. circumstances. In the case of oratory orato ry this is the function function of the poli po litical tical art and of the art of rhetoric rhetor ic and so indeed the older poets make their characters speak the t he language of civic civic life, life, the poets po ets of our o ur time, and the language of o f the rhetoricians. Character is that which reveals moral purpose, showing what kind of things a man man chooses or avoids. Speeches, t herefore, herefore, which do not make this manifest, manifest, or in which the speaker does d oes not choose choo se or avoid anything whatever are not expressive of character. character. Thought, Thought , on the other o ther hand, is found where something something is proved to be or not no t to t o be or a general maxim maxim is is enunciated. Fourth among the elements enumerated comes c omes is Diction. Diction is the expression of the meaning in in words and its essence is the same both in verse and prose and includes the following following partspart s- letter, syllable, syllable, connecting co nnecting word, noun, verb, inflex inflexion, ion, case, sentence, and phrase. Of the remaining remaining elements the t he Song So ng holds the chief place place among the embellishments. embellishments. The Spectacle Spect acle has indeed indeed an emotional attraction attr action of its own, but of all the parts, it is the least artistic, and connected co nnected least with the art of o f poetry. For the power po wer of Tragedy, Tragedy, we may be sure, is felt felt even apart from representations and actions. Besides the production o f spectacular effects effects depends more on o n the art of the stage machini machinist st than on that o f poet.

4.6.4 The Dramatic Unities 4.6.4.1 Unity of Action

The only o nly dramatic unity enjoined by Aristotle is Unity of A Action. ction. It is strange that this 55


should still still need to be repeated. So inveterate, however, is a literary literary tradition, once o nce it has been established established under the sanction of high authority that we still find find the ‘Three Unities’ spoken of in popular writings as a rule of The Poetics. Poetics. It should have first first unity of action or o only nly those actions and not no t all in the life life of the hero which are intimately intimately connected with w ith one another anot her and appear together tog ether as one whole, ‘the structural union of the parts is being such that, if any any one of them is displaced displaced or o r removed, the whole will be disjoined disjoined and disturbed’. There may be many more actions act ions in life life of the hero - there are in every man’s man’s life life - but bu t unless they t hey have something to do d o with the tragedy t ragedy that befalls befalls him, him, they are not relevant to t he plot and will all all have to be kept out. ‘For a thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference, is not an organic part of the whole’. who le’. It follows, follows, therefore, t herefore, that the events comprising the plot will will concern only one man and not more. For Fo r if they concern concer n more than one man, there will be no necessary necessa ry connection between betwee n them, them, as the actions act ions of one man man cannot be put down do wn to another. Their introduction introduction in the same story sto ry must therefore disturb its unity. When When all the actions of the same sa me man cannot be included included in the plot, p lot, what sense s ense can there be in incl including uding actions of the other man, between which and the former ones there t here can be no inevitable inevitable link even if if there were simil similarity? arity? For the same reason the t he episodic plots plots are the worst, wo rst, i.e. those in which which episodes or events follow one another anot her in mere mere chronological order without pro bable bable or necessary sequence. 4.6.4.2 4.6.4. 2 Unities of Time and Place

Aristotle Aristot le once mentions what has co me to be called the unity of time. time. Tragedy, he says, endeavors endeavo rs as far as possible, to confine itself itself to a single revolution of the sun, or but slightly to exceed this t his limi limit, t, whereas wh ereas the t he epic action actio n has no limit limit of o f time. From this the older olde r critics critics were led to believe believe that for a good go od tragic t ragic plot plot it was necessary to select an event or o r events that happened within within twenty four hours hour s or so in life, life, so that t hat when represented in about one-fourth one-fourt h of that time on the stage they may not appear unnatural, as they t hey would if if the plottime were longer. longer. But Aristotle nowhere insists insists on o n this as a condition co ndition of good goo d plot. He merely states the t he prevailing prevailing practice practice but is not unaware of the t he fact that, in this particular matter, matter, at first first the same freedom was admitted in tragedy traged y as in epic poetry. The unity of place which was deduced deduce d as a corollary coro llary from the so-called unity of time is not mentioned at all. So much was made of these two unities in the centuries centu ries following following the Renaissance that it is import important ant to mention mention here that t hey do not appear among the essentials essentials of a good go od plot mentioned mentioned by Aristotle. Aristot Aristotle’ le’ss conception concept ion of the unity of plan essential to the t he drama could not be much better better summ summed up than than in the foll followi owing ng extra extract ct from from J.R Lowel Lowell’ l’s, s,The The Old English Dramatists: Dramatists: In a play we not only expect a succession of scenes, but that each scene should lead, by a logic ogic more or less stringe stringent, nt, if not to the next, next, at any any rate to someth somethiing that that is to follow ollow and and that all should contribute their fraction of o f impulse impulse towards toward s the inevitable inevitable catastrophe. catast rophe. That T hat is to say, say, the structur st ructuree should be organic, with a necessary and harmonious connection and relations of parts and not merely mechanical, with an arbitrary or haphazard joining of one part to 56


another. It is in the former sense alone that any production produ ction can be called called a work of art. art . (The (The Old English Dramatists,55) Dramatists,55) The general gene ral law of unity laid laid down in The Poetics for Poetics for an epic poem is almost almost the same as for the drama, but the drama forms a more more compact co mpact and serried whole. Its events are in more direct relation with the development development of character; its incidents incidents are never incidents incidents and nothing more. The sequence of o f the parts part s is more more inevitable-morally inevitable-morally more more inevitable-than inevitable-than in a story where the external facts and events have an independent value value of their own. o wn. And And though the modern drama, unlike the ancient, aspires to a certain cert ain epic epic fullness fullness of treatment, treat ment, it cannot violate the determini det ermining ng conditions of o f dramatic form. 4.6.4.3 4.6.4. 3 Artistic Ornament and Form of Action

The two t wo characteristics- artistic ornament and form of action- are easily expl explain ained. ed. By the former are meant ‘rhyme, harmony and song,’ which are employed employed not all together to gether but as occasion demands. Rhythm and harmony thus may be be used to develop d evelop some parts and song some others. ot hers. They are all designed to enrich the language of the t he play to make it as effective effective in its purpose purpo se as possible. The form of action which tragedy trage dy assumes, distinguishes it from narrative verse, e.g. e. g. the epic. While While in the latter the narrator narrat or of the story st ory is the poet, in tragedy, the tale is told with the help of living living and moving characters. The speeches and actions a ctions make the tale. t ale. In the narrative narrat ive the poet is free to sspeak peak in his his own person pers on or in the likeness of someone else, but in tragedy the dramatis dramatistt is is nowhere seen, seen, for for all all is done by his his characters. characters. It is is literature iterature intended to be acted act ed as well as read, whereas the t he narrative is is intended only to be read.

4. 7

Let Us Sum Up

Aristotle was the most distinguished distinguished disciple disciple of Plato who refuted the t he charges framed by his his teacher teacher,, Plato Plato very poli politely tely. He holds holds that that the functi function on of poetry as of the other fine ine arts is to please. Hence poetry poetr y should be pleasing pleasing both to the poet and the reader. Besides, poetry makes an immedi immediate ate appeal appe al to the emotion. Talking Talking about tragedy trage dy as the highest form of poetry, poetry, he says says that it arouses arouses the emotion emotionss of pity pity and fear—pi fear—pity ty at the undese undeserved rved suffe sufferi rings ngs of the hero and fear of the worst wor st that may befall befall him. him. These emotions are aroused ar oused with a view to their purgation or catharsis. Viewed in this light tragedy is an art that transmutes these disturbing disturbing emotions e motions into what Milton Milton call c allss ‘calm of mind, mind, all passion spent’. So the emotional emot ional appeal of o f poetry poetr y is is not harmful as Plato Plato believed but health-giving and artistically art istically satisfying. satisfying. The whole tenor and purpose of The Poetics makes Poetics makes it abundantly clear clear that poetry poet ry is is not a mere reproduction repro duction of empirical ffact, act, rather, a picture pictu re of life life with all its its trivialities trivialities and acciden ac cidents. ts. He further makes it clear very boldly and strongly that plot is the soul of tragedy traged y and character holds the second place. p lace.

4.8 4.8

Review Questions

1.

How does does Aristot ristotle le defe defend nd the the char charge ge fra fram med agai agains nstt Poetry Poetry by Plato Plato?? 57


2.

Aristotl Aristotlee says says ‘A poet or an artist artist is is just just a grown grown up chi child indul indulgi ging ng in in imitati mitation on for for the the pleasure pleasure it aff affords’. ords’. Explai Explain n with with referen reference ce to his his theory of Poetry. Poetry.

3.

‘Plato ‘Plato was was a prince prince fell fell from from a hei heigh ghtt of greatne greatness ss as as he he saw saw in in Fi Fine Arts Arts a mere mere semblance, an illusion, as opposed to the reality Aristotle saw in it the image of a higher reality.’ reality.’ Compare and a nd contrast cont rast the t he views of both with suitable examples. examples.

4.

‘Ari ‘Aristo stotl tle’ e’ss Poeti Poetics is is a wind window ow to peep peep through through the worl world d of cri criti tici cism sm’. ’. Ill Illum umiinate. nate.

5.

‘Men ‘Men in in acti action’ on’ are are the the obj objects ects im imitated tated by by the the fin finee arts’ arts’.. Do Do you you agre agree? e?

6.

The Poetics makes Poetics makes it abundantly clear that ‘poetry is not a mere reproduction o f empirical empirical fact, a picture of o f life life with all its its trivi t rivialiti alities es and accidents’. Do you agree? agre e?

7.

‘Poet ‘Poetry ry is hi higher gher in in sub subject ject matt matter er tha than n Hist History ory’. ’. Exp Expllicate cate..

8.

Accordiing to Ari Accord Aristotle stotle,, ‘Trag ‘Tragedy edy is an im imitation tation of an acti action on that that is is seri serious, ous, compl complete ete and of a certain magnitude’. Discuss in reference to the theory theo ry propounded propou nded by him. him.

9.

What hat is is the the con concept cept of of ‘pur ‘purga gati tion on’’ or or ‘ca ‘cath thar arsi sis’ s’ in The Poetics? Poetics?

10.

‘The ‘The plot, plot, then, then, is is the fi first pri principl nciplee and and as it it were, were, the soul soul of tragedy tragedy.. Chara Character cter holds the second place’. Discuss.

11.

What What is is the imp importan ortance ce of the the three three unit unitiies –tim –time, place place and and acti action on in in a tragedy tragedy??

4. 9

Bibliography

1.

Atki Atkins, ns, J.W.H. J.W.H. Lit Litera erary ry Criti Critici cism sm in Anti Antiqui quity ty.. 2 Vols. ols. Lond London, on, 1752. 1752.

2.

Butc Butche herr, S.H. S.H. Ari Aristotl stotle’ e’ss The Theor ory y of of Poet Poetry ry and and Fi Fine Arts Arts.. Dover Publications, Inc. 4th Edition, 1951.

3.

Das, Das, B. B. B. & Mohan Mohanthy thy,, J. M. M. Litera Literary ry Cri Criti tici cism sm:: A Reader Reader.. Delhi Delhi:: Oxf Oxford ord Uni Universi versity ty Press, 1993.

4.

Prasa Prasad, d, B. Intr Introdu oducti ction on to Engl Engliish Criti Critici cism sm.. Macm Macmillan Ind Indiia Ltd, Ltd, Del Delhi, hi, 1965. 1965.

5.

Saints Saintsbu bury ry,, Geor George. ge. Loco Loco Cri Crici ci.. Meer Meerut, ut, Loyal Loyal Book Book Depo Depot, t, n.a. n.a.

6.

Selden Selden,, Rama Raman. n. The Theory Theory of Criti Critici cism sm.. Londo London n and and New York: Longm Longman an,19 ,1989. 89.

7.

Well ellek, Ren Rene. e. A Histor History y of Modern Modern Criti Critici cism sm.. 5 Vol Vols. s. New New York, ork, 1954. 1954.

8.

Wimsatt, att, W.K. & Broo Brooks ks,, Cleanth anth.. Literary Criticism: A Short Shor t History Histo ry.. New York, 1954 ____ __ __ ____ __ ____ __ ____ __ __

58


UNIT-5 ARISTOTLE: THE POETICS POETICS (II) Structure 5. 0

Objectives

5. 1

Introduction

5. 2

Tragic Hero

5. 3

Plot

5. 4

5. 5

5.3.1

The Greate Greaterr the Uni Unity ty,, the More More Perf Perfect ect the the Plot Plot

5.3.2 5.3.2

Sim Simple ple and and Com Compl plex ex Plot Plot

5.3.3 5.3.3

Reco Recogn gniition tion of Pers Person onss

5.3. 5.3.4 4

Situation

5.3.5 5.3.5

A Reas Reason onab ablle Len Length gth

Views on Character 5.4.1 5.4.1

Necess Necessary ary or Probabl Probablee Sequen Sequence ce

5.4.2

Seei Seeing ng is Bel Believi eving

Views on Comedy 5.5.1 5.5.1

Law Law of of Uni Universa ersallity

5.5.2 5.5.2

Com Comedy edy-Pow -Power er of Poetr Poetry y

5. 6

Views on Epic

5.7

Dif Differen erence ce bet betwe ween en Trage ragedy dy and and Epi Epic

5. 8

5.7.1 5.7.1

Moral Moral Goodnes Goodnesss of the the Heroi Heroicc Orde Order r

5.7. 5.7.2 2

Use of of Im Improb probab ablle

5.7.3 5.7.3

Traged ragedy y is is Sup Superi erior or to Epic Epic

Views on Style 5.8.1 5.8.1

Char Charm m of Styl Style- The The Use Use of Metap Metapho hor r

5.9 5.9

Value of His Critic ticism

5.10 5.10

Limitations

5.11

Let Us Sum Up 59


5.12 5.12

Review Ques uestion tionss

5.13 5.13

Bibliogr ography

5. 0

O b j e ct i v e s The objectives objectives of the present unit unit are to :

—

provi provide a critic critical al anal analys ysiis of Aristotl Aristotle’ e’ss The Poetics with Poetics with special special reference reference to tragedy, comedy and epic.

—

throw light light on plot and character character as the essenti essential al parts of tragedy. tragedy.

5. 1

Introduction

Aristotle Aristotle lived from 384 B.C. to t o 322 3 22 B.C. He was the most distinguished distinguished disciple disciple of Plato. To Indians Indians he is also known as the tutor t utor of Alexander Alexander the Great, who overran northwestern India in 326 B.C. He is believed to have written nearly half a dozen critical treatises, of which only two are ar e extant- Poetics Poetics and and Rhetoric, Rhetoric, the the former dealing dealing with the art of poetry and the latter with the art of speaking. In The Poetics he Poetics he propounded propou nded the theory the ory of tragedy by revealing revealing the fact that plot and character are the chief parts.

5. 2

Tragic He Hero

With With the exception of the definition definition of tragedy itself, probably no passage in the Po the Poeti etics cs has given rise to so much criticism as the description de scription of the ideal tragic hero in Ch. XIII. The T he qualities qualities requisite to such su ch a character are here deduced deduce d from the primary fact fact that t hat the function of tragedy is is to produce the t he katharsis of pity and fear; pity being felt felt for a person p erson who, if not wholly innocent, meets with suffering beyond his deserts; fear being awakened when the sufferer is a man of like like nature with ourselves. Tragic character must be exhibited through the t he medium of a plot which has the capacity cap acity of giving giving full satisfaction to t hese emotions. Certain Certa in types, therefore, of o f character and certain certa in forms forms of catastrophe catastro phe are at once o nce excluded, as failin failing g either in whole whole or in part to t o produce prod uce the tragic trag ic effect. effect. Aristo Aristotle tle designates the following qualities qualities of a tragic hero. In the first place, the spectacle spect acle of a man eminentl eminently y good undergoing undergo ing the change from prosperous prosperous to adverse adverse fortune fortune awakens awakens neithe neitherr pity pity nor fear fear. It It shocks shocks or repels repels us. Next and utterly devoid of tragic quality is the representation of the bad man who experiences the contrary contra ry change from distress to prosperity pros perity.. Pity and fear fear are here alike wanting. Even the sense of o f justice justice is unsatisfied. The impression left by such a spect acle is indeed, indeed, the t he exact opposite oppo site of pity. pity. Again, Again, there is the overthrow overthr ow of the utter utt er villain villain –a catastrophe catastro phe that satisf sat isfies ies the moral sense, but is lacking in the higher and distinctively tragic qualities. Lastly Aristot Aristotle le mentions the case which w hich in his view view answers answer s all the requirements of o f art. It is that tha t of a man who morally morally stands midway midway between the two t wo extremes. He is not eminently eminently good or o r just though he leans to the side of goodness. good ness. He is involved involved in misfort misfortunes, unes, not, not , however, as the result resu lt of 60


deliberate deliberate vice, but through some great flaw flaw of character o r fatal error in conduct. He is, moreover, illustrious in rank and fortune, fortu ne, the chief mot motive, ive, no doubt, doubt , for this requirement being that the t he signal natur naturee of the catastro cat astrophe phe may be more more strikingl st rikingly y exhibited. exhibited. We We now come to t o the ideal protagonist protag onist of tragedy traged y, as sketched sket ched in this chapter. He is composed of mixed mixed elements, by no means eans supreme supremely ly good but a man man ‘li ‘like ourselv ourselves’ es’.. The expres expressi sion, on, if taken alone, alone, might might seem to describe a person perso n of mediocre mediocre virtue and average powers. But Aristotle must not be read in detached sections; and the comparison of Ch. II and Ch. XV with our passage passa ge shows us that t hat this t his character, while while it has its basis in reality, reality, transcends tra nscends it by a certain cert ain moral elevation. elevation. Lastly the word may denote a defect of character, charact er, distinct distinct on the t he one hand from an isolated error or o r fault and on the other, o ther, from the vice which which has its seat in a depraved d epraved will. will. This use, though thoug h rarer, is still Aristoteli Aristot elian. an. Since tragedy trag edy aims at exciting pity and fear, its choice of a hero is limited limited to one o ne whose actions most produce this effect effect in the spectators. spectat ors. The tragic hero cannot be an eminently eminently good goo d man, hurled from prosperity prosp erity into adversity, adversity, because becaus e his wholly undeserved suff su ffering ering arouses, not pity p ity and fear, but a feeling feeling of shock or revolt: that such suc h a thing should ever be! Nor can he be a bad man, raised raised from adversi adversity ty to prosperi prosperity ty because because by his his very badness badness he can be an a n utter villai villain, n, because his fall fall is is a matter for gratification gratification rather ra ther than t han for pity and fear. There remain re mainss but one o ne kind of character who can best satisfy this this requiremen req uirement: t: ‘a man who is not eminently good goo d and just, yet whose who se misfort misfortune une is brought about abo ut not by vice vice or depravity depr avity,, but by some some error or frail frailty’ ty’.. His His misf misfortune ortune excites excites pity because because it is is out of all all proportion proportion to his error of judgment, and his overall goodness excites fear for his doom. No ot her character answers the tragic t ragic purpose purpo se so well. We We could wish that Aris Aristo totle tle had gone farther farthe r and said explicitl explicitly y that in power, even more than in virtue, virtue, the tragic hero must possess a deeper vein of feeling feeling or heightened heighte ned powers pow ers of o f intellect intellect or will; that the morally trivial, trivial, rather rathe r than the morally mora lly bad, bad, is fatal fatal to tragi tragicc eff effect. As it is, we arrive arrive at the resul resultt that the tragic tragic hero hero is a man man of noble noble nature, like like ourselves o urselves in elemental elemental feelings feelings and emotions, idealized indeed, but with so large a share of our ou r common humanity as to enlist enlist our o ur eager interest and sym s ympathy pathy.. He falls falls from a positi position on of lofty ofty emi eminence nence and the disas disaster ter that wrecks wrecks his his lofty may may be traced traced not to delib deliberate erate wickedness, wickedness, but to t o some great error or frailty frailty..

5. 3

P l ot

Of the six elements elements into which Aristotle analyses a tragedy tra gedy,, plot holds the first place. The plot being be ing the soul of tragedy trage dy,, the artistic ar tistic arrangement of its incidents incidents is of the prime pr ime import importance. ance. As per the definition definition of Tragedy- an imitation imitation of o f an action that is complete and whole and of o f a certain magnitude for there ther e may a whole that is wanting in magnitude. A whole is that which wh ich has a beginning, a middle and an end. A beginning is that which does doe s not itself follow follow anythi a nything ng by causal necessity but after which w hich something something naturall natu rally y is or comes co mes to be. An end, on o n the contrary co ntrary,, is that which itself itself naturally follows follows some other ot her thing, either by necessity or as a rule, r ule, but has nothing not hing followi following ng it. A middle middle is that which follows follows something as some so me other thi t hing ng follows follows it. A well well constructed plot, p lot, therefore, must neither neither begin nor end at haphazard 61


but conform conform to these these princi principle ples. s. The plot of o f a tragedy falls falls into into two parts—compli p arts—complication cation and unraveling unraveling or Dénouement Dénouement . Incidents Incidents extraneous to the action are frequently combined combined with a portion port ion of the action proper, to the t he complication; the rest is the unraveling. By complication complication Aristot Aristotle le means means all that extends e xtends from the beginni beginning ng of the action to the part which marks the turning turning poin po intt to good or bad fortune. The unraveling unraveling is that which extends from the beginning of the change to the end . There are four kinds of tragedy, the complex, depending entirely on reversal of the situation and recogniti reco gnition; on; the patheticpat hetic- where the motive is passion; the ethical – where the motives are ethical; the fourth kind is the simple.

5.3.1 The Greater the Unity, the More Perfect the Plot ‘Unity of plot does do es not’, as says Aristotle, ‘as some so me persons think, consist in the unity of the hero. he ro. For Fo r infinitely infinitely various are the t he incidents in one man’s man’s life life which cannot be reduced redu ced to unity and so too there are many actions of one man out of o f which which we cannot make one o ne action’. By means of unity the plot becomes individual and also intelligibl intelligible. e. The greate g reaterr the unity, the more perfect perfect will itit be as a concrete co ncrete and a nd individual individual thing; at the same time it will will gain in universali universality ty and typical quality. quality. As, therefore, in the other imitative arts, the imitation is one when the object o bject imitated imitated is one, so the plot, plot , being an imitation imitation of action, must imitat imitatee one action act ion and that a whole the structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is displaced or removed the whole w hole will will be disjoined disjoined and disturbed. Fo r a thin t hing g whose presence p resence or absence makes no visible visible difference difference is not an organic part of the whole. A perfect perfect tragedy tra gedy should be arranged not on simple simple but on the complex plan. plan. It should, moreover, imitate imitate actions which which excite pity and fear this being the distinctive d istinctive mark of trag tragic ic imitation. imitation. It I t follows plainly in in the first first place the change of fortune fortu ne presented must not be the t he spectacle: for this moves neither neither pity nor fear, fear, it merely merely shocks shocks us. Nor again, again, that of a bad man man passing passing from from adversity adversity to prosperity prosperity for nothing nothing can be more alie alien n to the the spirit spirit of Tragedy Tragedy,, itit possesse possessess no singl singlee tragic tragic quality, quality, it neither satisf sat isfies ies the moral sense nor calls fort forth h pity or fear. Nor again should the t he downfall dow nfall of the utter utt er villain villain be exhibited. exhibited. A plot of o f this kind kind would, wou ld, doubtless, dou btless, satisfy sat isfy the moral mora l sense, but bu t it would inspire neither pity nor fear, for pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune, fear by the misfortune misfortune of a man like like ourselves. o urselves. Such Suc h an event, therefore, t herefore, wil w illl be neither neither pitif p itiful ul nor terrible. There remains remains then the character between these t hese two extremes- that of a man who who is not eminently eminently good and a nd just, yet whose misfortune is brought broug ht about not by vice vice or depravity, de pravity, but by some error or frailty frailty.. He must be one who is highly highly renowned and prosperous- a prosperous prosperous like Oedipus, Oedipus, Thyestes Thyestes or other illus illustri trious ous men of such such famil amilies ies..

5.3.2 Simple and Complex Plot The plot, finally, is divisible into two parts- complication and its unraveling or denouement . The former ties the events into a tangled t angled knot, the letter unties it. The complication complication includes includes all the action from the beginning beginning to the point po int where it takes a turn t urn for good go od or o r ill; ill; the 62


denouement extends extends from fro m the turning point po int to the end. e nd. The first is commonly called called rising and the second seco nd falling falling action. Plots P lots are either Simple Simple or Complex C omplex for the actions act ions in real life life of which which the plots p lots are in an imitation, imitation, obviously o bviously show a simil similar ar distinction. An action which is one and a nd continuous in the sense above defined is Simple, when the change of fortune takes place without Reversal Re versal of the Situation and without Recognition. A Complex action is one in which the change is accompanied by such Reversal or by Recognition, or by both. These last should arise from the internal structure o off the plot so that what wha t follows should be the necessary or probabl probablee result result of the precedi preceding ng action. action. It makes all all the diff difference erence whether whether any any given given event event is a case of propter propter hoc or post post hoc. Reversal of the Situation Situat ion is a change by which the action veers round ro und to its opposite, o pposite, subject always to our rrule ule of probability probability or necessity. necessity. Thus in the Oedipus, the messenger comes to cheer Oedipus and free him from his alarms about his mother, but by revealing who he is, he produces produce s the opposite oppo site effect.

5.3.3 Recognition of Persons Recognition as the name indicates indicates is a change from ignorance to knowledge, k nowledge, producing pro ducing love or hate between the persons perso ns destined by the poet poe t for good or o r bad fortune. The best form of recognition is coincident with a Reversal of the Situation as in the Oedipus. There are indeed other forms. Even inanimate inanimate things of the most trivi t rivial al kind may may in a sense be objects o bjects of recognition. recognition. Again, Again, we may recognize or discover whether a person has done a thi t hing ng or not. But the t he recognition which is most most intimately connected with the plot and action is as we have said the recognition o off persons. This T his recognition, recognition, comb co mbined ined with Reversal, Reversal, will produce either pity or fear fear and actions producing producing these these effects effects are are those which which by our defini definition, tion, Tragedy represents. Moreover, it is upon such situations that the issues of good or bad fortune will will depend. Recognition, then, being between persons, it may happen that one person onl o nly y is recognized reco gnized by the other-when ot her-when the latter latt er is already already known –or –o r it may may be necessary that the recognition recogn ition should be on both bot h sides.

5.3.4 Situation In a simple plot there are no puzzling situations that enter into a complex plot, in particular particular peripeteia peripeteia and and anagnorisis. Peripeteia is Peripeteia is generally explained explained as ‘reversal of the t he situation’ and anagnorisis as ‘recognition’ ‘reco gnition’ or ‘discovery’. By a reversal of the situat ion is meant very neatly ‘a reversal of intention, a deed de ed done do ne in blindness blindness defeating its own purpose: pu rpose: a move to t o kill an enemy enemy recoiling on one’ o ne’ss own ow n head, the t he effect effect to save s ave turnin tur ning g into just its opposite, oppo site, kil k illin ling g an enemy and discovering him to be a kinsman. kinsman. The T he discovery of o f these false moves, taken in ignorance, in anagnorisis- a change from ignorance ignorance to knowledge. Both Peripeteia and anagnorisis and anagnorisis please please because there is the element element of surprise in them. A plot that makes use of them is complex and a perfect tragedy should be arranged not o n the simple simple but on the compl complex plot. plot.

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5.3.5 A Reasonable Length A beautiful object object whether whet her it be a living living organis org anism m or any whole composed compos ed of parts, part s, must not only have an orderly arrangement of o f parts but also be of a certain magnitude, for beauty depends depends on magnitude magnitude and order. order. Hence a very small small animal animal organism cannot be beaut beautif iful ul for the view view of it is conf confused, used, the object object bein being g seen seen in an alm almost impercept perceptib iblle moment oment of time. Nor again can one of o f vast size be beautiful beautiful,, for as the eye e ye cannot take it all a ll in at once, the unity and sense of the whole is lost for the spect ator, as for instance if there were o ne a thousand thous and miles miles long. As, therefore, therefore, in the case of o f animal animal bodies and organism a certain magnitude is necessary and a magnitude which may be easily embraced in one view, so in the plot a certain length is necessary and a length which can be easily embraced embraced by the memory memory.. The limit limit of length in relation to dramat ic competition ompetition and sensuous presentation is no part o f artistic theory. theory. For had it been the rule for for a hundred tragedies to compete together, t ogether, the performance performance would have been been regulated by the water-clock, as indeed we are told was formerly done. But the t he limit limit as fixed by by the nature of o f drama itself itself is this- the greater the length, the more beautif beaut iful ul will will the piece be by reason of its size, provided pr ovided that the whole be perspicuous. per spicuous. And to defi d efine ne the matter toughly we may say that the proper magnitude magnitude is comprised within within such limits limits that the sequence se quence of o f events according accord ing to the law of probability probability or necessity necess ity will will admit admit of a change from bad bad fortune to good goo d or from good fortune fort une to bad. Thus T hus the plot should have a certain certa in magnitude magnitude or a reasonable length, such s uch as the t he mind may comprehend full fully y in one view or within the required requ ired time. A reasonable reaso nable length or size is an essential esse ntial condition of beauty beauty.. It is of the righ rightt proporti proportion on in itsel itselff and and in all all its its parts. parts. If it is too short, short, the mind wil will miss miss many things things in it to comprehend it fully fully and if too long the mind, with its lim limited ited perspect per spective, ive, cannot take t ake in all the events within the time required by the story sto ry.. In Aristotle’s Aristotle’s own words, wo rds, it should be one o ne of ‘a length which can be easily eas ily embraced by the memory’. But it should have length enough to unfold its its sequence seq uence of events- the t he beginning, beginning, the middle and the end- naturall natura lly y and fully. fully.

5.4

Views on Character

In respect of character charact er there are four things t hings to be aimed aimed at. First and most important, important , it must be good. goo d. Now No w any speech or action a ction that manifests manifests moral purpose of o f any kind kind will be expressive of character: the t he character will will be good if the purpose is good. goo d. This rule is relative relative to each e ach class. Even a woman may be be good goo d and also a slave; though thoug h the woman may be ssaid aid to be an inferior inferior being being and the slave slave quite worthless. The second second thing thing to aim at is is propriety propriety.. There is a type t ype of manly valor valor but valor in a woman wo man or unscrupulous u nscrupulous cleverness, is in appropriate. Thirdly Thirdly character must be true t rue to life: life: for for this t his is a distinct distinct from goodness and propriety as here described. The fourth point po int is consistency: consistency: for though the t he subject of the imitation imitation who suggested the type, t ype, be inconsistent, still he must be consistently inconsistent. inconsistent.

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5.4.1 Necessary or Probable Sequence As in the structure structu re of the plot, so too t oo in the portraiture of character, the poet should always aim aim either either at the t he necessary or the probable. pro bable. Thus a person of a given character should speak or o r act in a given way, way, by the rule either of o f necessity or of probabili pro bability; ty; just as this event should follow follow that t hat by necessary or probabl pro bablee sequence. It is therefore evident that the unraveling of the plot, no less than the complication, must arise out of the plot itself, it must not be brought broug ht about by the Deus the Deus ex MachinaMachina-as as in the Medea or o r in the Retrun of o f the Greeks in Iliad. Iliad. Again, since Tragedy is is an imitat imitation ion of persons who are above abo ve the common level, the example of good portrait painters should be foll followed. owed. They T hey,, while while reproducing repro ducing the distinctive distinctive form of the original, make a likeness which is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too the poet in representing men who are irascible, irascible, should preserve the t he type and yet ennoble ennoble it. In this way Achilles Achilles is portrayed port rayed by Agathon and Homer. These then are the rules the poet should sho uld observe. Nor should should he negle neglect ct those those appeals appeals to the the senses senses which which though though not among among the essenti essential als, s, are the concomitants conco mitants of poetry; for here too there th ere is much room for for error. err or. But of this enough has been said said in publish published ed treatises. treatises.

5.4.2 Seeing is Believing In constructing construct ing the plot plot and working it out with the proper diction, d iction, the poet should place the scene, scene, as far far as possible, possible, before his eyes. In this way, way, seeing seeing everything everything with the utmost vividness vividness as if he were a spectato spec tatorr of the action, act ion, he will will discover what is in keeping with with it, and be most unlikely to overlook o verlook inconsistencies. Again the poet should sho uld work out his play to the best of his power, with appropriate gestures, for those who feel emotion are most convincing convincing through throug h natural sympathy with the characters character s they represent and one who is agitated storms, sto rms, one who is angry rages with the most like-life reality. Hence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness. madness. In the one o ne case a man can take the mould of any character, in the other ot her he is lifted lifted out of o f his his proper self. self. As As for the story whether the poet po et takes t akes it ready made or construct co nstruct it for himself, himself, he should first sketc sketch h its general outlin out line. e. And then fill fill in in the episodes episod es and ampli a mplify fy in in detail. deta il. After this t his the names being once on ce given, it remains re mains to fill in the episodes. We We must see that they t hey are relevant relevant to the action. In the case of Orestes, for example, there is the madness which led led to his capture, and his deliverance deliverance by means of the purificato purificatory ry rite. In the drama, the t he episodes are short but it is these that give extension to Epic poetry poet ry..

5.5 5.5

Views on Comedy

Comedy is an imitation imitation of characters charact ers of a lower type- no not, t, however, how ever, in the full sense of o f the word wo rd bad, the Ludicrous being merely merely a subdivision subdivision of the t he ugly. ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness ugliness which is not painful or destructive. destruct ive. To To take t ake an obvious example, example, the t he comic mask is ugly and distorted but does do es not imply imply pain. pain. The root ro otss of comedy lie lie in satirical verse verse as those of tragedy in epic poetry. As tragedy following its parent forms, epic poetry and hymns, represents men as worse as nobler than they are, so comedy also also followin following g its parent forms, 65


satirical verse verse and the phallic phallic songs represents men as worse than t han they are. While While the satire however ridicules personalities, comedy ridicules ridicules general gener al vicesvices- the one o ne the ‘sinner’ the other ot her the ‘sin’. By characters characters worse w orse than t han the average Aristotle Aristotle does do es not mean who are wicked or vicious but merely m men en who have ‘some defect or uglin ug liness ess which is is not painful or destruc des tructive’. tive’. What they do is defective or ugly, ugly, too, to o, provoking pro voking laughter, but leads to no harm har m or pain either to themsel t hemselves ves or to others. o thers. Nor No r are they despicable, despicable, for no one o ne whom we hate can put us into good goo d humor. They are merely ludicrous ludicrous and no more-‘the more -‘the ludicrous being merely merely a subdivision subdivision of the ugly’. By excluding excluding personal attacks that t hat form the subject-matter of o f the satire and t he possi possibil bility ity of pain pain to the comi comic charac character ter we laugh at, from from the scope of comedy comedy and and includi ncluding ng only general follies follies among its obj o bjects, ects, Aristotle, disagreeing again with Plato, rules r ules out malicious malicious pleasure as the basis basis of comedy. comedy. For when the pleasure arises not not from a personal but a general foibl foiblee and causes no pain whatever either either to t o the victim victim or to the spectator, spectat or, there can be no malice in it.

5.5.1 Law of Universality Thus limiting limiting its range of vision, vision, comedy co medy is is able to give g ive artistic expression to certain cert ain types of character charac ter which can hardly hard ly find a place in serious art. a rt. Aristotle Aristot le draws no distinction betwee between n the univer universal salit ity y whic which h is proper proper to tragedy tragedy and comedy comedy respec respecti tivel vely y. Each of these these as a branch of the poetic art embodies e mbodies the type rather than the individual and to this extent they t hey have a common function. Indeed Aristotle Aristot le selects comedy as a salient illustr illustration ation of what he means by the representation repre sentation of o f the universal. In various places he indicates indicates the t he distinction betwe between en comedy comedy proper proper whi which play playfu full lly y touche touchess the faults aults and and foibl oibles es of hum humanit anity y and person personal al satire or invective. The one kind of composition is a representation of the universal, the other of the particular p articular.. All great poetry po etry and art ar t fulfill fulfill this this law of universality universality,, but none perhaps so perfectl perfectly y as the poetry and art of the Greeks. Greeks. Take Take a singl singlee instancenstance- the delin delineati eation on of femal femalee character in Greek poetry. The heroines of Homer and of the tragedians are broadly and unmistakably human. In real life woman is less individual than man; she runs less into idiosyncrasies, idiosyncrasies, she conforms rather to the general type. This, however, ho wever, it maybe said, is owing to the t he deference she pays to the conventional rules of society; it is due to artifi art ificial cial causes that do not reach rea ch to the foundation found ation of character. But an inwardly eccentric eccent ric woman is is also rare.

5.5.2 Comedy-Power of Poetry Finally Finally comedy shares the generalizing power of poetry. poe try. It equall equ ally y represents not no t what has happened but what may happen: what is probable pro bable in in a given set of circumsta circumstances. nces. With With the characters and conditi co nditions ons such as it chooses, the result it says is likely likely to be what it states. This is borne out by its choice of a general a general and and not an individual an individual foible foible for its object. The very names it gives gives to its characters suggest a section of o f humanity humanity rather than particular men. So they represent more or less universal rather than individual frailties, not how so -and -so behaved behaved but how all men men of the same type will behave in the same s ame circumstances. circumstanc es. This T his is all that is said of comedy in Poetic in Poetics. s. 66


5. 6

Views on Epic

The epic is earlier in origin than either tragedy or comedy. It grew out of the old hymns hymns to the t he gods and songs so ngs sung in praise of famous men. In its its nature it resembles tragedy trage dy closely but in its form it is is different different.. Taking its nature first, it is also an imitat imitation ion of a serious action, ‘whole and compl co mplete, ete, with a beginning, beginning, a middle and an end. ‘Whoever, therefore’, says Aristotle, Aristotle, ‘knows what is good or bad tragedy, tragedy, knows also about epic poetry’. po etry’. The structure of o f its plot plot follows follows the same pattern. It has a complication, complication, a turnin t urning g point and a denouement and it is either complex or simple that is with or without peripeteia and anagnorisis. anagnorisis. It has the same unity of action and produces produce s the same kind of pleasure, viz that arising from catharsis, catharsis, since the epic also has tragic happenings. Its characters charac ters are also of o f the same: plot, character, charact er, thought and diction, the remaining remaining two, song so ng and spectacle, belonging to tragedy trag edy only. only.

5.7

Diffe Differren ence ce be betw twee een n Tra Trage gedy dy and and Epic Epic

In its form the t he epic is different different from tragedy. t ragedy. It imitat imitates es life life by narration narrat ion and not by dramatic action and speech, and it admits admits of much greater length than tragedy tr agedy.. It has no use therefore for song and spect acle which form form part of o f action. It communicates communicates its meaning in mere reading or recitat recitation. ion. In its length it it is not restricted restr icted like the tragedy trag edy,, where everything happening everywhere everywhere cannot be show shown n for the simple simple reason reaso n that the stage sta ge represents repre sents but one place and so can admit but one set of characters, charact ers, i.e. those connected co nnected with an event at that plac placee onl only. But But in epi epic poetry poetry,, owing owing to the the narr narrat ativ ivee form, orm, many any even events ts simu simulltaneou taneousl sly y tran transa sact cted ed can be presented and these, if relevant relevant to the t he subject, subject, add mass and dignity dignity to the poem. The T he epic has here an advantage and one that conducts co nducts to grandeur of o f effect, effect, to diverting the mind mind of the hearer and reli r elieving eving the story stor y with with varying episodes. For sameness s ameness of incident incident soon soo n produces satiety satiety and makes makes tragedies tragedies fail fail on the stage. But the narrati narration on gain gainss in effect effect if the poet hims himself elf speaks as little little as possibl possiblee and leaves leaves all all to be explain explained ed by his his characters characters in the dramatic dramat ic manner. manner.

5.7.1 Moral Goodness of the Heroic Order According to Aristotle, Aristotle, the t he characters portrayed po rtrayed in epic epic and tragic t ragic poetry have their basis basis in moral moral goodness; goodness; but the goodness goodness is of the heroi heroicc order. order. It It is quite quite disti distinct nct from from plain plain,, unaspiring virtue. It has nothing not hing in it common or mean. Whatever be the moral imperfect imperfections ions in the characters, they are such as impress impress our o ur imagination imagination and arouse the sense of grandeur: we are lifted above the reality re ality of daily daily life. life.

5.7.2 Use of Improbable A third difference difference between betw een epic and tragedy trage dy is is in the use of impro improbable bable or the marvelou marvelous. s. Poets are tempted to use it because it is pleasing. pleasing. But there is greater scope for it in the epic, where it is perceived o only nly by the imagination imagination than t han tragedy traged y where it is perceived by the eye. 67


Invisible Invisible to the t he eye in the epic, its improbability passes unnoticed, u nnoticed, but visibly seen on the t he stage, stage , it appears absurd. Hence Aristotle’ Aristotle’ss observation that ‘the poet should prefer probable probable impossibiliti impossibilities es to t o improbable possibil po ssibilities’, ities’, i.e. the believable false false to t o the t he unbelievable unbelievable true-a tr ue-a convincing convincing lie to an unconvin unc onvincing cing fact. Such use of supernatural sup ernatural alone is artistic and the more so in the epic than in tragedy for for the t he reason already stated.

5.7.3 Tragedy is Superior to Epic To the question whether the epic ep ic or the tragic t ragic mode of imitation imitation is the higher, A Aristotle’ ristotle’ss answer is – the tragic mode. The claims claims of the epic mode to superiority sup eriority over the tragic are that t hat it appeals to a more refined refined audience, the cultured cu ltured few that it achieves its effect effect without theatrica t heatricall aid and that its action act ion is more more varied. Aristotle concedes co ncedes all these points and yet concludes that, all things considered, considered, tragedy t ragedy is the superior of the two. t wo. For it also appeals to a cultivated audience when merely merely read- theatrical t heatrical performance performance being but an a n external accessory and no part of the literary iterary craftcraft- and unfold unfoldss its its action action withi within n narrowe narrowerr limits imits.. Even Even its perform performanc ancee in the theater, theat er, with ‘music ‘music to boot, boot , conduces conduce s to greater grea ter pleasure than tha n less; less; while while its limi limited ted length, attaini atta ining ng greater greate r unity, unity, works wor ks no less to the same s ame end, ‘for the concentrated concentr ated effect is more more pleasurable pleasurable than one which is spread over a long time time and so diluted’. diluted’. Tragedy therefore attains its end more perfectly perfect ly than the epic.

5 .8

Views on Style

Aristotle’s Aristotle’s remarks on o n the language of o f poetry in Poe in Poetics anticipated his comments on tics anticipated style in Rhe in Rhetor toric ic.. In both he lays down two essentials e ssentials of good writing-clearness and prosper pr osperity ity.. The object of o f writing writing being to comm co mmunicate unicate the writer’ writer ’s meaning, meaning, it has, first, first, to be clear or intelligent, intelligent, but as the meanings meanings to be conveyed are different different at dif d ifferent ferent times, the same mode of writing writing may not be proper for them all. all. What is therefore therefore needed, next, is the propriety pro priety or suitability of each mode of writing writ ing to the meaning it is is intended t o convey co nvey.. For intelligibil intelligibility ity current words wo rds are the best, for they are famili familiar ar to all, but writing being an art, it should sho uld aim at dignity dignity and charm also. These are best attained a ttained by the use of unfamil unfamiliar iar words-archaic words, wo rds, foreign words, dialect words, newly-coined words- that have an element of surprise and novelty in them. For the same reason the metaphysical use of words, conveying a hidden resemblance between things apparently dissimilar, is to be preferred to the plain. It partakes both of the famil amilia iarr and the unfam unfamiiliar liar.. It looks like like famil familiar iar because because ‘all ‘all men in their their ordinary ordinary speech make use of metaphors’ and unfamiliar because it often discerns resemblances of surprising surprising nature. natu re. A perfect poetic poet ic style uses words wo rds of o f all kinds kinds in a judicious judicious combination. combination. All the same, compound words are best suited to the lyric lyric which which strives after ornament, rare or unfamil unfamiliar iar words word s to the t he epic which needs to be stately stat ely in in expression, and metaphorical metapho rical language language to the t he drama which which keeps as close as po ssible ssible to everyday speech.

5.8.1 Charm of Style - The Use of Metaphor So far Poet far Poetics ics and Rhetoric and Rhetoric follow follow more mor e or less the same line, line, but Rheto but Rhetoric ric is further 68


remarkable for its comments on o n composition in prose and style in in general. ‘The style st yle of prose’, pros e’, it says, ‘is distant from that of poetry’, for whereas poetry largely draws upon unfamiliar words wor ds to attain at tain dignity and charm, prose, pr ose, dealin dea ling g with everyday subjects, can c an use only famil familiar iar or current curr ent words. However, Ho wever, one source of charm is common common to both-the bot h-the use of metaphor. By employing employing it judiciously prose pros e can also introduce introdu ce an element of novelty and surprise surp rise in its otherwise plain plain statements. In the t he arrangements of words into sentence, it should avoid multiplicity multiplicity of clauses, parenthesis pa renthesis and ambiguous punctuat pu nctuation. ion. Words Words can ca n be arranged into two kinds of style style –loose or o r periodic. The loose style is is made up of a series of sentences, held together to gether by connective words. In the periodic style each sentence is a complete whole with with a beginni beginning, ng, an end and a length length (or magni magnitude) tude) that can be comprehended comprehended at a glance. glance. Each Each such sentence sent ence may form part of o f a bigger whole if the sense so requires r equires it. While While the loose style st yle is formless, being just a chain of sentences that may be increased or reduced at will, the periodic periodic style style has a form that cannot cannot be be so easily easily tampered tampered with. with. The loose style style therefore therefore is less intelligent intelligent than the periodic and also less graceful. The one just runs o n, and the other ot her follows follows a measured course that imparts to it the t he charm of poetry.

5.9

Value lue of His Cri Criticism

While While Plato’s approach to t o literature was that t hat of a social reformer, reformer, Aristotle’s Aristotle’s is that of a scientist. Plato wanted literature t o do the t he works of o f morality; morality; Aristot Aristotle le expects it to be no more than what it is –an art. So S o Aristo Aristotle tle clearly sees the distinctions between the two tw o which Plato had failed failed to see. ‘The standard of correctness’, co rrectness’, he says, ‘is not the same s ame in in poetry poet ry and polit politic ics, s, any more than in poetry and any other art’. Whil Whilee politi politics, cs, which which is a social social scienc science, e, is to be judged by the contribution it makes to social well-bei well-being, ng, poetry po etry (and for that t hat matter literat literature) ure) is to be judged by its proper prop er function- pleasure. To do this t his itit has to t o make an appeal to the t he emotions, which is catharsis and not harmful in in its effect effect as Plato believed. believed. By a scientif scient ific ic examination examination of the t he existing Greek literatu literature re Aristot Aristotle le discovers the t he principles principles by which literature can most effectively discharge this function: it has unity of action, which Plato stressed st ressed too, to o, and propriety propriety or decorum in all all its parts-characters, thought, thou ght, style and performance. In this way he judges literature by its own standardsstandard s- the aesthetic. aest hetic. In tracing trac ing the origin and and development of the three thr ee art forms, fo rms, he examines examines and in conducting conduc ting his inquiry inquiry in general with constant const ant reference to the past, he shows himself a master of o f the histor historical ical metho method. d. The fundamental thought of Aristo Aristotle’ tle’ss philosophy is Becoming not Being and Becomi Beco ming ng to himmeant not an appearing and a vanishing vanishing away, away, but a process of development, an unfolding unfolding of what is already in the germ, an upward upwar d ascent ending end ing in Being which is is the highest object o bject of knowledge. knowledge . The concrete concr ete individual individual thing is not not a shadowy shado wy appearance appearanc e but the primary reali reality. ty. The outward world and material world, the diverse manifestations of nature’s life, organic and inorganic, inorganic, the t he processes pro cesses of birth and decay, decay, the manifold manifold forms of sensuous beauty bea uty,, all a ll gained gained a new importance of his philosophy. Physical science, slighted by Plato was passionately studied by Aristotle. Aristotle. Fine art was no longer twice removed from the truth t ruth of things, the expression expr ession of the universal which which is not outside out side of and apart from the particular pa rticular,, but presupposed presup posed in each 69


particul particular ar.. The work of art was not a sembl semblance ance opposed to realit reality y, but the image of a reality reality which is is penetrated penetrat ed by the idea and through which the idea shows more apparent appar ent than in the actual world. wor ld. Whereas Whereas Plato had laid it down that ‘the ‘t he greatest and fairest thin t hings gs are done by nature and a nd the lesser by art which receives from nature all the greater great er and primeval creations and fashions them t hem in detail. Aristo Aristotle tle saw in fine art a rational r ational faculty facu lty which divines divines nature’s natur e’s unfulfill unfulfilled ed intensions and reveals her ideal idea l to sense. sense . The illustrations illustrat ions which fine art employs do not cheat cheat the mind; they image image forth the immanent immanent idea which cannot find find adequate adequ ate expression expre ssion under the forms of material existence. existence.

5.10 Lim Limita itatio tions Aristotle is not without his lim limitations. itations. In the first first place he assigns a higher rank to tragedy than it deserves. deser ves. In doing do ing so he forgets his own scientific scientific approach and follows the established established traditi tra dition. on. The T he epic in which which success is so diffi difficult cult to achieve that about a dozen do zen great epics ep ics are all that the t he world can boast of, o f, is is assigned the second seco nd rank. The succeeding succee ding ages were quick to see that unity of action is more difficult difficult of attainm atta inment ent in the sprawling length of an epic than in the shorter compass of a tragedy, so he who can succeed in the former should be the greater artist, t here being being no difference difference between the two in other respects. Aristotle himself himself bestows more praise pr aise on Homer’ Homer ’s Iliad Iliad and and Odyssey Odyssey for for their artistry art istry in in plot, character, characte r, thought and diction on the same things in in his favorite favorite tragedian traged ian Sophocles. The omission omission of o f the lyric, lyric, a major major poetical po etical form right from the earli e arliest est times in ‘a treatise concerning c oncerning poetry’, poetry’, parti particul cularly arly after after Pindar Pindar had shown what could be done with it, is also also inex inexpl plicab icable. le. Aristotle is also more concerned co ncerned with the form of the literar literary y types he deals with than with their content conte nt and so lays down rules only for the former. But perhaps Poeti perhaps Poetics cs was was not intended intended to be a compreh comprehens ensiv ivee review review of all the problem problemss of poetry. poetry. It seems seems to concern concern itself tself only only with with those that, that , in the opinion of Aristotle, had not been correctly corr ectly understoo understood. d. Its incompleteness incompleteness is another anothe r explanation. However, Ho wever, for the largeness of o f its view-scientifi view-scientific, c, historical, histo rical, philoso philosophical, phical, psychologi psychologicalcal- and the depth of its observation, observation, it is is even even in its fragm fragmentary entary form, form, one those rare books boo ks that have powerful power fully ly moved moved mankind.

5.11 5.11 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up Aristot Aristotle, le, relating relating literature to life, life, states its philosophical philosophical value value to t o mankind – its capacity to see s ee the permanent features of o f life life in in the ephemeral. Akin Akin to this t his philoso philosophical phical approach is his stress on the t he psychological elem element ent in literat literature: ure: what kind of plot, character charac ter and styl st ylee for instance, please men. Penetrating their t heir minds minds and hearts as a s it were, he finds finds that peripete that peripeteia ia and anagnorisis please anagnorisis please most in tragic plot, hamartia in hamartia in the tragic hero and a nd metaphor in style. Tragedy, comedy and epic are all in in this way considered considere d with reference to their effect on the minds minds and hearts of o f their spectators spectato rs or readers. reade rs. In all that he says of them he shows a remarkable awareness of what the t he Americans Americans call ‘audience psychology’.

70


5.12 Revi Review ew Qu Ques esti tio ons 1.

Ari Aristotl stotle hol holds that that a hero hero is is ‘a man wh who is is not not emi eminent nentlly good good and and just, ust, yet yet who whose se misfortu misfortune ne is brought about a bout not no t by vice or depravity, but by some error o r frailty’. frailty’. Discuss.

2.

‘In the pl plot a certai certain n length length is neces necessar sary y and a leng length th whic which h can can be be easi easily embra embraced ced by the memory’ emory’.. Elu Eluci cidate. date.

3.

‘Uni ‘Unity ty of of pl plot does not’, not’, as say sayss Ari Aristotle, stotle, ‘con ‘consi sist st in in the the uni unity of the hero’ hero’.. Do you you agree with the statement?

4.

‘A perf perfect ect traged tragedy y shou shoulld be arr arran anged ged not not on si simple ple but but on the the compl complex ex pl plan’. an’. Throw Throw light light on o n the above fact.

5.

How How man many y kin kinds of plot plot are are dis discus cussed sed in in The Poetics by Aristot Aristotle? le?

6.

Aristotl Aristotlee comp compare aress plot plot wit with h a beauti beautifu full creatur creaturee or object object whi which ch is neither neither too long long nor too short. short . Do you you agree?

7.

‘The ‘The roots roots of comed comedy y li lie in in sati satirical rical verse verse as as those those of trage tragedy dy in epic epic poetry poetry’. ’.Di Discu scuss ss..

8.

Write short ort not notees on the fol folllowing: i)hamartia ii)peripeteia iii)anagnorisis

5.13 Bib Biblio liograp graph hy 1.

Atki Atkins, ns, J.W.H. J.W.H. Lit Litera erary ry Criti Critici cism sm in Anti Antiqui quity ty.. 2 Vol Vols. s. Lond London, on, 1752. 1752.

2.

Butc Butche herr, S.H. S.H. Ari Aristotl stotle’ e’ss The Theory ory of Poetr Poetry y and and Fi Fine Arts Arts.. Dover Publications, Inc. 4th Edition, 1951.

3.

Das, Das, B. B. B. & Mohan Mohanthy thy,, J. M. M. Literar Literary y Cri Criti tici cism sm:: A Reader Reader.. Delhi Delhi:: Oxf Oxford ord Univ Universi ersity ty Press, 1993.

4.

Prasad, Prasad, B. B. Introdu Introducti ction on to Engl Engliish Cri Criti tici cism sm.. Macm Macmillan Ind Indiia Ltd, Ltd, Del Delhi, hi, 1965. 1965.

5.

Saint Saintsb sbury ury,, Geor George ge.. Loco Loco Cri Crici. ci. Mee Meeru rut, t, Loyal Loyal Book Book Dep Depot, ot, n.a. n.a.

6.

Selden Selden,, Rama Raman. n. The Theory Theory of Criti Critici cism sm.. London London and and New New York: Longm Longman an,198 ,1989. 9.

7.

Well ellek, Ren Rene. e. A Histor History y of Moder Modern n Cri Critici ticism sm.. 5 Vol Vols. s. New New York, ork, 1954. 1954.

8.

Wimsatt att, W.K. .K. & Broo Brook ks, Clean eanth. th. Literary Criticism: A Short Shor t History Histo ry.. New York, 1954 __________ 71


UNIT-6 SAMUEL JOHNSON : PREFACE PREFACE TO SHAKESPEARE SHAKESPEARE Structure 6. 0

Objectives

6. 1

Introduction

6.2

A bri brief ef accou account nt of of th the li life of Sam Samuel uel Johns Johnson on

6.3 6.3

Major ajor wor works ks of Dr. Sam Samue uell Joh Johnson son

6. 4

Extracts from Preface Preface to Shakespeare Shakespeare

6.5 6.5

Exp Explanation tion of the the ex extra tracts

6. 6

Let Us Sum Up

6. 7

Review Questions

6. 8

Bibliography

6. 0

O b j e ct i v e s

In this unit unit you are going to read re ad why Dr. Johnson considers Shakespeare to be the greatest great est dramatist d ramatist of England. Eng land. This unit will also familiarize familiarize you with the wit w it and style of Dr. Johnson. You will learn how Dr. Johnson Jo hnson skillfull skillfully y rebutes the arguments a rguments of critics who have criticized Shakespeare.Students Shakespeare.St udents are ar e advised to read the whole essay if they can manage manage to procure the copies of the essay. essay.

6. 1

Introduction

In the unit un it you are going go ing to study stu dy Dr. Samuel Johnson’s famous treatise on o n Willi Williams ams Shakespeare. Shakespear e. This unit unit will help you to understand u nderstand why Dr. Dr. Johnson Johnso n is considered to be a great critic and an eminent essayist. This unit will also familiarize familiarize you with the age o f Dr. Dr. Samuel Johnson.

6.2

A brie brieff acco accoun untt of of the the life life of of Sam Samue uell Joh Johns nson on

Dr. Samuel Johnson was born on 18 Sept, 1709 and he died on 13 Dec., 1784. He was an essayist, poet, biographer, lexicographer and an eminent critic of English Literature. He had a great command co mmand over language language and his essays and pamphlets display his his learning. learning. Dr. Johnson’ Johnso n’ss father ws a book seller and his his name was Michael Michael Johnson. He was born in Lichfiel Lichfield, d, Staffordshiere where he attaended the t he Grammar School. At the age of o f nineteen, nineteen, he entered Peneleroke College, Oxford. Oxford. Poverty forced him to leave Oxford without without taking a

72


degree and he returned to Lichfi Lichfield. eld. At the age of 25 he married married Elizabeth “Tetty” “Tetty” Porter, a widow twenty twent y one years older than him. him. His first first work wor k was published in in 1735. It was a translation from the Fr French ench of Lolio’s, Lolio’s, “ A Voyage Voyage to Abyssimia”. In 1736, Johnson established a Private Academy at Edial, near Lichfiel Lichfield. d. He had only three pupils, but one of them was David Garrick who remained his friend, friend, while beco becomi ming ng the most famous actor act or of his day. day. Johnson Johnso n began the writing of his his first first major work there, the re, the historical histor ical tragedy, “Irene” which was later later produced p roduced by Garrick Garrick in 1749. In 1737, a penniless Dr. Dr. Johnson left for London with David Garrick. Samuel Johnson found employment employment with Edward Edwa rd Cave and he began contributing c ontributing to Cave’ Ca ve’ss magazine aptly called The Gentleman’s Magazine. Magazine. for the next next three decades, Johnson wrote essays, biogbiographies, poems, pamphlets and parliamentary parliamentary reports. report s. The poem London poem London (1738) (1738) and the Life of Savage Savage (1745) are important works of o f this this period. Richard Savage was Dr. Johnson’ Johnso n’ss friend friend and he had shared in Dr. Johnson’s Johnson’s poverty povert y. Savage died in 1744. Between 1745 and 1755, Johnson Jo hnson wrote perhaps his best known work A work A Dictionary of the English Language. Language. During the decade he worked work ed on the dictionary, Dr. Dr. Johnson Johnso n needed to augment au gment his his income. income. So he wrote wrot e semi-weekly semi-weekly essays under under the titleThe titleThe Rambler and and these essays were published published till 1752. The dictionary was published published in 1755. Just before before the public publicati ation on of his his dicti dictionar onary y, Oxf Oxford ord Unive Universi rsity ty awarded awarded him him the degree degree of Master Master of Arts. Arts. He was awarded awa rded an honarary honarar y doctorate docto rate in 1765 by Trinity Trinity College, College, Dublin and in 1775 by Oxford Oxford University. University. In 1758 Johnson Johnso n began another series called calledThe The Idler and Idler and it was published in in a weekly news journal. In 1762, King George III granted gra nted him an annual peusion peusion of £ 300. 300. This This grant came came largel largely y through the efforts efforts of Thoman Thoman Sheridon Sheridon and the Earle OF Bute. A few mont months hs later later Dr. Johnson Johnso n met met James Boswell for the first first time. Boswell Bosw ell later became his his biographer. biographer. In 1773, eleven years years after Johnson had met Boswell, the two of them set out an A an A journey to the Western Islands of Scotland Scotland , the title Johnson used u sed for his account of o f their travels published published in in 1775. Boswell’s Boswell’s account of these travels were published in 1786 under the title t itle The Journals of a Tour Tour to the Hebrides Hebrid es.. After After the publication of the Dictionary, Johnson Johnso n wrote a number of essays. His last last major work wasThe was The Lives of the English Poets. Poets. He died in 1784 and a nd was buried at Westminister estminister Abbey. Abbey.

6.3

Major Major work orks of of Dr. Dr. Sam Samu uel Joh John nson son

From 1737 Dr. Johnson wrote biographies, essays, poetry, pamphlets and parliamenta parliamentary ry reports. In 1755 his his most important important and well-known well-known work A work A Dictionary Dictionary of the English Language was Language was published. published. He worked on the dictionary for for a decade. During his his work wor k on the dictionary, d ictionary, Johnson made mad e many appeals appea ls for financial financial help in in the form of subscripsubscr iptions: patrons would wo uld get a copy of the first edition as soon an a n it was printed in compensation compensation for their support suppor t during its compliation. compliation. Johnson’s dictionary contained 42,773 words. In 1758 Johnson Jo hnson began writing writing short, light light essays for a weekly news journal. journal. These essays were published published under the title title The Idler . In 1759 Johnson published his his philoso philosophical phical novella 73


Rasselas Rasselas,, written writt en in one week. This helped him to pay pa y for for his mother ’s funeral and settle her debts. By 1762 Johnson was a celebrated figure. He formed formed “The Chele” Chele” a social group that t hat included included his friends friends Joshua Jos hua Reynolds, Edmund Ed mund Bruke, David D avid Garrick and Oliver Goldsmith. As mentioned earlier, earlier, he published published his tour to ur of Scotland in 1775. In the 1770s, Johnson Jo hnson who had tended to t o be an opponent o pponent of o f the government gover nment early in life, life, published published a series of pamphlets in favour favour of o f various various government go vernment policies. Dr. Johnson was a devout conservative Anglican, a Staunch Tory and a compassionate compassionate man, supporting support ing a number number of poor friends friends undere his roof. He however, remained a fiercely independent independent and original thinker. His analysis of the plays of Wil William liam Shakespeare especially The Preface to Shakespeare Shakespeare is considered a landmark in literary criticism. Dr. Johnson’s final final major major work was The Lives of the English Poets a project commissioned by a number of book sellers of London. The Lives of the English Poets was a critical as well as a biogra biographical phical study of some well known Eaglish writers/poets. writers/po ets. These critical and biographical studies appeared as prefaces to selections select ions of each poet’ poet ’s work. Dr. Johnson Johnso n died in 1784 and was buried bur ied at Westminister Westminister Abbey. Abbey.

6 .4

Extracts from Preface to Shakespeare

The poet, poet , of whose works I have undertaken undertak en the revision, revision, may now begin begin to assume the dignity dignity of an ancient, ancient, and claim the privilege privilege of established fame and prescriptive veneration. It is proper pro per to inquire, by what what peculari pecu larities ties of excellence Shakespeare has gained and kept the favour of o f his his countrymen. Nothing can please m many any,, and please long, but just representations of general nature. Shakespeare Shakespear e is is above all writers, at least least above all modern writers, the poet of nature; the poet that t hat holds up to his readers a faithful faithful mirror of manners manners and of life. life. His characters are not modif mod ified ied by the customs cust oms of particular places, unpractised un practised by the rest of the world; by the peculi peculiarities arities of studies studies or professions professions,, whic which h can operate but upon upon smal smalll numbers; numbers; or by the accidents of transient tran sient fashions fashions or temporary tempo rary opinions: they are the genuine progeny of common humanity, humanity, such as the t he world will always supply supp ly,, and observat obs ervation ion will always find. His persons act and speak by the infl influence uence of those general general passions passions and princi principles ples by which which all all minds minds are agitated, and the whole system of life life is continued cont inued instarmotion. In the writings of other poets po ets a character charact er is too often o ften an individual; individual; in in those of Shakespeare Shak espeare it is commonly a species. It is from this wide wide extension of design that so much instruction instruction is derived. It is this which fill fillss the plays of Shakespeare with practical p ractical axioms and domestic wisdom. It was said sa id of Euripides, that every e very verse was a precept; precept ; and it may be be said of Shakespeare, Shakespea re, that from his works work s may be be collected a system syste m of civil civil and economical eco nomical prudence. 74


It will not not easily e asily be be imagined how how much Shakesp S hakespeare eare excells exce lls in accommodating accommoda ting his sentiments sentiments to t o real lif life, e, but by comparing comparing him with with other o ther authors. aut hors. Other dramatists dr amatists can only gain gain attention attent ion by hyperboli hyperbolical cal or aggravated a ggravated characters, characte rs, by fabulous fabulous and unexampled unexampled excellence or depravity de pravity,, as the t he writers of o f barbarous romances invigorated the reader r eader by a giant and a dwarf; and he that should form his his expectations of human affairs affairs from the play, play, or from the tale, t ale, would be equally deceived. Shakespeare has no heroes; his scenes are occupied only by men, who act and speak as the t he reader thinks that he should himself himself have have spoken spoke n or acted on the th e same occasion: Even where the agency is supernatural the dialogue is level level with lif life. e. Other writers writer s disguise disguise the most natural nat ural passions and most frequent incidents; incidents; so that t hat he who contemplates them in the book will will not know kno w them in the world: Shakespeare approximates the remote, and familiarizes the wonderful; the event which he represents represe nts will not happen, but if it were possibl po ssible, e, its effects would pr probably obably be such as he has assigned; and it may be be said, that he has not only shown human natur naturee as it acts in real exigencies, but as it would wou ld be found in trials, tc which it it cannot be exposed. expose d. This therefore is the pr praise aise of Shakespeare, that his drama dra ma is is the mirror mirror of life; life; that he who has mazed his imagination, imagination, in following following the phantoms phanto ms which other ot her writers raise up before befo re him, him, may here be cured c ured of o f his delirious delirious ecstas e cstasies, ies, by reading human sentiments in human language, by scenes from which a hermit hermit may estimate the transactions tr ansactions of the world, w orld, and a confessor predict the progress of the passions. The censure which Shakespeare has incurred by mixing mixing comic and tragic scenes, as it extends to all a ll his works, deserves more consideration. co nsideration. Let the fact be first stated, and then examined. Shakespeare’s plays are not in the rigorous and critical sense either tragedies or comedies, but compositions of a distinct d istinct kind; exhibi exhibiting ting the real rea l state of sublunary nature, which partakes of good and evil, evil, joy and sorrow, mingle mingled d with with endless endless variety variety of proportion and and innumerable innumerable modes of combination; combination; and expressing the t he course of the world, wo rld, in which the loss of one is the gain of another; in which, at the same sa me time, time, the reveller reveller is hasting to his wine, wine, and the mourner burying his friend; in which which the malignity malignity of one is sometimes defeated by the frolic frolic of another; anot her; and many mischiefs mischiefs and many benefits are done do ne and hindered witho without ut design. de sign. Out of this chaos of mingled mingled purposes purpose s and casulaties, the ancient poets, according acco rding to the laws which custom had prescribed, selected some the crimes of men, and some their absurdities; some the momentous vicissitudes vicissitudes of o f lif life, e, and some the lighter occurrences; oc currences; some so me the terrors of distress, and some the gaieties of prosperity. prosperity. Thus rose the two modes of imitation, kown by the names of tragedy and comedy, compositions intended to promote different different ends by contrary contr ary means, and considerred as so s o little allied, allied, that I do not recollect r ecollect among the Greeks or Romans and a single single writer who attempted both. Shakespeare has united the powers of o f exciting exciting laughter and sorrow sorro w not only o nly in in one mind, mind, but in one composition. Almost Almost all all his plays are divided divided between serious serious and ludi75


crous characters, charact ers, and, in the successive evolutions evolutions of the design, sometimes sometimes produce seriousness and sorrow, sorr ow, and sometimes levity and laughter. That this t his is is a practice pr actice contrary co ntrary to the rules ru les of criticism will will be be readil read ily y allowed; allowed; but bu t there is always an appeal open from criticism to nature. nat ure. The end of writing is is to instruct; instruct ; the end of poetry poet ry is to instruct instruct by pleasing. pleasing. That the mingled mingled drama may convey all the instruction of tragedy or comedy cannot be denied, beacuse it includes includes both in its alternations of exhibition exhibition and approaches appro aches nearer than t han either to the appearance app earance of o f life, life, by showing how great machinations and slender designs may may promote or obviate one another, anot her, and the high and the low low cooperat co operatee in the general system system by unavoidable unavoidable concatenation. concatena tion. It is objected, that t hat by this change change of scenes the passions p assions are interrupted in their progression and that the principal principal event, being being not advanced by a due gradation of preparatory incidents, incidents, wants at last the power to t o move, which constitutes the perfection of dramatic poetry. poetry. This reasoning reasoning is is so specious, specious, that it is received received as true even even by by those who in in daily daily experience feel itit to be false. false. The interchanges of o f mingled mingled scenes seldom fail fail to produ p roduce ce the intended vicissitudes vicissitudes of passion. Fiction cannot move so much, but that the attention att ention may be easily transferred; trans ferred; and though tho ugh it must be allowed that t hat pleasing melancholy be be sometimes somet imes interinterrupted rupt ed by unwelcome levity yet let it be considered likewise, likewise, that melancholy is often not pleasing, pleasing, and that the disturbance of one man may be the relief relief of another; another; that diff differrent errent auditors have diff different erent habitudes habitudes;; and that, upon the whole, all pleasure consists in in variety variety.. Shakespeare Shakesp eare with his excellences excellences has likewise faults, faults, and faults suffi su fficient cient to obscure o bscure and overwhelm any other merit. I shall show them in the proportion propor tion in which which they appear to me, without envious malignity malignity or superstitious veneration. venerat ion. His first first defect is that to which may be be imputed most of o f the evil in books or in men. men. He sacrifices sacrifices virtue virtue to convenience, convenience, and is so much more careful to please than to instruct, that he seems to write without any moral moral purpose. purpos e. From his writings writings indeed a system of social duty may be selected, for he that thinks reasonably reaso nably must think morally; morally; but his precepts precept s and axioms drop casually ffrom rom him; he makes makes no just distsributuion of good goo d or evil, evil, nor is always careful to show in the virtuous a disapprobation of o f the wicked; he carries his persons indifferindifferently through right and wrong, and at the close dismisses them without further furt her care, and leaves their examples to operate o perate by chance. This fault fault the barbarity of his his age cannot extenuate; for it is always always a writer’s duty to make the t he world better, bett er, and justice is virtue virtue independent on o n time or place. The plots are often so loosely formed, formed, that a very slight consideration may may improve improve them, and so carelessly carelessly pursued, that he seems not always always fully fully to comprehend his own design. He omits opportunities oppo rtunities of instruct instructing ing or delighting which which the train of his story seems to force upon upo n him, him, and apparently appare ntly rejects those exhibitions which would be more affecting, for the sake of o f those which which are more easy ea sy.. It may be observed, observed , that in many many of his his plays the latter part p art is evidently neglected. 76


When he found himself himself near the end of his work, and in view of his reward, he shortened short ened the t he labour labour to t o snatch the profit. He therefore remits remits his efforts efforts where he should sho uld most most vigorously exert them, and his catastrophe is improbably produced or imperfectly represented. He had no regard t o distinction distinction of time or place, but gives to one age o r nation, without scruple, scru ple, the customs, institutions, and opinions of another, at the expense not only of likelihoo likelihood, d, but bu t of possibil po ssibility ity.. It his comic scenes he is seldom very successful when he engages his character s in reciprocations fo smartness and contests contest s of sarcasm; their jests are commonly gross, and their pleasantry pleasantry licenti licentious; ous; neither neither his his gentlemen gentlemen nor his his ladies ladies have much delicacy delicacy,, nor are suffi suffi-ciently distinguished distinguished from his clowns clowns by any appearance of refined manners. Whether he represented the real conversation of his time is not easy to determine; determine; the regin of Elizabeth Elizabeth is commonly commonly supposed to t o have been a t ime ime of statelines, st atelines, formality formality and reserve; yet perhaps the relaxaions of that severity were not very elegant. There must, however, have been always some modes of gaiety gaiety preferable preferable to others, o thers, and a writer ought to choo se the best. In tragedy traged y his his performance seems constantly to be worse, as his labour labour is more. The effusions effusions of passion which exigence exigence forces out o ut are for the most part p art striking striking and energetic; but whenever he solici so licits ts his invention, or o r strains his faculties, the offspring of his throes thro es is tumour, meannes, tediousness, and obscurity. In narration he affects a disproportionate disproport ionate pomp of diction, and a wearisom wear isomee train of circumlocution, and tells t ells the incident incident imperfect imperfectly ly in many words, words , which might have been more plain plainly ly deliv delivered ered in few few. Narration Narration in dramatic dramatic poetry is natural naturally ly tedious, tedious, as it is unanim unanimated ated and inactive, inactive, and obstructs obstruct s the progress progr ess of the action; it should therefore a always be rapid, and enlivened enlivened by frequent interruption, Shakespeare, found it an encumbrance, and instead of lightening iitt by brevity, brevity, endeavoured end eavoured to t o recommend re commend it by dignity dignity and splendour. sp lendour. His declamations or set speeches speec hes are commonl co mmonly y cold and weak, for his power was wa s the power of o f nature; nature; when he endeavoured, like like other ot her tragic writers, to catch opportunities o pportunities of amplification, amplification, and instead inst ead of inquiring inquiring what the th e occasion demanded, demande d, to show how much his stores store s of knowledge could co uld supply, supply, he seldom escapes w without ithout the pity or resentment of his reader. It will be thought strange, that, in enumerating enumerating the defects of this writer, I have not yet mentioned his neglect of the t he unities; his his violantion of those tho se laws which have been insitute insituted d and established by the joint joint authority aut hority of poets and of o f critics. In his his other works wo rks he has well well enough preserved the unity unity of action. He has not, indeed, an intrigue regulary perplexed and regularly unravelled: he does not endeavour to hide his design only only to discover it, for this is seldom the order ord er of real events, and Shakespeare is the poet of nature: nature: But his his plan plan has comm commonly only what what Aristotl Aristotlee requri requries, es, a beginn beginniing, a middl middle, e, and an end; one event is connected co nnected with another, and the t he conclusion conclusion follows by easy consequence. 77


To the unities of time time and place he has shown no regard; and perhaps perhap s a nearer view of the principles on which they stand will diminish their value, and withdraw from them the veneration which, from the time of Corneille, they have very generally generally received, by discovering that they given given more trouble to the poet, than pleasure pleasure to the auditor. The truth trut h is, is, that the t he spectators spectat ors are always in their their sense, and know, from the first first act to the t he last, last, that t hat the stage stag e is only only a stage, and that the t he players players are only players. players. They came came to hear a certain number of lines lines recited with just gesture gestur e and elegant elegant modulation. The lines relate to some so me action, and an action must be in some place; but the different action that complete c omplete a story may be in places very remote from each o ther; and where is the t he absurdity of allowing allowing that space to represent first first Athens, and then t hen Sicily Sicily,, which was always known to t o be neither Sicily Sicily nor Athens, Athens, but a modern theatre? the atre? By supposition, as place is introduced, introdu ced, tim t imee may be extended; the time required by the fable fable elapses for the most part between the acts; for, of so much of the action as is represented, sented , the real and poetical poet ical duration dura tion is is the same. The drama exhibits successive limitations limitations of successive actions; and why many not the second limitation limitation represent an action that hap pened pened years years after after the first, first, if it be so connected connected with with it, it, that nothing nothing but time time can be supposed supposed to intervene? Time Time is, of all all modes modes of o f existence, existence, most obsequious to the t he imagination; imagination; a lapse of years is as easily conceived as a passage of o f hours. In contemplation we easily contract contra ct the time of real actions, and therefore t herefore willingly willingly permit permit it to be contracted contr acted when we only see their imitation. The delight of tragedy proceeds proce eds from our consciousness of fiction; fiction; if we thought murders and treasons real, they would please please no more. Imitations Imitations produce pain or pleasure, not because they are mistaken mistaken for realities, realities, but because they bring bring realities realities to mind. mind. When the imagination imagination is recreated by a painted landscape, landscape, the t he trees are not supposed suppo sed capable to give us shade, or o r the fountains coolness; but we consider, how we should sho uld be pleased with such founfountains playing playing beside us, and such woods woo ds waving over us. As nothing is essential to the t he fable, but unity unity of action, action, and as the unitie unitiess of time time and and place place arise arise eviden evidentl tly y from from false alse assum assumpti ptions, ons, and, by circumscribing circumscribing the extent of o f the drama, lessen its variety, variety, I cannot think it much to be lamented, lamented, that t hat they were not known k nown by him, him, or not observed; The unities of time time and place are not no t essential to a just d rama, that though thoug h they may sometimes sometimes conduce to t o pleasure, they are always to be sacrificed sacrificed to the nobler beauties of varity and instruciton. instruciton. The greatest g reatest graces of o f a play are to copy co py nature and instruct lif life. e. The English English nation, in the time of Shakespeare, was yet struggling s truggling to emerge from barbarity. barbarity. Nations, like individuals, individuals, have their infancy. infancy. Our author’s aut hor’s plots are generally borro borrowed wed from novels, and it is is reasonable to sups up pose, pose, that that he chose chose the most most popular popular,, such such as were were read by many many, and and rel related ated by more; more; for his his audience could not have followed followed him through the t he intricacies intricacies of the drama, had they th ey not held the thread of o f the story stor y in their hands. 78


The stories, sto ries, which we now find only in remoter authors, autho rs, were in his his time accessible accessible and familiar familiar.. The fable of As of As You You Like It , which is supposed to be copied from Chaucere’s Gamelyn, Gamelyn, was a little pamphlet of o f those tim t imes; es; and old Mr Cibber remembered the t he tale of Hamlet in plain English English prose, which the critics have now to seek in Saxo Grammaticus. His English English histories he took took from English chronicl chronicles es and English English ballads; he dilated some so me of Plutarch’ Plutarch’ss lives lives into plays, when they had been been translated by North. His plots, whether historical or fabulous, are always crowded with incidents, by which the attention of a rude people was more easily caught than by sentiment sentiment or argumentation. Voltaire expresses expresse s his his wonder, that our author ’s extravagances are endured by a nation, which has seen the tragedy of Cato. Let him be answered, that Addison Addison speaks the language of poets, poe ts, and Shakespeare, Shakesp eare, of men. We find find in Cato innumerabl innumerablee beauties beaut ies which which enamour us of its author, autho r, but we see nothing that acquaints acqua ints us with human sentiments or human actions. The composition of Sakespeare Sakesp eare is a forest, in which which oaks extend thier t hier branches, and pines pines tower in the air, air, interspe ntersperse rsed d someti sometime mess with with weeds weeds and bram brambl bles, es, and and someti sometime mess givi giving ng shelter to t o myrtles and to roses; rose s; filli filling ng the eye with awful aw ful pomp, and gratifyi gr atifying ng the mind with endless diversity diversity.. Shakespeare opens a mine which contains contains gold go ld and diamonds diamonds in inexhaustible plenty plenty,, though t hough clouded cloud ed by incrustations, incrustat ions, debased debas ed by impurities, impurities, and mingled with a mass of meaner minerals. He found the English English stage in a state of tthe he utmost rudeness; no essay either either in tragedy or comedy had appeared, from which it could be discovered to what de degree gree of delight either either one or other might might be carried. Neither character character nor dialogue dialogue were yet understood. Shakespeare may be truly said to have introduced them both amongst us, and in some of his happier happier scenes to have carried carried them both to the t he utmost height. Boyle congratulated congrat ulated himself upon his high birth, birth, because it favoured favo ured his curiosity, by facili facilitating tating his his access. Shakespeare had no such advantage; he came to London a needy adventurer, adventur er, and lived lived for a time by very mean employments. employments. The genius of Shakespeare Shakespear e was not to be depressed by the weight of poverty po verty,, nor limited limited by the narrow conversation to t o which men in want are inevitably condemned; the encumbrances of his fortune were shaken from his mind, mind, as dewdrops dewdro ps from a lion’s lion’s mane. Shakespeare, Shakespea re, whether life or nature be his subject, subject, shows show s plainly, plainly, that he has seen with his own eyes; he gives the th e image which he receives, rece ives, not weakened or o r distorted distort ed by the intervention of any other mind; mind; the ignorant feel hi hiss representarepresent ations to be just, and the learned see that they are complete. The style of Shakespeare was in itself urgrammatical, perplexed and obscure; his works were transcribed for the players by those who may be supposed to have seldom understood understo od them; t hem; they were transmi tra nsmitt tted ed by copyers equally e qually unskilful, unskilful, who still multipli multiplied ed errors; they t hey were perhaps sometimes multilated multilated by the actors, actor s, for the sake of short shortening ening the speeches; and were at last printed without correction c orrection of the press.

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6.5

Expl Explan anat atio ion n of of th the ex extract ractss

Dr. Johnson’s Johnson’s long treatise Pr treatise Preface eface to Shakespear Shakespearee managed to silence all critics of Shakespeare. Wr Written itten in in the typical typical eighteenth century style, style, this long long essay makes us extremely familiar familiar with with Dr. Johnson’ Johnso n’ss convincing style. The language languag e is rich rich and this prose pros e piece uses a number nu mber of literar literary y devices. Dr. Johnson is of the opinion that human beings beings tend to venerate venerat e the past and the past always appears better. He is of the opinion that whenever one evaluates a writer one o ne must apply the test to to time time to works of a writer. Length of duration and continuance continuance of esteem is a test which was advocated by the great classical critic Longinus. Dr. Johnson reaffirms reaffirms his faith faith in this test. A work can c an only be proclaimed proclaimed excellent when it is compared with other works work s and when it continues to please a number of people in the years to come. William illiam Shakespeare has o outlived utlived his century, the term commonl co mmonly y fixed fixed as the t he test of literary literary merit. Generations of readers have derived derived pleasure from his his work. The central point of Shakespeare’s portr portrayal ayal is is humanity and and this t his just just representation of o f nature pleases the readers. Shakespeare is the poet po et of o f nature: he gives a faithful faithful account of manner and of life. life. His characters characte rs speak and act in such a way that the t he readere is able to identify identify with them. He may have been writing writing during the sixteenth s ixteenth century, century, but Dr. D r. Johnson feels that the views, passions, beahav beahaviour iour of his his characters characters is common common to the the whole whole race of manki mankind. nd. Readers derive d erive a lot lot of o f instr instruction uction from his plays, plays, and readers re aders become beco me worldly wise. wise. From Shakespeare’s Shakesp eare’s words may be collected a system of “Civil and Economical Eco nomical Prudence”. Shakespeare should be compared with o ther authors in ordere to evaluate evaluate him correctly. correctly. Shakespeare wrote his dialogues dialogues with effortless effortless case. He took too k up common occurrence and diligently diligently worked on them. His characters were distinct personalities perso nalities and when they spoke, their speech suited their personali perso nalities. ties. Dr. Johnson asserts asser ts “Shakespeare “Shakespear e has no heroes” and the men in the plays plays act and a nd behave in such a way that the reader re ader thinks t hinks that he would have acted and behaved in that w way ay.. Shakespeare Shakespe are represents represen ts things in in such a way that if it it were to happen, happe n, it would probably be be in the way he has shown. Shakespeare’s writings writings would make even a hermit aware of o f the ways of the world and a priest aware of o f the way passions dominate and contro l human human relationships. relationships. Voltaire Voltaire had objected to t o Shakespeare’s representation of the usurping king king in Hamlet as a drunkard. Since Hamlet’s Hamlet’s uncle had murdere murdered d Hamlet’s Hamlet’s father, father, the uncle was a murdrer. A murderer is a despicable character, by making making him him a drunkard, drunkar d, Shakespeare Shakesp eare makes the character charact er of the uncle all the more odious. odiou s. Dr. Johnson applauds Shakespeare for writing tragi-comedies: “These plays are not in the rigorous and critical sense either tragedies traged ies or comedies, but compositions of a diff different erent kind”. Dr. Johnson justifies justifies tragi-comedies on grounds of o f realism realism.. Tragedy does not convey 80


the whole truth tru th of life life because it does not no t contain cont ain elements of comedy. Tragi comedies have serious and comic elements. elements. Defending Defending Shakespeare’s tragi-comedies, Dr. Johnson says that “there is always always an appeal open ffrom rom criticism criticism to nature”. There are two natural grounds to justif justify y it: that that the alteration alteration of pleasure pleasure and pain pain please please by its varietey; varietey; and that life life itself itself is a mingled mingled yarn of pleasure and pain. Shakespeare knew that comedy requried requried a happy ending and tragedy required a sad ending. ending. Shakespeare combined combined seriousness and and meriment meriment so that the reader and the audience could enjoy the play and learn something from from it. Even though thoug h Shakespeare was a genius he appears to have put in a lot of labour whil whilee writing his his tragedies tra gedies whereas his his comedies appear to have been been written effortlessly effortlessly.. Shakespeare’s Shakesp eare’s characters, charact ers, “pleasures and vexations are comm co mmunicabl unicablee to all time time and to all places; places; they are natural and therefore durable”. A twenty twent y first first century reader read er can even now identify with the characters character s and their speech. Shakespeare is like like a rock and even time time cannot cannot erode ero de him and his his works. Other poets thrive thrive on temporal temporal eleme elements, nts, Shakespe Shakespeare are thrives thrives an univers universal al elem elements ents.. Many critics critics have written written about the defects in the plays of Shakespeare. Dr. Johnson says that it is true that Shakespeare in his his desire to please p lease at times times appeared to over look the fact that plays also have an instructive instruct ive value right right and wrong, wro ng, vice and virtue are sometimes so metimes carelessly depicted. But one o ne must excuse this defect in his plays plays because the age in which which Shakespeare lived was not a refined refined one. Dr. Johnson wrotes that Shakespeare’s plots plots are often o ften loosely loosely formed. formed. But one can forgive forgive such loose construction co nstruction of plots because one o ne must remember remember that Shakespeare was not educated. He was unlettered unlettered bard. “Shakespeare had no regard to distinction of time time or place” p lace” i.e. i.e. he did not adhere to the concept of the unities of time time and place as propounded propo unded by Aristotle. Dr. Johnson feels feels that the dramatist dramatist did not bother about decorum. He notes that Shakespeare S hakespeare was writing writing during during the age of queen quee n Elizabeth Elizabeth which had a lot lot of o f statelin stat eliness ess and formality. formality. Shakespeare Shakespe are at times t imes is repititive repititive and this appears to displease displease the reader rea der.. The playwright playwright could co uld never succeed in writing thrilling thrilling speeches. In his plays when sentiments become too over o ver powering, “he struggles with it for a while” and then leave it to the leisured reader. Dr. Johnson compli co mplimenting menting Shakespeare Shakesp eare says “ A A quibble quibble is to Shakespeare, Shakespeare, what what luminous vapours are to the traveller ...”. ... ”. Shakespeare loved to play with words, play upon the different different meanings meanings and connotations connota tions of the word. word . Just as a luminous luminous vaopur attracts a traveller, similarly is Shakespeare attracted by certain words and he would use them to the t he fullest fullest extent. A quibble quibble is the golden apple ffor or Shakespeare. Shakes peare. Dr. Johnson writes “A quibble quibble was to t o him the fatal Cleopatra Cleopatra for which he lost lost the world, and was content to lose it”. In his defence of Shakespear Shakespeare, e, Dr. Johnson leaves no stone unturned. untur ned. Shakespeare’s Shakesp eare’s historical plays plays are not subject to any a ny of (the) laws of tragedies traged ies or comedies. His historical historical

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figures figures are natural and distinct. In his his other ot her works, Shakespeare has followed followed the norm and preserved preserved the unity unity of action. action. His His plays plays have a beginni beginning, ng, a middle iddle and an end and the event event follow one another in a logical logical manner. manner. Dr. Johnson feels that it is not possibl poss iblee to adhere ad here to the unity of time and place. The viewer viewer knows kno ws that he has gone to watch watc h a play. play. The drama will will appear credible to the viewer only if the inci incidents dents have h ave elements of probabil pro bability ity and possibi po ssibility lity not for a moment moment does a writer and a speactator speactato r thinks the drama drama to be real. He is conscious conscious of the fact that he has gone go ne to see a play. He is aware of the fictionality fictionality of the play, play, therefore, therefor e, he does not give g ive it it any credit for for being real. Dr. Johnson has full faith faith in the suppositional supp ositional powers powers of the mind. mind. The spectator spectator is alway alwayss in his his senses senses when when he has gone to see see a play play. He knows that the people p eople on the stage are mainly mainly artists who would wou ld recite their parts and gesture as the situation situatio n demanded. demanded. The nature of dramatic illusion illusion is such that it enables the mind mind to move from one scene to another, there are no limitations limitations on the mind. The mind mind is quick to grasp that the first scene is is in Athens and the second may may be in Alexandria. Alexandria. The spectator spectat or is aware of the fact that t hat in the first first scene the hero may be a boy and in the second seco nd scene the hero may be a grown-up man. The spectator spectat or is able able to adjust to this t his time frame frame (the growth growt h of the hero from boy boy to manhood). Time is servile servile to imagination imagination and a number of years years can be depicted as a passage of hours. Commenting Commenting on the nature of dramatic response, Dr. Johnson feels that the delight of tragedy trage dy comes from from the consciousness co nsciousness of this very element element of fiction fiction or illusion. illusion. If one thought thoug ht murders depicted as real, they would not please any more. more. When one reads or views a play, play, one is aware of the fact that tha t it is play play.. But the th e enjoyment is is precisely because of the fact that these plays bring bring realities realities to the minds minds of the viewer or reader. Dr. Johnson on the authority of Shakespeare Shakespe are asserts assert s that unity of action is the most important element in a play play.. One can discard unity of time and plays. plays. A play should please and instruct instruc t and this should be the aim of every playwright. Commenting on the age in which Shakespeare Shakespear e lived, lived, Dr. Johnson Joh nson says “The English nation, in the time time of Shakespeare was yet struggling str uggling to emerge from barbarity”. The people were not much educated neither were they well well read. Shakespare’s plays plays were written in a simple simple style and it it was understoo u nderstood d by the viewer. viewer. Dr. Johnson is of the opinion that for his plays plays Shakespeare Shakespeare borrowed from novels, novels, tales tales,, folkl folklore. ore. These stories stories were read by many many, related by many many more. more. Unless the audience knew the stories they could not follow follow the t he intricacies of the drama. His plot plotss are full of incidents and this enabled the viewer to identify ident ify with the story. Shakespeare’s plays plays do not have long long argumentative speeches. Shakespeare spoke spok e “the language of o f men”. So fond of o f Shakespeare Shakesp eare is Dr. Johnson that he makes every effort effort to t o condemn cond emn the critics of Shakespeare. Shakesp eare. He feels that Shakespeare Shak espeare’’s compositions are like that of a forest where there are oaks and pines, pines, flowers and weeds. weeds. There can be no two opinions opinions about the t he greatness greatness of Shakespeare. Flawed sublimi sublimity ty is better bette r than flawless flawless mediocrity. mediocrity. In Shakespeare there are not many imitations, imitations, but if one finds some then one must think these imitations imitations to t o be 82


universal. Shakespeare Shakes peare had to imitate from the world wor ld around aro und him him and what he imitated imitated was known to the audience. Writing Writing about the age ag e of Shakespeare, S hakespeare, Dr. Dr. Johnson Jo hnson comments comments that t hat when Shakespeare wrote his plays, plays, he wrote them without without any a ny formal formal guidance. guidance. There were no essays on tragt ragedy or comedy, comedy, no guidelines guidelines were there as to dialogue, dialogue, stage representations etc. Whatever Shakespeare penned p enned was the product pro duct of o f his own intelli intelligence, gence, and his observance of the t he world around arou nd him. him. Shakespeare Shakespe are was taught ta ught by nature and life life and he had a deep critical insight insight which no amount amount of o f books could confer. Shakespeare did not allow his mind mind to be depressed because because of poverty. poverty. He shook away from from his his mind mind depressi depressing ng and narrow ideas ideas in much much the same way as a lio, lio, shakes dew drops dro ps from its its mane. This great playwright playwright faced a number number of obstacles obsta cles in his life. life. These diffculties diffculties taught him to face life life with with fortitude. fortitude . When one reads the t he plays plays of Shakespeare, Shakespeare, one feels that his his representati representations ons are just and complete. complete. His His plays plays are executed in avery proper manner. Shakespeare probably pro bably never thought that t hat his his plays here here worthy of posterity. posterity. Present popularity and and present profit were probably what what he kept in mind. Dr. Johnson is of the opinion that Shakespeare made no collection of his works. Some of his plays plays were not no t published published till about seven years after his death. Publishers Publishers who publi published his his works were often negli negligent and unskil unskilful ful in their their presentati presentation. on. The result result was was that errors errors occured in the publi publication. cation. Dr. Johnson is of the opinion that the style style of Shakespeare was “in itself itself ungramatical, ungramatical, perplexed and obscure”, o bscure”, and people peo ple who transcribed t ranscribed them for the player playerss seldom seldom understood understood what what they they were transcri transcribi bing. ng. Moreover, Moreover, copiers copiers who did did the job before before the actual actual publi publicati cation on often often made made errors errors in copyi copying and someti sometime mess the actors actors mutil mutilated ated the speeches for the t he sake of o f shortening shortening them. Dr. Johnson says that Shakespeare Shakespe are tried to present life as he saw it. The beauty of his his work is discerned when one reads the play. play. Dr. Johnson says that it is is for posterity to judge what he has said about Shakeshpeare. Shakeshpear e. But only one who is skilful skilful and learned can appreciate the greatness of Shakeshpeare.

6. 6

Let Us Sum Up In this unit you were able to familiarize familiarize with

•

The wit an and style of Dr. Jo Johnson. on.

•

Criti ritica call anal nalysis sis of Shak Shakes espe peaare’ re’s pla plays.

•

Ski Skillful argu argum ments ents of Joh Johnson son to to def defend end Sh Shakes akesh hpear peare. e.

6.7 6.7

Review Questions

1.

Whi Which work of Dr. Dr. Johns Johnson on made made him him famous amous and won for for him him a lot lot of popul popularity arity??

2.

What What test test shou shoulld a reade readerr appl apply y when when he/s he/she he reads reads the work work of of a w wri riter ter?? 83


3.

Why Why does does Dr Dr. Johns Johnson on def defend end Shak Shakes esh hpear peare’ e’ss trag tragii com comed ediies? es?

4.

What What is is Dr Dr. John Johnson son’’s opin opiniion abou aboutt the the uni unites tes of action, action, time time and and place place??

5.

Shak Shakes espe pear aree was was uned uneduc ucate ated, d, yet yet he wrote wrote gre great at mas master ter pi pieces eces.. Expl Explai ain n how how it it was was possible possible for Shakespeare Shakespeare to do so.

6.

What What are are the the def defec ects ts of of Shak Shakes espe pear aree as as poi point nted ed out out by by Johns Johnson on??

6. 7

Bibliography

1.

Jam James Bosw Boswel elll : The The Lif Life of Sam Samue uell John Johnson son,, Every Everym man edi editon, ton, 1992. 1992.

2.

Chri Christop stopher her Hibb Hibbort ort : The Person Personal al Histor History y of Samuel Samuel Johns Johnson, on, Pengui Penguin, n, 1984 1984..

3.

A Lan Reddi Reddick ck : The Makin Making g of Johnson Johnson’’s Di Dictiona ctionary ry,, Cam Cambr briidge, 1990. 1990.

4.

Bruc Brucee Redf Redford ord ed. ed. : The The Lette Letters rs of Sam Samue uell John Johnson son,, (5 vol volumes umes)) Oxf Oxford, ord, 1994. 1994.

5.

A Guide Guide to Samuel Samuel Joh Johns nson on : (http:/ (http://a /and ndrom romedo edo.r .rutg utgen en.ed .edu/~ u/~iilynch/ nch/Joh Johns nson on/G /Gud ude/) e/) an overview over view by fack Synch.

6.

Samuel Samuel John Johnson : (http: (http:// //en en.wi .wiki kipe pedi dia.o a.org/ rg/wi wiki ki/s /sam amue uell_John _Johnson son..

7.

(htt (http: p:///es /essay says.qu s.quot otiidia diana.or a.org/ g/JJohn ohnson son/

8.

Samuel Samuel Johnson Johnson page : (http:// (http://and androm romeda. eda.rutg rutgena ena.edu/ .edu/~i ~ily lynch nch/Joh /Johnson nson/) /) links links colcollected by Rutgers Rutge rs scholar Jack Lynch. Lynch. ___________

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UNIT-7 ALEXANDER ALEXANDER POPE: P OPE: AN ESSAY ESSAY ON MAN Structure 7. 0

Objectives

7.1 7.1

Int Introd roduction tion : Augus gustan tan Age

7. 2

About th the Author

7. 3

Introduction to An Essay on Man 7.3.1

Epistl Epistlee I:Of the Nature Nature and State of Man, Man, with with respect respect to the the Univers Universee

7.3.2

Epistl Epistlee II: II: Of the Nature Nature and and State of Man Man as an Indi Indivi vidual dual

7.3.3. Epistle Epistle III: III: Of the Nature and State of Man, Man, with respect respect to Society 7.3.4

Epistle Epistle IV: IV: Of the Nature Nature and and the the State of Man, Man, with with respect respect to Happiness Happiness

7. 4

Major Themes

7. 5

Let Us Sum Up

7. 6

Review Questions

7. 7

Bibliography

7. 0

O b j e ct i v e s The objectives objectives of the present unit unit are to :

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



give an introduct ion to the t he August Augustan an Age Age and its uniqueness u niqueness in its imitation imitation of the Classical times and its lasting impact. introduce introdu ce the author au thor – his life life and his his contribution cont ribution to English E nglish literature and a nd criticism giving giving an idea of what was unique about his poetry poetr y. provide provide a critica criticall reception reception to the the text – An Essay Essay on Man especially Man especially the relevance of the choice of the theme t heme highli highlighting ghting the contradictory contra dictory views.



give an account of each Epistle, E pistle, highli highlighting ghting the central idea.

7.1

Intr Intro odu duct ctio ion n : Augu August stan an Age Age

The English Augustan poets po ets were at the zenith ze nith of their fame fame when Lyrical Ballads publi published by Cottle appeared in 1816 which which gradual gradually ly changed changed the literar literary y taste and criti critical cal norms. During the hey days days of the Augustan Augusta n age every young man was sure to read Pope, Pop e,

85


Swift, Addison and Dr. Dr. Johnson as they read Virgil Virgil,, Cicero Cicero and Horace. Writers of this this period considered considered a poet as a craftsman craftsman whose native native genius could best express itself itself only through thro ugh diligence diligence and industry. They considered ‘reason’ as the guiding principle which “gave to all aspects of civilized civilized human existence existence their t heir due proposition pro position and emphasis, and was thus part of an integrated and inclusive ‘wisdom’… ‘wisdom’… .” (Amarasinghe, 177) The poets poet s of the Augustan period were primarily primarily neoclassicists neoclassicists who cherished the classical values, values, with a genuine admiration for the literat literature ure of Greece and Rome especiall espe cially y the Latin verse of the period of Augustus Augustus thus gaining the title “Augustan” for their the ir age. Theirs was not a blind blind imitation imitation but t hey believed believed in the rules of composition as a s illustrat illustrated ed in the classical poetry. poe try. Pope acknowledges ack nowledges in one of his couplets: Those RULES of o f old old discover’d, not devised, devised, Are Nature still s till,, but Nature Natu re methodiz’d Not stoppi stopping ng with with follo followi wing ng the rules rules of compos composiition, tion, the poets poets of this this peri period fai faithfu thfullly imbibed imbibed the high high moral moral seriousness of the Romans in order to t o assert the t he importance importance of the social and cultural signifi significance cance of o f poetry. Pope did lisp lisp in numbers numbers for numbers came to him spontaneously spont aneously but much of power and a nd the dignity dignity of his his verse came only from the classics. The nineteent nineteenth h century revaluation of Augustan Augusta n poetry in in comparison compariso n with with the achievement achievement of the Eli E lizabethans zabethans – regarded reg arded the t he Elizabethan Elizabethan age as the ‘golden age’ of English poetry and Pope’s period as ‘silver ‘silver age.’ This general opinion opinion of the supremacy of the Elizabethans Elizabethans does not mean that the Augustan period was inferi inferior. or. Critics used the achievements achievements of Dryden, Pope, and Jo hnson as a norm to judge even the co ntributions ntributions of the Romantic period. period. Though Dryden Dryden and Pope are grouped grouped under under the same same label label they stand apart apart in their their uniqueness. Dryden in in noted for his scholarship and his his vast knowledge from the field field of science. While While Dryden studied general nature Pope concentrated concentrat ed on the manners and nature of mankind. mankind. “The notions of Dryden were formed by comprehensive speculation, and those of Pope by minute minute attention.” (Dyson, 5) But the style style of Dryden did not have have the uniform uniformity ity or the cautious cautious handling handling of the rules of composition but it is is quite “capricious and varied.” varied.” But both both are are rem remembe embere red d for thei their compl complem emen entar tary y contr contriibuti bution onss to the the literar terary y output output of the the Augus ugustan tan age. “If the flights flights of Dryden therefore therefore are higher, Pope contin cont inues ues longer on the wind. If of Dryden’s Dryden’s fire the blaze blaze is brighter, brighter, of Pope’s the heat is more more regular and constant. Dryden ofter surpasses surp asses expectation, expecta tion, and Pope never falls falls below below it Dryden is is read with frequent astonishment, and Pop Popee with perpetual delight.” (Dyson, 6)The close association ass ociation with the Augustan tradition tra dition gave the diagnostic power to critics like like Issac E’Israeli and Peacock. It is generally generally agreed that t hat Dryden’ Dr yden’ss poetry po etry had “bounding vigour and negligent negligent ease” which which appealed to those t hose with romantic taste tast e whereas Pope’s Po pe’s verse verse had discipline and a complicated richness catering to those t hose with conservative interests. interests. One of the pro-Augustan critics named named Rogers defends Pope against those who dared to question q uestion the profundity of the power of ‘Reason’ declaring that those who are fond of o f “the 86


obscure” in poetry cannot appreciate the “deep thinking” thinking” of “ ‘the darling darling man Pope, because he always always expresses himself himself with such admirabl admirablee clearness. clearness.’’ “ {Amarasinghe, 190). Indeed none can ignore the influence influence that Dryden and Pope had on not only o nly the poets of the t he Romantic age but also of the nineteenth nineteenth century centur y poets. A close close study st udy of the early verse of Walter Walter Scott goes to prove pro ve that they are reminiscen reminiscentt of Pope, Po pe, “in diction, imagery imagery and movement…” movement…” Even Wordswort ords worth h allowed allowed his verse to be infl influenced uenced by Pope’s heroic couplets. coup lets. Some of his his poems displa display y the balanced balanced and antitheti antithetical cal style style of Pope’s Pope’s heroic heroic couplet couplet and also also faithfu faithfull lly y imitat imitatee the didactic and moralizing moralizing interests found in Pope’s Essay Essay on Man. Man. Byron and Crabbe are considered as the th e last descendants of the Augustan age of English poetry.

7.2 7.2

About th the Author

Alexander Pope rose ros e to the t he level of a national figure figure and was acknowledged ackno wledged as the first poet of the age. age . He fulfill fulfilled ed the canons cano ns of the Renaissance criticism criticism and Dr. Dr. Johnson in his his Life of Pope Pope asks, asks, “if Pope be not a poet where is poetry to be found?” But Johnson’s Johnson’s view view typified typified only one set of critical value that existed in the eighteent eighteenth h century. Joseph Josep h Warto Warton’ n’ss criticism criticism who supported suppo rted the “cult of the sublime” sublime” was for origina or iginali lity, ty, enthusiasm, enthusiasm, sublimity sublimity and intangible intangible poetic fury rather than t han the satirical and didactic poetry that Pope Po pe wrote.But wrot e.But whatever w hatever be the views views of the criti critics, cs, till till today Pope is rememb remembere ered d not only only as an essayi essayist, st, and criti criticc but more importantly importantly as the greatest great est of Englis satirists satirists besides being being one o ne of the acclaimed acclaimed poets poet s of the Enlightenment. Born in London in 1688, to a linen linen merchant merchant and Edith (Turner) Pope, as their only child, in a Roman Catholic Catho lic famil family y, His childhood was wa s spent in Binfield Binfield near Windsor Windsor Fores F orest. t. The poet considered co nsidered this this as his golden golden period: Early on Pope mastered Greek, Latin and later, later, French, and Italian Italian Roman Catholic Catholic linen linen-merchant, -merchant, and Edith. Edith. Pope spent his early years at Binfield Binfield on the edge of Windsor Windsor Forest, and recalled this period as a golden age: “Thy forests, Windsor, indsor, and thy t hy green retreats, At once the monarch’s monarch’s and the Muse’s seats, / Invite Invite my lays. lays. Be present, sylvan sylvan maids! maids! Unlock your springs, and open all your shades.” Even as a child child he was nicknamed “the Little Nightingale”. Nightingale”. He published his Pastorals Pastorals in in 1709. He wrote wrot e his first first verses at the age ag e of 12. His breakthrough work, An work, An Essay (1711), appeared Essay on Critic Criticism ism (1711), when he was twenty-three. twe nty-three. It included included the famous line line “a little learning learning is a dangerous thing.” Pope’ Pope ’s physical defects made him an easy target for heartless heart less mockery, but hid literar literary y talent and critical acumen he was also considered co nsidered a leading literary literary critic and the t he epitome of English Neocla Neoclassi ssici cism sm.. From his twenties til tilll his his death deat h in in 1744, Pope had his personal perso nal ideal ideal with the prototypes proto types from the “mighty “mighty dead.” “In Pope’s life life the forces of tradition and identity, identity, the pressure of the past and will will to belon belong g to the great tradition tradition of poets in in Western literature literature and the desire desire to distinguish distinguish himsel himselff as a poet, compl co mplement ement one another.” another.” (Russo 2) His desire to make the past past releva relevant nt in his his present present using using newl newly y refin refined ed langu language age of Augusta Augustan n Engla England. nd. He transl translated ated many authors autho rs like like Ovid, Statius, Stat ius, Boethius, Cicero, Horace, Ho race, Malberbe and Homer which best best 87


expressed his the pleasure he had reading reading the best Greek and Latin poets. Essays Essays on Criti Criticis cism m (1711) testif test ified ied the poet’s deep interest not no t onl o nly y in poetry but remai re mains ns till today as specim specimen en of a literary literary fashion. fashion. When his descriptive verse Windsor Street was was published published in in 1713 Pope won the appreciation of Dr. Johnson: “… the writer, starting with with a common and universal experience, sees se es it in a new light; light; and his sensitive spirit, spirit, endowing endo wing it with life life and fresh fresh meaning, meaning, provided pro vided it it with form, image, image, language, and harmony appropriate to it.” (Grant, 6) 6) Pope Pop e was gifted with an active, ambitious, ambitious, and enterprisi enterpr ising ng mind, mind, ever aspiring for higher higher flights flights with wings wings of poesy with a desire to do what is not easily done. Pope’s Po pe’s desire to create an epic at a time when the popularity of epic poetry poet ry was on the decline was fulfi fulfilled lled with with the publ publication cation of The Rape The Rape of the Lock Lock , with five cantos canto s in in 1714. This mock epic was composed upon request from a friend. friend. It narrates the story sto ry of Lord Petre and A Arabell rabellaa Fermor, a real life life Catholi Catho licc aristocrat aristocra t and her suitor, with their names changed. When Lord Petre cut cu t off a lock of Arabella’s Arabella’s hair without her permission, permission, it left the two famili families es in hostility; hostility; this gave Pope a chance to make fun fun of their their plight. plight. Even those critics critics who were hostile hostile towards Pope liked liked this work. Hazlitt, too appreciates the poem’s poem’s status and its firm firm intellectual intellectual structure. Both displayed his twin skills skills – one o ne of skillfull skillfully y handling the epic conventions convent ions and the t he other ot her of the t he satirizing the customs, manners and the affectat affectations ions of the people of his society. This poetic poet ic creation is indisputably indisputably his his masterpiece which has received a lot of attention and applause. app lause. His use of choicest wo words,” rds,” punctilious observation, and indefatigable indefatigable diligence” diligence” are too obvious obvious to be missed.Cont missed.Continui inuing ng his poetic poet ic career with zeal Pope added a few minor minor poems po ems which which are of great importance. H His is Ode on St. Cecilia’s Day Day and The Temple of Fame were Fame were added to the list list before venturing into the translating Homer’s The Illiad (1720) which was acknowledged ackno wledged unanimously as brilli brilliant ant success. On the contrary contrar y his his Shakespeare Shakespeare (1725) won him him nothing noth ing but severe criticism. Along the publicatio publication n of Mor of Moral al Essays Essays between between 1731 and 1734, An Essay Essay on Man in four Epistles also got published. Pope began to work wo rk on his Essay his Essay on Man along with the Moral the Moral Essays but he could compl co mplete ete only o nly the first three epistles by 1731 and they got published in 1733; and in 1734 when the fourt fourth h epistle was also also finished finished the completed version was published anonymously anonymously.. Pope acknowledged his authorship authorship only in April 1935. It was St. John: Henry St. John (pronounced sin-ji sin-jin), n), Viscount Viscount Bolingbroke Bolingbroke (1678-1751), an outstanding out standing Tory Tory statesman who is considered considered to be the source o f inspirati inspiration on for this poem. He had to flee England in 1715 and when pardoned, pardoned , he returned retu rned in 1723. Bolingbroke was an early friend of Pope and Swif S wift, t, and a member member of the Scriblerus Club. He is said said to have given Pope the t he original impetus for writing the Essay the Essay on Man, the Moral Essays, and the Imitations of Horace. Horace. A freethinker and Deist, he may have provided pro vided Pope Pop e with the “philosophy” of the Essay, Essay, although there has been a continual cont inual controversy cont roversy as to whether the poem’s point point of view is is Christian or Deistic. Pope Pop e enjoyed the reputat repu tation ion of a humanist, and in his Essay on Man he Man he is “nonchalantly untheological” and like like many many of Enlightenment Enlightenment figures, figures, he had no use for religion.

88


Later Pope has added a few few Epistles Epistles to the list; list; his Epistle his Epistle to Viscount Viscount Cobham (1734) is “Of the Knowledge and Characters of Men” and Epistle Epistle to a Lady (1735) examines examines the femini feminine ne character and exposes its variety variety and and contradictoriness. The others areSatires are Satires and Epistles and Epistles of Horace Imitated and Epistle and Epistle to Arbuthnot (1735). Arbuthnot (1735). In 1743, the year prior prior to his his death, death, Pope compl completed etedThe The Dunciad, in Dunciad, in Four Books, which is is a satire celebrating celebrating dullness with Cibber as its hero. It ridiculed bad writers, scientists and critics. c ritics. Pope spent his last years in a rented house at Twickenham, Twickenham, where he spent his time in a mock heroic, miniaturized miniaturized version of landscape-gardening. Before his death he received the last sacrament, for he had not abandoned his Catholi Catho licc religion religion despite his Deist leanings. leanings. On May 30, 1744, the th e poet breathed bre athed his last last leaving all his property to Blount.None Blount.No ne enjoyed enjoyed the kind of success and the level level of stardom that Pope Po pe received while while alive. alive. All through his career the poet refined refined his own personal ‘rules’ on the choice o f diction and on the perfection perfection of rhymes. rhymes. He used the heroic co couplet uplet with unparalleled unparalleled brilli brilliance ance and with its success he made it the dominant dominant poetic form. His continuing continuing influence influence is is evident in in the number number of translations of his poetry in various languages.

7.3 7.3

Introduction to An Essay on Man

Alexander Alexander Pope Po pe had ambitious plan of creating a very ver y long and exhaustive philoso philosophical phical poem. His His plan plan was to compose in verse on all all aspects of human human life life in about four differen differentt books. The first first one was to hold hold the views views as seen inthe inthe Essay on Man and Man and the second book would have included included epistles epistles on human reason, arts, sciences, sciences, talent talent and the use of learning, learning, science, wit “toget “together her with a satire against the misapplications misapplications of them”; in the third book he proposed proposed to inc includ ludee “Scien “Science ce of Poli Politics; tics; and in the fourth book, the poet wished wished to elaborate elaborat e on matters concerning co ncerning “private “private ethics” or “ practical pract ical morality.” morality.” But when the verses from the second book of the Essa the Essayy on Man were Man were used in the fourth fourth book of o f The Dunciad . It is an attempt to put forth a system of ethics, ethics, to justify the ways ways of God to Man Ma n and a warning warning that man is not not the t he center of all things, though thou gh in his pride he believes believes so. It is certainly not a religious poem but it it has references to God and His great domain. do main. There is an obvious obvious acknowledgement (as ( as is the case in the Christian faith) faith) that man is is fallen fallen and that he has to work out o ut his own salvation. salvation. Know then thyself, thyself, presume not God to scan The proper study of Mankind is is Man. Placed on o n this isthmus isthmus of o f a middle middle state, stat e, A Being darkly wise, wise, and rudely great: With too much knowledge know ledge for the Sceptic Scept ic side, side, With too much weakness for the Stoic’ Sto ic’ss pride, He hangs between; in doubt to act, or o r rest; 89


In doubt to deem himsel himselff a God, or Beast; B east; In doubt his mind mind and body bod y to prefer; Born but to die, and reas’ning reas’ning but to err;

(Epistle II, St. 1, 1-10)

…. Great Lord Lo rd of all things, yet a prey to all, all, Sole judge of truth, in endless error hurl’d; The glory, glory, jest and riddle riddle of the world.

(Epistle II, St. 1,16-18)

Pope had his intentions clearly spelt out in his his ‘The Design’ of the poem prefixed to the collection of the ffour our Epistles published published in 1723. He states that he proposed to write some verses on o n “Human Life and Manners” in order to “come “co me home to men’s men’s business and bosoms. So he considers considers man, his nature and his state in the abstract. The poet desires to study stud y the condition and purpose purpo se of the creation of Man first first for without it he would not be able to point po int out the t he moral duty or “enforce any moral moral precept.”In precept. ”In an attempt to understand und erstand human nature he studies the “Anatomy of the Mind” and he states: stat es: The science of human nature is, like like all other sciences, reduced redu ced to a few clear points: There are not no t many certain truths in this world. It is therefore in the anatomy anato my of the mind mind as in that of o f the body; more good will will accrue to mankind mankind by attending attending to the large, open, and percepti perceptibl blee parts, than than by studyi studying ng too much much such fine finerr nerves nerves and vessel vessels, s, the conform conformati ations ons and uses of which wil willl for ever escape our o ur observation. observat ion. The disputes are aall ll upon these last, and, I will venture to say, say, they have less sharpened the t hewits wits than than the hearts of men against against each other, and a nd have diminished diminished the practice, pract ice, more than advanced ad vanced the theory t heory,, of morality morality.. If I could flatter myself that this Essay has any merit, merit, it is in in steering steer ing betwixt the extremes of o f doctrines seemingly opposite, opp osite, in passing over o ver terms utte u tterly rly unintelligib unintelligible, le, and in forming forming atemperate a temperate yet not inconsistent, and inconsistent, and a short a short yet yet not imperfect system of Ethics. This I might might have done in prose; but I chose verse, and a nd even rhyme, for for two tw o reasons. reaso ns. The one will will appear obvious; that principles, principles, maxims, maxims, or precepts pre cepts so written, both strike the t he reader more mo re strongly stro ngly at first, and are more easily ea sily retained reta ined by him afterwards: afterward s: The other may seem odd, but is true I found I co could uld express them the m more shortly this way than in in prose itself; its elf; and nothing is more certain, than that much of the force as well as grace of arguments or instructions, instructions, depends on their conciseness. I was unable unable to treat this part of o f my subject subject in detail, without withou t becoming dry and tedious; or o r more poetically poe tically,, without withou t sacrificing sacrificing perspicuity to ornament, without w ithout wandering from the precisi pr ecision, on, breaking the chain of reasoning: If any man unite all these without diminution diminution of any of them the m freely confess he will will compass a thing above my capacity capac ity.. “What is now Published Published is only o nly to be considered co nsidered as a general Map of Man, marking out no more than the greater parts, part s, their extent, their limi limits, ts, and their connection, and leaving 90


the particular part icular to be more fully delineated in the chart chartss which are to follow. Consequently Conseq uently,, these thes e Epistles in their progress (if I have health and leisure to make any progress) progres s) will be less dry, and more susceptible s usceptible of poetical ornament. I am here only opening the fountains, and clearing clearing the passage. passage . To To deduce dedu ce the rivers, to follow them in their course, and to observe their the ir effects, effects, may be be a task t ask more agreeable.”Thus agre eable.”Thus Pope beautif beaut ifull ully y sums up the reason reaso n for the choice of o f the content, cont ent, the t he choice of the poetic poet ic medium medium which which he found more suitable for conveying his his arguments and instructions “without becoming becoming dry and tedious” tedious” and without sacrificing sacrificing perspicuity to ornament and without wandering wandering fro the precision and breaking the chain of reasoning..” He concludes co ncludes calling calling his “An Essay on Man” as Man” as a “general “general Map of Man.” Pope did d id not have the temperament or the knowledge for a philosophical philosophical poem because he did not have speculative speculat ive mind. It was widely known that Pope P ope intellectually owed much to the doctrines doct rines of Leibniz Leibniz who developed “a theory of a scale of beings gradually descending from perfection to non entity, entity, and complete in every intermediate intermediate rank and degree …” … ” He regarded the whole of space and time as an unbroken chain of mutually related existences and occurrences. occurr ences. Pope has used this theory in in a limited limited sense sense only to refer to the extant species of organized beings. Many even believed believed that he echoed the views views of Bolingbroke Bolingbroke as the influence influence is visible visible in many places. places. The T he ideas expressed e xpressed in this work were w ere first found in the Moralist by by Anthony Ashley Cowper, Cowpe r, Earl of Shaftesbury (1671-1731) (1671-17 31) The question of influence influence is yet unsettled, unsett led, but it is generally believed believed that t hat Pope Po pe was wa s strongly str ongly infl influenced uenced by the letters letter s prepared prepa red by Bolingbroke Bolingbrok e which had the exegesis of Shaftesbury’ Shaftesb ury’ss philosophy. The main tenet of this natural theology was that there was one God, God , an embodiment of wisdom wisdom and mercy who governs the world providentially for the best. Shaftesbury advocated the princi principl plee of Harm Harmony and Bala Balance nce in creati creation on and and he beli believed eved that that God is benevol benevolent. ent. Though Though the intellectual intellectual content of the t he poem is quite thin, Pope has managed to exploit exploit to the fullest fullest the t he tenuous philosophy philosophy using his his mastery over poetic technique. The Essay should should be treated not just as a dissertation dissertation but as a poem as well. well. Brevity Brevity is the cautious apology that Pope gives for using using poetic methods. methods. Even at the outset Pop Popee paints paints an apt imagery magery to stri strike ke the perfect perfect note to just just unity unity in divers diversity ity:: A mighty mighty maze! maze! But not without w ithout a plan; A Wild, where weeds and flow’rs promiscuous promiscuo us shoot, shoo t, Or Garden, tempting with with forbidden fruit. Thus with a single single image Pope drives home a wide range of meanings; meanings; he hints hints at the diversity in in creation, creat ion, at once o nce fascinating and frightening – all a result of a careful c areful planning planning by the Creator. Creat or. He also hints hints at the English taste tast e of the eighteenth century, century, particularly the land owners who considered the garden as source sou rce of aesthetic and intellectual intellectual pleasure. pleasure. And with words like “promiscuous” and “forbidden “forbidden fruit” he hints hints at the moral disorder of the age. At one stroke stro ke the master craftsman conveys conveys a meanings meanings with several overtone. An overtone. An Essay Essay on Man has Man has received contradictory contrad ictory critical reviews. While While Dyson felt felt that the poem poe m was far far less 91


successful because here Pope has chosen to discuss a subject s ubject which he did not know much about. “The Essay on Man, though to-day better known, is is far less less successful. successful. The truth is is that Pope Po pe neither knew knew enough nor felt en enough ough about its subject.” (Dyson, Introduction Introd uction xiii). xiii). He felt that only o nly parts part s of itit is alive alive and the language language quite qu ite vibrant. vibrant. On the other hand Warto Warton n opined that “Pope has not wandered into any useless digressions, has employed employed no fictions, fictions, no tale or o r story; and has reli re lied ed chiefly chiefly on the poetry po etry of his style style for the purpose pur pose of o f interes interesting ting his reader. His style is concise and figurative, figurative, forcible forcible and elegant. He has many many metaphors stand most in need of such ornaments.” ornaments .” (Axford, 241) Notable Not able figures figures as Voltaire, JeanJaques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant rhapsodized about the literary aesthetics and phil philosophi osophical insi insights ghts of the poem. poem. Even Even the recent recent critics critics have have attempted attempted to rehabi rehabili litate tate the status of o f this poem in the canon by shiftin shifting g the attention att ention from theological controversies to “the language and ideas in terms of the genre of philosophical poetry poetr y.”

7.3 .1 Epistle I:Of I:Of the Natur Naturee and State State of of Man, with respect respect to to the Universe In the opening o pening Epistle Epistle I of An of An Essay Essay on Man, Pope expatiates expat iates on the scene of Man which appears a “mighty “mighty maze” an absurd existence existence without a plan. In his exploration of this wild forest forest of Life Life of Man he catches the manners of men. His close close look loo k only reveals the imperfect world wor ld where Man is caught in endless conflicts. Man is is only a part of whole and therefore can see only a part and not the whole. All the same Pope feels that man cannot be dubbed as imperfect , but he is a Being Being best suited to t o the position in creation in the general Order of o f things. things. It is only in his Pride lies the error. The poet tries t ries to understand underst and the ways of the Creator Creat or as well. He feels that Almighty Almighty acts only o nly by general laws. But “all subsists in elemental strife.” strife.” In spite spite of the apparent confusion there is a hidden hidden Purpose Purpo se even in the creation of o f a small small insect insect and therefore t herefore all accept Providence to be good goo d or wise in both what He gives or denies. A scrutini scrut inizing zing glance at a bee shows how it miraculous miraculously ly extracts extract s the healing dews even from poisonous herbs. he rbs. The theory theo ry of Leibniz Leibniz finds finds its echo in the first epistle in the lines: Vast chain c hain of Being, which from God began, bega n, Natures Natures aethereal aethereal,, human, human, angel angel,, man, man, Beast, bird, fish, fish, insect! … From Nature’ Natur e’ss chain whatever link you stride, Tenth or ten thousandth, thousandt h, breaks the chain alike. alike.

(Epistle I, St.VIII, St.VII I, 5-14)

In the first first few lines, Pope de deliberates liberates on the fruitlessness fru itlessness of life life and feels that man has no choice: man comes to it, looks out o ut and then dies. What he sees as he looks out on “the scene of man” is a “mi “mighty ghty maze!” But Pope Po pe does doe s not think t hink this complexity complexity of existence existence is “without a plan.” Man might might sort so rt through thro ugh the maze because bec ause he has a marvelous mental faculty, faculty, 92


that of o f reason; man can determi deter mine ne the nature natur e of the world wo rld in which which he lives; lives; he can see that t hat all things have bearings, ties and strong connections c onnections and “nice dependencies.” He, who thro’ vast immensity immensity can pierce, See worlds on worlds compose one o ne universe, universe, Observe how system syst em into into system syste m runs, What other planets circle other suns,

(Epistle I, St.I, 7-10)

... Look’d thro’? thro ’? or can a part contain the whole? Is the great chain that draws all a ll to agree, a gree, And, drawn rawn,, su suppor pports ts - uph upheld eld by God or thee thee??

(Epi Epistl stle I, St.I St.I,, 1616-18 18))

In his next next stanza, Pope P ope makes reference to presumptuous man and wonders why anyone is disturbed because becaus e he cannot canno t immediately immediately figure figure out all of the mysteries mysteries with which he is presented. There are many things which which are beyond our comprehension. It cannot be expected that one o ne part of o f existence existence (man) (man) should understand all the other parts, he then continues: continues: As of thy mother Earth, why oaks are made Tall aller or stron trong ger tha than the the weed eeds the they shade. de.

(Epi (Epist stlle I, St.I St.II, I, 5-6) -6)

... And all that rises, r ises, rise in due degree; degr ee; Then, in the sale of reas’nin r eas’ning g life, life, ’tis plain Ther Theree must ust be, be, som somew ewhe here re,, such such a rank rank as Man. Man.

(Epi (Epistl stlee I, St.II St.II,, 1212-14 14 )

... When the dull ox, why now he breaks the clod, Is now a victim, and now Egypt’s god, -

(Epistle I, St.II, 29-30)

Well the fact is, man cannot cannot expect to t o understand underst and everything in this this world as to why oaks are stronger stro nger than weeds or o x is sometimes sometimes a victim victim and sometimes sometimes worshipped as a God. ...Then ... Then say not Man’ M an’ss imperfect, Heav’n Heav ’n in in fault, Say rather Man’s Man’s as perfect as he ought: oug ht: His knowledge measur’d measur’d to his state and place, His time a moment, and a point his space. 93


(Epistle I, St St.II, 35-38)

In the third third stanza, Pope P ope praises Nature by saying saying “Heav’n from all creatures hides the book of o f fate,” fate,” and continues to express his admiration admiration of different different aspects aspec ts of Nature Natur e which like like the lamb which continues continues to remain remain jubilant jubilant and energetic despite the fact that t hat it was to be slaughtered that very day. day. As As far as God is considered he sees everything with an equal eye. The lamb thy riot riot dooms to bleed to-day to -day,, Had he thy reason, would w ould he skip and play? Pleas’d to the last he crops the flow’ry food, food, And licks licks the hand just rais’d rais’d to shed his blood.

(Epistle I, St.III, 5-8)

... Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, all, A hero perish, or a sparrow fall, Atoms or systems into into ruin hurl’d, And now a bubble bubble burst, and now a world.

(Epistle I, St.III, 11-14 )

The religiosity religiosity in Pope is revealed when he refers to the t he “great teacher t eacher Death” Deat h” and Pope’s Pope ’s most most famous lines are when he relies on Hope to t o sustain sust ain him him through throu gh thick and thin. Hope springs s prings eternal in the human breast; Man never is, is, but always always to be blest: The soul sou l uneasy and confin’d from home, Rest and expatiates in a life life to come.

(Epistle (Epistle I, St.III, 19-22)

Next, Pope deals deals with native native people people of the uncivi uncivili lized zed territories of the world, and how they do not get hung up on o n such large questions as are expressed express ed in Pope’s Pope’s essay. The simple simple is just content co ntent to t o be without withou t making any demands from anyone. Lo, the poor poo r Indian! Indian! whose untutor’d untuto r’d mind mind Sees God Go d in clouds, or hears hea rs him in the wind; His soul proud Science never never taught to t o stray Far as the solar walk or milky way; Yet simpl s implee Nature Natur e to his hope has giv’n, Behind the cloud-topp’d cloud-t opp’d hill, hill, a humbler humbler heav’n; Some safer world in depth of o f woods embrac’d, Some happier island in the wat’ry wat ’ry waste, 94


Where slaves once more their t heir native land land behold, No fiend fiendss torment, torment, no Christi Christians ans thirst thirst for gold! gold! To be, contents cont ents his natural desire; He asks no angel’s angel’s wing, no seraph’s ser aph’s fire: fire: But thin t hings, gs, admitted to that equal sky, His faithful dog shall bear him company.

(Epistle I, St.III, St.II I, 23 -36)

Pope has very succinctly succinctly pointed pointed out o ut that even though man is is part of a larger setting, a part of nature nature and depends depends on nature for his his very substance, substance, and yet, treats treats her roughly roughly. Destroy all creatures for thy t hy sport or gust, Yet cry, cry, if Man’s unhappy, God’s unjust;

(Epistle I, St.IV, 5-6)

... Ask for what end e nd the heav’nly bodies shine, Earth for whose use, Pride Pr ide answers, “’Tis for mine! “For me kind Nature wakes her genial genial pow’r, “Suckles each herb and spreads out ev’ry flow’r;

(Epistle I, St.V, St.V, 1-4)

Pope Pop e asserts assert s that man is ruled from within, within, by his reason reaso n and by his his passion. Better Bette r for us, perhaps, it mi might ght appear, appea r, Were there t here are ar e harmony, harmony, all a ll virtue virtue here; her e; That never air or ocean felt the wind; That never passion pass ion discompos discompos’d ’d the mind. mind. But all subsists by elemental strife; And passions are a re the elements of o f life. life. The gen’ral Order since the whole began Is kept in Nature, and is kept in Man.

(Epistle I, St.V, St.V, 35-42)

Passion may be equated to instinct; instinct; and instinct is the sole guide gu ide of animals. animals. Instinct is all that animals animals need as evolution evolutio n has fitted each ea ch animal to his home environment, unlike man who is in want of o f “the strength strengt h of bulls, bulls, the fur of bears.” It is only man man who is not pleased with God’s blessings. Here with degrees of swiftness, there of o f force: force: All in exact exact proportion propo rtion to the t he state; 95


Nothing Nothing to add, add, and nothing nothing to abate. abate. Each beast, beast , each insect, happy in its its own: ow n: Is Heav’n unkind unkind to Man, and Man alone? Shall he alone, whom rational rat ional we call, Be pleas’d with nothing, if not bless’d with all? all?

(Epistle I, St.VI, 10-16)

Again, Pope Pop e emphasizes emphasizes how nature has perfected itself and many of its creations and there ther e is a variety. variety. The spider’s tough how exquisitely fine! Feels at each thread, thread , and lives along along the th e line: line: In the nice bee, what sense so subtly true From pois’nous herbs extracts the healing healing dew?

(Epistle I, St.VII, St.VII , 11-14)

In the last line of Pope’s Pop e’s first first epistle, he bangs home ho me the importance importanc e of the “ruling mind” mind” of nature, that t hat while some parts might seem to us to be absurd, it is part of the “general frame” frame” that all of nature, including including ourselves, are but “parts “part s of one o ne stupendous whole.” This whole body of nature is through thro ugh all life life and extends extend s throughout throughou t all of the universe universe and “operate “o peratess unspent.” Pope Po pe concludes co ncludes his his first first epistle: Safe in the hand of o f one disposing Pow’r, Or in the natal, or the moral mora l hour. All Nature Natur e is but Art, unknown to thee; All chance, direction, which thou canst not no t see All All discord, harmony not understood, understo od, All partial part ial evil, universal good: goo d: And, spite of pride, in erring reason’ reaso n’ss spite, One truth is clear, clear, whatever is, is right.

(Epistle (Epistle I, St.X, 7-14)

Thus in the whole of this visible visible world, a universal order and a nd gradation gradat ion in the sensual and mental faculties faculties is observed. And in in this this Order all the creatures creatur es appear subordinate to man. And when probed into the inner inner life life of man, there is is yet yet another gradation gradat ion and there the order begins from the sense, sense, and moves on to instinct, instinct, thought, reflection and reason; Reason emerges supreme. The first epistl ep istlee of o f Alexander Alexander Pope’s P ope’s Ess Essay ay on Man can Man can be considered an articulation of the Enli E nlightenment ghtenment because it encompasses three major major concerns co ncerns of the people peo ple during the Enlightenment. Enlightenment. Pope Po pe addresses addresse s man’s man’s ability ability to reason and thin t hink k for himself, himself, he questions que stions the 96


church and the t he nature of Christianity Christianity,, and he also speculates abo about ut man’s man’s place in the world, wo rld, as a part of the great g reat chain of life. life. Pope’ Po pe’ss “Essay on Man” was written during du ring the Enlightenment, Enlightenment, and reflects the attitudes and inquisitions inquisitions of the people who lived lived during this time. Pope addresses a ddresses man’s man’s ability ability to reason, reason being being the t he central focus of o f the Enlightenment. Enlightenment. He also qu questions estions the church, and examines the structure of o f the Universe, Universe, both topics t opics of which were concerns to peopl peoplee duri during the Enl Enlight ighten enm ment. ent. The The first irst epistl epistlee of “Ess “Essay ay on Man” Man” can serv servee as an artic articul ulati ation on of the Enlightenmen Enlightenmentt because it not only expresses the views that were of concern to Pope, but also to the people of his time.

7.3.2 Epistle II: Of the Nature and State State of Man as an Individual At this crucial stage in his his argument Pope tries to explain that life life is both both created creat ed and destroyed dest royed by its own anarchic energies. Epistle II opens on o n a tumultuous note not e trying to capture the inexpli inexplicable cable contradictions in man’s life. life. Man is is “darkly wise” wise” and “rudely great” great ” “born to die” yet reasoning only to err. “the passive voice—‘plac’d in in this isthmus …’ ‘created half to ris e…’he certainly puts the emphasis emphasis on man; the active ‘placing’ ‘placing’ and ‘creating’ are suggested nevertheless, and and they strike curious overtones overto nes when the issue of final final ends emerges. For what seems at first sight only a commonplace—‘Born commonplace—‘Born but to die and reas’ning reas’ning but to err’—looks rather differen differentt when its ambiguous syntax is echoed a few lines later in ‘created half to rise, and half to fall’.” (O,Neill 45) He is caught in a chaos of thought thou ght and passion. Each man man seems to be overwhelmed overw helmed by a master Passion P assion which flows flows in body and soul. When Mankind is is viewed as a whole it becomes clear that weakness or o r imperfection imperfection are common to both king or a commoner alike. alike. But the beauty of Creation is is that heaven seems seems to have formed formed each on other to depend whether it be a master or a servant or friend and in this this endless cycle of exi existence stence man hope for a better state s tate which which travels through. Man, during that brief interlude interlude between birth and death, experiences a “chaos of thought and a nd passion, all confus’d.” confus’d.” He finds on earth the “Great lord o f all all things, yet a prey to all.” Man’s Man’s function, Pope Pop e concludes, is to make “a proper study of manki mankind” nd” ; man man is to know hims himsel elf. f. What What man will will come to know is that he is ruled by passion; passion is the ruler and reason reas on it’s counsellor. Alas what wonder! Man’s superior part Uncheck’d may rise and climb climb from art to art; art ; But when his own great work wor k is but begun, What Reason weaves, by Passion is undone. It is in the nature of man to first first serve himself himself;; but, on account acco unt of reason, he does do es so keeping the t he future in mind. Two Principles in human human nature reign; Self-love Self-love,, to urge, and Reason, to restrain; restrain; ...

97


(Epistle (Epistle II, St.II, 1-2)

Self-love Self-love still st ill stronger, stro nger, as its objects o bjects nigh; Reason’s Reason’s at distance, and in prospect lie: lie:

(Epistle II, St.II, 18-19)

A person perso n is driven by passion, driven by his desire for pleasure; temptation tempt ation is strong stro ng and passion is “thicker than arguments.” However, a person soon learns through bitter experience that one o ne cannot let his or her passions run wild wild and that one o ne has to maintain a restraint over o ver one’s emotions. Passions, tho’ tho ’ selfish, selfish, if their means be fair, fair, List under reason, and deserve her care ... On life’s life’s vast ocean oce an diversely we sail, s ail, Reason the card, but passion is the gale; ... Love, Hope, and Joy, fair Pleasure’s smilin smiling g train, t rain, Hate, Fear, and Grief, the t he family family of Pain, These mix’d with art, and a nd to due bounds bo unds confi co nfin’d, n’d, Make and maintain the balance of the mind: mind:

(Epistle II, St.III, St. III, 5-28)

Pope’s Pop e’s theme is again repeated: repeate d: the two driving forces of man are his reason and his passion. passion. However, However, passion passion is the king king and reason but a “weak “weak queen.” queen.” What can she more than tell t ell us we are fools? Teach us to mourn our nature, not to mend. mend. A sharp accuser but a helpless helpless friend! friend!

(Epistle II, St.III, 61-63)

Reason ,”the’ , ”the’ Eternal Ete rnal Art, educing edu cing good from ill”, ill”, is not a guide but a guard. guar d. Passion Pass ion is the “mightier “mightier pow’r.” Envy, Envy, Pope Po pe points po ints out as an aside, is something something that can be possessed only by those who are “learn’d or brave.” Ambition: Ambition: “can destroy or save, and makes a patriot patr iot as it makes a knave.” According to Pope, it soon becomes clear one should sho uld not necessarily consider that t hat envy and ambition ambition are in themselves wrong. They are moving forces in a person perso n and if properly guided, can serve a person well. As, in some well-wroug well-wrought ht picture, light light and shade And oft so mix, the diff’rence is too nice, Where ends the virtue, or begins the vice.

(Epistle II, St.III, 117-119)

... 98


Virtuo Virtuous us and vicious vicious ev’ry man must be, Few in the extreme, but all in the degree; .

(Epistle II, St.III, St.II I, 140-141) 140-141 )

Each person pers on is driven by self-love, self-love, but on o n the same occasion “each on the other ot her to depend, a master, or a servant, or a friend, friend, bids each on ot her for assistance call.” call.” Each person seeks his his own happiness, happiness, seeks seeks his his own contentme contentment; nt; each is proud in what he or she has achieved, no matter what another perso p erson n might might think of those achievements. None of us should be critical of another person’ perso n’ss choice in life, life, as no one knows for certain certa in what is right and what is wrong. The fool is happy happy that he knows no more; The rich is happy in the plenty given, The poor contents him with with the care of Heaven, See the t he blind blind beggar dance, the t he cripple cripple sing The sot a hero, hero , lunatic a king; king; The starving st arving chemist in his his golden views Supremel Supre mely y bless’d, the poet in his Muse. .

(Epistle II, St.III, St. III, 173-179) 173-1 79)

In explici explicitt language Pope has pointed out that the child child does not demand or expect much :he is happy with the simplest things in life life and responds responds very ve ry innocently to any stimulation.. Behold the t he child, by nature’ natur e’ss kindly law, law, Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw: Some livelier livelier plaything give his youth yout h delight, A little louder, but as empty quite: Scarfs, garters, gold, amuse his riper stage, And beads and prayer-books are the t he toys of age: Pleased with this bauble still, still, as that before, Till Till tired he sleeps, and life’ life’ss poor poo r play is o’er. .

(Epistle II, St.III, St.II I, 184-191) 184-191 )

The message in this Epistle II is that Man has to study st udy himself himself and not pry into the affairs affairs of God for His ways ways are inscrutable. inscrutable. Pope studies the powers and frailti frailties es of man. The two dominating d ominating principles are Self-love and Reason Reaso n both of which seem necessary necessar y in man’s man’s life. life. Self love is likened likened to the tendency te ndency of heavenly heavenly bodies bodies to keep ke ep moving and reason to the t he force of gravitation that is necessary to hold them in in their orbits. orbits. The other important point po int in Epistle Epistle II is that Man has to imitate imitate the t he creative act of Good in ordering the ‘chaos.”

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7.3 .3 Epistle III: Of the the Nature Nature and State State of of Man, with with respect respect to Society The idea of an inextricable inextricable bond continues co ntinues in Epistle III where wher e he calls calls it a “chain of Love Combin Co mbining ing all below and all above.” The whole Universe is a system of society societ y. And man is is the only intellectual intellectual being in the terrestr ter restrial ial system. system. Yet he cannot live live in isolation isolation – nothing is made for itself, itself, nor yet wholly for another; Pope’ Po pe’ss opinion is is that man is made for the animals animals just as the t he animals animals for man. It is in mutual wants there is mutual mutual happiness. The Order runs “creature “creatur e link’d link’d to creature, creat ure, man to man.” And the chain continues even if only link link “dissolves, “dissolves, each seeks a fresh embrace, another anot her love succeeds, another race.” Know, Nature’s Natu re’s children children all divide divide her care; c are; The fur that warms a monarch, warm’d a bear.

(Epistle III, St.I, 43-44)

Man cares for all: to birds he gives gives his woods, woo ds, To beasts his pastures, pastur es, and to fish fish his floods;

(Epistle III, St.I, St.I , 58-59) 58-59 )

Pope returns, in his third Epistle, to his ever present theme, all is natural in nature nature and man is is a part of nature. He first observes how “plastic” nature is, how everything is dependant on one and the other, ot her, is attracted to t o one and the other, ot her, down even to “single “single atoms.” ato ms.” Everything “it’s “it’s neighbour to embrace.” embrace .” While While Pope Po pe did not do so, he might just as easily have have observed that things in nature repel re pel one another, ano ther, equally so. All things, in the final analysis, analysis, are held in the balance, balance, suspended, suspended, so it seems, seems, between the two great great forces forces of attraction attraction and repulsi repulsion. on. All forms that perish other forms supply, (By turns we catch the t he vital breath, and die) Like bubbles bubbles on the t he sea a matter borne, bo rne, They rise, rise, they break, and to that sea return Nothing Nothing is is foreign; foreign; parts relate relate to whole: .

(Epistle III, St.I, St.I, 17-21)

Then, Pope Pop e picks up once again his theme of the ruling principles, principles, reason and passion. Here in his third third Epistle, Ep istle, he refers to instinct as “the unerring guide” that reason often fails us, though sometim so metimes es “serves when press’d.” But honest instinct instinct comes a volunteer vo lunteer,, Sure never to o’ershoot, but just to hit, While While still to wide or short is human wit; Sure by quick nature happiness to gain, g ain, 100


Which heavier reason reaso n labour at in vain. .

(Epistle III, St .II, 10-14 )

Instinct can be seen at work throughout nature, for example, example, “Who make the spider paralle parallels ls design design ... without without rule rule or line?” ine?” Not just just the spider spider does things things by insti instinct, nct, man does. The obvi o bvious ous example is his artistic work, but man’s man’s instincts serve him on a much broader range. Many of our daily chores are .done mechanically mechanically without any thought as it were. Pope then deals with family family units in the animal animal kingdom versus human beings. The fact of the matter matt er is, family family units do not count for much in the anim animal al kingdom, at any rate, not for long. However, famil family y connections for human beings extend over a long period, per iod, indeed, over o ver a lifetime. lifetime. These family family feelings feelings are important import ant for the t he development and cohesion cohesion of the family. family. Thus beast and bird their common charge attend, The mothers nurse it, and the t he sires defend: The young dismiss’d dismiss’d to wander earth eart h or air, There stops the t he instinct, instinct, and there t here ends the care; The link dissolves, dissolves, each seeks a fresh embrace, embrace, Another love succeeds, another race. A longer longer care man’s helpless kind demands; That longer care contracts contra cts more lasting bands: bands: Reflection, Reflection, reason, still the ties improve,…. improve,…. Still spread the interest, interest, and preserved the kind. . (Epistle III, St III, 17-38) Pope then, continuin co ntinuing g with his his third Epistle, returns to t o his principle principle and the power of o f nature. Nature Nat ure is a “driving “driving gale,” a fact which can be observed in “the voice of nature” and which which we can learn from the birds and the beasts. It was the power po wer of nature that t hat built built the t he “ant’s “ant’s republic and the realm of bees.” Pope P ope observes “anarchy without confusion.” It is the same voice of nature by which which men evolved and “cities were built, built, societies were made.” That while men men in the gradual and slow build-up ravished r avished one another anot her with war, it was ccommerce ommerce that brought brou ght about abou t civili civilization. zation. Men came to new countries with war-like intentions, intentions, but soon became became frien friends ds when they realize realized d there was much much more profit profit in trade. Such is the world’ wo rld’ss great harmony, harmony, that springs From order, ord er, union, full consent of things: Where small and great, gre at, where weak and mighty made To serve, not suffer, suffer, strengthen, not no t invade; More pow’rful po w’rful each as needful to the rest, And in proportion as it blesses, blest; blest; 101


Draw to one point, and to one centre bring Beast, man, or angel, servant, lord, or king. .

(Epistle III, St.VI, St. VI, 81-88)

Pope makes a side observat observation ion that whil w hilee government is necessary necess ary,, its form is of less importance, importance, what is important important,, is a good go od administration: administration: For forms of government let foo fools ls contest; Whate’er is best administer’d administer’d is best: .

(Epistle III, St.VI, 89-90 )

Pope Pop e then concludes con cludes in his his third Epistle, emphasizing that regard reg ard for oneself ones elf and his his family family has to be different than regard for fo r the whole who le of society, society, that nature “link’d the gen’ral frame and bade self-love self-love and social be the same.” The other o ther exceptional excep tional factors are that while while man is the only o nly animal animal whose faculties enable enable him to apprehend the approach of death, yet he continues to perform his his duties. The poet then points out that Reason Reaso n or Instinct Instinct operate operat e only for the good of each individual individual and they also also operate operat e for the functionin functioning g of a society . But throughout Pope adopts ado pts the view that instinct instinct is the direct powe powerr of God acting in anim animals, als, and therefore superior in its accuracy to t o reason. reaso n. “The eff e ffects ects of animal animal instinct instinct may be employed as evidence either of of a contriving mind, mind, or of a providenti pro vidential al care, in the Creator. They are here adduced in neither point point of view view,, but to show the equable equable distri distributi bution on of the means means by which which the great end of the universe universe is attained; the means bein being g reason in man, instinct instinct in anim animals.” als.” (Butt, 528) Pope asks men to receive instruction from creatures Like birds, beasts – Learn from the birds what food the thickets th ickets yield; Thy arts of building building from the bee receive; .

(Epistle III, St.IV St.I V, 27-28 )

Then Pope discusses how reason enables man to carry out all his his actions in Nature. He is of the view that reason reaso n is instru instructed cted by instinct in the invention of Art. At this juncture he takes take s an opportunity oppo rtunity to discuss how “cities were build build and societies were made,” made,” the forms of societies, origin of political societies, origin of monarchy, how “by Nature crown’d, each Patriarch sate, King, King, priest, and parent of his growing state.” Pope concludes co ncludes on a note it is love that binds the Universe. The love of vine and elm is a fine fine example and the t he Newton’ Newto n’ss principle of attractive attr active force holding ho lding the planets in their orbits is yet another example demonstrating demonstr ating the “diffusive “diffusive love of God.” Thus the third third Epistle holds the key tto o the t he central theme of much of the ethical writing in in Pope’s time.

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7.3.4 Epistle IV: Of the Nature and the State of Man, with respect to Happiness Happiness seems to be the end of all human beings beings and is attainable att ainable by all. Pope Pop e removes the false notions of happiness because the t he learned blindly blindly dispute where happiness hap piness can be found. Pope hints that happiness does not dwell in extremes but in right thinking thinking and in good intentions. Happiness is common to all and “the Universal Universal cause acts not by partial, but by general general laws.”: aws.”: There There is inequal inequaliity in the external external reality reality;; some are placed placed highe higherr than others other s in wealth, wisdom and in in power. But power and wealth do not bring about happiness in the lives lives of people. But on the contrary, cont rary, Reason’ Reaso n’ss whole pleasure, all the joys joys of Sense, Lie in in three words, Health, Peace, Pea ce, and Competence. The balance of human happiness is kept equal by Hope and Fear. Pope brings out the importance of goodness good ness or virtue. A virtuous virtuous man is is never unhappy. unhappy. A good man man may be we weak ak but but he is conten content. t. To whom can Riches give Repute, or Trust,Content, or Pleasure, but the Good and Just? (IV(IV- 185-186)But none can expect God to alter His general rules for the sake a few particulars. Evil does not come from God. Evil must be understood understo od in the right perspective. perspect ive. Cyclones do not stop nor volcanoes cease to erupt just because a good man is is passing passing by. by. The external goods are not the t he proper rewards and is often destructive of Virtue. Virtue. Virtue does do es get prize which is “the soul’s soul’s calm sun-shine, and the heart-felt joy…” joy…” To the view view that virtue suffers suffers but the vice vice is materially rewarded, rewarde d, Pope responds befittingly. What then? Is the t he reward of Virtue Virtue bread? bread ? (IV 150) And the V Virtue irtue only o nly constitutes constitut es a happiness, whose object is universal and and whose prospect pro spect eternal et ernal and only in in conformity to the Order of Providence. Happiness is is totall tot ally y above earthly considerations and can not be destroyed destro yed by the things things of the earth. earth. In this this world world where where happi happines nesss is transi transitory tory,, it is not worth worryin worrying g about fame but even a single moment that we can ca n spend with reason reaso n thinking well of ourselves in more worthy wort hy than all all the loud praises we receive. receive. Pope has given a lot lot of attention attent ion to the concluding portions of his poems. It was his favourite favourite method to close with an “intense “intense quiet reflective passage, uniting himself himself or more often the ‘Muse” to the t he theme or perso n of his his poem.” poem.” (Till (Tillotson, otson, 59) Pope gives gives a befi befitting tting conclusi conclusion on to the the splendi splendid d speed of the fourth and the last Epistles: That Virtue only makes our Bliss Bliss below; And all our Knowledge is, OURSEL OURSE LVES TO KNOW KNOW.. Thus Self Knowledge is the Ultimate and thus Pope echoes the Biblical advice to mankind: “Know Thyself.” Thyself.” Here, Pope is least least religious religious but is “unmystical, “unmystical, unquestioning,

103


urbane” like Swift in his his Sermons; Ser mons; the anxiety that Pope Pop e and his family family suffered suffered in the first years of George I’s rei reign gn had lasting impact impact on o n the poet. poe t. Pope was attacked at tacked by Racine for for his deistical leanings. He was a humanist to be embroiled in systematic theology theo logy.. Pope is cautiously optimistic optimistic in conveying conveying that like a poet, poet , God judiciously balances balances all the opposing extremes extre mes and thus creates harmony harmo ny that will embrace ‘‘the ‘‘the Whole.’ This T his thought thou ght leaves this piece piece “an affi affirm rmati ative ve poem of faith faith.” .” In is apparen apparentl tly y chaoti chaoticc univer universe se there there a divi divinel nely y ordered ordered plan. plan. F.R. Leavis Le avis in his Revaluation says: ‘An understanding underst anding of basic moral values is not a claim claim one need be concerned to make for a poet, but that Pope’s relation to “basic “basic moral values” of the civilization civilization he belonged to was no mere matter of o f formal slute and outward out ward deference has been sufficiently shown above, in the discussion of the close of Epistle IV. When Pope contemplates co ntemplates the bases aand nd essential conditions of Augustan Augustan culture his imaginati imagination on fires fires to a creative glow glow that produces what is poetry even by Romantic Romantic standards His contemplation is religious in its seriousness.’

7. 7.4

Major Th Themes

The major themes include include the belief in the existence existence of God, God , the Master Planner, the Supreme Supre me Architect, the general behaviour of o f human beings, the way the universe functions and the role ro le of humans humans in it and the capacity ca pacity of government which is primarily primarily responsibl respo nsiblee for promotin promoting g the the happi happines nesss of the citiz citizens ens.. The ideas ideas are ethic ethical al,, phil philosoph osophiical and and even even poli political tical.. Whether Pope fully fully agreed or not, no t, it is quite clear that he has introduced an assortment of o f traditional trad itional views and the philoso philosophical phical positions pos itions popular during his time. time. So the work turns tu rns out to be mosaic of ideas from from Aristotle, Aristotle, Horace, Bo ileau ileau and others o thers who inspired Pope. Thus the ideas are borrowed from both the medieval and renaissance thinker which Pope has altered to suit his his poetic purpose. Pope expresses his his views on nature. nature . Nature Natur e is presented present ed as i) a “quasi-deity,” unchanging, infalli infallible ble and ‘divinely ‘divinely bright’; ii) ii) a “Life, “Life, force and beauty” and so a source of power, iii) iii) the source of art for it provides provides the rules rules and remai remains ns a fountain fountain of energy energy;; iv) iv) an yardstick yardst ick for for judgement “your judgement frame/By her just standard”;and standard ”;and v) finally finally,, nature is art and art nature. Pope Pop e elaborate disquisition on Nature Natur e is present in many many places places in this work. J.M. Cameron rightly rightly points out that Pope “aims at Nature Natur e must simultaneously simultaneously be God, the t he world, the soul of the world, the rules for the production of art, t he standards of the critic, a reservoir of cosmi cos micc energy, energy, the inspiration inspiration of the poet.” (’Neill, (’Neill, 60) The central centra l idea idea is the one that t hat runs through t hrough the poem po em which is is that this t his Universe Universe has an Order (in spite of its apparent chaos) and it is coherent, well knit knit and the t he natural laws are designed by the Creator. The metaphysical metaphysical doctrine of The Great Chain of Being Being brings brings to focus the t he unity in in the natural nat ural world with its own o wn hierarchy beginning beginning with the insects, plants and ending with the angels. angels. Pope wants us to believe believe that this Perfect design is not understood by man who has his limitat limitations ions because becaus e of his own pride and intellectual intellect ual deficiencies. Only when 104


man becomes humble realizing realizing his own insignifi insignificance cance in this great canvass canva ss of Creation that t hat man can lead a virtuous virtuo us and happy happ y life. life.

7.5

Let Us Sum Up

It is important important to t o acknowledge the exceptional contribution of Pope to the t he English English language and poetry. He displayed displayed a mastery of using words with absolute precision which brings brings out the meani meaning ng in a concis concisee manner anner adding adding a rich richness ness to langu language. age. “Pope might might have have presented An Essay on Man in prose, if if prose had been, among other things, things, as concise concise as verse.” (Tillotson (Tillotson ,102). He is is concise with ease. Pope’s mastery mastery of the English English language and Latinate Latinate phrases are commendable. commendable. But the rather not too very encouraging remarks remarks which An which An Essay on Man has Man has received received does not escape the reader’s attention. Many find find the reasonings reaso nings in the Essay confusing, contradictory contradict ory and even childish. One feels that there is is an element of truth in what Johnson has said – “’Never was penury of knowledge and vulgarity vulgar ity of sentiment so happily disguised.’” (O’Neill, 44) Brower Bro wer finds finds a tension tensio n betw between een philoso philosophy phy and sensibil sensibility ity.. Leaving aside the critical critical views, it should be remembered that Pope has attempted the impossible; impossible; of trying to capture the t he whole of Universal Order within within the canvas of just just four Epistles. And here one observes the tension between betwee n the poet’s desire to believe in an ideal, universal and tra transcendent nscendent Order Or der which all men men should serve and the more alluring, vital actual actu al world with its its myriad myriad contradictions contrad ictions around him. him. Pope Pop e is is too quick to condemn conde mn man with with his “Presumptuo “Presumptuous us man!”, “Vile “Vile worm” “Thou fool” but he is unable unable to ignore the gift of God -reasonin -reaso ning g power pow er in man which which guides the Passions and gives “edge and power;. powe r;. Pope observes o bserves the other curious co ntradictions ntradictions such ad the benevolence benevolence of nature which which ultimately feeds feeds on destru de struction ction and the value of o f an Eternal Art that amuses itself by creating creat ing “Illusionary “Illusionary ‘baubles’ to keep k eep us happily bemused.” We do see that the t he poet responds respo nds to this t his extremes in an assertive assertive way; “All Nature is but Art, unknown to thee.”Laugh where we must, be candi candid where where we can; But vindi vindicate cate the ways ways of God to Man; Man; With the introduction ntroduction of the ‘but’ here Pope has made tthe he reader understand under stand that t hat the more we ponder, po nder, varied is is significance significance of that ‘but.’ It is important to note that Pope has not inserted any useless digressions, instead instead using a concise and highly highly figurative language he has artfully artfu lly inserted metaphors. metap hors. Byron calls Pope Pop e ‘the moral poet poe t of all civilization.” civilization.” He observes obse rves the faultlessness of his verse and the excellence or even the perfection in the variety variety one finds in his poetry poe try which which encompass the pastoral, pastoral, passion passion,, mock heroic, heroic, transl translation ations, s, satire satire and ethics. ethics.

7.6 7.6

Review Questions

1.

Why was was the the Age Age of Pope Pope cam camee to to be be know known n as as the the Augusta ugustan n Age? Age?

2.

What hat are are the the uni unique que cha chara ract cter eriisti stics of Pope Pope’’s poet poetry ry??

3.

Bri Bring out out the the cen centra tral idea of the the poe poem An Essay Essay on Man Man?

4.

How dive divers rsee wer weree the the vi view ewss of the the cri criti tics cs with with rega regard rd to thi this poem poem?? 105


7. 7

Bibliography

1

Amar Amaras asiinghe nghe,, U Upa palli. Dry Dryden and and Pope Pope in the the ear earlly nine ninetee teent nth h cent centur ury y. London London:: Cambridge University Press, 1962 1 962

2.

Butt, Butt, Joh John, n, ed. ed. The The Poem Poemss of of Alex Alexan ander der Pope. Pope. London London:: Meth Methue uen n Co. Co. Ltd., Ltd., 196 1963. 3.

3.

Dyson, on, H.V.O. .O. Pop Pope: Poe Poetry and Prose ose. Oxford: Clarendon Clarendon Press, 1957. 1 957.

4.

Gran Grant, t, Dougl Douglas as.. Poem Poem: Selec Selected ted Poems. Poems. Londo London: n: Oxf Oxford Uni Univers versiity Press Press,, 1965 1965..

5.

O’Neill, Jud Judith. th. Critic tics on Pope ope. Great Britain: George Allen Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1968.

6.

Russo, Russo, John John Paul Paul. Alex Alexand ander er Pope: Pope: Tradi Traditi tion on and and Iden Identi tity ty.. U.S.A U.S.A:: Ha Harv rvar ard d Uni Univer versi sity ty Press, 1972.

7.

Til Tillotson, otson, Ge Georg orge. e. On the the Poetry Poetry of Pope. Pope. Oxfo Oxford: rd: Clar Claren endon don Prss, Prss, 1959. 1959.

8.

Trott, rott, Anton ntony y, & Mart Martiin Axfor xford. d. Eds. Eds. Alex Alexan ande derr Pope Pope.. Great Britain: Br itain: Macmillan Macmillan Co. Ltd., 1966.

9.

H.W. Boynton. Ed. The Complete Poetical Works of Alexander Pope, Student’s Cambridge Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1903 ___________

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UNIT-8 COLERIDGE : BIOGRAP BIOGRAPHIA HIA LITERARI LITERARIA A Structure 8. 0

Objectives

8. 1

Introduction

8. 2

About th the Author

8. 3

About the Age

8.4 8.4

Introd trodu uction tion to the the Text 8.4.1 8.4.1

Deta De taiiled Des Descr criiption tion

8.4.2

Cri Critics tics on Biogr Biograp aphi hiaa Liter Literati aties es

8.4 8.4.3

Glossary

8. 5

Let Us Sum Up

8. 6

Review Questions

8. 7

Bibliography

8. 0

O b j e ct i v e s

The unit familiarizes familiarizes students student s with 

the contents of Biogra of Biographia phia Literaria Literaria



the concept co ncept of Imagination Imagination and Fancy



the concept conc ept of o f Primary Primary and Secondary Imagination



the various aspects of poem, poet and poetic diction



critics on Biogra on Biographia phia Literaria Literaria

8. 1

I ntroduction

Biographia Biographia Literaria Literaria is is a combined combined work wo rk of autobiography auto biography,, philosophy and literary criticism. The work is long and seemingly loosely structured, structur ed, and although there are autobiographical elements, elements, it is not a straightforward or linear linear autobiography. autobiography. It presents Coleridge’s theories of the creative imagination, but its debt to other writers, notably the German idealist idealist philosophers, philosophe rs, is often so heavy that the line between legitimate legitimate borrow bor rowing ing and plagiarism plagiarism becomes blurred. blurred. This This borrowing borrowing tendency, tendency, evident evident also also in in some of his poetry, together tog ether with Coleridge’ Co leridge’ss notorious noto rious inability inability to finish finish projects—and pro jects—and his proposal propo sal of impract impractical ical 107


ones—made him a problematic figure. figure. The purpose of writing writing Biographia Literaria Literaria was to examine the long continued debate concerni co ncerning ng the true nature nat ure of o f poetic diction and to discuss with utmost impartiality impartiality the real poetic character o off the poet. Even while while at school, schoo l, his his master taught taug ht him to prefer p refer simpli simplicity city and austerity in in poetry to gaudiness and and decoration and the students stud ents were taught to t o use simple simple words in place of high high sounding expressions. He also learnt that in truly great poets there was a reason reaso n assignable assignable not only o nly for every word but for the t he position of every word. A considerable considerable part of Biographia of Biographia Literaria Literaria is an attack on Wordsworth’s Wordsworth’s theory of poetic diction. diction. The work of Coleridge falls under three heads: poetry poet ry,, criticism and philoso philosophy phy.. It remains re mains to attempt a brief estimate of each. As a philoso philosopher, pher, he argued that even in registering sense percepti perceptions ons the mind mind was performi performing ng acts of creative creative imagi imaginati nation, on, rather rather than being being a passiv passivee arena in which which ideas interact mechanistically. mechanistically.

8.2 8.2

About th the Author

Coleridge is considered one o ne of the most significant significant poets poet s and critics in the English language. As a major figure in the English Romantic movement, movement, he is best known kno wn for three poems, “The “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner ,” ,” “ Kubla Khan,” Khan,” and “Christabel “Christabel ” as well as one volume vo lume of criticism, criticism, Biographia Biographia Literaria; Literaria; or, or, Biographical Biographical Sketches of My Literary Life and Opinions. While Opinions. While “The “The Ancient Mariner ,” ,” “ Kubla Khan,” Khan,” and “Christabel “Christabel ” were poorly received received during during Coleridge’ Coleridge’ss lifeti lifetime, me, they are now praised as classic classic examples examples of imaginative imaginative poetry, poetry, illuminated illuminated by Coleridge’s poetic poet ic theories, of o f which which he said in the Biogr Biograp aphi hia a Literaria, Literaria, “My endeavors should be directed to persons and characters spiritual and supernatural, or at least romanti ro mantic.” c.” Coleridge was born in Devon in 1772. At the age of ten he was sent to Christ’s Hospital, a boarding boa rding school in London where he was befriended by fell fellow ow student st udent Charles Lamb. Later, he was wa s awarded a scholarship to Jesus College, Cambridge University University,, showing sho wing promis promisee as a gif gifted writer writer and bri brilli lliant conver conversati sationa onali list. st. In 1794, 1794, before before compl completi eting ng his his degre degree, e, Coleridge went on a walking walking tour tou r to Oxford where he met poet Ro bert Southey Sout hey and shared the revolutionar re volutionary y concepts concept s of liberty liberty and equality eq uality for for all individuals, individuals, and was w as inspired by the initial events of the French Revolution. Revolution. In 1796 he met the poet Willi William am Wor Wordswor dsworth, th, with whom he had corresponded co rresponded casually for for several years. Their rapport was instantaneous, and the next year Coleridge moved to Nether Net her Stowey Sto wey in the Lake District, the t he site of their literary literary collaboration. Following the publication of Lyrical of Lyrical Ballads, with a few Other Poems, completed with Wordswo Wordsworth, rth, Coleri Co leridge dge traveled t raveled to Germany where he developed an interest in the German philosophers Immanuel I mmanuel Kant, Friedrich von S Schelli chelling, ng, and brothers bro thers Friedrich and August Wilhel Wilhelm m von Schlegel; he later introduced introduc ed German aesthetic aes thetic theories theo ries in England through thro ugh his critical writing. writing. He was addicted to opium o pium and alcohol. Coleridge also gave a series of lectures on poetry po etry and Shakespeare, which are now considered the basis basis of his reputation reputa tion as a critic. c ritic. In the last years of o f his his life life Coleridge wrote wrot e the Biographi the Biographia a Literaria, Literaria, 108


considered his greatest critical writing, in which he developed aesthetic theories intended as the introduction to a great gr eat philosophical philosophical opus. Coleri Co leridge dge died d ied in 1834 of o f complications complications stemming stemming from his his dependence o n opium.

8. 3

About the Age

Many scholars say that the Romantic R omantic period began with the publication of “ Lyrical Lyrical Ballads Ballads”” by Will William iam Wordswor ord sworth th and Samuel Coleridge in 1798. 1798 . The volume vo lume contained some of the best-known best-kno wn works from these two poets po ets including including Coleridge’s “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner Mariner ” and Wordsworth’s “ Lines Lines Written ritten a Few Miles Miles from from Tintern intern Abbey Abbey.”Other Literary scholars place the start for t he Romantic period period much earlier (around 1785), 1785) , since Robert Burns’ Burns ’s Poems Po ems (1786), (17 86), William William Blake’s “Songs “Songs of Innocence” Innocence” (1789), Mary Wollstonecraft’s “ A Vindication Vindication of the Rights of Women Women,” ,” and other ot her works which already demonstrate that a change has taken t aken place — in political thought thoug ht and literary expression. Other “first generation” generat ion” Romantic writers include: include: Charles Lamb, Jane Austen, and Sir S ir Walter Scott. Scot t. There was a “second generation” generat ion” of Romantics (m (made ade up of o f poets Lord Byron, Percy Shelley Shelley and John Keats)who died young and were outlived by the first generation of o f Romantics. Mary Shelley , famous for “ Frankenstein” Frankenstein” (1818) — was also a member of this “second generation” of Romantics. The Romantic period ended with the t he coronation coro nation of Queen Victoria Victoria in 1837, as it was the beginning of the Victorian Period.The Romantic writers,were influenced by the Industr Industria iall Revol Revoluti ution on and and the Frenc French h Revol Revoluti ution. on. Willia lliam m Hazl Hazllit, who who publ publishe ished d a book called “The “The Spirit of the Age,” Age,” says that the Wordswo Wordsworth rth school of poetry po etry “ had its origi or igin n in the French Revolution... Revolution... It was a tim t imee of promise, a renewal of the world — and o f letters.” letters.” Instead of o f embracing embracing politics politics as writers of some other eras might have the Romantics turned to t o Nature Nat ure for self-fulf self-fulfil illmen lment. t. They T hey were turning away from the values and ideas of the t he previous previous era, embraci embracing ng new ways ways of expressi expressing ng their their imagin imagination ation and feeli feelings. ngs. Instead of a concentration concentra tion on “head,” the intellectual focus of reason, they preferred pre ferred to rely on the self, self, in the radical rad ical idea idea of individual individual freedom. Instead of striving for perfection, the t he Romantics preferred “the glory of the imperfect.” imperfect.”

8.4

Int Introdu duct ctio ion n of tth he Text ext

The Biogra The Biographia phia Literaria Literaria was was one on e of Coleridge’s main main critical studies. In this work, wor k, he discussed the elements of writing and what writing should be to be considered genius. Although the the work is not written writte n from from Coleridge’s Coleridge’s poetic mind, it is still still written with the qua qualitie litiess and rhythm of the poetic. Not only o nly does he discuss literature itself he discusses discusses the t he many many variables variables that influence influence and inspire writers. Through T hrough this discussion, d iscussion, he makes many value value judgments, judgments, leaving leaving his his audience with a clear understanding understanding of his stance on certain certain issues. Some of o f the issues he tackles t ackles include politics, religion, religion, social values, and human identity. identity. His 109


treatment treat ment of these issues issues tends te nds to be conservative co nservative in its its foundation, yet also a lso blatant and original. original. He does not cater cat er to a certain cert ain audience; rather he expresses his his own thoughts thought s from from a personal viewpoint. Arthur Symons said it best: Biogr best: Biographia aphia Literaria Literaria is is the greatest great est book boo k of criticism criticism in English, English, and one of the t he most annoying annoying in any language. language. Many have agreed that t hat Coleri Co leridge’s dge’s brill brillian iance ce comes shrouded shrouded in an obscure, obscure, infuri nfuriatin ating g intri intricacy cacy.. Wordsworth is the hero of the Biographia Biographia Literaria Literaria , but in addition to him h im there is another ano ther important, although less visible, visible, protagonis protagonist, t, and this this is Schell Schellin ing. g. His His inf influenc luencee on Coleri Coleridge dge was a good deal more importan importantt than that of o f other German philoso philosophers phers and men of letters letters he came ca me into into more or o r less direct contact cont act with, and t his had had a decisive impact impact on o n the format and meaning of the Biographia the Biographia Literaria . Coleridge Coleridge wrote the Biographia the Biographia to to defend Wordsw Wordswort orth’ h’ss poetry poet ry,, or in part he did.” Paul A. Cantor, in his study of twentieth-century attacks on Romantic criticism, acknowledges the self-serving quality of the image put forth by Romantic poets who saw themselves as isolated and inspired geniuses possessed of o f special gifts gifts unavailable unavailable to the masses. According to t his his image, explains explains Cantor, “the artist stands above society as a prophetic visionary, visionary, leading it it into the t he future, while free of its past and not engaged in its its present pr esent activiti a ctivities es (in the sense of being essentially essentially unaffecte unaffected d and above all a ll uncorrupted uncorru pted by them.)”

8.4.1 Detaile Detailed d Descri Descripti ption on Chapter-wise Summary Chapter I

Coleridge Coleridge did not accept the conventions of 18th century centur y poetry poet ry and he formed formed his own theories of o f poetry. poetry. The first of his his principles principles was that:Not the poem which we haveread haveread , but that to which which we return wi return with th the greates greatestt pleas pleasure ure,, possesses possesses that t hat genuine genuine power and claims claims the name of essential essent ial poetry.The poetry.The second second principle principle was that whatever lines lines can be translated translat ed into other ot her words of the same language language without witho ut diminution of their significance, significance, either in sense of association association or in any worthy feeling, feeling, are so far vicious in their diction. Accor According ding to Coleridge, Bowles a writer of sonnets whom he admired, admired, and Coope C ooperr are the first poets who combi co mbine ne natural thoughts with natural natural diction and the first to reconcil reco ncilee the heart with the head. Chapter II

The men of great genius ge nius are of calm and tranquil temper in all that relates to themselves. For example, the works of Chaucer are saturated with cheerfulness which reveals the temperament of o f man man himself himself and Shakespeare’ Shakespeare ’s sweetness sweetnes s of temper and the t he calmness of self-possession self-possession of o f Milton Milton are all notewort hy. hy. Coleridge deems it a writer’s duty to feel and express a resentment proportioned to the greatness of the provocation provo cation of importance importance of the object.

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Chapter III

Here Coleridge has spoken spoke n of the decline decline of literatu literature re in its its aim and function. function. Earlier authors author s spoke of sages and counsellors counsellors as did Bacon. Baco n. Then they addressed themselves to learned writers and later on they t hey started writing for the candid candid writer, but the t he critic had risen as the author sunk. In this chapter Coleridge points out the striking qualities qualities of Southey Sou they as a writer, historian, bibliographer bibliographer and essayi essa yist. st. Southey Sout hey was employed employed wholly in in subjects subjects of his own choice and ambition and his achievements achievements are more varied than those of any other writer. As a writer he made his talents subservient subservient to the best interests of humanity. humanity. His cause has ever been the cause of pure religion and liberty, of national independence and of national Illumination. Chapter IV

In Chapter IV he draws a patronizing patronizing distinction distinction between Wordsworth’s Wordsworth’s purpose of considering only the “influences” “influences” or o r “effects” of Fancy and Imagination “as they t hey are manifested manifested in poetry”. He himself himself considered that both bot h Fancy and Imagination are two distinct d istinct and widely widely different different faculties. faculties. Coleridge finds finds that Fancy and Im Imagination agination are often considered considered to be the same. He says: The first first and most most important point to be proved is, that t wo conceptions perfectl perfectly y distin distinct ct are confused confused under under one and the same same word, and (this (this done) to appropri appropriate ate that word wo rd exclusively exclusively to one meaning, and the synonym... synonym... to t o the other.... o ther.... Milton had a highly highly imaginat imaginative ive faculty, faculty, Cowley Cow ley a very fanciful mind.The mind.The difference is the same as that t hat between be tween delirium and mania. Coleridge’ Coleridge’ss purpose purp ose in doing so was wa s to investigate investigat e the seminal principle principle as he himself points out: “To admire on principle, is the only way to imitate without loss of originality.” originality.” By the term “seminal “seminal principl principle” e” he meant: “the “t he process of o f imaginative imaginative creation, rather than t han poems themselves”. themselves”. Fancy and Imagination Imagination are two tw o distinct and widely-different widely-different faculties. faculties. They come from, respectively, respectively, the Greek Gre ek phantasi phantasia a and the Latin Lat in imagination. In imagination. In the popular usage of these English words, ttheir heir meanings meanings have, in recent tim t imes, es, come c ome to be almost synonymous. synonymous. But they should not be, for their root roo t words word s were not too to o similar similar.. The character and pr privi ivilege lege of Genius, and one of o f the marks marks that t hat distinguish genius from talents: the t he prime merit of genius: to “represent famili familiar ar objects o bjects as to t o awaken in the minds of others a kindred feeling feeling concernin co ncerning g them and a freshness of sensation.” “Genius produces the t he strongest impressions of novelty while while it rescues rescu es the most admitted truths from the impotence caused by the very circumstance circumstance of their universal admission.” Chapter Chapte r V, V, VI, VII

Coleridge feels that human hu man nature has been regarded as a problem in all all ages and thus provides provides various various solutions solutions to the problem. problem. The first first is is based on the the princi principle ple of the absence absence and presence of the will, which which is a materialistic materialistic concept. concept . The second concept is idealistic, idealistic, according accord ing to which on our perceptions pe rceptions we seem to ourselves ours elves merely merely passive passive to an external power. power. The third third theory was based based on the fact that human human nature acts by a mechani mechanism sm of its 111


own, without any conscious effort of the will. Here Coleridge also discusses the law of association: its history traced from Aristotle to Hartley. Hartley. Aristotle’s Aristotle’s general law of association states stat es that ideas, by having having been together, acquire a power to recall re call each other. It means that every partial representation awakens the total to tal representation of which it it had been a part. Coleridge finds Hartley Hart ley diff differing ering from Aristotle on the t he basis of o f his conviction that he differed differed only to err. e rr. In Chapter VI, Coleridge Co leridge throws light on the weakness we akness of Hartley’s Hartley’s system. According to him different different parts pa rts of o f Hartley’s Hartley’s theory theo ry rest essentially ess entially on their mechanical basis, else they lose their main main support as well as the very motive whi which ch led led to their adoption. Coleridge feels feels that if Hartley’s theory is to be accepted accept ed in its highest highest abstract abst raction ion and most philosophical form, the third t hird law would itself become nugatory. In Chapter VII, Coleridge Co leridge finds finds that according ac cording to Hartley’ Ha rtley’ss theory theo ry it is is necessary that will will and all acts of o f thought and attention at tention are parts p arts and products pro ducts of blind blind mechanism mechanism instead of bei being dist distin inct ct powers powers whi which func functi tion on to contro control, l, deter determi mine ne and and modi modiffy the the chaos chaos and and assoc associiation. ation. Hartley’s theory includes all the difficulties of intercommunication between substances which do not not have any property propert y in common common without any of the conveniences of the dualistic dualistic hypothesis. Thus, his theory of association was discarded. Chapter VIII

This chapter discusses the system of Dualism Dualism as introduced by Descartes according acco rding to which the soul was regarded reg arded as a thinking substance (intelligence) (intelligence) and the t he body as a space fill filling ing substance (matte (matter). r). But, the philosophers did not know how the one o ne acted on the other ot her and then the t he system was refined by Spinoza Spinoza first first and then t hen by Leibnitz Leibnitz into the doctrine do ctrine of Harmonic praestabili praest abilita. ta. Then there was the hypothesis hypothe sis of Hylozoism according to which if if we consider matter and life to be one, we will will have to accept that t hat every atom of our ou r body has a soul sou l of its its own. Then Coleridge gives the assumption of mater materiali ialism sm according to which: how being can transform itself into a knowing, b knowing, becomes ecomes conceivable on one only condition; namely, if it can be shown that the... Sentient, is itself a species of Being, i.e. Either as a property property or attribute attribute,, or as an hypos hypostasi tasiss or self self subsi subsisten stence.C ce.Cole oleri ridge dge further urther feel feelss that that nei neither of these systems, or any possible possible theory of association, supplies supplies or supersedes a theory of o f perception perception,, or expla explain inss the formation ormation of associabl associable. e. Chapter IX

The philosophical studies of Locke, Berkley, Hartley and Leibnitz did not satisfy Coleridge fully fully and he started start ed wondering wonder ing whether philosophy philosop hy is is possible as a science and what its conditions are. He soon realized that philosop philosophy hy is an affectionate affectionate search for truth which is is the correlative corr elative of Being. This can be conceived only by assuming as a postulate postu late that both are “identi “identical cal and co-inheren co-inherent; t; that intell intelligen igence ce and being being are reciprocall reciprocally y each other’s prostrate.” prostrate.” His study of Plato, Plato, Plotin Plotinus, us, Marsi Marsillio Fici Ficino no and Giordan Giordano o Brun Bruno o prepared prepared him him to accept the t he ancient and most most natural nat ural philosop philosophy hy of seeming seeming hardihood. Coleridge was also 112


affected by the writings writ ings of Behmen, De Thyoras Thyora s and other o ther mystics which made him believe that the t he philosophy which was based merely on reason reaso n was incomplete by its its very nature. Coleridge’s Coleridge’s understanding understan ding became became more invigorated and disciplin disciplined ed after studying Kant. His novelty, novelty, origi o riginali nality ty and the depths and compression of his tho thoughts ughts impressed Coleridge. Coleridge observed that Fichte supplied the idea of a system that was w as truly metaphysical metaphysical and of a metaphysics which was truly tru ly systematic, similarities similarities of ideas and even expressions expres sions can be found in the writings of Schelling Schelling and Coleridge, but for that the latter cannot ca nnot be charged char ged of plagiarism because because many of his ideas ideas entered ente red into his mind mind even before the writings of Schelling came into into being. Chapter X

This Chapter is one of digression and anecdotes. It serves as an interlude interlude which discusses the nature and genesis of the imagination imagination of o f plastic plastic power. To do this he begins begins with the coinage of a new word “Esemplastic” as he he thought thoug ht that it was a new term which would aid in the recollection of meaning and prevent it from being being confounded co nfounded with the t he usual import of the word imagination. imagination. The chapter also consists of various anecdotes anecdot es of Coleridge’s literary life and his opinion in religion and politics progressed. Chapter XI

The chapter acts as a valuable valuable advice to those who felt felt inclined inclined to authors author s in early lif life. e. Coleridge says that one must never pick up literature literature as a profession as literature literature can c an be better produced in a few deligh delightful tful leisurel leisurely y hours than in weeks of forced forced labour labour.. He further further adds that talent t alent and genius are two different different things and whil whilee the former can exist without the latter, the latter can neither exist exist nor manifest manifest itself without talents. Thus, he suggests suggest s to every such scholar who feels feels that he is genius to devote devo te his talents talents to t o some popular pop ular trade or profession pr ofession and “his genius to objects of his tranquil and unbiased unbiased choice.” cho ice.” Chapter XII

Here Coleridge suggests to his his readers to either read the whole chapter connectedl co nnectedly y or to pass over it entirely. entirely. He does not expect his reader to read it with with a totally unprejudiced mind mind as this t his is not possibl p ossiblee but it is neither for reader’s read er’s having having preformed, pr eformed, firm firm and unchangeable notions regarding matter, matter, spirit, soul, body, action, time, time, space etc. etc . In this chapter he gives gives several of his his thesis in which which he says that truth trut h is is correlative corre lative of being. being. He further says truth is either mediate, i.e. derived from other truth/s trut h/s or immediate immediate and origin o riginal, al, the latter is absolute while while the former is of dependent or conditional certainty. Absolute truth trut h should be sought as self-grounded, unconditional unco nditional and known by its own light. light. Coleridge makes reference reference to one o ne such principle which may be proved, “a priori”. pr iori”. This principle principle cannot be any object or thing. t hing. It can neither be found in a subject nor in any object but in that “which is is the identity of both”. The required identity of object and representation re presentation is there in self-consciousness of spirit spirit and a nd it is only in the act and evolution of self-consciousness that one highest principle of knowing can 113


be found. found. Coleri Coleridge dge introduces ntroduces some some techni technical cal terms terms in philos philosophy ophy to preclude preclude confusi confusion on of thought. He thinks that unusual and and new coined words are truly evil, evil, but vagueness and confusion in thought is a greater gr eater evil than that. He ends by saying saying that he he will will describe Imagination Imagination and show how it is different different from Fancy. Fancy. He does not no t agree with Words Wordswort worth’ h’ss views on Imagination and Fancy. Fancy. Chapter XIII

Coleridge had given a detailed det ailed description of his views on Imagination and Fancy. Fancy. Coleridge believes Imagination Imagination to be of two tw o kinds, i.e. Primary and Secondary. The Primary Imagination, Imagination, according to him the livin living g Power Po wer and prime agent o off all human Perception, and is a repetiti repet ition on in the finite finite mind of the t he eternal ete rnal act of o f creation in the infinite infinite “I Am”. Am”. The Secondary Imagination is an echo of the th e former, co-existing with the conscious co nscious will, will, yet still st ill as identical with the primary in the kind of its agency age ncy and differing only indegree in degree and in the mode the mode of its expression. It dissolves, diffuses, diffuses, dissipates dissipates to recreate; recreate ; or where this this process is rendered, rendered, impossible yet still at all events it strugg st ruggles les to idealize and unify. unify. It is essentiall essent ially y life-sust life-sustaini aining, ng, even as objects o bjects are essentially essentially fixed fixed and dead. Imagination

1.

Primary Imagination:This is the “living “living power and prime agent of o f allhuman Per Percept ception ion.” .”

2.

Seconda Secondary ry Ima Imagi gina nati tion on : This This is is an echo echo of the the pri prim mary imagi maginati nation; on; it diff differs ers from from the the primary primary imagin imagination ation in in Degree and Degree and in the Mode the Mode of of operat op eration. ion. More Mor e specifically specifically, it dissolves, diffuses, diffuses, dissipates, in order to Rec to Recrreate eate —or, —or, if that is imposs mpossib iblle, to ideali dealize and identify, identify, that means, the functions of memory memory and mental interpretation interpret ation of sensory data into meaning within within the mind. mind. Coleridge says that the secondary seco ndary imagination imagination is “essentially Vital Vital ” even as all objects, as objects, are essentially e ssentially fixed fixed and dead. The secondary imagination is pliable and malleable on the voluntary (conscious) or subconscious level, as in dreaming.

On the other ot her hand Fancy is bound bound to t o fixities fixities and definites. Fancy is a mode of memory emancipated from fro m the order o f time time and space; while it iiss blended with, and modified by that empirical phenomenon of the will, will, which we express expres s by the word wor d choice. But equally equa lly with the ordinary ordinary memory memory the Fancy must receive rece ive all its its materials materials ready made made from the law of association. asso ciation. With With fancy there is no ccreat reation ion involved; it is simply simply a reconfiguration reco nfiguration of o f existing ideas. ideas. Rather than composing a completely original concept or description, the fanciful poet simply reorders concepts, concep ts, putting putt ing them in a new and, possibly, possibly, fresh relationship to each other. Through Throu gh juxtaposition juxtaposition ideas, ideas, concepts, and descriptions descriptions are made made clear. clear. The more more imaginati imaginative ve the juxtaposi juxtaposition tion is, is, the more more exciti exciting ng the poem becomes becomes.. The origin of the oppo opposition sition between betwee n primary primary and secondary seco ndary imagination imagination is vaguely Kantian. Fancy is a limited limited or false parallel of Sec Secondary ondary Imagination. Coleridge Co leridge criticizes Wordswort ordsw orth’ h’ss near-equivalence near-eq uivalence between imagination imagination and fancy; fancy merely merely combines;

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Wordsworth’s fancy is Coleridge’s wit, which is a pure play of the intellect, of concepts, without the passion of poetry. Primary Imagination can be related to Kant’s Understanding, while while Secondary Seco ndary or Poetic Poet ic Imagination Imagination is nearer to Kant Kant’s ’s Reason. Reason . In Kant’s theory, the role ro le of the Understanding fface ace to experience experience was an active one: it sets its own forms and categories on experience, synthesizes the impressions impressions into phenomena phenomena and elaborates judgments. “Every human being, being, thus, is, so far as he perceives perc eives anything anything at all, all, a creator creato r and an idealizing idealizing agent”. Coleridge establishes an analogy between the imaginative capability of the poet and the creativity of the “infi “infinite nite I Am.” Imagination Imagination integrates the opposites, findin finding g a balance balance of o f contraries. As Wordsworth ordswo rth had said, it makes strange stra nge what is familiar familiar and familiari familiarizes zes what is strange. st range. Indeed, Ind eed, this idea was the groundwork for the original plan of the Lyrical Ballads to be written in collaboration by Wordsw Wordsworth orth and Coleridge. Words Wordswort worth h was to deal d eal with themes of common life life whose imaginative imaginative heightening heightening would lead to an intuition of the presence pr esence of the t he unknown; Coleridge would wo uld develop fantastic fantast ic themes (The Ancien Ancientt Mariner Mar iner ) imaginatively imaginatively infusing infusing them with the known so as to produce pr oduce credibi cre dibility lity.. In any case, Coleridge says, the work wo rk of the poet po et must join accurate observation with the t he modifying modifying power of o f imagination, imagination, mixing mixing the old and a nd the new in such a way that the t he freshness of sensations is always present in the poem. The prim pr imary ary imagination is is the miracle of consciousness consciou sness itself—human consciousness conscious ness involves involves self-consciousness: self-consciousness: “I see a tree.” tr ee.” If a tree tr ee is posited, first the viewer must posit the t he “I” that sees the t he tree. The T he subjects, subjects, are a re aware of themselves confronting an object. object. The tree t ree is an object of the experience of the viewer; being human involves synthesis of subject and object. The raw ra w data is constituted into intelligible intelligible forms, forms, making them correspond corre spond to our mental categories. catego ries. In this basic sense, imagination imagination is the creative, creat ive, synthesizing synthesizing power that t hat operates in all perception. Fancy is more limited to sensory data. Fancy is dead; it is too dependent upo n the laws of association. asso ciation. In speaking of the prim pr imary ary imagination, imagination, Coleridge says it posits pure pu re being. As repetition and re-seeking, re- seeking, it is linked linked with the basic human capacity cap acity to perceive per ceive and bring bring order to an otherwise chaotic world of sense data. Rhetorically Rhet orically,, Coleridge is elevating elevating our sense of humanity’ humanity’ss status perhaps p erhaps to an even higher higher level than that posited of the Renaissance Renaissanc e “man the microcosm,” microco sm,” since in Coleridge’s partly Schelling-based view, view, the t he mind is fundamentally creative. Coleridge cultivates a sense of mysterious communion drawn from the Bible, the Bible, the the Scholastic Scho lastic notion of communi co mmunity, ty, and German Idealis Idealism. m. God says that tha t he simply simply is. is. Being is mysterious, mysterious, and so is our power po wer of perception: percept ion: the harmony between our minds and the world is myster mysterious. ious. If secondary seco ndary imagination imagination is poetic poet ic imagination, imagination, it answers a need—it responds respon ds to the threat threa t posed pose d by quotidian quot idian habit and stale perception, and it gives us a chance to “make it new” perpetually perpet ually.. The imagination imagination makes possible po ssible a permanent revolution r evolution in consciousness. Mystery and belief in the supernatural are a meeting ground between Wordswort ordsw orth h and Coleridge, Coleridge, although altho ugh they start from a different different place to get there. “Secondary imagination” imagination” is apparently Coleridge’s Coleridge’s term ter m for the t he poetic poet ic imagination. imagination. It is a purposive, directed “echo” of the primary imagination. The poet is used by and uses imagination imagination to create symbolic symbolic meaning meaning systems. Poetic imagination imagination “dissolves, diffuses, diffuses, and dissipates dissipates in order to t o re-create.” Wordsworth’ ordswort h’ss “Lucy Gray” and “Solitary Reaper” exemplif exemplify y 115


symbolic symbolic treatment o f a given character. A symbol symbol is not just one word or a mere device—it is a mode of o f language language in its its own o wn right. Words Wordswort worth’ h’ss secondary second ary imagination imagination breaks up, up , conjoins, and reconcil reco nciles es disparate categories cat egories of perception, percep tion, feeling, feeling, and experience—the “Lucy Gray” lines, lines, “a violet by a mossy stone / half hidden from the eye / fair as a star s tar when only one / is shining in the sky ,do exactly that with respect to our ideas about Lucy, violets, and stars. These wouldn’t be ordinarily ordinarily put into a meaningful meaningful relationship, but Wordsworth ordswo rth does so without hesitation. Notice Not ice the phrases phra ses “lethargy of custo m” and “film “film of famil familiarity iarity.” .” The secondary imagination imagination helps to counter co unter the threat posed p osed by daily habit, habit, which leads leads to t o stale st ale percepti perceptions ons and and thoughts thoughts.. Every Everythi thing ng is turned turned into into an abstract abstractiion, a category category,, “other “other people’ people’ss convictions,” perceptions, perce ptions, and feelings. Coleridge makes one of the t he first first in a long line of arguments against “mass culture” as something somet hing dehumanizing. dehumanizing. Poetry Poetr y is is revolutionary with regard to to perception—it perception—it shakes up the mind. mind. It reorganizes minds minds so that they perceive and think think themselves and the world differently differently,, and to some extent more democratical democrat ically ly and ecumenically ecumenically. One may even, as Words Wordsworth worth promises, “see into the life of things.” The concept of the romantic imagination imagination is subject to varied var ied interpret interpretation ation due to the varied and changing changing perceptions of o f romantic artists. There are several ways through which the concept of the romantic imagination in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poetry can be perceived. This difference difference in perception is a result of the t he reader’ reader ’s personal perso nal interpretation of the subject subject matter, which varies from person to person. Throughout Througho ut Coleridge’s poetry poet ry,, the theme of Nature Nature acts acts as a vehi vehicl clee through through whic which, h, the romant romantic ic imagi imagina nati tion on of the poet can be interpr nterprete eted. d. Coleridge’ Coleridge’ss states stat es of o f mind mind through these t hese interactions are based upon his own perception of the t he world around aro und him him and can therefore therefo re be seen as his romantic imagination. imagination. Interpretation of the Senses

Coleridge observes,”Fancy is a mode of o f Memory emancipated emancipated from the order o rder of time and space—blended space —blended with and modified modified by that empirical phenomenon of the will... will.....Cho ..Choice. ice. This seems to be what I usually mean by imagination: imagination: to use the mind’s mind’s “eye/ear. . .etc.” .etc .” to to simulate simulate another anot her sensation of somethi so mething ng that might might be absent, or o r nonexistent. All All materials materials are ready-made from the Law of Association. Association. So Coleridge is of the view that one can use Fancy as a kind of power to create memory-mosaics or collages, rearranging what has been experienced into a new combination combination or shape to suit our “fancy” “fancy” . Imagi I magination nation is an “esempla “esemplastic stic power”—N power”—Norton orton says says that that that phrase phrase is Coleri Coleridge’ dge’ss coina coinage, ge, and is buil built from from root words, words, to mean that imagination imagination has the power to t o ‘Mold into unity’. Chapter XIV

In this chapter Coleridge describes describes the t he occasion of the Lyrical the Lyrical Ballads. He has opined that he would direct his his endeavours to persons perso ns and characters supernatural, or at least romantic, so as to transfer trans fer from our inward inward nature, a human interest interest and a semblance semblance of truth sufficient sufficient to procur p rocuree for these shadows shado ws of Imagination Imagination that suspension su spension of disbelief disbelief for the moment, which constitutes constitute s poetic poet ic faith. faith. For his part in the Lyrical Lyrical Ballads, Word Wordswort sworth h was to 116


propose to him himsel selff as his his object, object, to give give charm charm to novelty novelty to everyd everyday ay happeni happenings ngs.. He was to to awaken aw aken the minds minds and attention at tention from lethargy lethargy of customs custo ms and direct it to the loveliness and wonders wonder s of the world before before us. With these views in in mind mind Coleridge wrote The The Ancient Mariner, Mariner, The Dark Ladie and Christabel. When Coleridge and Wordswo Wordsworth rth were neighbors, they used to discuss what Coleridge here refers to as the two “cardinal “c ardinal points of poetry”: poet ry”: 1.

The power power of exci exciti ting ng the the read reader’ er’ss symp sympath athy y. . .by a fai faithf thful ul adher adherenc encee to the truth truth of nature.

2.

The power power of givi giving ng the the inter interes estt of nove novelt lty y by by the the modi modify fyin ing g colors colors of imagi maginati nation on (but (but this seems like, by Coleridge’s terminology, terminology, Fancy is the one who w ho can modify modify colors, not imagination.) Coleridge’s Coleridge’s definitions of his special meaning of Poem, Poetry, and Poet

“A poem contains the same sa me elements elements as a prose composition; the difference difference therefore ther efore must consist in a different different combination of them, in consequence of o f a diff different erent object o bject proposed. propo sed. According to the difference of the object will be the difference of the combination.” The lowest sense is as a mnemonic, mnemonic, such as “thirty days da ys hath September. . .” where it’s it’s called a poem only only by the virtue of rhym rhymee or meter or both. “. . .a particular pleasure pleasure is found found in anticipating the recurrence of o f sounds and quantities, all compositions that have thi t hiss charm superadded, whatever be their contents, May contents, May be be entitled poems. . . .So .S o much for the superficial Form. Chapter XV

Coleridge observes that a poem cannot c annot be composed co mposed by applying applying one’s one’s general talent t alent to poetic po etic composition, rather rat her it is the result resu lt of inspiration inspiration and of a genial and productive prod uctive nature. To illustrate illustrate this t his statement he has examined two of Shakespeare’s Shakespe are’s poems: Venus and Adonis and Lucrece and Lucrece and has elucidated how characteristics like the creation of imagery and the harmonious presentat pre sentation ion of thoughts and a nd feelings feelings can be acquired by labour and wide study stud y, but the sense sense of musi musical cal deligh delightt and the power of produci producing ng it in poetry is a gift gift of imagi imaginati nation on and can never be learnt. While While remaining remaining aloof aloof from the world he creates,Shakespear creates ,Shakespearee depict in Venus Venus and Adonis the passions of o f his his characters, their psychology and actions. Moreover Mor eover Shakespeare’s Shakesp eare’s poems elicit elicit his creative creat ive power and intellectual energy and abound abou nd in images images enlivened enlivened by a dominant passion and having a human human and intellectual life life transferred to t o them th em from the poet’ poet ’s own spirit. Chapter XVI

Here Coleridge presents strikin st riking g points po ints of difference difference between the poetry po etry of the 15th and 16th century and that of the present age. Coleridge Coleridge says that the main objective objective of the poets of the present age is to create creat e new and and striking striking images images and that his his characters and descriptions descriptions are specific and individual individual but the poet is careless in in his diction and meter. Coleridge 117


observes that the poet poetry ry of the 15th and 16th century the t he imagery was always general and even their thoughts were not novel no vel . The poets poet s aimed aimed at exquisite exquisite poli po lish sh of the diction comb combined ined with perfect simplicity simplicity.. They examined the position of words and phrases phra ses carefully not only to make each part melodious, but to provide harmony harmony to the whole. Coleridge wishes wishes for for the th th unity of the characteristic characte ristic merits merits of the 15 1 5 and 16 century poets and those of o f the present age. Chapter XVII

Coleridge praises Wordsworth’s views on reform of poetic diction and for evincing the truth trut h of passion and dramatic propriety of the figures figures and metaphors metapho rs in the original original poets. His figures and metaphors gradually degenerated into mere artifices of connection and ornament. So Wordswo Wordsworth rth made efforts efforts to t o improve poetic poet ic theme and diction. Coleridge objects to Wordswor Wordsworth’s th’s theory that: “the proper diction for for poetry po etry in general consists altogether alto gether in a language taken, with due exceptions, exce ptions, from fro m the mout mouths hs of men in real life, life, a language which which actuall actu ally y constitutes the natural conversation co nversation of men under the t he influence influence of natural feelings”. feelings”. According to Coleridge the most interesting interesting of o f Wordswort Wordsworth’ h’ss poems, po ems, for example, example, Michael, Michael, Ruth ,Brothers, t he Mad Mot Mother her and so on are by no no means taken from rustic life. life. Moreover, their sentiments sentiments and language are att attrib ributable utable to causes cau ses and circumstances which are not necessarily connected connect ed with “their “their occupations occupat ions and abode.” So Coleridge is convinced that for human soul to prosper pro sper in rustic life life a certain certa in vantage ground ground is pre-requisite. It is not every man that is likely to be improved by a country life or by country labours. Education, Educat ion, or original sensibili sensibility ty or both must pre-exist pre-e xist if the changes, forms and incidents incidents of nature are to prove pro ve a sufficient sufficient stimulant. Where these are not sufficient, sufficient, the mind mind contracts contract s and hardens by want of stimulants, and the man becomes selfish, sensual, gross and har dhearted. hearte d. Coleridge Co leridge adopts ado pts with full faith faith the principle of Aristotle Aristot le that poetry po etry is essentially ideal and that it avoids and excludes all accidents. accidents. He also opines that the persons perso ns of poetry must be clothed clothed with with generi genericc attributes attributes with with the common common attribute attributess of the class. class. Objecting to Word Wordswor sworth’s th’s opinion in the Preface to the Lyrical Lyrical Ballads Ballads “the “t he language too of these men is adopted because such su ch men hourly communicate communicate with the best objects from which the best part of language is originally originally derived,” Coleridge felt that “a rustic’s language language puri purified fied from all all provi provincial ncialis ism m and and grossn grossnes esss and and so far far re-con re-constr structe ucted d as to be made made consi consiste stent nt with the rules of o f grammar... grammar..... will not differ from the language of o f any other man of commonsense, however howe ver learned or refined he may be, except as far as the notions notio ns which the rustic rust ic has to convey are fewer and more indiscrimi indiscriminate”. nate”. Coleridge further adds that the rustic, rust ic, because of his imperfect imperfect developments of his faculties faculties could co uld be conveying “insulted “insulted facts” gained g ained from his his scanty sca nty experience or his traditional tr aditional beli belief wherea whereas, s, the educated educated man seeks seeks to discove discoverr and and express express the connecti connection on of things things from from which some more more or o r less general law is deducibl deduc ible. e. Coleridge explicitly states stat esthat that language language comes into being through the t he voluntary act of the human being. So according acc ording to him “the best part of human human lang language uage,, ... is deri derived from refle reflecti ctions ons of the acts of the mind mind itsel itself. f. It is form formed ed 118


by a voluntary appropriation of fixed fixed symbol symbol to internal acts, to processes and results of imagin imagination, ation, the greater part of which have no place in the consciousness of uneducated man.” Language does not reproduce things. things. Coleridge put an eemph mphasis asis on the true relation relation between between words and ideas ideas here. here. Though Though language anguage is an organi organised instrum instrument ent to express express one’s one’s inner act of the mind, it cannot be separat ed from the active act of o f reading and understanding by the aid aid of imagi magina nati tion. on. The latter atter presupp presuppose osess the volunta voluntary ry applic applicati ation on of word; that is, the arbitrariness arbitrariness of words as sign in order to fit fit them t hem to that active,inner active,inner proceeding. Instead of the t he static rigi r igidity dity of Scholastic model, what Co leridge had in mind mind is an idea of language as an arbitrary sign of the mind. Chapter XVIII

Coleridge points out tthat hat a language of a class cannot be adopted adopt ed merely by by using using the words which are understood and used by that class. class. To follow follow that order of words is also essential for for it. This order of words differs differs in the language language of uneducated uneducat ed people from that of the educated ones. o nes. An uneducated person is unable unable to “forsee the whole of what he is to convey” and cannot arrange the differen differentt parts of the idea into into an “organised “organised whole” to present his idea as a complete unit. Wordswort ordsw orth h in his The Last of the Flock uses words in the manner manner as comm co mmonly only used by rustics as well as as educated educate d people because the order of words wo rds is not the same as as used by the uneducated class. Coleridge observes the theory theo ry and points out that it is essential that the poet poetry ry differs differs from that of prose. He focusses on the origin and elements elements of metre, its necessary consequences and on the conditi co nditions ons imposed on a metrical writer writer in the choice of his diction. diction. He says that metre is a proper form of poetry and poetry is considered to be imperfect and defective without metre metr e because metre originates from the balance of mind mind by that spontaneous spo ntaneous effort which keeps a check o on n the workings of passion. Coleridge finds finds that Wordsworth’ ordswort h’ss theory theor y guides a poet in the choice of language language for his poetry. This theory acts as one o ne of the principles principles required to t o be establi esta blished shed to meet the ultimate end of criticism. Chapter XIX

It appears to Coleridge that certain passages of the Pr the Prefac efacee to Lyrica Lyricall Ballads Balladsindicate indicate that Wordswort Wordsworth h meant to confine confine his style style and language to “those particular subjects from low and rustic life”which life”which acted as a s the new theme to English poetry poet ry.. He did so because the language of the rustic was natural. Many of Wordswort ords worth’ h’ss poems in the Lyr the Lyrical ical Balladsare Ballads are good examples examples of thought, tho ught, image image and passion expressed in simple simple style and language which is the most suitable for such sentiments s entiments and ideas. Chapter XX

Coleridge states that the characteristic excellence of Wordsworth’s style is not simplicity but indiv indiviiduality duality.. Wordsworth’s ordsworth’s poetry is praised praised as he confirm confirmss to genui genuine, ne, logical Engli English and is most individualized individualized and characteristic. charac teristic. Wordsworth’s ordswo rth’s style style is so highly individual individualized ized 119


that it can be easily easily recognized. Even in the poems wh where ere he speaks through his characters, hid voice is easily easily detectable. detecta ble. A person who has read only a few poems of Wordswo Wordsworth rth can easily recognize reco gnize his quotatio quo tation n by recognizing reco gnizing his his style. On the other hand, it would wo uld be difficult difficult to select a quot ation from Wordswor Wordsworth’s th’s more elevated compositions, co mpositions, examples examples of diction particul particularl arly y his his own and a style style which which cannot cannot be imitated mitated because because here his his choice choice of words is such as is not commonly used in real life. life. Chapter XXI

Coleridge wishes for a just and fair criticism criticism of Words Wordswort worth’ h’ss poetry poet ry based totally t otally upon an evaluation of o f his his published published poems. He feels that mere opining of any individual individual or critic must not weigh down the opinion opinion of the author autho r himself himself.. According to Coleridge the investigation in which the critic tries to establish the principles, which form form the foundation founda tion of poetry in general general,, is fai fair and phil philosophi osophical. cal. Such Such princi principl ples es will will act as the “canon “canonss of criti critici cism sm”” in the light light of o f which which the critic will evaluate particular p articular passages passa ges either for praise or for criticism cr iticism.. Then if the premises be rational, his deductions deductio ns legitimate, legitimate, and his conclusions justly applied, the reader, and possibly the poet himself, may adopt his judgment and in the independence of o f free free agency age ncy.. Coleridge feels that the critic has a right to praise or condemn c ondemn a piece of literatu literature re while while the writer has the authority to reply but not to complai c omplain. n. The limi limits ts to the t he softness or harshness of a critic’s critic’s comm co mments ents cannot be prescribed, yet a critic must must choose choo se the appropriate words to produce pro duce the effect effect which he desires to. If, in his critici criticism, sm, the critic critic attacks the author for personal reasons, his criticism which is filled with meanness, remains no longer just and impartial and the t he critic turns into a backbiter. backbiter. Coleridge approves o off the criticism which is is based based on previ previously ously formul formulated ated rules rules and princi principl ples es as such such criti critici cism sm will will be objecti objective ve and not persona personall and arbi arbitrary trary. However However severe severe in tone, tone, such such a criti critici cism sm wil will probab probablly still stillbe tolerab tolerable le.. Chapter XXII

Coleridge opines that tha t if if somebody somebod y finds finds the principles, as set by Wordswort ords worth, h, to be erroneou erro neouss in any way, way, he should correct correc t the mistakes in the light of the critic’s opinions on his theories. theor ies. If Wordsw Wordswort orth’ h’ss poetic po etic compositions compositio ns have been influenced influenced by his his mistaken theory theo ry,, the effects should be pointed out and instances given. It will prove that the supposed characteristics of Wordsworth’s poetry for which the critics blame him, are not their real attributes. Wordsworth ordswo rth does not alway a lwayss write in the language of the low low and the rustic. rust ic. He does so only o nly when he is conscious conscious of his theory and thus sticks to it. But a wide number number of passages of his poetry poet ry have been written writt en in a language which is dignified dignified and suits his grandeur. gr andeur. Coleridge draws attention att ention to certain certa in major defects defects of Words Wordswort worth’ h’ss poetry-the first of which Inconstanc Inconstancyy of the style style as Wordswort ordsw orth h is very very often found using us ing prosaic language in poetry poet ry.. The second defect in Wordswort ordsw orth’ h’ss poetry, is a matter-of-factness in matter-of-factness in certain 120


poems. The third third defect defect is is an undue predilecti predilection on for for the dramatic form dramatic form in certain poems, because because of which which either either the thoughts thoughts and diction diction are diff different erent from that of the poet, and then there arises an incongruity incong ruity of style; or they are t he same and indistinguishable, indistinguishable, and then it presents presents a species species of ventri ventriloqu loquis ism m, where where two are represente represented d as as talki talking, ng, while while in truth one man only speaks. The fourth class of defects is closely connected with the th e former; but yet are such as arise a rise likewise likewise from an intensity of feeling feeling disproportionate dispropor tionate to t o such knowledge such knowledge and val value of the the objects objects in in general general,, even of the most most culti cultivate vated d classes classes;; and with with which which they they can be supposed to sympathize. The fifth fifth and last last defect is that there are thoughts thoug hts and images images too great for the subject. subject. These defects as brought forth be Coleridge in Wordsworth’s poetry, are occasional and infreque infrequent nt while the merits are far more more comparatively co mparatively.. The first among these thes e merits is “an austere purity of languag languagee both grammatical grammatically ly and logically; logically; in in short a perfect perfect appropriaten appr opriateness ess of words to the meaning.”The meaning.”The second characteristic excellence of Mr. Wordsworth’s work is: “a correspondent weight and sanity of Thoughts and Sentiments, won – not from books, but – from the poet’ poet ’s own meditative meditative observation. They are fres fresh h and have the dew upon them”.The or iginali ality ty of single lines lines and paragraph: parag raph: the frequent third merit is “the sinewy strength and origin curiosa felicitas of hi hiss diction... diction.. . “The fourth one is “the perfect truth trut h of nature in his images images and descriptions, as taken ta ken immediately immediately from from nature, nature , and proving pro ving a long and genial intimacy intimacy with the spirit which gives the physiognomic expression to all the works of nature”.The fifth characteristic feature of Wordsw Wordsworth’s orth’s poetry is:a meditative meditative pathos, pat hos, a union of deep and subtle thought with sens sensiibil bility; ty; a sym sympathy pathy with with man man as man; man; the sympa sympathy thy indeed indeed as as a contemplator, contemplator, from from whose view no dif d ifference ference of rank ra nk conceals the sameness of nature; nature ; no injuries of wind wind and weather, or o r toil to il,, or even of ignorance, wholl who lly y disguise the human face divine. divine. Chapter XXIII

In this chapter Coleridge has provided evidence with his Letters from Germany particularly particularly referring referring to a “disquisi “disquisition tion on the modern drama, a critique critique on the Tragedy of Bertram” Bertra m” that he has been falsely charged with w ith any “fickleness” “fickleness” in his his principles of “taste “taste”. ”. Chapter XXIV

This chapter acts as the conclusion to the co mplete mplete work Biograph work Biographia ia Literaria Literaria.. In the view of Coleridge, one o ne is sometimes punished punished for faults by inci incidents dents which are not caused by those faul faults ts and this this a very very severe severe punis punishm hment ent.For .For there there is alway alwayss a consola consolatory tory feel feeliing that that accompanies the sense of proportion propo rtion between antecedents antecede nts and consequents. consequ ents. The sense of Before and After becomes both bo th intelligible intelligible and intellectual intellectual when, and a nd only when, we cont contemplate emplate the successi succession on in in the the relati relations ons of Cause and effect....C effect....Coleri oleridge dge does not not desire desire to trouble trouble his readers with complaints complaints with which they are not concerned, co ncerned, but he wants them to learn from his his experience an import important ant truth trut h that “we must not o only nly love our neighbours as ourselves, ou rselves, but ourselves ourselves likewi likewise se as our neighbours; neighbours; and and that we can do neither neither unless unless we love God above both.”Coleridge had never believed that he had an enemy in the world but then he started starte d thinking whether he had a single single friend friend in the world. His critics, critics, even those who used 121


to appreciate appreciat e him earlier, had attacked attac ked him severely. severely. Coleridge’s Argument about Poetic Poet ic Diction

Coleridge’s argument argument about poetic poet ic diction can be be summarized under three main heads: 1.

Coleri Coleridge dge opine opined d that that in argu arguiing that that the the langu language age of “metri “metrical calcompos composiition” tion” is is essen essenti tial allly the same as that of o f prose, if Wordswo Wordsworth rth meant only that poetry poetr y and prose have the same vocabulary or diction, he was being being absolutely true. But, Coleridge concluded that Words Wordswort worth h really meant that the poetic po etic manner of combining combining words wor ds was no different different from that of pros prose, e, and this he retorted retort ed as apparently appare ntly false. false.

2.

Coleri Coleridge dge argued argued that that if if a given given figur figuree or im image us used used badl badly y by by a giv given en poet, the reason for the badness is not that the figure is a repetition of what other po ets have done, but that in some way or the other, o ther, “grammar, “grammar, logic, psychology”, psychology”, “good “goo d sense” or “taste” “tas te” may have been violated. violated.

3.

Coleri Coleridge dge also also argued argued that educati education, on, and not the lack of it, make makess a poet. Uneducat Uneducated ed men are disorderly in their writing. If the peasantry peasant ry of Wordswort ord sworth’ h’ss Westmore Westmoreland land spoke a vigorous vigoro us language this came not from uninstructed communi c ommunion on with nature, but but from a spir spiriit of indep indepen enden dence ce and and from from a soli solid reli religious gious educa educati tion on and acquai acquain ntance tance with the Bible Bible and hymnboo hymnbook. k. One kind of speech (socially defined) could not be more real than another. Coleridge’s view about Poem

It is “that species of composition, which is is opposed oppo sed to works of o f science, science, by proposing for its immediate immediate object pleasure, not truth; and from fro m all other species . . . it is discri d iscrimi minated nated by proposing proposing to itsel itselff such deligh delightt from from the whole, whole, as as is compatib compatible le with with a disti distinct nct gratifica gratification tion from each component compo nent part.” part .” So a poem p oem is a living, living, complex entity. entity. If you cut a branch from the tree, the t he tree isn’t whole any anymore, more, and the branch has lost its purpose. Coleridge’s Coleridge’s view about Poet

The poet is the person who w ho can, by creative creat ive imagi imagination, nation, produce the poetry poet ry.. A poet is a unified unified person perso n who “brings the who whole le soul of man into into activity a ctivity.” .” Imagination of this sort so rt demonstrates the potential for the harmonious operation of our faculties: sensory perception, feeling, feeling, reason reas on or intellect, willpower, which will will not be at odds when w hen we are engaged engage d with a poem; poem; all all wil will be exerci exercised sed in a producti productive ve way. way. Imagi Imagina nation tion may be what what Coleri Coleridge dge call calls in the Biographia Biographia Literaria the esempl esemplastic astic power or the t he power that t hat “makes things into into one,” o ne,” but that same power doesn’t cancel differences to arrive at some indeterminate lump of oneness. Instead, Instead , it “reveals itself itself in the balance or reconcil reco nciliation iation of opposite oppo site or discordant discord ant qualities.” “Lucy Gray” is a fine illustrat illustration ion of imagination imagination at work in creating symbolic symbolic language: Lucy, Lucy, the star, and the t he violet don’t lose their identity but instea instead d gain something by being related to one another an other so vitally. vitally. Coleridge’ Co leridge’ss “Dejection: an Ode” off o ffers ers a negative illustra illustration tion in which the poet’s po et’s imaginati imagination on isn’t harmonizing harmonizing the t he natural world wo rld with his own subjective subjective experience 122


and emotional state. He remains remains isolated, and can create creat e no order o rder because his “genial “genial spirits spirits fail” fail” and he can only “see, not feel,” how beautif beaut iful ul nature’s eternal forms are. Sym S ymboli bolicc language is said to remain true tto o the creative and imaginati imaginative ve process; it registers r egisters the “life” “life” in which alone “nature lives.” lives.” It does not render the world as externality externality,, and does do es not imitate imitate it or distort it, but b ut brings home to us the power of o f the primary and secondary imagination. imagination.

8.4.2 Critics on Biographia Biogra phia Literaria Literari a Critics Critics have reacted strongly to the Biogr the Biographia aphia Literaria Literaria.. Herbert Read R ead says that Co leridge “made criticism criticism into science, and using his own experiences and those of his fellow fellow poets po ets as material material for his research, revealed to the t he world for the first time some par partt of the mystery of genius and a nd of the universal and eternal ete rnal significance significance of art.” I.A. Richards considers him to be a fore-runner of science and semantics semantics and compares him to Galileo who discovered new fields of human enquiry. On the other hand, Prof. Raysor and Rene Wellek do not have a high opinion of Coleridge as a critic. Prof. Raysor considers Coleridge’s Coleridge’s theory of imagin imagination ation as “eccentric and unfortunate” unfortu nate” and regards regar ds Coleridge as a “mediocr “mediocree philoso philosopher.” pher.” Rene Wellek Wellek is is of the opinion that Coleridge’s Coleridge’s theories theo ries are either derived or borrowed borro wed from German phi philosopher losophers, s, especially Schelling. Cazamian forms a high opinion of Coleridge and his Biogr his Biographia aphia Literaria Literaria.. He says: The well-known dif d ifferentiation ferentiation bet ween imagination and fancy, which Word Wordswor sworth th interpreted after his own fashion, is a way to laying laying stress upon up on the creative cr eative activity of the mind, mind, as opposed o pposed to the passive association association of mental pictures; but for Coleridge it has a mystical significance. This feeling for the secret link existing between problems, together with this habit of intermingling, intermingling, even eve n perhaps of o f confounding them, by no means deprives depr ives him of vision vision on precise points. In Bio In Biogr graph aphia ia Litera Literaria riacertain certain intentions, as well as certain successes or failings failings of Wordswo Wordsworth, rth, are caught and illuminated illuminated to their depths; so searching is the light, that it is even cruel. cruel. His remarks remarks on Shakespeare to show a sound so und intuition intuition of the profound unity of the dramatic art. Accustomed Accusto med as he is is to reach to t o the heart of o f the things, things, to find there the same vital impulse impulse which animates animates his own thought, thou ght, and to t o see this t his secret life life produce prod uce what becomes becomes the apparent apparent world world of the senses. senses. Coleri Coleridge dge is thus able able to discus discusss with with an unerri unerring ng insight insight the paths along which a central impulse impulse has radiated, so to speak, towards t owards all the fundamental fundamental ideas, aspects aspects and characteristics characteristics of a work.

8.4.3 8.4.3 Glos Glossa sary ry Imagination

In the process of thinking thinking two different different powers which which are called called active and passiv p assivee are at work.. work .. The functioning functioning of these two t wo distinct powers is not possibl po ssiblee without an intermedi intermediate ate faculty, faculty, which is is at once both bot h active and passive. passive. In philosop philosophical hical language this 123


intermediate faculty is called called imagination. imagination. Primary Imagination

The primary Imaginati Imagination, on, Coleridge Co leridge holds to be the living living power and prime agent of all human perception, percept ion, and as a repetition rep etition in the finite finite mind of the eternal et ernal act of o f creation in the infinite infinite I am. Secondary Imagination

The secondary seco ndary Imagination Imagination , Coleridge considers as an echo e cho of o f the primary imagi imagination, nation, co-existing co-e xisting with the conscious consciou s will, will, yet still as identical with with the primary pr imary in in the kind of its agency, and differing differing only o nly in in degree , and in the mode of its operation. o peration. It dissolves, dissolves, diffuses, diffuses, dissipates, dissipates, in order to create: or o r where this process pro cess is rendered impossible, impossible, yet still at all events it struggles stru ggles to idealize and to unify. unify. It is essentially esse ntiallyvital vital , even as all objects ( as objects) are essentially fixed fixed and dead. Fancy

Fancy, Fancy, ... .. . has no other counters count ers to play with, but fixities fixities and definities. definities. The fancy is indeed no other than a mode of o f memory memory emancipated emancipated from the order of o f time time and space; while it is blended with, and modif mod ified ied by that empirical phenomenon of the will, will, which we express expre ss by the word wo rd Choice. But equally with the ordinary ord inary memory memory the Fancy must receive its materials ready made from the law of association. associatio n. Esemplastic

Coleridge coined this new term which would aid in the recollection of meaning and preve prevent nt it from from being being confound confounded ed with with the usual import import of the word imagi maginati nation. on. Willing Suspension of Disbelief

Coleridge Coleridge felt that it should be directed to persons p ersons and characters supernatural, or at least romantic, yet so as to transfer tr ansfer from our inward nature a human interest and a semblance of truth trut h sufficient sufficient to procure pr ocure for these shadows of imagination imagination that willing willing suspension suspension of o f disbelief disbelief for the moment, moment, which constitutes poetic po etic faith.

8. 5

Let Us Sum Up

Coleridge’s Biogr Coleridge’s Biographia aphia Literar Literaria ia is an attempt to trace a pattern pat tern in the development development of British poetry and philosophy philosop hy,, and to found fo und a system of critical thought by reflecting on a single “poetic” life. life. In it all at once onc e the conceptual concep tual disorder of its author, autho r, his his uncommon critical insight, his occasional guilty conscience and his moral enthusiasm uncovered; uncovere d; and, above all, a moving testimony of the ideal poetic character charact er who has taken tak en upon himself himself the arduous arduou s task of becomin becoming g the subje subject ct of his his own history history is found. found. Coleridge disagrees with Wordswo Wordsworth rth on the t he idea that we must get back to nature. nat ure. 124


He does not agree with the idea that rustic life life is purer than city life. life. Only a philosopher (or at least least an educated person) perso n) could benefit benefit from close contact with nature. Nature, like like trade, t rade, narrows the mind, and we quickly become impervious to its charms. Moreover, while Wordsworth relies a great deal on habit and meditation, Coleridge’s concept of imagination seems more dynamic and active, and his idealism is more thoroughgoing than that of Wordswort ords worth’ h’ss “wise passiveness,” which implies implies a high high degree of o f openness to t he power of o f external things things and the sensations they provide. Coleridge opposes oppose s the materiali materialist st concept concep t of experience, and he applies a pplies his his point po int of disagreement with Wordswo Wordsworth rth very broadly broad ly—only —only cultivation makes us capable of experiencing nature nature and truly appreciating the difference difference between between consciousness and self-consciousness. It is true that both bot h poets off o ffer er a touch t ouch of o f the meditative meditative and the mystical, mystical, but Coleridge privi privile leges ges the philos philosophy ophy of selfself-consc consciou iousne sness ss over Wordsworth ordsworth’’s rustic rustic “wise “wise passiv passivene eness.” ss.” As for poetic diction, rustic language is tied too closely to narrow, particular things. Philosophical language is superior because it flows flows from “reflections on the t he acts of the mind mind itself.” itself.” Through T hrough this discussion, he makes many valueable judgments, leaving his audience with a clear understanding of his stance on certain issues. Some o off the issues he tackles ta ckles include include politi po litics, cs, religion, religion, social values, and human identity. identity. His treatment treat ment of these issues tends to be conservative conservat ive in its its foundation, yet also blatant and original. original. He does not cater cat er to one certain audience; audience; rather he expresses his own thoughts thoug hts from a personal viewpoint. Coleridge delivers the Biographia Literaria without a second seco nd thought thou ght of whether or o r not there will be any disagreement ffrom rom his audience.

8.6 8.6

Review Questions

1.

Write rite a short ort not notee on on “Co “Collerid ridge as a Cri Criti tic” c”..

2.

What doe doess Col Coler eriidge dge say say abou aboutt Word Wordsw swor orth th’’s sty stylle?

3.

What, What, accord accordiing to Coleri Coleridge dge,, are are the the “def “defec ects ts and and beauti beauties es ofWordswort ordsworth’ h’ss poetry poetry”? ”?

4.

What is is you yourr opi opinion abou aboutt the the Rom Romaantic tic Age? ge?

5.

Bri Briefl efly di discus scusss the the life and and work workss of of Col Coler eriidge. dge.

6.

Coleri Coleridge dge is is often often descri describe bed d as a “poet “poet of the the im imaginati agination.” on.” What What does does thi this appel appelllation ation mean?

7.

Comm Comment on Pri Prim mary and and Secon Secondar dary y Imagi Imagina nati tion on and and the the di differen ference ce betwe between en the two.

8.

Write rite a note on on Col Coler eriidge’ dge’ss vi view ewss on on Poe Poeti ticc D Diicti ction. on.

9.

Eluc Eluciidate date Col Coleri eridge’ dge’ss ide ideaa on “Esem Esempl plas asti ticc power power”. ”.

10.

What What accor accordi ding ng to Col Coleri eridge dge are are the the two two cardi cardinal nal points points of poetry poetry??

125


8. 7

Bibliography

1.

Abram Abrams, s, M.H. M.H. A Glossa Glossary ry of Lit Litera erary ry Terms. erms. New New York: York: Harcourt Harcourt Brac Bracee & Comp Company any,, 1993.

2.

Anne Anne K. K. Mell Mellor, or, Engl English ish Roma Romant ntic ic Irony Irony :Cam :Cambr brid idge: ge: Harv Harvard ard Unive Universi rsity ty Press Press,, 1980. 1980.

3.

Coleri Coleridge dge,, S. T. T. ([1817 ([1817]] 1907) 1907) Bi Biograph ographiia Liter Literari aria. a. J. Sha Shawcr wcross oss (ed). (ed). Oxf Oxford: ord: Oxfo Oxford rd U.P.

4.

Lei Leitch, tch, Vi Vincen ncentt B., ed. ed. The The Norton Norton Anth Anthol ology ogy of Theor Theory y and and Criti Critici cism sm.. New New York York : Norton, 2001. 2001.

5.

Richards rds, I.A I.A.. Col Colerid ridge on Imagi aginati nation on.. London: Routledge. 1962.

6.

Schl Schlegel egel F. F. The Ae Aesth stheti eticc and and Misc Miscel elllaneous aneous Works, orks, ed. ed. E.J. E.J. Mi Milli llington. ngton. London London:: Bell. 1915.

7.

Tim Timothy Corri Corrigan, gan, Coleri Coleridge dge,, Langua Language, ge, and and Cri Criti tici cism sm (Ath (Athen ens: s: The Uni Unive vers rsiity of Georgia Press, 1982) ____________

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UNIT–9 MATTHE MATTHEW W ARNOLD : CULTURE AND ANARCHY Structure 9. 0

Objectives

9. 1

Introduction

9. 2

About the Age

9. 3

About th the Author

9. 4

Reading Text 9.4.1 9.4.1

Cutu Cuture re and and Anarch archy y

9.4.2 9.4.2

Deta De taiiled Sum Summary ary

9.4.3 9.4.3

Cri Critica ticall Ana Anallysis sis

9 .4 . 4

Style

9.4.5

Hebrai Hebraism sm and and Ha Hallleni enism

9.5 9.5

Sel Self Assessm ssment Que Quesstion tionss

9.6

Answers to to th the Q Qu uestions ons

9. 7

Let Us Sum Up

9. 8

Review Questions

9. 9

Bibliography

9.0

O b j e ct i v e s

In this unit unit I propose to make you read and understand underst and criticism. criticism. The text selected for this purpose purpo se is one of the best masterpieces of o f political political and social criticism written in English English language. Such type t ype of critical writings writings are import important ant for guiding guiding the t he society soc iety and literary literary scenario alike for development of o f socio-political socio-po litical life. life. Arnold Arnold began bega n his literary literary career as a s a poet poe t and then turned tur ned a prophet pro phet with his highly highly creative and valuable va luable pieces of critical writings. You You will be made famili familiar ar with the literary scene of the Victorian Age, Age, prose pr ose writings w ritings of the period and development of o f critical critical writings. You You are ar e advised to read about the t he Age, Age, life and literary literary genius of Arnold, Arnold, before reading read ing his Culture and Anarchy to Anarchy to develop capability capability to : (i)

read read abo about ut the the cha chara ract cter eriistic stic fea featur tures es of the the Vi Victori ctorian an Age, ge,

(ii)

read read and unders understan tand d litera literary ry and and soci social al cri critici ticism sm,,

(iii)

unders understan tand d Mathhew MathhewArnol Arnold d speci special place place as a lit litera erary ry geni genius, us, 127


(iv)

read and understan tand Culture and Anarchy, Anarchy,

(v)

criti critical cally ly anal analyse yse vari various concep concepts ts and idea ideass put forwa forward rd by Arnol Arnold, d, and and

(vi)

answ answer er the the ques questi tion onss bas based ed on on text text in in your your own own word words. s.

9. 1

Introduction

The scope sco pe of Victo Victorian rian achievement in literary criticism criticism has not been delineated with complete precision. p recision. A good goo d deal of the evidence ev idence lies buried in the reviews. rev iews. When it it has been bee n sifted sifted it may prove to have fore forestalled stalled much twentieth-century twentieth-centu ry opinion about Victorian writers. There is not likely to be a great change in the view that the t he number number of critics who are still of practical practical importance importance is relative relatively ly smal small. l. Only Only two Victorian ictorian critics, critics, Arnold Arnold and Stephen, Stephen, are are really living living influences influences – alive in the way that Dickens and George Geo rge Eliot E liot are alive, as constitue c onstituent nt elements elements in modern culture. Important criticism criticism requires, in addition a ddition to delicacy delicacy,, insight, insight, reading, and disinterestedness, disinterested ness, a certain cert ain moral rootedness, roote dness, an intelligently intelligently positive direction of mind, qualities qualities which are very rarely found toget t ogether her.. Some So me distance after Arnold and Stephen come co me Swinburne, Bagehot, Bagehot , Pater, Morley Mo rley,, and R.H. Hutto Hut ton. n. The academic critics such as Saintsbury, Gosse, and Dowden D owden do not no t count co unt in the same way, way, though tho ugh they have their uses. One of the results of nineteenth-century sociological sociological and historical studies was a deeper understanding of the organic organic nature of o f culture, of which linguisti linguisticc clarity and literary vitality vitality are crucial crucial components. This understanding, as we find it in Macaulay Macaulay,, Arnold, Arnold, Stephen, Bagehot, Bagehot , and others, o thers, was a great improve improvement ment on the mere listing of writers or the t he study of each in isolation. But this ability ability to thin t hink k organical org anically ly about literature, and a nd to handle it as a livi living ng organism, tended in time to be reduced to a mere accumulation of what was hopefully called ‘background’. There is, of course, all the difference difference in the world. They want to t o prove that Shakespeare was not “for all time”, but “of “o f an age”. There T here is not limit limit to background backgrou nd material and only the feeling feeling for life life – which Arnold succiently called ‘tact’ – can decide what historical histor ical information information is relevant aand nd ensure that literature literature matters in the way it should. Good Go od criticism is is as rare as any other kind of literary literary excellence excellence and, as Arnold wrote, wrot e, ‘at some epochs epoc hs no other creation creat ion is possible’. possible’. Arnold’s Arnold’s aim seems to be to find find a middle way between the t he objective, judicial approach adopted by such classical critics as Johnson and the eager, responsive approach made by such Romantic critics as Hazlitt. Hazlitt. In two more o f the lectures which he delivered delivered at Oxford, he dwells dwells in turn on the t he need to acknowledge the authority of intellectual intellectual and aesthetic standards and on the need for flexibil flexibility ity and receptiveness. These two lectures, lect ures, ‘The Literary Litera ry Influence Influence of Academics’ and ‘The Function of Criticism at the Present Time’, made their earliest appearance appear ance in book form in the first series of Essays Essa ys in in Criticism (r865). (r865 ). Criticism Criticism can help to reinvigorat reinvigoratee our o ur intellectual intellectual life, life, and can serve future creative writers, by discharging discharging its true function. This is ‘simply ‘simply to know kno w the best that is known and thought in the world, wor ld, and by in in its turn making this this known, to t o create creat e a current of o f true and fresh ideas’. Doing this, it will contribute to the production pro duction in time of an intellectual intellectual and spiritual 128


situation situat ion of which creative creat ive genius will be able profitably pro fitably to avail its itself. elf. If it is to succeed, succee d, critici cr iticism sm must be essentially the exercise of a freely ranging, openop enminded minded curiosi cur iosity. ty. Moreover, it must be disinterested; it must steadily st eadily refuse refuse to t o lend itself to ‘ulterior, political, political, practical considerations’. The practical pr actical man man sees an object, above all, all, as helping or hindering his his plans; the critic must try tr y to view it more detached d etachedly ly,, to see it ‘as in itself it really rea lly is’. is’. Criticism, Criticism, so conceived, is to be directed not no t only upon works of o f art but also upon upo n life life in general. Arnold himself in this essay directs it upon upo n passages from two recent r ecent poli po litical tical speeches celebrating celebrating the greatness of the English English race and a nd its achievements. achievements. He shows up what is excessive and offensive offensive in these rhapsodies rhapsod ies by placing placing beside them a brutally compact newspaper report of a squalid child-murder child-murder recently r ecently committed committed in the very country cou ntry which they extol. This is the comparative compar ative method metho d which we have already a lready seen him use so skilfully in his his critique of Milton’s blank blank verse. verse. For Arnold Arnold holds holds that the habit habit of dispassionate dispassionate appraisal fostered by by strictly literary criticism crit icism can be of o f the widest social s ocial utility.

9. 2

About The Age

Queen Victo Victoria ria ascended to the throne t hrone in 1837 and reigned over ove r Britain till till her death in 1901. The Victorian Victorian Age proper prop er thus extends from the year 1837 to t o the year 1901. However, for literary purposes, the Victo Victorian rian Age may be said said to have begun from the year 1832 (the year of the passing of the first Reform Bill) Bill) and to have ended with the year 1892 189 2 (the year of o f the death deat h of Tennyson, Tennyson, the most outstanding out standing litera literary ry figure figure of o f the period). The Victo Victorian rian Age was wonderfully wonde rfully rich and varied in all respects. The most obvious feat feature ure of this great epoch ep och in British history was the enormous material progress that was achieved by the British people. The wealth of the cou country ntry increased several times, times, though tho ugh at the same time the population of o f England almost almost doubled. The effect of the t he Industrial Revolution of the 18th century worked themselves out and altered the t he whole structure struct ure of society. The relations of class class with class were changed. The progress pro gress of o f science science was indeed, a co conspicuous nspicuous feature of the Victorian Victorian Age. Age. The discoveries of science added far more to t o people’ peop le’ss positive knowledge kno wledge of themselves and the universe than their forefathers and a nd gained in all the preceding preceding eighteen centur centuries ies of the Christian era. Nor No r is this unparalleled unparalleled increase in knowledge the only point to be considered. c onsidered. In estima est imating ting the influence influence of o f science science upon upo n life life and literatu literature, re, it is further to be noted note d that, by reason reaso n of the spread of popular education, education, newspapers, magazines, magazines, and cheap books, the facts and speculations of the experts were not longer kept to the t he experts themselves, but but passed rapidl r apidly y into the possession possess ion of the reading public public at large. The Victor Victorian ian Age was marked throug t hroughout hout by the prominence of a spirit of inquiry and criticism, criticism, by scepticism and religious religious uncertainty, and by spiritual struggle and unrest , and these are among the most of the persis p ersistent tent and characteristic characteristic notes of its higher higher literature. At At 129


the same time, t ime, the analytical and critical habit of mind, which was encouraged encourag ed by science, profoundl profoundly y infl nfluenced uenced literatu literature re in other ways, ways, and a marked arked devel development opment of realis realism m was one importa important nt result. Another important importan t feature of o f the Victorian Victorian Age Age was the progress pr ogress of o f democracy. The Reform Bill Bill of 1832 had certainl cert ainly y extended the franchise, but it did not satisfy those who w ho had pressed for a more radical radical measure. measure. The agitation agitation for electoral electoral reform reform therefore therefore continued, continued, and a popular popu lar movement called “Chantism” “Chantism” kept England Eng land in a state stat e of political unrest for about abou t ten years. A strong individuali individualism sm was another aspect of o f the Victo Victorian rian Age. In its crudest form, it could lead to the t he justification justification of ruthless competition co mpetition in business. business. It also led to t o the assertion asser tion that only lack of initiative initiative and hard work wo rk prevented prevent ed any one from making a fortune. The T he belief in in individuali individualism sm (every man for himself) himself) meant an opposition op position to those schemes of reform which affected affected society coll co llectively ectively.. Particularly Part icularly in the first half of the period, period , there th ere was an a n emphasis on the virtues virtues of the t he self-made self-made man and a criticism criticism of those who tended to t o interfere with the free flow of endeavour. endeavo ur. The Oxford Movemen Movementt was an attempt to recover a lost tradition. tradition. It was responsible responsible for a good go od deal of spurious medievali medievalism sm ; but it did grasp the truth, t ruth, which the 18th century had observed : that the t he Middle Ages had qualities and capacities which the moderns had lost. lost . The theologians theolo gians of this this movement movement wished to rec recover over the connection connec tion with the Continent and with its its own past which the English English Church had lost at the Reformation. The great writers of the period could not reconcile themselves to the glorification of material and commercial commercial progress by the people. There is, therefore, t herefore, a note not e of revolt in the literature literature of the time against this glorification glorification and against th thee general complacency which resulted from it.

9.3 9.3

About The Author

Matthew Arnold was born in Laleham, in the valley of the Thames, on the 24th December, 1822. Of the ten t en children children born to his parents, he was the t he second. seco nd. At At the t he time of his his birth, birth, his his fathe fatherr Thomas Thomas Arnol Arnold d was not yet yet famous. amous. Afterw Afterwards ards,, in 1828, 1828, Thomas Thomas Arnol Arnold d was appointed Headmaster Head master of Rugby School and in that capacity capa city he acquired a wide wide reputation repu tation in the country co untry.. Mary penrose Arnold, Arnold, Matthew’ Mat thew’ss mother, was the t he daughter of a clerical famil family y of some distinction. At the age of thirteen, Matthew was sent to Winchester, his father’s old school schoo l where, however, he stayed for one year o nly. nly. In August 1837, 1 837, he became beca me a pupil at Rugby School Schoo l and there he remained until 1841. In 1841 Matthew Mat thew Arnold entered Balli B alliol ol College, Oxford, as a classical scholar. There he distinguished himself by winning prizes in poetry and by his general excellence in the classics. Due to his social activities he could secure only second class. He made up for the misfort misfortune une of his second class by securing the Newdigate Newdigat e Prize with his poem Cromwell and 130


by passing passing to Oriel Oriel College College where he was elected elected a Fell Fellow ow in 1845. In the summer summer of 1846, he made a trip to France and obtained an interview interview with George Sand, the famous French novelist. novelist. Back at Oxford, he appeared app eared to his his associates to be as conceited as ever. He produced on them the impression of a man of Olympian manners. In 1847, Matthew Arnold was appointed Private Secretary Se cretary to Lord Lo rd Landsowne, the influential influential Whig statesman. During his visit visit to the Continent Continent in 1846-47, 1846-47 , Arnold seems to have met a girl with with blue eyes. Her identity is unknown, but in his his volume volume of poems po ems published published in 1849, he gave her the name Marguerite. Marguerite. There T here seems to have been a love-affai love-affairr between the two, but the actual facts are not known. k nown. The love-affair did did not develop de velop much because there seems to have been some insuperable obstacle obstac le in the way of its continuance. co ntinuance. Subsequently, Subsequently, Matthew Ma tthew Arnold fell in in love with w ith Miss Frances Lucy Wightman Wightman daughter of a judge, Sir William William Wightman. Wightman. Sir Willi William am refused his consent to the t he marriage because Arnold’s Arnold’s income as Private Secretary to Lord Lansdowne was not enough. e nough. Arnold Arnold now began to look for a more remunerative job. Through the t he patronage of o f Lord Lansdowne, Arnold was appointed an Inspector Inspector of o f Schools on the 14th April, 1851. Arnold’s Arno ld’s marriag marriagee to Miss Wightman took too k place in in the June 1851, and a nd the honeymoon was spent in France, Switzerland, and Italy. Arnold and his wife had six children. Of the three t hree boys, boys, one died in infancy infancy,, and two tw o in their teens. These were tragic t ragic losses, but the marriage itself proved to be remarkably happy happy.. Both Bot h husband and wife were extremely ext remely sociable and had a wide circle of friends. One of the daughters daughte rs shared her father’s father ’s love love of o f travel, and he almost found her company indispensable on his journeys. In 1857 Arnold was elected Professor of o f Poetry at Oxford, Oxford, in which which capacity he worked for ten t en years, having having been re-elected for a seco nd term in 1862 on the expiry of his first first five-year term. He was the t he first first layman to occupy oc cupy the Chair of Poet Poetry ry at Oxford University, University, and he was the t he first to lecture in English English instead of in Latin. Arnold had by this dat datee published three volumes volumes of o f literary literary criticism :On : On Translating Homer (1861), Essays (1861), Essays in Criticism (1865), Criticism (1865), and On the Study of Celtic Literature Literature (1867). These were followed by Culture and Anarchy (1869). Anarchy (1869). In this book and in Friendship’ in Friendship’ss Garland (1879), (1879) , he handled social and political political problems. problems. He also wrote books on religion. religion. In St. Paul and Protestantism (1870), Protestantism (1870), Literatur Literaturee and Dogma (1873), Dogma (1873), God and the Bible (1975), and Last and Last Essays on Church Church and Religion Religion (1877), (1877), he grappled grap pled with with the question quest ion of religious religious beliefs. beliefs. In 1879 was publi pu blished shed a collection of political and literary literary studies st udies entitled Mixed Essays. In 1888 188 8 came the seco nd series of his Essays in Criticism. Criticism. In 1888, on the 15th April, April, he went to Liverpool Liverpool to meet his daughter and granddaughter daught er who were we re arriving from America ; in in his eagerness he leaped over o ver a low fence and fell down dead, his heart having failed. failed.

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9. 4

Reading Text 9.4. 1 Cultu Culture re And And Ana Anarc rchy hy

Arnold’s Arnold’s last lecture as Professor of Poetry Poet ry at Oxford University was printed in the “Cornhill Magazine” in 1867 in the form of an article under the heading “Culture and Its Enemies”. Enemies”. This was followed by five five more articl art icles, es, in the course co urse of o f 1868, under the general title of “Anarchy “Anarchy and Authority”. Authority”. In January 1869, he collected these six articles and published them in the form of a book to which he gave the title Culture and Anarchy, Anarchy, writing also an Introduction and a long Preface. When a second edition of the book was to be printed in 1875, Arnold carefully revised the whole and provided pro vided headings to the six s ix articles. Arnold Arnold wrote wrot e Culture and Anarchy at Anarchy at a time of considerable social and political unrest. The defeat of o f Gladstone’s Reform Bill Bill in in 1866 gave g ave rise to a determined d etermined agitation for the extension of the suffrage. suffrage. Although Arnold was in general sympathy with the democrat ic movement, he yet beli believed eved firml irmly y that that there could could be no society society without without disci discipl plin inee and order, order, and that there there were were tendencies in the national life life which, if not checke checked, d, would wo uld lead to anarchy a narchy.. These tendencies t endencies were very ver y much much in his his mind when he he wrote wrot e the chapters chapt ers of this book. boo k. Despite a large number of contemporary contemporar y allusions allusions in the book, Culture and Anarchy has establi esta blished shed itself as a classic in in the English language. Its It s ideas have by no means become obsolete, and its style style is still a source of delight and has been regarded as the t he best thing he ever wrote.

9.4.2 Deta Detaile iled d Su Summary mmary Preface

The whole scope of o f the book called Culture and Anarchy is Anarchy is to recommend culture as the great gre at help out of o f the present difficulties difficulties of the English nation. Culture is a pursuit of o f total perfection perfection by means means of knowing knowing the best which which has been thought and said said in the world, and through this knowledge turning a stream of fresh fresh and free thought upon our ou r stock notions not ions and habits which we now no w follow staunchly st aunchly but mechanically. mechanically. Culture does not approve of o f those people who mechanicall mechanically y serve some stock notion or operation, o peration, and who by doing so go ast ray. ray. At the same time, it is not not the aim of culture to offer some rival fetish. fetish. All that culture cu lture recommends re commends is that we sshould hould turn tu rn a free and fresh stream of thought upo upon n the whole matter in question. The provincialism of the English Puritans and Protestant Nonconformists is an undeniable fact. The reason reaso n for this provincialism provincialism is is that the t he Nonconformists Nonco nformists are not in contact contac t with the main current of national life, life, as the t he members of an Establi Est ablishment shment are. The English people have unfortunately unfortunately developed developed a tendency to Hebraise, Hebraise, which which means that they have 132


begun begun to sacrif sacrifiice all all other sides sides of their their personali personalitie tiess for the sake of the religi religious ous side. side. Culture is the disinterested endeavour after man’s man’s perfection. Therefore Ther efore it would like to cure c ure the provin pro vinciali cialism sm of the Nonconformists. The most appropriate a ppropriate way of curing their their provinci provincial alis ism m would would be to al allow the establi establishm shment ent of a Presbyte Presbyteri rian an Church Church side side by side side with with the existing Episcopal Episco pal Church in England. Men of culture look loo k forward to t o the day da y when the Hebraising Philistines Philistines of England wil willl be converted. converted. There There has been too much much of Hebrais Hebraisin ing, g, and now is the time time to hel hellen lenis ise. e. That does not, however, mean that Hebraism should completely be discarded. The habits and discipline discipline received from Hebraism will remain remain for the t he English people peo ple an everlasting po possession. ssession. But the t he need of the t he present time is to ttake ake to Helleni Hellenism. sm. Introduction

In the Introduct Intr oduction, ion, Arnold mentions two very import important ant men of his his time, Mr Bright and Mr Frederic Freder ic Harrison, both of o f whom had made some disparaging comments on Arnold’s Arnold’s view of culture. culture. Mr Harrison, for instance, had said s aid that culture might be useful to a bookboo kreviewer or a professor of literary literary writing but that t hat it was useless us eless if applied applied to politics. Accordin Accord ing g to Mr Harrison, Harr ison, “the man of culture is in politics politics one of the poorest po orest mortals mort als alive.” alive.” Arnold admits that, like Mr Bright and Mr Harrison, he too t oo is a Liberal but but he claim c laimss that he is “a Liberal tempered by experience, experience, reflection, and reno uncement” and that he is, above all, “a believer in culture”. Chapter-I Chapter-I : Sweetness and Light

An intellect intellectual ual love of knowledge is not the whole who le basis basis of culture. Culture certainly cert ainly demands an intellectual intellectual curiosity or the scientific passion to see things t hings as they are, but culture also requires something more. Culture is also also based on the moral and social so cial passion for for doing do ing good. in fact, fact, culture is a study st udy of perfection. Culture certainly c ertainly aims at rendering an intelligent intelligent person person yet yet more intel intellligent gent ; but but cultur culturee also also aims aims at making aking reason reason and and the will will of God prevai prevaill. Culture aims at a perfection in which both beauty and intelligence are present, a perfection perfection which which unites unites the the two noblest noblest of things, things, name namely ly sweetness and light. light. The man man of culture aims at sweetness and a nd light, light, while the man who goes against a gainst these is a Philistine. Philistine. In regarding sweetness and light to be the t he ingredients of perfection, culture resembles poetry. The men of culture are the true champi c hampions ons and support su pportss of the social so cial idea idea of equality. equality. The great men of culture were those who felt a passion for diffusing diffusing or propagating propag ating the best knowledge and a nd the best ideas of their time. Chapter-II : Doing As One Likes

Culture is a means of bringing bringing light light to us. u s. Light shows us that tha t there is nothing very admirable admirable in merely doing as o one ne likes. Light tells us that the t he really desirable desirable thi t hing ng is to like like what right reason dictates and to follow follow the authority aut hority of reason. If light, light, brought to us by 133


culture, shows sho ws us all this, then it is clear clear that we have got a practical pra ctical benefit benefit out of culture. The question now is how how to organize this this authority and how to make the State a powerful powerful instrum instrument ent of controll controlling ing anarchy anarchy and establi establishi shing ng order. order. There are three classes classes in English society – the aristocracy, the middle class, and the working people. According to Carlyle, Carlyle, the power p ower which should exercise authority over the whole who le country is the aristocracy. According to Mr. Lowe, that power po wer is the middle middle class. According According to the Reform League, tthat hat power is the working working class. class. If no particular class of society deserves deserves to be vested with authority to run the country cou ntry,, the only alternative is that the whole community should be given given that authority. au thority. In other words, wo rds, the State St ate should be made powerful powe rful enough to exercise control contr ol over all affairs. affairs. If that is done, the individual will will not be able to do just as a s he likes. This will be possibl poss iblee only if people peop le are urged to develop develop their best selves. Chapter-III : Barbarians, Barbarians, Philistine, Philistin e, Populace

The best way to describe de scribe the middle middle class in English English society is to use for it the t he name or designation of “Philistin “Philistines”. es”. Probably the term t erm “Phili “Philistines” stines” suits t he aristocratic aristoc ratic class also, because because this this class class is by its very nature nature inacces inaccessi sibl blee to ideas ideas and because because the Phil Philistin istines es are the people hostile hostile to the the childr children en of light. light. However, However, in order to distin distinguis guish h the aristocratic aristocratic class class from the middle class class a different different designation is necessary for t he former, and that designation d esignation should be the t he “Barbarians”. The English E nglish aristocratic aristocrat ic class class has plenty of the same individualism individualism which the Barbarian had. As for the working wo rking class, class, there t here are three disti d istinct nct sections of it. Two of these sections can, again, be appropriately appro priately described described as the Philistin Philistines. es. The T he third section sect ion of the working wo rking class is that vast va st section which has long remain remained ed half-hidden half-hidden amidst its po verty and squalor but which is is now emerging to assert its right to t o do as it likes, and to misbehave or agitate just as it likes. likes. For Fo r this vast portion of o f the working class, the designation of “Populace” would be most suitable. Every class in England entertains ente rtains a feeling of co complacency mplacency.. The Barbarians are satisfied satisfied with what they t hey are ; the Philistines remain satisfied satisfied with themselves ; and the t he Populace Populac e finds finds reason enough to remain satisfied satisfied with themselves themselves too. to o. Each class finds finds its ordinary o rdinary self to be admirable and has no notion o f its its best self. The English system system is defective defective because there is no sound sou nd centre of authority here and because there is no source of right reason and no no means means of promoting the best self self of the nation. The go vernment in in England believes believes that there is no such thing as a best self and no such thing as a right r ight reason having a claim to paramount authority aut hority.. Chapter-IV : Herbraism and Hellenism

The English people, as a nation show much energy but little little intelligence. Energy is one force, and intelligence another. These two forces can best be described desc ribed respectively as the 134


forces of o f Hebraism and and Hellenism. Hellenism. Hebraism means the Hebrew system of o f thought and religion, religion, while while Hellenism Hellenism stands for the system of thought thou ght and religion of the ancient Greeks. Neither Hebraism nor Hellenism is by itself and alone enough for mankind. The world should be evenly and happily balanced between these two forces, though tho ugh in actual practice it is never so balanced balanced.. Hebraism essentially sets doing above knowing. k nowing. Christianity brought about abou t no change in this this essential bent of Hebraism. Hebraism. Self-conque Self-conquest, st, self-devotion, o bedience not to o ur own individual individual will will but to t o the will of God-this God- this is the fundamental idea of Christianity just as it is fundamental idea of Hebraism. The simple and attractive ideal which Hellenism offers to human beings is that they should get rid of their ignorance, that they t hey should see things as they are, and that they should, by doing doing so, see see thi thing in thei their beauty beauty. By virtue virtue of this this ideal deal,, He Hellleni enism is invest nvested ed with with sweet sweetne nesss and light. Hebraism, on the other o ther hand, is always pre-occupied pre-o ccupied with the difficulties difficulties which oppose oppo se the pursuit or attainment of perfection. Although since the Renaissance the main road of mankind’s progress has been Hellenism, the English people have been showing a great inclination towards Hebraism. Their main impulse impulse has been towards toward s strictness strictnes s of conscience. The result of this has been a certain confusion and false false movement. What is needed in England is some sound o rder and authority. authority. This can only be achieved if people try to see things t hings as they really are. Chapter-V : Porro Unum Est Necessarium

The Engli Eng lish sh people peo ple are quite energetic energ etic and sensible. But tthey hey have little little faith in right reason, and a nd a great faith in their own independent actions. The group gr oup of human forces, which have been described already as Hebraism, are over-developed in the English people. The result is that they peo people ple are more interested intereste d in the moral side side of o f their nature than in anything anything else. They attach attac h more more importance importa nce to obedience o bedience than to intell intelligence. igence. For them, t hem, the one thing needful is is strictness of conscience, co nscience, or the staunch st aunch adherence to some fixed fixed law of doing. They do not reali rea lize ze the importance of o f spontaneity of consciousness, which tends continual cont inually ly to enlarge man’s man’s whole law of doing. do ing. Now, Hebraism al alone one cannot c annot satisfy s atisfy all all the demands of human nature because b ecause man has his intellectual side also and not no t only o nly his moral side. Sweetness Sweetne ss and light light which are the two princi pr incipal pal ingredients ingredients of culture are connected co nnected with that side of humanity whi which ch has been described de scribed as Hell He llenism. enism. The ancient Greeks believed believed in the true and firm law law of things, the t he law of light or the t he law of seeing things as they t hey are. The Puritan force in England means a care for fire and strength, for strictness of conscience, conscience, for Hebraism, Hebraism, rather than t han a care for sweetness and light, for spontanei spo ntaneity ty of consciousness, for Hellenism. Hellenism. The great mistake mistake of o f Puritanism Puritanism is that it think t hinkss itself to be in possessi possession on of a rule rule tell telling ing them them the unum necessa necessari rium um (or the one thing thing needf needful) ul) ; and it then then remains remains satisfied satisfied with a very crude conception co nception of what that rule is. The real unum necessarium is to come co me to our best at all a ll points. points. At this particular time, the English people peop le need Hellenism Hellenism 135


more than Hebraism. The present state of English society needs an importation of o f Hellenism Hellenism into into Hebraism in all fields fields of English life. life. The trouble tr ouble with English society soc iety is is that it has developed its Hebrewside too much and its Hellenic side feebly and at random. The need of the time is a fuller and harmonious development of the personality, free play of thought upon routine notions, spontaneity of consciousness, sweetness sweet ness and light light ; and these are ar e just the things which culture culture emphasizes and promotes. promot es. Chapter-VI Chapter-VI : Our Liberal Practitioners

The English people peop le are at this time busy in removing certain certa in evils evils by methods which are not quite right. For instance, they have undertaken an operation to bring about the disestablishment of the Irish Church. Now, there is no doubt that the present Churchestablishment establishment in Ireland is is contrary contr ary to reason reaso n and justice. justice. But the proposal pro posal to disestabli disesta blish sh the Irish Church has been prompted not by a love of reason and justice but by the Nonconformis Nonco nformists’ ts’ antipathy to all religious establishments and endowments. The Nonconformists Nonco nformists are mistaken in their decision to bring br ing about the disestabli disest ablishment shment of the Irish Church and to put pressure pres sure on the Liberal Party to introduced introdu ced in Parliament Parliament a Bill Bill to that effect. The polici po licies es of the Liberal Party Part y in England do not no t show suffi su fficient cient intelligence among the Liberal politician politicians. s. Just as the proposal to disestablish disestablish the Irish Church is misconceived, misconceived, so is the proposed propo sed parliamentary parliamentary measure known kno wn s the Real Estate Estat e Intestacy Intesta cy Bill. Bill. The latter Bill aims at preventing the land of a man, who dies without making his will, will, from going, as it used to go, to t o his eldest son. According Accord ing to this t his Bill, Bill, if a man dies without making his will, will, his his land would be distributed equally among all his children. There is yet another operation operat ion which the liberals liberals have undertaken, and that operation operat ion too to o shows show s the inability inability of the Liberals to allow their mind mind and consciousness co nsciousness to t o play upon matters engaging their attention. This operation relates to the t he attempt of the t he Liberals Liberals to enable a man to marry the sister of his dead wife. Yet another anot her policy which the Liberals Liberals are pursuing without due d ue consideration considera tion is that of free trade. trade. This policy again sh shows ows how the t he Liberals are pursuing their operations oper ations in a mechanical mechanical way. way. This policy policy again shows how the Liberals are doing things without any a ny reference to an intelligible intelligible law of things and without withou t reference referenc e to human hu man life life as a whole. In fact, the t he Liberals Liberals have wrong notions even in regard to population. With With population increasing increasing all the time, time, the problem p roblem of poverty will will not not be solved but aggravated. It is wrong to spread the t he notion that children are sent into this world by God and that t hat God takes tak es pleasure in endlessly increasing the number of o f living living beings on this earth. eart h. Conclusion :

Much of the disorder disorde r and perplexity perp lexity in England is is due to the disbelief of the Barbarians Barba rians 136


ad the Phil P hilistines istines in in right reason reaso n and in a paramount best self se lf.. On account acco unt of this disbelief, disbelief, there has been a decay and break-up of the organizations which which have so long ruled the country through throu gh their their ordinary self only. only. Culture is the most resolute reso lute enemy of anarchy anarchy.. The lovers of o f culture are strong stro ng opposers oppo sers of anarchy. anarchy. The true business of the friends of culture is not to encourage encourag e the demand for fire and strength but to t o encourage encour age the spread of o f sweetness and light. light. The friends of culture have to spread spre ad the t he belief in right reason rea son and in a firm inte intelli lligible gible law of things. Clear and firm ideas are more important than t han the mechanical details for for the execution execut ion of those ideas. In the field of education, educat ion, clear ideas are esp especially ecially very import important, ant, because bec ause education educat ion is is the road to culture. cultur e. In the educational sphere, the German or Swiss or French laws are more sound tthan han the English laws. laws.

9.4.3 Criti Critica call Sum Summa mary ry Culture and Anarchy bristles Anarchy bristles with ideas. Indeed, Indeed , it contains conta ins a multiplici multiplicity ty of ideas which show Arnold as a t hinker hinker ; and it also a lso contains many useful suggestions which show Arnold as a reformer. The most important idea in the book is Arnold’s Arnold’s concept of culture, and the most useful useful suggestion of o ffered by Arnold for the solution s olution of the t he problems facing hi hiss country co untry at that time is is also culture or o r the practical pract ical application application and value of culture. Culture Cu lture he defines as as the pursuit pu rsuit of perfection-general perfection, harmonious harmonious perfection, perfection which is dynamic dynamic not static, st atic, and perfection which resides in an inward inward condition co ndition of mind mind and not in an outward outwa rd set of circumstances. Two of the most important featu res of this perfection, at which culture aims, are sweetness aand nd light. light. In Culture and Anarchy, Anarchy, Arnold Arnold appears as the censor of o f his his age and as a prophet. prop het. A prophet in this this sense does not mean mean one who who makes prophecies prophecies but one who studies the probl problems ems of his his times, times, anal analyzes the the preval prevalent ent condi conditi tions ons of his his tim time, puts his his fingers ngers on the evil evilss undermining undermining society, society, and offers offers solutions s olutions and cures. A prophet is thus a physician physician who diagnoses the maladies and the diseases from which society suffers, suffers, and who tries to heal society. society. Arnold found that the t he English people of his time were misguided misguided and misled by wrong kinds of leaders, and so, through t hrough his sharp criticism criticism and mild mild rebukes, he drew the attention att ention of his readers to their errors and their short sightedness. He had no axe to t o grind, no selfish selfish motive, no ambition ambition or desire for self-advancement. self-advancement. Like Carlyle, Carlyle, he found himself in in complete disagreement with the poli po litical tical and religious religious leaders of o f the time but, whereas Carlyle Carlyle spoke spo ke in thundering and denunciatory tones, Arnold adopted an urbane manner in keeping with his own ideal of sweetness and light. light. As Culture and Anarchy deals Anarchy deals wholly, wholly, with the t he problem pro blemss and evils of its own time, it is necessary for the reader of today to get thoroughly thor oughly acquainted acquainted with the social so cial,, political, political, and religious history histor y of the Victorian Age. Arnold touches upon u pon the problem pro blemss of education educat ion in in his time. time. As As an Inspector Inspecto r of Schools, Schoo ls, 137


he had ample opportuniti opport unities es for studyin st udying g these problems p roblems in in his own country and he was also provide provided d with with opportuni opportunities ties to go go abroad abroad in order to study the educati educational onal system systemss in various various European Euro pean countries. countr ies. In the Preface to this book, Arnold refers to the objections he had raised some of the practices pract ices prevailing prevailing at Eton, and the reply made made to his objections by a schoolm schoo lmaster aster by the name name of Oscar Oscar Browni Browning ng.. Then Then in Chapte Chapterr III, III, he refers refers to State-Con State-Control trol over over educat education ion in Prussia and in France, and advocates advo cates a sim s imilar ilar control contro l over educat e ducation ion in his own country countr y. In the Chapter Chapt er called “Doing As One Likes”, Arnold Arnold clearly brings brings out the drawback dra wback of claim of the individual individual to do as he pleased. p leased. In this connection Arnold Arnold says : “Every one of us us has the idea of country as a sentiment ; hardly any one of us has the idea of the State as a working power”. The T he State, says Arnold, represents the collective collective and corporate corporat e will and and authority of the nation ; it represents the t he right reason of o f the nation ; and right reason is what culture also insists upon. In another anot her respect respec t Arnold shows himsel himselff to be a pioneer, pionee r, and that is in his his comments on the increasing population of England. While While the general g eneral view view at that t hat time was that an increase in population was something highly highly desirable and therefore to be encouraged enco uraged,, Arnold Arnold deplored deplore d this approach to population. He points po ints out that an increase in in population in England England has led to an increase in the number of paupers also. In other words, wo rds, Arnold Arnold realized that too t oo many many people people would aggravate aggravate the problem problem of poverty poverty, and and that shows him him to be be ahead ahead of his his time. time. One remarkable remarka ble feature of o f Culture and a nd Anarchy is is Arnold’s Arnold’s use of irony. Irony is all pervasive pervasive in the book. Irony Irony is the princi principal pal weapon of attack in in Arnold’ Arnold’ss hands. hands. Indeed, he shows himself himself to be a master o f comic irony. irony. The styl st ylee in which Arnold Arnold writes is o ne of the t he greatest greates t merits of o f Culture and Anarchy Anarchy.. Lucidity Lucidity and elegance are the t he two most striking merits merits of o f this style. style. There T here are no obscurities and ambiguities ambiguities in what Arnold writes. He is clear in his his mind about what he has to say, say, and he says it in a manner which does not leave the reader in any doubt about what he is saving. However, Howe ver, this does not mean that it is too simple a style. style. Clarity it certainly possesses, pos sesses, but at the same time it demands from the reader his full fullest est attention. at tention.

9.4.4 9.4.4

Style

Arnold’s Arnold’s styl st ylee is an admirable admirable instrument instrument for the presentation o f thought. It is clear, simple, simple, and precise. It runs like like a smooth, smoo th, limpid limpid river-with river-with almost too to o tranquil t ranquil a stream. If style resembles resembles the clothes clot hes of a well-dressed man, which which attract att ract no attention attention but when exami examined ned are found fou nd seemly, seemly, then t hen Arnold’s style is is perfect. perfect . It is never obtrusive, obtr usive, never by a vivid phrase or a picturesque epithet distracts distract s attention from the m matter. atter. The chief featu features res of o f his his writings are grace gra ce and lucidity ; at his best he produce pro duced d nearly perfect prose. He had had a few few obvious obvious manneri mannerisms, sms, but at the same same time time his his style style is is intensely intensely individual, individual, an exact expression of o f a rare and original personality. personality. Even in passages passage s of pure argument there is a kind of sober sheen about it. Sometimes, Sometimes, as in the famous famous passage on 138


Oxford, it can fall into haunting rhythms and glow with the t he fresh colours of a spring morning.

9.4.5 9.4 .5 Heb Hebrai raism sm and and Hellen Hellenism ism Arnold divides divides the t he forces that move the world wor ld into two grand divisions divisions – Hellenism Hellenism and Hebraism, the Greek idea and the Jewish idea, the power o f intellect intellect and the power o f conscience. The uppe uppermost rmost idea with Hellenism Hellenism is to see s ee thin t hings gs as they t hey really really are ; the t he uppermost idea with hebraism hebraism is conduct and obedience. o bedience. The Greek q quarrel uarrel with the body and its desires is that they the y hinder hinder right thinking t hinking ; the Hebrew Hebre w quarrel quar rel with them is is that they hinder right acting. Arnold’s conviction of the superiority superior ity of Hellenism as a remedy r emedy for modern ills ills is backed backed up by the Helle Helleni nicc type type of mind, ind, its calmn calmness ess,, its lucidi ucidity ty,, its its sense sense of form and and measu measure. re. Indeed, Arnold is is probably pro bably the purest pure st classic writer that E Engli nglish sh literatu literature re as yet has to show sho w ; classic not merely in the repose repo se and purity pur ity of his style, but in the unity and simplicity simplicity of his mind.

9.5

Self Se lf Asse Assess ssm men entt Qu Ques esti tio ons Answer the t he following questions in brief :

1.

What doe doess Arnol rnold d mean ean by cultu ulture re??

2.

Write a not notee on on Arnol rnold d as as a cens ensor of his his age. age.

3.

What hat is the the fi final nal end end and and ai aim of both both Heb Hebra raiism and and Hel Helleni enism? sm?

4.

What hat stand stand does does Arn Arnol old d take take on reli religion? gion? Write rite a note on sty stylle of Matt Matthe hew wA Arn rnol old. d.

9.6

Answ Answer erss To Th Thee Q Qu uesti estio ons

1.

Accordin Accord ing g to Arno Arnolld, cul culture ture cer certai tainl nly y has has as one of its groun grounds ds the the scien scienti tiffic passi passion on for pure knowledge. Culture certainly has has a desire to see things as they are. But, at the same time, time, culture is also based on the moral and social passion for doing good. By doing good, Arnold means the desire for removing human error, clearing human confusion, confusion, diminishing diminishing human misery, misery, and the wish wish to leave the world wo rld better bette r and happier than it previously was.

2.

Culture Culture and Anarc Anarchy hy may truly truly be be descri described bed as an indi indictm ctment ent of Victori ictorian an soci society ety in England. In this book Arnold appears as a critic and censor o f his his age. He do es not share the smugness smug ness and complacency of the vast bulk of the aristocra ar istocracy cy and the middle middle class of his time. time. On the t he contrary contr ary,, he tries tr ies to prick p rick the bubble of their vanity and their feelings feelings of self importa important nt and of the import importance ance of their t heir country.

3.

The final final end and aim aim of both both Hebr Hebrai aism sm and and Hell Hellenism enism is is undoub undoubtedl tedly y the the sam same. e. The The final aim aim in each case ca se is man’s man’s perfection perfec tion or o r salvation. salvatio n. The final end and aim of both is that we we should become “part “partakers akers of o f the divine nature” ; and this aim is surely splendid 139


and admi a dmirable. rable. 4.

The modern modern spiri spirit, t, Arnol Arnold d think thinks, s, has has made made bel beliief in the supern supernatur atural al impo impossi ssibl blee for for many Englishmen and soon soo n it will make make such suc h a belief imposs impossible ible for very many m mor ore. e. But Arnold is anxious anxious that under the influence influence of the t he modern spirit, people should shou ld not discard religi r eligion on itself its elf because religion is not wholly and exclusively based on a belief belief in the supernatural.

5.

Arno Arnolld’s d’s prose prose styl stylee has has recei received ved high high prai praise se from from most cri critics. tics. His His prose prose sty stylle has has been call called “charmi “charming” ng” and “fasci “fascinatin nating”. g”. It It is regarded as possessing possessing both “grace” “grace” and “elegance”.

9. 7

Let Us Sum Up

After reading and understanding underst anding about Victorian Age, prose pro se writing in nineteent nineteenth h century and culture cultu re and Anarchy of Matthew Arnold, you will be able able to : (i)

appr apprec eciiate ate and and eval evalua uate te a pros prosee writi riting ng,,

(ii)

asse assess ss Matth Matthew ew Arnol rnold’ d’ss li litera terary ry geni genius us,,

(iii)

discu discuss ss quali qualiti ties es of a work work of criti critici cism sm,,

(iv) (iv)

discus discusss and eval evaluate uate inf influ luence encess and reflec reflecti tions ons of Victori ictorian an age on the the writin writings, gs,

(v)

under understa stand nd and and appr apprec ecia iate te Cul Culture ture and and Anarch narchy y and and

(vi)

answ answer er the the que quest stiions ons base based d on on text text..

9.8 9.8

Review Ques tions

1.

Comm omment on Arnold’ old’ss gos gospe pell of of cultu ulturre.

2.

How does does Arnol Arnold d expo expose se the the fal falla lacy cy of the the Engl Engliishma shman’ n’ss ri right to do as he he lik likes? es?

3.

Consi Consider der the the view view that that Culture Culture and and Anarc Anarchy hy is an an ind indiictmen ctmentt of the the Vi Victori ctorian Age. Age.

4.

Disc Discus usss th the mea mean ning of of the the ti title tle of thi this tex text. t.

5.

Disc Discus usss the the rel relati ation on betw betwee een n He Hebr brai aism sm and and Hel Hellleni enism. sm.

6.

Write rite a note note on Arnol Arnold’ d’ss anal analys ysiis of the char characte acterr of the Engl English ish mi middle ddle class class..

7.

Discu Discuss ss Arnold Arnold’’s criti critici cism sm oft he he charac character ter and and polic policiies of the the Liber Liberal al Party Party of his his tim time.

8.

Consi Conside derr Arnol rnold’ d’ss view viewss on on the the sub subjject ect of reli religion. gion.

9.

Brin Bring g out the the sali salient feat feature uress of Arnold Arnold’’s prose prose styl style in in Cul Culture ture and and Anar Anarchy chy..

10.

Discu Discuss ss chara character cteriistics stics of the thre threee class classes es of Engl English ish soci society. ety.

140


9. 9

Bibliography

1.

Ches Cheste terto rton, n, G.K., .K., The The Victori ctorian an Age in Li Literatu terature re,, 1913 1913..

2.

Elto Elton, n, O., O., A Surv Survey ey of Engl Engliish Lite Litera ratu ture re 183 18300-18 1880 80..

3.

Irvi Irvine ne,, W., Apes Apes.. Ange Angells and and Victori ctorian ans, s, 1955 1955

4.

Madden dden,, W.A., .A., Matth tthew Arnol rnold, d, 195 1953.

5.

McCa McCart rthy hy,, P.J P.J., ., Mat Matth thew ew Arnol rnold d and and Thre Threee Cl Classe asses, s, 1962 1962..

6.

Rai, Rai, V. V. History History of Engl Englis ish h Liter Literature, ature, Vol. I-III, Varanasi aranasi,, Bharti Bhartiya ya Vidya Vidya Prakashan Prakashan,, 1967.

7.

Supe Superr, R.H. R.H.,, The The Compl omplet etee Pros Prosee Wor Works ks of Matth Matthew ew Arnol rnold. d.

8.

Sampson Sampson,, G., G., Cam Cambri bridge dge Histor History y of Engli English sh Liter Literatur ature, e, London London,, CVP CVP,, 1941. 1941.

9.

Water ater, J.D., J.D., The The Outl Outline of Li Literatu terature re,, Vol Vol.. I-II, I-II, Jai Jaipur pur Bookm Bookman an,, 1992. 1992. _____________

141


UNIT-10 T.S. ELIOT EL IOT : TRADITION AND INDIVIDUAL IN DIVIDUAL TALENT TALENT Structure 10.0

Objectives

10.1 10.1

Intro troductio tion

10.2

Life Life and and Works orks of T.S. Eli Eliot

10.3

Reading Tradition and Individu Individual al Talent Talent (Text) (Text) 10.3 10.3.1 .1

Eli Eliot’ ot’s Con Conce cep pt of of Traditi dition on

10.3.2 10.3.2

Eli Eliot’s ot’s Theo Theory ry of the the Im Impers person onal aliity of Poetr Poetry y

10.4

Let Us Us Sum Up

10.5 10.5

Revi eview Ques uestion tionss

10.6 10.6

Bibliogr ography

10.0 10.0 Objectives The objective of this unit is to —

give give a detailed detailed analysi analysiss of T.S. Eliot’ Eliot’ss essayT essayTradition and Individual Talent , known as an unofficial manifesto of his creed.

10.1 Intr Introd odu uction tion T.S. Eliot said in 1921 : “The twentieth tw entieth century centu ry is still still the nineteenth, altho although ugh it may in in time acquire its own character” charact er” with the increased appli ap plication cation of o f scientifi scientificc and psychological methods of o f literary literary inquiry the character characte r it has acquired since may be said to be one o ne of analysis. analysis. Present Prese nt day criticism is more more a science than t han an art. The critic cr itic is now no longer a friend to the t he reader advising advising him what to read and how to t o read it, but an expert writing for the expert. These analytical critics include the psychological and sociological critics. T.S. Eliot heads the list of analytical critics. Dissatisfied with the vagueness of impressionistic criticism, criticism, he institutes institut es a scientific scientific inquiry into into the process pro cess by which a work wor k is produced to account for its its effe effect. ct. As this was the the method method foll followed owed by Aristotle Aristotle also, also, Eliot Eliot declared himself a classicist classicist in 1928. Therefore, There fore, the right approach appr oach to criticism c riticism,, according accor ding to Eliot, Eliot, is the classical. classical. He says that a critic needs external evidence to confirm what is is right and what is wrong. Fact findings, (not mere elucidation and interpretation ) which is the main function of criticism can be best done when the critic cr itic has something outside outs ide himself himself to guide g uide him – some standard of p perfection erfection to judge a work by, by, based upon upo n ‘tradition and the accumulated 142


wisdom of time’. True criticism therefore is the t he institution of o f a scientific scientific enquiry into work of art to see se e it as it really is. is. The essay Tradition and Individual Talent was was first published in 1919 in the Times Literary Supplement as as a critical c ritical article. The essay may be regarded as an unofficial unofficial manifesto manifesto of o f Eliot Eliot’’s creed, creed , for it contains conta ins all those critical principles principles from which his criticism criticism has been derived derived ever since since.. It It is is a declarati declaration on of Eliot’ Eliot’ss critic critical al creed and these these princi principl ples es are the basi basis of all all his his subseq subsequen uentt criti critici cism sm.. The essay essay is divi divided ded into into three three parts. parts. The The first irst part gives gives us Eliot’s Eliot’s concept of o f tradition, and in the second seco nd part is developed his theory theo ry of the impersonality impersonality of poetry poet ry.. The short third part is in the nature of o f a conclusion, or summing up of the whole discussion.

10.2 Life Life and and W Wor orks ks of T.S T.S.. Elio Eliott T. S. Eliot Eliot was born in St. Louis, Lo uis, Missouri in in 1888. After After a Harvard degree he came to Europe Eu rope to complete his studies and because of the war, stayed in England, where he did low-paid works wo rks as a teacher teac her and bank-clerk, bank-clerk , while while writing reviews of startli start ling ng originality. originality. Like many other othe r young artist, he was helped and influenced influenced at this time by Ezra pound, po und, on o n whose advice he is said to have cut his most famous poem, The Waste Land by by about half. In his youth Eliot was understandably regarded as a rebel, because his new ideas were radical; but he was always of a sober nature, and with his conversion to t o Anglo-Catholicism Anglo-Catholicism in in 1927and his Professorship Professo rship of Poetry at Harvard in 1932, he became a highly respectable respect able and respected figure, giving giving talks on reli re ligion gion and culture as a director of o f ‘Faber and Faber’ doing much much a number of verse plays. He died in 1965. His reaction against romanticism

When Eliot began publishing poetry, Victorian Victorian Romanticism Ro manticism was at its last gasp, in the chatty, chatty, matter-of-fact, matter-of-fact, but basically basically sentimental sentimental poems of o f the ‘Georgians’, of whom who m Rupert Brooke was the most popular po pular.. Eliot, both by personal inclination inclination and and for what he sensed tto o be the needs of the tim t ime, e, reacted react ed sharply against against nineteenth-century writers and their t heir criticism. criticism. In his reviewing reviewing he asserted assert ed the excellence of half-forgot half-forgotten ten 16th and 17th century writers and in his poetry, made a sense of wit again important. Irony is probably the most pervasive characteristic characteristic of this t his early early London poems: po ems: not only the ironic wit of the seventeenth century Metaphysicals, but also a modern impudent, allusive irony derived from the French Symbolists Jules Laforgue and from from Ezra Pound. Po und. Eliot’s later poetry

Later, Eliot’s poetry became more earnest and broadly philosophical, though The Waste Land , certainl ce rtainly y a philosophical comment on twentieth-century so ciety, ciety, is still wickedly wickedly infested infested with literary sick jokes and embellished embellished with exaggerated exagg eratedly ly learned learned notes. not es. The spirit s pirit of The Waste Land seems seems pessimistic, pessimistic, but its message is one of exhortation to better things, and Ash and Ash Wednesday ednesday Four Four Quartets Quartets (1944 (1944)) are poems po ems firmly firmly based in Christian faith, faith, though t hough 143


always of a somber kind. (Eliot is never exuberant.) Four exuberant.) Four Quartets, Quartets, arguably Eliot’s finest work, work, is easier to understand underst and than the earlier poems: the literary allusions have almost almost disappeared disappea red and there the re is no deliberate cultivation cu ltivation of obscurity. obscurity. Eliot Eliot is undeniably undeniably a difficult difficult poet, poet , and certainl c ertainly y more irritating for this because becau se the difficulty difficulty is often quite deliberate. d eliberate. T.S. Eliot’s Eliot ’s Works Works

T.S. Eli E liot’s ot’s literary literary production spreads sprea ds over 45 4 5 years. He wrote wro te poems, plays, plays, literary and social so cial essays during this long period. He worked as a journalist and editor ed itor.. His writings may be be divided under three heads i.e poetry po etry,, drama and prose. pro se. (A) T.S. T.S. Eliot’s Eli ot’s Poetry

T.S. Eliot’ E liot’ss poetical poet ical career has been divided into five five phases or periods pe riods : (i) (i)

The Fi First peri period od : El Eliot’s iot’s Juven Juvenal aliia 1905-1 1905-1909. 909. The poem poemss of this this peri period od are im immature mature and mere school-boy exercises. These poems po ems still still show signs of poetic talent. They T hey were published in the various college and school schoo l magazines named named theSmith theSmith Academy Record and and the Harvar the Harvard d Advocate. Advocate.

(ii)

The Second Second Peri Period: od: “Pruf “Prufrock rock and and other other Observ Observati ation, on, 1917,” The most most signi signifficant icant poems of this this phase phase are as follow: follow: 1. The Love Love-Son -Song g of J. Alf Alfred Pruf Prufrock rock.. 2. Portr Portrai aitt of a Lady Lady.. 3. The The Pre Prelludes des 4. Rhaps Rhapsody ody on a Wi Windy Nigh Nightt 5. The The “Boston “Boston Even Eveniing Tra Trans nscri cript” pt” 6. Mr A Apo polllinax

(ii (iii)

The Thi Third rd Perio Period d (1918-1 (1918-1925) 925).. The most most imp importan ortantt poems poems of thi this period period are as follows. ollows. 1.

Gerontion

2.

Burb urbank wi with a Bae Baede deka kar r

3.

Sweeney Erect

4.

A Cooking Eggo.

5.

Swee Sw een ney amon among g the the Nigh Nighti tin ngal gales

6.

The Waste Land, 1992.

7.

The Holl ollow Men, 1925 144


(iv)

The Fourth Fourth Peri Period (1925(1925-1935 1935). ). It is is call called the the period period of El Eliot’s ot’s Christian Poetry. Poetry. The following are the significant poems of this Christian period: period : 1. Ash Ash Wed Wedne nesd sday ay , 1930 1930 2. Journ Journey ey of the the Mag Magii 3. Animila 4. Marina 5. Chorus Choruses es from “The “The Rock” Rock” 6. Coriola olan 7. A numbe numberr of minor minor and unfini unfinished shed poems.

(v) (v)

The Fif Fifth th Peri Period. This This period period of Eliot’ Eliot’ss reli religious gious poetry is distingui distinguished shed with with the previous previous Christian Christian poetry poetr y. It is the period of o f four Quartets Quartets which which were published as follows. 1. Burn Burntt Nor Norton ton,, 193 1936 6 2. Eas East Cok Coker er,, 194 1940 0 3. The The Dry Dry Sal Salva vage ge,, 1941 1941 4. Littl Littlee Gi Giddi dding, ng, 1942 1942 (B) Drama

Eliot endeavoured endeavour ed to reviv re vivee English poetic drama. His poetic dramas dra mas are as follow.: follow.: 1.

The Rock ock, a Pageant Pl Play , 19 1934.

2.

Murder in in the the Ca Cathedral, 19 1935

3.

The Family Reunion, on, 1939

4.

The Cocktail Party, 1950

5.

The Confidentia tial Clerk, 19 1954

6.

The Elder States tesman, 1959

(C) Prose

Eliot’s prose was published in the form of articles and essays in the various periodicals and journals of the day d ay.. The following are the literary litera ry essays which are highly highly admired because of his critical critical pronouncements: pronou ncements: 1.

The The U Use se of Poet Poetry ry and and th the U Usse of of Cri Critici ticissm, 19 1933

2.

The The Id Idea of a Ch Christ ristiian Soci Societ ety y, 19 1939

145


3.

Notes otes Towa owards rds a De Deffinition tion of Cultu ulture re,, 194 1948 8

4.

Sele electe cted Ess Essaays, Th Third Edi Editi tion on,, 195 1951 1

5.

On Poetry an and Poets, 1957

6.

To Cr Critic ticise the Critic, 19 1965

7.

Tradi raditi tion on and In Indiv dividual ual Talent ent

8.

Poetry and Drama

9.

The Function of Criticism

10. 10.

The The Engl Engliish Metap etaph hysica sicall Poet Poetss

11.

The The Fro Front ntiiers ers of Cri Critici ticism sm,, etc etc..

Eliot was a renowned editor of he magazine named The Criterion which Criterion which was in circulation circulation from 1922-1939. This magazine magazine was closed because of the outbreak of war in Europe.

10.3 10.3 Reading Tradition and Individual Talent (Text) Now you you read read Eliot’ Eliot’ss Tradition and Individual Individua l Talent Talent : In English writing we seldom speak of tradition, trad ition, though thou gh we occasionally occ asionally apply its name in in deploring deploring its absence. We We can not refer to the tradition or a tradition, at most, we employ the adjective adjective in saying, saying, that the poetry of o f So-and-so ‘traditional’ ‘traditional’ or even ‘too ‘to o traditional t raditional’. ’. Seldom, perhaps, does ‘traditional’ or even ‘too tradition. t radition. Seldom, perhaps, does the word appear appear except in a phrase o off censure. If otherwise, otherwise, it is vaguely, vaguely, approbat approbative, ive, with the implication, implication, as to the work approved, o f some pleasing pleasing archaeological reconstruction. reconstruction. You You can hardly make the work agreeable agre eable to English ears without without this comfort comfortable able reference reference to the t he reassuring Science of archaeology. ar chaeology. Certainly the word is not likely to appear ap pear in our appreciations appr eciations of living living or dead writers. wr iters. Every nation, every race, has not no t only o nly its own creative, creat ive, but its own critical turn of mind; mind; and is even more oblivious oblivious of the shortcomings and lim limitation itation of its criti cr itical cal habits than of o f those of o f its creative creat ive genius. We We know or think t hink we know, from the enormous enormou s mass of critical writing that has appeared in the French language the critical method or habit of the French.; we only conclude (we are such unconscious unco nscious people) that the French are ‘more critical’ critical’ than we, and sometimes even plume plume ourselves a little with the fact, as if the French were the less spontaneous sp ontaneous.. Perhaps Perhap s they are; but we might remind ourselves that t hat criticism is is as inevitable as breathing and that we should s hould be none the wor worse se for articulating what passes pass es in our mind when we read a book and feel feel an emoti emotion on about about it, for critic criticiizing zing our own mind mind in their their work of criti critici cism sm.. One One of the fact that might might come to light light in this process is our tendency to insist, insist, when we prasis a poet, upon those aspects aspects of his his work in which which he least least resembl resemblee anyone anyone else. else. In these aspects aspects 146


or parts pa rts of his work we pret pretend end to find what is individual individual,, what the t he peculiar essence of the man. We We dwell with satisfaction upon upo n the poet’s poe t’s difference difference from his predecesso rs, especiall esp ecially y his immedi immediate ate predecessor; prede cessor; we endeavor endea vor to find something that can be isolated in order to be enjoyed. Whereas if we approach appro ach a poet without w ithout this t his prejudice prejudice we shall often find that not only the best, but t he most individual individual part of o f his his work wor k may be those in which the dead poets, poet s, his ancestors, assert their th eir immortality immortality most most vigorously. vigorously. And I do not mean the impressionable impressionable period period of adolesce adolescence, nce, but he period period of full maturi maturity ty.. Yet if the only form form of tradition, of o f handing handing down, dow n, consisted in following following the ways of the immediate immediate generation before us in a blind blind or timid timid adherence to its successes,’ tradition’ should positiv po sitively ely be discouraged. We have seen many such simple currents soon so on lost in the sand; and novelty is better than t han repetition. Tradition is a matter of o f much wider signif significance. icance. It cannot be inherited, and if you want it you must obtain o btain it by great labour. It involves, in the first first place, the historical historical sense, which which we may may call nearly indispensabl indispensablee to any one who who would continue to be a poet poet beyond his twenty fif fifth th year; and the historical sense involves involves a perception, percep tion, not only o nly of pastness of o f the past of o f the ,but of its presence; the historical sencse compels a man to write write not merely with his his own generation generat ion in his bones, but with a feeling feeling that the t he whole of the literature of o f his his own country count ry has a simultaneo simultaneous us existence and composes co mposes a simultaneo simultaneous us order. orde r. This historical sense, which is a sense of the tim t imeless eless as well of the temporal tempo ral and of the tim t imeless eless and of the t he temporal together is what make a writer most acutely conscious of his place place in time, of his own contemporaneity. No poet, no no artist artist of any art, has his complete complete meani meaning ng alone. alone. His signif signific icance, ance, his his appreciation is the appreciation of o f his his relation to the t he dead poets poet s and artists. You cannot value him along; you must set him, him, for contrast co ntrast and comparison, c omparison, among the dead. I mean this as a princi principl plee of aestheti aesthetic, c, not merel merely y histori historical cal,, criti critici cism sm.. The necess necessiity that he shal shall conform conform,, that that he shall cohere, is not onesided; o nesided; what happens when a new work of art is created is something something that happens simultaneously simultaneously to all the work of art which preceded it. The existing monuments monuments form an ideal order orde r among themselves, which is modified modified by the introduction introdu ction of the new (t he really new) work of art among them. The existing order is complete before the new work arrives; for order to persist after the supervention supe rvention of novelty, novelty, the, whole who le existing existing order orde r must be, if ever so slightly, slightly, altered; and so the t he relations, proportions, proport ions, values of each work of art toward the whole are readjusted; and this t his is is conformity between the old and the new. Whoever has approved this idea of order, of the form of European of English literature will not find it preposterous preposterous that the past should should be altered altered by the present present as much much as the present present is directed directed by the past. And the t he poet po et who is aware of this t his will will be aware of great diffi difficulti culties es and responsibilities. In a peculiar sense he will be aware also that he must inevitably be judged by the standards of the past. I say judged, judged, not amputated, by them; not judged to be as good as, or o r worse or o r better than, t han, the dead; and certainl certa inly y not judged by the canons of dead critics. It is a judg judgem ement ent,, a compar comparis ison, on, in which which two things things are measu measured red by each each other. other. To confor conform m merel merely y 147


would be for the new work not really to conform at all; it would not be new, and would therefore not be a work of o f art. And And we do not quite say that the new is more valuable because because it fits in; but its fitting in is is a test t est of o f its value-a test, te st, it is true, which w hich can only be slowly and cautiously applied, for we are none non e of us infalli infallible ble judges of conformi co nformity ty.. We We say: it appears appe ars to to conform, and is perhaps per haps individual, individual, or it appears individual, individual, and may conform; but we are hardly likely likely to find find that it is one and not the t he other. ot her. To proceed to t o a more intelli intelligib gible le exposition exposition of the t he relation relation of the t he poet to the past: he can neither take t ake the past pa st as a lump, an indiscriminate indiscriminate bolus, nor can he form himself himself wholly on one or o r two private admirations, nor can he form himself himself wholly wholly upon one preferred p referred period. The first course is inadmissi inadmissible, ble, the second is an import important ant experience of youth, and the third is a pleasant and highly desirable desirable supplement. supplement. The T he poet must be very conscious o f the main current, which does not at a t all a ll flow flow invariabl invariabl through the most disti d istinguish nguished ed reputations. reput ations. He must be quite aware o off the obvious fact that art never improves, but that the t he material of art is never quite the same. He must be aware that the mind of Europe Euro pe –the mind mind of his own countrya mind which he learns learns in time to be much more important than his own private pr ivate mind—is mind—is a mind mind which changes, and that this change is a development which abandons nothing en-route, which does not superannuate either Shakespeare, or Homer, or the ro ck drawing of the Magdalenian draughtsmen. That this development, refin re finement ement perhaps, complication certainly certainly,, is not, from the t he point of o f view view of the t he artist, any improvement. Perhaps now even an improvement from the point of view of the psychologist or not to the t he extent which we im imagine; agine; perhaps only in the end based upon upo n a complication in economics economics and machinery machinery.. But the t he difference difference between bet ween the present and the past p ast is that the consci co nscious ous present is an awareness of the past in a way and and to an extent e xtent which the past’ past ’s awareness of o f itself itself cannot show. sho w. Someone said: ‘The dead writers are remote from us because we know so know so much more than t han they did’. Precisely, Precisely, and they are t hat which we know. I am alive alive to a usual objection to what w hat is clearly part of o f my programme progr amme for the metier of poetry poet ry.. The objection is that the doctrine doct rine requires a ridiculous ridiculous amount of erudition (pedantry), a claim which which can be rejected by appeal to the lives lives of o f poets in any pantheon. It will will even be affirmed affirmed that much learning learning deadens dead ens or perverts poetic sensibil sensibility ity.. While, While, however, ho wever, we persist p ersist in believi believing ng that a poet ought ought to know as as much as will not encroach encroach upon upo n his his necessary receptivity recep tivity and necessary laziness, it is not desirable to confine knowledge to what ever can be put into a useful shape for exami examinations, nations, drawingdr awing- rooms roo ms or the still more pretentious pre tentious modes of publicity. publicity. Some can absorb knowledge , the t he more tardy must sweat for it. Shakespeare acquired more essential history history from Plutarch than most men could from the whole who le British Museum. Museum. What is to be insisted upon is that the poet must develop or procure pro cure the consciousness consc iousness of the past and that he should continue to develop d evelop this consciousness throughout his career. What happens is a continual surrender of o f himself himself as he is at the t he moment to something so mething which is more more valuable. The progress pro gress of an artist artist is a continual continual self-sacrifice, self-sacrifice, a continual extinction of personality per sonality.. 148


There remains to define this process of depersonali deperso nalization zation and its relation to the t he sense of tradition. It is in thi thiss de-personalization that art may be said to appro ach the condition of science. I therefore therefor e invite invite you to consider, co nsider, as a suggestive suggest ive analogy, analogy, the action which which takes place place when when a bit bit of finel finely y fil filiated iated plati platinum num is introduce ntroduced d into into a chamb chamber er contai containing ning oxygen oxygen and sulphur dioxide. II

Honest criticism and sensitive sensitive appreciation appreciation is directed not upon upo n the poet but upon the poetry. poetry. If we attend to the confused confused cries cries of he newspaper newspaper critic criticss and the susurrus susurrus of popular popular repetition that follows, follows, we shall hear hear the names of o f poets in great numbers; if if we seek not Blue book knowledge knowledge but the enjoym enjoyment ent of poetry, poetry, and ask for a poem, we shall shall seldom seldom find find it. I have tried to point out the importance importance of the relation of the poem to other o ther by other poems by other authors, author s, and suggested the t he conception of poetry as a living living whole of all the the poetry poet ry that has ever been written. The other ot her aspect of thi t hiss impersonal theory of poetry is the relation of the poem to its its author. author. And And I hinted, hinted, by an analogy analogy,, that the mind mind of the mature mature poet differ differss from that of the immature immature one o ne not precisely pr ecisely in any valuation valuation of o f ‘personality’, ‘personality’, not being necessarily more interesting, or o r having more to say’, but rather by being a more finely finely perfected medium in which special, special, or very v ery varied, feelings feelings are at a t liberty to enter into new combinations. The analogy was that of the catalyst. catalyst. When the two gases previously mentioned mentioned are mixed mixed in the presence pre sence of a filamen filamentt of o f platinum, platinum, they t hey form sulphurous acid. This combination takes place p lace only if if the platinum is present; present ; nevertheless the newly formed acid contains no trace of platinum, and the platinum itself is apparently unaffected: has remained inert, neutral , and unchanged. The mind of the poet is the shred of platinum. It may partly partly or exclusiv e xclusively ely operate upon the experience of the man himself, himself, but the t he more perfect the artist, the more completely separate in him will will be the man who suffers and the mind which creates; the th e more perfectl perfectly y will will the mind mind digest digest and transmu transmute te the passion passionss which which are its materia materiall. The experience, you will notice, the elements which enter the presence of the transformi transfor ming ng catalyst, are of two kinds: emot emotions ions and feelings. feelings. The effect of a work of art upon upo n the person perso n who enjoys it is an experience different different in kind from any experience not of o f art. It may be formed formed out o ut of o f one emotion, or may be a combi co mbination nation of several; severa l; and various feelings, feelings, inhering inhering for the writer in particular words or phrases phra ses or images may be added to compose the t he final final result. Or great poetry poet ry may be made without the direct use u se of any emotion whatever : composed out o ut of o f feelings feelings solely solely. Canto XV of the Infer the Inferno no (Brunctto (Brunctto Latini) Latini) is a working up of the emotion evident in the situation; but the t he effect, effect, though t hough single as that o off any work of o f art, is obtained obta ined by considerable complexity of detail. The last quat rain gives an image, image, a feeling feeling attaching to an image, image, which, which, ‘came’, which did not develop simply simply out of o f what precedes, but which was probably pro bably in in suspension in the poet’ poet ’s mind until the proper pro per combination arrived for it to add itself to. The poet’ poet ’s mind mind is in fact a receptacle recept acle for seizing and storing up numberless feelings, phrases, images, images , which remain there until all the particles par ticles which can unite form a new compound are present together. 149


If you you compare several representative representat ive passages of the greatest poetry po etry you see how great is the variety of types of combination, and also how ho w completely any sem semi-ethical i-ethical criterion of ‘sublimity’ ‘sublimity’ misses misses the t he mark. For Fo r it is not the ‘greatness’, ‘gr eatness’, the t he intensity, intensity, of the emotions, the t he components, but the t he intensity intensity of the artistic artistic process, the pressure, so to speak, under which the fusion takes place, that counts. The episode of o f Paolo and Francesca employs a definite definite emotion emotio n , but the intensity of the poetry poe try is something quite different from whatever whateve r intensity in in the supposed supp osed experience it may give give the impress impression ion of . It is is no more intense, furthermore, furthermore , than Canto X X VI, the voyage of Ulysses, which which has not the direct d dependence ependence upon an emotion. Great variety var iety is is possible in the process of o f transmutation of emotion: emot ion: the murder of o f Agamemnon, Agamemnon, or the t he agony of Othello, gives an artistic effect effect apparently a pparently closer closer to t o a possible possible original than the scenes form Dante. In the Agamemn the Agamemnon on,, the artisti art isticc emotion approximates approximates to the emotion of an actual spectator; spectato r; inOthello in Othello to to the emotion of o f the protagonist protag onist himself himself.. But the difference difference between between art and the event event is alway alwayss absol absolute; ute; the combi combina nati tion on whi which is murder murder of Agame Agamemn mnon on is probably as complex as that which is is the voyage of o f Ulysses. Ulysses. In either case there has been a fusion of elements. elements. The ode of o f Keats contains co ntains a number number of feelings feelings which have not nothing hing particul particular ar to do with with the nighti nightingal ngale, e, but which which the nighti nightingal ngale, e, partl partly y perhaps perhaps because because of its attractive att ractive name, and partly because of its reputation, reputat ion, served to bring together. togethe r. The point of view which I am struggling to att attack ack is perhaps related to the metaphysical theory of the substantial unity unity of the soul so ul : for my meaning meaning is, that t hat the poet po et has, not a ‘personality’ ‘personality’ to express, but particular pa rticular medium, which is only a medium and not a personality pe rsonality,, in which impressions and experiences combine in peculiar and unexpected ways. Impressions and experiences which are important for the man may take no place in the poetry poet ry,, and those t hose which become become important mportant in the poetry may play play quite quite a negligi negligibl blee part in the man, the personal personality ity.. I will quote quo te a passage pass age which is unfamil unfamiliar iar enough to be regarded regard ed with fresh attention attent ion in the light-or darkness-of other observations. And now methinks I could co uld e’en chide myself For doating doat ing on her beauty, beauty, though her death Shall be be revenged after afte r no comm co mmon on action. act ion. Does the t he silkworm expend her yellow yellow labours. labour s. For thee? For thee does do es she undo herself? herself? Are lordship sold so ld to maintain maintain ladyships ladyships For the t he poor benefit benefit of o f a bewildering bewildering minute? minute? Why does you yo u fellow fellow falsify highways, And put his life between the t he judge’s lips, lips, To refine such a thing-keep t hing-keep horse hor se and men 150


To beat their valours for her?..... In this passage (as is evident if it is taken in its context) there is a combination of positiv positivee and negativ negativee emotions emotions:: an intens intensely ely strong attraction attraction towards towards beauty beauty and an equall equally intense fascination fascination by the ugli u gliness ness which is contrasted contraste d with it and which destroys destr oys it. This balance of contrasted contrast ed emotion is in in the dramatic situation to which the speech is pertinent, but that situation alone is is inadequate to it. This is, is, so to t o speak, the t he structural struct ural emot emotion, ion, provided by the drama. But the t he whole effect, effect, the t he dominant tone, is due to t o the fact that a number of floating floating feelings feelings having an affinity affinity to this emotion emotio n by no means superfici sup erficially ally evident evident , have combi co mbined ned with it to give as a new art emotion. It is not in his his personal perso nal emotions, the emotions provoked pro voked by particular events in his life, that the poet is in any way remarkable, or interesting. His particular emotion may be simple, simple, or o r crude, crude , or flat. The T he emotion in his poetry will be a very complex complex thing, but not no t with the complexity of the emotions emotio ns of people who have very complex or unusual unusu al emotions in life. life. One error, in fact, fact, of eccentricity in poetry is is to seek for new human emotions emotions to express; expres s; and in this this search for novelty in the wrong place it discovers the perverse. The business of the poet po et is not to find new emot emotions, ions, but to use the t he ordinary ones and, in working them up into poetry poe try,, to express feelings which are not in actual emotions. And emotions which he has never experienced experience d will serve his turn tu rn as well as those familiar familiar to him. Conseque Co nsequently ntly,, we must believe that ‘emotion ‘emot ion recollected in tranquility’ tranquility’ is an inexact inexact formula. For it is neither neither emotion, emot ion, nor recollection, recollection, nor, no r, without distortion distort ion of meaning, meaning, tranquility tranquility.. It is a concentration, concentrat ion, and a new thing resulting from the concentration concent ration of o f a very great number of experiences which to the practi practical cal and active active person person would would not seem seem to be experi experienc ences es at all, all, it is a concent concentrati ration on which which does not happen hap pen consciously conscious ly or of deliberation. deliberation. These T hese experiences are not ‘recoll ‘reco llected’, ected’, and a nd they finally finally unite in in an atmosphere atmos phere which is ‘tranqu ‘tranquil’ il’ only in that it is a passive pass ive attending atten ding upon upo n the event. Of course this t his is is not quite the t he whole story . There is a great deal, d eal, in the writing writing of poetry, poetry, whic which h must must be conscious conscious and and delib deliberate. erate. In fact, the bad poet is usually usually unconsci unconscious ous where he ought to be consci co nscious, ous, and conscious where he ought to be unconscious. unconscious. Both Bot h errors tend t end to make him ‘personal’. Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escap e from emotion; it it is not the expression of personali perso nality, ty, but an escape form personal perso nality ity.. But of course, only those who have personality and emotions know what it means to want to t o escape from these things. III

This essay proposes propo ses to halt at the frontier of metaphysics or mysticism, mysticism, and confi co nfine ne itself to such practical pract ical conclusions conclusions as can be applied by the responsible person interested in poetry. poetry. To dive divert rt interest nterest from from the poet to the poetry is a laudabl audablee aim aim: for it would would conduce conduce to a juster estimation of actual poetry poetr y, good goo d and bad. There are many people, who appreciate appre ciate the expression of sincere emotion in verse, and there is a smaller num number ber of people peo ple who can appreciate technical t echnical excellen excellence. ce. But very few know when there is an expression of significant significant emotion, emotion which has its life life in the poem and not in the history of the poet. The emotion 151


of art is impersonal. And the poet cannot canno t reach rea ch this imperso impersonali nality ty without surrende su rrendering ring himself himself wholly to the work to be done. d one. And he he is not likely to know what is to be done unless he lives lives in what is not merely merely the present, but the present moment of the past, past , unless he is conscious, conscious, not of what is dead, but of o f what is already living. living.

10.3.1 Eliot’s Concept of Tradition The Significance Signific ance of Tradition Tradition

Eliot begins by by pointing out that the t he word tradition t radition is generally generally regarded as a term te rm of censure. It sounds disagreeable disagreeable to the English English ears. When the English English praise a poet, po et, they t hey praise praise him him for those aspects aspects of his his work whic which h are ‘indi ‘indivi vidual dual and origi original nal’. ’. It is supposed supposed that his chief merits lie in in such parts. This undue stress st ress on individuality, individuality, according accord ing to Eliot, is a wrong thing. If they examine the matter matt er critically critically with an unprejudiced un prejudiced mind, mind, they t hey will will realize that the t he best and the most individual individual part of a poet’s po et’s work is that which shows the t he maximum maximum influence influence of the writers of the past. To quote his own words word s “Whereas “Whereas if we approach a poet without thi t hiss prejudice, we shall often find find that not only the best, but the cost individual individual parts of o f his work may be those in which which the dead poets, poet s, his ancestors assert a ssert their t heir immortality immortality most vigorously”. Tradition : Ways in which It can be acquired acquired

Tradition, Tradition, according to Eliot, Eliot, does not mean a blind blind adherence to the ways of the preciou preciouss generati generation on or generat generation ions. s. This This would would be mere mere slavi slavish sh imitati mitation, on, a mere mere repetiti repetition on of what has already been achieved, achieved, and “novelty is is better than repetition.” Tradition for Eliot, is a matter of o f much much wider significance. significance. Tradition in in the true tru e sense of the term t erm cannot be inherited, it can only be obtained by hard labour. This This labour is the labour of knowing the past writers. It is the critical labour labour of shifting shifting the good go od from the bad, bad , and of knowing what is good and useful. u seful. Tradition Tradition can be obtained o btained only by those who have the t he historical sense, sense, It is this this historical sense which makes makes a literary writer writer reali r ealize ze that the past exists exists in the present, and that the past and the present present form one simu simulta ltaneous neous order. order. This This historic historical al sense sense is the sense sense of the timel timeless ess and the temporal, as well as of the tim t imeless eless and the temporal t emporal together. It is this historic historic sense which makes a writer traditional. In brief, sense of tradition implies (a) a recognition of the continuity of literature literature (b) a critical judgement judgement as to which of the writers of the past, continue to be signifi significant cant in the present, p resent, and (c) a knowledge of t hese signifi significant cant writers, obtained through painstaki painstaking ng efforts. efforts. Tradi Tradition, tion, thus represents represents accumul accumulated ated wisdom wisdom and experi experience of ages, and so its knowledge know ledge is essential for for reall rea lly y great and noble achievements. Dynamic Conception of Tradition Tradition

Eliot’s Eliot’s conception conce ption of tradition tra dition is a dynamic dynamic one. According to t o him, tradition is not something fixed fixed and static, sta tic, it is constantly cons tantly changing, changing, growing gr owing and becoming different different from what it is. A writer in the present must seek guidance from the past, he must conform to the literary tradition. But just as the past pa st directs and guides the present, so the present alters and modifies modifies 152


the past. When a new work of o f art is created, it is really really new and original, original, the whole literary literary tradition is modified modified though tho ugh ever so slightly slightly.. The relationship between the past and the present is not one - sided; it is a reciprocal relationship. The past directs the present, and is itself modified modified and altered by the present. Everygrea E verygreatt poet po et like like Virgi Virgil, l, Dante or o r Shakespeare adds something something to the literary literary tradition tr adition out of o f which which the future poetry poet ry will will be be written. Its function

The work of o f a poet in the present is to be compared and contrasted contrast ed with works of the past, and judged by the standards standards of the past. The comparis comparison on is to be be made for knowing knowing the facts, all the facts, about the new work of art. The comparison comparison is made for the purposes of analysis, analysis, and for forming forming a better bette r understanding of the new. The past helps us to understand the present and it throws light on the past. It is in in this way alone alone that we can form an idea idea of what is really individual individual and new. Sense of Tradition

A sense of tradition, according acco rding to Eliot, in the rreal eal sense means consciousness “of the main current which does not at all flow flow invariably invariably through throug h the most distinguished reputations”. reput ations”. In other words, wo rds, to know the tradition, tr adition, the poet must judge critically critically what are the main trends, and what are ar e not. not . A poet must confine himself himself to the main trends t o the exclusi e xclusion on of o f all that is incidental or topical. He must also reali rea lise se that the t he main litera literary ry trends are not no t determined det ermined by the great poets alone. Minor poets poet s also are signifi significant. cant. They are not to be ignored. ignored. The poet must also realize that art never improves, though tho ugh its material is never the same. The great works of art never lose their signif significan icance, ce, for there is no qualitative qualitative improvement improvement in it. There may be refinement, refinement, there may be be development but from the point po int of view of the artist there is no improvement. improvement. (For example, example, it will will not be correct to say that the act of Shakespeare Shakespea re is better and higher than that of Eliot. Their works work s are of different different kinds, for the material on which they worked worke d was different). different). T.S. Eliot is of the view that the duty dut y of a poet is to acquire, acqu ire, to the t he best of o f his his ability ability,, the knowledge of the past. This knowledge of the past will will make him aware of the traditions. Such awareness awar eness of tradition, t radition, sharpens poetic po etic sensibili sensibility ty and is indispensable indispensable for for poetic po etic creation. creat ion.

10.3.2 Eliot’s Theory of the Impersonality of Poetry Impersonality of Poetry

The personality of the artist is not important; the important thing t hing is is the sense of o f tradition. An artist must continue to acquire ac quire greater and greater gre ater objectivi object ivity. ty. His His emotions and passions must be depersonalized; deperso nalized; he must must be as impersonal and objective o bjective as a scientist. An An artist must forget his personal joys and sorrows, sorrows , and be absorbed in acquiring acquiring a sense of tradition and expressing express ing it in in his poetry. Thus, the poet’ poet ’s personality pers onality is merely a medium, medium, having the same significan significance ce as a catalyti cat alyticc agent ag ent has ha s in chemical reactions.

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The Poetic Process

In the second part p art of o f the essay, essay, Eliot develops de velops further his theory of o f the imperso impersonality nality of poetry. poetry. He He compares compares the mind mind of the poet to a catalyst catalyst and the process of poetic creation creation to the process pro cess of a chemical reaction just as chemical reactions take place in the presence o f a catalyst alone, so also the t he poet’s poet ’s mind mind is the catalyti cat alyticc agent for combining combining different different emotions emot ions into something somet hing new. new. Suppose Suppo se there is a jar containing Oxygen and Sulphur dioxide. These two gases combine to form Sulphurous acid when a fine filament of platinum (catalytic) is introduced into the jar. The combination combination takes t akes place only in the presence prese nce of the piece of platinum, but the metal itself itself does not undergo any change. The mind mind of the poet is catalytic catalytic agent. The mind of the poet is constantly forming forming emotions emotions and experiences, experiences, into new wholes, but the t he new combination does not contain c ontain even a trace o off the poet’ poet ’s mind, mind, just as the the newly formed sulphurous acid does not contain co ntain any trace of platinum. In the case of o f young and immature immature poet, po et, his mind, mind, his personal experiences and emotions may find find some expression in his his composition but as a s he gains maturity and perfection the passions are melted and form the substance su bstance of his poetry. In other words, wo rds, the personality personality of a poet po et does do es not find expression expression in his poetry; it acts, like a catalytic agent in the process of poetic composition. compos ition. The experiences experiences which enter the po poetic etic process, says Eliot, Eliot, may be be of o f two kinds. They are emotions and feelings. feelings. Poetry Poe try may be be composed co mposed out of emotions or out of feelings feelings only or out of o f both. T.S. T.S. Eliot here distinguishes between betwee n emot emotions ions and feelings feelings but does doe s not state what this difference is. The distinction may be ignored as it has bearing on his impersonal theory of poet ry. ry. Poetry as Organisation

Eliot next compares co mpares the poet’s poe t’s mind mind to a jar in which which are stored sto red numberless feelings, feelings, emotions, etc., et c., which remain remain there in an unorganized unorg anized and chaotic chaot ic form till “all the particles which can unite unite to form a new compound are present toget t ogether”. her”. Thus poetry poet ry is orgnisation orgnisation rather than inspiration. inspiration. Thus the greatness gr eatness of a poem does not depend de pend upon the intensity intensity of emotions but upon upo n the intensity intensity of the process of poetic composition. The more intense is is the poetic process, the greater is the poem. There is always always a difference difference between the artistic artistic emotions and the personal perso nal emotions of the poet. For example, the famous ‘Ode to Nightingale’ Nightingale’ of Keats contains a number of emotions which have nothing to do with the nightingale. The difference difference between art and event is always always absolute. absolute. The poet has no personal perso nality ity to express, he is merely a medium in which impression and experiences combine in peculiar and unexpected ways. Impressions Impression s and experiences which are important for the t he writers as an indivi individual dual may find no place in his his poetry, po etry, and those which w hich become import important ant have no significance significance for for the t he man. Eliot t hus rejects romantic subjectivism. subjectivism. The emotions of poetry poet ry are different different from personal emotions of the poet. p oet. His personal emotions may be simple simple or crude, cru de, but the t he emotions of o f his his poetry poet ry may be complex complex and refined. The business of a poet is not to find find new emotions. He may express only ordinary emotions emotions 154


but he must must impart impart to them them a new signi signifi ficanc cancee and a new meani meaning. ng. And And it is not necess necessary ary that that they should be his personal emotions. Even emotions which he has never personall perso nally y experienced can serve the purpose purp ose of o f poetry. (For example, emotions which result from the reading read ing of books can serve his turn). Eliot Eliot rejects rejects Wordsworth’s ordsworth’s theory theory of poetry – having having its origin origin in “emotions recollected in tranquility” tranquility” and points out that in the process pro cess of poetic composition there is neither emotion, nor recollection nor tranquility. tranquility. In the poetic poet ic process there is only concentration of a number of experiences, and a new thing thing results from this concentration. And this process of concentration concent ration is neither neither conscious co nscious not deli de liberate berate;; itit is a passive one. The difference difference between a good and a bad poet is that a bad poet is conscious conscious where he should be unconscious and unconscious unco nscious where he should be conscious. It is this consciousness consciousness of o f the wrong kind which makes makes a poem po em personal, whereas mature art must be impersonal. But Eliot does not tell us when a poet should be conscious, and when not. The poet po et has been left left vague and indeterminate. Poetry – as Escape from Personality

Eliot concludes “Poetry “Po etry is not a turning lloo oose se of emotion, but an escape escap e from emot emotion; ion; it is not the t he expression of perso personal nality ity,, but an escape from personality. personality. Thus Eliot Eliot does not deny personal personalit ity y or emoti emotion on to the poet. Only Only, he must deperson depersonal aliz izee his his emotion emotions. s. There There shoul should d be an extinction of o f his his personality perso nality.. This imperso impersonality nality can be achieved only on ly when when the poet poet surrenders surrenders himself himself completely completely to the work wo rk that is to be done. d one. And the poet can know what w hat is to be done, only if if he acquires a sense of tradition, trad ition, the historic sense, which makes, him conscious, not only of the present, but also of the present moment of the past, past , not only o nly of what is dead, but o of f what is already living. living.

10.4 10.4 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up (i)

In thi thiss uni unit we have have expl explai aine ned d to you you that that with with T.S. Eli Eliot the noti notion on of criti critici cism sm underwent a change. With the increase of application of scientific scientific methods, criticism acquired the character of analysis. A critic now was no longer a friend to reader suggesting suggesting him what what to t o read and how to read but an expert writing writing for the expert.

(ii (ii)

Critic Criticis ism m is is an insti instituti tution on of sci scientifi entificc inqui inquiry ry into a work of art to see as it reall really is. is.

(ii (iii)

Eliot’ Eliot’ss concept concept of Traditi Tradition on and and Theory Theory of the Impersona Impersonali lity ty of Poetry well well exhi exhibi bitt the fact.

(iv (iv)

Tradi Traditi tion on can be obtai obtained ned onl only by those those who who have a his histori torical cal sense. sense.

(v)

Tradi raditi tion on is not not stati static, c, it is is dy dynami amic.

(vi (vi)

An arti artist st must must be be as imp imperso ersona nall and and objecti objective ve as as a scie scienti ntist. st.

(vi (vii)

The persona personali lity ty of a poet poet acts like like a cataly catalytic tic agent agent in the the process of poetic poetic composit composition ion..

155


(vi (viii)

Poetry is is an an organizati organization on of depersonalize depersonalized d feel feelin ings gs and emotions. emotions.

(ix (ix)

Poetry Poetry is an esca escape pe from pers persona onallity. ty.


Disc Discus usss El Eliot’s ot’s Theo Theory ry of the the Impe Impers rson onal aliity of Poetr Poetry y.

2.

Discuss El Eliot’ ot’s con conccept of tra traditi dition on..

3.

Discu Discuss ss T.S. Eli Eliot as a cri criti tic. c. Supp Support ort your your ans answer wer wi with ilillustra ustrati tions ons from fromTradition Tradition and Individual Talent .

10.6 Bib Biblio liogra graph phy y 1.

D.J. D.J. Enri Enrigh ghtt and and Erne Ernest st De De Chi Chicker ckeraa : Engl Engliish Cri Criti tica call Tex Texts ts (OU (OUP) P)..

2.

B. Pras Prasad ad : An Introd Introduct uctiion to Engl Engliish Cri Critici ticism sm (Mac (Macm millan). an).

__ _ ____ __ ____ __ _

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UNIT-11 F.R. LEAVIS : REVALUA REVALUATION TION Structure 11.0

Objectiv tives

11.1 1.1

Introductio tion

11.2 1.2

About out th the Author

11.3

Scrutiny

11.4.

Leav Leaviis’ vi views on on an ideal deal cri criti ticc

11.5 1.5

Intr Introd oduc ucti tion on to th the Tex Text. t. 11.5.1 11.5. 1 The Line of Wit 11.5.2 11.5. 2 Milton’s Verse 11.5.3 Pope 11.5.4 The Augustan Tradition 11.5.5 Wordsworth 11.5.6 Shelley 11.5.7

11. 6

Keats

Let Us Us sum up

11. 7 Review Questions. 11. 8 Bibliogra Bibliography phy

11.0.

Objectives The objectives of the unit unit are to: t o:

•

giv give an intro ntrodu ducti ction on to the the soci socio-hi o-histori storicc sce scen nari ario of the the twent twentiieth eth cen centur tury y and and the the academic climate climate that gave birth to t o “Practical criticism.” criticism.”

•

give give a brief brief bio-l bio-lin inee especi especial ally ly of Frank Frank Raymo Raymond nd Leavi Leavis—h s—hiis career career as a criti criticc and the uniqueness of his personality.

•

introduce Scrutiny. the brain child of F.R. F.R. Leavis, L eavis, its evangelical evang elical task of redeeming redee ming society, society, reiterating reiterat ing the need for social so cial values embedded in great literature and Leavis’ lasting impact.

157


•

intr ntroduc oducee to and and sum up the the tex text give given n by Leavi eaviss

•

give give a bri brief ef note on Leav Leaviis’ views views on a criti criticc to hel help p the the readers readers see if he has has ful fulfi fill lled ed the goals goa ls he has set forth. fort h.

11.1 Intr Introd odu uctio tion At the dawn of the twentieth t wentieth century the world’s world’s face had thoroughly thoro ughly been altered by industrialism, industrialism, revolution in technology, technology, mass civilization civilization and egalitarianism. egalitarianism. The old values were gradually slipping slipping away. away. The rapid changes of the Machine Age had destroyed the t he great cultural tradition. tradition. The breach in in the continuity had resulted resulted in the uprooting of the glorious ways of life life “roo “rooted ted in the soil,” soil,” but great literature literatu re preserves these thes e values and as long as literat literature ure and the valuation or o r a responsive critical reading of it it persist then t hen the lost values could be recovered and relived. relived. The important developments in critical critical theory following the Romantics were contained co ntained in the works of o f mid mid and late Victo Victorians rians like like George Geo rge Eliot, Matthew Mat thew Arnold and Henry James. The trends that emerged in the late late nineteenth century bifurcated bifurcated into two t racks. The first first track led through throu gh Samuel Johnson and Matthew Matthe w Arnold to T.S. T.S. Eliot and F. F. R. Leavis. Their works could be grouped grou ped under the label label “practical criticism.” criticism.” These critics were more concerned with a “close reading” read ing” of the texts tex ts and they left left out ou t broader broad er issues which were the concerns of o f the ‘ideas-led’ critics like Sidney Sidney,, Word Wordswort sworth, h, Coleridge, George Eli E liot ot and Henry James. The insistence upon “close reading” and the t he impact created by Matthew Arnold Arnold were palpabl palpablee in the 1920s. 1920s. F.R. Leavis Leavis “adopted and adapted” adapted” many many of the fundam fundamental ental ideas of Arnold and gave them t hem a new currency curre ncy thereby elevating Arnold Arnold to a “canonical “cano nical figure figure in the history of English English criticism.” criticism.” Leavis recognizes Arnold’s Arnold’s concern in “considering “considering genuineness”— the problem pro blem of how the critic makes makes those prior kinds of judgement, those initial initial recognitions of life life and quality which which must precede, prec ede, inform and contro controll all profitabl pro fitablee discussion of poet ry and any evaluation of it as “criticism of life…” life…” (Selden 511) The three pioneers who shaped the Cambridge English English School in the 1920s were I. A. Richards, Wil Willia liam m Empson Empson and F. R. Leavis. I.A. Richards founded a method of studying literature literature called called “Practical Criticism Criticism.” .” The main idea idea promoted promot ed by this mode mode is that one o ne could make a close close study of the text by isolating isolating the text from the context. Without worrying about the historical moment, moment, its characteristic charact eristic outlook outloo k and social movements there is a technique of analyzing analyzing the precise details of the text. . Richards’s student Willi William am Empson presented his tutor tuto r a book publi pu blished shed in 1930 titled Seven Types of Ambiguity in Ambiguity in reading poetry which took his mentor’s method method of analysis analysis to another extreme. He viewed viewed poetry as seriously as if it were mathematics. T.S. Eliot called Empson’s Empson’s method “the “lime “lime squeezer squeeze r school of critici cr iticism.” sm.” F. R. Leavis who was a crusader crusa der of o f practical criticism, criticism, took too k the semantic se mantic dimension dimension given by Empson a step forward giving a moral moral turn to practical prac tical criticism. Leavis envisioned envisioned the 158


Universities serving as the creative creat ive centers of civili civilization zation.. The liberal Leavisite criticism repl replaced the nineteent nineteenth h century tradition of realism. realism. Leavis reasserted reasser ted the importa importance nce of Literature. Literatu re. He did not like to see the Universities bending themselves to satisfy the growing demands of capitalism capitalism and turning out to be mere career traini t raining ng institutions.

11.2 Abou Aboutt th the Auth Autho or Frank Raymond Raymond Leavis Leavis (1895–1978) was the last last of the pioneers who turned out to be the most infl influenti uential al figure figure in the twentieth twentieth century. century. He could be parallel paralleled ed to none other than Dr. Johnson. Born in Cambridge, Cambridge, he was not recognized reco gnized by the then academicians. academicians. [He was a Jew.] He participated part icipated in the First W World orld War War as a stretcher stre tcher bearer bear er when Britain foug fought ht against Germany. Germany. Even then he is said to have carried a copy of Milton’s Milton’s poems. He returned retu rned to England after service se rvice in World War War II to t o become a lecturer lect urer in English at Emmanuel College College (1925) and later a fellow fellow at Downin Dow ning g College (1936-52.) His career as a writer and critic commenced with the publication of Mass of Mass Civilization and Minority Minority Culture Culture (1930) denouncing denounc ing mass culture. His Education His Education and University got University got published in 1943 and his critical essays on writers wr iters of o f English English fiction like like D.H. Lawrence, Lawrence, Novelist Novelist in in 1955 and later Anna Karenina Karenina and Other Essays in 1968. His English His English Literature Literature in Our Time and the University University appeared in 1969 and Nor shall shal l my Sword: Discourses Disco urses on Pluralism, Plura lism, Compassion and Social Hope in Hope in 1972. As a person, perso n, he was known for his “stern, handsome, aquiline aquiline features, the open shirts, the t he frugal mode of life, life, the athletici at hleticism, sm, the unflinchi unflinching ng integrity, integrity, the t he gentlemanliness gentlemanliness of manner ...” ... ” (Bergonzi 47) 47) Steiner Ste iner recalls with nostalgia his unceremonious unceremoniou s appearance which had an intensity while while leaving a lectern in a Cambridge hall. hall. He is still best remembered re membered for his relentless pursuit pur suit in reshaping the t he tenor te nor and spirit of his time and refining refining the t he English sensibili sensibility ty.. He married Q.D. Roth in 1929 and she came to be called called Q.D. Leavis. His doctoral docto ral dissertation was on the t he relationship betwee between n journalism journalism and literat literature. ure. His wife’s wife’s was on popular fiction.

11.3 Scrutiny F.R. Leavis started a journal called Scrutiny i Scrutiny in n 1932. It emerged out of the debates and institutional devel developments opments within the Cambridge Cambridge English School in the twenties. It brought bro ught out the supreme supr eme value value of o f great literature literature and also the t he necessity for evaluative literary literary criticism. Scrutiny discusse Scrutiny discussed d a wide range of o f art forms which include music and cinema highlighting highlighting the link between literary achievement and general cultural health. This journal with its many contributors contr ibutors underto under took ok the t he job of saving civili civilization zation by stressing stress ing upon the moral value value of literary literary study. study. The contributo rs were Q.D. Leavis, L.C. Knights, Knights, Boris Bo ris Ford, Denys Thompson, and Welf Welfred red Mellers. Mellers. Leavis who was the promin pro minent ent contributor until 1953, felt felt that a true critic should perform the evangelical task of o f creating awareness of the debasement of the recent “culture and reveal the richness richness of the past.” In fact Scrutiny undertoo Scrutiny undertook k the job of saving saving civil civilization. ization. “Scrutiny’ Scrutiny’s combination of o f mora morall urgency 159


and supposedly ‘ordinary’ critical language produced an idiolect which was easily recognizable.” (Bergonzi 53) Leavis Leavis was not not for a theory of a poem or a self self-contained -contained aesthetic work divorced from society, culture culture and tradition. This journal committed committed itself to educating educ ating people and even e ven when Leavisism Leavisism declined his influence influence was felt in English English departments, depar tments, and teacher training colleges in England, in books and periodicals which which were devoted to the teaching t eaching of English English in in schools. The journalThe journalThe Use of English founded English founded in 1949 was an off shoot of Scrutiny. Scrutiny. Raymond Willi Williams ams and Richard Hoggart carried c arried the legacy of Leavisite Leavisite criticism. criticism. Leavis had had the gift of a true critic. “Relevance is a key word througho t hroughout ut Leavis’s Leavis’s criticism …” (Buckley158) and Leavis was careful in in using the critical language language with a curious exactness, not reducing it to a jargon. jargo n. Like the great critics, Dr.Johnson, Lessing, Saint-Beuve and Belinskya, Belinskya, Leavis has survived in his own right as a critic cr itic for whom criticism is is an act of pivotal social soc ial intelligence. intelligence. He felt felt that only o nly criticism criticism can make literature literature do its job. None other than a critic could be a complete reader. If I. A. Richards felt felt that poetry poet ry can save mankind, mankind, Leavis elevated the role of criticism claiming claiming that it can save us. Beginning with his New his New Bearings in English Poetry (1933), Poetry (1933), and ending with The Living Principle Principle (1975) (1975),, Leavis carried on with intense concentration concentr ation and commitment commitment his close textual analysis analysis of which Revalu which Revaluation ation(1963) (1963) was wa s a fine fine example. Leavis is is seen at his best in the 1930s and his his Revaluatio Revaluation n was conceived even when he wrote his first first work. wor k. The essays in this collection collection were written as separate separa te pieces though they were meant as part of a single single book. boo k.

11.4 Leavis’ Leavis’ View Viewss On Critic Criticism ism And And An Ideal Ideal Critic Critic Leavis’ criticism criticism of the critics throws thr ows light on his own ow n view of what criticism should be. He equates equ ates Dr.Johnson’s criticism criticism to living living classics; he he feels that Dr. Johnsons’s work ccan an be read afresh like like one enjoys works of literatur literaturee with “unaffected pleasure and new stimulus.” It is both alive and life life giving. giving. And Leavis is in in no way dissimilar dissimilar to Dr. Johnson. Johnso n. What Leavis has achieved is the re remarkable markable feat of making criticism criticism “an act of pivotal social intell intelligence.” igence.” He was of o f the firm conviction conviction that only a critic can be an ideal reader. A critic critic in his encounter with the text is bound to do a revaluation. The critic refines refines his his own response and thus enters into a dialogue dialogue and “this notion of dialogu dialoguee is is central to Leavis.” Leavis.” (Lodge (Lodg e 623) Withou Withoutt a fruitful dialogue the judgments are bound to be arbitrary impressio impressions. ns. Leavis’ conviction was that only in man’ man’ss capacity to respond r espond to t o art he exhibits exhibits the t he general fitness fitness for humane existence and only o nly a mind with some literary literary education edu cation is capable of assessing assess ing political political and social matters, for any valuable judgment on o n human affairs requires requ ires a “literacy of o f feeling.” feeling.” Any society societ y which does not no t have a worthy litera literature ture and a parallel critical critical study of it it is not fully fully alive. alive. And as Steiner points po ints out Leavis’ Lea vis’ss conception conce ption of literary criticism can be summed summed up as a “plea for a live, live, humane social order. or der.

160


11.5

Introduction to the text

Revaluation Revaluation was planned by F.R. Leavis even while while he was wa s writing New Bearings Bearings in English English Poetry Poetry with a view view to giving giving a complete complete perspective, i.e., “to complete the account of the present of English English poetry with the correlated account of the past.” (Leavis 9) Leavis spells spells out the business of a critic—to critic—to see the poet ry of the present “as continuation continuation and development…” The works of o f those in the past are alive alive only in so far as they are alive alive to those thos e in the present. present . The critic also aims aims at defining defining and ordering “in “in terms of its own impli implicit cit organization, a kind of ideal and impersonal impersonal living living memory.” memory.” (10) Leavis begins with the analysis of the poetry of the seventeenth century and ends with Keats and in so doing he desires to give only the main strands of development in the English tradition, its essential structure. The critic deals with with a tradition tr adition when he he chooses choos es to study the contributions contr ibutions of indivi individual dual writers; for, if the representat repr esentative ive work of a writer d determines etermines the quality of a writer, writer, then t hen a tradition is determined deter mined by the representat represe ntative ive writers of that period. F.R. Leavis gives gives his his reasons for the choice of poets from each period. Though he desired to begin with a chapter on Shakespeare, he decided it would be too t oo much “apart” from the writers chosen for his present present considerati consideration. on. Donne and Dryden Dryden are chosen for they have have contrib contributed uted signi signifi ficantl cantly y to the development of the English liter literary ary tradition. Spenser’ Spenser ’s contribution contr ibution to English tradition is obvious in his impact on Milton’s verse and that both bo th are closely c losely associated associat ed is reflected in the chapters on o n Milton Milton and Keats. The unique critical observation offered in the introduction introductio n is that the link link in the line line of poets from Donne and Ben Ben Jonson to Pope and from Pope to Crabbe is more closely closely knit than that of those poets po ets of the Romantic period from Wordsworth; ordsworth; the three stars, star s, Wordsw Wordsworth, orth, Shelley Shelley and Keats, are treated tre ated separately separ ately in in three different different chapters chapter s to highlight highlight their uniqueness uniqueness and individuali individuality ty.. To Leavis Wordswor Wordsworth:”… th:”… illustrat illustrates es a relation r elation between thinking and feeling feeling that invites invites the critic to revise the limited limited view of the possibi pos sibili lities ties that is got from studying the tradition of wit. (Leavis 15). If with with Wordswo Wordsworth’s rth’s works he could establish the relationship betwee between n think thinkin ing g and and feelin eeling, g, Shel Shellley repres represen ented ted the chara character cteriistics stics of the ninet nineteen eenth th centur century y establishing the divorc divorcee between “thought “tho ught and feeling, intelligence intelligence and sensibility sensibility.” .” He concludes concludes his intro introducto ductory ry remarks defining defining criticism: criticism: “what criticism undertakes is the profitable p rofitable discussion of literatur literature.” e.” (15-16) (15-16 ) Leavis acknowledges his his indebted indebtedness ness to those with whom he discussed literature literature as a teacher. teacher.

11.5.1 Chapter I The Line of Wit

Attempting a new perspective Leavis surveys the Oxford Book of Seventeenth Century Verse and Verse and when he begins to read the works of Donne, he finds in his verse “an extraordinary extrao rdinary force of originality” originality” which makes him “a living living poet.” poet .” He not only recognizes 161


the union of poetry and music in his verse but also the perfect control co ntrol of intonation, intonation, gesture, gest ure, movement and rhythm. The Anniversarie and Anniversarie and A A nocturn nocturnal al upon St. St. Lucies Lucies Day are Day are examples of his skillful skillful handling of the stanzas from building up of “varied cumulative effects. effects.”” Donne’s spoken spok en idiom adds to the dramatic dr amatic quality of his his poetry poetr y. The fact that Donne is a living inspiration is confirmed in the verse of Thomas Carew. The opening stanza of Satyre iii echoes iii echoes Donne’s tone and Carew’s works work s link link him him with with Lovelace and Suckling. Suckling. Carew deserves to be given given prominence prominence in Oxford Oxford for his “originali “originality ty,” ,” “strength,” “strengt h,” and “individual “individual forc force.” e.” In assessing Carew’s works wor ks Leavis finds finds the element of the tradition of chivalry b bound ound up with the t he contemporary culture cu lture and manners which make his work both bot h contemporary yet yet traditional. The inclusion inclusion of Carew in Professor Professo r Grierson’s Metaphysical Lyrics and Poems of the Seventeenth Century and the “urbane elegance” speak of o f the major influence influence of Donne. This influence influence of Donne leads leads him him to evaluate evaluate the merits of Ben Jonson. Jonso n. He distinguishes the “classical” quality of Ben Jonso Jonson n from from that of Milton Milton’’s. In the “idiomatic quality” quality” there is the tone t one of spoken spoke n language which reveals reveals the influence influence of Donne on o n Jonson. The samples such as The Forest and and To the same display same display the Augustan tradition t radition of “translating” “tr anslating” and “imitating” “imitating” Horace Horace and Juvenal. They also also reflect the English English mode mode which establishes establishes the contemporaneity with a combination combination of urbanity and and maturity as an “achieved “achieved actuality”,but the weakness in the verse does not escape the t he keen observation of Leavis. Leavis. In his Epigram Epigrammes mes the verse is found labored, without felicity. felicity. Jonson’ Jonso n’ss verse holds more instances of his scholarship scholarship rather rat her than t han spontaneity. spontaneity. His Ode has Ode has both the stamp of the Caroline tradition and the influence of Donne. Jonson’ Jonso n’ss weakness weak ness is not ignored ignore d by Leavis, but he lauds him for for his continuing co ntinuing the English tradition and initiating a “common “common heritage” which would benefit the later poets. poet s. What Jonson Jonso n has accompli acco mplished shed is what Eliot calls “wit”—”a tough to ugh reasonableness reaso nableness beneath the slight lyric grace.” Milton’s Comus has Comus has the touch of o f Jonson only in its its insistence on “art” or “wit” but not no t the kind of Jonsonian Jonso nian wit. During the course of the analysis of the Metaphysical tradition, Leavis identifies Cowley as more of a representative representat ive of the Metaphysical tradition tradition than even Marvell, Marvell, who enjoyed a better reception. reception. But in Cowley’ Cowley’ss On the Death the Death of Mr. Mr. William William Hervey Hervey there is not only o nly the touch tou ch of Spenser mingled mingled with the elegiac tone of o f Milton Milton but also the traits t raits of the eighteenth eighteent h century Gray’s. In the wit and seriousness seriousness of o f Marvell the wisdom wisdom of a ripe civilization civilization is seen crystalli crystallized. zed. And in Pope, Pope, Leavis observes observe s “the line line of tradition” which w hich flowed from Ben Jonson ended and took too k a new turn. Leavis assesses Pope’s strength stre ngth juxtaposing it with that of Dryden. And in the process pro cess Pope emerges superior super ior to Dryden in his his “finer “finer profundity of organization,” organization,” “greater intensity intensity of art,” and “a greater variety.” variety.” Though Dryden is is rated the “great representative representat ive of the later seventeenth century” cent ury” Marvell’s Marvell’s poetry is found indubitably bette betterr than that t hat of o f Dryden’s Dryden’s in Leavis’s Leavis’s fresh “evaluation.” “eva luation.” 162


Leavis attributes the turn in the poetic tradition to the appearance of o f English English prose in the early years years of Restoration. Restorat ion. He gives a graphic description description of the socio-historic changes of the Restoration Resto ration Age. Thus the “revaluation” “revaluation” in Chapter I includes includes the merits merits of Donne, Jonson, Cowley, Herbert, Herbert , Milton, Marvell, Dryden and the uniqueness of the writers who have been in touch with the classical and the co ntemporary ntemporar y.

11.5.2 Chapter

II

Milton’s Verse

Eliot’s and Middleto Middleton n Murry’s Murry’s comments acco mplished mplished their the ir purpose of o f dislodging dislodging Milton Milton from the prominent position he had enjoyed enjoyed for centuries. Leavis takes a closer look at Milton’s Grand Style and tries to t o explain why readers lost interest inter est in Milton in spite of his greatness. great ness. In his his close close analysis he perceives Milton’s Milton’s language evoking the serene classical world which had a powerful po werful impact on Milton’s sensibili sensibility ty and he did use a grand style st yle to match the subject which came to be known for “pompous “pompo us Milto Miltonicism nicism.” .” Leavis’s keenness keennes s enables him him to appreciate app reciate the cadences, ‘the rise and fall, fall, the slopes and curves of his verse, but it was the diff difficu icult lt places places in his his verse verse that made made Eliot Eliot introduc introducee the damagi damaging ng adjecti adjective ve to Milto Milton’ n’ss verse “magniloqu “magniloquence.” ence.” Leavis finds finds patches of o f swift swift diversity of associations and dramatic passages in Par in Paradise adise Lost which which to him sound more Shakespear Sh akespearean ean than Miltonic. With authority Leavis observes: “The total tota l effect effect is as if words as words withdrew themselves themselves from the focus of our attent a ttention ion and we were directly aware of a tissue of o f feelings feelings and perceptions.” (52) There are portions in Paradis in Paradisee Lost Lost , Book Four, Fo ur, especially especially in in the description of the Garden of Eden, Leavis points out the opulent use o f words like “sapphire,” “sapphire,” “Orient “Orient Pearl,” “sands of Gold’” and the like like where grandeur remains remains in words but there is very little focus on perceptions and sensations. sensations. Leavis Leavis concludes concludes that Mil Milton ton “.– “.– exhi exhibits bits a feeli feeling ng for words words rather than a capacity for feeling through words.” through words.” (53) The major drawback of Milton is that his language was totally divorced from actual speech—the emotional and the sensory texture of actual living living speech. Milton’s Milton’sComus Comus has has innumerable innumerable instances of ejaculatory pili piling ng up of clauses. clauses. Leavis goes on to pinpoint pinpoint the one major flaw flaw which is is inescapable and that is his his use of o f Latin. Latin. Milton Milton is so lost in Latin that his English has no semblance of the English English language language in its order, structure str ucture and accentuation. accentu ation. Leavis expresses with regret regre t this loss of o f feeling feeling for for one’ o ne’ss native language in such a great poet like like Milton, but Leavis does appreciate a ppreciate the musical musical quality in in Milton’s Milton’s verse and acknowledges the moral purpose purpo se which is is mandated by Leavis as an important quali qua lity ty of any great art, but for Leavis none can make such audacious a udacious comments co mments on Milto Milton n when he declares that Milton’s Milton’s “defect of intelligence intelligence is is a defect of imagination.” imagination.” (60)

11.5.3 Pope Since T.S. T.S. Eliot was unfair to Pope, Po pe, Leavis attempts a reorientation re orientation to successfully successfully revalue his works. wor ks. Many have classified classified Pope Po pe a satirist and Leavis begins his assessment by 163


giving a fine example of o f Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady as Lady as a classic example exa mple of Pope where he is is not satiric. satiric. Pope has also also extended the Metaphysical Metaphysical tradition—he tradition—he being being the last last of the seventeenth seventeenth century as well well as the the first first of the eighteenth eighteenth century in his Satires of Dr. Dr. Donne Do nne Versified Versified . The metap metaphysical hysical wit is best seen in the “heterogeneous “heteroge neous ideas” yoked by violence together. toge ther. There is no separate chapter chapte r dedicated for the revaluation of Shakespeare’s works and Leavis is quite quite conscious co nscious of that; that ; he knows fully fully well that the t he scope of the present task does not warrant an exclusive exclusive study of the world’s world’s greatest dramatist. But no poet is assessed without a comparison with Shakespeare. The tone of seriousness mingled mingled with with the ludicrous ludicrous is quite common to the “critical intelligence” of Shakespeare which Leavis tracks in the language of Pope as well w ell where the monotony monoto ny of sustained seriousness of the nineteenth century is not present. To conclude conclude that that Pope Pope screams screams with with mal malign ignant ant fury is to reveal reveal one’s one’s inabi inability lity to read Pope. Leavis Leavis feels feels that he is is a little little understood understood poet. po et. And Pope is is credited with with the capturing capturing the essential aspects of o f Augustan culture; cultu re; not just stopping stopp ing with with the understanding of the moral values; his “imagination “imagination fires to a creative creat ive glow that produ pr oduces ces what is poetry poet ry even by Romantic standards.” In Dunc In Dunciad iad Leavis finds finds the genius of Pope ful fully ly manif manifest. est. Pope is the last of the poets poet s of the Metaphysical age and yet he communicates with not only Johnson but with Thomas Gray. Gray. .

11.5.4

The Augustan Tradition and the Eighteenth Eightee nth Century

The strength of o f the eighteenth eighteenth century could co uld be be traced only o nly in poets like like Pope, Pope , Johnson, Goldsmith and Crabbe and not in the precursors of the Romantic Age like Gray, Collins, Cowper, Cowper, Dyer and Lady Winchil Winchilsea. sea. Leavis echoes the judgment of many critics that something somet hing had gone wrong. Though Pope was the presiding presiding genius genius of that period period he was not as popular as Donne. Edgell Edge ll Rickword Rickwor d in in his his review ofThe of The Oxford Book of Eighteenth E ighteenth Century Verse Verse observes the t he obvious lull lull between 1720 and 1780 in poetic poet ic creations. creat ions. If any one could cou ld be considered representat r epresentative ive of this period, according acco rding to Rickwood, Rickwo od, it is Will William iam Whitehead. Leavis opines that the t he only poet who carried c arried on the tradition of Pope to t o some degree was Thomas Gray. Gray. His Elegy His Elegy is is a happy blend blend of Pope Pop e and Milton and so o overtly vertly related related to the Augustan August an tradition. trad ition. Gray’s Gray’s Elegy is Elegy is a successful creative work where he expresses posi positive tiveAugus Augustan tan trai traits ts with with his his “chur church chy yard ard medit editat atio ions ns”” whi which hold hold a lot of “soc “sociial subs substan tance ce.” .” Leavis gives an exhaustive evaluation of the Elegy the Elegy.. When he he begins begins the analysis analysis of the poetry poet ry of Collins Collins he finds finds a defi de finite nite shift or a movement away from the Augustan in his verse. “Ode to Evening” stands apart as a classic classic example example for for its uniqueness, but Leavis is is quite aware of the fact that the t he decisive decisive turn had already happened in the poetry poetr y of Prior Prior who wrote a kind k ind of society verse; specifically specifically about the Restorat Rest oration ion society which had had changed. Augustan poetry was more about the concerns of human centrality centrality.. And the representative Augustan poems are none other than t han The Rape of the Lock , the Essay the Essay on Man and the Epis the Epistle tle to Arbuthno Arbuthnot t in in which which Pope Pop e brought into his his verse the t he vitality vitality of his his age. 164


In Dr. Johnson the Augustanism manif manifested ested in his greater concern for a literary literary order than for a feeling feeling for social order. Moving on to the poet poetry ry of Cowper, he finds finds the close affini affinities ties with Johnson’ Johnso n’ss in The Castaway Castaway.. It is in Goldsmith that Leavis finds what Eliot welcomes welcomes “– virtues of good goo d prose is is the first first and minimum minimum requirement of good goo d poetry poet ry.” .” (115) Goldsmith showed interest in the lives lives of the poor and in realism. His later later works wo rks bear the stamp of the Romantic rather than of the Augustan. Augusta n. In the analysis analysis of Blake’s Blake’s contribution cont ribution Leavis acknowledges that he is “indivi “individual, dual, original, original, and isolated enough” not to be influenced influenced by the Augustan tradition; he carved out a niche for himself by creating a “completely and uncompromisingly unco mpromisingly individual idiom and technique.” technique. ” (117) The main ingredients of Augustan August an poetry such such as “decorum “decorum,, order, order, elega elegance nce,, consi consisten stency cy”” were not found beyond beyond the Augusta Augustan n period and though Byron succeeded in writing writing satiric satiric poetry which which is characteristic characteristic of the Augustan poets, poet s, his mode was thoro thoroughly ughly diff different. erent.

11.5.5 Wordsworth Leavis finds finds the t he existing existing criticism on Wordswo Wordsworth rth rather unsatisfactory aand nd therefore attempts atte mpts a fresh fresh revaluation revaluation of his his poetry poetr y. He finds finds Wordsworth ordswo rth possessing “the genius genius of a great philosophi philosophicc poet.” In The Prelude t Prelude the he essential essent ial Wordswort ords worthian hian philoso philosophy phy,, especiall es pecially y the doctrines doct rines concerning concerning “the growth of mind mind and relation of Man to Nature,” Nat ure,” are apparent a pparent even in the “exposito ry tone and manner” of his his verse, but Leavis’s Leavis’s argument is thatThe that The Prelu Prelude de cannot cannot easily easily be be paraphrased. For no reader can easil easily y underst understand and it at one reading. Getting anywhere close to t o meaning meaning of the lines lines ofThe of The Pr Prelude elude without without adequate exposure to the philosophical and psychological argument is absolutely impossible, impossible, for the t he poet uses a technical phraseology as found in the lines quoted by Leavis: In one beloved presence, nay and more, In that most apprehensive ap prehensive habitude habitude And those sensations which have been deriv’d deriv’d From this beloved Presence … He does not spare the t he mistakes mistakes of o f Empson who in his his Seven Types of Ambiguity has misquoted misquoted and misrepresented misrepresented Wordswort Wordsworth. h. None but Leavis Leavis who is thoroughly exposed not only o nly to the works wo rks of o f all all poets poet s but to popular popu lar criticism criticism could pin point errors of o f acclaimed acclaimed critics with authority aut hority.. Realising the tremendous influence Wordsworth had on people like Mill and Leslie Stephen, Leavis Leavis does give give the reason for it. it. He observes the the greatest service done by a poet of his stature in making making us lie lie as we do in our birth “on the cool co ol flowery flowery lap of the earth.” (153) He also gives the t he credit cred it for imparting wisdom even to t o Leavis himself in revaluating the lines in Tintern Tintern Abbey, Abbey, The Recluse, Margaret Margaret or The Ruined Cottage. In Wordswort ords worth h there is is extraordinary extraor dinary creative power which goes hand in hand with with the “critical consciousness in the use of it.” (155) 165


The one marked dif d ifference ference in Leavis’ Leavis’ss observation observat ion is that he goes go es beyond the usual us ual labels attributed att ributed to Words Wordswort worth. h. While While many many find the prime preoccupat preo ccupation ion of Word Wordswor sworth th to be nature, Leavis finds finds the poet poe t more deeply concerned about “human naturalness” with “sanity and spiritual health” and the living living connections connect ions between man and the extra ext ra human universe. Indeed the comparison comparison between Wordswo Wordsworth rth and D.H. Lawrence is undertaken by the criti criticc mai mainly nly to bri bring ng home home the contrast. contrast. The only only point point of compari comparison son lies in both the poets being being engaged engaged in delvi delving ng into the “ill “illim imiitable table myster mystery y that that wells wells up into consci consciousne ousness.” ss.” The sharp contrast contr ast is the total tot al absence of sex in Wordsworth ordsw orth and the prime preoccupat ion with it in Lawrence. Lawrence . Leavis acknowledges that Word Wordswort sworth h does not suffer from from any “morbid repression.” repres sion.” He brings brings in in Shelley’s Shelley’s observations of Wordswort ords worth h merely to support suppo rt the difference difference between them. In the exclusive analysi analysiss of his poems, Leavis rates the Lucy poems to be typical t ypically ly Wordswort ords worthian hian , for for none non e but Wordsw Wordswort orth h could have written these poems. po ems.

11.5.6 Shelley Leavis begins this chapter alluding to the comments made by an illustrious critic who has observed obser ved that though t hough he was wa s fascinated fascinated by Shelley Shelley in his his teens he became “unreadable” in his mature years. Shelley’s Shelley’s revolutionary doctrines and his ideas expressed in his poetry poet ry becam becamee a matter atter of disen disench chan antm tment ent with with the the poet, poet, but but Leav Leavis is makes makes it clear clear that that those those doctri doctrines nes alone make Shelley a distinguished poet. This affirm affirmation ation leads Leavis on to the examination examination of his famous Ode to the West Wind. Pointing out the positive traits in in the poet, he elaborates on the t he oft repeated r epeated criticism criticism that Shelley Shelley is extraordinaril extrao rdinarily y lyrical. lyrical. The Ode reveals the typical t ypical Shelleyan characteristics charact eristics of philosophical ideas and judgment of a mora morall order. Taking up the universally agreed agreed criticism of Shelley’s Shelley’s genius as “essentiall “essent ially y lyrical” lyrical” Leavis points out that the term term which would have meant in others an “emotional “emot ional intensity” intensity” finds an alteration alterat ion in Shelley whose verse in “peculiarly emotional.” Shelley expects expect s in poetry poe try a sensibility sensibility dissociated from intell intelligence. igence. The conviction that feeling should be divorced from thought is examined examined further. further. When compared to W Wordswo ordsworth, rth, Shelley is more more lyrical, lyrical, for the former performed perfor med the exercise of critically exploring his experience thereby ther eby allowing allowing emotions to be “recollected in tranquility.” Shelley in his his poem presents pr esents an a n “emotion in itself,” itself,” “for itself,” “for its own o wn sake” which is best exhibited in To a Skylark where the words wor ds exbibit exbibit a “spontaneous “sponta neous overfl over flow.” ow.” Leavis Leavis then goes g oes on to t o analyze Mont analyze Mont Blanc and the idiosyncratic poem When the Lamp is Shattered. The major traits of Shelley are unraveled to the t he readers which are his love love for Love, loving loving and a notable lack of self knowledge and a “a capacity for ecstat ic idealizi idealizing” ng” which are found in Epipsyc in Epipsychidion hidion ,but ,but the analysis a nalysis of the love love of o f loat loathing hing that is manifest manifest in elds Leavis scope to t o compare co mpare Shelley with Shakespeare; Shakespe are; for inThe inThe Cenci he The Cenci yi Cenci yields finds finds “particular echoes echoes of Shakespeare,” Shakespear e,” but in this this same work all the weaknesses are also traced by the critic. critic. The sonnet sonnet Engla England nd 1819 throws 1819 throws open Shelley’s sensitive humanity and his innate innate idealizing idealizing bent bent of mind. Shelley’ Shelley’ss close resemblance resemblance to Byron Byro n is not noticed iced by Leavis 166


in his Mask his Mask of Anarchy, Anarchy, and Leavis goes back to the t he observation of the critic who who found Shelley unreadable sa saying ying that in The Triumph of Life there Life there is enough enough substance to go g o back any number number of times times even if other ot her works are unreadable. unr eadable. The chapter chapte r concludes with the comparative analysis analysis of Coleridge and Mont Blanc Blanc in Note Not e I, Shelley Shelley and Othello in Note 2 and Note Not e 3 dwells on Swinburne.

11.5.7 Keats Though Thoug h many have eulogized Keats Ke ats for his poet ic genius raising him him to the level of a hero and a martyr, Leavis adds a clause that his greatness great ness is a matter of “promise and potential pot entiality ity rather than t han achievement.” The sincere commitment to the noble role of a critic prevents Leavis from excesses. He knew as well as everyone that Keats’ wings of poesy were clipped clipped by the cruel hand of death, but for which he would have have contributed contribute d a great deal. Leavis openly points out the wrongness of critici criticism sm like like Murry’ Murry’s compari comparison son of Keats with Shakespeare who declares Keats’ “poems comparable to nothing in in English English literatur literaturee save the works of Shakespeare’ Shakespeare ’s maturity.’ maturity.’ “ (226) He does not subscribe su bscribe to the view of Mr. Symons Symons either, who finds Keats giving giving more import importance ance to art t han life. life. Using theOde the Ode to a Nightingale, Nightingale, the one which is universally universally acclaim acclaimed ed as the t he best among the t he Odes, Leavis disputes disputes the observations obser vations of Murry and Symons. S ymons. With With his clinical clinical scrutiny of each word wor d in this marvelous creat ion, Leavis finds finds the Ode not merely an outpouring out pouring of a sensuous sensuo us poet poe t but every detail deta il exhibiting exhibiting “an extraordinary intensity or realization, a “rightness and delicacy of touch” creating creat ing a “structure of a fine fine and complex organism.” (229) To refute the position of Symons Symons Leavis goes to pro prove ve that the t he Ode is bett better er art than t han what Symons has recognized and that Keats was only half half in in love with death, but had the “complementary desire for for a full life life unattended” unattended ” by the disadvantages of o f “weariness, the fever and the fret.” fret.” The Ode is “better in a way involvin involving ga relation to life life than the prescription of art for art’s sake would allow allow room ro om for. for. The famous lines lines of the Ode on a Grecian Urn: “Beauty Urn: “Beauty is truth, truth t ruth beauty— that is all/Ye all/Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.” make one believe believe that Keats is an aesthete, aest hete, a devotee devot ee of Art and Beauty contemplating beauty above all things. But Art Art which may impl imply y the aesthetic antithesis of Life Life is is not found in Keats. On the contrary contra ry there is a “strong “stro ng grasping at fullness fullness of life.” life.” And Keats finds finds in art a higher reali rea lity ty contemplating co ntemplating on which actual act ual life life seems thin and unreal. Clearly, Clearly, the urn for Keats Keat s is the incitement incitement and support supp ort to t o a day-dream; day-d ream; the dream of a life life that, without any a ny drawbacks, drawback s, shall give give him all the desires - shall be for ever warm and still be enjoyed, remaining, remaining, ‘among the leaves,’ free from all the inevitable inevitable limitations limitations that t hat the t he nightingale, nightingale, the light-winged light-winged Dryad, has never known. (236) (23 6) In The Eve of St. Agnes, The Eve of St.Mark, and La Belle Dame sans Merci,the Merci, the pre-Rap pre-Raphae haeli lite te “cult “cult of Beauty Beauty,” ,” “an “an aesthet aesthetic ic relig religios iosiity” which which is “the “the compl completes etestt express expressiion of that Victorian Victorian romanticism” romanticism” draws on the poet Keats. Leavis reiterates the fact fact that Keats was for that aestheticism a estheticism which which expressed expres sed itself in the intensity of living. living. The Ode to Autumn 167


exemplifies exemplifies this complete touch to uch with the life life of the outside out side world—”a firm sense of the solid world” instead of remaining remaining lost in the dreamy reality. reality. “Ripeness is all” all” expresses the poet’ poet ’s concern with the ripeness of autumn. aut umn. The critic’s critic’s “close reading” of the text t ext enables him him to appreciate appre ciate the richness of o f life life that comes alive in in the last stanza of o f the poem where “a native English strength” pervades pervade s its every detail deta il such us the familiar familiar scenes of autumn and the sounds including the mourning mourning of gnats, the t he bleating of the lambs, singing singing of the hedge crickets and the treble t reble soft whistling whistling of the red breasts evoke the thin t hin sounds heard in the warm autumnal air. In Keats’ analysis analysis of Hyper of Hyperion ion one one recognizes recog nizes the typical Leavi Leavisite site tendency to establi esta blish sh the link link in in the poetic poet ic tradition. His observation goes thus:”Hyperion thus:”Hyperion,, in fact, offers a good way of bringing home the predominance of Milton Milton … a Milton Milton associated asso ciated with Spenser—in the poetry po etry of the t he nineteenth century, century, for Tennyson represents t he Victorian Victorian main current.” (249) Leavis Leavis goes beyond beyond the texts o f Keats to give reason for the serenity and and the intensity of effect effect in his his poems; and he attributes att ributes the merits of o f the poet to t o the “discipline “discipline and self-searching” self-searching” by Keats Keats during moments moments of o f personal disasters disasters and blows of fate. “But this personal personal urgency urgency is comple completel tely y impersona mpersonali lized; zed; it has has become become the life, ife, the informi nforming ng spiri spirit, t, of the profoundest profounde st kind of imperso impersonali nality.” ty.” (251) The poet’ poet ’s “uncommonly “uncommonly strong, stro ng, sincere, and sensitive spirit” mellowed mellowed by tragic t ragic experience finds expression express ion in his poetry poetr y displaying displaying an unparalleled maturity. maturity. In his Note on Beauty is Truth, Leavis quoting the remarks of a friend on this line, line, finds finds his own observation observa tion not very different different from that. It is only to drive home the fact that Keats is well aware of the fact that he is talking about an Urn fully aware of the t he reality reality and has not not escaped into the realm of fantasy. fantasy. The main main argument of Leavis throughou thro ughoutt the essay is that Keats is no escapist; escap ist; even when impell impelled ed to escape e scape in a day-dream he does so only momentarily for in such “an arrest of time” or “vividly “vividly realized fantasy” the poet po et experiences expe riences a satisfying contrast to human life filled with “the agonies, the strife of human hearts.”

11.6. Let Us Sum Up Leavis lives lives up to the goal goa l that he sets forth fort h for himself himself i.e. i.e. to t o revaluate so me of the great pieces of literature for either there were some misconceptions misconceptions or he had something new and different to offer. Revaluati Revaluations ons is is certainly a classic testimony test imony to Leavis’ scholarship scholar ship – his his mastery mastery of literature literature and the contemporary contemporary critici criticism sm availab available le on those literary literary pieces. pieces. He quotes quo tes the t he views of some of all the acclaimed critics like like Middleton Middleto n Murray, Allen Allen Tate and T.S. Eliot Eliot and through throug h his his close close study stud y of the texts. Revaluation includes includes the textual analyses of the works of the so-called so-called minor minor to major major poets. Each Chapter concludes concludes with a section of Notes where where some some rare pieces pieces and some quite quite popular popular ones are chosen chosen for a fresh ‘scruti ‘scrutiny ny.’ .’ The notes section sec tion of the first first chapter chapte r on Line of Wit Wit include verses verses of Carew, Cowley and Herrick. It is in his his Chapter on Milton Milton that Leavis disagrees with with Allen Allen Tate Tate who was of the view that Milton Milton was disliked disliked only o nly because of prejudice; and dismisses dismisses Milto Milton n with with a closing remark that inspite all his merits even the oft o ft prescribed play p lay Samson Agonistes may help help learners only in so far as to form a li literary terary taste but cannot be read with enjoyment. enjoyment. The note 168


section on Pope has an elaborate study on Pope’s “Satiric “Satiric Modes.” The chapter on Augustan Augustan Tradition Tradition has nearly eight eight note not e section sect ion and includes includes a wide variety variety of poets po ets such as Thomas Gray, Gray, Thomson, Spenser, Milton, Milton, Wordswo Wordsworth, rth, Landor, Lando r, Mathew Green, Blake, Coleridge, Wordswort ords worth, h, Keats and Shelley Shelley.. As already already mentioned, mentioned, in the last three chapters Leavis establishes establishes his his perspective on the three popular Romantic Romantic poets – Wordswort Wordsworth h , Keats and Shelley Shelley.. Leavis has certainly proved his import importance ance as a literary critic and further emerged as a “publicist” “publicist” for for the idea of criticism. criticism. Thus he has paved the way for for literary criticism criticism to get firmly firmly rooted roo ted in the academic world.


What is is “p “practic tical critic ticism”?

2.

How is F.R. F.R. Leav Leavis is dif differen erentt from from other other liliterar terary y cri criti tics cs??

3.

Write rite a note on Leav Leaviis’s s’s vi view ewss on on an an ide ideal al cri critic. tic.

4.

How has Scrutiny elevated Scrutiny elevated the role r ole of litera literary ry criticism? criticism?

5.

What hat hav havee lea learn rntt of of the the fam famous ous Engl Engliish poets poets from from Leav Leaviis’ Revaluati Revaluation on??


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Bucklely, Vi Vincent. Poetry and Morali Mo rality: ty: Studies on the Criticism of Matthew Arnold T.S. Eliot and F.R. Leavis. Leavis. London: Chatto and Windus, Windus, 1961.

3.

Cox. Cox. C. C. B., B., and and Dyson Dyson,, A.E. A.E. eds eds.. The Twenti wentieth eth-Ce -Centu ntury ry Mind: Mind: Histor History y, Idea Ideas, s, and Literature in Britain. Britain. London: Oxford University University Press, 1972.

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Lodge, David. Ed. 20th Century Literary Criticism: A Reader Reader . London: Longman Group Ltd., 1972.

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Nagara Nagarajjan, an, M.S. M.S. Engl English ish Li Literary terary Criti Critici cism sm and and Theory Theory:: An Introdu Introductor ctory y Histor History y. Hyderabad: Hyderabad: Orient Longman Pvt. Ltd., 2006.

3.

Seldon Seldon,, Ram Raman.ed an.ed.. The The The Theory ory of Cri Critici ticism sm:: From From Plato Plato to throu through gh Pres Presen entt – A Reader . London: Longman Group U.K. Ltd., 1988.

4.

Sethu Sethura ram man, an, V.S., .S., Ind Indiira . C.T C.T., SriR SriRam aman an,, eds. eds. Poetica Poeticall Criti Critici cism sm. Chennai: Che nnai: Macmillan India Press, 2000.

5.

Sinf Sinfie ield ld,, Alan Alan.. Ed. Ed. The The Cont Contex extt of Engl Engliish Litera Literature ture:: Society Society and and Lit Litera eratur turee. London: Methuen&Co.,1983. ____________ 169


UNIT-12 NORTHROP FRYE : MYTH AND ARCHETYPE ARCHETYPE (I) Structure 12.0

Objectives

12.1 12.1


12.2 12.2

About out th the Author thor

12.3

About th the Age

12.4

About th the Text 12.4.1 Detail Detailed ed Descri Descripti ption on 12.4.2 12.4. 2 Critical CriticalAnalysi Analysiss of the Text Text

12.5

Let Us Us Sum Up

12.6 12.6


12.7 12.7

Bibliogr ography

12.0 12.0 Objectives The objective of the unit unit are to: to : •

introd troduc ucee th the stud studen ents ts to the the con conce cept pt of myth and and arc arche hety type pes. s.

•

gai gain a kno knowl wled edge ge of the the var variious aspe aspects cts and and fea featur tures es of myth and and arc arche hety type pess in in literature.

•

enab enable le them them to unde unders rsta tand nd arch archet ety ypal pal cri critici ticism sm of North Northrop rop Fry Frye.

•

fami amiliarize arize them them with with the exam exampl ples es of my myth and and arch archety etype pess in in liliteratur terature. e.

12.1 Intr Introd odu uctio tion Archetypal Archetypa l criticism is based largely largely on the works wo rks of o f C. C. G. G. Jung and Joseph Campbell . Some So me of the major major figures of archetypal criticism are Robert Graves, Francis Franc is Fergusson, Philip Philip Wheelwright, Lesli Les liee Fiedler, Northro Nor throp p Frye, Maud Bodkin, Bo dkin, and G. Wilson Wilson Knight. These critics view the genres and individual plot patterns of literature, including highly sophisticated and realistic works, aass recurrences recurrences of certain cert ain archetypes and essential esse ntial mythi mythicc formulae. According to Jung, Archetypes, are :”prim :”pr imordial ordial images”; images”; the “psychic residue” of repeated t ypes of experi experience ence in the lives lives of very ancient ancient ancestors which which are inherited inherited in the “collective “collective unconscious” of the human race and are expressed in myths, myths, reli re ligion, gion, dreams, and private fantasies, as well as in in the works of o f literatur literature. e. 170


In The Anatomy of Criticism, Northrop Criticism, Northrop Frye developed developed the archetypal archetypal approach into a radical and inclusive inclusive revision of the traditional grounds gro unds both of o f the theory theor y of literatu literature re and the practice pract ice of literary literary criticism. Since all these critics tend to t o emphasize the underlying mythical mythical patterns patterns in literature , on o n the assumption that myths myths are closer to t o the elemental archetype than are the t he artful products product s of sophisticated writers wr iters of literary works, Archetypal criticism is usually associated with myth criticism. criticism. The death-rebirth theme is is often said said to be the archetype of archetypes, and a nd is is held to be grounded grou nded in the cycle cycle of the seasons and the t he organic cycle of human life; life; this archetype, informs informs primitive primitive rituals of o f the sacrificial sacrificial king, king, myths of o f the god go d who dies to be reborn, and a multitude of diverse literary works, including the Bible the Bible,, Dante’s Divine Divine Comedy, Comedy, and Coleridge’ Co leridge’ss Rime of the Ancient Mariner Mariner . Some So me common common examples of archetypes include include water, sun, moon, colors, circles, circles, the Great Mother, Wise Wise Old Man, etc. In In terms of archetypal arc hetypal criticism, criticism, the color white might white might be associated with innocence or could co uld signify signify death or the supernatural. supernat ural.

12.2 Abou Aboutt th the Auth Autho or Northrop Northrop Frye Frye was an infl nfluentia uentiall criti criticc and schola scholarr. Born in ,Sherbr ,Sherbrooke ooke but raised raised in Moncton, New Brunswick, Frye studied for his his undergraduate undergraduat e degree at Victoria College, College, University of Toronto and then studied stu died theology at Emmanuel College . After After a brief br ief stint as student minister in Saskatchewan, he was ordained as a minister of the United Church of Canada. He then t hen studied at Merton Merto n College, Oxford, Oxford, before returning to Victor Victoria ia College College for his entire professional career. Frye rose to international internat ional prominence as a result of his first first book, Fearf Fearful ul Symm Symmetry etry,, publis published hed in 1947. Until Until that point, point, the the propheti propheticc poetry of Willia lliam m Blake had long been poorly poo rly understood, considered by some to be b e delusional delusional ramblings. ramblings. Frye found in it a system of metap metaphor hor derived de rived from Para from Paradise and from the Bible the Bible.. dise Lost and Frye’s major works include Fearful include Fearful Symmetry Symmetry, a study stu dy of o f Will William iam Blake; Anatomy Blake; Anatomy of Criticism, Criticism , where Frye defines and describes his literary theories; The Educated Imagination, Imagination, a discussion of the t he social role of art intended for a general audience; andThe and The Great Code and Words with Power , in which Frye applies his literary theories to The Bible. Bible.

12.3 Abo About th the Age Literary Criticism Criticism of the twentieth t wentieth century deals d eals with a variety of theories theo ries like like Marxism Mar xism,, Freudianism, Freudianism, New Criti C riticism cism,, Structuralism, Structuralism, Post-Structuralism Post-St ructuralism,, Deconstruction and so on. o n. New discov discoveri eries es in the fiel field d of scie science nce,, anthr anthropol opology ogy,, sociol sociology ogy,, psych psychoana oanallysis ysis and lingui inguisti stics cs have brought about a revolution in critical outlook, outloo k, technique and critical methods. In theory, Marxist criticism is a descendant of o f the realistic criticism of the nineteenth cent ury and it developed into a coher coherent ent theory theor y only after the Russian revolution. In America itit was shortshort lived lived and the t he most outstanding outst anding Marxist Marxist critic was Gyorgy Lukacs . In American criticism, New Criticism developed develop ed with John Crowe Ransome’ Ranso me’ss The New Criticism. Criticism. The pioneers of New Criticism are T.S. T.S. Eliot and I.A. I. A. Richards. The New 171


critics made a twofold division division of o f language into denotation denotat ion or literal literal meaning meaning and connotation co nnotation or suggestive sug gestive meaning. meaning. The psychoanaly psychoa nalytic tic criticism of literat literature ure began with the publication of Freud’s Int Freud’s Interp erprretation etation of Dreams Dreams in in 1900. Out of Freudian analy analysis sis grew the Jungian version version of the subconscious as a collective collective subconscious that serves as a reservoir rese rvoir of the archetypal pattern, the primordial primordial images images of mankind. mankind. Myth criticism criticism aims aims at discovering discovering behind behind all litera literature ture the th e original myths myths of mankind. In England Maud Bodkin has made made the best use of psychoan psychoanal alys ysis is in her book Ar book Archet chetypal ypal Patterns Patterns in her Poetry Poetry.. The myth criticism criticism under the influence influence of Frazer and Jung rose as a react ion to New Criticism. Criticism. It depends on t he insights insights revealed by anthropolog anthro pology y, psychology psycholog y, philosophy, religions religions and linguistics. linguistics. Northro Nor throp p Frye, a Canadian critic, in his his Anatomy Anatomy of Criticism Criticism,, combi co mbines nes Myth criticism with an attempt at an all embracing theory theo ry of litera literatur turee that is mainly mainly the theory the ory of forms. forms. He draws freely on the whole range of literature and interprets sensitively. Far from being primitive fictions — about the natural world, some supposed ancestor, or tribal tr ibal practice pract ice — myths myths are reflections of a profound pr ofound reality rea lity.. They dramatically represent repres ent our instinctive understandings. Moreover, More over, unlike Freud’s Freud’s concepts, concept s, myths are collective and communal, and so bring a sense of wholeness and togetherness toget herness to social s ocial life. life. Native peoples, and indeed whole civili civilizations, zations, have ha ve their own mythologies, mythologies, but there appear ap pear to be common images, images, themes and motives.

12.4 Abo About th the Tex Textt Bodkin’s Ar Bodkin’s Archetypal chetypal Patterns Patterns in Poetry Poetry, the first work on o n the subject of archetypal literary literary criti c riticism, cism, applies applies Jung’s theories about the coll co llective ective unconscious, archetypes, and prim primordial ordial images mages to literatur terature. e. It wa wass not unti untill the the work work of the Canadi Canadian an litera iterary ry criti criticc Northr Northrop op Frye that archetypal ar chetypal criticism was theorized theor ized in purely literary literary terms. te rms. The major work of o f Frye’s Frye’s to deal d eal with archetypes is Anatomy Anatomy of Critici Criticism sm but but his essay “The Archetypes of Literature” Literatu re” is a precursor precurso r to the t he book. Frye’s Frye’s thesis in “The Archetypes of Li Literat terature” ure” remains re mains largely unchanged in Anatomy in Anatomy of Criticism. Criticism. Frye’s work helped displace New Criticism as the major major mode of analyzing analyzing literary texts, before giving giving way to structuralism and semiotics. Frye’s Frye’s work breaks from both Frazer and Jung in such a way that it is distinct from its anthropological and psychoanalytica psychoanalyticall precursors. For Frye, the death-rebirth myth myth that Frazer sees manifest manifest in agriculture and the harvest is not ritualistic since it is involuntary involuntary,, and therefore, t herefore, must be done. As for Jung, Frye was uninterested about the collective collective unconscious on the t he grounds of o f feeling feeling itit was unnecessary: since since the unconscious unco nscious is unknowable it cannot be studied. How archetypes archet ypes came to be was also of no concern to Frye; rather, the function and effect effect of archetypes is his his inter interest. est. For Fo r Frye, literary archetypes “play an essential role in refashioning refashioning the material material universe into an aalternat lternative ive verbal universe that is humanly intelligible intelligible and viable, because because it is adapted to essentia essentiall human human needs and concerns” concerns” . Frye begins the essay “The Archetypes of Literature” Literatur e” by saying saying that one cannot “learn literature” literature” : “one learns about it in a certain way” but “what one o ne learns transitively transitively is is the 172


criticism criticism of literat literature”. ure”. It is the culmination of Frye’s Frye’s theory theor y in in which it it unites the elements elements of o f characterization. This whole whole is organized around a metaphor metaphor of o f human human desire and frustration as manifested in the Great Chain of Being (divine, (divine, human, anim a nimal, al, vegetable, veget able, mineral) mineral) by analogy to the four seasons. Frye’s conceptual framework for literature

In seeking integrity integr ity for criticism, Frye rejects what he termed the deter d etermini minist stic ic fallacy fallacy.. He defines this as the movement of “a scholar with a special interest in geography geogr aphy or economics eco nomics [to] express . . . that t hat interest by the rhetorical device device of putting his favourite favourite study into a causal relationship with whatever interests inter ests him less”. By attaching criticism to an external framework rather than t han locating the framework for criticism within within literat literature, ure, this kind of critic essentially essentially “substitute[s] “substitut e[s] a critical attitude attitud e for criticism.” For Frye critical integrity means that “the axioms and postulates of criticism criticism . . . have to grow g row out of the art it deals with”. with”. Taking his his cue from fro m Aristotle, Aristot le, Frye’s Frye’s methodology methodo logy in defining defining a conceptu co nceptual al framework begin beginss inducti nductivel vely y, “fol “follow low[i [ing] ng] the natural natural order and and begi begin[n n[niing] with with the prim primary facts facts”” . The prima primary ry facts, facts, in this this case, are the works of literature literature themsel themselves ves.. Frye’ Frye’ss inducti inductive ve survey of these “facts” reveal “a general tendency on the part par t of great classics to revert to [primitive [primitive formulas]”. formulas]”. This revelation prompts his next move, or rather, r ather, ‘inductive ‘inductive leap’ “I suggest that it is time for for criticism to leap to a new ground gro und from which it it can discover what the organizi o rganizing ng or containing forms of its conceptual concept ual framework are. Criticism seems to be badly in in need of a coordinating coor dinating principle, principle, a central cent ral hypothesis which, like the theory t heory of evolution evo lution in biology, biology, will will see the phenomena it deals with as parts of a whole.” Arguing that “criticism cannot be a systematic [and thus thu s scientific] study unless there is a quality in in litera literatur turee which enables itit to be so,” Frye puts forward the t he hypothesis hypothesis that “just as there is an order of o f nature behind behind the natural sciences, sciences, so literature is is not a piled piled aggregate of ‘works,’ but an order of words”. This order of words word s constitutes const itutes criticism’ criticism’s conceptual co nceptual framework, its coordinating principle. principle. Terms associated with archetypal criticism Anima - feminine feminine aspect aspe ct - the t he inner feminine feminine part of o f the male personality perso nality or a man’s image image of o f a woman. Animus - male aspect - an inner masculine part of o f the female female personali perso nality ty or a woman’s image of a man. Myth - “Myth” in its most ordinary meaning refers to stories of gods or other supernatural supernatur al beings handed down from ancient times. A collection collection of o f traditional myths myths in a culture or o r nation nat ion reflects, reflects, allegorically allegorically, its cultural cultur al or national history. The stories of the t he Genesis, Exudes and Apostles Apost les in in Jewish mythology, mythology, for instance, instance, are part of the constitution co nstitution of Jewish nation or culture. Being Being read and re-read by generations of people in a nation/ nat ion/ culture, these myths are often regarded as its spiritual identity. Writers also turn to myths as sources of inspiration, mythos in mythos in Greek meaning meaning narration narrat ion and plot. As the verbal expression of o f ancient dreams and rituals, the myth is also the t he structural stru ctural principle principle of o f imaginative imaginative literature literature when it

173


gives meaning meaning to rituals and form to dreams. In the t he long tradition of o f mimesi mimesis, s, the myth occupied o ccupied a low position po sition for its o bvious bvious irrationality irrationality and distortion. Giambattisha Vico, Vico, however, helped to resto re store re the importance of o f the myth myth in his New his New Sciences : “the first first science to t o be learned should be mythology or the interpretation interpretat ion of fables; fables; for…all the histories of the gentil gent iles es have their beginnings beginnings in the fables, which were t he first histories of the gentile nation. By such a method the beginnings of the sciences as well well as of the nations are ar e to be discovered.” discovered. ” The eighteenth century cent ury Romanticists also placed the myth, the wisdom of poetry, on the same footing with science and reason. r eason. Sigmund Freud says in “Creative Writers Writers and Day-Dreaming” that myths are “distor “distorted ted vestiges of o f the wishful wishful fantasies fantasies of o f whole whole nations, the t he secula secularr dream dreamss of youthful humani humanities.” ties.” But we have to wait for an elaborate ttheory heory of myth and archetype from his student, the Swiss psychologist p sychologist Carl G. G. Jung. Archetype - “ a typical or recurring image, character, narrative design, theme, or other literary literar y phenomenon that has been in literatu literature re from the beginning and regularly reappear reappears”. s”. The word “archetype,” according according to Jung, was much used in ancient ancient Greek,arché Greek, arché meaning meaning “root” “roo t” and “origin” while while typos “pattern” typos “pattern” or “model.” “model.” The modern concept of the archetype appeared in the late late nineteenth century, ce ntury, referring referring to the t he recurring literary phenomena such as motifs, themes, and narrative designs.Frye sees archetypes as recurring re curring patterns patt erns in literature; literature; in contrast, Jung J ung views archetypes as primal, primal, ancient images/experience that we have inherited.

12.4.1 Detailed Description Archetype:The term ter m Archetype in criticism denotes denote s “recurrent narrative designs, patterns patterns of action, action, characte characterr types types or images images which which are said said to be identi identifi fiab able le in a wide wide variety variety of works works of litera literature ture as well as in myths, myths, dreams, dreams, and even ritua ritualized lized modes modes of of social behaviour”. According According to Northrop Frye, an archetype is “a symbol, symbol, story or image image that t hat recurs o ften enough in literat literature ure to be recogni recog nizable zable as an element of literature as a whole.” Universal Universal symbols symbols that “evoke deep and perhaps unconscious responses” because they bear the weight of our human hopes, fears, and frustrations. frustr ations. Any primal primal meaningful meaningful symbol symbol (character, (characte r, image, image, object) o bject) or meaningful narrative (temptation (t emptation & fall, flood, salvation). sa lvation).

Archetypes embody humanities humanities hopes, fears, and aspirations since the beginning beginning of time. For example the life/death life/death cycle of humanity humanity has been related to the seasonal seas onal cycle cycle of nature; thus, we understand our lives lives in relationship relationship to nature. natur e. a)

Various arious Arche Archety types pes.. Great Great Mother Mother,, quests, quests, scapego scapegoats ats,, spiri spiritual tual/m /medi editati tative ve withd withdraw rawal als, s, descents/ascents to t o heaven/hell, heaven/hell, death/rebirth. deat h/rebirth.

b)

Archety rchetypal pal narra narrati tive ves: s: Tempta emptati tion, on, creati creation on of huma humans ns,, creati creation on of evil evil,, salv salvati ation, on, death death and rebirth, glorious glorious utopian future.

c)

Amer Ameriican can Arch Archety etype pes: s: Cowb Cowboy oy,, good cop/ cop/ba bad d cop, cop, woodsm woodsman an,, entrep entrepren reneur eur,, socce soccer r mom, working work ing mom mom . The first first one to use u se the concept in the sense it it now appears appea rs in contemporary conte mporary archetypal 174


criticism criticism is cultural cultural anthropologist anthro pologist James G. Frazer at t he turn of o f the century centu ry,, to explain the structural struct ural principles principles behind the archetypal archet ypal myths myths and rituals in the ttales ales and ceremonies of diverse cultures. Myths and archetypes thus t hus offered the literary critic one more alternative, in addition to the t he generic or the historical, to questions concerning literary literary convention or genre. ge nre. Because of its more or less universal universal nature, the archetype is important important for constructing co nstructing macro structures of literature connecti co nnecting ng different different tim t imes es and geographical g eographical locations. locations. History of archetypical criticism

As archetypes usually include include myths (tales, rituals, totems, taboos, tabo os, etc.), et c.), so “archetypal “archet ypal criticism” is often used for myth and archetypal criticism. However, archetypal criticism owes especially to the t he following following three people pe ople for their separate contr c ontributions: ibutions: Frazer in the late nineteenth century revealed revea led the recurring mythical patterns in tales and rituals; Jung in 1930s and 1940s developed a theory of archetypes out of it; and Frye proposed, based on the previous previous two, a whole whole system system of literary literary archetyp archetypal al critic criticiism in the 1950s. Northrop Frye Frye is one of the few few world world renowned renowned Canadia Canadian n humani humanisti sticc scholar scholars, s, and the Anatomy the Anatomy of Criticism has Criticism has been his contribution to the world of criticism.. The early influence on Frye includes T. S. Eliot and W. Shakespeare for their images of nature and season, and Frye realized realized that there might might be a tradition of romance and ritual r itualss behind these images. images. Frye differs differs from Frazer, Freud Freud,, and Jung in that literature is the core of o f his discussion discussion of culture. He believes believes that literature litera ture involves human collectivity rather than individual individual ego (to exclude much of Freud), and that th at coll co llective ective unconscious in the psychological psycho logical sense has little little beari bearing ng on literat iterature. ure. Frye Frye tries tries to give give litera literary ry criti critici cism sm an indepen ndependen dentt status status when when he blam blames es the other o ther critical approaches for fo r being “parasitical” “parasitical” (to psychology, psychology, sociology so ciology,, etc) and a nd badly in need of a conceptual or theoret th eoretical ical framework. framework. Like L ike formalism, formalism, he he argues argue s that a science of literary literary study st udy comprises of literariness and theorization. theo rization. Frye’s Frye’s archetypes origin o riginate, ate, properly speaking, not from fro m rituals, rituals, or reli r eligion, gion, or heredity (tho (though ugh he does not deny d eny all all these), but bu t from the very nature of o f literat literature ure itself—the cycle, cycle, and it is this inner structure structu re that connects literature to myth. Far from being primitive fictions — about the natural world, some supposed ancestor, or tribal t ribal practice — myths are reflections of a profound profou nd reality. reality. They dramatically represent repres ent our instinctive understandings. understa ndings. Moreover, unlike Freud’s concepts, myths are collective and communal, and so bring a sense of wholeness and togetherness toge therness to social life. life. Native peoples, and indeed whole civi civili lizat zations, ions, have their own mythologies, mythologies, but there appear app ear to be common co mmon images, images, themes and motives. Mythic criticism criticism is subsequent subseque nt to literature, litera ture, as a s history is to action. We We cannot clothe clo the with plot and character the skeletal requirements requirements of criticism and and expect literature to t o result. Works of o f art follow their own o wn devices and grow out o ut of the artist’ art ist’ss imagination, imagination, only submitting to criticism c riticism if they still seem incomplete or unsatisfactory. unsat isfactory. But mythic criticism can show the writer writ er where his imagery imagery is coming from, from, and and suggest sugge st 175


reasons for its power. Subsequent work wo rk — deep thought, thought , reading and endless endless toying with with possibi possibili litie tiess — may then turn up further further materi material al.. Whethe Whetherr that materi material al is useful useful can only only be found by testing it in in the poem, a trial and error proce pr ocess ss of continual adapta adaptation tion and refinement that may eventually achieve the strengths strengt hs of the coherence theory of truth: trut h: transforming power, internal consistency, co nsistency, simplicity simplicity,, elegance eleganc e and a nd fertility. fertility. The mythology of the classical world provided themes for some of the world’ wo rld’ss greatest great est drama, and similar similar themes can be traced in Renaissance Renaissance literature through t hrough to modern poetry poet ry.. Hamlet, for example, is often seen as t he reluctant hero who must sacrifice sacrifice himself to purify a Denmark made diseased by the foul and unnatural unnatura l murder of its king. Y Yeats, eats, Pound and Eliot E liot employ the myths of history, history, rebirth re birth and fulfil fulfillm lment ent through t hrough sacrifice, sacrifice, as do other poets. poet s. Myth criticism continues to draw freely on the psychology of Jung, on social anthropology, anthro pology, on the study of religions religions , on metapho metaphorr and depth psychology, but the archetypal archet ypal criticism of Northrop Frye has attempted to redefine what criticism is, and what it can be expected expected to do. do . Frye attempted a general theory of literature, which he approached from four perspe perspecti ctive ves. s. Rather Rather that that justi justify fy what what were were little ittle more than than matters matters of preferen preference ce (i.e. (i.e. squabb squabblle over the relative re lative merits of authors and their works) work s) scholars should derive principles, principles, structures struct ures and laws from the study s tudy of literature itself. itself. His H is first first essay in Anatomy Anatomy of Critic Criticism ism recognized various levels levels of realism in in literature, an articulati art iculation on he termed a theory theo ry of modes. The second essay put forward forwar d a theory theo ry of symbols, symbols, recognizin reco gnizing g five levels levels ranging from from the mundane to the anagogic (the last represented repre sented in work of a religious religious or o r spiritual nature). The theory theory of myths that forms the third essay e ssay has possibl po ssibly y been Frye’s Frye’s most influential contribution. He starts by identifying identifying the four seasons — spring, summer, summer, autumn and winter — with with the four four mai main n plots plots or ‘myth ‘mythoi’ oi’of romance romance,, comed comedy y, tragedy tragedy,, and irony/sati rony/satire. re. These These are further broken do wn into phases. The mythos of winter consists of six phases, the last representing represe nting human life life in in terms of unrelieved bondage: bondage : prisons, madhouses, lynching mobs mobs and places of execution. The human figures figures of this phase are the t he dispossessed, the destitute dest itute and mad-ogres, mad-ogr es, witches, Baudelaire’s Baudelaire’s black giantess and Pope’ Po pe’ss Dullness. Frye distinguishes between signs (which (which point outward to things things beyond themselves) themselves) and motifs motifs (which are understood inwardly inwardly as parts of a verbal structure). Literature Literatu re is preeminently preeminently an autonomous verbal structure where the t he sign-values sign-values are subordinate subo rdinate to the interconnectedness of motifs. The fourth essay proposes propo ses a theory theor y of genres, where Frye outlined outlined the differences differences between the lyric, epic, dramatic work, etc. Archetypal Criticism: Theory of Myths

The third essay essa y is the culmination culmination of o f Frye’s Frye’s theory theo ry in that it unites the t he elements of characterization and each of the five symbolic symbolic phases presented in the first first two t wo essays es says into into an organic whole. This whole is organized around a metaphor of human desire and and frustration frustrat ion as manifested manifested in the Great Chain of Being (divine, human, animal, animal, vegetable, veg etable, mineral) by analogy 176


to the four seasons. At one o ne pole we have apocalypti apo calypticc imagery which which typifies typifies the t he revelation of heaven and ultimate ultimate fulfill fulfillment ment of human desire. In this state, the literary structure stru cture points toward t oward unification unification of all things in a single anagogical anago gical symbol. symbol. The ultimate of o f the divine is the deity, of the human is Christ (or any other being be ing that embodies the t he oneness of o f humanity humanity in its spiritual culm culmination), ination), of the animal is is the lamb, of o f the vegetable veget able is the Tree of Life or vine, and of o f the mineral mineral is the heavenly Jerusalem or city of God. At the opposite oppo site pole po le lies demonic imagery imagery which typifies the unfulfill unfulfillment, ment, perversion, pe rversion, or opposition of human desire. In this state, stat e, thin t hings gs tend toward anarchy or tyrann t yranny y. The divine is an angry, angry, inscrutable inscrutab le God demanding sacrifi sacr ifice, ce, the human hu man is the tyrannical anti-christ, the animal animal is a predator predato r such as a lion, the vegetable vege table is the evil wood woo d as found at the beginning beginning of Dante’s Inferno Dante’s Inferno or or Hawthorne’s “Young Goodman Brown”, and the city is the dystopia embodied by Orwell’s 1984 or 1984 or Kafka’s Kafka’s The Castle. Castle. Finally Finally we have the analogical analogica l imagery, imagery, or more simply, simply, depictions depict ions of states stat es that are similar similar to paradise pa radise or hell, but not identical. identica l. There is a great deal of variety in the imagery imagery of these structures, st ructures, but tame animals animals and wise rulers are common in in structures struct ures analogical to the apocalyptic apoc alyptic (analogy of innocence), innocence), while while predator pred atory y aristo aristocrat cratss and masses living living in squalor characterize character ize analogy analogy to the t he demonic (analogy of experience). experience). Frye then identifies the mythical mode with the apocalyptic, ap ocalyptic, the t he ironic with the demonic, demo nic, and the romantic and low mimetic mimetic with their respective analogies. The high mimetic, mimetic, then, occupies the center of all four. This ordering allows Frye to place the modes in a circular structure struct ure and point to the cyclical natur naturee of myth myth and archetypes. In this setting, literat literature ure represents the natural cycle of birth, growth, maturity, decline, death, resurrection, rebirth, and the repetition of the cycle. The remainder of the chapter deals with the cycle of the four seasons seaso ns as embodied by four mythoi: comedy, comedy, romance, tragedy trage dy,, and irony or satire. Frye suggests suggest s that the study st udy of myths myths and archetypes is import important. ant. He groups gro ups myths into three categories: catego ries: First, there is undisplaced myth, generally generally concerned with gods go ds or o r demons, and which takes the t he form of two contrast co ntrasting ing worlds of total metaphorical identification, identification, one desirable and the other o ther undesirable. unde sirable. These worlds are ar e often identified identified with the existential existe ntial heavens and hell hell of the religions cont contemporary emporary with such li literat terature. ure. These two t wo forms of metap metaphorical horical organization we call the apocalyptic and the demonic respectively respect ively.. Second, Seco nd, we have the general genera l tendency we have called romantic, the tendency te ndency to suggest sugge st implicit implicit mythical mythical patterns patt erns in a world more closely associated with human experience. Third, we have the tendency te ndency of “realism”...to “realism”...to throw it the emphasis on content cont ent and representat repres entation ion rather than on the shape of the story sto ry.. Milto Milton’ n’ss representation represe ntation of o f the Garden Gard en of Eden and of Eve clearly belongs belongs to the first category by virtue of Milton’s literal treatment of the myth. 177


Frye has defined a literary symbol as “A unit of any literary structure that can be isolated for critical attention.” attent ion.” He has delineated delineated four symbolic symbolic phases: ·

litera terall/des descript riptiive (moti otifs and si signs gns)

·

formal (image)

·

mythical (archetype)

·

anagogic (monad)

The mythical mythical phase is the treatment treat ment of a symbol symbol as an archetype. archet ype. This concept relates most closely with intertextuality intertextuality and considers the symbol symbol in a work wo rk as interconnected with similar similar symbolism symbolism throughout thro ughout the entire ent ire body of literature. literature . While While Frye deals with myths and archetypes from a broader perspective in the third essay, in this section he focuses on the critical method method of o f tracing a symbol’s symbol’s heritage through thro ugh literar literary y works both both prior and subsequent to the t he work in question. Frye argues that t hat conventi co nvention on is a vital part of literature and that t hat copyri cop yright ght is deleterious deleterious to t o the t he process of literary creation. Frye points to the use of co nvention nvention in Shakespeare Shakespea re and Milto Milton n as examples examples to strengthen str engthen his argument that even verbatim copying of text and plot does do es not entail a death of creativity. creativity. Further, Frye argues that romantic, anticonventional writers writer s such as Walt Walt Whitman tend to follow convention anyway. In criticism, criticism, the study of the archetypal a rchetypal phase of a symbol is akin to the “nature” “natu re” perspective persp ective in the psychological debate over nature versus nurture. Rather than viewing viewing the symbol symbol as a unique achievement achievement of the author autho r or some inherent quality of the text, tex t, the archetypal archet ypal phase situates the symbol in in its society of literary literary kindred as a product produ ct of its conventional fforebear orebears. s. Frye has observed in The Anatomy of Criticism that the t he structural principles principles of painti painting ng are frequen frequently tly descri described in terms terms of their their analogu analogues es in plane plane geometry geometry [or solid solid,, by a further reach of analogy]. analogy]. Geometrical shapes are analogous only to pictorial forms, forms, not by any means identical identical with them; the real structural stru ctural principles of painting painting are ar e to be derived, not from an external analogy with something else, else, but from the internal analogy of the art itself. The structural struct ural principles principles of literature, similarly similarly,, are to t o be derived d erived from archetypal and analogic criticism, criticism, the only kinds that assume a larger context c ontext of literat literature ure as a whole. Frye has also opined that as the modes of o f fiction fiction move from the mythical to the t he low mimetic mimetic and ironic, they approach approa ch a point of extreme “realism” “realism” or representative represent ative likeness likeness to life. It follows follows that the mythical mythical mode, the stories about abou t gods, god s, in which characters have the greatest great est possible po ssible power of action, is the most abstract and conventionalized of all literary modes, just as the corresponding corresponding modes in other arts—religi art s—religious ous Byzantine painting, for example—show example—show the t he highest degree of o f stylization stylization in their structure. struct ure. Hence the t he structural struc tural principles principles of literature are as closely related to mythology mythology and comparative co mparative religion religion as those o f painting painting are to geometry. Myth as a key to artistic creation

The critics who hope tto o find in in myth myth the key to artistic a rtistic creation make much of the number of characteristics that poetry poet ry shares with with dream. The process that tha t Freud calls calls “the 178


dream work” shows sho ws startling startling similariti similarities es with “poetic work”. In both there is “condensation” (the combinin combining g several images images in one image), “displacement” “displacement” (the vesting vest ing in in some so me apparently unimporta unimportant nt element, the underlying underlying significance significance of the whole), whole), and “over-determination” “over- determination” (several quite different different significances significances focussed focussed upon the t he same element element so that it bears more than one meaning). meaning). In both poetry and dream, logical relationships relationships are frequently evaded or transcended by the mere juxta juxtaposi positi tion on of images mages.. This This disco discove very ry,, for Northr Northrop op Frye Frye,, points points to the possi possibil bility of turning literary literary criticism criticism into a true science. science. No true science, he argues, can be content to rest in the structur stru ctural al analysis analysis of the object with which it deals. The poet poe t is only the efficient cause of the poem, but the poem, having form form has a formal formal cause that is to be sought. On examination, Frye finds finds this formal cause to be the archetype. archet ype. Frye glimpses glimpses the possibility of envisaging envisaging literature as the “complication “complication of a relat relativel ively y... simple group of formulas that can c an be studied in a primitive primitive culture.” culture. ” In the light of this possibility possibility,, the search for archetypes archet ypes becomes a kind of “literary “literary anthropology anthropo logy,, concerned conc erned with the way that literature literatur e is informed informed by pre-literary pre-literary categories catego ries such as ritual, myth myth and folk tale.” Since the quest-myth quest -myth is is central to ritual and myth myth – and thus t hus to literature – all the literary literary genre may be derived derived from it. Groupings Groupings under the rubric rubricss of the four seasons seasons emerge. emerge. The dawn, spring , and birth phase.

Myths of the birth birth of o f the hero, of revival and resurrection, of creation and ... of the defeat of the powers of darkness, winter winter and death. Subordinate characters: the father father and mother. The archetype of romance and of most most dithyrambic and rhapsodic rhapsod ic poetry. poe try. The fact that myth operates at the top level level of human desire desire does not no t mean that it necessarily presents its world as attained at tained or attainabl att ainablee by human beings. beings. In terms of o f meaning meaning or dianoia, myth myth is the t he same world looked at as an area or field of activity, activity, bearing bearing in mind mind our ou r principle principle that the meaning meaning or pattern of poetry is is a structure of imagery imagery with conceptual implications. implications. The world w orld of mythical imagery imagery is usually usually represented represente d by the concept c onception ion of heaven or Paradise P aradise in religion, religion, and it is apocalyptic, in the sense of that word wor d already explained, explained, a world wor ld of total tot al metap metaphor, hor, in which everything is is potentially pot entially identical with everything else, as though tho ugh it were were all inside a single inf infinite inite body. Myth, is one extreme of literar literary y design; naturalism is the other, and in between lies lies the whole area of o f romance, which displaces displaces myth in a human direction and yet, in contrast to “realism,” conventionalizes convent ionalizes content in an idealized idealized direction. The central principle principle of displacement is that what can be metaphorically metap horically identified identified in a myth can only be linked in romance by some form of simile: simile: analogy, significant significant association, asso ciation, incidental incident al accompanyi acco mpanying ng imagery, imagery, and the like. Frye identifies identifies and classifies the archetypes archet ypes of litera literatur ture. e. Most Mos t of Frye’s Frye’s form analysis is technical but illuminating. The four mythoi that mythoi that we are dealing dealing with, comedy co medy,, romance, r omance, tragedy, t ragedy, and irony, irony, may now be seen as a s four aspects aspe cts of o f a central unifying unifying myth. myth. Agon co nflict ict is the basis or arc archetypal hetypal Agon or confl theme of romance,.. romance,.... Pathos Pathos or or catastrophe, cat astrophe, whether in triumph triumph or in defeat, is the archetypal 179


theme of tragedy. Sparagmos, Sparagmos, or the sense that heroism and effective action are absent, disorganized disorganized or o r foredoomed foredoo med to defeat, and that confusion and anarchy reign reign over the world, is the archetypal archet ypal theme theme of o f irony irony and satire. Anagnorisi satire. Anagnorisiss, or recognition of a newborn society rising in in triumph around a still somewhat mysterious hero he ro and his bride, is the archetypal archet ypal theme of comedy co medy.. Anatomy Anatomy of Critic Criticism ism would would not be so notable not able if if itit were a static taxonomy taxo nomy.. It is more like like a phase space, space , a model that describes desc ribes every possible state stat e of the system through throu gh time. The key to that t hat is Frye’s Frye’s five “modes” of o f fiction, fiction, with each mode defined by the power of o f the hero. —In the mode mode of myth, myth, the hero hero is superi superior or in kind kind to other men men and the envi environm ronment ent of other ot her men. These stories sto ries in which which the hero is a divine divine being are important for literature, literature , but generally fall outside the normal literary categories. —In a romance, romance, the hero is superior superior in degree to other other men and to the environ environmen ment, t, but is simp simplly an extraor extraordi dinar nary y human human being. being. The The laws of nature nature in romanc romances es are are often often not those those that are ar e met with with in the real world, but they are self-consistent once onc e they are established. —The high high mime mimetic tic mode obtains obtains when the hero is superior superior in degree to other other men, men, but not to the envi environment. ronment. This This is the kin kind of hero hero Ari Aristotle stotle princ princiipally pally had in mind: ind: the leader eader whom we find in most epic and tragedy trag edy.. —The low mimeti mimeticc mode treats of a hero who is no better than the rest of us, which which we find find in most comedy and reali realistic stic fiction. fiction. The reader responds res ponds to the t he hero’s common humanity humanity in this sort of o f fiction. fiction. The story must display the canons of o f probability probability that we use in ordinary experience. —When —When the hero hero is not powerf powerful ul or intel intellligen igent, t, the scene scene is one of bondag bondage, e, absurd absurdit ity y, or frustration frustrat ion and the mode is ironic. ironic. Frye tells tells us that irony, irony, pushed to extremes, ext remes, returns retu rns to the mode of myth. Characters who are so s o constrained const rained by circumstances that they t hey fall fall below the level of common common humanity becom becomee hard hard to disti disting ngui uish sh from the super superhu hum mans ans of myth: yth: both both kind kindss of stori stories enact enact arch archety etypal pal patter patterns ns that that do not turn turn on ordi ordinary nary questi questions ons of person personal aliity or moti motiva vati tion. on. Fry Frye’s e’s chie chieff exam exampl plee of this return to myth is Finnegan’ is Finnegan’ss Wake Wake,, but we also see it in the low mimetic mode, partic particul ularl arly y in scienc sciencee ficti fiction. on. In a myth we can have have a sun-god or a tree-god; t ree-god; in a romance we may have have a person who is significantly associated with the sun or trees. In more realistic modes the association becomes less signif significan icantt and more a matter of incidental, incidental, even coincidental coincidental or accidental, accidental, imagery. imagery. In the dragon-k dra gon-kill illing ing legend of the St. George Geo rge and Perseus Pers eus family family, a country co untry under an old feeble king king is terrorized terr orized by a dragon drago n who eventually event ually demands the King’s King’s daughter, daug hter, but is slain by by the hero. This T his seems to be a romantic ro mantic analogy of a m myth yth of a waste land restored resto red to life life by a fertili ertility ty god. In the myth, yth, then, then, the dragon dragon and the old king king would would be identi identifi fied. ed. We can in 180


fact concentrate conce ntrate the myth myth stil st illl further into an Oedipus fantasy in which the hero is not tthe he old king’s king’s son-in-law but his son, and the rescued r escued damsel da msel the hero’s hero’s mother. If the story sto ry were a private dream such identif identificati ications ons would would be made as a matter matter of course. But to make it a plausi plausibl ble, e, symm symmetri etrical cal,, and moral morallly acceptab acceptablle story a good deal of displ displace aceme ment nt is necess necessary ary,, and it is only after a comparative compara tive study of the story sto ry type has been made that the metaphorical metapho rical structure struc ture within itit begins to emerge. Mr. Frye helps the reader recognize reco gnize some of the recurring myths that connect religious and secular literature, literatur e, and he shows how ideological and social changes can cause c ause changes in the interpretation interpr etation and emphasis of those myths. While While early hard-line Christians regarded parallel classical myths as “demonic parodies of the true biblical ones,” he adds that t hat later, more liberal liberal Christians Christians came to regard classi c lassical cal mythology mythology as a kind of “supplement “supplement or counterpoint cou nterpoint to the Christian Christian one.” Role of archetype, archetype, myth and metaphor met aphor in the Bible

Critics Critics have observed that Northrop Frye signifi significantly cantly expands upon the traditional conception concep tion of typology, which regards the Bible as a self-contained unity, unity, by suggesting that the Old Testament provides antitypes ant itypes of which prebib prebibli lical cal mythologies mythologies are the types, and that t hat New Testam Testament ent antitypes antitypes will will themselv themselves es become become types of new, new, postbi postbibl bliical antitypes antitypes.. This This study explores the t he implicati implications ons of o f Frye’s Frye’s archetypological theory theor y for our understanding u nderstanding of both the origi origins ns of our existi existing ng bibl biblic ical allly derive derived d mythol mythology ogy and possib possible le metam metamorph orphoses oses that this mytholog mythology y may undergo in the future. Extrapolating Ext rapolating from the typological typo logical principl principlee that the Old Testament anticipates and prefigures the New while the Ne New w Testament reveals and fulfils fulfils the Old, the essay asks whether the older might anticipate the newer—in other words, words , whether prebib prebibli lical cal mythol mythologi ogies es might might represe represent nt adumbra adumbrati tions, ons, or indicati ndications ons in fain faintt outlin outline, e, of myths myths and mythologies yet yet to come. Frye opens his Anatomy of Criticism with a “prefatory statement” in which he says that it was his determination to apply the principles of litera literary ry symbolism symbolism and biblical biblical typology typolo gy that he had learned from Blake to another anot her poet, namely namely, Spenser, that had led instead instead to t o the writing of the Anatomy Anatomy . He H e defines defines an “archetype” as a “typical or recurring recu rring image” image” or o r “symbol “symbol which connects one poem with another anot her and thereby helps to unify unify and integrate integrate our literary experience” (99)—”typical” (99)— ”typical” in in this context cont ext being only a slight step away aw ay from “typological.” He states sta tes in his his essay on “Archetypal Criticism” Criticism” that “the structur st ructural al principles principles of literat literature ure ... .. . are to be derived d erived from archetypal and anagogic criticism, criticism, the only kinds that assume a larger context cont ext of literature literatur e as a whole,” who le,” and indicates that he will will be “using the symbolism symbolism of the Bible, Bible, and a nd to a lesser extent e xtent Classical mythology, mythology, as a s a gramm gra mmar ar of o f literary literary archetypes” a rchetypes” . Finally Finally,, he asserts that “higher” criticism would be interest interested ed in the “typological “typolog ical unity” unity” that the activi act ivities ties of “lower,” or analytic, criticism criticism were “originally “originally intended intended to t o help construct, co nstruct,”” and that a genuine higher criticism criticism of the Bible Bible would therefore be a synthesizing synthesizing process proce ss that would start star t with the assumption assumption that the the Bible Bible is definitive definitive myth, a single single archetypal structu str ucture re extending from creation to apocalypse” In a formulation formulation that is reiterated almost almost verbatim some twenty-five twenty-five years later in The 181


Great Code, however, Frye then asserts that the “heuristic principle” of this higher criticism “would be St. Augustine’s axiom axiom that the t he Old Testament is revealed in the New and the t he New concealed in the Old” :”everything that happens happ ens in the Old Testament Testament is a ‘type’ or adumbration a dumbration of something that happens in the New Testament,” and “what happens in the New Testament constitutes an a realized form, of something foreshadowed in the t he Old Testament”. Testament”. Therefore, “the two testaments are not no t so much allegories allegories of one another anot her as metaphorical identifi identifications cations of one another” another ” and “form a double mirror, mirror, each refl re flecting ecting the other ot her but neither the wo world rld outside” . The “typological unity” unity” and “single archetypal structure” can be said to correspond when “type” and “antitype” are said to confine co nfine themselves themselves to the Bible as a self-cont self-contained ained unit, whereas an “archetype” is free to repeat r epeat itself ad infini infinitum tum throughout the body of literature as a whole, or, as Frye prefers to call it, the “total “tot al order of words”. The Old Testament Testament contains co ntains antitypes for which the prebiblical prebiblical mytholog mythologies ies provide the types. “From its own point of view, view, surely sur ely,” ,” Frye writes, “the Bible is providing providing the antitypes ant itypes of which Canaanite and other ot her pre-Bib pre-Bibli lical cal cults cults are the types” types” . And the New Testament estament antitypes antitypes will will themselv themselves es become become types of new, post biblical biblical antitypes, represented repres ented in the “recreation”. In his new book, Words with Power , the distingui d istinguished shed literary literary theorist theo rist Northrop Nort hrop Frye examines the role of myth and metaphor metapho r in the Bible, showing how many of its central centra l themes and images reverberate throughout thro ughout Western literature. literatu re. His conclusion is that “the organizing structures struct ures of the Bible Bible and the corresponding correspo nding structures o f ‘secular’ ‘secular’ literature reflect each other,” that a finite number of species of myths (including (including myths of creation, fall, exodus, destruction destruct ion and redemption) redemption) provide the narrative sources of literat literature. ure. As Mr. Frye sees it, the idea of the t he axis mundi — the vertical vert ical line line postulated by the ancients as running through the cosmos, connecting heaven to earth and earth to hell — underlies many of Western Western literature’s central centr al myths, myths, providing writers with a wealth of metaphors metapho rs and images. images. Those images, images, he notes, not es, tend to fall into into two tw o categories: cate gories: ascent and descent. Images of ascent, which symbolize man’s longing for heavenly perfection, include Jacob’s ladder, the purgatori purgatorial al mountai mountain n in Dante’s Dante’s “Divi “Divine ne Comedy Comedy,” ,” the turning turning staircase staircase in T. S. Eliot’ Eliot’ss “Ash “Ash Wednesday” ednesda y” and the towers to wers and spirals that recur re cur in Yeats’ eats ’s poetry. poe try. The reverse movement — downward into death or o r damnation — has yi yielded elded equally powerfu powerfull images. mages. Chri Christ’ st’ss descent descent to earth earth echoes echoes Adam’ Adam’ss fall fall from innocen innocence, ce, while while Adam’ Adam’s expulsion expulsion from the garden is mirrored mirrored by the exile of Cain. Whereas Mr. Frye sees downward dow nward movements in Dante and Milton as “simply “simply descents to death deat h and hell,” hell,” he argues arg ues that they t hey can take on o n more creative aspects in other writers’s work. Proserpine’ Prose rpine’ss descent every winter into the nether net her world is a necessary prelude to her ascent in the spring — and the earth’s renewed fertility. fertility. Proserpine, Pro serpine, who disappears disapp ears into the t he underworld underworld for six months o off every year. year. The pure myth is clearly one of death deat h and revival; the story as we have it is slightly slightly displaced, displaced, but the mythical pattern is easy to see. Prometheus Pr ometheus is 182


punis punishe hed d by Zeus Zeus for for brin bringi ging ng fire down down from from heaven eaven but but is heral heralded ded as the the liberato beratorr of manki ankind nd.. Ahab descends into into madness as he searches for the t he great white white whale but in doing doing so becomes a symbol of man’ man’ss eternal eter nal quest for wisdom. Three Organizations Of Myths M yths And Archetypal Symbols In Literature Lit erature

First, there ther e is undisplaced myth, generally genera lly concerned concer ned with gods or o r demons, and which takes the form of two contrasting c ontrasting worlds of to total tal metaphorical identifi identification, cation, one desirable desirable and the other o ther undesirable. Thes Thesee worlds are often o ften identified identified with the existential heavens and hells hells of the religious religious contemporary co ntemporary with such literat literature. ure. These T hese two forms of metaphorical organization are call ca lled ed the apocalyptic and the demonic demo nic respectively. respectively. Second, the romantic tendency to suggest implicit implicit mythical mythical patterns patte rns in a world wor ld more closely associated associat ed with human experience. Third, the tendency of “realism” throws throw s emphasis on content cont ent and representation rather t han on the shape of the story. Ironic literature literature begins with realism and tends tend s toward tow ard myth, its mythical mythical patterns patter ns being as a rule more more suggest su ggestive ive of the demonic demonic than of the apocalyptic, apo calyptic, though though sometimes itit simply continues continues the romantic tradition trad ition of styl st ylization. ization. Hawthorne, Hawt horne, Poe, Conrad, Hardy and Virginia Virginia Wolf Wolf all provide examples. Frye’s Frye’s observation observat ion is that in analyzing analyzing a picture picture,, the further back bac k we go, the t he more conscious we are of o f the organizing design. At At a great grea t distance from, say, a Madonna, we can c an see nothin not hing g but the archetype of the Madonna, a large centripetal blue mass with a contrasting point point of interest interest at its its center center.. In In the critici criticism sm of literature, iterature, too, the critic critic often has to “stand “stand back back”” from from the poem to see see its arche archety typal pal organi organizat zatiion. If one”s one”stan tands ds back” back” from the the beginn eginniing of the fifth fifth act of o f Hamlet, Hamlet, one o ne sees a grave gra ve opening on the stage, st age, the th e hero, his enemy enemy, and the heroine descending into it, followed by a fatal struggle in the upper world. If one “stands back” from a realisti realisticc novel such as Tolstoy’ olstoy’s Resurrection Resurrection or Zola’ Zola’ss Germin Germinal, al, one can see the mythopoetic mythopoet ic designs indicated indicated by those titles. With With brilliant brilliant audacity audacity Fry identifies identifies myth myth with literature, literatur e, asserting asserting that myth is is a “structur “structural al organizing organizing principle principle of litera literary ry form” and that an archetype archet ype is essentially an “element of one’s one’s literary experience” . And in The Stubborn Structure (Ithaca, Structure (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1970) he claims claims that “mythology as a whole who le provides a kind of diagram or blueprint of what literature literatu re as a whole is all about, an imaginative imaginative survey of the human hu man situat situation ion from the beginning to the end, from the height to the depth, de pth, of o f what is imaginativel imaginatively y conceivable” conceivable” The literary structure structu re of the th e mythical mythical cycle cycle is elaborated in Anat in Anatomy omy of Critic Criticism ism:: the five basic basic modes of o f the hero’s “power of o f action” (myth, romance, high/low mimetic, mimetic, and irony); the five layers of symbolic meaning (literal, figurative, formal, mythical, and Biblical); the four mythoi mythoi of the archetypes (comedy, (comedy, romance, tragedy t ragedy,, and a nd irony) corresponding to the t he four phases of o f nature (spring, summer, autumn, winter), which in turn reveal three imageries imageries (apocalyptic, demonic, and analogical which may be further divided into innocence and experience). And these structu st ructures res may be further divided. All All works of literature, literature, Frye argues, can be classified classified into into fourmythos four mythos which which together 183


form a cycle. Romance: Frye uses the wo rd in its older sense, designatin de signating g the literature o f wishfulfill fulfillment, ment, stories st ories of heroism and “extravagant adventures. adve ntures.”” Romance encompasses the t he entire mythic mythic cycle, as it typically typically involves involves a quest downward into a dark world, a waste land, a city c ity of the dead. If successful, the hero emerges from darkness and returns, retu rns, or the t he world itself, itself, plunged plunged into into a waste state, is revived. revived. Tragedy: Tragedy involves involves the downward dow nward movement, from a more romantic ro mantic world into the realm r ealm of satire and irony. irony. Irony and Satire : Ironic and satiric literature tries to “give form to the shifting ambiguities and complexities of unidealized existence”. existence” . This mode is Romance in reverse; the characters’ efforts lead not to renewal but rather “unrelieved “unrelieved bondage”.

Webster 1913 for the more mor e traditional trad itional definition definition of this Comedy: Comedy (again, see Webster word, which Frye Frye uses) takes ta kes an upward up ward movement. movement. The T he plot involves the overcoming overcoming of of a problem established established early on, and the tale tale ends ends on some kind of positive positive note, note, back in the world of Romance. You You might might consider the t he ending to the Original Orig inal Star Wars Wars Trilogy when Trilogy when reading Frye’s Frye’s description descr iption of the pure pu re comic form, which also references the Romantic world to which comedy comedy returns: At the beginning... the obstructing characters are in charge... and the audience recognizes that they are usurpers. At the end... the device that brings the hero and heroine together causes a new society soc iety to crystalize around the hero.... hero. ... The appearance app earance of this new society is frequently signaled by some kind of party or festive ritual.... Weddings Weddings are most common.... The various parts part s of the t he entire mythic mythic cycle correspond correspo nd with a time in the li life fe cycle, cycle, a time of day, day, and, in the Western Western tradition, tradition, with with a particular season seaso n . Certain images images and characte char acters rs become become associated associated with with each. These patterns play out in in a variety variety of ways, ways, according according to the author, autho r, the culture, cultur e, and the level of realism realism or mimeticism. mimeticism. Frye’s Frye’s theory theo ry does not represent re present the final end of literar literary y criticism— nor did the man himself make make any a ny such claim. His theories theor ies give one excellent excellent understanding unders tanding of literature’s formal elements and structures, struct ures, and these t hese apply equally-well to sitcoms as to sacred texts.

12.5 12.5 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up Frye pointedly contras contrasted ted his archetypal archet ypal or myth myth criticism with the ‘rhetorical ‘rheto rical analysis analysis of the new critics He describes desc ribes the imagination imagination as the “creative force in the mind” mind” from which “everything that we call culture and civilization” civilization” derives. As far as the Archetype is concerned, it comes from Greek aarchetypon rchetypon which means - beginning beginning Pattern. Patt ern. The archetype is itself a myth, myth, like the quest .He adds that knowledge kno wledge of the archetypes enables us to perceive the shared myths that literary works rely on and explore.He holds that archetypes-”distinct from the personal unconscious that each of us acquires from our individual experiences” According to Frye, the literary critic should be “concerned only with ritual or dream patterns”. The 184


readers read ers should not confuse literature literatu re with criticism criticism “For Frye, a common mistake is assuming assuming that criticism is the making of value judgements”. The earli ea rlier er criticism of Frye caused him to be called an archetypal archet ypal critic, yet A.C. Hamilton labels him as a social critic. He says that t hat since 1957 Frye has all but avoided the t he term archetype in order to directly address society’s society’s cultural concerns. He may be labell labelled ed as a social soc ial critic because he grants the critic authority autho rity ‘through transformi transforming ng oneself oneself into into focus of a communi community’ ty’,, except that by by ‘comm ‘communi unity’ ty’ he means means a n ideal community community,, one that is free, classless and fraternal, to t o which everyone belongs.


Give Give Frye’ Frye’ss contr contriibuti bution on to myt mythol hologi ogical cal approa approach ch to li literary terary anal analy ysis sis ?

2.

Discuss Frye as myth critic.

3.

What hat is is me meant ant by by arc arch hetyp typal cri criti ticcism? sm?

4.

Give Give an an outl outliine of Fry Frye’s e’s conce concept ptua uall fra fram mew ewor ork k for for lite litera ratur ture. e.

5.

Write rite shor shortt not notes es on the the foll ollowi owing term termss : i)Archetypes ii)Collective ii)Collective Unconsciousness Unconscious ness

6.

Write rite a shor shortt hi histor story y of of arc arche hety typa pall cri criti tici cism sm..

7.

How does does Nort Northr hrop op Fry Fryee reve reveal al the the role role of myth, th, metap metapho horr and and arch archety etype pess in in the the Bible ?

8.

Expl Explai ain n th the theo theory ry of myths ths in in your own own word words. s.

9.

How is myth a key key to arti artist stiic cre creat atiion ?

10.

Write rite a note note on the organi organization zation of myths myths and and arche archetypa typall sy symbol mbolss in in li literature. terature.


Adam Adamson son,, Joseph Joseph.. Northrop Northrop Fry Frye: e: AVisi isionary onary Li Life. fe. Toron Toronto: to: ECW ECW Pres Press: s: Di Distri stributed buted by General Publ., Publ., 1993.

2.

Balf alfour our, Ian Ian. Nort Northr hrop op Fry Frye. e. Bost Boston on:: Twa way yne, ne, 198 1988. 8.

3.

Bates Bates,, Rona Ronalld. North Northrop rop Frye Frye.. Toron Toronto: to: McCl McClel ellland and & Stew Stewar art, t, 1971 1971..

4.

Cook, Cook, Davi David. North Northrop rop Frye Frye:: A Vision sion of the the New New Worl World. d. New New York York:: St. Marti Martin’ n’s, s, 1985. _____________

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UNIT-13 NORTHROP FRYE – MYTH AND ARCHETYPE ARCHETYPE (II) 13.0 Objectives 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Myths of the Society 13.2.1 Myth of Concern 13.2.2 Myth of Freedom 13.2.3 13.2 .3 Archetypal criticism as “a new poetics” poet ics” 13.2.4 Northrop Nort hrop frye’ frye’ss theory of archetypes 13.3

Arche Archety typal pal criti critici cism sm as “a new new poeti poetics cs””

13.4

North Northrop rop Fry Frye’ e’ss theory theory of arch archety etypes pes

13.5 13.5

Phases ses of Rom Romance

13.6 13.6

Nort North hrop rop Fry Frye and and Ideol Ideolog ogy y

13.7 3.7

Arguments Argum ents about the Contemporar Contemporary y Dile Dilemm mmaa with with Frye’ Frye’sArch sArchety etypal pal Literary Critici Cr iticism sm

13.8

North Northrop rop Fry Frye: The The Theore Theoreti tical cal Imag Imagiinati nation on..

13.9

Uses Uses of of Arche rchety typa pall Cri Critici ticism sm

13.10 A Few Comm Common on Archety Archetypes pes in in Literatur Literaturee 13.1 13.11 1 Gloss ossary 13.1 13.12 2 Let Let Us Us Sum Sum Up 13.13 13.13 Revi Review ew Que Quest stiions ons 13.14 13.14 Bibliogra ograph phy y

13.0 13.0 Objectives The objectives of the unit are to •

introd ntroduc ucee the the studen students ts to to the the my myths ths of the the soc sociiety ety, con conce cern rn and and fre freed edom om..

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gai gain a kno knowl wled edge ge of of the the vari various ous asp aspec ects ts and and fea featu ture ress of Arche Archety typa pall cri critici ticism sm as “a “a new poetics”

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enab enablle them them to un understa derstand nd arch archet ety ypal pal cri critici ticism sm of North Northrop rop Frye Frye.. 186


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fami amiliariz arizee them them with with the the ex exampl amples es of Northrop Northrop Fry Frye’ e’ss theo theory ry of arc arche hety types pes..

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introdu ntroduce ce the the contem contempora porary ry dile dilem mma with with Fry Frye’ e’ss Arch Archety etypal pal Litera Literary ry Cri Critici ticism sm

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elab elabor orat atee on book revi review ewss by by Michae chaell Dol Dolzan zani on on Nor North thro rop p Fry Frye’ e’ss The Theoretical Imagination.

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tea teach the uses uses ofArchetyp typal Critic ticism

13.1 Intr Intro oductio tion In Anato In Anatomy my of Critici Criticism sm 195 1957, 7, Frye seeks to establish literary literary critici cr iticism sm as a disciplin disciplinee independent of o f other fields of inquiry with its own critical principle rather than t han accepting accept ing the practi practice ce of impl mplemen ementin ting g theori theories es from other other disc discip ipllines nes like ike sociol sociology ogy,, psych psycholo ology gy or theol theology ogy.. In Anato In Anatomy my of Critic Criticism, ism, Frye Frye delineates delineates some of the structures st ructures inherent to literature by describi describing ng four inter inter related related approaches. approaches. a.

Histor storiical Criti riticcism : Th Theory ory of Mode odes

b.

Ethical Ethical Critici Criticism sm

c.

Archetypa typall Critic ticism : Th Theory ory of of Myths ths

d.

Rhet Rhetor oriical cal Cri Critici ticism sm : Theo Theory ry of Ge Gen nres res

: Theory of Symbols Symbols

He also asserts that t hat the task t ask of literar literary y critic is is not to make value judgement but to make implici implicitt structure stru cturess of literat literature ure explicit. Literat Literature ure gives expression to repressed r epressed elements of human psyche that will not bear suppression s uppression as their integration is necessary for further growth growt h and development: ‘the important thing is to realize that no social vision vision is ever definitive; definitive; there is always more outside it. The T he circle of stories is there to keep us continuall co ntinually y expanding and re-shaping that vision.’ vision.’

13.2

Myths Of the Society

Northrop Northrop Frye Frye once once said: said: “A “Ass long long as I have have been been a literar iterary y criti critic, c, I have have been been interes nterested ted in the relations between culture and the t he social conditions under which it it is produced.” produc ed.” Frye, with his views of lite literary rary universe has emer emerged ged as a fairly prominent social so cial critic in his his own right. He advocates the organic o rganic and technical technical autonomy auto nomy of literary literary criticism criticism and moves from literary literary to social criticism. criticism. In The Critical Path Frye notes that the critical works with two poles, the t he literar literary y and the social, soc ial, and that correct criticism would be a mediation mediation between between the two extreme extremes: s: Criticism will always have have two aspect a spects, s, one turned towar t oward d the structure struct ure of liter literature ature and the other turned t urned toward the other ot her cultural phenomena that form the social environment environment of literature. literature. Together they balance balance each other: when one is worked on to the exclusion exclusion of the other, the critical perspective goes out ou t of focus. If criticism criticism is in proper prope r balance, balance, the tendency t endency 187


of the critics to move from critical to larger social issues issues become beco me more intelligi intelligible. ble. Such a movement movement need not no t be due to t o a dissatisfaction dissatisfaction with the t he narrowness of criticism as a discipline, discipline, but should should be simp simplly the resul resultt of a social social context, context, a sense sense present present in all all criti critics cs from whom one is in the least likely to learn anything. Frye argues, argues , by the extension of o f mythic mythic litera literary ry modes of analysis analysis to the social sphere. Frye’s Frye’s system is contained in the all import important ant assumptions assu mptions that literature literature functions as a microco microcosm sm of culture, culture, so that the abilities iinvolved nvolved in the right reading read ing of literature qualify qualify one to interpret culture. In Frye’s primary reading of o f culture, in which all the myths myths of the societ societies ies are bifurcated bifurcate d into two encompassing categoriescatego ries- myths myths of concern conce rn and myths myths of freedom which he sees as two dif d ifferent ferent and opposing opp osing myths of Western culture culture and offer an insi insight ght into life and literature literatur e today tod ay.. Mythology for for him, is a vision vision of society: In every age there is a struct ure as ideas, images, beliefs, assumptions, anxieties, and hopes which express the view of man’s man’s situation and destiny des tiny generally generally held held at that t hat time. I call this struct str ucture ure a mythology mytholog y, and its units myths. A myth in this sense, sense , is an expression expressio n of man’s man’s concern concer n about himself, himself, about his place place in the scheme of things, about abou t his relation to societ society y and god, about the ultimate origin and ultimate ultimate fate, either of himself himself or of human species generally generally. A mythology is is thus a product prod uct of o f human concern, of our involvement involvement with ourselves, and it always looks at the t he world from a man centered point of view. The Critical Path is Frye’s dialectical framework that holds together a variety of subjects such as Marxism and Democracy, mass mass media, social contract theories. theo ries. Contemporary Contempo rary youth culture, theory theo ry of education and so on. The point of confront confrontation ation is set against the background background of the myth of concern concern and the myth myth of freedom freedom:: The myth of concern exists to hold society together, to gether, so far as words can help to do this.For it, truth and reality are not directly connected with reasoning reasoning or evidence, evidence, but are socially socially established. established. What is true, for concern, con cern, is what society does and believe believe in response to authority, authority, and a belief, belief, so far as a belief iiss verbalized, is a statement stat ement of willingness willingness topart to participate icipate in a myth myth of concern. co ncern. The typical language language of concern therefore tends to t o become the language of belief be lief..

13.2.1 Myth of Concern The myth of concern co ncern is thus attached at tached with the life lived lived in a particular society which is guided by its its rituals. It is intensively intensively traditional, becoming beco ming “the way of elders” and giving to culture a “limited “limited orbit” o rbit” of possibilities. possibilities. Frye articulates the myth of concern in evolutionary terms : it begins begins and thrives t hrives in the “oral” phase of o f a culture that phase is largely undif undifferentiated: ferentiated: but then then in time time it “devel “develops ops diff differen erentt soci social al,, politi political cal,, legal, egal, and literary iterary branches branches”. ”.

13.2.2 Myth of Freedom Frye thinks myth myth of freedom on the t he other hand as “part of o f the myth of concern that stresses the importance of the t he non-mythical elements elements in culture, of o f the truths tru ths and realities that 188


are studied stud ied rather than created created,, provided pro vided by by nature rather than t han by social vision”. vision”. This will will be a common sense view view that Frye has established a very vital relationship between betwee n literary criticism and and culture. culture . Frye’s Frye’s view of the social function function of o f criticism criticism enters the argument here : the t he literary critic, critic, as per Frye’s Frye’s opinion is prepared to see that myths myths of concern in society are like like those thos e in literature in that they represent the range of imaginative possibilities of belief.

13.2.3 Archetypal criticism as “a new poetics” For Frye, this this “new poetics” is to be found in the pr princi inciple ple of the mythological framework framework,, which has come to be known as ‘archetypal ‘arc hetypal criticism’. It is through thro ugh the lens of this framework, which is essentially essentially a centrif centr ifugal ugal movement of backing up from the text t ext towards to wards the t he archetype, that the social so cial function function of o f literary criticism criticism becomes apparent. Essentially Essentially, “what criticism criticism can do,” according ac cording to Frye, “is awaken students to successive suc cessive levels levels of awareness of the mythology that lies behind behind the ideology in which which their society so ciety indoct indoctrinates rinates them” (Stingle 4). That Tha t is, the study of recurring structural patterns patt erns grants students an emancipatory emancipatory distance from their own society, and gives them a vision of a higher human state – the Longini Lo nginian an sublime sublime – that is not accessible directly through throug h their own experience, but ultimately transforms and expands their experience, so that t hat the poetic po etic model becomes a model to live by. by. In what he terms a “kerygmatic mode,” myths become “myths to live by” and metaphors metapho rs “metaphors “metaphor s to live in,” in,” which “. . . not only work for us but constantly expand our horizons, [so t hat] we may enter the world of [kerygma [kerygma or transf t ransformative ormative power] and pass on to others what we have found to be true for ourselves”. Because of o f its important important social function, Frye felt felt that t hat literary criticism was an essential essent ial part of a liberal beral educati education, on, and worked worked tirel tireless essly ly to comm communicat unicatee his his ideas ideas to a wider wider audien audience. ce. “For many years years now,” no w,” he wrote wrot e in 1987, “I have been addressing a ddressing myself primarily primarily, not to other critics, but to students and a nonspecialist nonspecialist public, realizing realizing that whatever new directions can come to my discipline will come from their needs and their intense if unfocused vision”. It is therefore fitting that his last book, boo k, published posthumousl post humously y, should be one that he describes as being “something of a shorter short er and more accessibl acce ssiblee version of the longer books, boo ks,The The Great Code and Code and Words with Power ,” ,” which he asks his readers to read sympathetically, not “as proceeding from a judgment judgment seat of final final conviction, conviction, but but from from a rest stop on a pilgri pilgrimage, mage, however near the t he pilgrimage pilgrimage may may now be to its close”.

13.4 Northrop Northrop Frye’s Frye’s theory theory of Archetypes Summer: Romance

Tales from from this mythos mythos are a re marked by extraordinarily extrao rdinarily persistent nostalgi nosta lgia, a, and a search sear ch for some kind of imaginative imaginative golden age in time or space. These stories st ories typicall t ypically y have have virtuous virtuo us heroes and beautiful heroines who represent repre sent ideals and villains villains that threaten thre aten their ascendancy. ascendancy. 189


Plot

The common plot is a basic quest sequence: Struggle: perilous journey and minor adventures Ritual death: crucial struggle, usuall usu ally y a battle in which which either the hero or his foe, or o r both, must must die . Recognition: the exaltation of the hero

Often the hero will disappear after afte r the ritual death deat h and will reappear reapp ear for the final stage. More specifically s pecifically the tale ta le begins with a land that is ruled ru led by a helpless old king being laid laid to waste by a dragon. d ragon. Young Young people pe ople are of o ffered up until the king’s king’s daughter is to be sacrificed; sacrificed; then the hero arrives, a rrives, kills kills the dragon, drago n, marries the king’s king’s daughter, daught er, and ascends to throne. Characters

In romance the reader reader’’s values are bound up with w ith hero who unequivocally represents what is supposed to t o be right and virtuous. If I f the tale rises to the level of myth, the hero will show signs of divinity divinity and the t he enemy will have demonic demo nic qualities. Eiron

hero: an unequivocally unequivocally right right and virtuous character old wise man: often a magician magician who effects action act ion sybilli sybilline: ne: often the th e lady for whose whos e sake or at whose bidding the quest is performed Alazon

enemy: enemy: in religious religious tales t ales this character may take the form of a horrible monster that represents dif d ifferent ferent ideas ideas of o f Satan; in a secular story stor y, the enemy may may be guarding a hoard of gold, which may represent power and wisdom w isdom Bomolochoi

spirits of nature (shy nymph, nymph, elusive half-wild half-wild creatures, creatures, wild man): elude elude moral moral antithesis because because they are partly partly of the moral neutrali neutrality ty of the world or partly partly of the world of mystery mystery that is never seen; these characters charac ters intensify and focus the romantic ro mantic moo mood d Many characters characters that are on the t he virtuous side in in romance have a counterpart: the t he hero’ hero ’s helper is balanced by the traitor traitor;; the heroine, by siren or beautiful witch; and the dragon, dra gon, by helpful helpful animal animals. s. Not all of these characters or even even complete complete pairs pairs of characters need to appear in every tale. Traits

Dialectic Dialectic structure struct ure resists subtlety subt lety and complexity: complexity: characters are either for or against the quest: those t hose who assist are gallant or pure; those t hose who obstruct obst ruct are villainous villainous or cowardly c owardly.. Jung (dream terms): quest-romance is search of libido or desire of self-fulfillment that will deliver it from from the anxieties of o f reality; reality; antagonists antago nists are sinister figures, giants, ogres, o gres, witches w itches 190


and magicians of parental origin. Frazer (ritual (r itual terms): quest-romance quest- romance signifies signifies fertility (food and drink, dr ink, bread and wine, body and blood, blood, uni union on of male male and femal female) e) over wasteland wasteland

13.5 Phases of Romance 1.

Compl Complete ete inn innoce ocence nce:: These These stories stories often often relate relate to to the the bi birth of the hero, hero, an an even eventt whic which h is commonly commonly associated with a flood or o r water imagery; imagery; it is is common to have a hero locked in a chest, symbolizi symbolizing ng that fertility fertility and youth is the real wealth

2.

Youthf outhful innoce innocence nce of inexp inexperi erien ence: ce: This This phase phase usual usually presents presents a pastoral pastoral world, world, a generally pleasant pleasant wooded wood ed landscape with glades, shaded valleys, and murmuring brooks; the story tends to center on a youthful youthful hero, still still overshadowed by parents and surrounded surro unded by youthful companions companions

3.

Compl Completi etion on of an idea ideall: This This is the the typi typica call ques questt where where the hero hero sets out on an adv adven enture ture to destro de stroy y the monster monster and an d evil and return goodness go odness and fertility to the t he land

4.

Happy Happy society society resis resists ts chan change: ge: The hero’ hero’ss soci society ety,, whi which ch is innocen nnocent, t, is is assau assaullted by an enemy, enemy, which is experience, but it withstands and survives su rvives the assault; assau lt; this is often seen in a moral allegory or morality mor ality play; play; it may be be a society so ciety or the individual individual that needs to be defended

5.

Refl Reflective ective or idyl idylli licc view: view: Here Here expe experi rienc encee and and adven adventure ture is contem contempl plate ated, d, a sim simil ilar ar world as that in the second secon d phase is present, but with a knowledge of o f experience experience that did not previously exist

6.

Society Society cease ceasess to exi exist st bey beyond ond contem contempl plati ation: on: These These are are tal tales of often told told in in quota quotati tion on marks by one individual individual to a small group; there is a coziness to this type of tale as it is free from confrontation and has a relaxed and entertaini entert aining ng tone.

There are two basic categories in Frye’ Frye’ss framework, comedic and tragic. Each category cat egory is further further subdivided into into two t wo categories: cat egories: comedy co medy and romance for the comedic; tragedy and satire (or (o r ironic) for the tragic. t ragic. Though Thou gh he is dismissi dismissive ve of Frazer, Frye uses the seasons in his his archetypal schema. Each season is aligned aligned with a literary literary genre: comedy with spring, romance with summer, tragedy trag edy with autumn, and satire sat ire with winter. Comedy is aligned aligned with spring because the genre of comedy is characterized by the birth birth of the hero, revival revival and resurrection. resurrection. Also, Also, sprin spring g symbol symbolizes izes the defeat of winter winter and and darkness. Romance Ro mance and summer summer are paired together to gether because summer summer is the culminati culmination on of o f life life in the seasonal calendar, and the romance r omance genre culminates culminates with some sort s ort of o f triumph, usually usually a marriage. Autumn is is the dying stage of o f the seasonal seaso nal calendar, calendar, which parallels parallels the tragedy tra gedy genre because it is, above all, known for the “fall” or demise of the protagonist. Satire is metonymized metonymized with winter on the t he grounds grou nds that satire sat ire is a “dark” genre; satire is a disillusioned disillusioned and mocking form form of the three other o ther genres. It is noted for its darkness, dissolution, the return retu rn 191


of chaos, and the defeat of the heroic fi figure. gure. The context conte xt of a genre determines d etermines how a symb symbol ol or image is to be interpreted. interpret ed. Frye outlin out lines es five diff different erent spheres in his schema: human, animal, vegetation, vegetat ion, mineral, and water. The comedic co medic human human world wor ld is representat represe ntative ive of wish-fulfi wish-fulfillm llment ent and being community community centred. centr ed. In contrast, cont rast, the t he tragic trag ic human world is of isolation, tyranny t yranny,, and the t he fallen fallen hero. Animals Animals in the comedic genres are docil doc ilee and pastoral pasto ral (e.g. sheep), whil w hilee animals animals are predatory predato ry and hunters in the tragic (e.g. wolves). For the realm of vegetation, the comedi co medicc is, again, pastoral but also represented by gardens, parks, roses and lotuses. As for the tragic, vegetation is of a wild wild forest, or o r as being barren. Cities, Cities, a temple, temple, or o r precious stones sto nes represent the comedic mineral mineral realm. realm. The T he tragic mineral mineral realm is is noted for being a desert, ruins, or “of sinister sinister geometrical images” images” (Frye 1456). 14 56). Lastly, Lastly, the water wat er realm is represented by rivers rivers in the t he comedic. With With the tragic, the t he seas, and especiall espe cially y floo floods, ds, signify signify the water sphere. sp here. Frye admits that his schema in “The Archetypes Archetyp es of Literature” Literat ure” is simplistic, simplistic, but makes room for exceptions by noting that there t here are neutral archetypes. The example he cites are islands islands such as Circe’s Circe’s or o r Prospero’s Pro spero’s which which cannot be categorized under the tragic or comedic. comedic.

13.6 Northrop Frye and Ideology In Anatomy In Anatomy of Criticism Criticism,, Frye defines the aims of archetypal literary theory theor y as an attempt to describe de scribe a few of the basic grammatical elements elements of literary expression in the classical and Christian heritage heritage of the western we stern literary tradition by focusing on the aspect aspectss of literature that are comparabl co mparablee to t o tonality, tonality, rhythm, rhythm, and canonical imitation imitation in music.In “Forming “Forming Fours,” Fours, ” a review of Jung’s Two Essays on Analytical Psychology and Psychology and Psychology Psychology and Alchemy, Alchemy, Frye describes archetypal literary literary theory t heory as “that mode of criticism which treats the poem p oem not as an imitation imitation of nature natur e but as an imitation imitation of other poems. po ems. It studies st udies conventions and genres, and the kind of recurre recurrent nt imagery which connects one p poem oem with another”. By mythology, Frye means the underlying structure discernible in stories. About mythology, mythology, Frye points out there are a re only a few species of myth myth though tho ugh there are a re an infini infinite te number of individual individual myths. For example, these t hese species, or o r archetypes, ar chetypes, of o f myths myths include “myths of creation, of fall, fall, of exodus and a nd migration, migration, of o f the destruction destruct ion of the human race in the past (deluge myths) myths) or the future (apo calyptic calyptic myths), myths), and of redemption”. Frye uses the term archetype differently differently than Jung does.By doe s.By archetype, Frye means only a recurring pattern..In pattern.. In Anatomy Anatomy of Critici Criticism sm,, he clearly states stat es that he sees se es no need for the coll co llective ective unconscious unconscio us in the domai do main n of literary studies. By ideology, Frye means “structures of social authority”, wherein “the principle invoked is that we belong to so something mething before we are anything, that our o ur loyalties and sense of solidarity solidarity are prior to intelligence. This sense of solidarity is not simply emotional, any more than it is simply intellectual; it might better bett er be called existential”.Frye identifi ident ifies es ideology ideolog y with solidified solidified dogma. He thinks that “an ideology starts by providing its own version of whatever in its traditional mythology it it considers relevant, aand nd uses this version to form for m and enforce enforce a social 192


contract. An ideology is thus an applied mythology, mythology, and its adaptations adaptat ions of myths are ones that, t hat, when we are inside an ideological structure, struct ure, we must believe, believe, or say s ay we believe”. believe”. Frye asserts that an ideology’s ideology’s desire to make its own canon and perspective perspect ive the only acceptable choice results in intolerance intolerance and persecution as all other perspectives are denounced as heretical or perhaps perhaps even evil evil. Frye gives priority priority to mythology mythology over ideology because ideologies ideologies develop and dissipate dissipate while while the archetypal arch etypal myth myth remains. Mythologies, or archetypal patterns, pat terns, are capable of being created and viewed through many ideologies. Myth is is a source sou rce of ideology but is not dependent dep endent on ideology ideolog y. Ideology Ideo logy is a partial and static implementation of the fluid fluid myth or archetype.In archet ype.In the following following excerpt, Frye makes his point about the value of mythic structure over ideology: The princi pr inciple ple involved is that tthere here is a flexibili flexibility ty in the story sto ry that its ideological ideological reference refere nce does not permit. permit. To paraphrase an axiom of D.H. Lawrence, we should trust no writer’s writer’s belie beliefs fs or attitudes attitudes,, but but concentr concentrate ate on his his [sic] myth, which is infinitely infinitely wiser than he is, and is the only element element that can ca n survive when the ideology attached att ached to it fades . It is this very flexibil flexibility ity of the archetypal a rchetypal structure stru cture that in Frye’s Frye’s mind gives it more value and privilege than ideology, which is less likely to be flexible . For Frye, the t he ideological is also less valuable in literary theory theor y because it places a politic political al or personal personal agenda agenda before before a literar literary y agenda. agenda. Frye Frye characteri characterizes zes many many contemporary contemporary critics as still being stuck in what he terms an ideological stage because becau se they are interested intereste d in their ideology more than they are interested intere sted in literat literature; ure; they approach appro ach literature first from a femini feminist, st, historical, radical, post post-colonial -colonial or religious position.Frye anticipates ideological criticisms of his theories, and a nd of literat literature, ure, and a nd he presents present s such an ideological emphasis as a hedge clipper, trim tr immin ming g away—denying the value of— o f— all all that does not n ot fit the ideology. The hedge (literature, myth, archetypal structure) is made to fit fit the t he view approved by the ideology. ideology. In Words with wit h Power Power,, Frye does not seek to t o deny ideological ideological approaches to literature; he accepts them as valid and valuable. He says only that should be some critics who are interested in literature before ideology ideo logy and that they t hey should deal with lliterature iterature in terms of its own metaphorical metaphor ical and mythical mythical structures struct ures and language . Frye explains explains the relationship between mythology and ideology as follows: “I think of a poet, poet , in relation to his sic [sic] society societ y, as being at the center of a cross like a plus sign.The horizontal bar forms the social and ideological conditioning that made him intelligibl intelligiblee to t o his contemporaries, and in fact to himself. himself. The vertical bar is the mythol mythologic ogical al line line of descent descent from previous previous poets back back to to Homer” Homer”.. Frye’s Frye’s success succe ss in gaining acceptance acceptan ce for the separation separ ation of mythology from ideo ideology logy has only been partial as the arguments Frye has asserted about abo ut the dead dea d end of ideology have not been be en widely accepted. accept ed. Frye himself must have been dissatisfied with the success o f his project as he spends one hundred pages of Words With Power revising revising and restating his concepts of ideology and mythology, a discussion he first broached in The Critical Path, twenty years earlier earlier . For reasons reaso ns I will will investigate investigate next, Deanne Bogdan, Bo gdan, for one, remains remains 193


unconvinced by Frye’ Frye’ss conception. conc eption. In the postmodern feminist critiques of Frye’s work,Bodkin, a student and then a colleague of Frye, asked him to write an introduction, which he wrote, wrot e, but which she she then did not publis pu blish. h. In this “Unpublished “Unpublished Introduction Intro duction to Beyond B eyond Communication,” which can now be found in Northrop Frye’s Frye’s Writings Writings on Education, Educat ion, Frye wrote, wrot e, We have feminist, feminist, Marxist or deconstr d econstructive uctive critics who are a re primarily interested in those subjects, and approach appro ach literature literature with the aim of annexing annexing it their main main interest. interest. Here every work of litera literature ture becomes be comes a document do cument for feminism feminism or Marxism, to be examined within that point of view…Such determinations, it is clear, are imperialistic ideologies out to conquer one more field. field. Their proponents prop onents say that if they didn’t didn’t conquer it some so me other ideology would because because every every critic critical al approac approach h is equal equally ideologi deological cal.. I think think this this is a hal half-truth f-truth.. An ideol ideology ogy is a myth kidnapped kidnapped by a power structure or a pressure group, and it is essential essential to distinguish the ideological from the mythological elements elements in every work of o f literat literature. ure. I wish the present book had had paid paid more attention attention to the study of myths myths and folk tales tales and the way in which which they reflect the primary concerns of mankind, the concerns of food and sex and property and freedom. Because it is these concerns that the poets have inherited, and just as there is information information that is separable from the ideologies that normall nor mally y transmit it, it, so there are a re concerns conce rns that belong to all humanity humanity,, and are still there whatever their ideological contexts.” Here is the dilemma dilemma made manifest in the crucible of a single single book book and its introduction, introd uction, which remained remained unpublished until it it was included in Frye’s Frye’s collected works. wo rks. Frye is is trying to separate the manifestations of the archetype, the archetypal images, from the myth, the archetypal pattern, but lacks lacks Jung’s Jung’s language language and theory to do do so. Frye rose to international prominence as a result of his first first book, book , Fearful Fearful Symmetry Symmetry,, published published in in 1947. Until Until that point, point, the prophetic poetry of Willi illiam am Blake Blake had long long been poorly understood, understood, consi considered dered by some to be be delusi delusional onal rambl ramblin ings. gs. Frye Frye found found in in it a system system of metaphor derived from Paradise from Paradise Lost and and from the Bible the Bible.. Not only was his study of Blake’s Blake’s poetry poet ry a major contribution, but in his his book, Frye outlined an innovative innovative manner of studyin stud ying g literature that t hat deeply influenced influenced the study st udy of literat literature ure in general. Frye was a major major influence influence on, amongst others, o thers, Har Harold old Bloom and Bloom and Mar Margar garet et Atwood Atwood . His lasting lasting reputat reputation ion rests principally on the theory theory of litera literary ry criticism criticism that he developed in Anatom in Anatomyy of Criticism Criticism,, one of o f the most important works wo rks of literary theory theo ry published published in the twentieth century c entury..

13.7 Arguments Arguments about about the Contempo Contemporary rary Dilemma Dilemma with Frye’s Frye’s Archetypal Literary Criticism It has been argued that Frye’s Frye’s version of archetypal criticism criticism strictly categorizes catego rizes works 7ction between bet ween the mythical elements and then interprets it in terms of the contents co ntents of o f the myth. Some critics have questioned ques tioned the t he universality of Frye’s Frye’s framework, because it might have 194


excluded certain cert ain literary literary experience (the (t he cycle of the season sea son is quite dif d ifferent ferent in Africa, Africa, for instance). But this “structurali “structura list st literary anthropology” does delineate a framework for the Western ester n literat literature ure from a new perspective. per spective.

13. 8 North Northrop rop Frye: Frye: The Theor Theoreti etical cal Imagi Imagina natio tion n What awakens us from the cyclical cyclical nightmare nightmare of history, according to Blake, is the creative creat ive power of o f the imagination, imagination, which w hich is is redemptive in a fourfold way. First, it shows us u s that most of o f what we think of o f as real and inevitable is is in fact self- or sociall so cially-im y-imposed posed restriction, rest riction, “mind-forg’d “mind-forg’d manacles.” Blake was wa s ahead of his time in grasping how powerfull po werfully y ideological conditioning conditioning forestructures fact, logic, feeling, feeling, even perception. Second, the imagination imagination is “visionary” “visionary” in the sense of presenting us with a vision vision of o f what reality would be like like if those thos e restrictions were w ere not final: certain genres, such as comedy co medy and romance, drive dr ive teleologically teleologically towards the goal go al of a recreated recreat ed world wor ld in which which human human primary concerns are ar e fulfill fulfilled. ed. The T he primary concerns begin with those elements elements necessary for physical physical survival, but expand into a spiritual dimension dimension where they become whatever contributes co ntributes to a more abundant human hu man life, life, including including freedo freedom, m, sexual love, love, creative cr eative work, work , etc. Third, Th ird, such a vision of fulfilled fulfilled life life is not mere wish-fulfil w ish-fulfillment; lment; it is Promethea Pro methean n in becoming both bot h a model for social action and a method of o f discipli discipline. ne. The ideal worlds of myth, romance, and comedy co medy are not intended intended for aestheticist aestheticist escapi escap ism or mere entertainment: entertainment: the word “poet” means means “maker,” and the arts, art s, like liberal liberal education educat ion in in general, provide pro vide a training in in the kind of patience, social so cial purpose, purpose, sense sense of craftsm craftsmansh anship ip,, and commi commitm tment ent to a gradual gradual process process of build buildin ing g somethi something ng necessary necessa ry to bring about abo ut any real change. Finally Finally, the limit limit of reality is not the possible. po ssible. Human consciousness is born out of certain pre-existing pre-existing conditions, traditionally traditionally referred to as nature, human nature, and soc society iety,, which, because they appear appe ar to it as objective and external, it tends to assume are not only unalterable but but formative. formative. But at a certain pitch of intensity, intensity, the the imagination imagination realizes realizes that such structures struct ures are constructs. co nstructs. They are all power structures and are indeed indeed formative; but but what wha t they form is a reduced and passive identity, identity, that ideological construct we call the ordinary ego. By contrast, co ntrast, the t he “Real Self,” as Blake called called the t he imagination, imagination, is active and constructive; it it sees, not as it must, or wishes, or wills wills to see, but as it is capable of imagini imagining: ng: “As the Eye, E ye, Such the Object.” Along with love and reli re ligion, gion, the arts, if pursued pursue d in a certain spirit, can become beco me a kind of disciplin discipline, e, a process pr ocess of o f meditatio meditation n through symbols that provi provides traini training ng in what what Frye Frye call callss ecsta ecstati ticc metaph metaphor, or, an identi dentifi fica cati tion on of sel self and and other other, subj subject and object, that t hat transforms both into two aspects of a common c ommon identity identity.. Such transformation transformation is identity that nonetheless non etheless preserves the particulari pa rticularities, ties, differences, and individuality individuality that make “otherness” so attractive at tractive to us in the first first pla p lace. ce. Such S uch a total to tal identity identity is more than any utopia ever dreamed of, including including that of Marxism and and it has to t o be, because no utopia uto pia founded founded on o n the limitations limitations of “nature” or “reality” “reality” (i.e., the limitations limitations of o f ideology and the will to power) powe r) can ever get beyond the dilemma of the One and the Many. At some point it will be forced to choose choo se between bet ween a private p rivate fantasy of o f individual individual fulfil fulfillment lment or a social so cial fantasy of collectivism. collectivism. As private self-interest self-interest denies the claim claimss of community community and collecti collectivi vism sm denies the claim claimss of 195


individuali individuality ty,, repression and authoritariani autho ritarianism sm will eventually eventually set in, and the wheel of o f history turn tur n in one more cycle.

13.9 Uses Uses of of Arch Archet etyp ypal al Crit Critici icism sm •

Eval Evaluat uatiion of an Exam Exampl ple: e: Exam Examiines nes how how a spec speciific text text compar compares es with with the the arch archety etype pe.. The focus here would wo uld likely be in finding finding insightful insightful variations from fro m the traditional tra ditional archetype and a nd analyzing analyzing how these t hese function. An examination examination of a t ext that simply simply pointed pointed out how the narrati narrative ve meets meets the criteri criteriaa for a specifi specificc archety archetype pe would would be flat flat and uninteresting.

•

Textual extualAnalys nalysiis: Sin Since ce the the arch archety etypes pes offe offerr insi insigh ghtt into into typi typical cal trait traitss that that are are prese present nt in in different different types of writing, they are useful in explicating explicating a text in the reader’ reader ’s mind. mind. By using the archetypal traits as a guide, select interesting intere sting or unique traits tra its and discuss their function in the work. This could easily be applied to plot, plot , characters, character s, symbols, and setting.

•

Compar Compariison of Arch Archety etypal palTraits: raits: By usi using the the trai traits ts outl outliined ned in in the the arch archety etype pe crea create te a comparison of two or more works. wo rks. The archetypal traits can be used here to guide the analysis implicitly or explicitly e xplicitly..

•

Defini Defi niti tion on ofArchety rchetypes pes:: Too Too broad broad for for thi this class class,, this this approa approach ch would would requi require re crea creati ting ng your own theory of archetypes relying relying on numerous examples for for support. suppor t. Northrop No rthrop Frye did this with literary narratives, Joseph Jose ph Campbell with world myths, myths, and Carl Jung with dream d ream imagery. imagery.

13 .10 .1 0 A Few Common Common Archetypes in Literature Literature Femme Femme Fatale: A female female character characte r type who brings upo upon n catastrophic catast rophic and disastrous disastro us events. Eve from the story sto ry of Genesis Genesis or Pandora from Greek mythology are two such figures. figures. The Journey: A narrative archetype where the protago pro tagonist nist must overcome a series of obstacles obst acles before reaching his or her goal. goa l. The quintessential quintessent ial journey archetype in Wester Western n culture is arguably Homer’s Homer’s Odyssey. Odyssey. Archetypal symbols vary more than archetype narratives or character types, but any symbol with deep root ro otss in a culture’s cultur e’s mythology, mythology, such as the forbidden fruit in Genesis or even the poison po ison apple in in Snow White, White, is an example example of a symbol that reso resonates nates to archetypal critics. critics. Thus Frye’s approach was invigorating, but has not been broadly accepted. His categories seem arbitrary a rbitrary,, and many works of art do not fit fit neatly into any category catego ry.. For all his his what both bot h Blake and Frye call “apocalyptic,” “apocalyptic,” a revelati re velation on of o f the final final form of society as a total t otal learning, Frye’s Frye’s focus was on o n western weste rn litera literature ture and its classification. So general g eneral a view does not help the practising pract ising poet poe t with rewriting, or the critic cr itic explaini explaining ng how one literature ure is how one piece of literat better than than another another,, beyond beyond of course understan understandi ding ng the larger larger picture. picture. 196


But important importa nt matters lie lie behind symbolism symbolism.. Literature Literat ure employs words, word s, and the reality re ality behin behind d words words has been been the central central preoccupati preoccupation on of twentiet twentieth h century century philos philosophy ophy.. Li Linguisti nguisticc philosophy philosophy attempted to expla explain in away the great philosophi philosophical cal dilemm dilemmas as of existence existence as the the improper improper use of words. Structurali Structu ralism sm described literature literature as the surface expression of deep anthropological (and often) binary codes. Poststructu Po ststructurali ralism sm denied denied that t hat words wor ds could be anything anything but but part part of an endl endless ess we web b of yet more words, words, withou withoutt final inal refer referen entt or meanin eaning. g. Postm Postmoder oderni nism sm uses words as flat, media images, without deeper reference. None of these has been very unconvincin unconvincing. g. Words Words do have great emotional and intellectual intellectual power if employed employed in certain ways, ways, and these ways draw on o n matters of deep and lasting interest to the human psyche. Mythic criticism (indeed all criticism: Frye makes this point) point) is subse subseque quent nt to literatu terature, re, as histo history ry is to acti action. on. We cann cannot ot cloth clothee with with plot plot and and chara characte cter r the skeletal requirements of criticism and expect literature to result. r esult. Works Works of art follow their own devices and grow out of the artist’s art ist’s imagination, imagination, only submitting submitting to t o criticism cr iticism if they still seem incomplete or unsatisfactory. unsatisfactory. But mythic mythic criticism criticism can show the writer wr iter where his imagery is coming from, from, and a nd suggest reasons for its power. Subsequent Subseque nt work — deep thought, tho ught, reading rea ding and endless endless toyin to ying g with possibi possibili litie tiess — may then turn up further further materi material al.. Wheth Whether er that materia materiall is useful useful can only only be found by testing it in the poem, a trial t rial and and error process of continual adaptation and refinemen refinementt that may eventually achieve the strengths of o f the coherence theory theor y of truth: tru th: transforming power, internal consistency, co nsistency, simplicity simplicity,, elegance elega nce and fertility. fertility.

13.11

Glossary

masculine part of the female female personali per sonality ty or a woman’ wo man’ss image Animus - male aspect - an inner masculine of a man. image, character, narrative design, theme, t heme, or other literary literary Archetype - “a typical or recurring image, phenomen phenomenon on that has been in literature literature from from the begin beginni ning ng and regularl regularly y reappears” reappears”.. Frye sees archetypes as recurring patterns in literature; in contrast, Jung views archetypes as prim p rimal, al, ancient images/experience that we have inherited. inherited. Collective Unconscious - “a set of o f primal primal memories common to the human race, existing e xisting below below each person’ person’ss conscious conscious mind”. mind”. Persona - the image image we present to the world.

so metimes hidden hidden (delib (d eliberat erately ely or unconsciously), unc onsciously), elements of o f a person’s Shadow - darker, sometimes psyche. psyche.

13. 12 Let Us Su Sum m Up Up Frye’s Frye’s approach appro ach was invigorating, invigorating, but has not been broadly broa dly accepted. accept ed. In Anatomy Anatomy of Criticism, Frye Criticism, Frye delineates delineates some of o f the structures inherent inherent to literature literature by 197


describing four four inter related approaches. app roaches. a.

Histor storiical Criti riticcism : Th Theory ory of Modes odes

b.

Ethical Ethical Critici Criticism sm

c.

Arch rchetypa typall Critic ticism : Th Theory ory of of Myths ths

d.

Rhet Rhetor oriical cal Cri Critici ticism sm : Theo Theory ry of Genre enress

: Theory of Symbols Symbols

Frye’s Frye’s system is contained in the all important assumptions as sumptions that literature literatur e functions as a microcosm microcos m of culture, culture , so that the t he abilities abilities involved in in the right reading of lliterat iterature ure qualif qua lify y one to interpret culture.”what criticism criticism can do,” according acco rding to Frye, “is awaken students students to t o successive levels of awareness of the mythology that lies behind the ideology in which their society indoctrinates them”.Frye gives priority to mythology over ideology.

13. 13 Review Questions Questions 1.

How is mythol tholog ogy y a vi vision sion of soci ociety ?

2.

What are are th the us uses of arch rchety etypal pal cri critic ticism ?

3.

Enum Enumer erat atee a few few com comm mon arc arch hety etypes pes in in li litera teratu ture re..

4.

Fry Frye give givess pri priori ority ty to my mythol thology ogy over over ideol deolog ogy y. Disc Discus uss. s.

5.

Write rite short hort note otes on the the Ph Phases ases of Roman omance ce..

13.14 Bibliography 1.

Denham Denh am,, Robert. Robert. North Northrop rop Fry Fryee and and Cri Criti tical cal Method Method.. Unive Universi rsity ty Par Park: k: Penn Pennsy syllvani vaniaa UP,, 1978. UP 19 78.

2.

Frye, Frye, Northr Northrop. op. Fearf Fearful ul Symm Symmetry etry:: A Study Study of Willi lliam Blake Blake.. Prin Princeton ceton:: Prince Princeton ton UP,, 1969. UP 19 69.

3.

Hami Hamilton, lton, A. C. C. Northrop Northrop Frye: Frye: Anatom Anatomy y of Hi His Crit Critic iciism. sm. Toront Toronto: o: U of Toronto oronto P, P, 1990.

4.

Lentri Lentricch cchiia, Fran Frank. k. After After the New Criti Critici cism sm.. Chi Chicag cago: o: U of Chi Chicago cago P, P, 1980. 1980.

5.

Abra Abram ms, M. H. “Arc “Arche hetyp typal al Criti Critici cism sm.” .” A Glossa Glossary ry of Li Literary terary Ter Terms ms.. Fort Fort Worth Worth:: HBJ, 1993.

6.

Bates Bates,, Rol Roland. and. North Northrop rop Fry Frye. Toronto: oronto: McCl McClel ellland and and and Stew Stewart art,, 1971 1971..

7

Lei Leitch, tch, Vi Vincent ncent B. B. “Nor “North throp rop Fry Frye.” e.” The The Norton Norton Anthol nthology ogy:: The Theory ory and and Criti Critici cism sm.. Ed. Vincent Vincent B. Leitch. Leitch. New N ew York: York: Norton, No rton, 2001. 2 001.

198


UNIT-14 LIONEL TRILLING:THE LIBERAL AND LIBER AL IMAGINATION AND

THE OPPOSING SELF Structure 14.0

Objectiv tives

14.1 14.1

Introductio tion

14.2

Lif Life of Lion Lionel el Tril rilling

14.3

Works orks of Lion Lionel el Tril rilling

14.4

Tri Trilling and and Psych Psychoan oanal aly ytic tic Theor Theory y

14.5

Trilling’s The Liberal Imagination Imagination and The Opposing Self

14.6

Let Us Us Sum Up

14.7 14.7


14.8 14.8

Bibliogr ography

14.0 14.0 Objectives The objectives of this unit unit are to: t o: •

prov proviide a mi minute ute ex exami aminati ation of Lion Lionel el Tril rilling’ ng’s The Liberal Imagination Imagination and The Opposing Self: Nine E Essays ssays in Criticism, Criticism,

•

provid providee key key concept conceptss of libe liberal ral imagi magina nati tion on and and confl conflict ict betwee between n selfself-def defin init ition ion and the influence influence of culture, cultur e,

•

focus focus on psych psychoana oanallytic ytic cri criti tici cism sm,, havi having ng its base base in in his his sense sense of history history consis consisti ting ng of a number of forces - political, sociological, cultural, philosophical, psychological and so on. on.

14.1 Intr Intro oductio tion Lionel Trill Trilling ing (1905-1975) (1905-1 975) was a figure figure of o f great intellectual distinction in the world of literature and a nd ideas. What set Trilling Trilling apart from even his most most talented t alented contemporar cont emporaries ies was his way of drawing subtle lines lines of understanding between literature and crucial aspects of o f current life, life, including education, relations r elations between the sexes, and poli po litical tical allegiances. allegiances. He moved far beyond beyond the aesthet aesthetic ic concern concernss of poetry and ficti fiction. on. Whi While his his ostensi ostensibl blee subj subject ect wa wass litera iterature, ture, his theme was civiliz civilization. ation. Morris Mo rris Dickstein says in in his foreword to the t he Rodden Rod den anthology, ‘What meant most most to him was to be possessed po ssessed by a book, to be disoriented and changed by 199


it’. For Trilling Trilling a great book was w as the verbal enactment of will and and desire by an author determined to impose impose himself; himself; at some level, rea reading ding for Trilli Trilling ng was an act of submission. The liveliest liveliest controversy contro versy surrounding surrou nding Lionel Trill Trilling ing since since his death deat h centers on o n whether or how ho w far he shifted his political political thinking from an early liberal liberalism ism to a conservatism co nservatism (or neoneo conservatism) conservat ism) that some of his his friends friends embraced embraced but to t o which he never never gave any overt support. suppo rt. Advocates on both sides can find passages in Trilling’s writing that seem to support their views. But a careful reading of those passages (and others) leads to the core of Trilling’s outlook. out look. His first first notable not able statement about liberalism, liberalism, literat literature, ure, and politi po litics cs appears in the preface preface to his his most infl influenti uential al collection collection of essays, essays, The Liberal Imagination (1950). Imagination (1950). To the carrying out of o f the job of criticizing criticizing The Liberal Imagination, Imagination, literature has a unique relevance, not merely because so much of modern moder n literatu literature re has explicitly directed itself itse lf upon politics, p olitics, but more importantly because literature is the human activity that takes tak es the fullest fullest and most precise p recise account accou nt of o f variousness, possibility possibility,, complexi co mplexity ty,, and difficulty difficulty.. Earlier Ea rlier,, in his introduction introduc tion to The Partisa Partisan n Reader Reader (1946), (19 46), Trilling Trilling issued this elegantly ominous ominous caution: cau tion: ‘Unless we insist that politi politics cs is imagi imaginati nation on and mind, mind, we wil will learn learn that imagi imaginati nation on and mind mind are poli politics, tics, and and of a kind we will not like’. Indeed, early e arly in The Liberal Imagination, Imagination, Trilling Trilling declared his intere interest st in what he called called ‘the dark and bloody crossroads crossroad s where literature literature and politics meet’, meet’, except that for him ‘bloody’ meant embattled rather than violent; and liter literature ature,, because becau se of its its intrinsic humanism, humanism, had more wisdom to offer than the activist and morally troubli trou bling ng world of politics. politics. It is this interplay of literatu literature, re, poli po litics, tics, and ideas that t hat gives Trillin Trilling’s g’s work a scope scop e and a richness not found in most literary liter ary criticism. The most famous of hi hiss own books, boo ks, The Liberal Imagination, Imagination, a brilliant brilliant collection co llection of essays that is now precisely fifty fifty years years old, o ld, was framed as a cr critique itique of post-war post -war political po litical and social attitudes. attitudes . As he saw it, liberalism liberalism was the only philosop philosophical hical,, poli p olitical tical and literary trad traditi ition on still alive alive in the United States; conservatives co nservatives existed, existed, but they produced prod uced on paper nothing but ‘irritable mental mental gestures gestures which seek to resemble r esemble ideas’. Liberalism, Liberalism, left withou withoutt serious serious enemies, had become glib and self-deceiving, above all in its often genial relationship with Soviet tyranny. Trilling Trilling became off o fficial icial liberalism’ liberalism’ss chief critic, and an d performed perfo rmed that tha t offi o ffice ce superbly sup erbly.. He saw literat literature, ure, with its sensitivity sensitivity and wisdom, as the correct c orrective ive to poli po litics. tics. If politics pushes us toward towar d the banal, literat literature ure pulls us back to a more subtle and realistic account of life. life. Politics makes us dumb, literature literature makes us aware — of the world wo rld and of ourselves. Better than t han almost any other critic of the 20th 20t h century, Trilli Trilling ng could point po int his readers toward to ward the moral mor al subtleties in the work of writers ranging r anging from Keats to Orwell.

14.2 Life Life of Lione Lionell Trilli rilling ng Lionel Trill Trilling ing was an outstand out standing ing scholar at Columbi Co lumbiaa University and the o only nly son of o f David and Fannie Cohen Cohe n Trillin Trilling. g. He H e was born bo rn on the t he fourth four th of July in 1905 in New York York City. City. His father David W.Tril W.Trilli ling ng was a native of Byalistok, now a city in North-eastern Nor th-eastern Poland P oland and 200


came to America America at the t he age of o f sixteen. sixteen. He was wa s a successful custom tailor but later in the quest of raising his status stat us he gave up u p tailoring and became a wholesale furrier. Unfortunately he proved proved a compl complete ete failu ailure re in his his newl newly adopted adopted profess professiion leading eading the famil amily y towards towards a criti critical cal financial financial position. Trilling’ Trilling’ss mother Fannie Cohen was a continuou co ntinuouss source sour ce of inspiration to him. him. Trilli Trilling’ ng’ss father was a good goo d reader but his mother was among the best read people peo ple and she continued cont inued her reading until her eyes failed failed her. American author and teacher, teache r, Lionel Lionel Trilli Trilling ng was an enormously enormously infl influent uential ial critic critic who vehemently eschewed sim s implistic plistic or emotional responses resp onses to art or morality. The author of many works, he was especially exigent, to use one of his favorite words, in his his essays, most of o f which which have long been out of print. Distrustful of rapture and keen on reading rea ding literat literature ure as, in Wieseltier’s Wieseltier’s words, ‘do cuments for a moral history of culture’, Trilling Trilling embraced complexity and nuance and held critical cr itical integr integrity ity in the highest esteem. His essays possess great g reat intellectual intellectual weight, and their t heir richness, richness, deep seriousness o f thought, and sonorous sono rous vocabulary and syntax are balanced by a lashing wit wit and a nd remarkable energy. He graduated graduat ed in 1925 and received his M.A. in 1926. He received his Ph.D. in 1938 with a dissertation on Matthew Arnold, Arnold, which he later published, published, and reviewed with approval appro val by Edmund Edmund Wilson ilson and Robert Robert Penn Penn Warren arren and in 1939 1939 was promoted promoted to assi assistant stant profes professor sor,, becoming becoming the first first Jewish professor to receive receive tenure in in the Department Department of English. English. After teaching at the t he University of Wisconsin-Madison Wisconsin-Madison and at Hunter H unter College, Co llege, Trill Trilling ing returned to Columbia to teach literature literat ure and became beca me a full full professor pro fessor in 1948 and in 1965 was named the George Edward Edwar d Woodberry Woodberry Professor of Literature and Criticism. Criticism. His study of E. M. Forster, Fo rster, in 1943, was the occasion o ccasion for a seven-page article a rticle in in The Time. Time. A novel, The Middle of the Journey, Journey, appeared in 1947; it had a less happy reception and disappointing sales, sales, but it was widely noticed. He was a popular professor, pro fessor, and for 30 years he taught taug ht Columbia’s Columbia’s Colloquium Colloquium on Important Books Bo oks with Jacques Barzun, a well-regarded course on o n the relationship relationship between literat literature ure and cultural cu ltural history. history. His students stu dents included Norman Podhoretz Po dhoretz,, Allen Allen Ginsburg, Ginsburg, and John Hollander Ho llander..

14.3 Works orks of of Lion Lionel Tri Trilli lling ng Fiction:

•

The Middle of the Journey (1947) Journey (1947)

•

Of This Time, of That T hat Place and Other Stories (1979) Stories (1979)

•

The Journey Abandoned: The Unfinished Novel (2008) (20 08) (published posthumously post humously,, edited by Geraldine Murphy) Books and Collections of Essays:

•

Matthew Arnold (1939) (1939)

•

E. M. Forster (1943) (1943) 201


•

The Liberal Imagination (1950) Imagination (1950)

•

The Opposing Self (1955) (1955)

•

Freud Freud and the Crisis Crisis of Our Culture Culture (1955) (1955)

•

A Gathering of Fugitives (1956) Fugitives (1956)

•

(1965)

•

Sincerity and Authenticity (1972), Authenticity (1972), a collection of the Charles Eliot Eliot Norton Nor ton Lectures Lectu res given at Harvard in 1969

•

Mind in the Modern Modern World: orld: The 1972 Thomas Jefferson Jefferson Lectur Lecturee in the Humanities Humanities (1973)

•

Prefaces to The Experience of Literature Literature (1979)

•

Speaking of Literature Literature and Society (1980) Society (1980)

14.4 14 .4 Lione Lionell Trillin rilling g and Psycho Psychoan analyt alytic ic The Theor ory y The majority of the literary theorists use Freudian Freud ian or psychoanalytic psychoanalytic theory in literary literary criticism criticism to have the possibi po ssibili lities ties of a new scientific scientific approach approac h to creativity. creativity. The most frequent application of psychoanalytic theory in criticism was in the field of biography. Psychoanalysis was a tool to ol that could co uld extend one’s knowledge of a writer’s inner life. life. Behind Freud’s view that the writer’ writer ’s creation creat ion was in some sense a sublimated form of a neurosis lay the idea idea that t hat genius was a product pro duct of insanity insanity.. The question of the extent to which which art was a product of o f neurosis, neurosis, or o r whether it was an achievement achievement accompli acco mplished shed in spite of neuro neurosis, sis, was an open o pen one. Writers of the Romantic Ro mantic era were generally the best targets targ ets for psychoanaly ps ychoanalytic tic analysis. analysis. The more neurotic neuro tic the writer, the more reasonable was the use of the psychoanalytic formula to explain his eccentricities. eccentricities. For this t his reason writers like like Edgar E dgar Allan Allan Poe, P. B. Shelley Shelley,, Charlotte Charlot te Bronte, Br onte, Margaret Fuller, August August Strindberg St rindberg or DH Lawrence Lawr ence were favorites among psychoanaly psychoa nalysts. sts. In his persistent search s earch for the filaments filaments between betw een life life and literature Trilling Trilling came across various influences influences and Freudian psychoanalysis psychoanalysis was one o ne of these. Tracing the origin of this thought he finds finds a sort of relation between p psych sychoanalysi oanalysiss and Romanticist Romanticist Tradition. According to Trilling, the feature common to both Freudianism and Romanticist Tradition is the manifesta manifestation tion of the hidden element of human nature and a nd its ceaseless confli c onflict ct with the visible. In almost all a ll his his major major works, particularly, particularly, The Liberal Imagination and The Opposing Self, he largely largely deals with the writers wr iters and thinkers of tthe he nineteenth century - Arnold, Wordswort Wordsworth, h, Shelley Shelley,, Keats, Freud, Freu d, Jane Austen et c. All All of them were wer e inclined inclined towards to wards the delineation delineation of the hidden thing - the suppressed life. He hails hails Arnold as the first modern man who could co uld raise his doubts about the possibl poss iblee changes in society and the condition cond ition of self in it. it. Long Lo ng before Freud, it was to t o Arnold Arnold that the idea of the self occurred - both bot h the primitive primitive and and the conscious co nscious self. 202


Psychoanalysis as a peculiarly modern element preoccupied Trilling’s critical temper. Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis was an a n interest inherited inherited from nineteenth century biographical studies. The credit of o f discove discovering ring the systematic study of the unconscious goes go es to Freud. Freu d. Trilling Trilling’s ’s interest interestss seen essentiall essentially y Freudian though though expressed expresse d in Hegelian terms. terms. Like Freud, Trilli Trilling ng fully recognizes the pain that t hat the self experiences in society, society, or o r in the culture in which it it exists. Freudian Freud ian theory which finds neurosis as the source of artistic genius - an escape from reality by means of substitute gratifications - in Trilling’s view is erroneous. They suggest that artistic failure must also rely in the theory theo ry of neurosis, not no t only the psychological p sychological insight insight but also deficiency deficiency in insight insight should be considered in terms of neurosis. For Trilli Trilling ng the most important important aspect as pect of o f Freud’s thought was its moral dimension. dimension. Trilling Trilling agreed with Philip Philip Rieff Rieff that Freud Fre ud “has no message; he accepts contradiction contrad iction and builds his his psychology on it”. The chief impli implication cation that t hat Trillin Trilling g finds in Freud is the ethic ethic of passivi pa ssivity ty.. In In the fifties fifties Trilli Trilling ng used used Freud’ Freud’s thought, thought, especially especially the doctrine doc trine of the death instinct, to legitimize his his own yearning for for a great gre at good goo d place, beyond culture, in which a weary New weary New York York Intellectual Inte llectual might might find find peace and rest. rest . Although Although Freud makes only one brief appearance in 1939- book bo ok on Matthew Mat thew Arnold, Trillin Trilling g had been reading Freud since the mid - thirties. In 1940 he published an important important essay, “Freud and Literature”, Literature ”, offering a synoptic critique of the psychoanalytic approach to literature; in 1941 he used Freudian ideas as the framework of his essay on Word Wordsworth’s sworth’s “Immortality Ode”; and in 1945, in “Art and Neurosis”, N eurosis”, he criticized popular notions of artistic a rtistic creativity creativity as a compensation for psychological p sychological handicaps. handicaps. Trilli Trilling ng understo understood od psychoanalysis more more fully fully than his contempora contemporaries, ries, Willi William am Empson, Edmund Wilson, Wilson, and Kenneth Burke. Burke . Trilling’ Trilling’ss Freud was, to some so me degree, his own invention. He invented the Freud he needed and reinvented him from from decade to decade as the cultural c ultural situation changed. In his essay on Wordsworth’s “Immortality Ode”, Trilling adapted psych psychoan oanal aly ysis sis to an ideologi deological cally ly charge charged d cele celebr brati ation on of moral moral real realism ism. In this this essay essay he we weav aves es together toge ther Freud’s theories of ego development and of the death instinct. In stressing the moral rather than the objective dimension of Freud’s work, Trilling was marking the political implications of his particular use of Freud. In The Liberal Imagination, Imagination, he was always addressing addre ssing a political - cultural cultura l situa situation, tion, the corru c orruption ption of America’s America’s liberal liberal intellectuals by Stali Sta linism. nism. The Freudian moralism that urges the t he necessity of renouncing renou ncing the pleasure princi pr inciple ple for the sake of reality is is also a political political appeal to liberals, liberals, to put away a way the childish childish dreams of the radical thirties. In Trilling’ Trilling’ss first psychoanaly psychoa nalytically tically oriented study st udy of a liter literary ary text, Freud makes his appearance appea rance as a great moralist in the line of the classic tragic tra gic realism. By the fif fifties, ties, Trilling Trilling had moved on to t o new uses of o f Freud. Certainl Cert ainly y the tragic trag ic theme persisted in Trilli Trilling’ ng’ss writing, but his emphasis was on a radical instability in in the modern mod ern self. Trilling’ Trilling’ss concern co ncern was no longer with becoming older, wiser, chastened chast ened by experience but with being. In the fifties fifties Trilli Trilling ng was looking for an elemen elemental tal quality of the self that could co uld withstand and the post po st war moral chaos chao s and enable the self to conserve conser ve itself. He found this principal of coherence coher ence in biology. biology. He

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followed Freud in assuming as fact that t hat the most ancient a ncient quality of being is is biological. In the fifties fifties Trilling’ Trilling’ss affirmation of the biological was still involved involved in his contro co ntroversy versy against ag ainst the liberals, liberals, but he was addressing the crisis of selfhood more directly direct ly,, rather rat her than only o nly as part of a larger political debate. For Trilli Trilling ng a basic confidence about the self is a nineteenth nineteenth - century centur y quality that unites Wordswo Wordsworth rth and Keats and distinguishes them from representative representat ive figures figures of the modern period such as Kafka and Beckett. Becket t. Keats Keat s is Trilling’ Trilling’ss type of the opposing op posing self by virtue virtue of the moral moral and psychol psychologi ogical cal strength strength with with which which he faces faces his his death. For Tril Trilling, ling, Keats’s self - certitude certitude and his strong aatta ttachment chment to reality r eality make make a contrast co ntrast with the diminished diminished self of Kafka. Kafka. Death Deat h for Kafka’s characters charact ers has a very different different meaning than for Keats because be cause they live without ever e ver having had a sense of o f being existentially al alive. ive. “Trillin “Trilling’s g’s sentiment of being being was a sentim sentiment ent not of action action and commi commitment tment but but of disengag disengageme ement nt and detachment detachment from motion and struggle”. In Trilling’ Trilling’ss essay of o f 1953 on Henry Henr y James’s James’s “The Bostonians”, Bost onians”, Trilling Trilling interprets interpret s James’s James’s satire sat ire on feminism feminism as an a n expression of o f intense sexual anxiety a nxiety.. According to Trilling, Trilling, the feminists feminists are led into perversity p erversity by their their radical impulse impulse to t o rearrange rearr ange life life according acco rding to an a n abstract theory theor y. For Freud Fr eud the t he goal go al of life life is simply simply death, far from fro m justifyin justifying g any hope of historical profess. profess. His theory, theory, proposes proposes that life life itsel itselff is nothing nothing but a round about course, a circui circuitous tous path imposed imposed on livin iving g substanc substancee by external external infl influenc uences. es. Tril Trilli ling ng makes makes Freud’ Freud’ss theory of the conservative nature of living substance, the basis of a moral and aesthetic recommendation. To the degree degr ee that a text t ext exemplifies the principle of inertia, inertia, it is for Trilling Trilling a useful corrective corre ctive to a culture sick s ick from the hypertrophy hypert rophy of the radical will. will. Easy essay of Trilling Trilling is is likely to present present only only a part of his his mind, mind, a reacti reaction on not only only to the domi dominant nant cultura culturall mood but also also to a previous previous mood mood of his own. Therefore Therefore alternations alternations and fluctuations fluctuations of mood can be seen in Trilling’s Trilling’s essays. ess ays. In his essay on Keats “The Poet Poe t as Hero: Hero : Keats in His Letters”, Letter s”, Trilli Trilling ng discusses the relation of psychoanalysis to criticism. Trilling seems to be interested both in Keats’ geniality, his preoccupation preocc upation with the prim pr imitive itive appetite appetit e and the family family and philoso philosophical phical infl influences uences on his mind, mind, which proved influential influential in his poetry. Extending Freud’s concepts concept s of o f neurosis, neuros is, Trilli Trilling ng brings brings Lamb as an authority to support the sanity sanity of artistic artistic genius that the poet does not dream like an ordinary person, that t hat is why sleeping hi hiss dreams are the product pro duct of o f his imaginative imaginative insight. insight. Hence the t he poet in his dreams cannot be taken to t o be under the t he control of his subject, subject, he rather subjugates su bjugates and shapes it. Trilling Trilling views views that the creative creat ive always always stands in opposition oppo sition to circumstance. His diagnosis of Keats’ self shows how with the active tacit agreement of the immiti immitigable gable reality of evil, evil, he was able to reconcile it in life life through thro ugh aesthetic aes thetic transcendence. tr anscendence. It was only o nly in the fifties fifties that the pro test of o f biology biology against culture became a central cent ral theme of Trilling’s criticism. Trilling’s biologism was a protest against what he regarded as an oversocial overso cialized ized concept ion of human nature in psychoanalytic psychoanalytic writing as well as in the new sociology. He points o out ut the denial of individual individual autonomy auto nomy implic implicit it in the exaggerated exagge rated emphasis e mphasis on social so cial adjustment in the writing wr iting of various various Freudian Freudian revisionists. A Against gainst their sociologically so ciologically 204


grounded grou nded optimism o ptimism about the end to t o the confli c onflict ct between betw een the self se lf and culture, Trilli Trilling ng reaffirms reaffirms Freud’s own pessimism, pessimism, grounded gro unded in a biological conception conce ption of the unavoidabi unavo idability lity of intra intra psychic psychic confli conflict. ct. Instead Instead of the revisi revisionist onistss vie view w of the indiv individua iduall totally totally defined defined by culture, culture, Trilling Trilling insists insists on what wha t he says was Freud’s Freu d’s view view of the self, within but also beyond culture. cu lture. “According to Trilling, Trilling, Freud needed need ed to believe that there t here was some so me point at which it was possi possible ble to stand stand beyon beyond d the the reach reach of cultu culture, re, a ‘bey ‘beyond ond’, ’, Tri Trilling ing defin defines es as biol biologi ogical cal.. Biol Biology ogy provi provided a way to argue argue that the self self contai containe ned d as inhe inheren rentt princi principl plee of resi resista stanc ncee to absorpt absorption ion and dissolution in culture”. Biology was a complex world. wor ld. In Trilling’ Trilling’ss writing it became hu humani manized zed such suc h that it no longer represented a principal principal directly opposite oppo site to that t hat of culture. Biology served Trill Trilling ing as a foundational principle, a solid solid rock roc k in relation relation to which contemporary threats threa ts to the t he self, like like totali tot alitarian tarian ideologies and mass culture cultu re might seem less threatening. The T he self needed a principle of permanence to fend off the increasing increasing threat to its autonomy autono my.. It was not enough e nough to urge the importance of liveliness and variousness, wit and style, as Trilling had in The Liberal Imagina Imaginatio tion. n. These These positives p ositives might only o nly contribute to the self’s se lf’s instability instability Trilling Trilling was looking for something more fundamental, and biology became the conservat ive principle principle that would help to hold things to their center. Trilling’s great theme is freedom. “He emphasized, instead of active freedom, a primor primordi dial al,, static, static, essenti essential ally ly conserv conservati ative ve princi principl plee withi within n the self self that allows allows it to cohere cohere and resist the disintegrative process of modernity”. Trilling praises Freud’s rationalistic positivism for the aim a im that it sets of psychotherapy psychother apy or suitable su itable adjustment to t o reality. reality. Trilling’ Trilling’ss extensive views on psychoanalysis psychoanalysis and his attempts to connect psychoanaly p sychoanalytic tic ideas to literature literatu re are demonstrated demonstr ated of o f reality and imagination. Altho Although ugh he deals with a number of issues - reali rea lity ty and mind, politics and imagination, imagination, and a nd sincerity and authenticity - they t hey eventually lead to the straight question quest ion of two powers pow ers of the self and the culture in a continual interaction interaction with each other. Freud conceived of a separate existence of the biological self beyond the reach of cultural forces. force s. Trillin Trilling g inherited his sense of self as a biological fact from Freud. Not N ot merely mere ly the interior life of the individual individual but the reconstitut reco nstitution ion of society was Freud’ Freud ’s ultimate concern. Freud considered the greatest g reatest potential potent ial benefi benefitt of his science to be not merely the curing of individual individualss suffering suffering from neurosis, important though this t his is, is, but the promi pro mise se that t hat it could co uld lead to a better bette r understanding, and perhaps control, co ntrol, of larger human affairs. affairs. Trill Trilling ing recognizes the potential potential value value for literature literature of Freud’ Freud’ss concepts concepts of the repetit repetition ion - compu compuls lsiion and the death instinct. instinct. He is interested in establishing establishing specific specific connections between biographical events and tendencies in the poetry but the larger ways in which family and philosophical influences worked together to gether in the mind mind of the poet were we re expressed expresse d in his poetry. poe try.

14.5 Th Thee Ess Essay ayss of of The Liberal Imagination Imagination and The Opposing Self The Liberal Imagination (1950) and The Opposing Self (1955)are (1955)are two important important collection of essays which mingle literary criticism with analyses of culture, politics, and history. They bring Trilli Trilling ng immediate immediate national natio nal attention attent ion as a literary critic of the t he first first order, o rder, ranking ra nking 205


alongside F. R. Leavis and Edmund Wilson. Wilson. The great gre at critic’s masterworks masterwo rks make a case cas e for the necessity neces sity of the imaginative imaginative works wor ks in a society ever more worshipful wors hipful of the liberal ideals ideals of rationality and progress. ‘Trilli ‘Trilling...s ng...shows hows how criticism, criticism, written with grace, g race, style, s tyle, and a selfquestioning cast of o f mind, mind, can itself become a form of o f literature, literature, as well as a valuable valuable contribution to how ho w we think about society’. society’. In the essay “Freud and Literature” of The Liberal Imagination the Imagination the Freudian psychol psychology ogy is referre referred d to as the only only system systemati aticc account account of the human human mind. mind. Freud Freud discov discovered ered the scientific scientific method by which which the unconscious u nconscious can be studied. st udied. The poet p oet has always always exercised his art upon the human nature of o f the Freudian psychology. psychology. Therefore it could co uld be said that the psychoa psychoana naly lyti tical cal theory theory had had a great great effe effect ct upon literature. terature. The relati relations onshi hip p is mutual mutual;; the eff effect of Freud upon literature has been no greater than the effect of literature upon Freud. Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is one of o f the culminations culminations of the Romantici Ro manticist st literat literature ure of the nineteenth century. In Diderot’s Rameau’ Diderot’s Rameau’ss Nephew there Nephew there is a co mmon mmon characteristic of a perception in both Freud and Romanticism Ro manticism,, the perception perce ption of o f the hidden hidden element of human nature and of the opposition oppo sition between betwee n the hidden and the visible. visible. “The hidden element takes many forms and it is not necessarily necessarily dark and bad. For Blake the bad was the good, go od, while while for Wordswo Wordsworth rth and Burke what was hidden and unconscious was wisdom and power, which work in despite of the conscious intellect”. The poets educated and sensitive sensitive people throughout Europe become aware of the ravages that t hat reason reaso n might might make upon up on the affective life. life. In certain certa in novels novels the almost complete c omplete identification of author and hero and of the reader with both suggests a leniency of moral judgm judgment. ent. The autobi autobiographic ographical al novel novel has a further further influ nfluenc encee upon the moral moral sensi sensibi bili lity ty by its hinting hinting that t hat a man co uld not be judged by any single moment in his life life without taking t aking into account the determin dete rmining ing past and the fulfil fulfilli ling ng future. Again and again it is seen that t hat the t he effective effective utilitarian ego is being dismissed to an inferior position and a plea being made on behalf of the anarchic and self-indulgent id. The idea of o f the mind mind is found as an invisible invisible thing, one part of which can contemplate and mock the other. Proust was a writer wr iter who showed the Freudian influence influence in the investigation investigation of o f sleep, of sexual deviation, of o f the way of association, assoc iation, or the t he interest in metaphor. According to Trill Trilling ing the motive of o f the interpretation of o f the literary critic or biographer who makes use us e of the Freudian theory is not not that t hat of exposing expos ing the secret shame of the writer and a nd limi limiting ting the meaning of his work, but on o n the contrary, co ntrary, that of finding finding grounders ground ers for sympathy with the writer and for increasing the possibl po ssiblee significances significances of o f the work. work . Kafka has explored the Freudian Freud ian conceptions of guilt and punishment, punishment, of o f the dream, drea m, and of the fear of the father. Thomas Mann was most susceptibl suscept iblee to the Freudian anthropology. anthrop ology. In “Freud and Literat Literature” ure” to understand u nderstand Freud’ Freud ’s attitude to art, a rt, the t he intensity intensity of the passi passion with with which which Freud Freud belie believes ves that positiv positivis istic tic rational rationalis ism m is the very form of intelle ntellectual ctual virtue, is to be seen. s een. Freud Freu d says that the th e aim of psychoanalysis is is the control co ntrol of o f the night side of life. life. “Where id was, that is, where all the irrational, non-logical, non-logical, pleasure seeking dark force were - there shall s hall ego be - that tha t is, intelligence intelligence and control”. cont rol”. From Fro m his his rationalistic positivism 206


comes much of Freud’s strength in the form of the goal g oal of therapy, the desire to t o bring to men a decent measure of earthly eart hly happiness. He speaks of art as one o ne of the true charms of the good go od life life of writers, he speaks spe aks with admiration and appreciates appreciat es in literat literature ure the specific emotional insights insights and observations. observat ions. Freud speaks of o f literary literary men because they have have understo od the part play played ed in lif life by the hidde hidden n motives, otives, as the precur precursors sors of his his own scien science. ce. On the contrar contrary y, Freud also speaks of o f art with contempt. He says that t hat art is a substitute gratifi grat ification cation and an illusion illusion in contrast to t o reality. reality. One of o f its its chief functions is to serve as a narco tic. For Freud Freu d the artist is a neurotic. He says of the hero of a novel as destined to be a poet or a neurotic neurot ic and belongs belongs to that that race race of beings beings whose realm realm is not of this this world. world. For Freud Fr eud there are a re two tw o ways to t o dealing with external reality. reality. One is practical, prac tical, effective, effective, positive; positive; the way of the conscious self, self, of the ego which must be made independent independent of the super-ego super-eg o and extend exte nd its organization o ver the id, and it is the right way. way. The other way w ay is called the fictional way and the co mmon example of this is day dreaming in in with we give ourselves ours elves a certain pleasure by imagining imagining our difficulties difficulties solved or our o ur desires gratifi grat ified. ed. For Fo r Freud as psychoanalytic ps ychoanalytic practitioner there ther e are the t he polar extremes of o f reality reality and illusion. illusion. Reality is a word implying implying respect and it means what are there t here illusions illusions is a derogat dero gatory ory word, and it means response to what w hat is not there. The T he polar extremes are pract ical reality and neuro neurotic tic illusion, illusion, the latter judged by the former. former. The Freudian Freud ian view view assumes that the mind for for good go od as well as bad helps creat createe its reality by selection and evaluation. In this view reality is subjected to creation. Love, morality, honor and esteem are the compounds of a created reality. The dream and the neurosis on the one o ne hand and art on o n the other o ther hand have certain common common elements, elements, that unconscious processes are at work in both and they share too the element of fantasy, fantasy, though t hough in different different degrees. d egrees. But there ther e is a vital difference. difference. The poet po et is in command command of his fantasy, fantasy, while it it is exactly exact ly the mark of o f the neurotic neuro tic that he is possess p ossessed ed by his fantas fantasy y. Of the distinction distinction between the artist and the neurotic Freud tell t ellss that the artist is not like the neurotic, neurot ic, as he knows how t o find find a way back from the world of o f imaginati imagination. on. When Freud speaks of o f art dealing de aling with the reality he actually means the reward that a successful artist can win. Freud believes that the analytical a nalytical method can explain the inner meaning meaning of the work of o f art and the t he temperament of the artist art ist as man. A famous example example of the method is the attempt att empt to solve the problem of Hamlet Hamlet as suggested by Freud and as carried out ou t by Dr. Dr. Ernest Jones, Jo nes, his early and distinguished follower. follower. The research r esearch undertakes u ndertakes the mystery of Hamlet’s Hamlet’s character characte r and also discovering the deeper working of Shakespeare’s mind. mind. Part of the mystery is why Hamlet Hamlet after he had so definitely definitely resolved to do so, did not no t avenge upon his hated uncle on his father’s death. But there is another anot her mystery mystery to the play p lay,, which Freud calls the mystery of its effect, effect, its magical appeal that draws so much interest interest toward to ward it. The Jones Jo nes research undertakes to discover discover what it was that Shakespeare intended to say about Hamlet. Shakespeare says that the t he guilt guilt Hamlet feels at his unconscious unco nscious attachment att achment to his mother makes him incapable to act. There is an Oedipus situation in Hamlet. Hamlet. The aspect of o f the method which fi finds nds the solution so lution to the t he myste mystery ry of Haml of Hamlet et in in the temperament tempera ment of Shakespeare Shakespe are himself, himself, shall be discussed. Dr. 207


Jones conclude co nclude that anything a nything which which will give the key to the inner meaning of the play will will necessarily give give the clue to much of the deeper workings wo rkings of Shakespeare’s Shakespear e’s mind. Of all mental systems, the Fr Freudian eudian psychology psycho logy is is the one one which makes poetry poet ry belong naturall natura lly y to the very constitution constitu tion of mind. mind. “Poetry “Poe try is a kind kind of beneficent beneficent distortion distor tion of the mind’s mind’s right right course”. co urse”. According to a theory theo ry,, Freud says that all a ll dreams, even the unpleasant unpleasa nt ones, could c ould be understood underst ood upon analysis analysis to have the t he intention of fulfil fulfillin ling g the dreamer’s dr eamer’s wishes. They are in the service of what Freud calls the pleasure principle. Freud evolved another theory, where he first makes the assumption that there is in the psychic life a repetitioncompulsion which goes beyond the pleasure principle. Such a compulsion cannot be meaningless, meaningless, it must have an intent and that intent is the developing on fear. In the essay Huckleberry essay Huckleberry Finn, Finn, Trillin Trilling g sums up that t hat Mark Twain had a theory theo ry of unconscious composition and believed believed that a book must write itself. The book which he referred to as Huck as Huck Finn’ Finn’s Autobiogra Autobiography phy refused to do the job of its own creation and he would not coerce it. When at last Huckleberry Finn was completed and published and widely loved Mark Twain Twain became somewhat aware of what he had accompl acco mplished ished with with the book boo k that has been begun as journey journey work and depreciated, depreciated, postponed, postponed, threatened threatened with destruction. destruction. It is his masterpiecemasterpiece- one of o f the world’ wo rld’ss great books and one of the central documents of American American culture. Its greatness lies primarily in its power of telling the truth. His earlier work The Adventures of Tom Tom Sawyer, Sawyer, does not represent his usual view view either of boys’ book or of boys. boys. He well well knew that that no no one sets a higher higher value value on truth than a boy. boy. “Tru “Truth th is the whole whole of a boy’s boy’s conscious demand upon the world wo rld of adults. He is likely likely to believe believe that the t he adult world wo rld is in a conspiracy consp iracy to lie to him and it is this belief belief by no means unfounded that t hat arouses aro uses Tom and Huck and all boys boys to their moral sensitivity sensitivity,, their t heir everlasting concern with justice, which wh ich they call fairness”. fairness”. At the same s ame time it often makes them skillful skillful and profound profou nd liars in their own defense yet they do not tell the ultimate ultimate lie of adults: they do not no t lie to themselves. Certainl Certa inly y one element in in the greatness great ness of Huckleberry of Huckleberry Finn and of Tom Sawyer is Sawyer is that it succeeds succee ds first as a boy’s boy’s book, “One can read it at ten and then t hen annually annually ever after, and each year find that it is as fresh as the year before, that it has changed only in becoming somewhat larger. Huckl larger. Huckleberr eberryy Finn is Finn is praised as a universal book, book , applicable to mankind in general and at all times and in in all places. places. In form and styl st ylee the book boo k is an almost perfect work. wo rk. “The form of the book is based on the so-called so -called picaresque novel or the t he novel of the road, which string its incidents incidents on o n the line of the hero’ hero ’s travels”. trave ls”. The prose pros e of the book is established est ablished on American American informal informal speech, which w hich gives gives ease and freedom free dom in the use of o f language. Most of all it has to do with the structur str ucturee of the sentences which, is simple, simple, direct and fluent. “The subtle variation of speech in the book bo ok of which Mark Twain was justly justly proud, proud , are stil st illl part of o f the liveliness liveliness and flavour of the book”. The mark of the strictest st rictest literary literary sensibility sensibility is is everywhere to be found in the prose of o f Huckleberry Huckleberry Finn. Finn. “It is this prose that Ernest Hemingway Hemingway had chiefly chiefly in mind mind when he said that t hat all a ll moder modern n American American literature comes from fro m one book boo k by Mark Twain called Huckleber called Huckleberry ry Finn. Finn. 208


In “The Poet as Hero : Keats in His His Letters” of o f The Opposing Self , Trilling Trilling said that th at in the histo history ry of literature literature the letters of John Keats have an interest which is is equal to that t hat of their writer’ writer ’s principle principle of created work. In I n thinking thinking about abou t Keats as a poet, po et, Dr. D r. F.R. F.R. Leavis said that the important documents are a re his poems, poems, not no t his lette letters. rs. His letters are ar e illum illuminating inating and suggestive sugges tive yet in in relation relation to Keats as a poet they t hey are secondary. Because of the letters it is impossible impossible to think of Keats only o nly as a poet, po et, instead he is thought thoug ht of a certain certa in kind kind of man, a hero. A man man or a hero who fully fully engages the t he attention is alway a lwayss distinguished distinguished by some particul part icular ar role. So Keats cannot be thought t hought of o f as a man without being imagined imagined in his his occupation of of a poet. Once his letters are read it becomes becomes clear clear that his his being being a poet poet was his chosen way of being being a man. man. The charm char m of Keat Keats’ s’ letters comes c omes from his conscious desire des ire to live life life in the heroic hero ic mode. The T he phrase in his letter letters, s, “life “life is a vale of soul so ul making”, is his summing summing up of o f the sense which if if one becomes aware of its existence in him him,, one can understand to t o have dominated dominated his mind. mind. He believed believed that life life was given g iven for for him to find the right use u se of it, that t hat it was wa s a kind of continuous magical confrontation confrontat ion requiring requiring to be met with the right answer. He believed that his answer was to be derived from intuition, intuition, courage, co urage, and a nd the accumulation of experience. Keats was nothing if not a man of ideas. His way of conceivi conc eiving ng life life is characteristic characte ristic of the spirited spirited young man of high gif gifts. ts. Keats at a very early age passed beyond all self-conscious self-conscious hesitation about abo ut looking looking deep into into life and himself himself and about freely telling his thoughts. thoughts . Therefore Therefore the fascination for for Keats’ mind mind is due to the wisdom of maturity arising arising from the preoccupations preoc cupations of yout youth. h. Bernard Shaw recognizes rec ognizes a quality q uality in Keats Keats which he call ca lled ed Keats’ Kea ts’ geniality geniality.. He H e had a passion for friendship and society so ciety,, to which he happily contributed contr ibuted and the quality of his letters is in part to be explained by it. The delicacy of feeling and the conviction of observation of Keats’ letters have appeared because Keats Keat s had been able carelessly carelessly to entrust his thoughts to his friends. friends. The credit c redit of the misspelled immedi immediacy acy of the letters goes to the t he confidence between friends friends and to the free manners manners of the group. Keats Keats loved loved the actuality actuality of life; life; its coarseness coarse ness and comm co mmonness onness delighted delighted him. Trill Trilling ing says that Keats’ sense of actuali actua lity ty was quick and in the line line of o f the English poetic humorists. In Keats’s social geniality geniality there was an element of his perso nality, nality, which acted to check it. “His illness illness embittered him, separating separ ating him as he grew more certain cert ain of his his death, deat h, from those who still had the prospect of life, making him jealous. Keats began to see that one reason reaso n for his being being liked liked was his retiring quietness, a certain cert ain courteous courte ous withdrawal withdraw al from from social competitiveness”. compet itiveness”. Nobody Nobo dy is naturall natura lly y satisfied by the society societ y around them as it never really lends itself itself to their t heir purposes and expectations. Of Keats this was especially especially true. Solitary as he might be in his mind, he was never a man of or physical solitude. Company gave him pleasure. He lived lived but little little alone. alone. In Keats fami family ly feelin feeling g was hugely hugely strong and perfectly perfectly direct. His affection affection for his brothers brot hers and sister s ister is a definitive definitive part of his character. His familial familial feeling feeling amounted to a passion. 209


Keats’s mind mind could be understo od with an awareness of his powers power s of enjoyment. Pleasure of the senses was for him the very ground grou nd of life life and moreo moreover ver the ground grou nd of thought. More than t han any other poet Keats is platonic, it was by the natural natu ral impulse impulse of his temperament that his mind mind moved up the t he ladder of love which Plato expounds e xpounds,, beginning with with the love of things and moving moving toward the love of ideas, with existences and moving moving towards to wards essences. But the movement is of a special kind, from a preoccupation with sense to a preoccupat p reoccupation ion with intellect. It is his characteristic mode of thought all through his life to begin with sense which generates the idea and remains continuous with it. Keats was royal ro yal to sense and to the t he pleasure pleasure of the senses. senses. For him him there was no distin distinction ction of prestige prestige among among the senses. senses. Keats’s capacity for pleasure impli implies es his capacity for the understanding und erstanding of tragic t ragic reality. reality. It also served s erved his capacity for for what he called called abstractions. abstrac tions. Ideas, abstractions, were his lif life. e. He lived lived to perceive per ceive ultimate ultimate things, t hings, essences. That is what appetite appet ite or love always means means to him. him. “Plato said that love is the t he child child of Abundance and Want, Want, and for Keats it was just that”. t hat”. In one of the remarkable passages of his his letters Keats says that the t he heart is “is the teat from which the mind or intelligence intelligence suck suck identity”. Keats’ Keat s’ geniality geniality toward to ward himself, his his bold accepta acceptance nce of his primitive primitive appetite, had its decisive effect effect upon the t he nature of his creative intelligence intelligence and his moral moral character. charact er. The heroic quality of Keats or the t he quality of moral moral energy is understood understo od by Keats’ temperamental temperamental endowment. endowment. The traits that make up the the spirited spirited part of the soul were early ear ly and extreme extre me in Keats. Keats. Keats himself made clear genetic gene tic connection between be tween felicity and manly energy. energy. He did d id not refine by negation but by the natural natura l growth, by the tendency of life life to refine. r efine. Keats’ mature matur e masculinity masculinity is the essence essenc e of his being. being. Energy Ene rgy is the basis of his conception of morality. In Keats’ own life he recognizes two states of being which seem equally opposed oppo sed to energy. One is is despair or melancholy melancho ly and the other o ther is happy passivity or indolence of laziness. He had an awareness awarenes s of the female principle as a power, powe r, an energy. energy. He conceived conceived the emotional eff effect ect of of knowledge of poetry, poet ry, which for him him was successful when it led led the t he reader to t o calmness. If Keats did not accept accep t the traditional antagonism between between sensation and poetry on the one hand and intellect intellect and knowledge on the other, o ther, it was because he understood understo od intellect intellect and knowledge in a certain way. way. He did not suppose that mind was an entity different different in kind from and opposed oppos ed to the t he sensations and emotions. e motions. Rather Rat her mind came into being when the sensations and emotions e motions were checked checke d by external resistance or by conflict conflict with each other, when to use the language of o f Freud, the pleasure principle principle is confronted by the reality principle. principle. In Keats the rreali eality ty principle was strong in proport pro portion ion to the pleasure principle. principle. Philoso Philosophy phy and knowledge, the matter matt er of the intellect, intellect, were for him associated in their old traditional way with the burden of o f life. life. To To be philosophical philosophical means to acknowledge a cknowledge with the mind mind the pain of the world, and it means to derive courage from taking tak ing thought. The power po wer and quality of Keats’s mind mind and the energy e nergy of his hero heroism ism concentrat e in the phrase-Negative phrase-Ne gative Capability Capability.. The Conception Co nception of Negative Capability leads to his brothers brot hers Keats wrote wrot e about a quality especially especially in in literature that went to make a man of achievement. achievement. It is Negative Capabil Capa bility ity that is “when a man is capable of being in uncertainties, uncert ainties, mysteries, 210


doubts, without any irritable irritable reachin rea ching g after fact and reason”. Keats thinks of Negat Negative ive Capability Capability as an element of intellectual power. powe r. “The only means means of o f strengthening one’s intellect intellect is to make up one’s mind about nothing, to let the mind be a thoroughfare for all thoughts”. Keats’s statements may well be true in reference to a certain cert ain kind kind of person per son dealing with a certain kind of problem. It will be a human problem to which the exercise of Negative Capability is appropriate. approp riate. Shakespeare Shak espeare is Keats’ example of a mind mind content with half-knowledge, half-knowledge, capable capab le of being in in uncertainties, uncert ainties, mysteries and doubts. doubt s. Keats Keat s says that the excellence e xcellence of every art is its its intensity intensity,, capable of making all disagreeable disagreeable evaporate, evapora te, from being close relation with Beauty and Truth. With With a great poet the t he sense of Beauty overcomes every other consideration. It is a very large human problem, nothing less than the t he problem of evil. evil. Keats’s attachment to the t he principle principle of reality reality was a strong one. o ne. He perceived the fact of evil very clearly and put it at the t he centre of o f his his mental life. life. Equally he had clear knowledge of the self. To Keats the self was just just as real as the evil that destroys it. The idea of reality reality and the idea of self and and its complete destruction go together for him. him. He conceives conceives of o f the energy of the self as at least one so source urce of reality rea lity.. Keats Keat s never deceives dece ives himself himself into into believi be lieving ng that the t he power pow er of imagination imagination is supreme, that it can make make the power po wer of circumstance of no account. acco unt. It is the very nature of his whole intellectual and moral activi act ivity ty that he holds in balance the reali re ality ty of self and the reality of circumstance. The T he knowledge of circumstance and of self both together to gether constitutes constitut es a truth. The self confronting painful painful circumstances makes Keats to attempt atte mpt at the solution of of the problem of evil evil,, to show that that how life may may be called blessed blessed when its circumstances are cursed. In his his letters to Georges and Georgians Keats in Kentucky had dealt dealt with the problem problem both aesthetical aesthetically ly and morally morally.. The The simple simple declaration declaration of the self self in its vital vital energy energy means much to Keats. Keats’s thinking thinking takes a remarkable flight flight into a sort of transcendental transcende ntal psychology in the effort to suggest how intelligences become souls. Intelligences become souls when they acquire identities. The T he horrible circumstances which are the cause of o f the miseries miseries of man work towards towar ds his soul-making soul-making by altering altering his nature. To To Keats Shakespeare Shake speare was a sort sor t of patron pat ron saint or guardian angel. Keats found possibl poss iblee to conceive co nceive Shakespeare’s tragic salvation, salvation, the t he soul accepting the fate that t hat defines it. it. Shakespeare had been one of the t he important important influences influences in Keats’ doctrine doc trine of soul-making. soul-making. In the essay “Word “Wordswort sworth h and the Rabbis”, Trilling Trilling said that Wordsw Wordsworth orth once o nce existed as an attractive att ractive idea or an intellectual intellectual possibility possibility among his ordinary reader and to the literary man a loved loved poet, poe t, possibly po ssibly,, for modern taste ta ste he is too Christian C hristian a poet. He is certainly not to be wholly wholly characterized by the Christian Christian element element of his poetry. Trill Trilling ing acknowledges Wordswort ords worth’ h’ss concern concer n for the life life of humbleness humbleness and quiet, qu iet, his search for pea peace, ce, his sense of the burdens burd ens of this life, life, those t hose which are inherent in the flesh and spirit of man, and his belief that the bonds of o f society ought to t o be inner and habitual, not merely external external and formal, formal, and the t he strengthening of these bonds by the acts and attitudes, at titudes, of o f charity charity is a great duty. Chri Christian stian too seems his responsiveness responsiveness to the idea that there is virtue in the discharge of o f duties. His impulse impulse to submit submit to t o the t he conditions of life life under a guidance, his sense of o f the possibi po ssibili lity ty and actuali actu ality ty of 211


enlightenment, it needs scarcely scarc ely be said, is one of the characteristic charact eristic things about abou t him. Faith Faith and hope were to him great virtues, but he conceived that they rested upon upo n the still still greater virtue, charity. Through Thro ugh all his his poetic poet ic life life Wordsw Wordswort orth h was preoccupied preo ccupied by the idea, by the sentiment, by the probl problem em of bei being. ng. Allexper experie ienc nce, e, all all emoti emotions ons lead to it. it. He wa wass haun haunted ted by the mysteri sterious fact that he existed. He could discover in himself different intensities and qualities of being. “Being is sometimes animal; animal; sometimes it is an appetite appet ite and a passion; pa ssion; sometimes somet imes itit is almost a suspension of of the movement movement of the breath brea th and blood”. With sentiment sentiment of o f being into into consideration, co nsideration, Trilling Trilling says that there t here arises a question ques tion of its degree of o f actuality or of its survival. Wordswort ordsw orth h puts the awareness of being being to the text text in in situations where its presence presence may perhaps most easily be be questioned-in quest ioned-in very old people. Words Wordswort worth’ h’ss usual way is is to represent repres ent the old man as being below the human condition apparently scarcely scarcely able to communicate, communicate, and then suddenly show the intensity of his human human existence. existence. It is an attractive attrac tive thing about Words Wordswort worth h that his acute sense s ense of the being of others desires from, and serves to t o affirm affirm and heighten, his acute sense of o f his his own o wn being. It has not been Trilling’ Trilling’ss intention to make a separation separ ation between Wordswo Wordsworth rth and the literature literature of Trilli Trilling’ ng’ss time. The separation cannot be made. Wordswor Wordsworth th and the great gr eat writers of Trilli Trilling’ ng’ss time stand o n the common co mmon ground of the concern co ncern with being and its problems. pr oblems. Wordswort ord sworth h may be said to have discovered discover ed and first first explored explo red the ground gro und upon which today’ tod ay’ss literat literature ure has established itself. itself. “Again and again in T Today’ oday’ss Literature Literat ure at its most apocalyptic and intense, the readers find the impulse impulse to create creat e figures who are intended to suggest sugg est that life life is justified justified in its its elemental biological simplici simplicity, ty, and in the manner of Wordsw Wordswort orth, h, these t hese figures are conceived co nceived of as being of humble humble status stat us and humble hearts. In Mansfie In Mansfield ld Park , Trilling Trilling advocat es that Jane Austen’s irony irony is primarily a method metho d of comprehension and secondarily secondarily a matte matterr of tone. It perceives pe rceives the world through paradoxes and irregularities. It is by no no means detached. It is the supporter suppo rter with generosity genero sity of spirit. spirit. But it is preoccupied preoccup ied not not only with with the charm of the extensive virtues but also with the cost at which they are to be gained and exercised. Her first first or o r basic irony is is the recogniti re cognition on of o f the fact that spirit is not free, it is conditional and limited limited by circumstances. circumstan ces. Trilling Trilling says that nobody no body has ever found it possible to like the heroine, Fanny Price of Mansfield of Mansfield Park because Park because of here conscious virtue, debility debility and poor poo r in spirit. Mary Crawford of o f the same novel is the antithesis of Fanny Price. The boldness with which the antithesis is devised is typical of the uncompromising honesty of o f the novel. In Mary Crawford there is the first brilliant brilliant example of a distinctively modern type, the t he person perso n who cultivates cultivates the t he style of sensiti se nsitivity vity,, virtue and a nd intelligence. intelligence. “For the author auth or as well as for the heroine, Mans heroine, Mansfield field Park Park is is the good place p lace - it is is the Great Good Goo d Place”. Fanny’s loving loving praise of Mansfield, which makes makes the t he novel’s novel’s last word, wor d, does doe s glance at ironies and encompasses ironies. Of these ironies the chief is is that Lady Bertram, Bert ram, Sir Thomas’s wife is part of o f the perfection. perfection . She is being teased teas ed as well as loved in the novel. Trillin Trilling g is never able to resist the notion that t hat in her attitude to Lady La dy Bertram Jane Austen is 212


teasing herself, that she is turning her irony upon her own fantasy of ideal existence. Lady Bertram is her mocking representation of her wish to escape from the requirements of personal personaliity. ty. It was Jane Austen Austen who first first represen represented ted the specif specific ical ally ly modern personal personality ity and the culture cultur e in which which it had its being. being. Never Ne ver before had the moral life life been shown sho wn as she shows sho ws it to be, never before befo re had it been conceived to be so complex and difficult difficult and exhausting. “Hegel speaks of o f the secularization of spirituality spirituality as a prime characteristic of the modern era and Jane Austen is the first first to t o tell te ll what this involves”. She is the first novelist to represe r epresent nt society, the general culture as playing playing a part in the moral life. life. In the essay Anna essay Anna Karenina Karenina,, Trilling Trilling said that Anna that Anna Karenina, Karenina, the the novel no vel by Tolstoi Tolstoi was an example of naturalistic naturalistic representation. representa tion. “About the book, bo ok, Matthew Ma tthew Arnold said that it was not to be taken as a work of art but as a piece of life”. life”. The novel as an art form had had reached a very high point in its its development. Besides B esides Flaubert, Flaubert, Zola Zo la and Balzac on the scene, Tolstoi made a reasonable rea sonable effect with Ann with Anna a Kar Karenina. enina. “Accor “According ding to Phili Philip p Rahv, in a Tolstoian Tolstoian novel it is never the t he division but always the unity u nity of art and life life which makes the illumination”. illumination”. Tolstoi possesses possesses to the highest degree deg ree the the quality of lif lifelikeness elikeness in his his works. Tolstoi’ Tolsto i’ss objectivity is changed with affection and more than t han anything else it it is this t his moral quality quality that accounts for the unique illusion illusion of reality rea lity that he creates. creat es. It is when the novelist really loves loves his characters charac ters that he can show them in their completeness completeness and contradiction, in their failures failures as well as in their charm. “Tolstoi’s “Tolstoi’s objectiv o bjectivity ity is simply simply the power of his love to suffer suffer no abatement a batement from the account acc ount it takes t akes of o f the fact that usually falls falls below below its ideal of itself”. Trillin Trilling g says that t hat it is chiefly Tolstoi’s moral vision that accounts accou nts for the happiness hap piness with which which the readers respond to Anna to Anna Karenina. Karenina. Part Part of the magic of the book is that it violates our notions of o f the ratio that should exist exist between the importance of an event and the amount of space that t hat is given to it. Tolstoi’s Tolstoi’s awareness that t hat the spirit of o f man is is always at the mercy of the actual actu al and trivial could well be understood understo od in the scene where great amount a mount of attention atte ntion and space is given to the shirts of o f Levin. Levin. To this scene Matthew Matt hew Arnold Arnold exclaims exclaims the book is not to be taken as art but as life ife itself itself,, and and perhaps perhaps as much much as anyth anythin ing g el else “this “this scene scene suggests suggests the energy of animal intelligence intelligence that marks Tolstoi as a novelist”. There is not knowledge rarer r arer than the understanding unders tanding of spirit as it exists in the inescapable inescapable conditions which the actual act ual and the trivial make make for it. It is true tru e that Freud’s Fr eud’s infl influence uence on literature literat ure has been very great. In biogra biography phy its first first effe effect ct was sensati sensationa onall but not fortun fortunate. ate. A new new respon response se was seen seen in readi reading ng the work wo rk of literature with a lively lively sense of its concealed concea led and ambiguous meanings, meanings, as if it were, as indeed it is, a being no no less alive and contradictory contradicto ry than the man who created it. And this response to the literary work has had a corrective co rrective effect effect upon our o ur conception concept ion of literary literary biogra biograph phy y. There is no single meaning meaning to any work of art. art . This is true because bec ause it makes art a richer thing and also because historical and personal experience show it to be true. Changes in historical context and in personal perso nal moo mood d change the meaning of a work and indicate that artistic a rtistic understanding is not a question q uestion of o f fact fact but of value. Even if the author’s autho r’s intention intention were precisely 213


determinable, determinable, the meaning meaning of a work cannot lie in in the author auth or’’s intention alone. It must also lie in its effect. The audience partly determines the meaning of the work. Freud says that in addition addition to t o the author’ author ’s intention, the mystery of Hamlet’s Hamlet’s effect effect must also be taken ta ken into account. Historically Hamlet’s effect had been single and brought about solely by the magical power of the Oedipus motive. mot ive. In the essay on Keats it is said that at present time t ime the theory of poetic creation creat ion holds that the t he poet derives his his power pow er from some lacking lacking or deprivati d eprivation on he has suffered. suffered. It is taken for granted that the po et writes out of darkness of the spirit spirit or o r not at all. all. But this was not Keats’ belief. belief. For him the writing writing of poetry was first a regular work, his occupation, and then t hen a great joy. For several obvious reasons he was much concerned with health, the word occurs frequently in his his poems po ems and he hated hat ed ill health, health, whether physical or mental. In “Wordswort “Wordsworth h and the Rabbis” the readers look at Wordswort Wordsworth h in the context of o f his his own time and in the context conte xt of o f their time, time, what may properly pro perly be called the Christian element element of o f his poetry can be made made to speak spe ak to them, t hem, as it it spoke spok e to so many who were not Christians and made them in one degree or another accessible to Christianity Christianity.. After After analy an alyzing zing Wordswo Wordsworth’s rth’s sense of the being, the readers summarize that he is not separated separat ed from them by his preoccupation preoccupa tion with being, being, for it is their preoccupation. preoccupat ion. Yet, Yet, he is separated from them because his conception of being seems different from theirs. Wordsworth’s mind has an element of mysticism. His mysticism mysticism consists of two elements, his conception of o f the world wor ld as being semantic, and his capacity for intense pleasure. When the readers speak spe ak of Wordswo Wordsworth rth as a mystic mystic in any other sense, they are sure to be expressing their incomprehension of intensity with which he experienced his own being, and their t heir incomprehension of the relation which his sentiment sentiment of o f being being bore to his his will will.. In Mansfield In Mansfield Park it it is discussed that t hat Jane J ane Austen’s malice malice of irony is directed not only upon certain of the characters of o f her novels but also also upon upo n the reader himself. himself. The shock of audience’s audience’s surprise at the t he disappointment of their settled views is of course the more startli start ling ng because because they beli believe that they have have settled their their views views in conformi conformity ty with with the author’s author’s own. The interference with their moral and intellectual intellectual comfort comfort constitutes co nstitutes malice malice on o n the part of the author. autho r. Mary Crawford in Mansfield in Mansfield Park is is conceived to win the charmed admiration of o f almost any reader. reade r. She is all pungency and wit. Her He r mind is is as lively and competent as a s her body body. She She is downri downright, ght, open, open, intel intelli ligen gentt and impati impatient ent.. Irony Irony is her natura naturall mode and audien audience ce is drawn to think t hink of her voice as being as nearly the author ’s own. ow n. “Yet “Yet in the end audience aud ience is asked to believe believe that she is not to be admired, that her lively lively mind mind compounds, by very reason of its liveliness, liveliness, with the wo world, rld, the flesh and the devil”. By the implication of secularization secularizat ion of spirituality spirituality it is required of the audience that they t hey judge not merely the moral act itself but also the quality of the agent. In the essay Anna essay Anna Karenina Karenina,, it is said that Tolstoi gives to the novel its norm and standard of reality. Only one other writer who has ever seemed to his readers to have this normative quality in in a more positive po sitive and formulated formulated way wa y was with Homer. It was what Po pe 214


felt felt when he said that nat nature ure and Homer were the same. One of the ways of o f accounting for the normative normative quality of Homer is to speak of his objectivity objectivity.. Homer give g ivess the t he reader the t he object itself without without interposing inter posing his personality between it and the reader. r eader. He gives the person per son or thing t hing or event without judging judging it, as Nature gives it. And And to the extent that this is is true of Homer or Tolstoi is not objectivity o bjectivity,, but subjectivity s ubjectivity,, for every e very object in The Iliad or or in Anna in Anna Karenina Karenina exists in the medium medium of author’ author ’s love. This love is so pervasive, so constant and equitabl equ itable, e, that t hat it creates crea tes the t he illusion illusion of objectivity objec tivity.. Nowadays Nowadays the sense sense of evil evil comes comes easil easily y to all. all. All All share share what Henry Henry James James call called the imagination imagination of disaster. “The imagination imagination of disaster is a bold and courageous co urageous function of o f the mind mind but it is also exclusive exclusive and jealous - it does do es not easily permit other imaginations to work w ork beside beside it; it; it it more readily readily conceives conceives evil evil than that to which which the evil evil may befall; befall; or if it does conceive the t hing that may be harmed, it is likely likely to do so in a merely abstract way”. The T he reader’ reader ’s taste ta ste for the t he literature which w hich arises from from this imagination imagination is a natural one, on e, yet it has in it the danger dang er of evil being being assumed equivalent to reality. reality. The literary production produ ction since Tolsto Tolstoii has been enormously brillian brilliantt and relevant, yet it is a striking fact that, that , although althou gh many writers writers have been able to tell their readers of o f the pain of life, life, virtually no writer has been able to t ell them of pain in terms of life’s life’s possibl po ssiblee joy and although altho ugh many have repres represented ented the distortion distort ion of human relationship, scarcely any have been able to make act ual what the normali no rmalities ties of relationships are. But “in Tolstoi the family is an actuality; parenthood is a real and not a symbolic symbolic condition; cond ition; the affections affections truly t ruly exist and may may be spoken spoke n of without embarras embarrassment; sment; love wakes and wanes is tender or quarrelsome”. It is the low pitch of o f Tolstoi’ Tolstoi’ss imagination imagination of disaster that t hat reminds his readers of what life in its normal actuality is. Lionel Trilli Trilling ng is one of the t he few critics to have actually written at some length on the t he relationship between psychoanalysis and literature. No other critic has shown a comparable grasp of the significance significance of o f psychoanalysis psychoanalysis and its perfect incorporat incor poration ion in his criticism. criticism. Trilli Trilling ng has brought psychoanalytic through in harmony with his criticism. Trilling understood psychoanalysi psychoanalysiss more fully fully than his his contemporaries contemporaries Willi illiam am Empson, Edmund Wilson ilson and and Kenneth Burke, who also made use of o f itit in their their criticism. criticism. His careful formulation formulation of its concepts in non-technical language shows that he understands their t heir boundaries as well as what they t hey contain; his conclusions conclusions are conservative co nservative and judiciall judicially y stated; his suggestions suggest ions for new uses of these ideas in criticism criticism are brilliant. brilliant. And yet yet at a t the sometime a reluctance to t o follow to its logical conclusion conclusio n can be seen in his essays. The great grea t strength stre ngth of Trilling’ Trilling’ss essays is its recognition recog nition of the contributions contr ibutions which psychoanal psychoanalys ysis is has made and can make to the the study of literature literature and even to its its production production.. Most important important of all is the demonstration that the t he regular processes o off mental mental functionin functioning g are poetic poetic in nature. nature. It is obvi obvious that that Tril Trilli ling ng has a grasp grasp of what what psychoa psychoana naly lysi siss tell tells us about about the mind and its functioning. Trilling’ Trilling’ss predominant pre dominant interest intere st as a critic was to t o effect a meaningfully meaningfully dialogue betwee be tween n literat literature ure and life. life. He made the t he life life of the mind a challenging critical pursuit, pursu it, and searched searche d for the filaments filaments between literature and social sciences, philoso philosophy phy and depth, 215


psychol psychology ogy and and life. ife. He alway alwayss thought thought that literatur iteraturee is as much much a criti critici cism sm of the life ife as life ife is and ought to be a criticism criticism of literature. literature. He often affirmed affirmed that the artistic art istic existence existence of a work wo rk was largely determined by its its authentic au thentic critique of life. Trilli Trilling ng understood underst ood literat literature ure as a s an act of o f the moral imagination imagination and as an agent of social soc ial and political political health. It was the spiritual s piritual and moral health of a work wo rk that, t hat, in Trilling’ Trilling’ss view, determined deter mined its its enduring end uring qualities. qu alities. Trilling Trilling has never ne ver been dogmatic do gmatic in his conclusions. co nclusions. Every “yes” in Trilling’ Trilling’ss writing is followed soon soo n after by a “no” in a rhythm nearly as regular as breathing bre athing or the systole systo le and diastole of the heart. He was more likely likely to argue one side and than the other ot her in alternation. alternation. The crisis of Trilli Trilling ng has to guard against a gainst making too much of any particular expression of opinion. Each Eac h essay is likely likely to present pr esent only o nly a part of o f Trill Trilling’ ing’ss mind, reaction react ion not only on ly to the dominant dominant cultural mood mood but also to a previous previous mood of his own. We We need to speak not o f fixed ideological ideolog ical positions positions but of alternatio alternations ns and fluct fluctuations uations of o f mood mood.. Trilli Trilling ng was a graceful man and the inherent gracefulness grac efulness is shown itself principally principally in his writings. He wrote wrot e possibly pos sibly the best critical prose of his time-supple, flexible, flexible, fluent, yet firm. firm. This graceful grace fulness ness was something something of a moral quality qu ality or at least allied allied to the moral mora l character charact er of Trilling. Trilling. Trillin Trilling’s g’s outlook outloo k is uncompromisingly uncompromisingly naturalistic naturalistic and Freudian. Fre udian. Freud is the one fixed fixed pil p illar lar of conviction to t o which which he personally held. Freud himself was the primal father figure of psychoanalysis. If Trilling could be called called doctrinaire abou aboutt anything, it is in hi hiss adherence adherence to Freudianism, Trilli Trilling ng remained an uncompromising uncompromising rational rat ionalist ist to the end. If Mark Van Van Doren Do ren was Columbia’s Columbia’s most famous author, aut hor, then t hen Lionel Trillin Trilling g was certainl certa inly y its most famous critic. One of the most mos t public of this century’ centu ry’ss public intellect intellectuals, uals, Trilli Trilling ng became nationally nat ionally known for both bo th his scholarship scho larship and his literary criticism, which appealed to a wide audience. At Columbia, Columbia, however, Trilling Trilling was also recognized reco gnized as a gifted and dedicated teacher with a special commitment commitment to undergraduate education. Such was Trill Trilling’ ing’ss reputation reput ation that students of o f all kinds were known to come co me to the College expressly to ‘take Trilling’. A native of Queens, he entered Columbia in 1921, when the College was begi beginn nniing to experi experime ment nt with with genera generall educati education on courses. courses. When When he began began teachi teaching ng in the early early 1930s, he was quickly recognized as one of the school’s most acute minds, though also something of an iconoc iconoclast. last. He began teaching general education educat ion courses early ear ly in his his careerin the 1930s, he co-taught a section of the Colloquium on Important Boo ks with Jacques Barzun. Later L ater he became be came a mainstay of Humanities Humanities A. The future generations gener ations of readers will read his writings writings and discover that they t hey too have becom becomee better better acqui acquire red d with with thems themsel elve ves, s, a real reality about about which which the moder modern n man is most anxi anxious ous and uncertain. uncert ain. This reality reality of oneself one self is is the utmost reality according to Trilli Trilling. ng. The faculty of rational intellect, intellect, the idea of mi mind, nd, that he had once described as a po poor or gray thin t hing, g, was not so gray after all. In writers like like Hazlitt, Arnold, Mill Mill and George Orwell, this faculty was rigorously and obstinately exercised, which which had led to its own self-transcendence and to its transformation tra nsformation into literature. In the writing wr iting of Lionel Trilli Trilling ng one can observe these processes pro cesses at a t work. work . Trilli Trilling ng was our teacher te acher and his writings are now a permanent part of our culture’s heritage. 216


What made Lionel L ionel Trilling Trilling unique among literary critics was the t he way he applied the idea of the ‘moral im imagination’ agination’ to the t he writers he especially es pecially admired. In the course c ourse of o f discussing works by Henry James, E. M. Forster, Fo rster, Jane Austen, Charles Dickens, George Geo rge Orwell, and F. F. Scott Scot t Fitzgerald, among amo ng others, Trilling Trilling raised questions about how ho w we live live our lives, about the t he nature of o f good and evil, evil, about abo ut the roles played by culture culture and a nd biology, biology, about our o ur ambivalence ambivalence in making making moral choices. Readers Re aders came c ame to look loo k for something so mething in in Trilling Trilling that went beyond the t he insights insights of o f traditional literar literary y criticism. criticism. They expected something so mething closer to philosophical philosop hical wisdom.

14.6 14.6 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up In The Liberal Imagination and The and The Opposing Self Trilling Trilling combines literary and social criticism, criticism, and deals de als with the state st ate of o f the individual individual in modern society through th rough analy a nalysis. sis. He has brought broug ht psychoanalytic thought thoug ht in harmony with his criticism. These Postc Postcolonial olonial texts from the pen of Trilling Trilling intro introduce duce the t he key concepts concept s of liberal imagination imagination and conflict between self-definition self-definition and the t he influence influence of culture..They culture.. They are the t he best critical works of Lionel Trillin Trilling. g. Trilling Trilling shows how criticism, written with grace, gra ce, style, and a self-questioning s elf-questioning cast o off mind, mind, can itself become a form of literature, as well as a valuable valuable contribution cont ribution to how we think about society. Through its interpretation interpret ation of the major social, poli po litical tical and literary literary issues, the books bo oks have carved a niche for itself in in the list of major Postcolonial texts of o f the contemporary era era.. In the end, it can be said that Lionel Trillin Trilling g came to prominence p rominence as a spokesman spo kesman for moral realism and the tragic tra gic view of life. life. This view of o f psychoanalysis is is a useful useful tool in the hands o off a critic and its base in his sense of history consisting of o f a number number of o f forces - politi po litical, cal, sociological, cultural, philosophical, psychological and so on. o n. Primarily he is grouped in the histo historical rical school of criticism and and critics belonging to tthis his group gro up laid emphasis on the study of the biography of an author, containing dynamic forces - psychological as well as social that played significant role in contributing the personality of the artist.


What What made made Lionel Lionel Tril Trilli ling ng a uni unique fig figure ure amon among g lit literar erary y cri criti tics? cs? Eluci Elucidate date..

2.

‘Trilling’s The Liberal Imagination mingles mingles literary criticism wi with th analyses of culture, politi politics, cs, and history history’. ’. Discus Discusss.

3.

What What brin brings gs Tril Trilli ling ng imme immedi diate ate nati national onal attenti attention on as a lite literary rary criti criticc of the fi first order? order?

4.

‘Tri ‘Trill llin ing g shows shows how how critic criticiism, sm, written written with with grace grace,, styl style, and and a selfself-questi questioni oning ng cast cast of mind, mind, can itself become a form of literat literature, ure, as well as a valuable contribution to how we think about society’. Discuss.

5.

‘Tri ‘Trill llin ing’ g’ss theory theory proposes proposes that that lif life itsel itselff is nothi nothing but but a round round about about course course,, a circui circuitous tous path imposed mposed on livi living ng substance substance by external external inf influences’ luences’.. Write rite a detail detailed answer answer..

6.

‘Tri ‘Trill lliing emph emphasi asized zed,, instea instead d of acti active ve free freedom dom,, a primor primordi dial al,, static, static, essent essentiially ally conservative principle principle within the self that allows it to cohere and resist re sist the disintegrative 217


process process of moderni modernity ty’. ’. Expl Explain. ain. 7.

‘Kea ‘Keats ts can canno nott be though thoughtt of as as a man man wi without thout bei being ng ima imagi gine ned d in his his occup occupati ation on of a poet’. Discuss Discuss in reference reference to the theory given given inThe in The Opposing Self.

8.

‘Keats ‘Keats thi thinks nks of ‘Neg ‘Negati ative ve Capab Capabil iliity’ ty’ as an an elem elemen entt of inte intelllectua lectuall power’. power’. Discu Discuss. ss.

9.

‘Bein ‘Being g is is someti sometime mess anim animal; sometim sometimes es it it is is an an appeti appetite te and and a passi passion; on; sometim sometimes es itit is is almost a suspension suspension of the the movement of the bre breath ath and blood’. bloo d’. Discuss Trilling’s Trilling’s analysis analysis about Wordsworth in the light of this statement. state ment.

10.

‘Jane ‘Jane Austen’ Austen’s irony irony is primar primaril ily y a method method of comprehe comprehensi nsion on and and secondari secondarily ly a matter matter of tone. Substantiate Substan tiate your views as Tri Trill lling ing advocates advocat es in Mansfield Mansfield Park .

11. 11.

‘Jane ‘Jane Austen Austenee is is the the first first novel noveliist to represen representt society society,, the gener general al cult culture ure as as playi playing ng a part in the moral life life’. ’. Do you agree agree with with Tril Trilli ling? ng?

12.

‘Tril ‘Trilli ling ng made made the life ife of the min mind d a challe challengi nging ng critica criticall pursuit, pursuit, and searched searched for for the filam filaments ents between literature and a nd social sciences, philosophy and depth, dept h, psychology and life’. Discuss.


Frai Fraiberg, berg, Louis. Louis. ‘Li ‘Lione onell Tri Trillling ling’’s Creati Creative ve Exten Extensi sion on of Freudi Freudian an Conc Concepts epts’, ’, in in Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis and American Literary Critici C riticism. sm. Detroit: Det roit: Wayne Wayne State Stat e Unive U niversity rsity Press, 1960.

2.

Krupn Krupniik, Mark. Mark. Lione Lionell Tri Trillling ing and and the Fate Fate of Cult Cultural ural Critic Criticis ism m. ‘The ‘The U Uses ses of Freud’ Freud’,, Evanston: Northwestern Nort hwestern University University Press, 1961.

3.

Marc Marcus us,, Steve Steven. n. ‘Li ‘Lionel onel Tril rilling, 19051905-197 1975’ 5’,, in Art, Art, Politics and and Will Will:: Essays in Honor of Lionel Trilling. Trilling. Ed. Quentin Qu entin Anderson Anderson and a nd et all. New York: Basic Books, Book s, 1977. 197 7.

4.

Tril Trillling, Tril Trillling. The Li Liberal beral Imagi Imaginati nation: on: Essay Essayss on Li Literature terature and Society Society.. 1950; rpt, London: Mercury Books, 1961.

5.

Trilling, Trilling. The Opposing Op posing Self: Nine Essays in Criticism. New York York:: The Yiking Yiking Press, 1955. ____________

218


UNIT-15 ELAINE SHOWALTER: TOWARDS TOWARDS A FEMINIST POETICS Structure 15.0

Objectiv tives

15.1 15.1


15.2

Biogr Biograp aph hical cal Inf Informat ormatiion

15.3 15.3

Liter terary Work orks

15.4

Introd troduc ucti tion on to towards towards a Feminist Poetics Poeti cs 15.4.1 15.4. 1 Three Phases Phases of Femini Feminist st Writi Writings ngs 15.4.2 15.4. 2 Cultural Cultural Femi Feminism nism 15.4.3 Gyn Gynocri ocriti tics cs 15.4.4 Criti Critical cal Recepti Reception on

15.5

Let Us Sum Up

15.6 15.6

Review Question tionsso

15.7 15.7

Bibliogr ography

15.0 15.0 Objectives The following following unit presents an overview of Showalter’s Showalt er’s work wor k and critical critical reception of her works. wor ks. Besides it also discusses cultural cu ltural Feminism Feminism and theory of gynocriticism

15.1 Intr Intro oductio tion One of America’ America’ss foremost academic academic literary scholars, Showalter is renowned for her pioneering pioneering femi feminis nistt studies of nineteenthnineteenth- and twentieth-century twentieth-century femal femalee authors and her provoc provocati ative ve cultura culturall anal analy ysis sis of women women’’s oppres oppressi sion on in the the histor history y of psyc psychi hiatr atry y. In her her influ nfluen enti tial al book A book A Literatur Literaturee of Their Ow Own: n: British Women Novelists Novelists from Brontë Brontë to Lessing Lessing (1977), (1977), Showalter advanced a dvanced a new form of feminist feminist literary theory under the term “gynocriticism,” “gynocriticism,” offering an alternative framework for the interpretation of women’s literary history. Likewise, in works such as The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830and Hystories: 1980 (1985) 1980 (1985) and Hystor ies: Hysterical Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Culture Culture (1997), Showalter forged the branch of feminist criticism known as “hystory,” an attempt to reinterpret and redefine the pejorative pejorative notion of o f women’s women’s hysteria as embodied in literary and social history. history. Showalter’s S howalter’s contributions to femini feminist st critici c riticism sm and women’s studies have helped influence influence the canon of o f

219


British and American litera literatur ture, e, bringing new visibi visibility lity and legitimacy legitimacy to often o ften forgott forgo tten en or under-appreciated under-appreciat ed female female authors.

15.2 Biogr Biograp aphi hica call Info Inform rmat atio ion n Elain Elain Showalter was born in Cambridge, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Massachusetts, in 1941 to parents Paul Cottler Cott ler and Violet Violet Rottenberg Rot tenberg Cottler. Cot tler. Though he never fini finished shed grammar school, Showalter’s Showa lter’s immigrant father was a successful wool merchant. Showalter’s mother completed high school but remai remained ned at home home in the role role of housew housewiife. fe. Showal Showalter ter chose chose to attend attend Bryn Bryn Mawr Mawr Colle College ge against the wishes of her parents who both bot h disapproved of o f their daughter’s daught er’s intellectual intellectual leanings and educational educat ional ambitions. ambitions. Nonetheless, No netheless, Showalter completed her bachelor’ bachelor ’s degree in English at Bryn Mawr in 1962 and subsequently pursued graduate studies in English at Brandeis University University.. Her parents also objected tto o her engagement to t o Engli E nglish sh Showalter, a French scholar, who was not Jewish. Jewish. When Showalter began her graduate work at Brandeis, her parents stopped supporting her financially, and after she married Showalter in 1963, they disowned her. Showalter completed co mpleted her master’s master ’s degree degre e in English at Brandeis in 1964 and embarked embark ed upon her docto do ctoral ral studies stud ies at the University of California California at Davis, where her husband had taken a teaching appointment appointment in the French department. In 1970, after starting start ing a family family she moved to Princeton University University,, where her husband had accepted accept ed a faculty position, Showalter received her do ctorate cto rate in English from University University of California California Davis and was wa s hired as an assistant professor pro fessor at Douglass Do uglass College of Rutgers University University in New Jersey Jerse y. In the late 1960s, 196 0s, she became beca me active in the new women’ wo men’ss movement and served as preside president nt of the Princeton Princeton chapter chapter of the National National Organi Organizati zation on for Women (NO (NOW) W) in 1969. Her involvement in NOW brought her into contact with other emerging emerg ing feminist feminist leaders, most notably feminist literary scholar Kate Millett and feminist art historian Linda Nochlin. During this early period period of o f activism, activism, Showalter edited e dited Women’s omen’s Liberation Lib eration and Literature (1971) Literature (1971) and published A published A Literatur Literaturee of Their Their Ow Own, n, her her first major work wor k of literary scholarship. While at Douglass, Dou glass, she moved moved from assistant professor to associate a ssociate professor pro fessor in 1974, and became a full professor of English in 1983. She also served as a visiting professor of English and women’s women’s studies stud ies at the University University of Delaware between 1976 and 1977. 197 7. During this period, she received several important fellowships, including a Guggenheim fellowship in 1977 and a Rockefeller humanities humanities fellowship fellowship in 1981. In 19 1984 84 Showalter Sho walter left Douglass Doug lass for Princeton University, University, where she accepted accep ted a position po sition as a professor professo r of English English and was later named the Avalon Professor of Humanities. She has worked as an editor for several feminist scholarly journals journals and and publis publishers, hers, includin including g Women’ omen ’s Studies, Stud ies, Signs, t Signs, the he Feminist Feminist Press, and Virago Virago Press. A member of the Modern Language Association (MLA), Showalter served on its Commission on the Status of Women in the Profession from 1971 to 1972 and as the organization’s organization’s president from 1998 to 1999. Showalter Sho walter has also worked as a freelance journalist journalist in both the print and broadcast media. Among the founding scholars of o f feminist feminist literary literary critici c riticism sm and women’ wo men’ss studies stu dies in 220


America, America, Showalter Sho walter broke new ground gro und in the 1970s by creating a progressive progres sive literary literary theory known as “gynocriticism.” “gynocriticism.” Unlike traditional literary criticism, criticism, gynocriticism focuse focused d on the t he “history, “history, themes, genres, and structures stru ctures of o f literature literature by women,” seeking to create a method of analyzing analyzing literat literature ure written by women and to develop models of o f interpretat interpretation ion based on female female experience, rather than adapting adapt ing male male interpretive theories and models. Putting Putt ing her theory into practice, Showalter edited the anthology Women’s omen’s Liberation Lib eration and a nd Literature, L iterature, consisting of excerpts excerp ts from works considered co nsidered essential essent ial to feminist literar literary y study, such as Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication indication of the Rights of Women Women and and Henrik Ibsen’ Ibse n’ss A Doll’s Doll’s House. In A In A Literature Literature of Their Own, a Own, a revision and elaboration of her doctoral dissertation, Showalter rebukes the unfair unfair critical standards applied to the work wo rk of English women writers in the nineteent nineteenth h century and contends co ntends that, that , as a result, female artists paid a terrible price for their creative work in terms of guilt, self-loathin self-loathing, g, and frustrated effort. Between Betwee n 1975 and 1981, Showalter S howalter published published three essays in academic journals journals that, taken together to gether with A with A Literat Literatur uree of Their Their Ow Own, n, form form the foundation o off her literary literary critical outlook and have become major major tenets of American American feminist feminist literary criticism. criticism. The first, “Literary Criticism” (1975), publi publish shed ed in the journa ournall Signs, discusses Signs, discusses two approaches to feminist criticism—feminist critique, which examines the anti-female biases of traditional trad itional readings and literary litera ry canons; and feminist reevaluation of women writers considered to t o be minor minor figures, as they represent the idea of a historical female subculture. Showalter’s next seminal essay, “Toward a Feminist Poetics,” was originall o riginally y published in Mary Jacobus’ Jacobus ’s anthology antho logyW Women Writing and Writing about a bout Women (1979). Women (1979). In I n this piece, piece, Showalter Showa lter introdu introduced ced the term t erm “gynocritics” “gynocritics” and demonstrated its efficacy efficacy with a feminist feminist critique of Thomas T homas Hardy’ Har dy’ss The Mayor of Casterbridge and its Casterbridge and male-centered critical interpr interpretat etations. ions. In the t he third essay essa y, “Feminist “Feminist Criticism in in the Wilderness” Wilderness” (1981), (198 1), originall o riginally y published in the journal jour nalCritical Critical Inquiry Inqu iry,, Showalter used u sed the female female cultural analysis analysis developed by Oxford anthropologist anthro pologistss Shirley and Edwin Ardner Ardner to argue that women w omen form a muted group within the dominant male culture, a group whose reality and culture overlap with those of o f the dominant culture, but is not contained conta ined within within it. She further maintained maintained that women’s women’s writing constitutes a “double-voiced discourse discourse that always always embodies the social so cial,, literary, literary, and cultural heritages of both bot h the muted and the dominant.” As editor of The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature, and Theory (1985), Theory (1985), Showalter Show alter brought to gether one of the most comprehensive collections collections of feminist literary theory and criticism to date, including examples of French feminism, gynocriticism, gynocriticism, and African-American African-American and lesbian feminist feminist criticism. criticism. Showalter subsequently subsequent ly publish published ed Sister’s Sister’s Choice: Choic e: Tradition and a nd Change Cha nge in American Women’s omen’s Writing (1991), (1991), a critical critical counterpart to A to A Literature Literature of Their Own, in Own, in which she traces the development develop ment of American women’s women’s writing through a wide-ranging wide- ranging liter literary ary survey and close studies stud ies of Margaret Fuller Fuller and Louisa May Alcott Alcott,, Kate Kat e Chopin’ Chop in’ss The Awakening, Awakening, Edith Edith Wharton’ Wharto n’ss The House of Mirth, and Mirth, and various gothic go thic forms of women’s women’s writing from from the 1960s. 19 60s. In the t he mid-1980s mid-1980s,, Showalter extended her critical outlook from literary literary criticism criticism to cultural history, history, focusing on embedded concept co nceptions ions of mental mental health and the t he expression of sexua sexuall issues issues in terms of gender. 221


In The Female Malady, a Malady, a study stu dy of the sexual politics politics of o f British psychiatric psychiatric history, history, Showalter Sho walter argued that a femini feminization zation of madness occurred occur red in the nineteenth nineteenth century, century, and that women became became the primary primary recipien recipients ts of psychi psychiatric atric treatment, treatment, servin serving g as as the cultural cultural exempl exemplars ars of insanity. insanity. She further furt her maintained that until the late 1970s, psychiatry treated treat ed women in the confining context of “femininity,” which was largely responsible for their psychological demoralization. Sexual Anarchy: Gender and Culture at the Fin-de-Siècle Fin-de- Siècle (1990) (1990) presents a literar literary y and cultural analysis of the corresponding corresp onding millenni millennial al crises of the 1890s 1890 s and the 1990s, particularly as evident in the anxiety wrought by female sexual liberation and the corresponding correspo nding scourges of o f syphili syphiliss and AIDS, and expre expressed ssed in homoerotic homoero tic elements elements of o f male male adventure fiction by Robert Louis Stevenson Steve nson and Rider Haggard, and late-twentieth-century films. films. Showalter returned r eturned to t o the subject of mental health in in Hystorie Hystories, s, in in which she examines a variety of mysterious afflictions that emerged during the 1980s and 1990s, including chronic fatigue syndrome, Gulf War War syndrome, alien abductions, abduct ions, and recovered rec overed memories of sexual abuse. Turning Turning a skeptical skept ical eye eye to these ambiguous ambiguous epidemics, epidemics, Showalter S howalter asserts that t hat all are psychos psychosom omati aticc condi conditi tions ons that that refle reflect ct a proli proliferati feration on of mass mass hyster hysteria ia,, ampl amplif ifie ied d by widesp widesprea read d communication media and millennial anxiety. Inventing anxiety. Inventing Herself: Claiming a Feminist Intellect Intellectual ual Heritage Heritage (2000) (2000) presents p resents a survey of various “femini “feminist st icons,” a broad label that Showalter Showa lter affixes affixes to intellectuals intellectua ls such as Wollstonec Wollstonecraft, raft, Fuller, Eleanor Marx, and Sim S imone one de Beauvoir as well as contemporary contempo rary celebrity figures figures such su ch as Oprah Opra h Winf Winfrey rey and Diana, Princess Pr incess of Wales. Wales. Showalter Show alter has also edited Daughters edited Daughters of Decadence: Decadence: Women Women Writers of the the Finde-Siècle (1993 de-Siècle (1993), ), an anthology antholog y of women’s women’s writings from the late-nineteenth century, Her husband, English English Showalter, is a Yal Yale-educated e-educated professor p rofessor of o f 18th century French literature. literature. The Showalters Showa lters have two children, children, Michael Showalter, an actor act or and comedian, co median, and Vinca Vinca Showalter LaFleur, LaFleur, a professional p rofessional speechwriter.

15.3 Lite Litera rary ry Work rkss Showalter is a special spec ialist ist in Victorian Victorian literat literature ure and the t he Fin-de-Siecle (turn of the 19th 19t h century). Her most innovative work in this field field is in in madness and hysteria hyste ria in literatu literature, re, specifi specificall cally y in women’s women’s writing and in the p portr ortrayal ayal of female female characters. character s. She is the Avalon Foundation Professor Emerita. Her academic honors include a Guggenheim Fellowship (1977–78) and a Rockefeller Humanities fellowship (1981–82). She is also also the past-president past- president of o f the Modern Language Association (MLA). Showalter’s best known works are Toward a Feminist Poe Poetics tics (1979), (1979), The Female Malady: Women, Women, Madness, and English Culture Culture (1830–1980) (1985), (1830–1980) (1985), Sexual Anarchy: Gender at Culture at the Fin de Siecle Siecle (1990), Hystories: (1990), Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and and Inventing Herself: Modern Media (1997), Media (1997), and Inventing Herself: Claiming Claiming a Feminist Feminist Intellectual Intellectual Heritage Heritage (2001). In 2007 Showalter was chair of the judges for the prestigious British literary award, the Man Booker International Inte rnational Prize. Showalter’s Ph.D. thesis t hesis is called called The Double Critical Standard: Criticism of Women 222


Writers in England, 1845–1880 (1969) 1845–1880 (1969) and was later turned into the book A book A Literature Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing (1978), Lessing (1978), which contains contains a lengthy and much-discussed chapter on Virginia Woolf. The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830–1980 (1985) 1830–1980 (1985) discusses hysteria, which was once known know n as the “female “female malady” and according to Showalter, Sho walter, is called called depression to day. day. Showalter Show alter demonstrates how cultural ideas about proper feminin femininee behavi behaviour our have have shaped shaped the defin definiition tion and treatm treatment ent of femal emalee insani nsanity ty from from the Victorian ctorian era to the present. Sexual Anarchy: Gender at Culture at the Fin de Siecle (1990) Siecle (1990) outlines outlines a history of the sexes and the crises, themes, and problems associated with the battle for sexual supremacy and identity. In the 1990s, Showalter began writing for popular magazines, bringing bringing her work further into the public sphere than it ever had been during her academic career. Showalter was the television television critic for Peo for People ple magazine magazine in in 1996. She explains explains her impetus to do d o popular po pular cultural work: “I’ve always always really loved loved popular po pular culture, but it wasn’t something serious intellectuals were supposed to be concerned about. … I would like to be able to bring my background background and my skill skillss to subjects subjects that t hat do reach a wide audience” (Plett). In Hystories In Hystories:: Hysterical (1997) Showalter argues Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Modern Media Media (1997) that hysteria, a medical condition traditionally seen as femi feminine, nine, has persisted persiste d for for centuries ce nturies and is now manifesting manifesting itself in in cultural phenomena p henomena in the forms of o f sociallysocially- and medically-accepted medically-accepted maladies. Psychological and physical effects of unhappy lives become “hysterical epidemics” when popular media saturate the public with paranoid reports and findings, essentially legitimizing, legitimizing, as Showalter S howalter calls them, “imaginary illnesses” illnesses” ( Hysto Hystorie riess, cover). Showalter S howalter says “Hysteria is part of everyday life. life. It not only o nly survives in the 1990s, but it is more contagious cont agious than in the past. Newspapers, magazines, magazines, talk shows, self-help self-help books, and of o f course the Internet ensure that ideas, once planted, manifest manifest themselves themselves internationally internationally as symptoms” (Plett). Inventing Herself: Claiming a Feminist Intellectual Heritage (2001) Heritage (2001) surveys feminist feminist icons since the 18t 18th h century, situated mostly most ly in in the U.S. and a nd the United Kingdom. Kingdom. Showalter Showa lter covers the contributions cont ributions of predomi predo minately nately intellectua intellectuals ls like like Mary Wollstonecraft, Wollstonecraft, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Camille Paglia. Noting popular media’s importance to the perce percepti ption on of women women and and femi eminism nism today today, Showa Showallter also also disc discuss usses es the contri contribu buti tions ons of popula popular r personal personaliti ities es like like Oprah Winfrey nfrey and Princes Princesss Diana. Diana. Showalter’s book Inventi book Inventing ng Herself Herself (2001), (2001), a survey of feminist feminist icons, seems to be the culm culmination ination of a long-time interest interest in communicating communicating the import importance ance of understanding underst anding feminist feminist tradition. Showalter S howalter’’s early essays and editorial work in the late 1970s and the 1980s 1980 s survey the history of the feminist feminist tradition t radition within the “wilderness” “wilderness” of o f literary literary theory theo ry and criticism. criticism. Working in the field of feminist feminist literary theo ry and critici cr iticism, sm, which was just emerging as a 223


serious scholarly pursuit in universities universities in the 1970s, 19 70s, Showalter’s writing reflects reflects a conscious effort effort to convey con vey the impor importance tance of mapping her discipline’ discipline’ss past in order to t o both bo th ground it in substantive theory, theory, and amass a knowledge base that will will be able able to inform inform a path for future feminist feminist academic aca demic pursuit. Teaching Literature (2003) Literature (2003) is essentially a guide to teaching English literature to undergraduate students st udents in university university.. Showalter covers approaches to t o teachin t eaching g theory t heory,, preparing syllabi syllabi and talking about taboo t aboo subjects among many other practical topics. Showalter Showa lter says that teaching t eaching should be taken as seriously ser iously and given as much intellectual intellectual considerat ion as scholarship. Faculty Towers: owers: The Academic Novel and Its Discontents (2005) Discontents (2005) is a study of the Anglo-American academic academic novel from the 1950s 195 0s to the present. pre sent.

15.4 Intr Introd odu uctio ction n to Towards a Feminist Poetics Working ork ing in the field of feminist feminist literary theory theo ry and criticism, which was just emerging e merging as a serious scholarly pursuit in universiti universities es in the 1970s, Showalter’ S howalter’ss writing reflects reflects a consci co nscious ous effort effort to convey con vey the impor importance tance of mapping her discipline’ discipline’ss past in order to t o both bo th ground it in substantive theory, theory, and amass a knowledge base that will will be able able to inform inform a path for future feminist feminist academic aca demic pursuit.

15.4.1 Three Phrases of Feminist Writings In Towards owards a Feminist Poetics Showalter Poetics Showalter traces tra ces the history of women’s women’s litera literature, ture, suggesting that it can be divided into three phases “feminine,” from 1840 to the death of George Eliot in 1880; “feminist,” “feminist,” from 1880 to 1920, the date of female female suffrage in America; America; and “female,” “female,” from 1920 to the t he present. Feminine phase (1840–1880), (1840–18 80), “women wrote wrot e in an effort effort to t o equal equa l the (i)Feminine : In the Feminine intellectua intellectuall achievements achievements of o f the male culture, and internalized its assumptions about female female nature” natu re” ( New, New, 137). It I t is an interpretation interpretat ion of texts from a femini feminist st perspective pers pective to expose clichés, clichés, stereotypes, st ereotypes, and negative images images of o f women. Generally focusing on male male literary and theoretical theoret ical texts, it also calls attention to t o the gaps in a literary literary history that has has largely excluded excluded writing by women. This approach appro ach dominated femini feminists sts criticism cr iticism when it first emerged in the 1970s and is strongly linked to the decade’s political agendas; Kate Millett’s Millett’sSexual Sexual Politics (1970) Politics (1970),, for example, describes the mistreatment of women in fiction by Henry Miller and others to the oppression of women in a patriarchal society. society. As early early as 1975, Carolyn Heilbrun Heilbrun and Catherine Catherine Stimpson Stimpson associated such readings with the “righteous, “righteous , angry” first stages of feminist feminist criticism. criticism. Showalter would go o on n to suggest (in 1979 and 1981) that by continuing continuing to emphasize emphasize writing by men, men, the t he strategy stra tegy of o f femini feminist st critici cr iticism sm remained dependent “on existing models” of interpretation. interpret ation. It did, however, ho wever, lay the foundation foundat ion for what she identified identified as

224


the second, seco nd, “gynocritical” phase of feminist feminist criticism, focusing on women as writers write rs with values, values, methods, and traditions of their own. It has also led to more fully elaborated theories of women as readers, and a nd continues to be an a n important important tool in exposing the operation operat ion of sexism in in culture and society. (ii) Feminist : The Feminis Feministt phase (1880–1920) (1880–19 20) was characterized by women’s women’s writing that proteste protested d agai against male male standa standards rds and and val values, ues, and and advocat advocated ed women’ women’ss righ rights ts and val values, ues, including a demand for autonomy auto nomy.. (iii)Female: The Female phase (1920 ) is one of self-discovery. Showalter says, “women reject both imitation imitation and protest—two pro test—two forms of dependency—and dependency—and turn instead to female female experience as the source so urce of o f an autonomous autonomou s art, extending the feminist feminist analysis analysis of culture to the t he forms and techniques techniques of literature”

15.4.2 Cultural Feminism Rejecting both imitation and protest, Showalter advocates approaching feminist criticism from a cultural perspective in the current Female phase, rather rat her than from perspectives that traditionally come from an androcentric perspective pe rspective like psychoanalytic and biological theories, for example. Feminists Feminists in the past pa st have worked wo rked withi w ithin n these traditions by revising revising and criticizing criticizing female representations, or lack thereof, in the male traditions (that is, in the Feminine and Feminist Feminist phases). phas es). In her essay essa y Feminist Feminist Criticis Criticism m in the Wilderness ilderness (1981), (1981), Showalter Sho walter says, “A cultural theory acknowledges that there t here are important diff differences erences between women as writers: class, race nationality nationality,, and a nd history are ar e literary determinants as significan significantt as gender. Nonetheless, No netheless, women’s culture forms a collective experience within the cultural whole, an experience that binds binds women writers to each other over time time and space” New, (New, 260).Growing out of the radical feminism feminism of the late 1960s and early 1970s, 1970 s, cultural c ultural feminism feminism involves involves an analysis and usually a celebration of women’s culture and community. community. The general strategy st rategy of of cultural feminism feminism is to seize upon many of those thos e qualities traditionally ascribed ascribed to women—subjectivity, women—subjectivity, closeness to nature, compassion, reliance reliance on other—and clai c laim m them as positive, even superior, traits. As opposed oppos ed to t o the t he liberal liberal feminist feminist desire for access to existing existing male institutions, institutions, cultural femini feminists sts argue that t hat these t hese must be radically reimagined reimagined tin terms of such “female” “female” values. Adrienne Rich, for example, called called in 1974 for a “woman-centered university” university” that would wo uld provide childcare, sponsor “research “research for for rather rather than on human on human beings,” beings,” and undo the usual u sual hierarchies. hierarchies. Other Othe r thinkers associat ass ociated ed with the movement include Mary Daly, Daly, Susan Susa n Griffin, Griffin, Andrea Dworkin, Dwo rkin, and Carol Caro l Gilligan, Gilligan, to name only a few. Though most most cultural cultural femini feminists sts emphasize that women’s women’s association association with certain “female” “female” qualities is not innate but learned, and a nd would offer them the m as alternative alternat ive values for men as well as for women, their position has been criticized for seeming seeming to reiterat e conventional conventiona l gender stereotypes—that women are nurturing, men aggressive, aggressive, etc. In an attempt to stress what women have in common, cultural cultu ral feminism feminism has also also often o ften been guilty of obscuring obscur ing crucial differences differences of race and class among women, wo men, generalizing generalizing about “women’s” “women’s” culture from what 225


is actually the culture of women who are white, Western, and middle-class. Some radical feminists feminists have further accused accus ed cultural cultura l femin feminists ists of retreating retrea ting from political struggle struggle into more private, private, spiritual spiritual quests, of making making politics politics only perso only personal, nal, a matter matte r of o f individual individual lifestyle. lifestyle. Notwiths Notwithstand tandin ing g these these critic criticiisms, sms, it is cultura culturall fem femini inism that that largel argely underl underliies the expl explosi osion on of scholarship scholarship on women in the past two decades, and the approach has perhaps only been strengthened strengt hened by having having to confront co nfront essentiali essent ialism sm and racial/class racial/class bias. In most areas of the humanities humanities and social sciences, the examination of women in in relation not to t o men but to other women—women’s women—women’s culture—has opened o pened up whole new areas of o f inquiry inquiry.. The move to ward “gender studies” in the 1990s has brought a return re turn to looking at men and women together, seeing women’s women’s cultures in relation to domin d ominate ate ones. Showalter does do es not advocate advo cate replacing psychoanalysis, psychoanalysis, for example, with cultural anthropology; rather, she suggests su ggests that approaching women’s women’s writing from a cultural perspective is one among many valid valid perspectives perspect ives that will uncover female traditions. However, Ho wever, cultural cultur al anthropology anthropo logy and social history are especiall e specially y fruitful fruitful because they “can perhaps pe rhaps offer us a terminology and a diagram of women’ wo men’ss cultural situation” ( New, New, 266). Showalter’s Showa lter’s caveat is that feminist feminist critics must use cultural cultu ral analyses analyses as ways to understand u nderstand what wha t women write, rather rat her than to dictate what they ought to write ( New, New, 266). However isolationist-like isolationist-like Showalter’s Showa lter’s perspective may sound at first, first, she does do es not advocate a separation of the female tradition from from the male tradition. She argues that t hat women must work both bo th inside and outside out side the male tradition tra dition simultaneou simultaneously sly New, (New, 264). Showalter says the most construct const ructive ive approach to t o future feminist feminist theory theo ry and criticism criticism lies lies in a focus on nurturing a new feminin femininee cultural cultur al perspective within a feminist feminist tradition that t hat at the same tim t imee exists within the male tradition, but on o n which itit is not dependent dependent and to which which itit is not answerable. answer able.

15.4.3 Gynocritics Showalter coined the term ‘gynocritics’ to describe literary critici criticism sm based in a feminine feminine perspective. Probably Probably the best description description Showalter Showalter gives of gynocritics gynocritics is is inToward in Toward a Feminist Poetics: Poetics: In contrast to [an] angry a ngry or loving fixation fixation on male literature, literature, the t he program of gynocritics is to construc co nstructt a female female framework for the t he analysis analysis of women’s literatu literature, re, to develop d evelop new models based on the study of female female experience, rather rat her than to adapt ada pt male models models and theories. theor ies. Gynocritics begins at the point when we free ourselves from the linear absolutes of male literary literary history histo ry,, stop sto p tryi tr ying ng to fit women between the lines of the male tradition, and focus instead on the t he newly visibl visiblee world of o f female female culture. New, (New, 131) This does not mean that t he goal of gynocritics is to erase e rase the differences between male and female female writing; gynocritics is not not “on a pilgrimage to the t he promised land in which gender would wo uld lose its power, in which which all texts would wo uld be sexless and equal, like like angels” New, (New, 266). Rather R ather gynocritics aims to understand underst and the specificity specificity of women’s women’s writing not as a produc pr oductt of sexism but as a fundamental aspect of female Gynocritics reality.a term introduced by 226


Elaine Elaine Showalter Showalter in her 1979 “Toward “Toward a Feminist Feminist Poetics” Poetics” and elaborated in her 1981 “Feminist “Feminist Criticism Criticism in the Wilderness,” Wilderness,” focuses on o n images, themes, plots, and genres, on individual individual authors autho rs and patterns of influence among women, in an effort to identify what is specifically characteristic of women’s writing and to construct construct “a female framework for the th e analysis analysis of women’s literatur literature.” e.” Showalter called gynocritics the “second phase” of feminist criticism, because it succeeded and built upon an earlier phase of “feminist “feminist critique,” which had focused on women wo men as the writers of o f male male texts. The shift toward gynocritics gynoc ritics in the U.S. and England was parall par alleled eled by the celebration of women’s writing by French feminists such as Hélène Cixous and Luce Irigaray. Irigaray. Its I ts rise also a lso coinci co incided ded with the rise of cultural cultura l femini feminism, sm, and, as with cultural cultura l femini feminism sm,, its focus on women has recently begun to give way to studies of “gender.” Showalter acknowledges the difficulty of “defining the unique difference of women’s writing” which she says is “a sli s lippery ppery and demanding task” in “Feminist “Feminist Criticism in in the Wilderness Wilderness”” ( New, New, 249). 249) . She says that gynocritics gynocritics may never never succeed in understanding understanding the special differences of women’s writing, or realize a distinct female literary tradition. But, with grounding groun ding in theory theor y and historical research research,, Showalter sees se es gynocriticism as a way to “learn something solid, enduring, and real about t he relation of women to literary culture” ( New, New, 249).Elaine Showalter’s A Literature of their own (1977) and Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar’s ‘The Mad woman in the Attic (1979).’ (1979) .’ These books boo ks were enthusiastically enthusiastically welcomed as whey were the long waited major studies on women writers. Elaine Showalter in A Literat Literatur uree of their their Ow Own n traces a female literary tradition in the English novel from the Brontes to the present day. day. “First there is a prolonged phase of imitation imitation of the prevailing prevailing modes modes of o f the dominant tradition trad ition and internalization internalization of o f its its standards sta ndards of o f art and its views on social roles. Second there t here is a phase of protest against these standards st andards and values, including including a demand for autonomy aut onomy.. Finally there is a phase of self discovery a turning tur ning inward freedom from some of o f the dependency of opposition, oppo sition, a search for identity. An appropriate appro priate termi ter minology nology for women writers is to call ca ll these stages feminine, feminine, feminist feminist and female. female. (A Literature Literatu re of o f Their Own) Thus, the t he British female female tradition trad ition is a accordingly divided divided rather rathe r neatly into three phases (a) the t he Feminine Feminine phase (1840-80) (1840-80) (b) The Femal Femalee phase from 1880 to 1920 1920 (c) The Femal Femalee phase from from 1920 to present.

15.4.4 Critical Reception Showalter has been widely appreciated by critics for her prodigious knowledge, insightful analysis, and accessible prose. Most feminist literary scholars have lauded her achievement in helping helping to legitimize legitimize and further develop feminist feminist critique, particularly part icularly by reevaluating reevaluating the social and historical context cont ext within which which women’s writing writing is studied. However, Ho wever, some critics have contended that Showalter S howalter’’s reach often exceeds her grasp, faulting her for raising provocative questions que stions and presenting prese nting a wealth of material without analyzing analyzing it, or trying unsuccessfully unsuccessfully to force-fi forc e-fitt her usually expansive expansive subject subject matter matt er into a rigid critical context. Others have criticized Showalter for omi o mitting tting or glossing over women wo men writers writers who w ho do not fit fit neatly into into her thesis t hesis or analytical construct. 227


In addition, some reviewers have objected to Showalter’s literary biases, especially in regards to the Victo Victorian rian era, and her dubious psychoanalytic assumptions. Showalter’s Showa lter’s works of cultural history, particularly The Female Malady and Malady and Sexual Anarchy, have Anarchy, have received mixed mixed reviews, but have been generall genera lly y praised for their bro broad, ad, interdisciplinary interdisciplinary approach appro ach to literary, literary, cultural, cultu ral, and social so cial trends. Showalter S howalter’s ’s femini feminist st history histo ry of psychiatry inThe in The Female Malady Malady has has been commended for raising raising disturbing and impor important tant questions qu estions about abou t the poli po litics tics of interpretation and the power po wer of gender as a determining determining factor in psychiatric psychiatric treatment. Her focus on the t he psychiatric psychiatric patient—rather than t han the history of the psychi p sychiatric atric profession—has also been viewed as a valuable contribution to the subject. s ubject. However, some reviewers have faulted Showalter Showa lter for her selective use of data and statistics, stat istics, and her imprecise imprecise use of key terms, such as “hysteria.” In later works such as as Hys Hystor tories ies and and Inv Inventi enting ng He Hers rsel elf, f, critics critics have hailed Showalter’ Showalter ’s impressive impressive synthesis synthesis of evidence, though some so me have found her arguments less substantial and convincing convincing than in previous works. Despite such shortcomin short comings, gs, Showalter Show alter has been highly highly regarded for calling calling attention to complex issues issues surrounding surro unding gender and sexual politics. politics. Many of her works, most notably A notably A Literature of Their Own and Own and The Female Malady, have Malady, have endured endure d as staples st aples of feminist feminist literary litera ry criticism in university curricula.

15.5 15.5 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up Showalter describes the development of o f Feminist Feminist theory as having a number of phases. The first she calls ca lls “ feminist critique critique”” - where the t he feminist feminist reader examines e xamines the ideologies behin behind d literary literary phenomen phenomena. a. The second Showalter Showalter calls calls“Gynocritics” “Gynocritics” - where the “woman is producer produce r of textual t extual meaning” meaning” including including “the ps “the psych ychody odynam namic icss of female creativity; linguistics and the problem pr oblem of a female female language; language; the t he trajectory trajecto ry of the individual individual or collective female literary career and literary history”. history”. The last phase she calls calls “ gender theor y” y” - where the “ideological inscription and the litera literary ry effects effects of o f the sex/g the sex/gender ender system system”” are explored.”


What do you mean ean by Gynocri ocriti tics cs??

2.

Desc De scri rib be in in bri brief the the thre threee pha phase sess of of femi eminist nist the theory ory..

3.

By whom whom was was Elai Elaine ne’’s fem femiinist nist theo theory ry cri critici ticise sed d and and why why ?

4.

Desc De scri rib be Sha Shawa wallter’s ter’s His Histor tory y Of Women omen’’s Li Literatu terature re..

5.

Expl Explai ain n in in det detai aill the the ter term m ‘Gy ‘Gyn nocri ocriti tics cs’’.

6.

Elai Elaine ne Show Showal alte terr adv advoc ocate atess Cul Cultura turall Fem Feminism. sm. Why Why ?


Engl Engliish, sh, Dei Deirdre rdre.. “W “Woll ollston stonec ecra rafft to Lady Lady Di”, Di”,The The Nation. Nation. June 11, 2001. 228


2.

Moi, Moi, Tori Torill. Sexu Sexual al/T /Tex extua tuall Poli Politics tics.. Lon London don:: Routl Routled edge, ge, 1985. 1985.

3.

Showal Showalter ter,, Elai Elaine ne.. A literature terature of thei theirr own: own: Briti British sh women women nove noveli lists sts from Bron Brontë të to Lessing. Princeton, N.J.: N.J. : Princeton University University Press, 1977.

4.

Showal Showalter ter,, Elai Elaine. “T “Toward a Fem Femin iniist Poetics, Poetics,”” Wome Women’ n’ss Wri Writi ting ng and and Wri Writin ting g About About Women. London: Londo n: Croom Helm, 1979.

5.

Showal Showalter, ter, Elai Elaine. “Fem “Femin inis istt Criti Critici cism sm in the Wil Wildern derness,” ess,” Critic Critical al Inqui Inquiry ry Univer Universi sity ty of Chicago: Winter, Winter, 1981. 198 1.

6.

Showa Showallter, ter, Elai Elaine. ne. The Fem Femal alee Malady Malady:: Wom Women en,, Madne Madness ss,, And And Engli English sh Cul Culture , , 1830– 1830– 1980. 1980. New York: York: Pantheon Pantheo n Books, 1985. 19 85.

7.

Showal Showalter ter,, Elai Elaine, ne, ed. ed. New Femi Feminist nist Cri Criti tici cism sm:: Essay Essayss On On Wom Women, en, Litera Literature ture,, And And Theory. Theory. New York: Pantheon Books, 1985.

8.

Showal Showalter ter,, Elai Elaine ne.. Sexual SexualAnarc Anarchy hy:: Gende Genderr And And Cul Culture tureAt The The Fin Fin De Siè Siècl cle. e. New York: Viking, 1990. 199 0.

9.

Showal Showalter ter,, Elai Elaine ne.. Hystori Hystories es:: Hysteri Hysterica call Epid Epidem emiics And And Modern Modern Med Media ia.. New York: Columbia University University Press, 1997. 199 7.

10.

Showalter, Showalter, Elain Elaine. e. Inventi Inventing ng Hersel Herself: f: Claim Claimin ing g A Femin Feminis istt Intellec Intellectual tual Heritage. Heritage. New York: Scribner, 2001.

11. 11.

Showal Showalter ter,, Elai Elaine ne.. Teach Teachin ing g lite literatu rature. re. Oxfor Oxford: d: Blackwe Blackwell ll,, 2003. 2003.

12.

Showal Showalter ter,, Elai Elaine. Facu Facullty Tower Towers: s: The The Acad Academ emiic Novel and Its Dis Discont content ents. s. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, 2005. 20 05. _____________

229


UNIT-16 SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR: A BEAUVOIR: A FEMINIST WITH A DIFFERENCE Structure 16.0

Objectives

16.1 16.1


16.2

Sim Simone de de Beauv Beauvoi oir’ r’ss Semi Semina nall Ideas Ideas on on Woma Woman n

16.3

Woman oman throu through gh the Prism Prism of Biol Biology ogy

16.4 16.4

Woman oman as The The O Oth ther er

16.5

A Cri Critique tique of de Beauvo Beauvoiir’s r’s Fem Femiinism nism

16.6

Let Us Us Sum Up

16.7

Annota Annotation tionss and and Bibl Bibliog iograph raphiical Refere Reference ncess

16.8 16.8


16.9 16.9

Bibliogr ography

16.0 16.0 Objective The purpose of o f this unit unit is to place Simone Simone de Beauvoir in the proper perspective so far as the Feminist Feminist scenerio scener io is concerned. She was not recognised r ecognised as a feminist feminist by several Feminist Feminist critics in France and elsewhere. She was w as even called called a misogynist misogynist by the younger Deuxieme generation of o f femini feminists. sts. Attempt has been made to t o highlight highlight her magnum opus Le Deuxieme seminal treatise o n Feminism. Feminism. Simone Simone de Beauvoir’s reputation reput ation as a feminist feminist de Sexe as a seminal pends largely largely on Le on Le Deuxieme Sexe. We have tried to project Simone de Beauvoir in this unit as an intellectual of integrity. The objective o bjective of this study is to highlight highlight de Beauvoir’ Beauvo ir’ss personali perso nality ty as a femini feminist st activi act ivist, st, a profound profound scholar scholar and an existenti existential alis istt phi philos losopher opher who who lilived with JeanJean- Paul Sartre and piopioneered twentieth t wentieth century cent ury feminism. feminism.

16.1 Intr Introd odu uction tion Simone de Beauvoir, who was a noted novelist, no velist, essayist, playwright and social activist activist was born in Paris in 1908. She was an illustrious illustrious daughter of a lawyer. lawyer. She took t ook a degree in Philosophy Philosophy at the Sorbonne Univ U niversity ersity in in 1929. She S he came in contact with a profound intell intellecectual and existentialist existentialist thinker thinker Jean Paul Sartre. They lived lived together toget her as a couple. She taught at Lycee at Marseille Marseille and Rouen from 1931 to 1937 and at a t Paris from 1938 to 1943. After the Second World World War, War, she emerged as one o ne of the strongest st rongest leaders of the existentialist move230


ment working with Sartre on Les on Les Temps Modernes Modernes.. Her first novel L’In novel L’Invitee vitee was was published in 1943. La 1943. La Song de Autres was Autres was published in 1945. Her play Les play Les Bouches Inutiles was Inutiles was stayed at the theatre de Carrefours Carrefours.. Le Deuxieme Sexe (The Sexe (The Second Sex) apperared in 1949 and her novel Les novel Les Mandarins Mandarins appeared appeared in 1954 and won wo n the Prix Goncourt- tthe he highhighest literary award of France.She France.S he was one the most influential influential thinkers of her generation. She was awarded the Austrian Austrian State Prize for her outstanding contribution to European Euro pean literat literature ure in 1978. She died in 1986. Her magnum opus The Second Sex (Le (Le Deuxieme Sexe) is an uninhibited uninhibited treatise tre atise on woman by a woman wo man of wit and learning that Simone de d e Beauvoir was. It is a work wo rk on woman- her historical and contemporary situation in Western Western culture, which is is scientifically scientifically accurate in matt matters ers of biology, comprehensive and frank in its treatment treat ment of woman’ woman’ss individuality individuality and social relations. relations. She has port ayed the independent woman w oman of today toda y. Her philosoph philosophy y is based on Jean Paul Sartre’s Sartre’s existenti existential alis ism. m. Modemoise Modemoisell llee de Beauvoir’ Beauvoir’ss book The Second Sex is Sex is not on philosophy but on woman. Though she is a French woman, she shows her first hand knowledge kno wledge about the United States St ates of o f America, Germany, Germany, Cuba and Soviet Russia. She draws heavily upon French life life and customs in her elaborate account acco unt of woman’s woman’s past and contemporary situation. situat ion. Beauvoir became a well known figure in Post-war French, riding on the wave of popular popular interest nterest in in Sartre’s Sartre’s philosoph philosophy y of existenti existential alis ism m which which she adapted for her own pur poses inThe in The Second Sex. Sex. He played a prominent pro minent role in rejuvenating French intellectual life life after 1930s and the German occupation of a larger part of the country during the Second World War war. Her novel Les novel Les Mandarins, Mandarins, which is is a portrait portr ait of post war French, won her the Prix Goncourt Gonco urt in 1954. Simone de Beauvoir’s journalism journalism brought her fame on either side of the Atlantic. Atlantic. Her He r works are a re an authentic authe ntic testimony test imony of French intellectual lif lifee from the 1940s to 1970s. 19 70s. Simone de Beauvoir was involved, like like Jean paul Sartre, in those socio soc io political struggles strugg les which which have defined defined contemporary France. She supporte sup ported d decolonisation in the 1950s and also Algerian Algerian independence in the Algerian war: She S he was one o f the signitories in the 1960- petition pe tition opposing Gen De Gaull Gau lle’ e’ss policies policies in Algeria. She worked with Sartre Sartr e on the Russell war crimes Tribunal (RWCT) (RWCT) an international internat ional body named after the British philoso pher pher Bertra Bertrand nd Russel Russell, l, set up to investi nvestigate gate the Ameri American can action action in Vietna ietnam m. She accompan accompanie ied d Sartre in many foreign foreign countries at t he invi invitation tation of o f writers’ associations. associations. She went to Cuba with Sartre in 1960 at the invitation invitation of o f Fidel Castro’ Castro ’s government. She went to China in 1955 and had a meeting meeting with Mao-Tse-Dung. In 1963, 19 63, she visited Russia and had a meeting with with Niki Nikita ta Khrushev Khrushev.. She She was invi invited ted to Egypt Egypt by Moham Mohammed Hassane Hassanein in Heikal Heikal,, the then chairchairman and editor-in-chief of Al-Ahram of Al-Ahram.. Both Bo th Sartre ans Simone Simone de Beauvoir were warmly warmly received by Col.Nasser. She created a niche for herself as a professor of philoso philosophy phy.. She was influenced influenced by Jean Genet and Gustave Gust ave Flaubert, Claude Levi-Strauss Jacques Jacq ues Lacan. Deirdra De irdra Bair- an American American scholar- wrote wro te her biography.

16. 2 Simon Simonee de Beauv Beauvoir’ oir’ss Semina Seminall Ideas on on W Wom oman an The cetnral thesis of Simone de Beauvoir’s book The Second Sex is that since 231


patriaichal patriaichal times, times, women have in in general general been forced to occupy a secondary place in the world in relation to men though they constitute co nstitute numerically numerically half half of the human race. She states stat es that this sec this second ondary ary standing standing is not imposed of o f necessity by natura naturall femini feminine ne characteristics charact eristics but rather by strong envi e nvironmental ronmental forces forces of educational and social tradition under the purposeful purpo seful control contro l of men. This, This, she maintains, has resulted in the failure of women to take t ake a place of human dignity dignity as free and independent existents, associated ass ociated with men on a plane of intellectual intellectual and professional equality. There are ar e many henpecked husbands and many women exert a considerable influinfluence upon upo n men men in position of authority. Simone Simone de Beauvoir holds that a larger fraction of o f wealth and proper pr operty ty in the United States Sta tes of o f America is in in women’s names and that woman’ w oman’ss dominance in American American life life is a fact. In the United States, St ates, a good goo d many women do succeed in attaining att aining position of professional professiona l independ independence. ence. They T hey have even children children but it hardly had any adverse effect effect on o n their their career competence. Simone Simone de Beauvoir goes go es to the extent of saying that successful business-women are often conscious of the fact that neither men nor women commonly enjoy enjoy working wor king under feminine feminine direction: the boss should be a man. In the United States, Stat es, about abo ut twenty t wenty milli million on womenwo men- half of them married and many having childrenchildren- are employed in the press, in radio programmes, pr ogrammes, and in agencies of public enlightenment. enlightenment. The independent woman wo man as envisaged by Simone Simone de Beauvoir Beauvo ir is is in ideal: Thousands Thousand s of unmarried employed employed women wo men entertain the hope ho pe that t hat marriage might might release them from job in which they have no real interest and they regard it as a temporar t emporary y burden. It is only the highly highly trained profess professiional woman woman with with a profound profound interest nterest in her her job that attains attains indepe independe ndence nce and equali equality ty and it is the basis for ideal human relations between bet ween men and women. wo men. Dorothy Parker in her book Moder book Modern n Women: The Lost Sex says Sex says that women w omen should be “regarded “regarded as human human beings.” beings.”2 If one goes for a walk with one’s eyes open. it is enough to realise that “humanity is is divided into two t wo classes of o f individuals individuals whose clothes clothes,, faces, bodies, bo dies, smiles, smiles, gaits, interests, and occupations oc cupations are manifestly manifestly diff different. erent. Perhaps these t hese differences differences are superficial superficial , perhaps they are destined to disappear. disappear. What is certain is that they t hey do obviously exist.” 3 The question, que stion, “What is Woman?” Woman?” has been answered answe red by Simone de Beauvoir Beau voir in her book The Second Sex. “W Sex. “Woman oman has ovaries, a uterus: uter us: these peculiatities imprison her in her subjectivity, subjectivity, circumscribes her within the limi limits ts of own nature.. nat ure..... ...... ....... .....She .She thinks with her gland.”4 Aristotle said, “We “We should regard rega rd the famale famale nature as a s afflicted afflicted with a natural d defectiven efectiveness.” ess.” and St.Thomas St. Thomas prounced pr ounced woman w oman to be an ‘imperfect ‘imperfect man’ and ‘incidental ‘incidental being’. This is is symbolized in Genesis (Old Genesis (Old Testament Testament of o f the Bible) Bible) where Eve is depicted as created cre ated from what Bossuet Bo ssuet called a ‘supernumerary ‘super numerary bone’ of Adam. 5 Michelet calls ‘woman, the relative r elative being’ being’ Thus, woman is not regardrd as an ‘autonomous ‘autonomous being. being. ‘Man ‘Man can can think think of him himself self without woman. She cannot think of herself without man.’ remarks Benda in his his Rapport d’Uriel. She is what man decrees. He is the subject, he is the absoluteabsolute - she is theother theother .6 The category of the Other is is a premordial as consciousness itself. Otherness is a 232


fundamental category category of of human human thought . To the natives of a country co untry,, all who inhabit inhabit other o ther countries are foreigners; foreigners; Jews are different for for anti-Semites, anti-Semites, Negroes are inferior to to American Whites, aborigines art natives nat ives for for colonists, co lonists, proletarians are the lower class for class for the priviprivileged.7 Very Very often this t his privilege privilege upon upo n inequality of numbers- the t he majority impos imposes es its rule upon up on the minority minority or persecutes pe rsecutes it. But women are not no t a minority, minority, like the Ameri American can Negroes or the t he Jews; there are ar e as many many women as there are men on the globe. globe. They T hey are, of course, different in terms of anatomy and physiology. Throughout history they have been subordinated to men. They cannot imagine imagine a world without men. T The he division division of o f the sexes is, therefore, a biologcal fact. Woman fact. Woman is the other , says Simone de Beauvoir, Beauvo ir, in a totality of which two components are necessary to one o ne another ano ther..8 Woman Woman has never been social so cially ly emancipated emancipated through t hrough man’s man’s need- the t he sexual desire and the t he desire for o ffspring. ffspring. Master and a nd slave are united by a reciprocal need (economic in nature) which does do es not liberate liberate the t he slave. Woman Woman has always been man’ man’s dependant dependant but the two sexes have never shared the world world of equality equality.. Though Though man regards woman as the Other, she feels the necessary bond that tie t iess her to man irrespecirrespective of reciprocity: She accepts accep ts her role ro le as the Other. But the duality of the sexes, like any other duality, duality, gives rise to conflict. conflict. Legislators, priests, philosophers, writers and a nd scientists have endeavoured to show that ‘the subordinate position of woman is will in heaven and advantageous on the t he earth. The religions religions invented by men reflect reflect the wish for domination.9 Diderot strove stro ve to show that woman was, like man, man, a human being. being. Later John Stuart Mill came fervently to her defence. In the nineteenth century centu ry,, the feminist feminist quarrel became more or less a quarrel of partipar tisans. As one of the consequences consequ ences of the industrial revolution revolution was the entrance ent rance of women into productive productive labour labour,, the oppenents oppenents becam becamee rather aggressive. aggressive. The bourgeoisi bourgeoisiee class class kept the women cloistered into home but home but the working wor king class could not afford it. The women, therefore, were made to work at lower wages. Feminism Feminism,, thus, acquired an economic face. face. In provin pro ving g woman’s inferiority inferiority,, the anti-femini anti-feminists sts began beg an to draw upon u pon not no t only o nly religion, religion, philoso philosophy phy and theology but also upon biology and psychology. psychology. The conservative bourgeoisi bourgeo isiee saw the emancipation of o f women as a potential pote ntial menace to their morality and male chauvinism. chauvinism. Simone de Beauvoir does not postulate post ulate woman as inferior inferior to man though tho ugh woman has been defined defined to perform perform functiona functionall roles of cooks, matrons, harlots, blue stockings, etc. Her very existence existence lies in man. man. Woman has been defined in relation re lation to man. Anti-femini Anti-feminists sts say that Eve, having been created after Adam, is evidently evidently a secondary being being and and that Christ Christ was made made a man. Simone de Beauvoir states “If we are to gain understanding, understanding, we must get out of these ruts; we must discard the vague notions of superiority, inferiority inferiority,, and equality”10 which have hitherto corrupted corru pted every analysis analysis of woman. We We must start afresh without any preconceived preco nceived notions, prejudices, prejudices, taboos or co mplexes. mplexes. In recent recent debates on the status of women, The United United Nations Nations has persistent persistently ly maintai aintained ned that that the the equili equility ty of the sexes sexes is becomi becoming ng a reality reality.. Simone Simone de d e Beauvoir discusses woman wo man inThe inThe Second Sex from Sex from the biological, psychological and historical historical view view points. She comes to the conclusion that “The women wo men of today are on o n the way to t o dethrone the myth of feminin femininity; ity; they are beginning beginning to t o affirm their indepen233


dence in concret e ways; but they t hey have not yet succeede su cceeded d in livi living ng completely complete ly the life life of a human being. Reared by women within a feminine world, their normal destiny is marriage, which still still means means practicall pract ically y the subordination to man.........” man....... ..”11

16. 3 Woman oman Thr Throu ough gh the the Prism Prism of Bio Biolog logy y To say that woman is a womb an womb an ovary: ovary: she is female is female is is derogatory because it defines her animality animality and imprisons imprisons her in her sex. Biology Biolog y certainly demonst demonstates ates the sexual sexu al differentiation. differentiation. Aristotle conceded that woman carried and nourished theliving the living seed created created by the father father alone alone and the foetus foetus arose from from the union union of sperm sperm and mentrual mentrual blood, blood, woman woman furnishing furnishing only the passive matter matt er while the male principle contributed contribut ed force, activity, activity, movement and life. life. Hippocrates held a simil similar ar doctrine, doct rine, recognizing two kinds of seed- the t he weak or famale and the strong or male. The theory of Aritotle survived through the Middle Ages. Hegelian view is that Man is the active act ive principle principle while woman is the passive pa ssive principle. principle. Today it is well well known that the t he sex is determined by the chromosome chro mosome constitution constitu tion established at the time of fertilization. Simone de Beauvoir Beauvo ir comments at this stage, “What we should not notee in parti particul cular ar is that that neit neither her gamete gamete can be regard regarded ed as superi superior or to the other: other: when when they they uni unite, both 12 lose their the ir individuality individuality in the fertilized egg” or the embryo. The biological facts facts disprove d isprove “any hierarchy of the sex and they t hey fail fail to explain why woman is the Other Othe r. They do not no t condemn co ndemn her to remain in the suordinate suor dinate role”13 in relation to man. From puberty to menopause, menop ause, woman wo man is is a theatre theat re of a play play that unfolds within within her body. body. Merleau Ponty states stat es that woman wo man is not a completed reality, reality, but rather ra ther a becoming reality, reality, and it is in her becoming that that she should be compared with man and her possibilities her possibilities should should be defined. Her body bod y is not a thing but but a situation. situation. Her body is not enough to define her as woman. Biology doesn’t explain why woman is the Other . The reality of living in the world depends largely on the individual conscioisness. conscioisness. It is however a fact, as Jean-Paul Sartre and Merleau-Ponty have also also endorsed dor sed that sexuality is co-extensive with existence. existence. The fundamental thesis of Sigmund Sigmund Freud is that all human behaviour behaviour is the out come of desire i.e. the search searc h for pleasure. Freud and Merleau-Ponty hold that anatomy is destiny. destiny. The body is is the instrument of out grasp upon u pon the world. Woman is weaker than man, she has less muscular strength, fewer red blood corpuscles, corpusc les, less lung capacity capacity,, she runs more slowly, slowly, can lift lift less heavy weights, can compete with man in in hardly any sport; sport ; she cannot stand st and up to him in a fight. fight.15 To all this weakness weaknes s must be added the instab instabil ility ity,, the lack lack of control, control, and the fragi fragili lity ty.. In addition addition to the prim primary sexual sexual characteristics, characte ristics, woman has various secondary seco ndary peculiarities peculiarities that are more of less less produced pro duced through hormonal ho rmonal action. Generally Generally woman is shorter than t han man and lighter: lighter: her skeleton sk eleton is more delicate and the pelvis is larger in adaptation to the function of pregnancy and childbirth; her connected tissues accumul accumulate ate fat and her contours are, thus, more rounded than those of man. The rotundity rotu ndity of her flesh flesh accounts account s for her beauty and charm. Her appearance- strucst ructure, ture , skin, hair- is distinctly different different from fro m man. Muscular strengt st rength h is much much less in woman: it is about two-t t wo-thirds hirds that of man; she has less less respiratory respirato ry capacity, capacity, the lungs and trachea tr achea being smaller. The larynx is relatively smaller. The specific gravity of the blood is much lower in 234


woman and there is less haemoglobin: haemoglobin: women are, therefore, less robust and moredisposed more disposed to anaemia than anaemia than men. Their pulse runs faster, the vascular system is less stable, stable, with w ith ready blushin blushing. g. Instabilit Instabilityy is a striking striking characteristic characteristic of her physical constitution. constitution. A Among mong other o ther things, man shows greate g reaterr stabili sta bility ty in the metabolism of calcium; calcium; Woman losing a great grea t deal of it during menstruation and pregnancy preg nancy.. The ovaries ova ries exert a catabolic cata bolic action which which results into instabili instability ty which causes problem p roblem in the ovaries, and in the thyroid gland, g land, which is more more developed in woman than in man. Irregularities in the endocrine secretions react on the sympathetic nervous system. syst em. Consequently Consequent ly,, nervous nervou s and muscular contro controll is uncertain. uncert ain. This lack in stability stability and control cont rol defines woman’s woman’s emotional behavour. behavou r. It is bound up with circulatory circulato ry fluct fluctuationsuations palpit palpitation ation of the heart, blushi blushing, ng, etc and it is on this this account account that that women women are subject subject to such such displays displays of agitation such aass shedding tears, hysterical hysterical laughter and the t he nervous crises.Women crises.Women live as long as men, or longer but they are much more ailing. 14

16.4 Woman man as the the O Oth ther er Her individual life life is not so rich as man’s. man’s. This myth of woman wo man being a weaker sex is based based exclu exclusi sivel vely y on the biolog biologic ical al percepti perception. on. Simon Simonee de Beauvoi Beauvoirr observ observes es that that woman woman can be defined defined by her consciousness consciousness of her femin feminin inity ity ie her existenti existential al consciouness. consciouness. Even Even psychoanalysis fails to explain why woman woman is the Other .15 She cannot be defined defined as a sexual organism. He awareness a wareness of herself is is not no t totally to tally defined defined by her sexuality s exuality.. While While Simone de Beauvoir’s comprehensive work raises many interesting issues and evolves in particular a theory theo ry of woman’s subjectivity subjectivity and identity. identity. She observes o bserves that t hat a woman is not born but she becomes one. She builds a historical model of women’s subjugation, exploitation and sexploitation. sexploitation. In her view, view, economic eco nomic subjugation subjugation is not sufficien sufficientt to t o account for the existential existential thro ugh labour woman has conquered her digOthering of women. She however notes that through nity as a human being and this economi econo micc factor facto r remain the basic factor in her evolution. Simone de Beauvoir Beauvo ir discards discards the t he theoretical theo retical streams of biology, biology, psychoanalysis, and histo historical rical matematerialism to define woman. They are not perfectly p erfectly explanatory explanato ry for for women’ wo men’ss Otherization . Simone de Beauvoir indebted to the t he work of Levi-Strauss.Women Levi-Strauss.Women represent the immanence of the flesh.She flesh.She is physically opaque to herself and is unable to exteranalize her subjectivity to develop existential autonomy.

16. 5 A Critiqu Critiquee of of de Beauvo Beauvoir’ ir’ss Femin Feminism ism Simone de Beauvoir Beauvoir owes much of her reputation as feminist feminist to her book The Second Sex. Sex. For Fo r her, it is not the que question stion of women wo men findi finding ng their place in society as it is, but of tranforming society itself. She demands de mands not only o nly an improvement improvement in women’s women’s condition, but the aboli abo lition tion of the very ve ry system that engenders inequalities, inequalities, injustice. Simone de Beauvoir realised that socialism would not lead to the emancipation of women and that the desired emancipation must be the work of women themselves.The themselves. The Second Sex occupies Sex occupies the central position in the history of discourse discourse on women and femi feminis nism. m. Simone de Beauvoir was a reference reference for many women. w omen. Betty Bett y Freidan, an American American femini feminist, st, expressed her gratitude 235


to her for having enabled enabled her to understand women’ wo men’ss condition.The condition. The Second Sex provided Sex provided the women’s women’s movement with a theoretical theor etical tool. Simone de Beauvoir performed the pioneering role as a feminist: feminist: The feminists feminists in 1970s discussed the ideas o f Simone Simone de d e Beauvoir inThe inThe Second Sex such Sex such as the denunciation denunc iation of cultural cultur al myths, myths, the questioning qu estioning of o f marriage, marriage, the t he family family and motherhood, the boredom boredo m of housewives, the economic dependency of married women, the taboos taboo s surrounding surround ing women’s sex lives, lives, and their lack of freedom and so on. Some of them found found her book bo ok The Second Sex a Sex a deeply embarassing document. Toril Moi wrote in 1986 that many femin feminists ists rejected the anti-feminism anti-feminism of exitentialismexitentialism- that philosophy philosophy that underlies Simone Simone de Beauvoir’s Bea uvoir’s theories. There are passages p assages inThe inThe Second Sex where Sex where Simone de Beauvoir Beau voir describes female sexual initiation initiation in shocking terms. Women are compared to passive, empty receptacles, and their sexual arousal is reminscent of the oozing of a decomposing corpse. There are thus, clear overtones of disgust in in her description desc ription of women’s sexual desire. She even uses the t he term “rut” “rut ” which is applied to animals. Some feminist feminist critics such Toril Moi did did accuse accu se Simone de Beauvoir of being being misogynistic misogynistic in attitude. Her desire is to model women on men: she glamourizes maleness. maleness. She under estim est imates ates the woman’s woman’s worth wort h and potentiali pot entialities. ties. She is enamoured of masculine masculine values. Though Simone de Beauvoir has been subjected subjected to misogyni misogynistic stic and anti-femi anti-feminis nistt attack, her work The Second Sex remains her magnum opus. opus. The movement for tthe he liberation liberation or emancipation emancipation of women in France has been been dubbed dubbed as antianti-fe femi mini nist st and antianti-egal egalita itari rian. an. But femi femini nism sm as a very very compreh comprehen ensi sive ve term. term. Monique Rami- a French feminist feminist historian- concedes co ncedes that t hat ‘feminism ‘feminism’’ designates everything that is spoken or written about the condition of women in society and every movement outc ome of the domin do minant ant relatied to the condition of women society, if society, if the condition is the outcome masculine masculine sex. This att itide irons out several sever al contradictions. contrad ictions. The stand s tand of feminism feminism which rejects Simone de Beauvoir accusing her of reformism and misogyny misogyny is because a sort sor t of devalorization of feminine difference diff erence is is seen in her work. Such critics confuse the social equality of the sexes with seeking seeking to eradicate eradicat e sexual difference. difference. It only o nly means that Simone de Beauvoir’s reformism has not been appreciated by the critics like Antoinette Fouque. Alison Alison T. Holland Holland regards reg ards Simone S imone de Beauvoir’s Beauvo ir’s femini feminism sm ‘militant’, ‘militant’, She observes ob serves that th at her feminism feminism deals with the situation situ ation in which women find themselves, with the very real r eal problem pro blemss they face and whose goal is the complete transformation of patriarchal patriarchal society. society. In the 1970’s Simone de Beauvoir began to participate in women’s women’s collective social cam campaignes paignes with the women of her younger generation ge neration to t o improve their lives. lives. She did d id not impose her authority but encouraged encou raged and supported suppo rted the t he younger women. This is is clearly borne out by the accounts acco unts of o f these women wo men such as Christine Delphy and Anne Anne Zelinsky. Zelinsky. They have described descr ibed Beauvoir’s contribution to t o the t he Women’ Women’ss Liberation Movement Mo vement (WLF). 16 She campaigned campaigned for the legalisation of abortion and free contraception. contr aception. As a feminist a feminist activist activist she combated discrimination discrimination against ag ainst women, especially es pecially in the working place. She rendered re ndered financial assisassistance to t o help women wo men survivors of domestic violence and crim cr iminal inal sexual assault. Throughout Throughout the 1970’s Simone de Beauvoir’s Beauvo ir’s position evolved, becoming moreradimoreradical. The cal. The note of radicalisation can be traced trace d in her writings writings and in the interviews she gave 236


during the nineteennineteen- seventies and eighties. eighties. Her tone got go t harder, more bitter and more aggressive after 1970. Jacques Zephir says tthat hat she laid less emphasis emphasis on theoretical t heoretical and philosophical considerations but preoccupied preo ccupied herself with practical solution solution to t o the women’s women’s problem pro blems. s. If Le Deuxieme Deuxieme Sexe had Sexe had been written writte n by this time, it would have been be en different different in approach. appro ach. She is quite explicit explicit about a bout it in her memoirs. memoirs. This was precisely the period when Simone de Beauvoir approved appro ved of the new generation of o f femini feminist st for rejecting her optim opt imistic istic vision vision of the future, which she visualised visualised at the end of Le of Le Deuxieme Deuxieme Sexe. Sexe. She told Alice Schwarzer that she was all a ll praise for the t he new generation generat ion of feminists feminists in taking their fate into their t heir own hands.

16.6 16.6 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up Simone de Beauvoir has a notion of The Eternal Feminine and Feminine and The Elernal Masculine17 which accounts for the t he battle of o f the sexes. This battle of the sexes is not implici implicitt in the anatomy anato my of man man and woman. wo man. Society, being codified codified by man, decrees decr ees that tha t woman is inferior to man. It is impossibl impossible, e, according accord ing to Simone de Beauvoir, to demonstrate the existence of an inherent inherent rivalry rivalry between the t he human male and female female on the basis of physi p hysiological ological nature. The hostility could be located in the intermediate terrain between biology and psychology. Freud’s psychoanal psychoanalysi ysiss goes a long way to interpret interpret Woman. oman. But itit is is not perfect. perfect. The emanci emancipated pated woman of today to day wants to be active in society. society. The modern woman wo man accepts masculine masculine values: she prides herself in thinking, taking action, working and creating, on the same terms as men;....... she declares herself their equal.18 Man would be libeated through throu gh woman’s woman’s liberat liberation. ion. She does not believe that a change in woman’s economic condition alone was enough to transform her though this was and has been a basis factor in her evolution but until it has brought about the moral, social, cultured and o ther consequences that it promises and requires, the new woman cannot appear. Woman cannot be transformed unless society has made her really really the equal of man. It seems quite certain to Simone Simone de Beauvoir that sooner or later, they t hey will will arrive at complete ec economic onomic and social so cial equality and it will bring about and a nd 19 inner metamorphosis. metamorphosis. The direct, natural, necessary relation relation of human creatures is the relation between man and woman: The relation re lation between man and woman isthe isthe most natural relation of one human being being to another anot her human being. being. In January Januar y 1999, hundreds of o f women, of all ages, from all over the world gathered gather ed together to gether in Paris to celebrate celebrat e the fiftieth fiftieth anniversary of Le of Le Deuxieme Sexe. The conference was an opportunity opport unity to Simone de Beauvoir’s contribution cont ribution to feminism both bot h in terms ter ms of theory theo ry and activism. Several testimonies revealed that Beauvoir had been a grand grand inspirati inspiration on to them. She performed and and provided a role model for for women, through thro ugh her rejection of m marriage, arriage, and motherhood, through her equal and open relationship with with Jean-Paul Jea n-Paul Sartre, Sart re, through t hrough her intellectua intellectual, l, political and feminis feministt commi co mmittment and militancy militancy within the women’ wo men’ss movement. Such Su ch testimonies testimonies are found in many books boo ks and articles written about her. Dorothy Kauffmann expresses the significance of Simone de Beauvoir ‘s work wo rk and social activism: activism: If a single woman is singled out as an inspiring inspiring pioneer for making changes in in women’s women’s situation, it would wo uld be Simone de Beauvoir . Contemporary feminism feminism begins with her monumental book boo k Deuxieme Deuxieme Sexe Sexe.. Since it publication in English 237


translation The Second Sex by Sex by H.M.Parshley, it it has led to an unfailing unfailing awareness to t o women wo men about their being and becoming . Simone de Beauvoir Be auvoir has been actively engaged in all major major political political struggles struggles against against women’ women’s oppression oppression in France France and elsewher elsewhere. e. It is a pity pity that she should be dismissed dismissed as an anti-f ant i-femin eminist ist and misogynist misogynist by some so me women.20 It is worthwhile to highlight that it is largely as the author of Le of Le Deuxieme Sexe that Sexe that Simone de Beauvoir’s reputaion reput aion stands or o r falls. falls. One can refute refut e or defend her ideas but it is crystal clear that t his book represented represented the very lifeli ifeline ne which which helped helped many many femin feminist istss to make make sense of their their lives. lives. Many of them wrote wrot e to her, “Votre “Votre livà livàe m’ m’ s s été un grand secours. Votre otre livre livre m’a sauveé (“Your work has been a great help and it has saved us”) Toril Mai writes feelingly: “.......... “...... .....Beauvoir .Beauvoir provided pro vided women all all over the world with a vision vision of change.” It is this stregnth of vision which is inspiring inspiring and that “it is also the reason r eason why w hyThe The Second Sex remains Sex remains the founding text of materialist feminism feminism in in the twentieth twe ntieth century cent ury.” .” 21

16. 7 Annot Annotatio ations ns and and Biblio Bibliograph graphical ical Reference Referencess 1.

Sim Simone de Beau Beauvoi voir’ r’ss Le Le Deux Deuxie ieme me Sexe Sexe was was edi edited ted and and trans transllated ated into into Engl English ish by by H.M.Parshley and it was published published by Jonathan Cape Ltd. 1953.

2.

Dorot oroth hy Pa Parke rker: Mod Modeern Woman oman::The The Los Lostt Sex Sex.

3.

Sim Simone one de Beauv Beauvoi oir: r: The The Sec Second ond Sex Sex. Tran Trans.& s.&Ed. Ed. H.M H.M.Pa .Pars rshl hley ey.. Jonath Jonathan anca cape pe Ltd.1953. see se e Introduction PP.14-15. PP.14-15.

4.

Ibid,P.15

5.

Ibid,P.16

6.

Ibid,P.16

7.

Ibid,P.17

8.

Ibid,P.20

9.

Ibid,P.22

10.

Ibid,P.27

11.

Ibid,P.30

12.

Ibid,P.43

13.

Ibid,P.65

14.

Ibid,P.P.63-64

15.

Ibid,P.81

16.

MLF means in French ‘ Mouvement Mouvement de Liberation Liberation des Femmes.’ Femmes.’

17.

Beauvo Beauvoiir, Sim Simone de: de: The Second Second Sex (Tra (Trans. ns.&Ed &Ed.. H.M.P H.M.Pars arshl hley ey)) 238


1 8.

Ibid,P.737

1 9.

Ibid,P.738

20.

Kauffm Kauf fmann ann,Doroth ,Dorothy: y: Sim Simone de Beauv Beauvoir oir:Que :Questi stions ons of Diff Differen erence ce and Gene Generati ration. on. Yale French Studies.72. Stu dies.72.P P.128

21.

Moi,T Moi,Tori orill: Simone Simone de Beauvoi Beauvoir:Th r:Thee Making Making of an an Intel Intellectual lectual Woman. oman. Oxfor Oxford d 1994. P.213 Blacknell.


Write rite an an ess essay ayss on the biol biologi ogical cal descri descripti ption on of woman woman on the basi basiss of Sim Simone de Beauvoir’s Beauvoir’s book The Second Sex.

2.

Disc Discuss uss Sim Simone de Beauv Beauvoi oirr as a pione pioneer er of of Twenti wentieth eth Centu Century ry Femi Femini nism sm..

3.

Write a note ote on the the conc oncept of the Other as as discussed in The Second Sex.

4.

What hat is is the the cent centra rall thes thesis is of Simo Simon ne de de Bea Beauv uvoi oirr abou aboutt wom woman an..

5.

Sum Sum up Sim Simone one de de Bea Beauv uvoi oir’ r’ss ide ideas as on the the Fut Futur uree of of wom woman. an.


Beauvoi Beauvoirr,Simon ,Simonee de: de: The Second Second Sex Sex (Tran (Trans.& s.& Ed. H.M.Par H.M.Parsh shlley.Le ey.Le Deuxi Deuxiem emee Sexe. Sexe.)) (Jonathan Cape.Ltd.1953)

2.

Booth: Booth: Greatn Greatnes esss Engend Engendered ered:Ge :Georg orgee Eli Eliot and Virgini rginiaa Woolf Woolf.. (N.Y. Comel Comelll Uni Uni-versity versity Press.1092) Pr ess.1092)

3.

Bowlby Bowlby,, Rach Rachel el:: Femi Femini nist st Desti Destina nati tions ons and and Furthe Furtherr Essay Essayss on Virgina rgina Woolf oolf (Edinburg.1997)

4.

Boon, Boon, Joseph Joseph Alle Allen: n: Libi Libidi dina nall Curre Currents nts:Se :Sexu xual alit ity y and and the Shapi Shaping ng of Moder Moderni nism sm (Uni (University of Chicago Press.1998)

5.

Homan Homans, s, Margare Margarett (ed.) Virgi irgini niaa Woolf Woolf:: A Colle Collecti ction on of Critica Criticall Essa Essays ys.. Engl Englie iewood wood eliff. NJ. 1993

6.

Kauf Ka ufffman, an, Dorothy Dorothy:: Interv Interviiew ewss with with Si Simone de de Beauv Beauvoi oirr. Signs Signs Winter nter (1997 (1997))

7.

Laurenc Laurence, e, Patri Patricia Ontek: Ontek: The Readi Reading ng of Sile Silence: nce: Virgini rginiaa Woolf Woolf in the Engl Engliish TraTradition (Standford University Press 1991) 1991 )

8.

Le,Doeuf Le,Doeuff, f,M.: M.: Simon Simonee de Beauvoi Beauvoirr and Existen Existentia tiali lism sm Femi Feminist nist Studies Studies Summ Summer.1980 er.1980

9.

Leur Leurs,W s,Wy yndha ndhan n: Men Men Without thout Art (Lond (London on Cass Cassel el & Co. Co. 1934 1934))

10.

Mahon,J Mahon,J : Exi Existen stential tialis ism, m, Femin Feminism ismand Sim Simone one de Beauvoir Beauvoir(Lond (London on Macm Macmil illan lan.. 1997)

239


11.

Marks, Marks,E. E. (ed.) (ed.) Cri Critical tical Essay Essays on Si Simone de de Beauvo Beauvoir ir (Boston: (Boston: Hall Hall 1987 1987))

12.

Marks, Marks, E and and Courtivron Courtivron:: (eds) (eds) New Fren French ch Fem Femiinism nism:: An An Anthol Anthology ogy (Bri (Brighton. ghton. Harvester Press. 1981)

13.

Moi, Moi, Toril Toril:: Existen Existentia tiali lism sm and and Femin Feminiism: sm: The The Rhetori Rhetoricc of Biology Biology in the Second Second Sex. Sex. (Oxford Blacknell. 1994)

14.

Moi,Tori Moi,Torill: Simone Simone de Beauvoi Beauvoir:The r:The Making Making an an Intell Intellectual ectual woman woman (Oxf (Oxford ord Blackn Blacknel ell. l. 1994)

15.

Sandra Sandra Gil Gilbert bert and Gubar Gubar,, Susan: Susan: The The Mad Woma Woman n in the the Attic:Th Attic:Thee Woma Woman n Wri Writer ter and the t he Nineteenth Century Imagination. Imagination. (London.Y (Lond on.Yale ale University University Press.1987)

16.

Scwartz Scwartzer er,A ,A:: Sim Simone de Beauv Beauvoir oir Today oday (Tran (Trand. d. M.How M.Howar arth) th) (Lon (London don Chatto Chatto & Windus 1984) 198 4)

17.

Stephan Stephan,, Sir Sir Lesl Leslie; ie; Cha Charl rlotte otte Bron Bronte te (Lond (London.S on.Sm mith Elder Elder & Co. Co. 1982) 1982)

18.

Showalter, Showalter, Elai Elaine: ne: A Literatur Literaturee of their their Own: Briti British sh Women omen Novel Novelists ists From From Bronte Bronte to Lessing (Princeton University, University, Press Pr ess 1977) 1977 )

19.

Woolf oolf, Vi Virgin rginiia: Orl Orlan ando do (Har (Harcou court rt Brac Brace. e. 1982 1982))

20.

Woolf oolf, Vir Virgi gini nia: a: Coll Collected ected Essay Essayss (Lond (London: on: Hogart Hogarth. h. 1982) 1982)

21.

Woolf oolf, Vir Virgi gini nia: a: The The Vova Vovage ge Out Out (London (London.. Pengui Penguins ns.19 .1991) 91)

22.

Woolf, oolf, Virgini ginia: a: Wav Waves es (Ha (Harc rcour ourtt Brace Brace & Co. Co. 1978) 1978)

23.

Zwerdling Zwerdling,, Alex Alex:: Vir Virgin ginia ia Woolf and and the the Real World (Berkel (Berkeley ey.. Universi University ty of Calif Califorornia Press. 1886) __________________

240


UNIT-17 FRANTZ FANON : THE WRETCHED OF THE EARTH (I) Structure 17.0

Objectiv tives

17.1 17.1


17.2 17.2

About out th the Author thor

17.3

About th the Age

17.4 17.4

Intr Introd oduc ucti tion on of the the Tex Textt 17.4.1 Extracts Extracts from from the ‘Prefac ‘Preface’ e’ 17.4.2 De Detai tailled Explan Explanati ation on 17.4.3 Extracts Extracts from from the the ‘Concl ‘Conclusion’ usion’

17.5

Let Us Sum Up

17.6 17.6

Review Question tionss

17.7 17.7

Bibliogr ography

17.0 17.0 Objectives This unit would wo uld give an insight insight ofo f•

the the worl worldw dwiide black ack lilibera berati tion on stru strugg gglles of the the 196 1960, 0,

•

the the rol rolee of of viole olence in in dec decolon olonaalization tion,,

•

the the chal challlenge engess of poli politica ticall orga organ nizati zation on and and clas classs col collision sionss

•

the the questi question on of cul cultura turall heg hegem emon ony y in in the the crea creati tion on and and mai maint nten enan ance ce of of new new coun country try national consciousness.

17.1 Intr Intro oductio tion Frantz Fanon Fano n was a distinguished distinguished Black psychi p sychiatrist atrist and anticolonialist anticolonialist from Algeria. Algeria. He published The Wretched Wretched of the Earth in Earth in 1963. The Wretched of the Earth, Earth, is considered by many to be one o ne of the colonical co lonical books on o n the worldwide black liberation liberation struggles st ruggles of the 1960. He is writing in anger because of the need of addresses the role of violence in decolonization decolo nization and the challenges and the class collisions collisions and question ques tion of cultural hegemony in the creations creat ions and maintinan maintinance ce of o f a new country’ countr y’ss national consciousness. His approach approac h to the matter is by no means a settled approach, appro ach, but instead his att attack ack is revolutionary. revolutionary. One of his 241


main main points po ints is that the t he first will will be the last and the last will be be the first. He also uses many other ideologies that support suppo rt his beliefs beliefs and viewpoint. This book is very interesting interesting and would wo uld give students different different idealogies and perspectives of the colonized world.

17.2 Abou Aboutt th the Auth Author or Frantz Fanon Fano n was born on the t he Caribbean island island of Martini Mart inique, que, in the French Co Colony lony.. He was born into a mixed famil family y background: background : his father was the t he descendent of African African slaves, and his mother was said to t o be an illegi illegitimate timate child child of mixed race, whose who se white ancestors came from Strasbour Stras boury y in in Alsace. His family family was socioecono socioe conomicall mically y middle middle class. He left Martinique in 1943, when w hen he volunteered volunteer ed to fight with the free Fre French nch in World War War II and he remained r emained with the French after tthe he war to study medicine and psychiatry on scholarship in Lyon. Lyon. While While in France, Fanon Fan on wrote wro te his first first book, bo ok, Black Black Skin White Masks, Masks, an analysis of the effects of colonial colo nial subjugation on humanity. humanity. This book boo k was original or iginally ly his doctoral-thesis docto ral-thesis submitted at Lyon Lyon and entitled, e ntitled, ‘The Desalination Des alination of the Black Man.’ The rejection of the thesis had Fanon seeking to have the book published. It was Frances Jeanson his his mentor who insisted insisted on the new title. For Fanon, being being coloni co lonized zed by a language had larger impli implications cations for one’s political political consciousness. consciousness. ‘To speak..... speak. ........ .....means .means above all all to assume a culture, tto o sup port the weight weight of a civil civilizati ization. on. (p.17-18) Speaking French means means that one accepts, or is is coerced into accepting, the t he collective consciousness of the French, which identifies identifies blackness blackness with evil and sin. Fanon left French for Algeria, Algeria, where he had been stationed st ationed for sometime sometime during the war. He secured secure d an appointmen appo intmentt as a psychiatrist psychiatrist at Blida Blida Joinv Jo invil illa la psychiatric psychiatric Hospital. He pionee pioneered red in socio-the socio-therapy rapy whic which h connected connected him him with with his his patients patients,, cultural cultural backgrou backgrounds. nds. FolFollowing the outbreak out break of the t he Algerian revolution in Nov. Nov. 1954 he joined the FLN liberation Front as a s a result of contacts cont acts with Dr. Pierre Chanlet at Blide Blide in 1955. In 1956 he formally resigned his post and fled to Tunisia and began working wo rking openly ope nly with with the Algerian indepenindependence movement. While While in Ghana, Ghana, Fanon developed Leukemia, and though tho ugh encouraged encoura ged by friends friends to rest, he refused. He completed co mpleted his final final and most fiery indictment indictment of the colonial co lonial condition,The condition, The Wretched Wretched of the Earth in Earth in months. He died in Bethesda, Maryland, on December 6, 1961 under the name of Ibrahim Fanon. He was buried at Algeria with honour hono ur by the Algerian National Army Army of Liberation.

17.3 About th the Age Postcolonialism Post colonialism in Africa Africa refers in general to the era between bet ween 1960 and 1970, 19 70, during which time manyAfrican African nations nat ions gained poli po litical tical independence from their colonial co lonial rulers. Many authors aut hors writing during this time, and even during colonial times, saw themselves as both artists art ists and political activists, and their works reflected r eflected their concerns regarding reg arding the political and social 242


conditions of o f their their countries. cou ntries. As nation after nation gained independence from their colonial co lonial rulers, beginning beginning in the mid-twentieth century, a sense of euphoria eupho ria swept through t hrough Africa Africa as each country cou ntry celebrated its independence from years of political and cultural domination. Much of early postcolonial postco lonial writing reflects this sense of freedom freedo m and hope hope.. In the years that followed, followed, as many African African nations st ruggled to reinvigorat reinvigoratee long-subservient societies and culture, writers w riters of postcolonial po stcolonial Africa Africa began reflecting reflecting the horrors ho rrors their t heir countries suffered following following decolonization, deco lonization, and their writing is often imbued with a sense of o f despair and anger, at both the state of their their nations nations and the leaders leaders who replaced replaced former former coloni colonial al oppressors. oppressors. This This sense of disi disillusi llusionment, onment, reflected in tthe he works works of African African writers and poets, poets, marked marked the beginning beginning of a major change in African African intellectual intellectua l and litera literary ry development. development . Beginning in the 1970s, 19 70s, the direction of African African writing writing began to t o change, with writers forging new forms of expression reflecting more more clearly c learly their own thoughts tho ughts about abo ut culture and politics in their works. The T he writing of this period and later moves away from the subject matter of o f postcolonial postco lonialAfrica, Africa, and moves into the realm of new and realistic texts that reflect the concerns o off their respective nations. Postcolonial studies gained popularity in England during the 1960s with the establishment of Commonwealth literature—in the United States, this phenomenon did not reach its zenith until the 1990s. 199 0s. Because Becaus e postcolonial postc olonial writers writers are ar e studied stud ied by and read most often by Western Western audiences, their works wo rks are often o ften seen as being being representative repre sentative of the Third World and studied st udied as much for the anthropological anthrop ological information information they provide as they are as works of fiction. fiction. This, notes Bart Moore-Gilb Moo re-Gilbert ert in his Postcolo his Postcolonial nial Theory, Theory, has led to the creation of o f a criticism criticism that is unique in its its set of o f reading practices, which are “preoccupied “preo ccupied princ princiipall pally with with anal analys ysis is of cultur cultural al form forms whi which medi mediate, ate, chall challen enge, ge, or refl reflect upon … relati relations ons of domination and subordination.” subor dination.” In his study of postco po stcolonial lonialAfrican African fiction, fiction, Graham Gr aham Huggan also comments on this phenomenon, theorizing that western critics need to t o make an increased effort effort to expand their interpretive interpretive universe in order to study African African texts as fiction, fiction, rather than as windows into the ccultures ultures they represent. represent . This difficulty difficulty is is further compounded co mpounded by the fact that many indigenou indigenouss African authors in the postcolonial post colonial era and beyond remain un-tr un-translated, anslated, and are thus unavailab unavailable le to western critics. In the meantime, meantime, the canon cano n of translated or Europeanlanguage works wo rks that t hat are available, although but a minor part of o f African literature in general, genera l, have come to define postcolonial post colonial literature literature and an d its critical response. African writers are themselves very conscious of this gap between texts that are accessible to the West and those that remain in Africa. This unit aims at focusing on two eminent eminent African African poets who have continued to enrich the cultures at the expense of their own. Here it is pertinent to t o mention that truthful trut hful and fruitful fruitful human experience forms the basis for written expression expres sion in any branch of literature literature.. Conveyed through thro ugh a language of international exchange, it can reach a wider audience for whom it becomes a useful reference in in times of need. The English language language attained at tained international prominence prominence due to t o several reasons; one of o f the most important being b eing colonization. As As in other countries countr ies of the Commonwealth, English was imposed on Anglopho Anglophone ne Africa Africa as a means of easy co mmunication mmunication and administrat administrative ive

243


convenience. It is a historical irony irony that the same sa me language serves the African African writer in voicing his thoughts and feelings to the t he world at large. While While discussing discussing the future of o f English, English, Simeon Porter observes, It will adopt to t o meet new needs and in that incessant incessant reshaping re shaping and and adaptation, adapt ation, every speaker and writer consciously conscious ly or unconsciously unco nsciously will will play some part. part . (181) Today, Today, the prediction pr ediction of Porter Por ter came true of o f African African writing in English. English. It brought strength and a nd appeal to the Engli E nglish sh language by adding a large range of new vocabulary vo cabulary and usage. Writing Writing on the t he problems faced by the African African English writers, Chinua Achebe Achebe the t he famous Nigeri Nigerian an writer writer says, says, The African African writer should aim to use English that brings out ou t his message message without without altering the language to the extent that its value as a medium of international exchange will will be lost. He should aim at fashioning out an a n English, which is is at once once unusual and able tto o carry his peculiar experience. experience. (61) It is applaud-able applaud-able that the writers of Afri Africa ca succeeded succeed ed in accompl acco mplishi ishing ng the above a bove task set by Achebe, Achebe, which is by any means means not an easy one. Their The ir successful success ful integration integrat ion of native experience and expression e xpression in an alien alien tongue to ngue received worldwide wo rldwide acclaim. acclaim.

17.4 Intr Introd oduc ucti tion on of the the Tex Textt The Wretched Wretched of the Earth was Earth was the most import important ant work on decoloniz deco lonization. ation. It was first published published in 1961 by Francis Maspero and has a preface by Jean-Paul Sartre. In it Fanon analyses analyses the role of class, race, rac e, national culture and violence violence in the struggle st ruggle for national liberaliberation.

17.4.1 Extracts from the ‘Preface’ They would do well to read re ad Fanon; for he shows clearly clear ly that this irrepr irrepressible essible violence violence is neither sound and fury, fury, nor no r the resurrection resurrect ion of savage instincts, instincts, nor even the t he effect effect of resentr esentment: it is man re-creating re-creat ing himself himself.. I think we understoo underst ood d this truth at one o ne time, but we have forgotten it- that no gentleness can efface the marks of violence; only violence itself can destroy stro y them. The native cures himself of colonial neuro neurosis sis by thrusting thrust ing out the settler set tler through throu gh force of arms. When his rage boils over, he rediscovers red iscovers his lost innocence and he comes to know himself in that he himself himself creates creat es his self. self. Far removed re moved from his war, we consider it as triumph of barbarism; but of it own volition it achieves, slowly but surely, the emancipation of the rebel, for bit it des destroys troys in him and around aro und him the colonial gloom. gloom. Once begun, be gun, it is a war that gives g ives no quarter. You You may fear or be feared; that is to say s ay,, abandon abando n yourself to the disassociations of a sham existence or conquer your birthright birthright of o f unity. unity. When the peasant p easant takes a gun in his his hands, the old myths grow dim and the prohibitions are one by one forgot ten. The T he rebel’s rebel’s weapon is the t he proof proo f of his humanity humanity.. For in the first days of o f the revolt you must kill: kill: to shoot down d own a European Europea n is to kill two birds with one stone, to destro d estroy y an oppressor oppres sor and the man he oppresses at the same time: there remain a dead man, and a free man; the survivor, survivor, for 244


the first time, t ime, feels feels a Natio a National nal soil soil under his foo foot. t. And when you have read Fanon’s Fanon’s last chapter, chapte r, you will be convinced that it would be better for you to be be a native native at the uttermost uttermost depth of his his misery misery than to be be a former former settler settler.. It It is not right for a police police official official to be obliged to tort ure for ten hours a day; at that rate, his nerves will will fall fall to bits, unless the torturers tortu rers are forbidden in their their own interests to work wo rk overtime. When it it is desirable that the morality of the Nation Nat ion and the Army should be protected prot ected by the rigours of the law, it is not right that the former should systematically demoralize the letter, nor that t hat a country co untry with a Republican Republican tradition should confide hundreds and thousands o f its young folk to the care ca re of putschist off o fficers. icers. It is not right, my fell fellow-co ow-countrymen untrymen,, you who know very well all the crimes committe committed d in our name, it’s not at all a ll right that you do not no t breathe breat he a word about them to anyone, not even to your own soul, for fear of having to stand in judge judgem ment ent on yoursel ourself. f. I am wil willing ing to bel believe that that at the begi beginn nniing you did did not reali realize ze what what wa wass happening; later, later, you doubted dou bted whether whet her such things could be true; true ; but now you know, and still you hold your tongues. t ongues. Eight years of silence; what degradation! degrad ation! And your silence is all of no avail; today the blinding blinding sun of torture tor ture is at its zenith; it lights lights up the t he whole country count ry.. Under that t hat merciless merciless glare, there is not a laugh that does not ring ring false, not a face that is not pai p ainted nted to t o hide fear or anger, not a single single action that does do es not betray o ur disgust, and o ur complicity complicity.. It is enough today for two French people to meet to gether for there to be a dead man between them. One dead man did I say? In other ot her days France was the name of a country cou ntry.. We We should take care car e that in 1961 it does not become beco me the name of a nervous disease. Will Will we recover? reco ver? Yes. Yes. For Fo r violence, like like Achilles’ Achilles’ lance, can heal the wounds wo unds that t hat it has infli inflicted. cted. Today, we are bound hand and foot, foo t, humili humiliated ated and sick with fear; we cannot fall fall lower. Happily this is not yet enough eno ugh for the coloniali co lonialist st aristocrac arist ocracy; y; it it cannot complete its delaying mission mission in Algeria until it it has first finished finished colonizi colo nizing ng the French. Fre nch. Every Eve ry day we retreat ret reat in front front of the battle, bat tle, but you yo u may be sure that we will not avoid a void it; the killers need it; they’ll go for us and hit out ou t blindly blindly to left and right. Thus the t he day of magicians and fetishes will will end: you wil w illl have to fight, or o r rot in concentrations camps. This is the end of the dialectic; dialectic; you condemn this war but do not yet dare to declare yourselves yours elves to be on the side of the Algerian Algerian fighters; fighters; never fear, you can count on the settlers and the hired soldiers; they’ll they’ll make you you take the t he plunge. Then, perhaps, when your back is to the wall, wall, you will will let loose at last that new viole violence nce which which is raised raised up in you by old, oft-repeated oft-repe ated crimes. But, as they say, say, that’s another st ory: the history of mankind. The time time is drawing near, I am sure, when we will join the ranks of those t hose who makes mak es it. The Wretched Wretched of the Earth present Earth presentss a durable intellectua intellectuall framework framework based on medical as well as sociological evidence, evidence, for the t he abolition of colonial (white) rule. The book bo ok lays out a clear blueprint for revolution and considers all of its its potential pot ential consequences, for rebel and colonialist alike. The book boo k is divided divided into five chapters: 245


Chapter 1-Concerning Violence Summary and Analysis

Upon reading the first page, indeed the first paragraph, t he reader realizes at once there is a vast difference difference between Frantz Fanon’s approach to the black struggle and that of Rev. Rev. Martin Mart in Luther King’ King’ss nonviolent consciousness raisi ra ising. ng. Fanon asserts assert s that decolonization de colonization is always always a violent violent struggle and those who would wou ld undertake it must be prepared to get and keep the upper hand. Although Although Frantz Fanon does not endorse violence per se, he describes the act of colonization wherein one class of human beings beings subjugates another as a s pure violence, often accompanied by the brutality of knives and guns. Wherever there is colonization there is institutionalized institutionalized violence of o f a type that systematically systematically robs the native of his civil, civil, economic, and human rights, and is thus a highly abnormal and unnatural condition Chapter 2-Spontaneity: Its Strength and Weakness

In this chapter, Fanon Fan on explores in depth dept h the dynamics of an effective effective anti-coloniali anti-colo nialist st revolution. He describes desc ribes and explains explains the push-me-pull-you transitional points that mark the road from colonialism colonialism to independence, drawing from recent history and his own knowledge of the Algerian Algerian situation. situat ion. Chapter 3-The Pitfalls of National Consciousness

Fanon discusses at length the fragile state of o f national unity unity and the threats threat s to its survival su rvival that could co uld undermine undermine and eventuall eventu ally y destroy destro y the decolonialist rebellion. rebellion. He also poses po ses the age-old Marxist question whether a bourgeo bou rgeoisi isiee is is a phase of the revolution that can be, in effect, effect, skipped on the road ro ad to independence. independence. Chapter 4-On National Culture

As the stirrings of revolt begin to energize the natives, a need arises for new forms of cultural expression to give g ive voice to the new consciousness, co nsciousness, Fanon says. Since colonialism colonialism has throttled throt tled not only the native identity but also the t he indigenous indigenous culture and infused infused the culture of the mother country co untry into into the natives, an artistic renaissance often must be preceded by deep research into pre-existi pre -existing ng native culture. Chapter 5-Colonial War and Mental Disorders

In this final final chapter, Fanon Fano n the psychiatrist presents pr esents his most incendiary evidence evidence for revolution at any a ny cost to t o overthro overthrow w colonialism. colonialism. As a physician physician pledged to follow the Hippocratic Hippocra tic oath, Fanon must think first, last and always of the welfare of his patients. In this instance, his patients patients are the mental mentallly disabl disabled ed of an Algeri Algerian an psychi psychiatri atricc hospital hospital..

17.4.2 Detailed Explanation The Wretched Wretched of the Earth (French:Les Earth (French:Les Damnes de la Terre) Terre) is Frantz Fanon’s most famous famous work, written during and regarding the Algerian Algerian struggle for independence from colo246


nial rule. rule. In The Wretched Wretched of the th e Earth Fanon Earth Fanon develops the Manichean perspective perspec tive implici implicitt in The Black Skin, White Masks. The Black Skin, White Masks is Masks is part manifesto manifesto,, part analya nalysis; it both presents present s Fanon’s personal experience as a black intellectual intellectual in a white’s world and elaborated elaborat ed the ways in which the colonizer/colonized relationship re lationship is normalised normalised as psychology. As a psychiatrist, psychiatrist, Fanon Fa non explored the psychological effect effect of o f colonisation on the psyche of a nation as well as its broader bro ader implications implications for building building a movemen mo vementt for decolonizati d ecolonization. on. For Fanon in The Wretched Wretched of the Earth, Earth, the t he coloniz co lonizer er’’s presence in Algeri Algeriaa is based sheerly on military military strength. Any Any resistance to this strength must also be a violent nature natur e because it is the only ‘language’ the colonizer speaks. The relevance of language and the reformation of discourse cou rse pervades per vades much of his work, work , which is why it is so interdisciplinary, interdisciplinary, spanning psychiatric ps ychiatric concerns to t o encompass enco mpass politics, politics, sociology so ciology,, anthropology, anthro pology, linguistics linguistics and literatu literature. re. A controcontro versial versial introduction introduction to t o the text by Jean-Paul Sartre presents the thesi t hesiss as an advocacy of violence. violence. This focus derives d erives from the book’s bo ok’s opening chapter chapt er ‘Concerning ‘Co ncerning Violence’ Violence’ which is a caustic caus tic indictment of colonialism and its its legacy legac y. It discusses discusse s violence as a means of liberation and a catharsis to subjugation. It also detail deta ilss the violence of colonialism colonialism as a process itself. He mentions the well-known well-known crimes of Hanoi and Madagascar Madagas car to emphaslize emphaslize his his nonresentment. He also lays emphasis on ‘The New Man’ and ‘Black Consciousness.’ Both as a theorist theo rist influenced influenced by intrigued intrigued and as an advocate advo cate of o f resistance and revolution, especially with with relation to violence violence in revolution revolutio n The Wretched Wretched of the Earth constitute Earth constitute a warning to the oppressed op pressed of the dangers they face in the whirlwind whirlwind of decolonization and the transition to a neo-colonial neo -colonialist/global ist/globalised ised world. Colonial domination, domination, because it is total to tal and tends t ends to oversimplify oversimplify,, very soon soo n manages to disrupt d isrupt in spectacular fashion fashion the cultural cu ltural life life of a conquered peo people. ple. This cultural obli obliterateration is made possibl pos siblee by the negation negat ion of national reali rea lity, ty, by new legal relations introduced introd uced by the occupying occ upying power, by the banishment banishment of the natives and their customs custo ms to outlyi out lying ng districts by colonial colonial society society,, by expropri expropriati ation, on, and by the systema systematic tic enslav enslavin ing g of men men and women. women. He believed that in the colonial co lonial situat situation, ion, dynamism is replaced fairly quickly by by a substantif substant ification ication of the attitudes attitude s of the colonising power. The area of culture is then marked marked off o ff by fences ences and signp signposts osts.. These These are in fact fact so many many defen defence ce mecha mechani nism smss of the most most elem elemen entary tary type, comparable for more than one good reason to the simple simple instinct instinct for preservation. T The he interest of this period he said is that the o ppressor does not manage to convince co nvince himself himself of the objective non-existence of the oppressed oppr essed nation and its culture. Every effort effort is made to bring the colonised co lonised person to admit admit the t he inferiority inferiority of his his culture which has been transformed into instinctive patterns o f behaviour, behaviour, to recognise reco gnise the unreality of his his ‘nation’, and, in the last extreme, the confused co nfused and imperfect imperfect character of o f his his own biological structure. struct ure. Vis-à-vis this Vis-à-vis this state st ate of o f affairs, affairs, the native’s native’s reactions are ar e not unanimous unanimous While While the mass of the people pe ople maintain maintain intact traditions which are completely different different from those of o f the colonial situation, and the artisan art isan style style soli so lidif difies ies into a formalism formalism which is more and more stereot st ereotyped, yped, 247


the intellectual throws himself himself in frenzied frenzied fashion into into the frantic acquisi acqu isition tion of o f the culture cu lture of the occupying power and takes every opportunity of unfavorably criticizing his own national culture, or else takes ta kes refuge in setting out and substantiating su bstantiating the claims of that culture cu lture in a way that is passi passionate but rapidl rapidly y becomes becomes unproducti unproductive. ve. The common nature of these two reactions lies lies in the fact that they both lead to impossible contradictions. Whether a turncoat or a substantialist the native is ineffectual precisely because the analysis analysis of the colonial colonial situation is not carried carried out on strict strict line lines. s. The colonial colonial situation calls a halt to national culture in almost every field. Within the framework of colonial domination domination there is not and there will never be such phenomena as new cultural departures or changes in the national culture. culture. Here H ere and there valiant valiant attempts att empts are sometim so metimes es made to reanimate reanimate the cultural cultur al dynamic dynamic and to give fresh impulses impulses to its themes, its forms and its tonalities. tona lities. The immediate, immediate, palpable and obvious interest of such leaps ahead a head is nil. nil. But if we follow follow up u p the consequences to the very end we see that t hat preparations are being being thus made to brush the cobwebs off national consciousness to question q uestion oppression and to open o pen up the struggle strugg le for for freedom. A national culture culture under colonial domination domination is is a contested culture whose destruction dest ruction is sought in systematic fashion. fashion. It very quickly becomes a culture condemned c ondemned to secrecy se crecy.. This idea of clandestine culture is immediately immediately seen in the reactions of o f the occupying oc cupying power which interprets attach a ttachment ment to traditions trad itions as faithfulness faithfulness to the spirit of the nation and as a refusal to submit. This persistence in following following forms of culture which are already condemned cond emned to extinction extinction is already a demonstration of nationality; nationality; but it is a demonstration which is a throw-back thro w-back to the laws of inertia. There is no taking t aking of the offensive offensive and no redefining redefining of relationships. There is simply simply a concentration on o n a hard har d core of culture which is is becoming more and more shrivelled shrivelled up, inert and empty. empty. By the time time a century or two t wo of o f exploitation exploitation has passed there t here comes about a veritable v eritable emaciation emaciation of o f the stock of o f national culture. It becomes a set of o f automatic habits, some traditions of dress and a few broken-down institutions. Little movement can be discerned in such remnants of culture; there is no real rea l creativity creativity and no overflowin ove rflowing g life. life. The poverty pover ty of the people, national na tional oppression and the inhibi inhibition tion of culture are one and the t he same thing. After a century of coloni co lonial al domination we find a culture which is rigid in the extreme, ext reme, or rather rat her what we w e find are the dregs dr egs of culture, its mineral strata. The withering away of the reality reality of the nation natio n and the deathdeat h pangs pangs of the national national culture culture are linked linked to each each other in mutual dependenc dependences. es. This This is why why it is of capital importance importance to t o follow the evolution of these relations during the struggle strugg le for national freedom. The negation of the native’s native’s culture, the t he contempt for any manif manifestation estation of o f culture whether active ac tive or emotional and the placing p lacing outside the pale of all specialised specialised branches of o f organisation contribute to breed aggressive ag gressive patterns of conduct in the native. But But these patterns pat terns of conduct are of the reflexive type; they are poorly differentiated, anarchic and ineffective. Colonial exploitation, poverty and endemic famine drive the native more and more to open, organised orga nised revolt. The T he necessity for an open and decisive breach is formed formed progressively pro gressively and 248


imperceptibly imperceptibly, and comes co mes to be felt by the great majority majority of the people. pe ople. Those Tho se tensions which hitherto were non-existent come co me into into being. International Internat ional events, events, the t he collapse of whole whole sections of colonial empires empires and the contradictions contrad ictions inherent inherent in the coloni co lonial al system strengthen and uphold the native’s combativity while promoting and giving support to national consciousness. These new-found tensions which are present at all stages in the real nature of co coloni loniali alism sm have their repercussions on the cultural cu ltural plane. In literature, literature, for example, example, there t here is relative relative over produc producti tion on.. From From bei being a repl reply on a minor minor scal scalee to the the domi dominati nating ng power power,, the the liter literatu ature re produ produce ced d by nati native vess becom becomes es dif differen ferenti tiate ated d and and makes akes itsel itselff into into a wil will to parti particul culari arism sm.. The intel intelli ligen gentsi tsia, a, which during the period o f repression was essentiall e ssentially y a consumin co nsuming g public, now themsel t hemselves ves become producers. This This literature literature at first first chooses to confine confine itself itself to the tragic and poetic style; but later later on o n novels, short sto ries and essays are attempted. It I t is as if a kind of internal internal organisation or law of expression existed which wills that poetic expression become less frequent in proportion as the objectives and the method methodss of the struggle stru ggle for liberation liberation become more precise. Themes Themes are compl co mpletely etely altered; altered; in fact, we find find less and less of bitter, hopeless recrimination recrimination and less also of that violent, resounding, resou nding, florid florid writing which on the whole serves to reassure the occupying o ccupying power. The colonists have have in former times times encouraged these modes of expression and made their existence possible. Stinging denunciations, the exposing of distressing conditions and passions which find find their th eir outlet in expression are in fact assimilated assimilated by the occupying occupying power in a cathartic cathartic process. To aid aid such processes is in a certain certain sense sense to avoid their dramatisation dramatisation and to t o clear the atmosphere. at mosphere. But such su ch a situation can only be transitory. transitory. In fact, the t he progress of o f national consciousness among the people modifies and and gives precision to the t he literary literary utterances of the native intellectual. intellectual. The continued cohesion of the people peop le constitutes for the intellectual intellectual an invitation invitation to go farther than his cry of protest. pro test. The lament first first makes the t he indictment; indictment; then it makes an appeal. In the period that tha t follows, follows, the words wor ds of command are heard. The T he crystallisation crystallisation of the national consciousness will bot both h disrupt literary styles and themes, and also create a completel co mpletely y new public. While While at the beginning the native intellectual intellectual used to pro duce his work to be read exclusively by the oppressor, oppr essor, whether with the intention of charming him or of denouncing him through ethnical et hnical or subjectivist subjectivist means, now no w the native writer progressively pro gressively takes take s on the habit of addressing his his own people. On another level, the oral tradition - stories, epics and songs of o f the people - which formerly were filed filed away as set pieces are now no w beginning beginning to change. change . The storytellers sto rytellers who used to relate inert episodes now no w bring them alive alive and introduce into them modifications modifications which which are increasingly fundamental. There is a tendency to bring conflicts conflicts up u p to date da te and to modernise mod ernise the kinds of struggle which the stories evoke, together t ogether with the names of heroes heroes and the t he types of weapons. weapo ns. The method metho d of allusion is is more and more widely w idely used. The formula ‘This all happened long ago’ is substituted by that of ‘What we are going to speak of happened somewhere else, but it might well have happened here today tod ay,, and it might might happen tomorro t omorrow’. w’. The example of Algeria Algeria is significan significantt in this context. co ntext. From 1952-3 on, the t he storytell sto rytellers, ers, who were before that tim t imee stereotyped stereotyped and tedious to listen listen to, completelyoverturned their traditi trad itional onal methods of of storytelling and the contents contents of of their tales. Their Their public, public, which was formerly scattered, scattered, 249


became became compact. compact. The epic, with its typifi typified ed categories, categories, reappeared; reappeared; it became became an authentic authentic form of entertainment which took on o n once more a cultural cultur al value. value. Colonial Co lonialism ism made no mistake when from 1955 on it proceeded to t o arrest these t hese storytellers sto rytellers systematically systematically. Where handicrafts handicrafts are concerned, the t he forms of expression which formerly formerly were the dregs of o f art, surviving surviving as if in a daze, now begin to reach re ach out. out . Woodw Woodwork, ork, for example, which formerly turned out certain c ertain faces and attitudes att itudes by the million, million, begins to be differentiated. The inexpressive inexpressive or overwrought overwro ught mask comes to life and the arms tend to be raised from from the body as if to sketch an action. action. Compositions co containing ntaining two, three three or five figures figures appear. appea r. The traditional tra ditional schools are led on to creative efforts efforts by the rising rising avalanche avalanche of amateurs or of o f critics. critics. This new vigour in this sector o off cultural life life very often often passes unseen; unse en; and yet its contribution to the national effort is of capital importance. importanc e. By carving figures and faces which are full of life, and by taking taking as his his theme theme a group fixed fixed on the same same pedestal pedestal,, the the artist artist invi invites tes partici participati pation on in an organised movement. He felt that the repercussions of o f the awakening awakening of national consciousness in the domains domains of ceramics and pottery-maki pott ery-making, ng, the same observations may be drawn. Formali Fo rmalism sm is abandoned in the craftsman’s work. wor k. Jugs, Jug s, jars and trays tr ays are modified, at first imperceptibl impercept ibly y, then almost a lmost savagely. savagely. The colours, c olours, of o f which formerly formerly there were but few and which obeyed the traditional t raditional rules of harmony, increase in number and are influenced by the repercus re percussion sion of the rising r ising revolution. Certain ochres and blues, which seemed forbidden to all eternity in a given cultural area, now no w assert themselves without givi g iving ng rise to scandal. In the same way the stylisation stylisation of o f the human face, which according accord ing to sociologists so ciologists is typical of very clearly clearly defined defined regions, become becomess suddenl suddenly y comple completel tely y relati relative. ve. The speci specialist alist comin coming g from the home home country country and the ethnologist are quick to note not e these changes. On the whole such changes are condemned co ndemned in in the name of a rigid rigid code cod e of artistic style and of a cultural life life which grows grows up u p at the t he heart of the colonial system. system. The colonial colo nialist ist specialists do not recognise reco gnise these new forms and rush to the help of the traditions of the t he indigenous indigenous society so ciety.. It is the colonialists colonialists who become beco me the defenders of the native style. We We remember perfectly, perfectly, and the example took o n a certain certa in measure measure of o f impor importance tance since the real rea l nature of colonialism was not involved, the reactions react ions of the white jazz specialists when after the Second World War new styles such as the be-bop took definite shape. The fact is that t hat in their eyes jazz should only be the despairin desp airing, g, broken-down broken-do wn nostalgia of an old Negro who is trapped trap ped between five glasses of whisky, whisky, the curse of o f his his race, and the racial hatred of the white men. As soon soo n as the Negro Neg ro comes co mes to an understanding of himself himself,, and understands understa nds the rest of o f the world differently differently,, when he gives birth birth to hope and forces back the racist universe, it is clear that his trumpet sounds soun ds more clearly and his voice less hoarsely. hoarsely. The new fashions in jazz are not simply simply born of economic econo mic competition. We We must without withou t any doubt see in them one of the consequences of o f the defeat, slow but sure, of o f the southern world of the United States. Stat es. And it is not uto pian to suppose suppo se that in fif fifty ty years’ time the type of jazz howl hiccupped by a poor poo r misfortunate Negro Ne gro will be upheld only by the whites who believe in it it as an expression of nigger-hood, and who are faithful faithful to this arrested image image of o f a type of relationship. 250


Well before before the the political or fighting phase of the national movement an attentive attent ive spectator spectat or can thus feel and see the manif manifestation estation of new vigour and feel the approachin appro aching g conflict. conflict. Fanon upholds the fact that the native will will note unusual forms of expression and themes which are fresh and imbued imbued with a power po wer which is no longer that of invocation but rather rat her of the assembl a ssembling ing of the people, a summoning summoning together for a precise purpose. Everything Everything works together to awaken the t he native’s native’s sensibility sensibility and to make unrea unreall and inaccept inacceptable able the contempl conte mplative ative attitude, att itude, or the acceptance of defeat. The native native rebuilds rebuilds his perceptions because he renews the purpose and dynamism dynamism of the craftsmen, of dancing and music and of literature and the oral tradition. tr adition. His world comes to lose its accursed character. c haracter. The conditions necessary for the inevitable conflict conflict are brought together. We have noted note d the appearance of o f the movement movement in cultural cultural forms and we have seen that this movement and these new forms are linked to the state of maturity of the national consciousness. consciou sness. Now, No w, this movement movement tends te nds more and more to t o express expres s itself objectively, objectively, in institutions. From thence comes the need for a national existence, whatever the cost. co st. A frequent mistake, and one which is moreover hardly justifiable justifiable is to try tr y to find cultural expressions for and to t o give new values to native culture within w ithin the framework of o f colonial domination. This is why Fanon Fanon arrive arr ive at a proposition pro position which at first sight seems paradoxical: parado xical: the fact that in a colonised co lonised country the most elementary, elementary, most most savage savage and the most u undif ndifferentiated ferentiated nationalism is is the most fervent and a nd efficient efficient means of defending national culture. For Fo r culture is first the expression of a nation, the expression of its preferences, of its taboos and of its patterns. patterns. It is at every every stage of the whole whole of society society that other taboos, values values and patterns patterns are formed. A national culture is the sum total of o f all these appraisals; it is the result resu lt of internal and external extensions ext ensions exerted over o ver society societ y as a whole and also also at every ever y level level of that society. In the colonial situation, situation, culture, cultur e, which is doubly doubly deprived of the support suppo rt of o f the nation and of the state, stat e, falls falls away and dies. The condition for its existence is therefore therefo re national liberat liberation ion and the renaissance renaissance of the state. st ate. The nation is not only o nly the conditi co ndition on of culture, its fruitfulness, fruitfulness, its continuous renewal, and its deepening. deep ening. It is also a necessity. necessity. It is the t he fight fight for national existence which sets culture moving and opens to it the doors d oors of creation. crea tion. Later on it is the nation which will ensure the conditions and framework framework necessary to culture. The T he nation gathers toget together her the various indispensable indispensable elements elements necessary for the creation creat ion of a culture, cu lture, those elements elements which alone can give it credibility, credibility, validity validity,, life and creative creat ive power. pow er. In the same way it is its national nat ional character charact er that wil w illl make make such suc h a culture open o pen to other o ther cultures cu ltures and which will enable it to influence influence and a nd permeate other cultures. cultures. A non-existent non-existent culture culture can hardly be expected expected to have have bearing bearing on reality, reality, or o r to influence reality. reality. The first necessity is the re-esta re- establi blishment shment of the t he nation in order to to give life life to national culture in the strictly biological biological sense of the t he phrase. Thus we have followed followed the t he break-up of the old strata o f culture, culture, a shattering shatt ering which which become becomess increa increasi singl ngly y funda fundame menta ntal; l; and and we have have notic noticed, ed, on the eve of the decis decisiive confl conflict for national freedom, the renewing of forms of expression and the rebirth r ebirth of the imagination. imagination. There 251


remains remains one essential essent ial question: what are the relations between the struggle st ruggle - whether political or military military - and culture? culture ? Is there a suspension of culture during the conflict? conflict? Is the national struggle an expression of a culture? Finally, ought one to say that the battle for freedom, however fertile a posteriori with posteriori with regard to culture, is in itself itself a negation of culture? In short shor t is the struggle strug gle for for liberation liberation a cultural phenomenon or not? not ? He believe believe that the conscious and organised o rganised undertaking by a colonised people to reestablish the sovereignty of that nation constitutes t he most complete and obvious cultural manifestation manifestation that exists. It is not alone the success succe ss of the struggle strug gle which which afterwards gives validity validity and vigour vigour to culture; culture is not put p ut into cold co ld storage during the conflict. conflict. The struggle st ruggle itself in in its development and in its internal progression prog ression sends culture c ulture along different paths and traces out o ut entirely new ones for it. The struggle for freedom does not give back to the national culture cultur e its former value and shapes; this struggle str uggle which aims aims at a fundamentally di different fferent set of o f relations between men cannot leave intact either the form or the content co ntent of the people’ peop le’ss culture. After the confl co nflict ict there is not only the disappearance of colonialism colonialism but also the disappearance of the colonised co lonised man.

17.4.3 Extracts from the ‘Conclusion’ 1.

Come, then, comrades; it would wou ld be as well to decide at once to t o change our ou r ways. We We must shake off o ff the heavy darkness dark ness in which which we were plunged, plunged , and leave it behind. The new day which is already already at hand h and must find us firm, firm, prudent and resolute. reso lute. We must leave our dreams and abandon a bandon our ou r old beliefs and friendships friendships of the time bef before life began began.. Let us waste waste no tim time in steri sterille litan itaniies and nause nauseati ating ng mimic imicry ry.. Leave Leave this Europe where they are never done talking of Man, yet murder men everywhere they find find them, at the corner c orner of every one of their own street s, in all the corners of o f the globe. For Fo r centuries they t hey have stifled almost the whole w hole of humanity humanity in the name of a so-called spiritual spiritual experience. Look at them t hem today swaying swaying between betw een atomic and spiri sp iritual tual disintegration.

2.

Europe Europe now now li lives ves at suc such h a mad, mad, reck recklless pace pace that that she she has has shake shaken n off off all all gui guidan dance ce and all reason, and she is running running headlong into the t he abyss; we would do well to avoid it with all possible possible speed. spee d. Yet it is very true that t hat we need a model, and that we w e want blueprints and examples. For many among us the European Euro pean model mode l is is the most inspiring. We We have therefore seen s een in the preceding pages to what mortifying set-backs such an imitation has led us. European achievements, European techniques and the European style ought no longer to tempt t empt us and to throw us off our balance. balance.

3.

Let us deci decide not not to imi imitate Europe Europe;; let let us comb combine ine our our musc musclles and and our our brai brains ns in in a new direction. Let us try tr y to create creat e the whole man, whom Europe has been incapable of bringing bringing to triumphant birth.

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Two centuries ago, a former European colony decided to catch up with Europe. It succeeded succee ded so well w ell that the t he United States Sta tes of America America became a monster, monst er, in which which the taints, the t he sickness and the inhumanity inhumanity of Europe Euro pe have grown gro wn to appalling dimensions. dimensions. Comrades, have we not other work t o do than to create a third Europe? The West West saw itself as a spiritual adventure. advent ure. It is in the name of the spirit, in the name of the spirit sp irit of Europe, that Europe Euro pe has made her encroachments, that she has justified justified her crimes crimes and legitimized the slavery slaver y in which she holds four-fifths of humanity. 4.

Humani Humanity ty is waiti waiting ng for somethi something ng other other from from us than than such an imi imitation, tation, whi which ch would would be almost almost an obscene obscene caric caricature. ature. If we want to turn Africa Africa into a new Europe, Euro pe, and America America into a new Euro Europe, pe, then t hen let us leave the destiny destiny of our countries to Europeans. They will will know how to do it better than the most gifted among us. But if we want humanity to advance a step farther, if we want to bring it up to a different different level than that which Europe has shown it, then t hen we must invent and we must make discoveries. If we wish wish to live up to our p peoples’ eoples’ expectations, we must seek the t he response elsewhere than in Europe.

5.

For Europe Europe,, for for ours oursel elve vess and and for for hum human aniity, ty, comr comrade ades, s, we must ust turn over over a new new leaf leaf,, we must work out new concepts, concept s, and try to set afoot a new man.

17.5 17.5 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up Fanon’s novel, The Wretched Of The Earth views Earth views the colonized world from the perspe perspecti ctive ve of the the coloni colonize zed. d. Fanon Fanon questi questions ons the the basi basicc assu assum mptions ptions of coloni colonial aliism. sm. He questi questions ons whether violence is a tactic tact ic that should be employed to elim e liminate inate colonialism.. colonialism.. He questio q uestions ns whether the colonized colonized world should copy the west o r develop a whole new set of values and ideas. In all these questionings q uestionings of basic assumptions of colonial colo nialism ism Fanon exposes expo ses the methods method s of control contro l the white world uses to hold down the colonies. Fanon calls calls for a radical ra dical break with with colonial culture, rejecting a hypocritical European humanism for a pure revolutionary consciousness. consciousne ss. He exalts violence violence as a necessary pre-condition pre-co ndition for for this rupture. ruptu re. His book though t hough sees the t he relationship and methods of o f control contro l in in a simplistic simplistic light; light; he classifies whites, and native intellectuals who have adopted western values and tactics as enemies. enemies. He fails fails to see how these natives and even the white world wo rld are also victims victims are forced into their roles by a society which itself is forced into a role. Fanon also classifies many colonized people people as mentally entally ill ill. In his his last last chapter chapter he brings brings up countle countless ss cases of chil children, adults, adults, and the elderly who have been bee n driven mad by colonialism. colonialism. In one instance insta nce he classifies two children who kill k ill their white playm p laymate ate with wit h a knife as insane. In isolating iso lating these chil c hildren dren classifying classifying there ther e disorders as insanity caused by colonialism he ironically is using the very thought systems and 253


technologies that Foucault Fo ucault points po ints out are symptomatic of the western west ern disciplin disciplinary ary society. society.


Why Why does Frantz Frantz Fanon Fanon accept— accept—iif not advocate advocate—v —viiolenc olencee as an inevi nevitab tablle tool tool for social change as compared with, for example, Dr. Martin Luther King who embraced e mbraced the principle principle of non-violence?

2.

What What is is the the cruci crucial al eleme element nt in in a successf successful ul native native rebell rebellion against against colonia coloniali lism sm that is is often overlooked over looked in the early stages of an uprisi upr ising? ng?


Abel Abel,, Lione Lionell. “Sev “Seven en Heroes Heroes of the New Left.” Left.” The New York Tim Times Maga Magazi zine ne 5 may 1968.

2.

Bhab Bhabha, ha, Homi. Homi. “Interrog “Interrogati ating ng Identi Identity: ty: Frantz Frantz Fanon Fanon and and the the Postcol Postcolonial onial Prerogati Prerogative. ve.”” The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994. 40-66.

3.

de Bea Beauv uvoi oir, r, Si Simone mone.. Force Force of Ci Circum rcumst stan ance ce.. New New Yor York: k: Putn Putnam am,, 1964 1964..

4.

Berg Bergner ner,, Gwen. Gwen. “W “Who Is Is That That Mask Masked ed Wom Woman an?? or, or, The The Role Role of Gende Genderr in Fanon’ Fanon’ss Black Skin, White Masks.” PMLA

5.

The The Wre Wretch tched ed of the the Earth Earth.. New New York York,, 1965. 1965. Rep Repri rint nt of Les Les dam damnes nes de la terre terre.. Paris, 1961.

6.

Studie Studiess in in a Dyi Dying Coloni Colonial aliism, sm, or A Dyi Dying Coloni Colonial alis ism m. New York, 1965. 1965. Reprin Reprintt of L’an cinq de la revolution revo lution algerienne. Paris, 1959 19 59

7.

Black Black Skin, Skin, White hite Masks Masks.. New New York: Grove, Grove, 1967. 1967. Repri Reprint nt of Peau Peau noir noire, e, masq masques ues blancs. blancs. Paris, Paris, 1952. 1952.

8.

Toward oward the Afri African can Revol Revoluti ution on.. New York, 1967. 1967. Repri Reprint nt of Pour la la revol revoluti ution on afri africai caine ne.. Paris, 1964 ___________

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UNIT-18 FRANTZ FANON : THE WRETCHED OF THE EARTH (II) (II) Structure 18.0

Objectiv tives

18.1 18.1

Introductio tion

18.2 18.2

Cri Critica ticall Analysis sis 18.2 18.2.1 .1 Styl tyle 18.2 18.2.2 .2 The Theme (a) Colonial Co lonial Domination (b) Decolonization (c) Call for for Fight for Freedom Freed om (d) National Consciousness (e) Maxism

18.3

Let Us Us Sum Up

18.4 18.4


18.5 18.5

Bibliogr ography

18.0 18.0 Objectives This unit would wo uld give an insight insight ofo f•

the the worl worldw dwiide black ack lilibera berati tion on stru strugg gglles of the the 196 1960, 0,

•

the the rol rolee of of viole olence in in decol ecolon onaalizati zation on,,

•

the questi question on of cultura culturall hegem hegemony ony in the creati creation on and and mai mainte nten nance ance of new new country country national consciousness.

18.1 Intr Intro oductio tion Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth, Earth, first published in 1961, is probably to most widely read of the books to emerge from the Third World upheaval of the post war period: period: it has been been transl translated ated into sixte sixteen en lang language uagess and has reache reached d an interna nternati tional onal audie audience nce.. Initially Initially, it was widely hailed hailed as the most passionate p assionate and brilliant brilliant analysis of the pro process cess of o f decolonization. decolonization. Rereading the book bo ok today t oday,, one o ne realizes realizes how much the world wor ld has changed in the interval: we now see the t he extent to which Fanon was a man of his his times and the extent to 255


which he was a throwback to the Roman nationalists of the nineteenth century. Far from having been the Marx of the African African Revolution Revo lution (and there the re were some so me who mistook him for that), Fanon now emerges more clearly as having been its Mazzini. Mazzini. For the t he strength ofThe of The Wretched of the Earth E arth reliesless reliesless on the incisiveness incisiveness of its analysis than on the violence and inspiration inspiration of its rhetoric. rhet oric. It is a call to arms, not a scholarly autopsy. In the end, it seems more appropriate to apply a pply to it the methods method s of literaty literaty criticism than of political political science. Despite many contradictions and excesses, The Wretched of the Earth remains a remarkable achievment. achievment. The T he universalism universalism of Fanon’ Fano n’ss imagination and the t he forcefulness of o f his language have given the work an appeal that has already made made it a modern classic. classic.

18.2 Crit Critic ical al Anal Analys ysis is 18.2.1 Style Dr. Frantz F. F. brings an excellent excellent perspective persp ective to the t he writing of this book that t hat of the psych psychiatr iatris istt who who has tried tried to rela relate te the mental mental suffer sufferiing of black black Algeri Algerians ans aff affected by French French colonialism. colonialism. His perspective perspe ctive as a black man and as a physician physician gives him instant credibi cre dibility lity to address these t hese issues; his lucidi lucidity ty of thought and grace of expression allow him to present them t hem in instru instructive ctive compelling compelling prose. pro se. “Come, then, comrade comrades; s; it would be as well to decide at once t o change our ways. We must shake off the heavy darkness in which we were plunged, and leave it behind must find find us firm, firm, prodent pro dent and resolute.” reso lute.” (Ch. 6) The author aut hor maintains an almost clinical objectivity objectivity as he describes the colonialist colonialist system, the resentment of the nativ nat ives es and how that t hat resentment affects there lives lives as well as the lives lives of the colonialists as both has its own identity justice and power. pow er. The identity of these two t wo groups can be clearly seen in in Fanon’s Fanon’s representation of the struggle. str uggle. These two gro groups ups struggled str uggled with each other because the t he colonists are on one side and the natives on the other. The natives see the colonists as “the others”. o thers”. They are seen tthis his way because they came over from Europe and then made them slaves in their own society. These peoples peo ples individual individual rights were taken away and they were forced to live live a life life of oppression. The colonists took to ok over o ver the upper caste c aste and pushed everyone else down because they t hey felt felt that their way was better. One can also witness the various manifestations manifestations of o f human behaviour behaviour that becomes inevitable inevitable once the rebels reb els decide to take tak e action for their t heir own indepe independence. ndence. It is really fascifascinating to observe o bserve how Fanon describes the dynamics dynamics of personali perso nalities ties and groups of people want to seek see k justice justice and want to build a nation of the culture culture not no t on the values that somebody else says that tha t they must abide a bide by. by.

18.2.2 Theme Fanon makes the compell co mpelling ing (and then-shocking) then-sho cking) case that colonialism is an unhealthy unhealthy condition condit ion for the Algerian Algerian because becau se it deprives depr ives him him of not only economic econo mic and social security, education, educat ion, and a chance at a better bet ter life, but more fundamentally because it robs him of his 256


basi basicc hum humanit anity y. Coloni Colonial aliism as a form form of insti institut tutiional onalized ized viol violen ence ce gener generate atess psych psychiiatric atric illn illnes esse sess that stem st em from a complete devaluation of the self, accompani acco mpanied ed by various phobias and extreme ext reme anxiety anxiety states that t hat grow out of o f violence. violence. In the last chapter, he presents a number number of cases of mental disorder directly attributable to colonialism colonialism or to the t he war for independence. A central issue in these psychiatric casualties is the loss of self, of a valid valid human identity identity whether whet her through thro ugh the systematic deperso depersonali nalization zation that strips citizens of their t heir humanity humanity each day..... (a)

Colonial Do Domination: In Fanon ‘The ‘The Wreched Wreched of the Earth’ E arth’ colonial co lonial domination is a means to disrupt the t he cultural life life of a conquered peo people. ple. The cultural obliteration is due to t o negation negat ion of national existence by new legal authorities by the banishment banishment of the natives to the th e outslirts out slirts by expropiation and by methodological enslaving enslaving of natives.

Fanon believed colonialism as a complicated network net work of complicities and internal internal power inbal inbalances ances between factions factions within within the broader broader categories of colonizer colonizer and and colonized. In his book he questions quest ions the basic assumptions of colonialism. colonialism. He quesqu estions whether the colonized world should copy the west o r develop a whole new set of values and ideas. He exposes expose s the methods of o f colonial domination the white world uses to hold down the colonies. His book though sees the relationship and methods of o f control contro l in a simiphi simiphistic stic light; he classifies classifies whites and native iintellectual ntellectual who have adopted adopt ed western west ern values and tactics as enemies. (b)

always a violent violent phenomenon..... Decolonization Decolonization Decolonization : “Decolonization is always which which sets out to change the order o rder of the world. wo rld. It is a historical process, it is the meeting of two forces and is nourished by the situation within within the colonies. Fanon believed believed that decolonization never ttakes akes place unnoticed, for it influences influences individuals and modifies them fundamenta fundamentally lly.. It is a means of o f the veritable creation creat ion of new men. The agents of colonizers speak the language of pure force and do not seek to hide the domi do mination. nation. They are the t he medium of sparking the flames flames of violence into the minds minds of the t he natives. The exploited natives see that liberation liberation implies implies the use us e of force and violence. Fanon felt the idea of compromise was a very important in the phenomenon of decolonization, for it compresses negotiations betweens the coloni co lonizers zers and the young nationalist bourgeoisie. bourg eoisie. The partisans of the colonial system know the t he natives can blow blow up bridges, bridges, ravage ravage farms farms and even disrupt disrupt the economy economy if they do not comprocompromise mise with the nationalist bourgeoise. bourgeo ise. The native bourgeouse bourgeo use are in turn afraid as Fanon stated stated of the uncertainly of the result of the masses revolt. He believed believed that a bourgeous bourge ous that provided nationali nationa lism sm alone alone as food for the t he natives fails fails in his mission mission and gets get s trapped in a series of mishaps.

(c)

Call for Figh ight for Freedom: om: The natives who are anxious for the culture of their country and who wish to give to it a universal dimension dimension ought not therefore to place

257


their confidence in the single principle of inevitable, undifferentiated independence written into the consciousness of o f the people in order to t o achieve their task. The liberation of the nation is one thing; the methods and popular po pular content conte nt of the fight fight are another. ano ther. It seems to me that the future of national culture culture and its riches are equally equally also part and parcel parcel of the values values which which have have ordained ordained the struggle struggle for freedom freedom.. And now it is time to denounce certain c ertain phrases. National Nat ional claims, claims, it is here and there t here stated, are a phase that humanity has left left behind. behind. It is the day of great concerted actions, and retarded national nat ionalists ists ought in consequence to set their mistakes mistakes aright. We, however, howe ver, consider that the t he mistake, which may may have very serious consequences, consequenc es, lies in wishing to skip the national period. If culture is the expression of national consciousness, consc iousness, I will not hesitate he sitate to t o affirm affirm that in the case with which we are dealing de aling it it is the national consciousness which is the most elaborate elaborat e form of culture. The consciousness conscious ness of self is not the closing of a door do or to t o comm co mmunication. unication. Philosophic thought teaches t eaches us, on the co ntrary, ntrary, that it is its guarantee. National consciousness, which is not nationalism, is the only thing that will give us an international dimension. This problem of national consciousness and of o f national culture culture takes t akes on in Africa Africa a special dimension. The birth of national consciousness in Africa has a strictly contemporaneo conte mporaneous us connexion with the African African consciousness. The responsibi respo nsibility lity of the African African as regards regard s national culture is also a responsibil res ponsibility ity with with regard to African-Negro African-Negro culture. This joint responsibi respo nsibility lity is not the t he fact of o f a metaphysical principle principle but the awareness of a simple rule which wills wills that every independent nation in an Africa Africa where colonial co lonialism ism is is still entrenched is an encircled nation, a nation which is fragile and in permanent danger. If man is is known by his his acts, act s, then we will say that the most urgent u rgent thing t hing today for the t he intellectua intellectuall is to build up his nation. If this building up is true, that is to to say if it interprets the manifest will of the people peo ple and reveals the eag eager er African African peoples, peop les, then the building of a nation is of necessity accompanied by the discovery and encouragement of universalisi universalising ng values. Far from keeping keep ing aloof from from other ot her nations, therefore, t herefore, it is national liberation liberation which which leads the nation to play its its part on the t he stage of o f history. history. It is at the heart of national consciousness that tha t international consciousness consciousne ss lives lives and grows. And this two-fold two-fold emerging is ultimately ultimately the source sour ce of all culture. cultur e. (d)

National Co Consciousness: In “On National Culture”, an essay collected in The Wretched of o f the Earth, Earth, Frantz Fanon foregrounds foregr ounds the following paradox: “national identy,” identy,” whil wh ilee vital to the emerence of a Third T hird World World revolution, revo lution, paradoxically par adoxically lim limits its such efforts at liberation because it re-inscribes an essentialist, totalizing, fetishized, often middle-class specific specific understanding of “rather than enco uraging a nuanced articulation ticulation of an oppressed o ppressed people’s cul cultural tural heterogeneity across class. In other words, although the concept of “nation” infairly characterizes colonized subjects as historically unfied in in their primitiveness or exoticness, exo ticness, the term’ te rm’ss promise pro mise of solidarity solidarity and

258


unity often proves helpful nonetheless in their attempts atte mpts at political p olitical ameliorat amelioration. ion. Fanon encourages encourag es a materialist materialist conceptualization concept ualization of the nation that is based not so much on collective cultural traditions or ancestor-worship as political agency and the collective attempt atte mpt to dismantle the economi econo micc foundations foundat ions of colonial rule. Colonialism, Colonialism, as Fanon argues not only physic physically ally disarms disarms the colonized colonized subjects but rrobs obs her of o f a “precoloni “preco lonial” al” cultural cultur al heritage. heritage . And yet, if colonialism in this sense galvanizes the native nat ive inte intellectual llectual to “renew contact once more with w ith the oldest and most pre-coloni pre-co lonial al spring, spring, of life life of their people,” Fanon is careful careful to point out that these attempts attempt s at recovering national continuity throughout history are often contrived co ntrived and ultimately self-defeating. self-defeating. “I am ready to concede”, co ncede”, he admits, “that on the t he plane of factual factual being the past existence of an Aztee civilization civilization does not n ot change c hange anything very much in in the diet of o f the Maxican peasant peasant of today.” today.” In the passage passage below below,, Fanon Fanon explai explain n that “nati “national onal indenti indentity” ty” only only carries meaning insofar insofar as it refl r eflects ects the t he combined revolutaionary efforts of o f an op pressed pressed people people aimin aiming g at colle collecti ctive ve librati ibration: on: A national culture is not a folkore, not an abstract populi po pulism sm that believes lieves it can discover the people’s people’s true nature. natu re. It is not made up of the inert inert dregs of o f gratuitous actions, that t hat is to say actions act ions which which are less and less attached to t o the ever-present ever-pr esent reality of the people. A national culture is the whole body of efforts made by a people peop le in the sphere of though to t o describ de scribe, e, justify, justify, and a nd praise the action through whic w hich h that people has created itself itself and keeps itself itself in existenc existence. e. (233) (233) It is only from from that moment that t hat we can speak of o f a national literature. literature. Here there is, at the level of litera literary ry creation, the taking t aking up and clarification of themes which are typically nationalist. This may be properly called a literature of combat, in the sense that it calls on the whole people to fight for their existence as a nation. It is a litera literature ture of o f combat, because bec ause it moulds the national consciousness, consciousness , giving giving it form and contours conto urs and flinging flinging open before it new and boundless bo undless horizons; it is a literature of o f combat because becaus e it assumes responsibility res ponsibility,, and because be cause it is the will to liberty liberty expressed expr essed in terms te rms of time and space. The contact conta ct of the people with the new movement movement gives rise to a new rhythm of life life and to forgotten muscular tensions, and develops the t he imaginati imagination. on. Every E very time time the stosto ryteller ryteller relates a fresh episode to his public, public, he presides over a real invocat invocation. ion. The existence of a new type of man is revealed to the public. The present is no longer turned in upon itself but spread out o ut for all to see. The storytell sto ryteller er once more gives free rein to his imagination; imagination; he makes innovations and he creat es a work of art. It even happens that the characters, charact ers, which are barely ready for for such a transformation t ransformation - highway robbers or more or less antisocial ant isocial vagabonds - are taken tak en up and remodelled. The emergence of the imagination imagination and of the creative cre ative urge in the songs and epic stories of a coloni co lonised sed country cou ntry is worth following. following. The storytell sto ryteller er replies to the expectant people peo ple 259


by success successiv ivee approxi approxima mation tions, s, and makes makes his his way, way, apparen apparentl tly y alone alone but in fact fact helped helped on by his his public, public, towards the seeking out o f new patterns, that is to say national patterns patterns.. Come Comedy dy and farce farce disapp disappear ear,, or lose their their attracti attraction. on. As for dramati dramatisati sation, on, it is no longer placed on the plane of the troubled t roubled intellectual and his his tormented tor mented conscience. By losing losing its characteristics of despair and revolt, the drama dr ama becomes part of the common lot of the people peop le and and forms part of an action in preparation preparat ion or already in progress progress.. (e)

Wretched of the th e Earth, Earth, he talks about idenMaxism: In Frantz Fanon’s book, The Wretched tity, tity, justice, and power in the context of o f several ideologies. ideologies. These categories categor ies can be better understood in the context of two groups, groups, the colonists colonists and and the natives. natives. Each one has its own o wn identity, identity, justice and power. po wer. The identity of these two groups grou ps can be clearly seen in in Fanon’s representation represe ntation of o f the struggle. These two groups group s struggled with each other because because the colonists are on one side, and the natives on the other. other. The natives see the colonists as “the others”. They are seen this way because they came over from Europe and to ok over o ver the native’s native’s land and then made th them em slaves in thier own ow n society. These peop peoples les individual individual rights were taken away, and they were forced to t o live a lif lifee of oppression. opp ression. The colonists took too k over the took to ok over the upper up per class, and pushed everyone else down because they felt felt that their way was better. Therefore, Therefore, the t he upper class wrote the t he history of the op pressed pressed nation nation,, but of mother mother country country expl exploitin oiting g the coloni colonies. es. The The only only way to get the oppressed oppre ssed nation into history was if the individual individual rises up and decides to write what he has seen and heard. These natives then lie in wait to take over their rights and freedom from which which they have been stolen. “The native is an oppressed person whose permanen permanentt dream dream is to becom becomee the persecutor persecutor”. ”. These These people people want want to seek seek justice ustice for that which they have been dealt by the colonists. co lonists. The natives are fighting for for the justice just ice of their “national culture” culture”.. They want to build build a nation on that culture c ulture not on the values that somebody s omebody else else says that t hat they must abide by by.. Justice will never exist in their “n “national ational culture”. It I t will not not exist because the bourgeoibourg eoisie will will not not let it. They T hey are greedy people who only want the colonists co lonists kicked out, out , so they can take over. They do not care about the people; they just just care about being being bourgeoi bourgeoisi sie. e. When When they kick kick out the coloni colonists sts,, they will will not kick kick them them out compl completel etely y. They will only keep them for their t heir capitalist intentions to make them money. money. In so following following these habits, they take tak e over “The small people” peo ple” therefore causing those tho se of the middle middle class to take t ake over the poor natives, natives, and send them home to the jungle. jungle. So the cycle of injustice injustice continues unless a change is made to stop the greedy bourgeoisi bourgeo isiee from further wrecking the spirits of the people. peo ple. The people peo ple will will not stand s tand for this and therefore, they will will rise rise up and defend d efend themselves themselves against those tho se that do not believe believe in a governm go vernment ent for the t he people. “The national government, government, if it it chooses to be national, ought to t o govern by the people, by the outcastes outcast es and for the outcaste.” outca ste.” This is the only 260


way to break the t he cycle of injustice done in third world countries. countr ies. Whether power causes injustice injustice or injustice injustice causes power it does not matter, power needs to be in the hands of the correct peo ple. It is not in the case of the colonists colonists or the bourgeoisie. The colonist are never to remind the native who is in power. He reminds reminds the native that “there he alone is master.” master.” The coloni co lonist st puts p uts up a force against the native and somehow expects that the native will never respond. The native in complete contrast cont rast to t o the t he colonist’s colonist’s beliefs beliefs is always ready and waiting for the day that he can strike. Those o f the bourgeoisie really really the masses masses in order to kick out the t he colonists. Then they so happen to forget that t hat they made these promises because they do not want a “mass mobili mobilization”. zation”. If they can not control the t he masses then they do not have power over them. That is an issue they would like to avoid. Again, the people are riled riled up only to be put down later. Words Words like like “mouthwash, word w ord spinning, spinning, blather, and fruitless agitation” will will be used to describe descr ibe what were formerly promises to the the t he native. If people by change do not agree ag ree with what the dominant party agrees with then they are kicked out, persecuted, and harassed. The masses have to run and hide hide for fear of upsetting the bourgeoisi bourgeo isie. e. According to the bourgeoisie, bourgeo isie, they have no power and no authority to do anything, anything, but the natives want the power to be free and to express themselves in a powerful way. way.

18.3 18.3 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up In some ways, what one makes of the book depends o n what one makes of Fanon himself. himself. By the details det ails of his biography biograp hy,, Frantz Frant z Fanon was a kind k ind of black Everyman a marginal man man who was nonetheless no netheless able to transcend tr anscend his marginality marginality.. He was born in 1925 in to a middle-class middle-class black family family in in Martini Mart inique que in the t he French West West Indian Intensely Inte nsely conscious of o f his race, but bu t also irrevocably irrevoca bly within the orbit of French society soc iety virtu virtuee of his education and class positi position, on, he found found hims himsel elff unabl unablee unamb unambiiguousl guously y throw throw in his his lot with with either either.. Like Like others others of his his backgroun background, d, Fanon Fanon fell fell under under the infl influenc uencee of Aime Aime Cesaire Cesaire,, the Martini Martiniquean quean poet and polipolitician, tician, and of o f the movement negritude of which Cesaire was a leader. He was to remain remain deeply marked by it early encounter, although althou gh negritude came increasingly to seem shallow and partial to him as time time went on. His first first book, book , Black Skin, White Masks, Masks, publi pu blished shed 1952, 1952 , publicly revealed this ambiguous break with Cesaire. It also shows something else- the manner in which Fanon was able able to use u se this ambivalent ambivalent potition pot ition among captures and races r aces to develop d evelop a series of penetrat ing insights into the psychology of races and colonial colo nial domination. His continual preoccupation with these themes was later give rise to some of the most incandescent passages in in The Wretched of the Earth. Earth.


What What does does Frantz Frantz Fanon Fanon see as the role role of the churc church, h, or organ organiized reli religion, gion, in the the case of a popular rebellion? 261


2.

What What does does Fan Fanon on iden identi tiffy as the forces orces that that woul would d restra restraiin a coloni colonial al govern governme ment nt from an all-out militar military y destructio destr uction n of an armed civilian civilian rebellion?

18.5 Bibli ibliog ogra raph phy y 1.

Abel Abel,, Lionel Lionel.. “Sev “Seven en Heroes Heroes of of the New Left.” Left.” The New York Tim Times Maga Magazi zine ne 5 may 1968.

2.

Bhab Bhabha, ha, Homi Homi. “Int “Interrog errogati ating ng Identi Identity: ty: Frantz Frantz Fanon Fanon and the Postcolon Postcolonia iall Prerogati Prerogative. ve.”” The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994. 40-66.

3.

de Bea Beauv uvoi oir, r, Si Simone. one. Force Force of Ci Circum rcumst stan ance ce.. New New York: ork: Putn Putnam am,, 1964 1964..

4.

Bergn Bergner er,, Gwen. Gwen. “Wh “Who o Is That That Mask Masked ed Wom Woman an?? or, or, The The Role Role of Ge Gend nder er in in Fanon Fanon’’s Black Skin, White Masks.” PMLA

5.

The The Wre Wretch tched ed of the the Earth Earth.. New New York York,, 1965. 1965. Rep Repri rint nt of Les Les dam damnes nes de la la terre terre.. Paris, 1961.

6.

Studies Studies in in a Dyi Dying ng Col Coloni onial alis ism, m, or A Dying Dying Coloni Colonial alis ism m. New York, 1965. 1965. Repri Reprint nt of L’an cinq de la revolution revo lution algerienne. Paris, 1959 195 9

7.

Black Black Skin, Skin, Whit Whitee Masks Masks.. New New York: Grove, Grove, 1967 1967.. Repri Reprint nt of Peau Peau noir noire, e, masq masques ues blancs. blancs. Paris, 1952.

8.

Toward oward the Afri African can Rev Revolu oluti tion. on. New New York, 1967. 1967. Repri Reprint nt of Pour la la revol revoluti ution on afri africa cain ine. e. Paris, 1964 ___________

262


UNIT-19 SALMAN RUSHDIE: IMAGINA IMAGINARY RY HOMELAND HOMELANDS: S:

ESSAYS ESSAYS AND CRITICISM 1981-1991 (I) Structure 19.0

Objectiv tives

19.1 19.1

Introductio tion

19.2 19.2

Cri Critic tical Anal nalysis sis of Imaginary of Imaginary Homelands: Essays And Criticism Criticism 1981-1991 1981-1991

19.3 19.3

Major ajor The Themes in Imaginary Homelands 19.3.1 The Riddl Riddlee of Diaspora Diaspora 19.3.2 The Emergen Emergence ce of the New New Empir Empiree 19.3.3 Debate Debate between between Censorsh Censorship ip and and Eclecticis Eclecticism m 19.3.4 19.3. 4 Ideals Ideals of Hybri Hybridity dity and and Multipli Multiplici city ty

19.4

Let Us Us Sum Up

19.5 19.5


19.6 19.6

Bibliogr ography

19.0 19.0 Objectives The objectives of this unit are to: —

provide provide a minute minute examin examinati ation on of Salma Salman n Rushdi Rushdie’ e’ss Imaginary Imaginary Homelands Homelands,,

—

throws throws light light on the Postcolon Postcoloniial issue issuess like diasp diaspora, ora, immi mmigration gration,, Empi Empire, re, mul multipl tiplic icit ity y and hybridity.

19.1 Intr Intro oductio tion One of the greatest gre atest practitioners pract itioners of fictional fictional art in contemporary contempora ry Indian Indian Writing Writing in English, Salman Sa lman Rushdie was bo born rn to a rich Muslim family family in in Bombay on 19th June, 1947. He was educat ed ucated ed at Cathedral School, S chool, Bombay, Bombay, and King’s King’s College, Co llege, Cambridge. Wi Willi lliam am Walsh Walsh has commented thus t hus about his earlier earlier life, “In an earlier earlier career, he worked wor ked in an advertising advertising agency as a copywriter.” This multi-facete multi-faceted d genius has created creat ed the fictional works likeGrimus likeGrimus,, Midnight’ Midnight’s Childr Children en,, Shame, Shame, The Satanic Verses, Verses, The Moor’ Moo r’ss Last Sigh, Sigh, The Fury The Fury,, Shalimar the Clown and The and The Enchantress of Florence. Florence. He has won a number of literary awards, including the Booker Prize in 1981 and the Whitebread Prize in 1988.Wikipedia 1988. Wikipedia,, the onlin o nlinee encyclopaedia encyclopaedia informs thus about his literary literary achievements: “In June 2007, 20 07, he was appointed 263


a Knight Bachelor Bachelor for services s ervices to literature… He also holds, in France, the highest rank — Commandeur — in the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres. Lett res. In 2007, he began a five-year five-year term as Distinguished Writer Writer in Residence at Emory University.” His fictional fictional oeuvre has earned earn ed for this stalwart of Indian English ficti fiction on wide fame and prestige. prest ige. Anuradha Anuradha Dingwaney’s Dingwaney’s words wo rds are worth wor th quoting quot ing here, “There is an entire generation of novelists from India India who feel the weight of Rushdie’ Rus hdie’ss influence influence as enabling enabling their own talents.” This T his creative genius has also penned penned certai certain n essay essayss and and criti critical cal articl articles es.. Imagin Imaginar aryy Homel Homeland andss, divided into into twelve t welve sections, is a collection of these critical pieces, written by him during 1981-1991. 1981-19 91. The T he essays reveal the true critical acumen along with the sharp literary sensibil sensibility ity of Rushdie. They T hey discuss everything under the sun, including the problems pro blems of diasporic immigrants, immigrants, the t he debate between bet ween eclecticism and censorship, the drago n like like power powe r of the Empire Empire and several other contemporary cont emporary social, poli political tical and literar iterary y issues. ssues.

19.2 Crit Critic ical al Anal Analys ysis is of of Imaginary Homelands: Homel ands: Essays And Criticism 1981-1991 Section-1

The first section of the work wo rk has three pieces—‘Imagi pieces—‘Imaginary nary Homelands’, Homelands’, ‘Errata: or o r Unreliable Unreliable Narration Narra tion in Midnight’ in Midnight’ss Children Children’’ and ‘The Riddle o f Midnight: Midnight: India, August 1987’. The aforesaid afores aid articles centre around ar ound his Midnight’ his Midnight’ss Childr Children en,, a novel, which in in the words word s of o f Wil William liam Walsh “combines the rush and fluency fluency of Mulk Raj Anand, the speculative and metaphysical habit of Raja Rao, the shrewd psychological acumen of R.K.Narayan… and fantasy of G.V G.V.Desa .Desani.” ni.” These three essays essa ys are the works wor ks of an artist, who w ho is expostulating expostulat ing his fictional fictional technique tec hnique in his his criticism. In these critical essays, the t he master craftsman cr aftsman is defending defending his creative work from the t he charges, levelled by his his detracto detra ctors. rs. Saleem Sinai of the novel is considered to be an a n unreliable unreliable narrator. The novel is is not an authoritative autho ritative guide to the culture and civilization civilization of o f India. Rushdie has himself mentio mentioned ned these thes e flaws in the second se cond essay es say of the section. As per Hindu mytho mythology logy,, Lord Ganesha Gan esha sat on the t he feet of the bard Vyasa Vyasa and wrote wro te the entire text of Mahab of Mahabhar harata ata.. However, Ho wever, in the novel, Salim Salim Sinai narrates narrates that t hat Ganesha sat at the feet of the poet Valmiki and wrote the Ramayana the Ramayana.. Another instance of the sloppy narration narratio n is the Amritsar Amritsar massacre. massa cre. The novel no vel mentions mentions that tha t Dyer entered enter ed the Jallianwala Bagh compound with fif fifty ty white white troops. t roops. These troops troo ps were not white. white. There are several other instances of this erratic description of Indian scene. Rushdie has repo rted many of them in the second essay e ssay of the section. One defence of this unreliable unreliable technique technique of o f narration may be that the narrator narrat or is a stupid fellow, fellow, who is unaware of his surroundings. surro undings. But, Rushdie R ushdie rejects this idea: “… the narrator of Midnight’ of Midnight’ss Children Children is is neither particularly stupid nor particularl part icularly y unaware of what is happening.” happening.” The question quest ion is – what is the reason reaso n for this inaccuracy in the fiction fiction of o f such a reputed novelist? novelist? This incorrect incorrect narration is rather introduced into the t he text of the novel under a pro proper per plan. plan. Mark the foll following owing statement statement from the second second essay: essay: 264


Originally error-free passages had the taint of inaccuracy introduced. Unintentional mistake mistakess on being discovered, are not expunged from the text, text , but rather, emphasized, given more promin pro minence ence in the story sto ry.. There is a very interes interesting ting factor responsibl respo nsiblee for this inaccura inaccurate te narrative narrat ive technique. Rushdie in the novel is not a dispassionate and disinterested chronicler, chronicler, as he just remembers remembers the past. past . The element of nostalgia is the driving driving force of the novel and one of o f “the simplest simplest truth about abou t any set of o f memories memories is that many of them will will be false.” false.” The T he novelist gives more weight w eight to his own memory memory than to the actual happenings, happenings, as his purpose is not to reproduce the t he literal literal history of the period; it is to decipher d ecipher the nostalgic nosta lgic feelings feelings about the past. past . Through these t hese lapses of o f the narration, narrat ion, Rushdie validates signif s ignificance icance of memory for himself. himself. The critic in Rushdie asserts, “… whenever a confl co nflict ict arose between literal and remembered remembered truth, I would wo uld favour the t he remembered version.” vers ion.” The mistakes mistak es of Salim are the mistakes mistake s of a fallible fallible memory. memory. The incomplete memory of the past shows the novelist’s novelist’s nostalgic attachment for his homeland. The great grea t novelist justifies justifies his technique in the following words: word s: Many readers wanted it to t o be the history, even the guide book, which w hich it it was never meant to be, others ot hers resented its incompleteness… incompleteness… These variously variously disappointed disappointed readers read ers were judging judging the book not as a novel, but as some sort of inadequate inadequate reference reference book or encyclopaedia. This nostalgic emphasis on the memory of the past is the t he focal point of Rushdie’s creative creat ive and critical works. The memory of the past is always fractu fractured red and fragmentary fragmenta ry.. Most of o f the Indian writers, who have ha ve left left for the West, West, have this t his feeling feeling of nostalgia for the homeland and Rushdie Ru shdie is no exception. excep tion. An Indian writer, living in alien alien land considers his present present to be a foreig foreign n land, land, whil whilee the past is a home home though lost lost in the mists mists of the lost times times.. As that past is lost, the author aut hor has just just the broken bro ken mirror mirror to look at the t he bygone bygone events. So, there are a re the blunders of o f histo historical rical narration in his fiction. But, this broken mirror may be more valuable than the one, o ne, which is suppo sedly flawless. flawless. The feeling of displacement in a new country haunts the t he author and a nd he looks towards t owards the past. This feeli feeling ng of alienation alienation coupled with the nostalgia nost algia is is too to o common co mmon in in the diasporic authors autho rs of India. For exampl exa mple, e, V.S.Naipaul V.S.Naipaul in The Enigma of Arrival Arrival , a hauntingl haunt ingly y brillia brilliant nt novel talks t alks about t he theme of exile. In the aforesaid novel of Naipaul, the nervousness of the speaker is evident in the following expression: After all my my time in in England, I still st ill had that nervousness in a new place, that rawness of response, respo nse, still st ill felt myself myself to be in the other man’s country, felt felt my strangeness, stra ngeness, my solitude. solitude . And every excursion excursion into a new part of the country—what for o thers might might have been an adventure— was for me like like a tearing t earing at an old scab. The Swedish Swed ish Academy noted Naipaul’s affin affinity ity with Joseph Conrad Co nrad thus t hus : Naipaul Naipaul is Conrad’ Conrad’ss heir heir as the annal annalis istt of the destini destinies es of empi empires res in the moral moral sense: sense: what they do to human beings. His authority as a narrator narrato r is grounded in the memory of what others have forgotten, forgot ten, the history of the vanquished. 265


In the aforesaid statement about abou t Naipaul, the role of memory is is stressed. The authors autho rs are generally experiencing experiencing the psychological ps ychological turbulence turbulence because becau se of their displacement and nostalgia. nost algia. Like Ruth in in Keats’ ‘Ode ‘Ode to a Nightingale’, Nightingale’, Indian diasporic diasporic authors author s are “in tears amid the alien corn”, as they harbour the memories of Indian past and are not completely acclimatized acclimatized to t o new culture. Rushdie is also also hurt by this enigma of arrival in a distant land. In the essay ‘Imaginary Homelands’, Rushdie has mentioned the dilemma of the authors in settling in alien countries. A feeling of guilt engulfs most of the immigrant authors, as they had left left their homelands homelands and the t he orthodox ort hodox ideologies. They “straddle two cultures”. However, tthis his distance from the homeland is the source so urce of tremendous fertility fertility in in an author. aut hor. This longing longing for the homelands in alien alien lands is the genesis of o f artistic creativi creat ivity ty for the authors. This essay ‘Imaginary ‘Imaginary Homelands’ is is also notable for several other approac app roaches hes of Rushdie. For instance, he opines that his criticism of Indian society is marked by objectivity as he is commenting commenting on contemporary conte mporary Indian ethos from the out side. The great novelist also defends the employment of English language as the medium of his creative literature: …the British Indian writer writer does not no t have the t he option op tion of rejecting English, English, anyway. anyway. His children, children, her children children will grow up u p speaking it, probably as a first language; and in the t he forging of a British Indian identity, identity, the English language languag e is of central importa importance. nce. In the third essay of the section, sect ion, Rushdie Rushdie has mentioned that tthe he most common Indian criticism of Midn of Midnight ight’’s Childr Children en was was that it was too to o pessimistic pessimistic about the t he future. Rushdie has given the sufficient reply of this charge. No one considers the end of the novel any more pessimi pessimisti stic, c, as as the events events of India India since since the publica publication tion of the novel are darker than what what the the novelist novelist had dreamt drea mt of. The major part of o f this essay is is concerned with this t his pessimistic pessimistic scenario of Modern Mode rn India. The critic in Rushdie raises raises the question—”Do que stion—”Does es India exist?” He agrees with J. K. Galbraith’s description of India as “functionary anarchy”. The politics of religious mania is haunting India. In this way, the tragic vision of Midnig of Midnight’ ht’ss Childr Children is en is justified in the ess essay. ay. The three essays e ssays of the first first section sect ion are the works of self-justif self-justification. ication. Rushdie, the novelist, is vindicating his creative creat ive fictional fictional art in his criticism. criticism. This technique t echnique of justif just ifying ying one’s one’s creative works in one’s own critical writings has several antecedents. Dryden, Fielding, Dr. Johnson, Coleridge, Co leridge, Wordsw Wordswort orth, h, Arnold, Arnold, Eliot and several others ot hers have defended their creative creat ive art in their the ir criticism. criticism. Much of o f Dryden’s Dryden’s criticism is contained in the prefaces pr efaces to to his plays and in the ‘An Essay of Dramatic Poesie’; Poe sie’; and it represents represent s various aspects aspect s of a continuous cont inuous literary war that Dryden had to fight with his his own detracto det ractors rs and critics. It is the defensiv d efensivee part of o f his his criticism that predominates p redominates every ever y period of his life. life. George Watson, atso n, in his his book The Literary Literary Critics, Critics, has emphasized emphasized Dryden’s Dryden’s habit of self-justifi self-justification. cation. Watson illustrates illustrates this point of view by quoting quo ting from the dedicatory dedicator y lett letter er to Dryden’ Dr yden’ss The Rival Ladies. Ladies. In this letter, Dryden defended his rhymed heroic hero ic play: But that t hat benefit benefit which I consider co nsider most most in itit [rhym [r hyme], e], because I have seldome found it, 266


is that it bounds and circumscribes circumscribes the fancy. fancy. For imagination imagination in a poet is a faculty so wild and lawless that, like a high-ranging high-ranging spaniel, it must have clogs tied t ied to it lest it outruns ou truns the judgment. judgment. The great easiness of the blank verse verse renders the poet po et too to o luxuriant… luxuriant… One of the four wheels of the English novel, Fielding Fielding justified justified his innovative fictional technique in in the three prefaces to Joseph to Joseph Andrews Andrews.. He has clearly spelt out his theory of comic epic, which he followed in his novels like Jos like Joseph eph Andrew Andrewss and Tom Jones Jon es.. This tradition of justifying justifying one’s creative art in one’s own criticism was continued in the 20 2 0th century too. For example Virgi Virginia nia Woolf, Woolf, one of the t he foremost modernist literary figures of the t he twentieth t wentieth century cent ury,, has defended the incoherence in her stream of consciousness novels thus: Life is not not a series of gig lamps symmetrically symmetrically arranged; life is a luminous luminous halo, a semitransparent envelope e nvelope surrounding us from the beginning beginning of consciousness to the end. Is it not the task of the novelist to convey co nvey this this varying, varying, this this unknown and uncircumscribed spirit, spirit, whatever whatever aberration aberrat ion or complexity c omplexity it it may display, display, with as little mixture of o f the alien and external exte rnal as possible? possible? We are are not pleadin pleading g merel merely y for courage and sinceri sincerity; ty; we are suggesting suggesting that the proper proper stuff stuff of ficti iction on is a littl ittlee other other than than custom custom would would have have us beli believe it…. it…. Let Let us record record the atoms ato ms as they fall fall upon the mind in in the order o rder in which they fall, fall, let let us trace t race the t he pattern, patte rn, however disconnected and incoherent incoherent in appearance, which each sight or incident scores upon the consciousness. Wilfred Owen, who is notable for war poems like ‘ Anthem Anthem for Doomed Youth’, Youth’, ‘ Dulce Dulce Et E t Decorum Est ’, ’, ‘The Parable of the Old Man and the Young ’ and ‘Strange ‘Strange Meeting Meeting ’ made clear the aims of his poetry poet ry in his his celebrated ‘Preface’. The famous statement st atement of this leading poet of the First World World War War is: “Above all I am not concerned with Poetry. P oetry. My subject is War, War, and the t he pity of War. War. The Poetr Po etry y is in in the pity pit y.” Eliot’s poetry poetr y and drama are also justified in in his critical writings. writings. According to George Watosn, “It is Eliot’s Eliot’s rooted assumption that critici criticism sm is an aid aid to his own career as a po poet.” et.” L. G. Sali Sa lingar ngar too to o comm co mments ents in his essay ‘T. ‘T. S. Eliot: Poet and Critic’: In his critical essays, Eliot is deeply concerned with his practical interests as a poet. He is brilliant and illuminating when he declares his own taste or when he deals with his versification versification and certain cert ain aspects of o f poetic language… his critical pronouncements pronou ncements form a tricky instrument instrument for the understanding u nderstanding of his poetry poetr y. Several Indo Anglian Anglian authors authors have also vindicated vindicated their creative crea tive writings in their criticism. criticism. For instance, one of the t he pioneers of o f Indo-Anglian fiction fiction Mulk Raj Anand (December 12, 1905 - September Sep tember 28, 2004) 2004 ) wrote the essay ‘The Story of My Experiments With With A White White Lie’ to support suppo rt his novel Untouchable. Untouchable. Anand himself says: If I may be forgiven for being self-conscious, I would like to analyse some of the elements in the process proce ss of writing my novel Untouchable, Untouchable, because I can indicate indicate some of these ortho orthodox, dox, miscellaneous, miscellaneous, but relevant causalities which which compelled me me to to write this particular part icular work of fiction. fiction. 267


Recognized as one o f India’s India’s foremost poet s, Kamala Das (b. March 31, 1934) defends her poetic language in ‘An Introduction’, one of the t he most famous confessional confessional poems of Indian English Literat Literature: ure: …Don’t write in English, they said, English is not your mothertongue. t ongue. Why not leave Me alone, critics, friends, visiting cousins, Every one of you? Why not let me speak in Any language language I like? The language I speak sp eak Becomes mine, mine, its distortions, distort ions, its queerness All mine, mine, mine alone. It is half English, half Indian, funny perhaps, but it is honest, It is as human as I am human, don’t do n’t You see? It voices my joys, my longings, my Hopes, Hope s, and it is useful to me as cawing Is to crows crow s or roarin roa ring g to the t he lions, lions, it Is human speech… Rushdie has followed followed this long chain of creative critics to produce a unique defence of his own fictiona fictionall oeuvre. Section-2

The second seco nd section of the t he book has five five essays—‘Censorship’, ‘The Assassination of Indira Gandhi’, Gandhi’, ‘Dynasty’, ‘Zia Ul- Haq. 17 August 1988’ and ‘Daughter o off the East’. The essays reveal Rushdie’s command over sub-continental social and political themes. In the first essay, Rushdie initiates initiates a highly erudite argument against aga inst censorship, censors hip, while while favouring eclecticism in art, literature and society. He gives a very interesting example to illustrate illustrate his point of view. view. For Karachi TV, TV, the great novelist produced produ ced American playwri playwright ght Edward E dward Albee’s Albee’s playThe play The Zoo Story Story, which, according to Wikipedia, Wikipedia, “explores themes of isolation, loneliness, loneliness, social disparity and dehumanization in a comm co mmercial ercial world”. Rushdie Ru shdie himself himself played played a character c haracter in this production, productio n, who had a long long monologue monologu e in in which he described the repeated at tacks by landlady’s landlady’s dog on him. In an attempt tto o have friendship with the dog, do g, he brought bro ught for it half a dozen hamburgers. The dog did not accept them and attacked attack ed him again. Rushdie Rushdie was supposed to say, “It was six perfectly good hamburgers with not enough pork in them to make it disgusting.” The TV executive censored the dialogue: “… the word pork p ork may not be spoken on Pakistani Pa kistani Television”. Television”. 268


Censorship distorts the voice of dissent; it is against liberal democratic setup. Absence of proper information and the presence of the lies are the effects of this censorship. It can deaden the imagination imagination of the people. peo ple. Truths are kept hidden and falsehood falsehood is spread on account acco unt of its demonic presence. presenc e. Rushdie explains this point of view with the example of genocide in Baluchistan: Baluchistan: During Mr. Bhutto’ Bhutto ’s campaign of o f genocide in Baluchistan, the news media remained silent. silent. Offici Officially ally,, Baluchistan Baluchistan was at peace. p eace. Those T hose who died, died unoff u noffici icial al deaths. It must have comforted them t hem to know that the t he State’s truth declared them the m all all to be alive. The second seco nd essay of the section sect ion throws throw s illumi illuminating nating lights on the social soc ial and political scenario of India after the t he assassination of Mrs Indira Gandhi. Rushdie paints a very dismal dismal picture picture of the period, period, resemb resemblling ing thus the gloomy gloomy antianti- secul secular ar ethos, depicted depicted in ‘The ‘The Riddl Riddlee of Midnight: India, August 1987’ of the first section. In that essay, Rushdie had raised a question—Does quest ion—Does India I ndia exist? exist? The genesis of this question is the politics of religious hatred. The T he venom of religious obscurantism obscur antism has been given a sufficient sufficient space spac e in the essay, dealing dealing with the events of India after the passing p assing away of Mrs Indira Indira Gandhi. Rushdie depicts the apprehensions, ap prehensions, common in the hearts of the Indians after the enormous enor mous national tragedy traged y of Mrs Gandhi’ Gandhi’s killing: And it is clear clear that what is most to be feared is an outbreak outbre ak of reprisal killings, killings, of Hindu-Sikh communal violence, both inside and outside o utside Punjab. The w wind ind was sown in Amritsar; Amritsar; now, now, perhaps (and it would be good to be wrong), the whirlwind whirlwind ripens. The phobic phob ic time, hinted hinted by Rushdie in the aforesaid aforesa id lines, lines, was wa s also reported repo rted by BBC thus: Outbreaks of religious violence have occurred in parts of India in the wake of yesterday’ yesterd ay’ss assassination assassination of Prime Mini Minister ster Indira Gandhi by Sikh members members of her bodyguard. bod yguard. Extra police and troops troo ps have been deployed in the Indian capital, Delhi, after angry mobs set fire fire to four Sikh temples. temples. Several Sikh-owned businesses were also attacked and stones st ones were thrown at a car bringing India’s India’s President Zail Singh, a Sikh, from the airport. airport . (http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/da (http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/h i/dates/stories/novem tes/stories/november/1/newsi ber/1/newsid_2537000/ d_2537000/ 2537887.stm) In the manner of a dispassionate political analyst, Rushdie also discusses in the essay the Centre- State relations, which are called called by him “delicate, “delicate, fragile affairs”. affairs”. The great Indian paradox is that the states are ancient ancient historical historical entities entities,, whereas whereas the nation nation is still still new born. According to Rushdie, “… it is the new-born India, the baby, so to speak, the Central Government, that holds sway over the graybeards”. gr aybeards”. The essay presents some examples examples of the interference interference of o f the Central Governm Go vernment ent in the affairs affairs of the States St ates during during Mrs Gandhi’s Gandhi’s tenure— tenur e— (A) Refusal to discuss the demands of o f the Akali Dal in Punjab for the restorat rest oration ion to the State Sta te Government of the powers, which Centre had seized. (B) Removal of the properly elected elected 269


Chief Minister Minister of o f Jammu Jammu and a nd Kashmir, Kashmir, Farooq Abdullah. (C) The dismissal dismissal of N. T. Rama Rao inAndhra Pradesh. Rushdie makes the t he following following comments about CentreCentr e- State Stat e relati re lations ons in India: There is no denying denying that t hat the Central governm go vernment ent must govern; go vern; but it is time that the States’ Stat es’ legitimate legitimate grievances received rec eived the kind of sym sympathet pathetic ic hearing which they have been denied for years. If this happens, then there is a glimm glimmer er of hope for the t he future. If I f it it does not, no t, then one must fear for the t he union. w eekly organ of CPI (M) makes the similar similar assertion: People’ People’s Democracy Democracy,, weekly THE 17th congress of the CPI (M) expresses concern at the growing attacks on the t he rights of the Indian I ndian states, adversely affecting affecting federal character of the Indian Ind ian polity polity and crippli cr ippling ng the economy eco nomy of state stat e governments. go vernments. The character charact er of India as a multi-national, multi-lingual, multi-lingual, multi-religious state is being blatantly ignored and attempts to impose a unitary form of government are being made in the country. (http://www.cpim.org/pd/2002/april14/ 04142002_17cong_res_centre_state.htm) Through Through this discussion discussion on CentreCent re- State State relations, Rushdie hints at the broad multiplicity multiplicity of Indian culture and civili civilization. zation. India is just like like a salad bowl or melting melting pot. pot . Any Any attempt by the Centre to t o interfere in the hybridity of the States Stat es is strongly resented. Wikipedia has Wikipedia has made the following entry about abou t the multiplici multiplicity ty of India: According According to many scholars, scho lars, India is the most culturally cultu rally,, linguistically and genetically gen etically diverse geograp geo graphical hical entity after the t he African African continent. India’ Ind ia’ss democratic democr atic republic is premised on a national nationa l belief belief in pluralism, pluralism, not the standard st andard nationalist na tionalist invocat invocation ion of a shared share d history, a single single language and a nd an assimilationist assimilationist culture. State Stat e boundaries in India are mostly drawn on on linguistic linguistic lines. lines. In addition ad dition India is also one of the most reli re ligiously giously diverse countries count ries in the world, with significant significant Hindu (80.5%) (80.5% ) , Muslim Muslim (13.4%), Christian (2.3%), Sikh (2.1%), (2.1% ), Buddhist, Bahai, B ahai, Ahmadi, Ahmadi, Jain and Parsi Par si populations. Cities like like Mumbai in Maharashtra display high levels of multilingualism and multiculturalism, spurred by political integration after independence and migration from rural areas Rushdie, a relentless critic of Congress Part y and Indira Indira Ji accuses the Party Part y of its its dubious role ro le in in the rise of religious fundamentalism in in India, “One of the saddest sadd est aspects aspe cts of o f the growth of communalism communalism has been that, at times, Mrs. Gandhi’ Gandhi’s Congress Party has seemed to be going going out to get the Hindu Hindu vote.” vote.” This This attack attack on relig religiou iouss obscur obscuran anti tism sm exhi exhibits bits his his desir desiree to propagate propagate the ideal idealss of multip ultipli lici city ty,, plural pluralis ism m and toleran tolerance. ce. Rushdie’s Rushdie’s invective against Indira Ji continues co ntinues in his condemnation of o f the Nehru family family for its dynastic aspirations, “Let us remem r emember ber about the Nehrus—Motil Nehrus—Mot ilal, al, his his son so n Jawaharlal, Jawaharlal, his daughter Indira, her sons so ns Rajiv and Sanjay—that when it comes to po wer they make the Kennedys look look like like amateurs.” Rushdie Ru shdie has written a whole essay ‘Dynasty’ in this section to talk about the ill-effects ill-effects of the dynastic d ynastic rule in India. India.

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In T. S. Eliot’s view, view, “the “t he critic, one wo uld suppose, suppo se, if he is to justify justify his existence, existence, should endeavour end eavour to t o discipline discipline his personal prejudices pr ejudices and cranks”. cranks” . A critic should make an attempt att empt to come co me out of his personal likes likes and dislikes dislikes to make a fair comment comment on the ot her person persons. s. In his his deli delineati neation on of Mrs. Mrs. Ga Gand ndhi hi’’s char charac acter ter,, Rush Rushdi die, e, though though an extra extraord ordiinary nary creati creative ve genius, appears to t o be a victim of several prejudices. On account of o f his his biased psyche towards her, he fails to see the good works done by the leader. Mainstr leader. Mainstream eam,, one of the leading politi political cal magazi magazines nes of the country, country, brought brought out an important important article article about Mrs. Gandhi Gandhi in its October Octobe r 27, 2007 issue. As As per that articl art icle, e, Indira Gandhi symboli symbolised sed the Third World’ World’ss regeneration. rege neration. Under U nder her leadership, Indian foreign policy policy matured from the conscious assertion of o f the rights r ights and aspirations of newly free nations to a keen k een awareness on o n their part of their own responsibi resp onsibility lity in in the global context. By refusing to sign s ign the NPT she gained political credit for upholding India’s independenc independencee and for taking a principled p rincipled stand against aga inst a discriminato discriminatory ry treaty treat y. With With Indira Ind ira Gandhi at the helm, India re-emerged in the South So uth Asian Asian strategic stra tegic stage sta ge and her India recorded reco rded its ability and willingness willingness to grasp the opportunities o pportunities of power po litics litics in a regional context. She S he made a mark in the world as an unrivalled leader and a champion of the Third World. (http:// www.mainstreamweekly.net/article389.html) Rushdie’ Rushdie’ss tainted vision vision could co uld not see all this. this. It is a sorry statement st atement to make about this t his leading novelist of contemporary times. The section under discussion also has two essays about Pakistan and its leaders. The first first one expli e xplicates cates the t he nightmarish reign of Pakistan by General Mohammad Zia ul-Haq, o ne of the cruellest cruellest modern moder n tyrants. He imposed on o n Pakistan the medieval, misogynis misogynistt and stultif st ultifyi ying ng ideology of his religion. religion. Rushdie Rus hdie has spoken spok en thus about this aspect aspec t of General Zia’s Zia’s regime, “Islam in in the Indo-Pakistani Indo- Pakistani subcontinent has developed historically along moderate moderat e lines, with a strong str ong strain st rain of pluralistic Sufi philosophy; Zia was this Islam’s Islam’s enemy”. For the t he bleak scenario of Pakistan Pak istan under General Zia, mark the following following expression from the essay: Pakistan under Zia has become a nightmarish, surreal land, in which battlefield armaments meant for for the Afghan Afghan rebels are traded more or less openly on the country’s black market; market ; in in which the citizens citizens of Karachi speak, with a shrug, shru g, of the daily da ilycollusion between betwee n the police police force and large-scal large-scalee gangs of thieves; thieves; in which which private private arm armies ies of heavil heavily y armed armed men men defend and service one of the world’s biggest narcotics industries; in which ‘elections’ take place place without without the particip participati ation on of any politi political cal parties. parties. The next essay of the section ‘Daughter ‘Daughte r of the East’ discusses discusses Benazir Bhutto’ Bhutto ’s political vision vision through throug h her book Daugh book Daughter ter of the East . Rushdie makes the following following statement state ment about this book: “…Benazir is curiously absent from her own book, Daughter book, Daughter of the East . The voice that speaks, the t he marks that are made here, belong belong to an Americ American an ghost”. In this book, Benazir appears appe ars only o nly Zulfikar Zulfikar Ali Ali Bhutto’s girl “still “still unwilling unwilling to admit that the martyred mart yred parent pa rent even committed committed the t he tiniest of sins”. She does not at all mention mention the genocide geno cide in Baluchistan Baluchistan by 271


her father. She draws a daughter da ughterly ly veil over the misdeeds of Bhutto regime. Section-3

The third section contains co ntains four scholarly articles—‘Commonwealth articles—‘Commonwealth Literature Does Not Exist’, Exist’, ‘Anita ‘Anita Desai’, Desai’, ‘Kipli ‘Kipling’ ng’ and ‘Hobson-Jobson’. ‘Hobson-Jobson’. The first first articl articlee of the section section is is quite thought thoug ht provoking as it raises several issues issues concerned co ncerned with Commonwealth Commonwealth Literature. The critical critical piece is notable nota ble for Rushdie’s animosity for this type of o f litera literature ture.. ABritish magazine publ publishe ished d interv intervie iews ws with with Shiva Shiva Naipau Naipaull (the (the young younger er brother brother of the novel noveliist V. S. Na Naip ipaul aul and also a Trinidadian Trinidadian and British novelist and journalist, who produced produ ced literary works like like Fir Fireflies eflies ,The Chip-Chip Gatherers , Gatherers , North North of South , South , Black Black & White, Love White, Love and Death in a Hot Country , Country , Beyond Beyond the Dragon’s Mouth: Stories and Pieces and Pieces and An An Unfinished Journey), Journey), Buchi Emecheta (a ( a prolific prolific African African novelist who has publi p ublished shed over o ver 20 books, bo oks, including including the t he seminal works, Second-Class Citizen, Citizen, The Bride Price, Price, The Slave Girl and and The Joys of Motherhood ) and Rushdie. These three were in agreement agreement that the term Commonwealth Commonwealth Literature Literature is little little distasteful. distasteful. These three inter interviews views appeared in that magazine magazine under the headlin headlinee ‘Commonwealth Writers…but don’t call them that’. Rushdie raises the questions about the boundar boundarie iess of the Common Commonwea weallth Liter Literature ature:: South Sout h Africa Africa and Pakistan, for instance, are not members members of the Comm Co mmonwealth, onwealth, but their authors author s apparently belong to its literatur literature. e. On the other othe r hand, England, which, as far as I’m aware, has not been expelled expelled from the Comm Co mmonwealth onwealth quite yet, has been excluded from its literary manifestations. There is no strong base for the definition of this group. The illuminating scholar Rushdie illustra illustrates tes this t his idea idea by referring referring to a Commonwealth Conference, which was attended atte nded by the Australian poet Randolph Stow, the t he West West Indian Wil Wilson son Harris, Harr is, Ngugi wa w a Thion’o from Kenya, Anita Desai from India and Canadian novelist Aritha Aritha van Herk along with Rushdie. Rushdie Rus hdie came to the t he conclusion conclusion through thro ugh this Conference that this literature literature lacks a proper defi de finiti nition on of its scope and aims. Rushdie writes writes thus about this aspect of Commonwealth Literat Literature, ure, “I became became quite quite sure that that our dif differenc ferences es were were so much much signi signifi fican cantt than than our simi simila lari ritie ties”. s”. What is the basis of creating such a ghetto of writers? That is beyond Rushdie’s comprehension. This literat literature ure does not share a common ideology or thin t hinking king in in its group. group . Rushdie prefers to call it it a chim c himera: era: It occurred to me, as I surveyed surveyed the muddle, that the category catego ry is a chimera…The chimera…The word has of course cour se come to mean an unreal, monst monstrous rous creature creat ure of the imagination; imagination; but you will recall that the classical chimera chimera was a monster o off a rather special type. It had the t he head of a lion, the body bod y of a goat and a serpent’ serpent ’s tail t ail.. This is to say, say, it could c ould exist only in dreams, being being composed compose d of elements which which could cou ld not possibl pos sibly y be joined joined together to gether in the real world. What are the ill-effects of this chimera literature? What may be the one possible definition definition of o f this group? group ? One definition of it may be that it is a body bo dy of writing in the Engli Eng lish sh

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language by the authors, autho rs, who are not white Britons, Brito ns, or Irish or the citizens of U.S.A. This sketch of o f the boundaries is also not without its defects: “I don’t know kno w whether black Americans Americans are citizens of this this bizarre Commonwealth Commonwealth or not. Probably not. It is also also uncertain u ncertain whether citizens of Commonwealth countries count ries writing in languages other o ther than English—Hi E nglish—Hindi, ndi, for example—or example—or who switch s witch out of o f English, English, like like Ngugi, are permitted into the club or asked to keep out”. Moreover this ghetto culture in li literat terature ure would make it narrower, topographical topo graphical and even racially segregationist. This term, which is not in the least marked by eclecticism, may provoke misleadi misleading ng readings readings of some authors. Rushdie Rushdie prefers the broader broader term ‘English ‘English Literature’, Literatur e’, meaning literatur literaturee of the English language. language. In a way, this commonwealth li litera terature ture “permits academic institutions, publishers, critics and even readers to dump a large segment of English literature literature into a box and then more or o r less ignore it”. The first section sect ion of the book boo k presented present ed Rushdie as a critic involved in self-justification; self-justification; however howeve r the essay ess ay on Anita Anita Desai Des ai in the third section se ction reveals revea ls the critical insight insight of the critic for the other ot her works work s of literat literature ure too. to o. Rushdie Ru shdie traces in Anita Desai, an element element of ‘solitude’: Her most memorable creations—the old woman, Nanda Kaul, in Fir in Firee on the Mountain, Mountain, or Bim in Clear Light of Day —have been been isolated, isolated, singular singular figures. figures. And And the books themselv themselves es have have been private private universes universes,, ill illumi uminated nated by the author’s perceptivenes perceptiveness, s, delicacy of language language and sharp wit, but remaining, remaining, in a sense, as solitary s olitary,, as separate, separ ate, as their characters. Rushdie analyses analyses the t he text of o f her novel In In Custody Custody.. The plot of this novel contrasts the t he slow death deat h of a false false friendship and the painful birth of a true one. o ne. In a lucid, transparent transp arent and unassuming style, style, Rushdie mentions the broad outlines of the plot. D Deven, even, a lover of Urdu poetry, poetry, is is hoaxed hoaxed by his his boyhood boyhood friend riend Murad Murad to go to Del Delhi hi and intervie nterview w the great, ageing ageing Urdu poet po et Nur for Murad’ Mura d’ss magazine. Murad’s appalling appalling behaviour behaviour makes the t he point that our o ur friends friends are likely to destro d estroy y us as our enemies. But, the emotional part of the novel is is in the relationship between Deven and his hero Nur. In the end, Deven “understa nds that he has become become the custodian custodian both of Nur’s friendsh friendshiip and of his his poetry”. Along Along with with this this touching touching theme of friendship, Desai has dealt with “such sensitive themes as t he unease of o f minority minority communities in modern India, the t he new imperialism of Hindi language and the decay deca y that is, tragically, all too evident throughout the fissuring body of Indian society”. In the critical piece o on n Kipling, Kipling, Rushdie finds finds him to be a curious c urious mixture of Indian and English elements: elements: “The influence of India on Kipling—on Kipling—on his picture of the t he world as well his his language—resulted in what has struck st ruck me as a personali perso nality ty in conflict conflict with itself, itself, part bazarar boy, boy, part part Sahib”. Sahib”. In the early early stories, stories, this confli conflict ct is is to be found found everywhere. everywhere. Despite Despite all all this contradiction contradiction in him, him, Kipling Kipling seems to t o have a tilt in his his personality personality towards towar ds the the English. According According to Rusdie, The Indians he portrays port rays are wife-killers, wife-killers, scamps, betrayers of o f their own brothers, brot hers, 273


unfaithful wives and the like….Indians bribe witnesses, desert de sert their t heir political leaders, and are a re gullible too… The final essay of the section sect ion pedanticall pedant ically y discusses Hobsondiscusses Hobson-Jobson Jobson,, the legendary dictionary dictionar y of British India. Rushdie holds the following opinion about abou t this dictionary: These thousand-odd tho usand-odd pages p ages bear eloquent testimony to the unparall u nparalleled eled intermingl intermingling ing that took to ok place between English and and the languages of India... Section-4

The fourth fourt h section deals d eals primarily primarily with movies movies and televi t elevision. sion. It has ha s five essays— ‘Outside The Whale’, ‘Attenborough’s Gandhi’, ‘Satyjit ‘Satyjit Ray’, ‘Handsworth Songs’ S ongs’ and ‘The Location Locat ion of Brazil Braz il’. ’. The title of the first essay ‘Outside ‘Out side The Whale’ is derived from Orwell’ Orwe ll’ss essay ‘Inside ‘Ins ide The Whale’. According to t o Wikipedia, Wikipedia, “ ‘Inside ‘I nside the t he Whale’ is an essay in three parts written by George Orwell Orwell in 1940. 1940. The first first part provides provides details details of Tropic Tropic of Cancer by Henry Henry Mill Miller er.. Orw Orwel elll analy analyses ses the book in detail detail and and explor explores es the histor historic ical al context context of Paris Paris ‘post-slump’. ‘post- slump’. The second part p art analyses different different sets of authors autho rs who were fashionable fashionable between certain times.” At the end e nd of this curious essay, essay, Orwell Or well—who —who began bega n by describing writers who ignored contemporary co ntemporary reality as ‘usually footlers or o r plain idiots’—embraces idiots’—embraces and espouses espo uses this quietist philosophy. Rushdie quotes Orwell: Progress and a nd reaction have both turned out to t o be swindles. swindles. Seemingly Seemingly there is nothing left left but quietism—robbing quietism—robbing reality of its terrors t errors by simply simply submitting submitting to it. Get inside inside the whale— or rather, admit you are inside the hale (for (for you are, of o f course). Give yourself over to t o the world-process… simply simply accept accept it, endure it, record it. That seems to be the formula that any sensitive sensitive novelist is likely likely to adopt. adopt . In that essay es say,, Orwell Orw ell had had found that quietist approach appro ach in Henry Mill Miller: er: The whale’s belly belly is is simply a womb big enough for an a n adult… a storm st orm that would w ould sink all the battleships in the world would would hardly reach you aass an echo…Miller echo …Miller himself himself is is inside the whale,…a willing Jonah…He feels no impulse to alter or control the process that he is undergoing. He has performed the essential Jonah act of allowing allowing himself himself to be swallowed, remaining remaining passive, accepting. accept ing. It will be seen what this amounts to. to . It is a species spec ies of quietism. According According to Rushdie, due to this quietist quietist approach, appro ach, Miller’s Miller’s reputation is more or less evaporated. evaporat ed. Rushdie Rus hdie challenges challenges this quietist approach appro ach and favours political p olitically ly committed committed art: “If we, in 1984, are asked to choose between, on the one o ne hand, the Miller Miller ofTropic ofTropic of Cancer … and on the other hand, the t he collected collected works wo rks of Auden, Auden, MacNeice and Spender, I doubt that many of us would go for old Henry. Henry. So, it would appear that t hat politically politically committed committed art can actually prove more durable than messages from the stomach of the fish”. Orwell himself modified his his ideals six years later in the essay es say ‘Politics and the E English nglish Language’: “In “I n our age a ge there is no such thing as ‘keeping out of politics’. All issues are political issues, issues, and politi politics cs itself tself is a mass mass of lies, ies, evasi evasions, ons, foll folly, hatred hatred and schizoph schizophren renia” ia”.. In the essay ‘Insi ‘Inside de 274


the Whale’, Orwell is propagating the escapist approach, away from the thunder of war. Rushdie’s opinion about Orwell’ Or well’ss logic is worth quoting: quo ting: Faced with the th e overwhelming overwhelming evils of exterminations and purges purge s and fire-bombings, fire-bombings, and all the appalling appalling manifestations manifestations of politics-gone-wild, politics-gone-wild, he turned his talents to the business of constructing constru cting and also of justif justifyi ying ng an escape-route. escape-ro ute. Hence his notion of the ordin o rdinary ary man as victim, victim, and therefore of o f passivity passivity as the literary stance closest to that of o f ordinary man. man. He is using this type of logic as a means of building building a path back to the womb, into the whale and away from the thunder of o f war. This This looks very like the plan of a man who has given up the struggle. strugg le. Even though he knows that there ther e is no such thing as “keeping out of politics”, politics”, he attempts the construction c onstruction of a mechanism mechanism with just just that purpose. Sit it out, he recommends; recommends; we writers will be safe inside inside the whale, until the storm sto rm dies down. On account accou nt of his intellectual intellectual defeat, Orwell Orwe ll had come to the conclusion that resistance was useless. He gave way to defeatism and despair. However, this defeatist, escapist and quietist option opt ion of withdrawing from the fray makes makes the enemies enemies of o f civili civilization zation safe and protected prote cted from any threat of o f the righteous righteou s people. peo ple. Rushdie’s Rushdie’s approach appro ach is antithetical to O Orwell’ rwell’s. s. While While Orwell wished wished quietism, Rushdi Rushdiee propagated pro pagated rowdyism. He is for the protesting pro testing wail in in place of the whale: The truth tru th is that there is no whale. We We live in a world wo rld without the hiding hiding places; the missil missiles es have made sure of that…I am recommending recommending the ancient tradition of making as big a fuss, as noisy a complaint about the world as is humanly possible. Where Orwell wished quietism, let there be rrowdyism; owdyism; in in place of the whale, wha le, the protesting pro testing wail. John Clement Ball in the article ‘Pessopt ‘Pessoptimi imism: sm: Satire And The Menippean Menippean Grotes Gr otesque que in Rushdie’ Rushdie’ss Midnig Midnight’ ht’s Chil Childr dren en’’ has summarized summarized Rushdie’s argument in the following following words: wo rds: ‘Outside the Whale’ argues for recognition r ecognition of the sociopoliti sociopo litical, cal, referential contexts conte xts of all “works of art”, proceeding to challenge George Orwell’s “quietist option” for the writer. Rushdie insists insists that writers take t ake sides in debates and make “as big a fuss” as possible about injustices injustices and oppressions; o ppressions; using “comedy, “comedy, satire, deflati d eflation”, on”, the the artist must not be the “servant of some beetle-browed ideology”, but rather ra ther “its critic, its its antagonist, antag onist, its scourge”. InThe In The Satanic Satan ic Verses Verses,, the satirist sat irist Baal describes his work, “[a] poet p oet’s ’s work”, in similar similar terms: “To name the unnamabl unnamable, e, to point p oint at frauds, to take ta ke sides, start arguments, shape the world and stop it from going to sleep”. Satire, in such statements, becomes the very essence of responsib respo nsible le art. Outside the whale are the unceasing storm and the perpetual quarrel. Outside the whale there is a genuine need for political literatu literature. re. Outside Out side the whale we see that all the human-beings human-beings are irradiated by histor history y. The men are radioactive radioact ive with history and poli po litics. tics. The writer is obliged obliged to accept that he is part of the crowd, part of o f the ocean, part of o f the storm. Rushdie continues that the t he intelligentsi intelligentsiaa should shou ld make a fuss about the Raj fictions and the movies, which w hich show the zo mbie-like mbie-like revival of the defunct Empire. E mpire. Various Various films, films, TV 275


shows and books propagate pro pagate a number of wrong notions about history histor y, which must be contested conteste d and quarreled with as loudly and as embarrassingly embarrassingly as possible. Rushdie detail det ailss some of these t hese works thus: After the big-budget fantasy double-bill of Gandhi and Gandhi and Octopussy we Octopussy we have had the blackf blackface ace minstrel minstrel-show -show of The Far Pavilions in Pavilions in its its TV serial incarnation, incarnation , and immediately afterwards the overpraised Je overpraised Jew wel in the the Crow Crown n. I should sho uld also include include the t he alleged alleged ‘documentary’ about Subhas Chandra Bose, Bo se, Granada Granad a Televisi Television’ on’ss War of the Springing S pringing Tiger , which, in the finest traditions of journalistic impartiality, described India’s second-most-revered independence leader as a ‘clown’. And lest we begin to co nsole ourselves that the painful experiences are coming to an end, end , we are reminded that David Da vid Lean’s Lean’s film film of A of A Passage Passage to India is India is in the offing. I remember seeing an interview with Mr. Lean in The Times, Times, in which he explained his reasons reaso ns for wishing to make a film film of Forster’ Forster ’s novel. ‘I haven’t seen Dickie Atte Attenborou nborough’ gh’ss Gandhi yet’, Gandhi yet’, he said, ‘but as far as I’m aware, nobody has yet succeeded in putting India on the screen.’ scr een.’ The Indian film industry, from Satyjit Ray to Mr. N.T.Rama Rao , will no doubt do ubt feel suitably humbled by the great man’s opinion. Rushdie’s Rushdie’s ideology in writing about these jewels of the crown c rown is similar similar to Edward Said’s thinking. Rushdie himself himself said, “The creation cre ation of a false orient of o f cruel-lipped princes and dusky dusk y slim-hipped slim-hipped maidens, maidens, of o f ungodliness, fire and the sword, swo rd, has been brilliantly described descr ibed by Edward Said Said in his his classi classicc studyOrientalism studyOrientalism,, in which which he makes clear clear that the purpose purpo se of such false portraits port raits was to t o provide pr ovide moral, cultural and artistic justification justification of imperialism imperialism and for its underpinning ideology, ideology, that of o f the racial superiority of the Caucasian C aucasian over the Asiatic”. Pramod K. Nayar in his book Postcolonial book Postcolonial Literature: Literature: An Introduction Introduction (Delhi: (Delhi: Pearson, 2008) stresses the same point: Postcolonial Post colonial writing, it appears, will always be be obsessed obsess ed with history and historyhistor ywriting. writing. Postcoloni Postco lonial al literature’s literature’s central and continuing continuing concerns are, therefore t herefore with modes o of f retrieving pre-colonial history, history, ‘correcting’ misrepresentat misrepresentations ions of their culture in European Euro pean texts text s and, by extension, controlling controlling the representation of their culture’s identity. identity. Rushdie thinks that we should sho uld make a lot of fuss about abou t all this this misleading misleading representation of history by the Empire. There is nothing like like a quiet q uiet place inside the whale: But in our whaleless whaleless world, wor ld, in this world without quiet q uiet corners, there t here can be no easy escapes from history, history, from hullabaloo, hullabaloo, from terrible, unquiet fuss. The next essay essa y ‘Attenborough’ ‘Attenboroug h’ss Gandhi’ explicates explicates well w ell the ideology of the previous p revious essay, essay, ‘Outside ‘Ou tside The Whale’. Whale’. In I n the essay about Attenborough’s Attenbo rough’s Gandhi, Gandhi, Rushdie comes c omes forward to resist r esist the misinterp misinterpretat retation ion of history by the film film maker, who used the t he film film as a medium to presen presentt a coloni colonize zed d accoun accountt of Indi Indian an Na Nati tiona onall Movem Movement. ent. Ac Accordi cording ng to Rushdi Rushdie, e, “the “the Britis British h have been mangling mangling Indian history for ccenturies”. enturies”. Rushdie ad adds: ds: Much of the debate about a bout the t he film film has concerned omi o missions: ssions: why no no Subhas Su bhas Bose? Why no Tagor Tagore? e? The film’ film’s makers answer answe r that tha t it would wo uld have been impossible to include 276


everything and everyone, and of course selection is central to any work of art. But a rtistic selection creates creat es meanings, and inGandhi in Gandhi these these are frequently freque ntly dubious dubious and in some cases frighteningly naïve. Rushdie gives an example of the distorted distort ed history in the movie, where after Jalli Ja llianwala anwala Bagh massacre, the outraged outr aged Englishmen Englishmen question the unrepentant Dyer about the ferocity of his actions. Through Attenborough’ Attenboroug h’ss description, the t he audience realizes that Dyer’s actions were those t hose of o f a cruel and over-zealous over-zealou s individual individual and they were condemned conde mned by Anglo-India. Rushdie considers it a falsehood and raises his protest against the evil designs of the Empire in a typical Postcolonial manner: The British in Punjab in 1919 were we re panicky. They feared a second se cond Indian Mutiny Mu tiny.. They had nightmares nightmares about rape. The court-martial may may have condemned Dyer, Dyer, but the coloni co lonists sts did not. He had taught the wogs a lesson; he was a hero. And when he he returned to t o England, he was given a hero ’s welcome. An appeal appea l fund launched on his behalf made him a rich man. man. Tagore, disgusted by the British reaction to the t he massacre returned his knighthood knighthood.. Besides, the movie presents a false image of most of the leaders of independence struggle. Patel, one of the hardest men, is is shown as a clown. Nehru Ji is just presented as Bapu’s acolyte. Rushdie does not no t accept accep t all this nonsense and challenges Attenboroug Attenbo rough’ h’ss colonial designs of justifying justifying the Empire E mpire and diminishi diminishing ng the value of the t he leaders of o f Indian National National Movem Movement ent.. In the essay ess ay on Satyajit Ray, Ray, Rushdie depicts t he great film-m film-maker aker’s ’s conflict conflict with the Bombay cinema. To illustrat illustratee this point of view, view, Rushdie Rushd ie quotes an interview of o f Nargis Dutt, Dutt , a celebrated heroine hero ine of bollywood: bollywood: Nargis: Why do you think film filmss like like Pather Pather Panchali become Panchali become popular abroad? ... Because people pe ople there want to see India in in an abject abject condition. co ndition. That is the im image age they have of our country and a film film that confirms confirms that image seems to them authentic. aut hentic. Interviewer: But why w hy should a renowned director directo r like Ray do such a thing? Nargis: Nargis: To To win awards. His His fil films ms are not commercial commercially ly successful. successful. They only win awards… What I want is that if Mr.Ray Mr.Ray projects Indian poverty abroad, he h e should also show ‘Modern India’. His Hindi movie Shatranj Ke Khiladi exhibits Khiladi exhibits the lowest point in the disturbed relationship between him and the t he Bombay cinema: This film, film, Ray’s Ray’s first (and to date only) feature film in Hindi, Hindi, was wa s a deliberate attempt a ttempt to enter the t he mainstream mainstream of Indian culture. According to legends, the t he movie bosses of Bombay ruined the film’ film’ss chances by putting pressure on national nat ional distributors distributors not to book it. The next essay is about a documentary do cumentary Handsw pr epared by Black Audio Handswort orth h Songs, Songs, prepared Film Film Collective. The do cumentary was multi-layered, multi-layered, origi o riginal nal and imaginative. imaginative. Its It s director directo r 277


to wn as a talent to watch”. The documentary doc umentary John Akomfrah is “getting mentioned around town attempts attempt s to excavate hidden ruptures/ agonies ago nies of race. The Website—www.tate.o Website—www.tate.o rg.uk— makes the following following comm co mments ents about abo ut the t he documentary, documentary, quite q uite in the manner of Rushdie: Handsworth Handsworth Songs , directed by John Akomfrah, was the first major film of the Black Audio Audio Film Film Collective. It explores e xplores the th e origins of the t he uprisings by black communities in Handsworth, Birmingham Birmingham in 1985. Its themes t hemes are race, memory, memory, ideology and Britain’ Britain’ss colonial past. “The song,” writes writes Michael Michael O’Pray, O’Pray, “is “is a cultural form which which can dig as deep as any analysis analysis ... The poetry poet ry of song ... is a pote potent nt weapon, weapo n, that for centuries cent uries has been used powerfully powerfully by the coloni colonisers sers themsel themselves. ves.”” The final essay of the section discusses Terry Gillan’s magnificent film of future totalitarianism, Brazil totalitarianism, Brazil . According to Rushdie, Ru shdie, “At the most mos t obvious level, the film is set in Dystopia, Utopia’s dark opposite, the worst of all possible worlds.” Section-5

Fifth Fifth section sect ion contains five pieces about the experiences expe riences of migrants, primarily Indian migrants migrants to Britain. This section sect ion has five articles—‘The New Empire Within Within Britain’, Britain’, ‘An Unimport Unimportant ant Fire’, ‘Home Front Front’, ’, ‘V.S.Naipaul’ ‘V.S.Naipaul’ and ‘The Painter and The Pest’. Pest ’. The first essay was original or iginally ly written for the Opinions slot Opinions slot in the t he early days of Channel 4, “publicservice television and radio broadcaster in the United Kingdom, centred around a television channel of the same name which began transmissi tra nsmissions ons on o n 2 November Nove mber 1982.”(Wi 1982.” (Wikipedia) kipedia) Rushdie has writt written en thus about the t he essay in in the Introduction Intro duction of the book: The many British blacks and Asians who phoned in or wrote agreed, virtually unanimously unanimously,, that the lecture had done do ne no more than t han tell the simple simple truth. To them, I had gone no further than t han the ABC of o f racial prejudice prejudice in Britain. There was also, unsurprisingly, unsurprisingly, a hostile response from some members members of o f the white commun co mmunity… ity… The essay discusses the racial harassment harassment of o f the migrants migrants by the new and rejuvenated Empire. This racial prejudice is a crisis of the whole culture of o f Great Britain. The T he stain of racial superimacy superimacy has penetrated deep into every aspect o f the British culture. culture. The postcolonial post colonial scholar Rushdie expli explicates cates this scar thus t hus in the essay: For proof of the existence of this stain, we can look, for instance, at the huge, undiminished undiminished appetite app etite of o f white Britons for t elevision series, films, films, plays and books aall ll fill filled ed with nostalgia for the Great Pink Age. Or think think about the ease eas e with which the English language language allows the terms of racial abuse to be coined: wog, wo g, frog, kraut, kraut , dago, dago , spic, yid, coon, nigger, Argie. Can there be another anothe r language with so wide-ranging a vocabulary of racist denigration? British British thought t hought and society have never been purged pur ged of o f the filth of imperial imperialism ism.. One of the key ke y concepts of imperialism imperialism was that military military superiority implied implied cultural superiority superior ity,, and this enabled the British to repress repr ess cultures cultur es far older than tha n their own. Rushdie’s ideology is analogous analogou s to Frantz Fanon’s Fa non’s point of o f view in Black Skin White Masks. Masks. According According to Fanon, 278


“White “White men consider themselves superior to t o black men”. The Empire colonized the minds of the subjects by its notorious agenda of repressing the native culture. Taisha Abraham has discussed the t he same point of view view,, while commenting on the growth gro wth of English literat literature ure and language in India: English education under colonial rule, therefore, had two primary goals. One it universalized universalized the values embedded in western culture, literature and in the modern European Euro pean sciences by showing other forms of indigenous indigenous knowledge kno wledge and custo ms in the colonies co lonies as incomplete, incomplete, inadequate, barbaric barbaric and extraneous to ‘proper education’. educat ion’. Two Two it moulded moulded the t he colonized in certain ways that best suited their reception recep tion of Wester Western n knowledge. The present pres ent essay essa y talks about the t he racial problems faced faced by the immigrants immigrants in Britian. Every major social in institution stitution of o f this country is coloured by this racial prejudice. Rushdie has described these thes e racial problems, encountered encounte red by the blacks in Britain: Britain: So what’s it it like, this country co untry to which the immigrants immigrants came and in which their children are growing gr owing up? You You wouldn’t recognize it. Because thi t hiss isn’t the England of fair play, play, tolerance, t olerance, decency and equality—maybe equality—maybe that place never existed anyway, except in fairy-tales. fairy-tales. In the streets street s of the new Empire, black women are abused and black children children are beaten up on their t heir way home from school. In the t he run-down run-do wn hosing estates estat es of the new Empire, black families families have their windows broken, they are afraid to go out after dark, human and animal excrement arrives through their lletter-bo etter-boxes. xes. The police offer offer threat instead of protection, protect ion, and the courts offer samll hope of redress. redres s. The description desc ription of the diasporic immigrant immigrant sensibil sensibility ity has been a fvourite subject with the Postco Po stcolonial lonial critics and authors. aut hors. The T he narration of o f Rushdie in in the essay has parallels in in Kiran Desai’s Desai’s treatment trea tment of o f Asian/African Asian/African diaspora diaspor a in the novel The Inheritance of Loss. Loss. The predicam predicament ent of Jemubh Jemubhai ai in Kiran Kiran Desai’ Desai’s novel novel exhib exhibit itss the ill ill eff effects of this this racial racial bias: bias: Thus Jemubhai’s Jemubhai’s mind mind had begun to t o warp; he grew stranger st ranger to himself himself than he was to those around ar ound him, found found his skin odd-coloured, odd-co loured, his own accent peculi pecu liar. ar. He forgot forgot how to laugh, could c ould barely bare ly manage manage to lift his lips lips in a smile, and if he ever did, he held he ld his hand over his mouth, because he co could uld barely let let anyone see his gums, his teeth. They seemed too private…. private…. He began to t o wash obsessively obsessively, concerned co ncerned he would wo uld be accused of smelling, smelling, and each morning he scrubbed off the thick t hick milky milky scent of o f sleep, the barnyard smell that wreathed wreat hed him when he woke and impregnated the fabric of his pajamas. pajamas. To the end of o f his his life, life, he would never be seen see n without socks soc ks and shoes and would wo uld prefer prefer shadow to light, faded days to sunny, sunny, for he was suspicious suspiciou s that sunlight might reveal him, in his hideo hideousness, usness, all too clearly. clearly. The next essay ess ay ‘An Unimportant Unimportant Fire’ contains conta ins the same theme of racial prejudice. Written Written in journalistic journalistic manner, the essay talks of an unimportant unimporta nt fire fire in The London Londo n Borough Boro ugh of Camden. The fire fire broke out o ut at 46 Gloucester Place, owned o wned by London London Lets. Let s. The fire scene tells the pathetic pathet ic conditions of these t hese houses. Black and Asian Asian families families are more likely to be placed placed in such nasty places: places: 279


When it it started, sta rted, no alarm a larm rang. It had been switched off. The fire fire extinguishers were empty. empty. The fire exits were blocked. It was night-time, but the stairs st airs were in darkness, because there were no bulbs in in the lighting lighting sockets. sock ets. And in the single, cramped to top-floor p-floor room, roo m, where they had been housed house d for nine months, Mr Mrs. s. Abdul Karim, Karim, a Bangladeshi woman, and her five-year-o five-year-old ld son and three-year-old daughter daught er died of suffocation. The essay on V. V. S. Naipaul brings brings out o ut the th e usual sultry and gloo gloomy my atmosphere in the writings of the great novelist. Naipaul’s Naipaul’s affection for the human race is dimini diminished. shed. The essay presents an examination examination of The Enigma of Arrival . According to Rushdie, “it is one of the saddest books book s I have read in a long long while, its tone one o ne of unbroken unbroke n melancholy”. melancholy”. Rushdie makes the following following remark about the t he book: Through the story—well st ory—well,, the account—of acco unt—of the farm labourer labourer Jack Jac k and his garden, we are shown how ho w the narrator’s narrato r’s view of rustic England changes. At first first idyllic—‘Of idyllic—‘Of literature and antiquity and the landscape Jack and his garden seemed emanations’—it develops along more realistic lines. lines. Jack’ Jack ’s heath fails, fails, his garden decays, he dies, the new occupants occu pants of his cottage pour concrete co ncrete over his garden. The T he idea of timelessness, timelessness, of Jack as being being ‘solid, rooted in his his earth’, turns out to be false. false. The article ‘The Painter and the Pest’ Pest ’ explores the curious cu rious aesthetic relationship relationship between Harold Haro ld Shapinsky, an artist art ist living living in New York York city and Akumal Ramachander, a teacher t eacher of o f elementary English at an Agricultural College in Bangalore. It is through the efforts of Ramachander that Shapinsky’ S hapinsky’ss art is known to the world. The Indian teacher introduced intro duced the t he artist to t o the art lovers lover s the world over. Rushdie’s postcolonial postc olonial intellect is delighted delighted at a t the fact that East has been able able to propagate pro pagate an artistic work of the West: West: For centuries, now it has been the fate of t he peoples of the East to be discovered by the West, with dramatic and usually unpleasant consequences. The story of Akumal and Shapinsky is one small instance instance in which the East has been able to repay rep ay the compliment, compliment, and a nd with a happy ending, ending, too. to o. Section-6

The sixth section contains conta ins the pieces ‘A General Election’ and ‘Charter 88’ 88 ’ along with Rushdie’s conversation conversa tion with Edward Said, the t he most articulate and visible visible advocate advocat e of the Palestinian Palestinian cause in the United States. S tates. The first two pieces exhibit exhibit his sharp poli po litical tical acumen, while while in the interview interview with Edward Ed ward Said, he has been able to explore various variou s international poli political tical and litera literary ry issues. ssues. Sections 7-11

These sections deal with authors like Nadine Gordimer, Rian Malan, Nuruddin Farah, Kapuscinski, Kapuscinski, John Berger, Graham Greene, John Le Carre, Bruce Chatwin, Julian Barnes, Kazuo Ishi I shiguro guro,, Michel Tournier, Tournier, Italo Calvino, Calvino, Stephen Hawking, Ha wking, Andrei Sakharov, Umberto Eco, Gunter Grass, Heinrich Heinrich Boll, Siegfried Siegfried Lenz, Peter Pet er Schneider, Schneider, Chris C hristopher topher Ransmayr, Ransmayr, 280


Maurice Sendak, Wilhelm Grimm, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Mario Vargas Llosa, E.L.Docto E.L.D octorow, row, Michael Herr, Herr, Richard Ford, Raymond Carver, Isaac Bashevis singer, singer, Philip Philip Roth, Saul Bellow, Bellow, Thomas Pynchon, Kurt Vonnegut Vonnegut and Grace Paley. Paley. These short pieces exhibit exhibit Rushdie’s Rushdie’s penchant for sharp critical writing. writing. The T he critical pieces display his command over world wo rld literatures literatures and his fecundity fecundity in in interpreting literature of every cultural background. backgrou nd. Section-12

The first essay ess ay of the final section sect ion ‘Naipaul among the Believers’ deals with Naipaul’ Naipa ul’ss Muslim Among the Believers, Believers, which “recounts the author’s seven month sojourn across Muslim Asia, from Iran to Pakistan to Malaysia to Indonesia and back again to Iran”. (http:// brothersjudd.com) brothersjudd.com) It is is not just just an ordinary ordinary travel book. Rushdi Rushdiee comme comments nts thus about the book: book: … this is no ordinary travel book: it has theses t heses to expound. e xpound. The T he Islamic Islamic revival, revival, Naipaul says, is a throwback to t o medieval times times which which seeks to t o create ‘abstract men of the faith, men who would be nothing more than the rules.’ Its ‘act of renunciation’ of the West is a fatal flaw… However, However, Rushdie does not ap approve prove of o f Naipaul’ Naipaul’ss description descript ion of Islam. Islam. Rushdie thinks that Naipaul’s picture is not complete and comments about this book in the following manner: The trouble trouble is that it’s a highly highly selective truth, a no noveli velist’s st’s truth masquerading masquerading as objective reality. reality. Take Iran: no hint in these pages p ages that tha t in the new Islam there is a good goo d deal more than Khomensim… Rushdie calls this this travel book boo k “a rather superficial su perficial book”. The essay ‘In God we trust’ tr ust’ explic explicates ates the secular credentials of the author. He declares, “… I have thought of o f myself myself as a wholly secular secular person, and have been drawn towards toward s the great tradition of secular radicalism…” radicalism…” The next essay essa y ‘In Good Faith’ defends defends his novelThe novelThe Satanic Satani c Verses Verses,, which has “a group o off characters most of whom are British Muslims, Muslims, or not no t particul particularl arly y religi religious ous persons persons of Muslim Muslim background background”. ”. Rushdie Rushdie asserts, asserts, “The Satanic Sata nic Verses celebrates hybridity, impurity, intermingling, the transformation that comes of new and unexpected combi co mbinations nations of human beings, beings, cultures, ideas, politics, politics, movies, songs”. so ngs”.

Imagin ary Homelands Homelan ds 19.3 Majo Majorr Th Themes emes in Imaginary 19.3.1 The Riddle of Diaspora In Pramod K. Nayar’s book Postcolonial Literature: Literature: An Introduction Introduction (Delhi: Pearson Pearso n Longman, 2008) the term te rm ‘diaspor ‘diaspora’ a’ has been been explained thus: Diaspora can ca n be the voluntary or forced movement of peoples peo ples from their homelands into new regions. Having arrived in a new geographical and cultural context, they negotiate two cultures: c ultures: their own and the t he new one. This diasporic culture culture is necessarily mixed mixed and an 281


amalgamation amalgamation of the two cultures. Robin Cohen in Global Diasporas: An Intr In troduction oduction (London: (London: Routledge, 2001) thinks that “the old co country” untry” always has claim claim over the t he psyche of the diasporans. Imaginary Imaginary Homelan Homelands ds displays displays the diasporic diaspo ric sensibili sensibility ty of Rushdie at its best. Nostalgia Nost algia for for the t he homelands and misbehaviour with the diasporic diaspo ric immigrants immigrants in alien alien lands are exhibited exhibited in typical postcolonial post colonial manner. The main main focus of Rushdie in the first section sect ion of the book boo k is on memory and nostalgia nost algia for the past. For example, mark the following following statement: stat ement: It may be argued that the past is a country cou ntry from which which we have all emigrated, emigrated, that its loss is part of our common humanity humanity.… .… I suggest sugg est that the writer who is out-of-country and even out-of-langua out -of-language ge may experience this t his loss loss in an intensified intensified form. It is made more concrete concre te for him by the physical fact fact of discontinuity, of his present prese nt being in a different different place p lace from his past, of his his being being ‘elsewh ‘elsewhere’. ere’. This This may enable enable him to speak properly and concretely on a subject of o f universal significance significance and appeal. ap peal. The displaced individual individual in the alien alien lands does not find find the situation to be favourable to his plans plans and desires. The intensity of anguish anguish is enhanced by the fact fact that t hat the person perso n had come to the t he West, West, considering c onsidering it to be a place of enlightenment. The western wes tern sojourn sojou rn is notable for the feelings feelings of alienation and sorrow in the hearts heart s of the immigrants. immigrants. The diaspora experiences the worst wo rst type of racial prejudice in the West. West. In I n the essay essa y ‘The New Empire Within Within Britian’, Rushdie outlin out lines es the fact that the t he immigrants immigrants face racial bigotry everywhere in Britain: “ The fact remains that every major institution in this cou ntry is permeated by racial prejudice to some degree”. In a way, the diaspora has ‘double consciousness’—nostalgia for the imaginary homelands and alienation in foreign for eign lands. V. V. S. Naipaul detail deta ilss this dilemma dilemma in his novelThe novelThe Enigma of Arrival Arrival , “That idea of o f ruin and dereliction, dereliction, of out–of out– of placeness, was something something I felt felt about abou t myself, myself, attached attac hed to myself: myself: a man man from another hemisphere, another anot her background…” backgro und…”

19.3.2 The Emergence of the New Empire In the essay ‘Outside the Whale’, Rushdie asserts that “there “t here can be no easy escapes from history, history, from hullabaloo, hullabaloo, from terrible, unquiet fuss.” He has recommended a tradition t radition “of making as big a fuss, as noisy a complaint about the world wo rld as is humanly possible.” In several of his his pieces in the book, Rushdie makes a prote protesting sting fuss against the revival of the Empire in Britain. Britain. In ‘The New Empire within Britain’ Britain’ he states, s tates, “British “British society has never been been clea cleans nsed ed of the fil filth of imperi perialis alism m”. Ac Accord cordin ing g to Rushd Rushdiie, Atten Attenbor borough ough’’s movie ovieGandhi is the best example of these imperialistic imperialistic tendencies tend encies of the English. This movie is is the result res ult of the undiminished undiminished and maniac maniac nostalgia nost algia of the British for the Great G reat Pink Ageof Age of the Empire.

19.3.3 Debate between Censorship and Eclecticise In the essay on censorship, Rushdie dwells upon the t he effects effects of o f censorship. It suppresses 282


the truth and spreads the falsehood. falsehood. It can deaden the imaginati imagination on of people. In place of censorship, Rushdie propagates prop agates the eclectic free flow flow of o f thought. This eclectic eclectic belief permits dissent and demonstrates that opposition is the bedrock of democracy. democracy.

19.3.4 Ideals of Hybridity and Multiplicity The contemporary co ntemporary world, variously depicted as ‘a salad bowl’ bow l’ or ‘a melting melting pot’, is marked by hybridity and multiplicity multiplicity.. Rushdie Rushdie celebrates celebrate s these ideals ideals in his works and Imagin Imaginar aryy Homeland Homelandss is no exception. The postcolonial po stcolonial social order is notable not able for for “new and unexpected combinations combinations of human bein beings, gs, cultures, ideas, politics, politics, movies, songs”. In the essay ‘In Good Faith’, Rushdie favours the mongreli mongre lization zation and abhors abhor s “the absolutism of the pure”. pure” . According to him, “Mélange, hotchpotch, a bit of this and a bit of that is how newness enters the world”. This emphasis of Rushdie on the concept of hybridity makes him a man of secular credentials; he believes in the coe coexistence xistence of several religions/ religions/ cultures/ ethnicities. ethnicities.

19.4 19.4 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up Through the discussion in this this unit, we come co me to realize that Imagi that Imaginary nary Homelands Homelandsiis “eclectic and provocat provocative ive”” (Richard Heller). Through Throu gh its interpretation o f the major social, poli politica ticall and and litera literary ry issues, ssues, the book has has carve carved d a niche niche for itself tself in the list of majo majorr Postcol Postcoloni onial al texts of the t he contemporary era. In the end, it can be said that it is a collection of essays, covering a wide variety of topics top ics like like the defence of o f his own creative works, Commonwealth Literature, Literature , Sub-continental Su b-continental political scenario, censorship, censo rship, film film criticism, criticism, diaspora, immigration, immigration, Empire, hybridity and multiplicity etc.


Discuss Imaginary Homelands as Homelands as a critical work.

2.

How How doe doess Rush Rushdi diee def defend end the the ina inacc ccur urac acy y of narra arrati tion on in in Midnight’ Midnight’ss Children Children??

3.

Shoul Should d we call call Rush Rushdi diee a disp dispass assiionate onate and and disi disinte nteres rested ted chr chroni onicl cler er or som someon eonee who who has presented the disto distorted rted version of histo history? ry? Give Give a reasoned answer, quoting quot ing from from Imaginary Homelands. Homelands.

4.

“… it’ it’ss my my presenc presencee that that is is forei foreign, gn, and and that that the past is home, home, albei albeitt a lost lost hom homee in in a lost city in the mists of time”. Discuss the relevan re levance ce of o f the statement from ‘Imaginary ‘Imaginary Homelands’, applying applying it to t o Rushdie’ Rus hdie’ss major novels. no vels.

5.

Are the thre threee essay essayss of the the first first sec secti tion on works works of sel selff-jus -justi tiffication, cation, whe where re the novel novelis istt is vindicating vindicating his his creative art? Illustrate your answer from the text.

6.

What What is is censor censorshi ship? p? Discu Discuss ss the the effe effects cts of it on literat literature ure and arts. arts. Trace Trace the examp examplles of censorship, censo rship, given by Rushdi Rushdiee in the essay ‘Censorship’?

7.

Comment Comment brief brieflly on Rushdi Rushdie’ e’ss treatm treatment ent of Mrs. Mrs. Indir Indiraa Gandhi Gandhi’’s poli political tical career career.. 283


8.

How does does Rus Rushd hdiie anal analy yse Ben Benaz aziir Bhutto Bhutto?? D Diiscuss scuss Rus Rusdi die’ e’ss vi view ewss about about Commonwealth Literature.

9.

“The “The subj subject ect ofAnita Anita Desai Desai’’s fic ficti tion on has, has, thus far, far, been been sol solit itude” ude”.. Comm Comment ent on this this remark of Rushdie about Desai.

10.

Throw ligh lightt on Rushdie’ Rushdie’ss interpre interpretation tation of Deven-Nur Deven-Nur relati relationshi onship p in in Anita Anita Desai’ Desai’s In Custody. Custody.

11.

Disc Discus usss the the ori origin gin of the the essa essay y ‘Outs ‘Outsiide the the Wha Whalle’. e’.

12.

Throw ligh lightt on Satyaji Satyajitt Ray-Bom Ray-Bombay bay cinem cinemaa relati relationsh onship ip,, as discus discussed sed by by Rushdi Rushdie. e.

13. 13.

Throw Throw light ght on th the trea treatm tmen entt of dias diaspo pora ra in in Imaginary Imaginary Homelands Homelands..

14.

How does Rushdi Rushdiee anal analy yse the problem problemss of the imm immiigrants grants in Britai Britain? n? Can you sugge suggest st any parallel of this t his description in world literature?

15.

Bring Bring out out the trac traces es of raci racial prej prejudi udice ce in in ‘An ‘An Uni Unimporta mportant nt Fire’ Fire’..

16.

Discus Discusss East-W East-West encounter encounter in the essay essayss ‘V ‘V.S.Naipaul .S.Naipaul’’ and ‘The ‘The Painter Painter and the Pest’.

17.

Eluci Elucidate date Rushd Rushdie ie’’s point point of vie view w in the essa essay y ‘In ‘In God We We Trust’ Trust’and ‘In ‘In Good Good Faith’ Faith’..

18.

Expli Explicate cate the terms terms hyb hybri ridi dity ty and mul multipli tiplici city ty,, quotin quoting g from from Imagi Imaginar naryy Homelands Homelands..


Abrah Abraham am,, Tai Taisha. sha. Introdu Introduci cing ng Postcol Postcoloni onial al Theor Theory y: Issues Issues And And Debat Debates es.. Macmi Macmilllan, an, 2007.

2.

Ahma Ahmad, d, Aij Aijaz. In Theo Theory ry:: Clas Classe ses, s, Nations Nations,, Liter Literatur atures es.. London London and and New York: Verso, erso, 1992.

3.

Ashc Ashcrof roft, t, Bill Bill.. On Post-Col Post-Coloni onial al Futures Futures:: Tran Transf sform ormati ations ons of Colon Coloniial Culture Culture.. London, London, New York: Continuu Continuum m, 2001. 2001.

4.

Brenn Brennan, an, Timoth Timothy y. Salma Salman n Rush Rushdi diee and and the Third Third World: orld: My Myths of the Nation. Nation. London: London: Macmill Macmillan, an, 1989.

5.

Cundy Cundy,, Cathe Catheri rine. ne. Sal Salm man Rushdi Rushdie. e. Manc Manches hester ter and and New York: Manche Manchester ster UP UP,, 1996.

6.

Gandh Ga ndhii, Leela. Leela. Postcol Postcoloni onial al Theory Theory:: A Cri Criti tical cal Introd Introducti uction on.. Delhi Delhi:: OUP OUP, 1999. 1999.

7.

Goonetillek, D.C.R.A. Salman Rushdie. New York: York: St. St . Matin’s Press, 1998. 199 8.

8.

Grant Grant,, Dam Damian. an. Sal Salman man Rus Rushdi hdie. e. Ply Plym mouth: outh: Northc Northcote ote House House Publ Publishers shers,, 1999. 1999.

9.

Harrison, James. S alman alman Rushdie. New York: York: Twayne, 1992. 1 992. 284


10.

King, King, Bruc Bruce. e. ed. ed. New Nationa Nationall and and Post-Col Post-Coloni onial al Litera Literature tures. s. 1996. 1996. Oxf Oxford: Clarendon Press,1998.

11.

Mitta Mittapa palli, Raj Rajes esh hwa warr, and and Joel Joel Kuort Kuortti ti.. eds eds.. Salman Rushdie: New Critical Insights (Vol.1). (Vol.1). New Delhi: Atlantic, Atlantic, 2003. 20 03.

12.

Mukh Mukher erjjee, ee, Mee Meena naxi xi,, and and Ha Hari rish sh Tri Trivedi vedi.. eds. eds. I I nterrogating nterrogating Postcolonialism :Theory, Text and Context. Shimla: IIAS,1996.

13.

Nayar Nayar,, Pramod Pramod K. Postcol Postcoloni onial al Litera Literature ture:: An Intr Introduc oducti tion. on. New New Del Delhi: hi: Pearson Pearson Longman, 2008.

14.

Paramesw Parameswaran aran,, Uma. Uma. The Perforate Perforated d Sheet: Sheet: Essays Essays on Salm Salman Rush Rushdi die’ e’ss Art. Art. Del Delhi: hi: Affili Affiliate ate Esat-West, 1988.

15.

Rushdi Rushdie, e, Salma Salman. n. Imagi Imagina nary ry Hom Homel elan ands, ds, Essay Essayss and Criti Critici cism sm 19811981-199 1991. 1. 1991. 1991. London: Granta Grant a Books in collaboration with Penguin, 1992.

16.

Said, Said, Edwar Edward. d. Ori Oriental entaliism. sm. New York: ork: Vi Vintag ntage, e, 1979. 1979.

16.

Said, Said, Edward Edward.Cu .Cult lture ure and Imper Imperiialis alism m. London London:: Vin Vintag tage, e, 1994. 1994.

17.

Triv Trivedi edi,, Harish. Harish. Colon Colonia iall Transa Transacti ctions: ons: Engl Englis ish h Literature Literature and Indi India. a. 1993. 1993. Manch Manchester ester and New York: York: Manchester Manchest er University Press, 1995. 199 5. _____________

285


UNIT-20 SALMAN RUSHDIE : IMAGINARY IMAGINARY HOMELAND HOMELANDS: S:

ESSAYS ESSAYS AND CRITICISM 1981-1991 (II) Structure 20.0

Objectives

20.1 20.1

Intro troduction

20.2 0.2

Major Issues in Imaginary Homelands 20.2.1 20.2.1 Nost Nostal algi giaa 20.2.2 Views iews about Political Politically ly Comm Committed itted Art 20.2.3 Criticism of Sub-Continental Sub-Co ntinental Social and Political Scenario 20.2.4 20.2 .4 Treatment Treatment of Intellectual Intellectual Imperiali Imperialism sm 20.2.5 Religi Religious ous Mania Mania and Secul Seculari arism sm 20.2.6 Views iews about the Language of Literary Literary Creation Creation 20.2.7 Rushdie Rushdie as as a Film Film-Cri -Critic tic

20.3

Anal Analys ysis is of Literar Literary y Works on the the basi basiss of Imaginary Imaginary Homelands Homelands 20.3.1 Kiran Kiran Desai’ Desai’s The Loss of Inheritance 20.3.2 Stephen Stephen Gill Gill’’s Immigrant Immigrant 20.3.3 U. R. Anantha Anantha Murthy Murthy’’s Samskara: A Rite for a Dead Man

20.4

Let Us Sum Up

20.5 20.5

Review Questi estion onss

20.6 20.6

Bibliogr ography

20.0 20.0 Objectives The objectives of the unit unit are to: to : —

introduce introduce the Imagin the Imaginary ary Homelands Homelands to students as a major major Postcoloni Postco lonial al text,

—

famil amilia iari rize ze with with the key concepts concepts of Postcoloni Postcolonial al theory

—

high highli ligh ghtt Rushdi Rushdie’ e’ss contri contribu buti tion on to film ilm and and poli political tical criti critici cism sm,,

—

develop develop criti critical cal insight nsight in the students students and enabl enable them to analyze analyze a text. 286


20.1 Intr Intro oductio tion The previous unit had interprete interpreted d the text of o f Imaginary Imaginary Homelands Homelands along along with the basic basic themes themes of diaspora, diaspora, Empir Empire, e, censorshi censorship p and and hybri hybridit dity y in it. it. This This unit unit is a continuati continuation on of the previous one and analyses Rushdie’s views about nostalgia, immigration problems, secularism, sub-continental sub-continenta l political political scene and the ro role le of English English language in India. Imagin Imaginary ary Homeland Homelandss dissects all a ll these issues quite minutely and pedantically. pedantically. That is why Brian Morton Morto n and Frances Franc es Hill call it it “compelli “compe lling”. ng”. One notable no table feature featu re of o f the unit is that it applies certain cert ain theories theo ries of Rushdie to three t hree Indian novels. George Geo rge Watso Watson, n, while analyzing analyzing Dryden’s Dryden’s essay ‘Of Dramatic Poesie’ in The Literary Critics comments, Critics comments, “The chief triumph of the examen lies in its attempt att empt at compara c omparative tive criticism, in its its balancing of the qualities of the English drama against those tho se of the French.” The T he unit also promotes promote s this type of critical approach appro ach by finding finding parallel parallelss between between Rushdi Rushdie’ e’ss pronouncem pronouncement entss and three Indian Indian novel novels. s.

20.2 Maj Major Issu Issues es in Imaginary Homelands 20.2.1 Nostalgia One invariable element of all Postcolonial/ diasporic literature is the element of nostalgia in it. These scholars, critics cr itics and novelists novelists seem to t o be in tune tu ne with Keats’ celebrated expression in ‘Ode to a Nightingale’: Nightingale’: Perhaps the self-same self-same song that found a path Through Throug h the sad heart of Ruth, when sick for home, She stood in tears amid the alien corn. The authors autho rs in exile exile are ‘sick for home’, and they are ‘in tears amid a mid the alien corn’. Pramod K. Nayar has commented commented thus about the presence o f nostalgic nostalgic experiences in the diasporic writings, “Much of diasporic writing explores the t he theme of an original home. This original home home as now lost—due to their exile—is exile—is constantly worked into the imagination imagination and myth of the displaced individual/ community. community. Nostalgia Nosta lgia is is therefore ther efore a key theme in diasporic writing.” W writing.” Wikipedia ikipedia,, the online encyclopedia introduces the t he concept of o f nostalgia, “The term nostalgia describes nostalgia describes a longing for for the t he past, often o ften in idealized idealized form. form. The word w ord is made up of two Greek roots (nostos (nostos ‘returning ‘returning home’, and algos ‘pain’), algos ‘pain’), to refer to ‘the pain a sick person feels feels because because he wishe wishess to return to his his nativ nativee home, home, and fears fears never never to see see it again’. again’. It was described descr ibed as a medical condition, a form of melancholy, melancholy, in the Early Modern period, per iod, and came to be an important topic to pic in Romanticism Romanticism.” .” The T he historical moorings moorings of this concept are further discussed in the following manner byWikipedia by Wikipedia:: The term was coined co ined in in 1688 by Johannes Hofer (1669-1752 (16 69-1752)) in his his Basel dissertation. Hofer introduced nostalgia or mal du pays “homesickness” pays “homesickness” for the condition also known as mal du Suisse “Swiss Suisse “Swiss illness” illness” or o r Schweizerheimweh “Swiss Schweizerheimweh “Swiss homesickness”, because of o f its its 287


frequent occurrence oc currence in Swiss mercenaries who in the plains plains of lowlands of France or Italy were pining for for their t heir native mountain mountain landscapes….Cases resultin re sulting g in death were wer e known and soldiers were sometim so metimes es successful succ essfully ly treated by being being discharged and sent home. Receiving a diagnosis was, however, generally regarded as an insult. insult. In I n 1787, Ro bert Hamilton Hamilton (1749– 1830) described a case of a soldier suffering from nostalgia, who received sensitive and successful treatment. treatment. In 1781, in the north of England, Hamilton Hamilton met a new recruit who had “a melancholy hung over his countenance, and wanness preyed on his cheeks”, a “universal weakness, but no fixed fixed pain; a noise in his his ears, and giddiness of his his head”. The T he young soldier would not eat, eat , and he got g ot weaker until the nurse happened to discuss his hometown hometown with him. him. Hamilton Hamilton noted that the topic t opic of home seemed to cheer the soldier’s spirits; spirits; after Hamilton Hamilton told the young recruit that he could return home, he began eating again and his his strength returned. ret urned. By the 1850s, nostalgia nosta lgia was losing losing its status as a disease and coming to be seen as a symptom or stage st age of a pathological pat hological process. It was considered c onsidered as a form of melancholi melancholiaa and a predisposing condition among suici suicides. des. By the t he 1870s, 1870 s, interest in nostalgia as a medical medical category had all but vanished. Salman Rushdie is one of the chief initiators initiators of o f these nostalgic nost algic moods in his fiction fiction and his critical book Imaginar book Imaginaryy Homelands Homelands is is no exception. It is this obsessive affection affection for the past homelan homeland d that encourages him him to have the portrait portrait of his his ancestral ancestral house in his his present present room. Imagi room. Imaginary nary Homelands Homelands,, called “(an) assemblage of Salman Rushdie’s Rushdie’s seminar papers, paper s, television television broadcasts, broad casts, book reviews, movie reviews, public lectures, interviews and articl art icles” es” by Robert Robert Towers owers(h (http: ttp:// //ww www w.ny .nytim times.com es.com// books/ books/99/ 99/04/ 04/18/ 18/spe speci cial als/ s/rus rushd hdiie-ima e-imagi gina nary ry.h .htm tmll), begins begins with the artistic artistic descri description ption of the just-menti just-mentioned oned portrait: portrait: “An “An old photograph in a cheap frame hangs hangs on a wall of the room ro om where I work. work . It’s a picture dating from 1946 of a house into which, at tthe he time of its its taking, taking, I had not yet been born. The house hou se is rather peculiar— a three-storeyed three-st oreyed gabled affair affair with tiled tiled roofs roo fs and round towers towe rs in two corners, each ea ch wearing a pointy tiled hat.” The same nostalgi nost algiaa motivates him to visit the house: …I went to visit visit the house in the photograph phot ograph and stood stoo d outside out side it, neither neither daring nor wishing wishing to announce annou nce myself myself to its owners. (I ( I didn’t want to see how they’d t hey’d ruined ruined the interior.) I was overwhelmed. ove rwhelmed. The photo graph had naturally natu rally been taken in black and white; white; and my memory, memory, feeding on such suc h images images as this, t his, had begun to t o see my childhood childhood in the same s ame way, way, monochromaticall monochro matically y. The colours colou rs of o f my my history had seeped out of my mind’ mind’ss eye; now my other eyes were assaulted by colours, by the vividness vividness of the red tiles, the yellow-edged yellow-edged green gree n of cactus-leaves, cactu s-leaves, the brilli brilliance ance of o f bougainv bouga invill illea ea creeper. cree per. Due to this nost nostalgia algia his his Midnight’s Midnight’s Children Children,, called “fictional “fictional autobiography” auto biography” by Mac Fenwick (http://www.litencyc.com/php/swork (http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&UID=359 s.php?rec=true&UID=3591), 1), is accused of inaccurate narration. narrat ion. The novel contains many errors error s of histo historical rical reasoning. reaso ning. Rushdie has himself himself exhibited exhibited these defects de fects in the narrative narrat ive technique of the novel nove l in in the essay essa y “‘Errat “‘Errata’: a’: Or, Unreliable Unreliable Narration Nar ration in Midni in Midnight’ ght’ss Childr Children en”: ”:

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And how could Lata Mangeshkar have been heard singing singing on All-India All-India Radio as early as 1946? And does Saleem not know that t hat it was not General Sam Manekshaw who accepted the surrender surre nder of the t he Pakistani Army Army at the t he end of the Bangladesh War—the War—the Indian officer officer who was Tiger Niazi’s Niazi’s old chum being, of course, cour se, Jagjit Singh Arora? Arora ? And why does Saleem allege that the t he brand of cigarettes, cigarettes , State Stat e Express 555, is manufactured manufactured by W.D. W.D. & H. O. Wills? Wills? Is Rushdie the only o nly literary literary artist to t o indulge in these blunders of history? No, there are several others other s too. too . After After all, a man of litera literature ture is not a so cial chronicler. The purpose of of a literary artist is to play with the emotions; he is least concerned with the photographic representation represent ation of social history. history. For the history of a period, some historical document should be perused, not a literary literary piece. A work of literature literature is not a safe guide for the history history of a region; literature literature is concerned with the emotional and aesthetic ou tlet of the author au thor’’s feelings. feelings. Keats made the same blunder in ‘On First First Looking Loo king Into Chapman’s Homer’: Or like stout sto ut Cortez Cor tez when with eagle eyes He star ’d at the Pacific—and all his men men Look’d at each other with a wild wild surmise— Silent, upon upo n a peak in Darien. Here, Keats confounds Cortez with Balboa, the t he first first white white man who, with a number of followers, followers, crossed the isthmus of Darien and saw the Pacific Pacific queen que en from the American American coast. coast . The website, entitled as www.stevedenning.com, www.stevedenning.co m, has made made the following entry about Keats’ error, “Keats was in error in talking talking of Cortez. Cort ez. Actually Actually it it was w as Balboa, not Cortez, who first crossed the isthmus to the Pacific. Keats had read Robertson’s History of America and apparently confused two scenes there described: Balboa’s discovery of the Pacific and Cortez’ first first view of Mexico Mexico City. City. But who cares, when there is such great poetry? (http:// www.stevedenning.com/Poetry_romance.html)” Rushdie’s novel also has errors of history, but these errors are redeemed redeemed by his his artistic artistic excellen excellence. ce. Through this erroneous narration, Rushdie is emphasizing emphasizing the value of broken memory or nostalgia no stalgia in literary creations. The T he signifi significance cance of o f this fractured memory is stressed str essed thus by Rushdie: This is why I made my narrator, narrato r, Saleem, suspect suspec t in his narration; his mistake mistakess are the mistakes of a fallible memory compounded by quirks of character and of circumstance, and his vision vision is fragmentary. fragmentary. It may be that when the Indian writer who writes from outside outs ide India tries to reflect reflect that world, wo rld, he is obliged obliged to deal in broken mirrors, mirrors, some of whose fragments have been irretrievabl irret rievably y lost.

20.2.2 Views about Politically Committed Art Rushdie outlines ou tlines his preoccupat preo ccupations ions with poli po litically tically committed committed writings w ritings in his essay ‘Outside the Whale’, which is a response res ponse to Orwell’ Orwell’s essay ‘Inside the t he Whale’. Whale’. In I n the essay, essay, Orwell had propagated the quietist and escapist approach a pproach to t o world wo rld problems, problems, while analyzi analyzing ng 289


Miller’s The Tropic Tropic of Cancer , “a lyrical, lyrical, profane, and surreal portrait po rtrait of the t he author’s experiences in the bohemian bohemian underworld of 1930s Paris” P aris” (www.enotes.com). (www.enote s.com). Orwell had recommended the non-involvem non- involvement ent in the world wo rld problems. Rushdie Ru shdie has analyzed Orwell’s Orwell’s point po int of view thus: “Sit it out, he recommends; we writers will be safe inside the whale, until the storm dies down….undoubte down….u ndoubtedly dly Orwell did give way to a kind of defeatism defeat ism and despair. By the time he wrote Nineteen wrote Nineteen Eighty-four , sick and cloistered o n Jura, he had plainly come to think t hink that resistance was useless”. Rushdie preferred rowdyism of protest to the calm of quietism. Rushdie’s celebrat celebrated ed expression expressio n is: “I am recommending recommending the ancient tradition tr adition of making as big a fuss, as a s noisy a complaint about the world wo rld as is humanly possible”. possible”. Rushdie Rushd ie again says in an asserting manner: Outside the whale wha le is is the unceasing storm, sto rm, the continual cont inual quarrel, quarrel, the dialectic of hi histor story y. Outside the whale there is a genuine need for political fiction, fiction, for boo ks that draw dr aw new and better maps maps of reality reality,, and make new languages languages with with which which we can understand the world. world. Outside the whale we see that th at we are all irradiated by histor history y, we are ar e radioactive with history and politics; we see that it can be as false false to create a poli po litics-free tics-free fictional fictional universe universe as to create one in which which nobody needs to work or o r eat or love or sleep. Outside the whale whale it becomes necessary, and even exhilarating, to grapple with the special problems created by the incorporation incorpor ation of politi po litical cal material, because poli po litics tics is by turns farce and tragedy traged y, and sometime so metime (e.g., Zia’s Zia’s Pakistan) both at once. Outside Out side the whale whale the writer is obliged to accept that he (or (o r she) is part of the crowd, part of the ocean, oc ean, part of o f the storm, so that t hat objectivity objectivity becomes a great dream, like perfection, an unattainable unatt ainable goal for which one must struggle strug gle in spite of the impossibil impossibility ity of success. Outside the whale is the world of o f Samuel Beckett’s famous formula: I can’t go on, o n, I’ll go on. o n. Rushdie is not the first author autho r to pinpoint the political/ political/ social convictions of the authors. autho rs. Rather, there is a whole tradition of o f scholars scholars and writers, supporting suppor ting this ideology. ideology. For instance, Rene Wellek Wellek and Austin Warre Warren n talk in much the same way, “Literature “Literat ure occurs o ccurs only in a social context, as part par t of a culture, in a milieu. milieu. Taine’ Taine’ss famous triad of o f race, milieu, milieu, and moment moment has, in practice, led to t o an exclusive exclusive study st udy of the mili milieu”. eu”. The effects effects of o f Rushdie’s Rushdie’s pronouncements about literature literat ure of protest prot est in the essay can be clearl clearly y seen in his his creative creative works. Even Imaginary Imaginary Homelands Homelands displays displays his firm political po litical convictions, convictions, where he is seen making making a strong stro ng protest prot est against the chaotic world order. ord er. Charlie Charlie Onion, while reviewing Rushdie’ Ru shdie’ss Fury finds Fury finds in in it the spirit of protest pro test,, “In his first American American novel, Salman Rushdi Rushdiee offers a book whose bitingly bitingly satirical themes themes are ar e more interesting than t han its plot”. plot ”. Simi S imilarly larly Shalimar the Clown “is Clown “is based mostly in a small small town in the Indian region reg ion of Kashmir. Kashmir. The town itself is im imaginary aginary,, but it is locat ed in an accurate accurat e geographic geo graphic location not far from Srinagar. Srinagar. In Rushdie style, the 1947 partition of o f India, the subsequent invasion by tribals from Pakistan-a Pakistan-admini dminister stered ed Kashmir reinforced by b y regular army units, and an d finally finally the India-Pakistan war that resulted in the partitioning of Jammu and Kashmir, all appear in the story. Similarly, the 1965 India-Pakistan war also appears (Wikipedia (Wikipedia).” ).” Hasan Surror, 290


reviewing the novel for The Hindu, Hindu, called it “the most po political litical since since Midnight’ Midnight’ss Children Children”. ”. Peter Craven C raven finds finds in the novel “the great panorama of the tragedy of Kashmir, Kashmir, the needless tragedy of religious hatred, the necessary tragedy tr agedy of East and West West (The (The Age).” Age).” According to Sreeram Chaulia, “In Shalimar the Clown, Clown, he plunges into the viscera of terrorism’s interconnectedness — how dots of violence, violence, justice and revenge link link together across acro ss time and space into blood-soaked blood- soaked lines Asia ( Asia Times Times online).” Suhayl Saadi reviews thus the t he novel in The Independent , “With fewer of the stylistic irritations of his previous fictions, this t his is is one of Rushdie’s Rushdie’s best novels yet. The horror that it depicts demands to be screamed, word wo rd by word, at the minaret minarets, s, steeples steep les and congresses of those who facilitate killi killing, ng, rape and to rture - and at those tho se who, unlike Rushdi Rushdie, e, have not the courage co urage to ask of their rulers, of their religions, religions, of themselves: why is that?” John Updike, while reviewing it forThe for The New N ew Yorker Yorker , finds sufficient politic political al material material in it. Updike Updike has spoken of “knowledgeab “knowledgeablle details details of mili military tary and politi political cal action” and “harrowing “harrow ing depictions depictions of atrocity atro city and counteratrocity” counteratr ocity” in the novel. Thus, it is obvious that his novels are the wo works rks of of political protest, which which was analyzed analyzed by him in in ‘Outside the Whale’. In his fictional fictional oeuvre, o euvre, he is making as big a fuss, as noisy no isy a complaint about tthe he world as is humanly humanly possible. A number of pieces from Imagin from Imaginary ary Homelands Homelands are are not different different from fro m his his novels. In his critical essays too, the protest against the disorderly world order is evident. He speaks candidly about the po politics litics of religion religion and race in Margaret Thatcher T hatcher’’s Britain, Indira Gandhi’s Gandhi’s India, and Zia ul-Haq’ ul-Haq’ss Pakistan; about writers and books boo ks from India and Pakistan, Africa, Africa, Britain, Britain, Europe, South America, America, and the United States; about the vocation of o f the writer and the powers po wers of literature, the potential of the imagination imagination and the dangers of censorship; and, repeatedly repeate dly,, about abou t migratio migration n as the archetypal experience of the twentieth century centur y. He expresses his bold and and unorthodox unort hodox ideals without any fear and censorship, as he believes that the author aut hor should be outside the whale. whale. He does not favour favour the idea that the authors aut hors should keep out of poli politics. tics. Rushdi Rushdiee asserts asserts,, “Give “Give yourse yoursellf over to the world-pr world-process ocess… … simp simply ly accept accept it, endure endure it, record it. That seems to t o be the t he formula formula that any sensiti sensitive ve novelist novelist is likely likely to adopt.” a dopt.” This statement is the very basis of the t he prevalent poli po litical tical convictions of Rushdie in his writings.

20.2.3 Criticism Criticis m of Sub-Continental Sub-Continental Social and Political Scenario Rushdie’s essays make an emphatic protest against the sub-continental social and poli political tical subjec subjects; ts; he does not adopt a quieti quietist st or escapi escapist st approach approach of withdr withdrawal awal,, rather rather he is quite vocal, vociferous and loud in his views about India and Pakistan. In the essay ‘The Riddle of Midnight: Midnight: India, August 19 1987’, 87’, he raises a very ve ry serious question—‘Does quest ion—‘Does India exist?’ Externally, Externally, the question que stion appears appear s to be a strange and redundant r edundant sort so rt of inquiry, inquiry, as “after all, there the t he gigantic place manifestly manifestly is, a rough diamond two t wo thousand tho usand miles long long and more or less wide, as large as Europe though you’d never guess it from the Mercato r projection, populated by by around a sixth sixth of the human human race, home home of the largest largest fil film m industry industry on earth, spawning Festivals Festivals the world over, o ver, famous famous as a s the world’s biggest biggest democracy”. de mocracy”. But, a deeper scrutiny explicates explicates the crumbling crumbling of the structure. str ucture. The greatest great est chall c hallenge enge before the intellectuals, intellectuals, 291


leaders and social activists is to keep India Ind ia united: After all, in in all the thousands thousand s of years of Indian history, history, there the re never was such a ccreatu reature re as a united India. Nobody ever managed to rule the whole place, not the Mughals, Mughals, not the British. And And then, that t hat midnight, the thing that had never existed was wa s suddenly sudde nly ‘free’. But what on earth was it? On what common common ground (if ( if any) did did it, does it, stand? s tand? Some countries are united by a common language; India I ndia has around fifteen major languages language s and numberless minor minor ones. Nor No r are its people united by race, religion religion or culture. These days, you can even hear some voices suggesting that t hat the preservation pres ervation of the union is not in the common interest interest.. J. K. Galbraith’s Galbraith’s description descr iption of India as ‘functioning anarchy’still fits, fits, but the t he stresses stre sses on the t he country cou ntry have never been so great. great . Does India exist? exist? If it doesn’t, t he explanation explanation is to be found in a single word: communalism. The politics of religious religious hatred. One great tangling t angling issue, issue, affecting both bot h the neighbours is that of o f censorship of the press, which suffocates suffocates the voice of dissent. dissent. In Pakistan, “it is is everywhere, everywhere, inescapable, inescapable, permi permitting tting no appeal”. appeal”. Rushdi Rushdiee comment commentss thus about the stifl stiflin ing g of the free free expressi expression on in the sub-continent: “In India the authorities autho rities control the media that matter—radio matter —radio and television— television— and allow some leeway to the press, comforted by their knowledge of the country’s low literacy literacy rate. In Pakistan they go further. further. Not No t onl o nly y do they t hey control the press, but the journalists, journalists, too. too . At the recent conference of the Non-Al No n-Align igned ed Movement in New Delhi, the Pakistan press corps corp s was notable for its fearfulness. Each member was worried worr ied one of the other ot her guys might might inform inform on him when they returned—for drink dr inking, ing, or consorting co nsorting too closely closely with Hindus, Hindus, or o r performin performing g other unpatriotic unpatriotic acts. acts. Indian Indian journalists ournalists were deeply deeply depressed by the sight sight of their opposite oppo site numbers behaving behaving like sacred rabbits one moment and quislings quislings the next”. The essay ‘Imaginary Homelands’ Homelands’ brings brings out o ut some s ome examples of this censorship in the sub-continent: sub-co ntinent: The ‘state truth’ t ruth’ about the war in Banglade Bangladesh, sh, for instance, is that no atrocitie atro citiess were committed committed by the Pakistani army in what what was w as then the t he East Wing. This version version is sanctified by many persons who would describe des cribe themselves as intellectua intellectuals. ls. And And the official official version version of o f the Emergency in India was well expressed by Mrs. Gandhi Ga ndhi in a recent recen t BBC interview. She said that there t here were some people peop le around who claimed claimed that bad things t hings had had happened during the Emergency, Emergency, forced sterilizations, sterilizations, things t hings like like that; t hat; but she state s tated, d, this t his was all false. Nothing of this type had ever occurred. The article art icle ‘The Assassination of o f Indira Gandhi’ discusses the t he problem pro blem of CentreState relations in Indi India. a. According to Rushdie, there lies a great paradox parado x about Indian political political scene. The T he great Indian political quandary is the fragility of relations between the states st ates and the centre. Rushdie R ushdie says, says, “At the heart o f idea idea of India there lies lies a paradox: parado x: that its component parts, parts, the states states which which coales coalesced ced into the union, union, are ancie ancient nt histor historic ical al enti entiti ties, es, with with culture culturess and independent existence going go ing back many centuries; whereas India itself is a mere thirty–seven years old. And And yet it is the ‘new-born’ India, the baby, baby, so to speak, the t he Central government, that holds sway over the greybeards. Centre-State relations have always, inevitably, been somewhat delicate, fragile frag ile affairs”. Rushdie is for maintaining maintaining the federal feder al character charact er of India by 292


emphasizing emphasizing on the t he signifi significant cant role ro le of the States Stat es in the nation nat ion building. building. Here, it will not be out o ut of place place to say that to improv improvee CentreCentre-State State ties, ties, Sarkari Sarkariaa Comm Commissi ission on was set up. Ac Accordi cording ng to Wikipedia, Wikipedia, “Sarkaria Commission was set up in June 1983 by the central government of India. The Sarkaria Sarkar ia Commission’ Commission’ss charter charte r was to examine the relationship and balance of power between between state and central central governme governments nts in the country and suggest suggest changes changes withi within n the framework of Constitution of India. The Commission was so named as it was headed by Justice Rajinder Rajinder Singh Sarkaria, a retired judge of the S Supreme upreme Court of India. The Commis Commission sion submitted its final 1600-page report in 1988. The final report contained 247 specific recommendations.” The emphasis on the rights right s of the states sta tes exhibits Rushdie’s Rushdie’s adoration ado ration of o f the multiplici multiplicity ty and hybridity, as the States represent diverse cultural and linguistic groups. Harihar Bhattacharya of Burdwan University University too remarks: To be sure, regionalism is is root ro oted ed in India’s India’s manifold manifold diversity of languages, cultures, tribes, communities, religions religions and so on, and a nd encouraged encourage d by the regional concentration of o f those identity markers, and fuelled fuelled by a sense of o f regional deprivation. For many centuries, centur ies, India remained the land land of many lands, regions, cultures and a nd traditions. The T he country of more than a billion billion people inhabiting inhabiting some so me 3, 287, 263sq 26 3sq km., India’s India’s broad regions, reg ions, socio-cultura so cio-culturally lly speaking, are distinct from one another. anot her. For instance, sout southern hern India (the home of Dravidian cultures), which is is itself a region of many regions, is evidently different different from the north, no rth, the t he west, the t he central and the north-east. north-e ast. Even the east of India is is different different from the North-East Nort h-East of India comprising today seven constituent units of Indian federation with the largest concentration of tribal t ribal peoples. (http://archiv (http ://archiv.ub.uni-hei .ub.uni-heidelberg.de/volltextserver/voll delberg.de/volltextserver/volltexte/200 texte/2005/5500/pdf/ 5/5500/pdf/ hpsacp27.pdf) Rushdie rues at the fact that during dur ing Mrs. Mrs. Indira Gandhi’s Gandhi’s regime, there were attempts att empts to destabilize d estabilize the States Stat es by the interference interference of o f Centre in the affairs affairs of the States. Stat es. “During her time in in office, power has systematicall systemat ically y been removed from the State S tatess to the t he Centre”. Centre” . Rushdie elaborates elaborates some of these events tthus: hus: The troubles tro ubles in the Punjab began when the Congress-I leadership persistently refused to discuss the then t hen very moderat moderatee demands of the Akali Dal Party for the restitution to t o the State governm go vernment ent of powers which the Centre had seized. There can be no doubt that this intransigence was a m major ajor contributing cont ributing facto factorr to the t he growth growt h in support suppo rt for Sant Jarnail Jar nail Singh Bhindranwale’s Bhindranwale’s terrorists, terr orists, and a nd the whole sorry process proc ess which resulted in the attack atta ck on the Golden Temple. Temple. Elsewhere in India, too, the Centre’s power hunger has been very unpopular, and the Congress-I Congr ess-I has suffered suffered a string st ring of defeats in State elections. Mrs. Gandhi’ Ga ndhi’ss reaction to these t hese defeats was sadly all too predictable, and very far from from democratic. She eembarked mbarked on covert co vert programmes prog rammes of destabilization, destabilization, one o ne of which succeeded, succee ded, at least temporarily tempor arily,, in toppli topp ling ng the popular and elected Chief Minister Minister of Kashmir, Kashmir, Farooq Faroo q Abdullah, Abdullah, and another of which backfired when N. T. Rama Rao was dismissed, in Andhra, and then t hen had to be reinstated reinstat ed when it turned tur ned out that he still commanded a majority. majority. 293


His pieces on Zia Ul-Haq and Benazir Bhutto display his acute awareness of the politi political cal conditi condition on of Pakistan. Pakistan. Under Under the garb of the politic political al essays essays,, Rushdi Rushdiee propagates propagates his his ideals about diaspora, d iaspora, nostalgia, no stalgia, secularism, sec ularism, freedo freedom m of expression, multiplicity multiplicity of religions and hybridity hybridity of cultures. Due to expression expres sion of these issues, Imaginary Imaginary Homelands Homelands has has been admired by a number of scholars. For example, Michael Foot appreciated the work quite significantly in Observer . The comments of Foot are also present prese nt on the flap of Imaginary of Imaginary Homelands Homelands: “Read every page of o f this book; better still still re-read them. t hem. The invocation invocation means no hardship, since s ince every true reader read er must be captivated capt ivated by Rushdie’s Rushdie’s masterful invention invention and ease, the t he flow flow of o f wit wit and insight insight and passion… pass ion… How litera literature ture of o f the highest order can serve the interests interest s of our comm co mmon on humanity is is freshly illustra illustrated ted here: here : a defence of his past, a promise pr omise for the future, and a surrender to t o nobody or nothing not hing whatever except his own all-powerful all-powerful imagination”.

20.2.4 Treatment of Intellectual Imperialism Pramod K. Nayar has defined Postcolonial literature thus, “The violence of colonialism—epistemic, cultural, economic, political, and economic—is so integral to the history of ‘Third World’ World’ nations that no literature or critical c ritical approach, as a s far as I know, kno w, has been able to ignore it. Postco Po stcolonial lonial literature seeks to t o address the ways wa ys in in which which non-European non-Europ ean (Asian, African, African, south so uth American, American, but also settler sett ler colony) literatu literatures res and cultures have been marginali marginalized zed as an effect of o f colonial rule, rule, and to find, find, if possible, possible, modes of resistance, retrieval ret rieval,, and reversal of their ‘own’ pre-colonial pre-colonial pasts. That is, this lliterature iterature seeks to t o understand, negotiate, and critique a specific histo historical rical ‘event’—colonial rule—while rule—while loo looking king forward to t o a more just, socially socially egalitari egalitarian an world order. o rder. It is a literature literature of resistance, anger, protest, protest , and hope. It seeks to understand history history so as to plan for the future”. Of course, Postcolonial literature literature is evidently marked marked by this resistance, anger ange r and protest prot est against aga inst the imperialistic imperialistic tendencies of the Empire. Imaginary Empire. Imaginary Homelands is no exception; it seeks to expose e xpose the colonial co lonial design under the t he garb of liberal Western ester n ideolo ideology gy.. In order or der to explode the t he biased approach approa ch of the Empire, Rushdie Rus hdie unearths uneart hs the basic colonial co lonial mindset mindset in the writings of Kipling: Kiplin Kipling’ g’ss racial bigotry is often o ften excused on the grounds that he merely reflected reflected in his writing the attitude of o f his his age. It’ It ’s hard for members of the allegedly inferi inferior or race to accept a ccept such an excuse. Ought we to t o exculpate anti-Semi anti-Se mites tes in Nazi Germany on the same grounds? If Kipling Kipling had maintained maintained any sort of distance between himself himself and the attitudes attitud es he recorded, rec orded, it would be a dif d ifferent ferent matter. But, as story after story sto ry makes plain, plain, the author au thor’’s attitudes—the attitudes, att itudes, that t hat is, of Kipling Kipling as played by the English actor—are actor—ar e identical with those of his white characters. charact ers. The Indians he portrays po rtrays are wife-kill wife-killers ers (‘Dray ( ‘Dray Wara Wara Yow Yow Dee’), D ee’), scamps sc amps (‘At Howli Ho wli Thana’), betrayers bet rayers of their own brothers (‘Gemini’ (‘Gemini’), ), unfai u nfaithful thful wives wives (‘At Twenty Twenty Two’) and the like. like. The Empire delights in justifying justifying the colonization of the East. E ast. According to Pramod K. Nayar, Nayar, “The nin nineteenth eteenth century, century, the heyday heyday of European empires, empires, was also also the period period of 294


formulation of race theories. theo ries. Science, medicine, anthropology, anthro pology, and other discipl d isciplines ines formalized formalized theories of race that justified justified imperial imperial presence in Asian Asian and American lands. lands. Such S uch theories t heories postulated and proved that the non-European races occupied the lower end of the scale of human development (development being measured through parameters created by and in Europe). Euro pe). The Th e native races were primi p rimitive, tive, child-like, child-like, effeminate, effeminate, irrational, irrat ional, irreligious irreligious (since (s ince pagan religion religion was deemed deemed to be be no religion religion at all all), ), crimi criminal nal and unrelia unreliabl ble. e. Sin Since ce the native native race could co uld not take care of o f itself, itself, it it must be taken take n care of by the European. Euro pean. This process of racializing enabled and justified European Europ ean colonial colo nial presence prese nce in Asia and Africa”. This racial prejudice prejudice,, whi which vali validates the Empire Empire and denounces denounces the East, can be seen in the extremely extremely biased biased account account of Swami Swami Vivekan ivekananda anda,, SriAurbi Aurbindo ndo and Tagore by William lliam Walsh, alsh, Emeri Emeritus tus Professor of Commonwealth Literature at the University of Leeds. In his book Indian Literatur Literaturee in English English (London: (Lon don: Longman, L ongman, 1990), 19 90), Walsh Walsh comments co mments in a typical imperialistic imperialistic manner: …there is Vivekananda’s Vivekananda’s profound belief belief that this t his Indian spirituality spirituality is to be contrast co ntrasted ed with Wester Western n materialism, materialism, out o ut which came his lively lively concern conce rn with India’s India’s spiritual mission to the West. West. The assurance as surance of o f spiritua spirituall superiority and the attendant att endant missionary impulse impulse existed in all the influential thinkers of Vivekananda’s Vivekananda’s tim t ime—in e—in Tagore and Aurbindo as much as in Vivekananda Vivekananda himself. himself. It was wa s present too t oo in the early Congre Congress ss Party Part y as well as later in the poli policy prem premises ises of the Govern Governm ment of Indi India, a, partic particul ularl arly y in Ne Nehr hru’ u’ss cabi cabinets nets and and most most marked arkedly ly in his leaders leadership hip of the non-aligned nations nat ions and in his relations with Britain…This phenomenon has been studied most closely by Dr. Dr. Ursula King who notes that t hat there is no word either for religion or spirituality in any of the Indian languages. languag es. ‘There ‘Ther e is is only dharma, referring to the t he complex interdependence of the universal, universal, social and indivi individual dual order’. order ’. Dr. King sees the idea of the essential essential spirituality spirituality of Indian civil civilization ization as part of the Hindu Renaissance, a reinterpretation of Hinduism based, based, in fact, on o n the work wo rk of British orientalists. To support suppo rt his excessively excessively imperiali imperialistic stic ideas about Indian culture and civili civilization, zation, Willi William am Walsh Walsh further quotes quo tes Ursula King: A contrast with the West West had to be sought in order to t o compensate co mpensate for both Western Western poli political ticaland and econom economiic domin dominan ance, ce, and and to fight ght Wester estern n contem contempt pt for Indi India’ a’ss materi aterial al retar retardat datiion. In this situation, to t o affirm, vindicate, vindicate, and a nd glorify glorify the superiority superio rity of Indian spirituality spirituality was the Hindu reformers’ and proto-nationalists’ particular way of opposing the West’s own technological and org organiz anizational ational superiority: spiritual spiritual trium tr iumph ph was set over over material dominati domination; on; spirituality spirituality could conquer even more than materialism materialism had done. It is this colonial bias bias that hurts the Postc P ostcolonial olonial scholars scholars and authors. au thors. Rushdie R ushdie is also hurt at the haughty civilizi civilizing ng mission mission and the degrading pride of the White for the t he golden Pink P ink Age. For proo p rooff of the existence of this racial stain, “we can look look,, for instance, at the t he huge, undiminished undiminished appetite appet ite of white Britons B ritons for televi te levised sed series, films, films, plays and books bo oks all filled filled with nostalgia nostalgia for Great Pink Pink Age”. The author of Imaginary of Imaginary Homelands considers Homelands considers the British imperiali imperialism sm to be worse wors e than German Nazism: 295


Britain isn’t Nazi Germany. Germany. The T he British Empire isn’t the t he Third Reich.… in Germany, Germany, after the fall of Hitler, Hitler, heroic attempts att empts were wer e made by many many people to purify German thought thoug ht and the German Ge rman language language of o f the pollution of Nazism. Such acts of o f cleansing cleansing are occasionall occ asionally y necessary in every society. society. But British thought, British society societ y has never been cleansed of the filth filth of o f imperiali imperialism. sm. It’s still there, breeding breed ing lice lice and vermin, waiting for unscrupulous unscru pulous people to to exploit it for their own o wn ends. One of the t he key concepts concept s of imperialism imperialism was that military military superiority impli implied ed cultural superiority super iority,, and this t his enabled enabled the British to condescend co ndescend to and repress cultures c ultures far older than their own; and it still does. For the t he citizens of the new new,, imported Empire, for the t he colonized Asians Asians and blacks of Britain, Britain, the t he police force represents r epresents that colonizi colo nizing ng army, army, those regiments regiments of occupation occupat ion and control. All the events of o f Britain are determined by the colour of one’s skin. On the streets street s of England, black women are abused and black children children are beaten. “In the run-down housing estates of the new Empire, black famil families ies have their windows windows broken, they are afraid to go out after dark, and human and animal animal excrement arrives through throug h their lett letter-boxes. er-boxes. The T he police offer offer threats instead instead of protection, and the t he courts offer offer small hope of redress”.

20.2.5 Religious Mania and Secularism One important aspect of all Postcoloni Postco lonial al literat literature ure is the t he stress stre ss upon hybridi hybridity ty,, plural p luralism, ism, multipli multiplicity city and composite culture. The authors aut hors are disgusted at the lack of proper coo coordination rdination among various sects and communities; communities; they stress the need for the ideal of co-existence in this world, wor ld, which is is just like a salad bowl or a melting pot. pot . Britain based Guyanese writer w riter David Dabydeen, in his discussion of cultural pluralism, emphasizes this fact.According fact. According to Wikipedia, Wikipedia, “David “David Dabydeen (Born December Dec ember 9, 1955) is a Guyanese-born critic, writer and novelist. Dabydeen was born bor n in Berbice, Guyana… He read re ad English at Selwyn College, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, and was awarded a Bachelor of o f Arts with honours. He then gained a Ph.D. in 18th century literature literature and art at University University College London in 1982, and was awarded a research fellowship at Wolfson College, Oxford. He is a Professor at the Centre for British Comparative Cultural Studies Stu dies at the t he University of Warwick Warwick in Coventry, United Kingdom. Kingdom. He is a member of UNESCO’s Executive Executive Board. Bo ard. He is the author of o f four novels, three thre e collections of poetry poet ry and several works o off non-fiction non-fiction and criticism. His first first book, Slave Song (1984), (1984), a collection of poetry, won the Commonwealth Poetry Prize and the Quill Qu iller-Co er-Couch uch Prize. A new collection, co llection, Turner , was published published in 2002.” Daby D abydeen deen uses the image of a beehive to depict d epict the t he plurality of the society. G.Rai G.Rai in his his paper pape r ‘Postco ‘Pos tcolonial lonialism: ism: Its Meaning Meaning and Significance’ Significance’ interprets this t his concept of o f Dabydeen thus: Dabydeen, while while talking about the cultural cultura l diversity diversity of a city like like London, uses the image of a beehive. A number of different different cultural cu ltural groups grou ps are present pre sent in one place with little communication communication between them t hem taking taking place. Each is confined confined to its own o wn cell. cell. Britons do not spend long enough enou gh in the West West Indian Indian cells nor do they t hey invite invite West West Indians Ind ians to their the ir cells either. Dabydeen concluded that tha t 1990s’ London London “is culturallydiverse, but there t here is little little cross- fertilization fertilization 296


of cultures taking place. Very Very little little happens by way of cultural exchange, people peop le cross back to to their cells having having had a brief encounter with cultural cu ltural diversity”. Cultural Cultur al diversity diversity masks the continuing continuing separation separ ation of cultures in the West West and discourages border-crossings bo rder-crossings and formation of new kinds of o f relationship. The need of the t he hour is that t here should be mutual interaction interaction among the various sects; religious obscurantism should be done away with and eclectic approach approac h towards religi re ligion on should be employed. Several essays of Imag of Imaginar inaryy Homelan Homelands ds display display this concern concer n of Rushdie for religious mania, mania, pervading the world w orld in general and the subcontinent subcont inent in particular. For example ‘The Riddle of Midnight: India, August 1987’ 19 87’ displays displays the ferocity feroc ity of communal violence in the wake of Ram-Janam Ra m-Janam Bhumi Babri Mosque dispute. Ayodhya, Ayodhya, a medium sized sized town in the State of Uttar Pradesh Pr adesh is the venue of this disputed site. Religious Religious inferno, inferno, created c reated by this this issue issue has been well described described by Rushdi Rushdie: e: When I arrived in Delhi the old o ld Walled Walled City was under h heavy eavy curfew because bec ause of o f just an outbreak out break of comm co mmunal unal violence. violence. In I n the little alleys alleys of Chandni Chowk I met a Hindu tailor, Harbans Lal, born in 1947 and as mild and gentle a man as you could wish to find. The violence terrified him. ‘When it started,’ he said, ‘I shut up the shop and ran away’…. A couple days later the t he Walled Walled City was still bubbling bubbling with tension. The curfew was lifted lifted for an hour or two t wo every day to enable people to go out and buy food. The rest of the time, security was very tight. It was Eid, the t he great Muslim festival festival celebrating the end of the month of o f fasting, fasting, but but the city city’’s leadi leading ng imams mams had had sai said that that Eid Eid shoul should d not be cele celebr brated ated.. In Meerut, Meerut, the muti mutillated ated corpses corp ses of o f Muslims Muslims float floated ed in the river. The city’s city’s predominantly pred ominantly Hindu police force, the t he PAC, PAC, had run amok. Stephen Steph en Gill, Gill, Sialkot Sialkot born bo rn Canadian novelist and poet has portra po rtrayed yed the same mania mania in the prefaces to his poetry coll co llections ections likeShrine like Shrine,, Songs Before Shrine and Shrine and The Flam The Flamee. Gill was born in Sialkot, Pakistan, where he passed his early childhood childhood and grew in India. India. After teaching in Ethiopia Ethiopia for three t hree years, he migrated to England before before settlin set tling g in Canada. He has authored author ed more than twenty tw enty books, including including novels, novels, literary criticism, criticism, and collections of poems. (See http://www.stephengill.ca/) In the Preface to Shrine, Gill has emotionally written about abo ut his tragic encounters with stark reality reality on account of religious religious insanity, insanity, pervading p ervading India: Every time time there was a stir st ir caused by the wind, wind, a car on o n the street, the t he bark of a dog, or the t he mew of a cat, we froze inside our house. Every E very time time there was anything unusual, unusual, unseen tragedy was expected. The nights were nightmares nightmares and the t he days did not bring any hope. hope. Often the mornings dawned with more lamentable events. It was not easy to sleep when night night after night the ghosts of fear loo looked ked straight into our eeyes. yes. It turned into an obsession that afflicted afflicted me every minu minute te of every hour that whom to trust and to take in confidence. confidence. Passers-by and neighbours appeared appe ared to be the t he possible killers. killers. Apparently Apparent ly to me, the dragons dra gons of o f religious religious terror for minorities minorities roamed around a round freely. freely. The sensitive hearts of the literary literary artists are a re perturbed pert urbed by this violence, violence, created by the 297


adders of reli re ligious gious fundamentalism. The essay e ssay ‘The Assassination of o f Indira Gandhi’ bringsout out the same havoc, created by fundamentali fundamentalist st ideology: “The dangers of o f communali communalism, sm, of the t he kind of religious religious sectar se ctarianism ianism which motivated the assassins’ ass assins’ bullets, bullets, are a re even more to t o be feared….The growth of Hindu fanaticism, as evidenced by the increasing strength of the RSS, the organization which was behind the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi, has been very worrying; worr ying; and it it has had its parallel par allel in the Bhinranwale group grou p and, recent re cently ly,, in the increased support suppo rt for the t he Muslim extremist Jamaat Party P arty in Kashmir…” Kashmir…” The essays essa ys on Zia ul-Haq and Benazir Bhutto exhibit exhibit the t he presence of religious religious fundamentalism iin n Pakistan. The T he greatest greate st contribution of o f the book in this study of religion religion is perhaps the last section, which contains essays like ‘In God W Wee Trust’, ‘In Go od Faith’ and ‘Is Nothing No thing Sacred?’ Sacred ?’ etc. These Thes e essays throw light light on o n his eclectic and pluralistic philosophy philosophy of reli r eligion. gion. In one o ne of of the essays, he declared himself “as a wholly secular person”.

20.2.6 Views about the Language of Literary Creation What should be the language of o f literary literary communication? Rushdie dwells on this question quite emphatically in in the essays ‘Imaginary Homelands’ and ‘Commonwea ‘Commonwealth lth Literature Literatur e Does Not Exist’. Exist’. He is for the adoption adoption of Engli English sh langua language ge by the authors authors of Indian Indian origin origin:: “…the “…the British Indian writer simply simply does not have the option op tion of o f rejecting English, anyway. anyway. His children, children, her children, will will grow speaking it, pro bably as a first language; and in forging of a British Indian identity the English languag languagee is of central centr al import importance. ance. It must, must , in spite of everything, be embraced.” However, the Indians “can’t simply use the language in the way the British did; that it needs remaking remaking for our own ow n purposes.” In the essay about Commonwealth Literature, the importance import ance of o f English English language is emphasized thus by Rushdie: “I’ll begin from from an obvious o bvious starting point. English is is by now the world wo rld language. It achieved this status partly part ly as a result of the physical colonization of a quarter quar ter of the globe g lobe by the British, and it remains ambiguous but central centra l to the affairs of just just about abo ut all the countries countr ies to whom it was given, along with mission mission schools, trunk roads and the rules of cricket, as a gift of the British colonizers.” N. Krishnaswamy and Lalitha Krishnaswamy in in their t heir book The Story of English in India (New India (New Delhi: Foundation Foundat ion Books, 2006) have also displayed the significance of the English language in contemporary world order: The English language language has become a part of o f the IT revolution. English, English, a language that t hat came from from nowhere, is set tto o conquer the t he world. Two thousand years ago, ago , the English language language was confined to a handful of savages, now forgott for gotten en tribes on the shores of Northwest Europe; Eu rope; there was no Engli E nglish sh in England. Today, Today, itit is used, spoken sp oken or written wr itten in some form form or the t he other, by perhaps perhaps 1.5 bil billion lion people people around the world; world; of the Engli English users, three hundred hundred and fifty fifty milli million on use it as the mother mot her tongue, and a nd the rest as a s a foreign or second language. It is the only o nly language widely used from China to Peru, and more scattered scat tered than t han any other ot her language in the world. It is estim est imated ated that there t here are even more users use rs of English English than of the Chinese language, a language spoken spo ken in eight different different varieties va rieties but written wr itten in the same way by 1.1 billion billion people. peo ple.

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This domination of English English language is not just the result r esult of the British legacy. legacy. “It is also the effect of o f the primacy of the United States Stat es of America America in the affairs affairs of the world.” Rushdie also mentions the prevalent preference of the t he Indian yout youth h for English language, “The debate deba te about the appropriateness appro priateness of English iin n post-Briti post -British sh India has been raging ever since 1947; but today, I find, it is a debate d ebate which has meaning only for for the older o lder generation. The children children of independent India seem not to think of English as being irredeemably irredeemably tainted by its colonial prove provena nanc nce. e. They They use it as an Indi Indian an langua anguage, ge, as one of the tools tools they they have have to hand.” and.” Moreov Moreover er,, in certain Indian states stat es Hindi languag languagee is is considered to t o be a target of greater great er animosity animosity than the English language. language. According Accord ing to Rushdie, There is also an interesting North-South North-So uth divide in in Indian attitudes to t o English. In the North, North, in the so-cal so-called led ‘Hindi ‘Hindi belt’, belt’, where where the capital capital,, Delhi Delhi,, is located, ocated, it is possib possiblle to think think of Hindi as a futur futuree national language; but in South Sou th India, which is at present pres ent suffering from from the attempts of o f central government government to impose impose this national national language on it, tthe he resentment of Hindi is far greater than t han of English. After spending quite some so me time in in South India, I ndia, I’ve become convinced that English is an essential language in India, not only because of its technical vocabularies and the international communi communication cation which it makes possible, but also simply simply to permit permit two Indians Indians to talk talk to each each other in a tongue which which neither neither party hates. hates. Ramachandra Guha G uha an author autho r and historian based in Bangalore, Bangalore , in his his article ‘Hindi Against India’, publi pu blished shed in The Hindu of Hindu of Jan 16, 2005 had stressed the same opposition of Hindi language in the southern states: Forty years ago this week, the DMK leader C. N. Annadurai Annadurai wrote a letter to the Prime Prime Minister protesting pro testing against the imposition imposition of Hindi over all a ll of India….in India….in fact, So uthern leaders had been exercised about this question for quite some so me time. time. Back in 1956, the Academy of Tamil Tamil Culture Culture passed a resolution re solution urging that English should continue to be the off o fficial icial language of the Union and the language for communication between the Union and the St ate Governments and between one State Government and another. The signatories included Annadurai, E. V. Ramaswami ‘Periyar’, and C. Rajagopalachari. On Rajaji’s part this represented a certain change of mind; mind; for for he had once been a vigorous proponent of the ‘rashtrabhasha’ himself. himself. However, the organization organizat ion of the campaign was the work of the DMK, which through the 1950s organized many protest meetings against the imposition imposition of Hindi. Of course, course , English language is fast becomi beco ming ng the lingua franca tthe he world over o ver including including India. But, Rushdie’ Ru shdie’ss point of view is is not completely true. There is another side of the coin too. too . I. A. Richards had pointed out o ut two t wo functions of the t he language—scientifi language—scientificc and emotive. English for the Indians may be fit fit for the dry scientific scientific purposes purpo ses but not no t for the poetic po etic ends. Native Nat ive experiences can hardly be communicated poeticall po etically y in an alien alien language, as a s it is not no t the t he language of our emotional make-up. make-up. Imaginative Imaginative literature literature is considered to be a cathartic outlet/ out let/ release of excessive emotions in the poet’s heart. That cat hartic release can naturally be in a language language close to one’s heart. This language will be a native one; it can not be the second/ seco nd/ alien language language.. 299


20.2.7 Rushdie as a Film-Critic Imaginary Imaginary Homelands Homelands is is also notable for Rushdie’ R ushdie’ss interpretation interpret ation of certain cert ain movies, movies, film film stars and documentaries. doc umentaries. The most important impor tant piece, dealing d ealing with film film criticism, is is perhaps perhap s the analy a nalysis sis of Attenboro ugh’s ugh’s Gandhi. Gandhi. Rushdie calls the form of this movie ‘opulent’ and ‘lavish’. ‘lavish’. He considers consider s the movie to be one of the worst wors t symbols symbols of the Empire. The piece on Satyajit Ray brings brings out the fact that t hat his “achievement “achievement is astonishing”. According Accord ing to Rushdie, “…Ray has invariably preferred the intimate story to the grand epic, and is the poet par excellence excellence of o f the human-scale, life-sized life-sized comedy co medy and tragedy of ordinary or dinary men men and women, journ journey eyin ing g as we all all journey ourney,, down littl little, e, but but unforg unforgettab ettable le roads”. roads”. Rushd Rushdie ie’’s view view about about Ray’ Ray’ss Pather Pather Panchali Panchali is is worth quoting: quot ing: …this movie, movie, made for next to t o nothin not hing, g, mostly with untrained actors, by a directo director r who was learning (and making up) the rules as he went along, is a work of o f such lyrical and emotional force force that it becomes, for its audiences, audiences, as potent as their own, most deeply personal memories. To this day, the briefest snatch of Ravi Shankar’s wonderful theme music brings back a flood flood of feelin feeling, g, and and a crowd of images… images… The write-ups on Handsw on Handsworth orth Songs and Songs and Brazil Brazil exhibit exhibit Rushdie’s acute awareness of major major world wo rld issues.

20.3 20.3 Analysis Analysis of of Literary Literary Work Workss on the the basis basis of Im I m a g i na r y Hom eland el andss 20.3.1 Kiran Desai’s The Loss of Inheritance The diasporic diaspo ric sensibility sensibility,, elaborated elabor ated by Rushdie in Imaginary in Imaginary Homelands finds Homelands finds its true explication explication in Kiran Desai’ Desai’ss Man- Booker award winning winning novelThe novel The Loss of Inheritance, Inheritance, which is “replete with sadness over o ver globalization globalization and with pleasure at the surviving surviving intimacies intimacies of Indian village village life.(John Ezard E zard in The Guardian)” Guardian)” Pankaj Panka j Mishra, while while reviewing the novel for The New York Times comments Times comments thus about abou t it, “Although it focuses on o n the fate of a few power powerle less ss indiv ndiviidual duals, Kiran Kiran De Desa saii’s extra extraord ordiinary nary new new novel novel manage anagess to expl explore ore,, with with intim ntimacy and insight, just about every contemporary international issue: globalization, multiculturalism, economic inequality, fundamentalism and terrorist violence. Despite being set in the mid-1980’s, it seems the best kind of o f post-9/11 novel.” In the t he novel Biju, Biju, who is hopscotching from one gritty New York York restaurant resta urant to another on an elusi e lusive ve search for a green card, is the symbol of the ‘double consciousness’ of the immigrants. The element of nostalgia, explained by Rushdie in the first section of Imaginary of Imaginary Homelands, Homelands, is seen in the following expression of Kiran Desai’s work, wor k, where Biju is seen with Saeed Saeed o f Zanzibar: In Stone Town they ate samosas and chapattis, jalebis, pilau rice….Saeed Saeed could sing like like Amitabh Amitabh Bachhan and Hema Malini. Malini. He sang, “Mera Joota Joo ta hai Japani…” and “Bombay se aaya aaya mera dost—oi!” dost —oi!” He could gestu gesture re with his arms out and wriggle wriggle his hips, hips, as 300


could Kavafya from Kazakhstan and Omar from Malaysia, and together to gether they t hey assailed Bju with thrilling thrilling dance numbers. Biju felt felt so proud pro ud of o f his country’s movies movies he almost fainted. fainted. The above passage p assage also clearly exhibits exhibits the presence of o f the hybridity hybridity in in the postco po stcolonial lonial world. The concepts co ncepts of o f hybridity hybridity,, pluralism and and composite co mposite culture, propagated propa gated by Rushdie in Imaginary Homelands, Homelands, are exempli e xemplified fied here by Desai. Moreo ver, the problems pr oblems of Biju Biju in settling in the West West are artistical ar tistically ly presented: He covered covered his timidi timidity ty with manufactured disgust: “How “Ho w can you? Those, those t hose women wo men are dirty,” he said primly. primly. “Stinking bitches.” Sounding So unding awkward. awkward . “Fucking bitches, fucking cheap women you’ll get some disease… smell bad… hubshi… all black and ugly… they make me sick….” “By now,” said Romy Romy, “” I could cou ld do it with a Dog!—Aaaargh!—”he howled, theatricall theat rically y holding back his head. “ArrrrghaAAA…” The other ot her men laughed. They were men; he was a baby. He was nineteen, he loo ked and felt several years younger. We may also mark the t he typical diasporic element in the predicament of o f Jemubhai in in England: “He continued to be amazed by the sights that greeted greet ed him….It him….It took t ook him by surprise because he’d he’d expected expected only only grandness, grandness, hadn’t hadn’t reali realized zed that here, too, people people could could be poor and live unaesthetic unaest hetic lives.” The spirit of regionalism, depicted by Rushdie in the essay ‘The Assassination of Indira Gandhi’ finds finds its perfect elaborat elaboration ion in the Gorkha Go rkha Liberation movement of the novel. nove l. One of the agitators agitators cries c ries out the woes of the Gorkhas thus: At that time, inApril of 1947, the Co Comm mmunist unist Party Part y of India demanded a Gorkhasthan, Gorkhast han, but the request request was ignored… ignored… We are laborer laborerss on the tea plantat plantation ions, s, coolie cooliess draggin dragging g heavy heavy loads, soldiers. soldiers. And And are we all a llowed owed to become become doctors do ctors and government government workers, owners o wners of the tea plantations? No! We are kept at the level of servants. We fought on behalf of the British for two hundred years. We fought in World War One. We went to East Africa, to Egypt, to the t he Persian Gulf. We We were moved from here to there as it suited suite d them….We them….We are soldiers, loyal, loyal, brave. India or England, E ngland, they never had cause to doubt do ubt our o ur loyalty. loyalty. In the wars with Pakistan we fought fought our o ur former comrades on the other ot her side side of the border. borde r. How our ou r spirit spirit cried. But we are Gorkhas. G orkhas. We We are soldiers. Our character charact er has never been in doubt. And have we been rewarded? Have we been given compensation? Are we given respect?

20.3.2 Stephen Gill’s Immigrant Immi grant The diasporic consciousness, co nsciousness, enunciated by Rushdie in Imaginar Imaginaryy Homeland Homelandss, finds its parallels parallels in Stephen Gill’ Gill’s Immigra Immigrant nt too. too . Like Rushdie, this Si Sialkot-born alkot-born Canadian author

301


has also described the precarious p recarious condition co ndition of the immigrants immigrants in the West. West. Immi Immigra grant nt depicts the tangling problems which a newcomer to Canada encounters. In a way, the novel is presenting before before the the readers readers the psychologi psychological cal tussle which which Gill Gill faced faced whi while le settling settling in Canada. Canada. R. K. Singh has aptly apt ly pointed pointed out o ut in his article article ‘Cross-Cultural ‘Cro ss-Cultural Communication’: Communication’: As he portrays portra ys a new new Canadian’s plight—language plight—language barriers, ethnic et hnic prejudices, cultural discrepancies discrepancies and a longing longing for the motherland—he seems to offer a factual record of his own experiences in Canada. Through Throu gh the character charac ter of Reghu Nath Nat h in the novel, Gill has has explicat explicated ed the emotional emot ional theme of racial prejudice. In Immi In Immigran grant t , the t he novelist has displayed the enigmatic relationship relationship betwee between n East and and West by portrayi portraying ng “the “the hopes hopes and the fears fears and the struggl strugglee of a newcom newcomer er from Indian setting sett ing in in Canada.” Canada. ” The novel no vel also exhibits exhibits an insight into the t he views immigrants immigrants hold of white people and vice versa. The protagonist prot agonist of the novel Reghu Nath encountered this reality reality of the racial discord discord when the receptionists, in the beginning beginning of the second chapt chapter er “made no attempt tto o carry on a conversation… whereas he was anxious to discuss d iscuss many many things with with them.”He came to Canada having a rosy picture of the West. West. The hopes ho pes and aspirations aspirat ions of an Indian, who is about to settle in Canada, are rrealisti ealistically cally mentioned through the t he character of Reghu Nath: He had heard that people p eople in States and Canada were honest and very hard working, as compared to easterners. They abandoned abandoned their cars, or o r sold them to the poor poo r of Asian Asian and African African countries count ries at nominal nominal price. He was certain cert ain that if he were nice to his Professors one o ne of them would reward him with his car…. Still tossing toss ing in in bed, he visualized the University, University, where he would be studying studying …He saw Professors and students of both sexes outside o utside classes at social functions, mixi mixing ng freely and casually cas ually.. It I t would wo uld be an a n ideal place, entirely ent irely diff different erent from those of o f India where where segregation of the t he sexes was a norm. Reghu had never been able to express his feelings feelings of love to girls g irls in in India due to his shy nature. natur e. In his fantasy, Reghu visualized that many girls girls in the West West were ready to welcome him “with “with open o pen arms.”However, the dreams of Reghu are dashed as he finds finds numberless numberless problem pro blemss in acclimatizin acclimatizing g himself himself to an alien culture. For example, he was asked ask ed to telephone the head hea d of the department depar tment for an appointment appo intment before leaving leaving the University. University. As he was not aware of the telephone manners, he hesitatingly he sitatingly dialled dialled the number and the call was answered by a lady Professor in unintelli unintelligibl giblee English. English. He thought t hought “his student life life would be tragic t ragic if everyone spoke as she did”. The future looked disastrous t o him because of this language language barrier, barrier, created by his ignorance of ‘the accent or colloquial expression of English speaking countries.’Then countr ies.’Then entering the registration registrat ion hall, hall, Reghu Nath felt uncomfortable because he found that everyone except himself himself was in an informal informal dress. The T he novelist paints the predicament of Reghu: He had come co me in his his business suit, as a s was the t he custom custo m of his his own ow n country’ countr y’ss intelligentsia, intelligentsia, who appeared in public well-groomed. well-groomed. He seemed to be the centre of attraction attract ion because of 302


his clothes, obviously not tailored in a North American style, style, and also because he was wearing them in stuffy suffocat suffocating ing weather. In D. Parmeswari’s opinion, opinion, “Reghu… “Reg hu… experiences a cultural shock, the one that he could least digest.” Stephen Gill’s Gill’s Reghu Nath Nat h also finds himself himself marginalized marginalized and disadvantaged disadvant aged in the new social order. The hydra headed monster of Diaspora leaves Reghu’s Reghu’s soul wounded. wo unded. The forlorn lands of the West are just presenting before him the image of ‘leaden-eyed despairs.’ In a way, he has fallen ‘upon ‘upon the thorns t horns of o f lif life’; e’; and ‘a heavy he avy weight of hours has chained and bowed’ bowed’ his his spirit spirits. s. Gill Gill presents presents the tormenti tormenting ng and chaotic chaotic experi experience encess of Reghu Reghu Nath thus: thus: Within a week, Reghu found himself surrounded with many different problems. Financially Financially,, his position was not no t sound; so und; educationall educat ionally y he did not know k now where he was w as headed; psyc psychol hologi ogica call lly y he wa wass not adjust adjusted ed to his his new new envi environm ronment. ent. At the Uni Universi versity ty,, he foun found d him himself self in a mess… Similarly Similarly,, when w hen he held the hand of a compatriot, c ompatriot, he quickly found out ou t that t hat it was a sign of perversion perver sion in the West. West. Reghu Nath’s Na th’s awkward position po sition is artistically artist ically described descr ibed by Gill Gill in the following expression: After this incident, incident, Reghu Reg hu began to observe o bserve others. othe rs. He never saw a man holding hands with other men. He also observed o bserved men seldom shook hands, a very common practice pract ice in in his country. This affected affected his own habit of o f shaking hand warmly w armly and frequently frequent ly.. Besides, Reghu had come to t he west harbouring ro romantic mantic illusi illusions ons about the t he place. He had seen s een an American movie. The dashing hero of that movie had left an indelible indelible imprint on his psyche. psyche. In that movie, the hero told a girl in the first first encounter, “I love you.” The words of the hero produced prod uced the magical effect effect on the girl; the hero hero used the same words on several other othe r girls and every time he had the success succe ss in winning winning the hearts heart s of the girls. Gill describes Reghu’s imaginary romantic illusions thus: He thought tho ught it was the way of real life life in the west, particularly in America. Reghu had had some love experiences in India, but he was never able to express his feelings to girls. Perhaps it was wa s his shyness shyness or his male male ego which stood sto od in his way….In way….In any case, he was w as now in the West West where he was free to practise what he had heard and a nd read. To be very precise, Reghu Nath had the fantasy of many many western girls, girls, welcoming him with open arms. But, But , these romantic ro mantic and illusory illusory ideas are dashed to the earth, the moment he reaches the t he West. West. The T he young women puzzled him because they exhibited exhibited interest on the first first date, da te, but delayed delayed subsequent ones. They were not no t ready read y for intimacy intimacy too early e arly.. Their only interest in becoming friendly friendly with with the t he men was to enjoy life life by dinning dinning out ou t and riding riding in cabs. They never shared the expenses and disl d isliked iked to be to uched on the t he first first date. dat e. In a way, the girls were not no t there with open op en arms. The appro ach of these girls is presented reali rea listically stically in the novel thus: Surprisin Surpr isingly gly,, nearly all the girls showed a few characteristics. charact eristics. For Fo r instanc instance, e, they expected expect ed 303


to be treated as special, almost almost as China China dolls, and disliked disliked being being touched to uched on the first first date….If dat e….If he made any move towards intimacy intimacy,, it was always always the same story, “I do not know you yet” or “We “We have to understand underst and each other before going go ing further”. further”. Thus, the t he novel presents the shattering shat tering of Reghu’s romantic and imaginative imaginative illusions illusions about the much hyped hyped west. west . The Wester Western n culture, civilization civilization and ethos are cconsidered onsidered rational, rat ional, empirical and and scientific scientific by the Indians and Reghu Nath Nat h is no exception excep tion Reghu Nath Na th too had the visions of a glorious glorious West. But his dreams are suffocated, suffocated , when he reaches Canada. Canada . He finds that racial antagonism antago nism cannot be easily elimin eliminated ated from fro m the minds of both bo th the Westerners and Asians. W. W. F. F. Westco Westcott tt has written writte n thus about abou t the t he conflict of the novel: Gill’ Gill’ss novel traces trace s Nath’s trials and tribulations as he suff s uffers ers cultural cultura l shock, demanding d emanding profes professors sors,, dif difficul ficultt women, women, Canadi Canadian an bureau bureaucrac cracy y and and haunti haunting ng memor memorie iess of his his native native Indi India. Many times, Gill draws on his personal perso nal knowledge o f Asian life life to illust illustrate rate Nath’s difficulty difficulty adapting to a totally foreign racial clime.

20.3.3 U.R.Anantha Murthy’s Murthy’s Samskara: A Rite for a Dead Man The essay ‘In God We Trust’ of Imaginary Homelands Homeland s brings out Rushdie exceptionally controversial declaration of his religious ideals. In it, he has outlined his outspoken, unorthodox unorthodo x and unconventional approach to religion. religion. Rushdie elaborates candidly candidly, “God, Satan, Paradise Paradise and Hell all vanished vanished one day in my my fifteent fifteenth h year, when I quite aabrupt bruptly ly lost my faith. I recall it vividly vividly.. I was at school scho ol then. The moment of awakening happened, in fact fact,, during a Latin lesson, and afterwards, to t o prove pro ve my new- found atheism, I bought myself myself a rather tasteless ham sandwich… No thunderbolt arrived arr ived to strike me down.” The T he position taken by Rushdie is somewhat similar similar to the one o ne adopted adop ted by Naranappa in U. R. Ananthamurthy’ Ananthamurthy’s Samskara, Samskara, a Kannada novel, translated into English by by A. K. Ramanujan. According to Chandra Holm, “The short novel Samskara by Samskara by U. R. Anantha Murthy, Murthy, professor pro fessor for English at the Mysore University, University, created creat ed a big furore in Karnataka when it was published more more than t han thirty years ago.” ago. ” (http://www.ourkarnataka.com/boo (http://www.ourkar nataka.com/books/samskAra.htm) ks/samskAra.htm) “A “A movie is is also made on the theme of the novel. The film is said said to have been a path-breaking path-bre aking venture and is supposed suppo sed to have pioneered the t he parallel cinema movement movement in Kannada. Pattabhi Pat tabhi Rama Reddy was the director directo r of this film film and and it was produced pro duced by the company c ompany,, Ramamanohara Chitra.” (Wikipedia (Wikipedia)) In the novel, Naranappa Nara nappa is just like like Rushdie. He questioned qu estioned the t he traditional religion and broke the chain chainss of conventi conventional onalis ism m in life. life. The Afterword Afterword of the novel novel clearl clearly y brings brings out this this fact: “…Naranappa questioned quest ioned the Brahmi B rahmins ns of the village, village, exposed their Samskara (refinement (refinement of spirit, maturation matura tion throug thr ough h many lives) or lack of it. He lived the life life of a libert libertine ine in the heart of an exclusive exclusive orthodox colony (agrahara), broke every known taboo; t aboo; drank liquor, liquor, ate at e flesh, flesh, caught caug ht fish with his Muslim friends in the holy temple-tank, and lived lived with a low caste cast e woman. He had cast off his lawfully-wedded brahmin wife, and antagonized his kin. Protected fully by modern secular laws… he lived defiantly in their midst.”

304


20.4 20.4 Let Us Us Su Sum Up Up On the basis of the penetratin penetrat ing g analysis analysis of the t he unit, it can be forcefully forcefully asserted that Imaginary Imaginary Homelands Homelands has has emerged as a major major postcoloni post colonial al text. That is why Brian Brian Morton Morto n and Frances Hil H illl admire admire the t he work wor k thus, “These… essays—on places and a nd politics, film filmss and assassinations—cover a mere decade, but seem to concentrate concentr ate more intelligence intelligence and intellectual intellectual courage than most writers summon summon up in a lifetim lifetime.” e.”


What hat are are Rush Rushdi die’ e’ss view viewss about about nosta nostallgia gia and and mem memory ory??

2.

Throw Throw lilight on Rush Rushdi die’ e’ss obses obsessi sive ve affe affecti ction on for the past. Ill Illustrate ustrate your your answe answerr from from the essays of Imaginary of Imaginary Homelands. Homelands.

3.

Disc Discus usss Rus Rushd hdiie as as a poli politica ticallly comm committed tted art artiist. st.

4.

Do you consider Imagina Imaginary ry Homela Homelands nds to to be a work wo rk of propaganda? Giv Givee a reasoned answer.

5.

Trac Tracee the effe effects cts of Rus Rushdi hdie’ e’ss pronoun pronouncem cement entss in in ‘Outsi ‘Outside de the Whal Whale’ e’ on his his ficti fiction. on. Provide an illustrative answer.

6.

What, What, accor accordi ding ng to Rush Rushdi die, e, is is the the quieti quietist st or or escap escapiist appro approach ach to the the w worl orld d probl problem ems? s?

7.

What, What, in in the the vi view of Rushdi Rushdie, e, are are the major ajor probl problem emss face faced d by by the subcon subconti tinen nent? t?

8.

How does does Rush Rushdi diee compar comparee Bri British tish imperia periallism with with Germ German an Nazi Nazism sm?? Write rite an analytical answer.

9.

Anal Analy yse Rushd Rushdiie’s e’s views views about about rel religious gious sectar sectariiani anism. sm.

10.

How does does Rus Rushdi hdiee defen defend d the use use of Engl English ish lan langua guage ge by by Indi Indian an wri writers ters??

11.

Throw Throw lilight ght on Rushdi Rushdie’ e’ss opini opinion on abou aboutt Satyj Satyjit it Ray’ Ray’ss Pather Pather Panchali Panchali..

12.

Discu Discuss ss the the traces traces of Rush Rushdi die’ e’ss criti critical cal pron pronounc ouncem emen ents ts on Kiran Kiran Desa Desaii’s The Inheritance of Loss. Loss.

13.

What What paral paralllels els do do you you find find betwee between n Rush Rushdie’ die’ss Imaginary Homelands and Homelands and Stephen Gill’s Immigran Gill’s Immigrant t ?

14. 14.

Do you you fi find any any sim similari arity betw betwee een n Rush Rushdi die’ e’ss Imaginary Homelands and Homelands and U. R. Anantha Murthy’s Samskara: A Rite for a Dead Man? Man ? Write an argumentative answer.


Anan Anantha thamu murth rthy y, U.R. Sam Samska skara: ra:A Rite Rite for for a Dead Man Man.. Tran Trans. s.A. K. K. Raman Ramanuj ujan an.19 .1978. 78. 305


Bombay: OUP, 1989. 2.

Bahri Bahri,, Deepika. Deepika. Nati Native ve Intel Intellligen igence: ce: Ae Aesth stheti etics, cs, Poli Politics, tics, and and Postcoloni Postcolonial al Lit Liter eratur ature. e. Minneapolis: Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Minnesota Press, 2003.

3.

Desa De saii, Ki Kiran ran. The The In Inheri herita tan nce of Loss Loss.. Peng Pengui uin n, 2006 2006..

4.

Fanon, Fanon, Frantz Frantz.. The The Wretched retched of the the Earth Earth.. Tran Trans. s. Cons Constan tance ce Farri Farringt ngton. on. New York: Grove Press, 1963.

5.

Gil Gill, Ste Steph phen en.. Im Immigran grant. t. Onta Ontari rio: o:V Vesta esta,1 ,198 982. 2.

6.

Kris Krishn hnasw aswam amy y, N, and and Lali Lalitha Kri Krish shna naswa swam my. The The Story Story of Engl English ish in in Indi India. a. New New Delhi: Delhi: Foundation Books, 2006. 200 6.

7.

Loomba Loomba,, Ani Ania. a. Coloni Colonial aliism/ sm/ Postcol Postcoloni onial aliism. sm. London London:: Routl Routled edge, ge, 1998 1998..

8.

Nayar, Nay ar, Pram Pramod K. Postco Postcolloni onial Li Literatu terature re:: An An Introd Introduc ucti tion. on. New New Del Delhi: hi: Pears Pearson on Longman, 2008.

9.

Parmesw Parmeswari ari,, D. “The “The Cul Cultura turall Bagga Baggage: ge: A Readi Reading ng of Stephe Stephen n Gil Gill’s l’s Imm Immigrant.” grant.” Glimpses. Glimpses. Ed.Hamadan Darwesh.Ontario: Vesta, Vesta, 2005. 135- 141. 14 1.

10.

Rai, Rai, G. G. “Post “Post Coloni Colonial aliism: sm: Its Mean Meanin ing g and Signi Signifi fican cance. ce.”” Spiel Journal of Engli E nglish sh Studies 1.2 (2005): 1- 22.

11.

Rushdi Rushdie, e, Salma Salman. n. Imagi Imaginar nary y Homel Homeland ands, s, Essays Essays and and Criti Critici cism sm 1981-1 1981-1991 991.. 1991. London: Granta Grant a Books in collaboration with Penguin, 1992. ____________

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UNIT-21 MULK RAJ ANAND : SOCIAL PROTEST IN MY NOVELS Structure 21.0

Objectives

21.1 21.1


21.2

Views on on Art 21.2.1 21.2.1 Art and and Lif Life 21.2.2 Art Art for Lif Life’ e’ss Sake 21.2.3 Distanci Distancing ng between the Art and the Artist Artist

21.3

Art of of the Nove ovel

21.4 21.4

Anand’ and’ss Writi ritin ngs 21.4.1 Humanism Humanism 21.4.2 21.4.2 Chara Characte cter r 21.4.3 21.4.3 Com Compact pactne ness ss 21.4.4 Form Form and and Conten Contentt 21.4.5 Stream Stream of Conscious Consciousnes nesss Techn Techniq ique ue 21.4.6 Creati Creative ve Use Use of Language Language 21.4.7 Anand’ Anand’ss Fiction Fiction as “Literature “Literature of Protest” 21.4.7.1 Untouchable, 21.4.7.2 Coolie 21.4.7.3 Morning 21.4.7.3 Morning Face Face and Private and Private Life of an Indian Prince Prince

21.5

Let Us Us Sum Up

21.6 21.6


21.7 21.7

Bibliogr ography

21.0 21.0 Objectives The objective of this unit is is to: —

introduce ntroduce Mulk Mulk Raj Anand’ Anand’ss views views on art, focusi focusing ng on his his human humanitar itariianism anism 307


—

illustr llustrate ate Anand Anand’’s humani humanitari tariani anism sm from from his his novel novelss .

21.1 Intr Intro oductio tion One of‘the big three’ of the Indian English English novel - the other ot her two being R.K.Narayan R.K.Nar ayan and Raja Rao - Mulk Raj Anand is indubitably indubitably the most prolifi p rolificc and versatile of all the Indian fictionists writing in English. English. He, one of o f India’s India’s foremost foremos t novelists, is among the th e most remarkable re markable of contemporary fiction writers of the world. He has written, besides fiction, fiction, books boo ks and articles on varied subj subjects, ects, such s uch as art and painti pa inting, ng, education, educa tion, theatre, theat re, criticism, criticism, poetry, poe try, English English language, Indian dishes, female beauty, Indian civili civilization, zation, the t he story sto ry of man, the story stor y of India, autobiography auto biography of ideas etc. Anand is a voracious reader re ader of literat literature, ure, art, art , philoso philosophy phy etc. and as such one can discern innumerable innumerable formative influences influences - both bo th European Eur opean and Asiatic - o on n his mind mind and art, on the content c ontent and technique of his writings. writings. He candidly admits admits in the letters, prefaces, prefaces, article articless and Apology and Apology for Heroism Heroism that that he has lived lived and written writt en under the impact of countless writers, among whom the most important are Aristotle, Rousseau, Marx, Ruskin, Bertrand Russell R ussell,, the t he Bloomsbury intellectuals, intellectuals, Locke, Iqbal, I qbal, Gandhi, Buddha, the ancien a ncientt Indian saints, the English Renaissance Renaissance scholars, scho lars, Tagore, Nehru, Nehru , Bhai Vir Vir Singh, Prem Pr em Chand, Sarat Chand Chatterlji Chatt erlji,, Bankim Chand Chatterji, Tolsto Tolstoy y, Dostoe Do stoevsky vsky,, Gorky Gork y, James Joyce, Fielding, Fielding, Smollett, Dickens, Dicken s, Hardy Hardy, D.H. Lawrence, Freud, Fr eud, Adler, Jung, Einstein, Byron, Shell Sh elley ey,, Keats, Victor Victor Hugo, Goethe. Go ethe. Anand Anand has not only been able able to t o comprehen co mprehend d the major trends in world literatur literature, e, but has also correctly corre ctly underst understoo ood d the various fictional forms coming into into being being since since the days days of Cervantes. Cervantes. Besides, Besides, he has careful carefully ly perused E.M. Forster’s Forster’s Aspects Aspects of the Novel, Percy Novel, Percy Lubbock’s Craft of Fiction, Fiction , and other books and articles on the art of fiction. fiction. Anand refers to the impact of these w writers riters on him; but it is diffi difficult cult to say in what way and how ho w much he has been influenced influenced by them. His books are read and admired the world over. His first novel, Untouchable, publi published in the early early thirties thirties,, has has been translate translated d into into twenty world language languagess and keeps its interest intact to this day. day. Professional P rofessional and academic critics, critics, both in India and abroad - Europe, Euro pe, America and Australia Austr alia - have evaluated evaluate d his works. Among these, the t he most distinguished are K.R.Srinivasa Iyengar, M.K.Naik, C.D.Narasimhai C.D. Narasimhaiah, ah, K.N.Sinha, K.N. Sinha, Margaret Berry Berr y, Marlene Fisher, William Walsh, G.S. Balarama Gupta, Satyanarain Singh, Debjani Chatterjee, H.C. Raizada, R.S.Singh R.S.S ingh and others. No wonder, in recognition of his contribution to literature, literatur e, he was awarded, awarde d, though t hough a bit late, the t he much coveted Sahitya Sahitya AkademiAward in 1972. 1972 . One of the greatest gre atest practitioners pract itioners of fictional fictional art in contemporary contempora ry Indian Writing Writing in English, Mulk Raj Anand is not so s o much concerned co ncerned with w ith any formal formal philosophy as with men and women. He emphatically emphatically states that he creates creat es novels, not to expose his philosophy philosophy of humanism, humanism, but to portray portray human beings beings in their wholeness, with their interior as well as exterior exter ior life. life. In a letter lette r written to G.S.Balarama .S.Ba larama Gupta on January 8, 1971, he maintains: “I did not write tracts tract s on humanism, humanism, but I have written writt en about human beings….”

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21.2 View iews on on Art Art 21.2.1 Art and Life The relation between art and life is not as direct as the one between newspaper propaganda propaganda and life. life. Neverthel Nevertheless, ess, even the most detached detached and objecti objective ve writer writer knows that there is a genuine and vital connection between art ar t and life. life. While While creating a work wo rk of art, t he artist expresses the significant significant aspects of a given g iven experience experience through thro ugh images largely largely shaped by the desire in his mind. mind. Thus “as an art work results resu lts from the reflection in in the mind of the artist of all the aspects aspect s of his experience, it is fundamentally fundamentally related to life, life, only o nly improving improving on it, or rather intensifying intensifying itit through t hrough the t he “creative myth”, myth”, so as to change life life in the deeper centers of o f other ot her people’ peo ple’ss experience and thus thu s present an integral integr al vision vision of what life life could cou ld be like”. like”. The artist is able to penetrate the core of reality by presenting things from a fresh angle, and consequently consequ ently he offers offers the most comprehensive vision of things. things. The greatness g reatness of o f the artist’s work is measured measured by the extent to t o which it confirms people’s people’s vision vision and reflects their moods, emotions, passions, thoughts and desires. Such a work wor k of art commun c ommunicates icates a profound visi vision on of life, life, and is really revolutionary. It aims at integrating integra ting man and society, and not at a t providing pro viding a formula formula for escape. escap e. According to Anand: ‘If this this conception concept ion of the function of art in society approximates to the real needs of people peo ple in our time, then the artist is a revolutionary in in the true sense. se nse. And And as he can ca n perceive reality at its highest, and disclose the th e way to a new life, life, the t he artist stands as an inspiring force behind all those men and women who face the tasks of reconstructing reconstr ucting the future society out of o f the shambles shambles of a near near prehistoric present’.

21.2.2 Art for Life’s Sake Discarding the dictum of ‘Art for Art’s sake’, Anand asserts that ‘Art is for life’s sake’, for the sake sak e of man’s man’s progress. progre ss. Literature Literat ure should shou ld be used as a means of all alleviating eviating the sufferings sufferings of fellow fellow human beings. He observes: obse rves: “But any writer who said that he was not interested in la condition humaine was humaine was either posing po sing or yielding yielding to a fanatical love of isolationism ...” ... ” The creative artist art ist is a realist realist who allows his vision vision to be shaped by the time, the place and the circumstances of the period per iod to which he belongs. belongs. Thus Anand is opposed to the t he formalists formalists or aesthetes ae sthetes who hold that art, art , though thou gh influenced influenced by life, life, is is essentially governed by its own inner logic, logic, and not by outside forces. According to him, him, every writer is a committed artist, becaus becausee the aim aim of art is to achie achieve ve integrati ntegration, on, that is, ‘to effe effect ct connecti connection’ on’ between between man and man, and between betwee n the individual individual and the world. wo rld. He moulds mo ulds the values by which men men must live. But this does not no t mean that art should be mistaken mistaken for the pulpi p ulpit. t. The T he artist should present his message in his his creative work without distorting disto rting its artistic side. The creative creat ive writing writing is not merely a realistic depiction of life; but it is a manifestation of an impressionistic vision, that is, ‘the desire image’ of the writer, as Anand Anand describes it. Such a work makes man aware of o f his destiny as a social being. being. However, it does not have a mere thesis to prove; it has a vision to convey. convey. It propagates propagat es a certain cert ain view of life life and it is propagandistic in the sense in which all art 309


is propaganda, though t hough it is not propaganda p ropaganda alone. Anand Anand says in this connection: ‘All art is propaganda. propaganda. The art of Ajanta Ajanta is propaganda propaganda for Buddhi Buddhism sm.. The art of Ellora Ellora is propaganda propaganda for Hinduism. Hinduism. The art of the Western novel iiss propaganda prop aganda for humanity against against the t he bourgeois. Gorky as a humanist dared to speak of man, man’s man’s condition, not to t o say how awful it it is, but he also suggested what man could be. And thus he did propaganda for man’. Thus Anand, Anand, like Lawrence, Gorky Go rky and Eric Gill, Gill, believes believes that the work wor k of a creative creat ive writer is always inspired by a mission: mission: a powerful powe rful attack attac k on the t he evils of life life like hypocrisy, hypocrisy, cruelty, cruelty, insensitivity insensitivity,, etc. and an advocacy advocac y of love and compassion which make human life life nobler and happier. happier. The novel, no vel, Anand Anand repeatedly affirm affirms, s, neither states st ates a case, nor suggests s uggests practi practical cal soluti solutions ons of certai certain problem problems, s, nor offers offers a direct direct exhortati exhortation. on. It main mainly ly interprets nterprets the problem problemss related related to man’ man’s destiny destiny.. It should should certain certainlly concentrate concentrate upon the real drama drama of ‘the body-soul body-soul’’ and the truth of life, life, with with all all its suff sufferi erings. ngs. It must must be directl directly y concerned concerned with with the core of o f the problem of its time: ‘the tragedy of man’. Anand Anand averts that t hat the novel no vel is is not the t he vehicle vehicle of presenting directly philosophy or moral preaching or the writer’ writer ’s doctrinaire do ctrinaire opinions. No wonder wonder he attacks Raja Raja Rao by saying saying that after after Kanth Kanthapura apura he he becomes an ‘anti-novel novelist’ because he deliberately uses philoso philosophy phy as an essential part of the novel. no vel. His objection to The Serpent and the Rope is Rope is that t hat moral reflections and philoso philosophical phical ideas ideas weigh heavy on the large portions port ions of the novel. no vel. Raja Raja Rao, according accord ing to him, him, “growingly defies defies the novel form and uses it to preach, thus seeking to revive the Yoga Vasistha method, Vasistha method, with its pale cast of thought, obviously brooding on human destiny destiny and exhorting men and and women to seek se ek personal perso nal salvation, through the Vedantic Vedantic ideal”. Philosophy is is inseparable from a great work of o f art; but it should be implici implicitt in it, and not explicit. The writer should not insert his doctrinaire opinions in the novel, which as an art form has its own distinct pattern based on human relations. Anand’s Anand’s approach appro ach differs differs from that of o f D.H.Lawrence D.H.Lawre nce who does not see any wide wide gulf between the novel and philoso philosophy phy.. In short, short , he opines that the t he novel should not be an exposition of some system of philoso philosophy; phy; rather it should portray por tray the wisdom of the heart. hea rt. Speaking Sp eaking of his books, books, he repeated repeatedly ly asserts asserts that that they they are an expres expressi sion on of the wisdom wisdom of the heart, heart, and not of any formal philosophy. He writes to G.S.Balarama .S.B alarama Gupta: Gupta : “... I do not no t believe in any one system of philosophy, philosophy, but in the wisdom of the heart”. He advises the reader not to t o discover in his books philosophy, but the wisdom of the heart. heart .

21.2.3 Distancing between the Art and the Artist No doubt, the author is subjective subjective to a great extent, but he, he, according to Anand, Anand, should try his best to keep himself himself aloof from his work. Like Flaubert and a nd Henry James, he seems to believe believe that the writer should s hould be present in his book like God in his created world, wor ld, invisibl invisiblee yet omnipresent omnipresent.. In a letter written to Saro S aross Cowasjee on Nov. 22, 1967, 1967 , he writes: ‘The novelist novelist should try to t o become the great god, Brahm Br ahma, a, who creates c reates mankind, mankind, but is not responsible for for it, that is to say, say, does d oes not determine their their destiny dest iny.. Distance is very importa important nt in art, because bec ause art, art , though tho ugh like life, life, and reflecting it, is not life. life. Literature Litera ture and a nd life life are parallel developments’. developments’. Again, Anand observes: ‘As the painter corrects his perspective by moving 310


away from the canvas and looking at his picture from a certain distance so the t he novelist tends to create a structure, struct ure, a unity out of o f the contrary and disc discordant ordant elements, by adopting the attitude att itude of ‘God Almighty’ Almighty’both creating the world and looking at his creation from afar’. The writer writes from the compulsion compulsion of o f one kind or the o ther, deeply related related to to himself. As a matter of fact, it is some sort of his ‘body-soul search’ which is behind his creative activi act ivities. ties. Anand Anand illustrates it by giving giving the t he instance of o f his becoming becoming a writer. He tell te llss us that he “wrote from fro m the compulsion compulsion of a morbid obsession obsession with myself and the people peo ple who possessed me, deep in my conscience”. conscience”. This compulsion compulsion is sometimes sometimes in the form of other kinds of wild wild and inchoate inchoate urges. In Anand’s Anand’s own ow n case, the t he other ot her urges drivi d riving ng him to write were; the desire to get recognition; rec ognition; the search for philosophical insights insights founded on the t he lives lives of real people; peop le; and the urge to t o reveal the ugli ug liness ness of death in life life by portraying dramatically the universal non-human realities realities of life. life. But above all, the writer writes because bec ause he gets get s “a discrete pleasure pleasure from from creating creating somethi something”. ng”. Also, Also, he wishes wishes to get confi confirmation rmation of the fact fact that other people feel feel and think think like like him. him. That is to say, say, he wishes wishes to hear hear the reader say that he has felt felt or thought t hought just like his such and such character. This compulsion compulsion of the writer what whatever ever its form may be, be, becomes bec omes his original inspiration inspiration to write. Anand avers that in the creat ive process both bot h the body bod y and and soul sou l are involved. involved. As a matter of fact, t he distinction distinction between body and soul so ul disappears, and the creative creat ive artist sees “that the body in soul and the soul body”. The creative activity does not mean simply the physi physical cal absorption absorption of the author; it needs his complete complete involv involveme ement-the nt-the involv involvem ement ent of his his conscious self as well as his unconscious. He feels ‘the magic of the quick ’, ’, which brings things out of the illuminations, working like some sort of secret electric button which switches on “a dim light, fed by some power-house of the unconscious”. Thereafter the creative activity passes through the process of the the distil distillati lation on of emotions emotions carried carried out and controlled controlled by the brain, brain, thus bringi bringing ng about about some some kind kind of co-ordinati co-ordination on of the amorphous amorphous urges. urges. It is only only after after this that the creative creat ive artist gets a kind of tranquility tranquility “as though one had had one’ o ne’ss best for the time being being and thrown off o ff the weight of centuries, hidden feelings feelings of oppression, disgust d isgust and horror against insults, insults, off one’s one’s chest”. chest ”.

21.3Art of the Novel Of all Indian English English novelists, Mulk Raj Ra j Anand has discussed the art ar t of o f the novel most consciously c onsciously and comprehensivel co mprehensively y. Like many of his ill illustr ustrious ious European Eu ropean and American predecess predecessors ors and contemporari contemporaries, es, he has his his views views on fiction iction which which he calls calls ‘certai ‘certain n hunches hunches about the novel’. However, he has not no t put them systematically systematically in in any boo book k like E.M.Forster. E.M.For ster. They are contained in his prefaces, letters, articles, addresses, conversations, interviews, interviews, three t hree essays in the form of apologia -”How I Became a Writer”, “The Changeling - An IndoAnglian Anglian Novelist’s Credo” Credo ” and “Why I Write?” Write?” - critical cr itical writings writings and the t he book, boo k, Apolog Apologyy for Heroism Heroism.. It is essential to systematize, s ystematize, interpret and examine examine his cogitations on the craft cr aft of fiction in in order to arrive at a correct corre ct estimate of his own art as a novelist. 311


The novel, according acco rding to Anand, differs differs from the tract in that it is more human; itit has a greater greate r scope to delineate contrary con trary emotions; it has a lesser possibil po ssibility ity of becoming becoming biased; it it makes a ‘concrete’, and not a ‘general’ ‘general’ statement; and it only poses the question, but does not no t answer it. Anand also also distinguishes between the t he modern novel and the novel written in the earlier times. While While the novel nove l in in the previous centuries cen turies was obviously o bviously concerned concer ned with moral values, the modern mode rn novel lays stress on the t he individual’ individual’ss psychological life life and motivations. Tolstoy is perhaps the first great writer wr iter who has brought broug ht about this t his major major change in the novel by concentrati concentrating ng on the inner inner changes changes in man as against against the superfi superficia ciall effec effects ts of the external external social phenomena. The modern novel portrays po rtrays the ‘soul drama’ of man; it it deals dea ls with the crisis of man in every human situation. It is strikingly distinct distinct from the epic e pic or bardic bard ic recital of the old times. The novel may still have the hangover hango ver of the three t hree principal elements of the old narrative narr ative — the story-te story-telller, er, the chara character cterss and and the the audie audienc ncee with with suffi suffici cient ent moral moral lesson essonss and and phil philosoph osophy y of life; life; but it mainly mainly treats treat s of the crises c rises in which the characters are involved, and avo avoids ids as far as possibl po ssible, e, direct discourse disco urse on o n the phil p hiloso osophy phy of life life and moral lessons. The modern novelist does not stop every now and then to lecture on the rules of human conduct, though in a dramatic manner he reveals the goodness go odness and a nd wickedness in life life by depicting the tensions of human beings, beings, caused ca used by the struggle strugg le between the emotional, mental and physical life. life. The novel, in Anand’s Anand’s opinion, opinion, is the “most human of European Europ ean forms of creative creat ive literatu literature”. re”. He describes its true nature as a dramatic representation, representat ion, through space and time, of the internal changes in the lives of characters. It should be used, as great novelists — Balzac, Dickens, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky Dosto evsky,, - have done do ne it, as a powerful pow erful vehicle vehicle of expressing “a sense of reality on many planes, and an intense awareness of the possibility of individual growth, as well as a criticism of life”. The ultimate purpose of the novel is to make man understand himself, himself, to stir his consciousness, to intensify his his emotions and to t o enable him to experience Ras experience Rasa a or the flavour flavour of o f beauty. beauty. Great novels novels are the t he result of great passions. Instead of being sugar-coat ed pills pills or tranquilli t ranquillizers, zers, they t hey are capable of changing human personality and turning “the world upside down”. No doubt, the novel expresses the author’ author ’s fundamental fundamental experience, the inchoate urges of o f his his ‘body-soul’; but at the same time, it presents present s life life in its its essential nature, with all its vagueness, confl co nflicts icts and disorders. disorde rs. Anand does not believe that the novel can only be reportage repo rtage about abou t social conditions; or that that it is, as the subject subjectivists ivists assert, asser t, just a means of o f describing skillfully skillfully man’s man’s psychological psycholo gical states like the subconscious, dream etc.; or that it is, as the cheap artists think, an instrument instrument to offer easy recreation and escape to the t he tired ladies. As a matter of o f fact, fact, the novel should be an exploration explorat ion of social realism, realism, not in its wooden woo den but in its most vigorous vigor ous form. Social So cial realism in a work of o f art should be poetic in its nature. That is to say, say, it should not be literary photography of social soc ial life, life, but should be inalienable inalienable from the artist’s a rtist’s “desire image or the t he romantic will”. He points points out that that the nove novellist lives ves throu through gh the the exper experiiences ences of other other hum human bein beings, gs, and and under understa stand ndss their passions, passions, joys and sorrows, and their approaches t o life life and fate. He does do es not pass judgment judgment on the t he actions, thoughts and passions of people, but tries to comprehend the motivations working in their subconscious and unconscious minds. Thus he is able to know 312


and depict the t he reasons of o f the good goo d and evil natur natures es of men. Above all, he, like like every other creative artist, is deeply concerned with the discovery of truth tru th and dedication ded ication to it in all humility humility.. Indeed, truth trut h should matter much to a writer, wr iter, but he should present it imaginatively in such a way as sincerity is not adversely affected. affected. He should observe o bserve life life very carefully to discover in it the essence o f human existence, existence, ‘the inner inner core co re of reality, reality, and should s hould strive to fathom the depth of o f human human consciousness. consc iousness. In a word, wor d, “The novel should interpret the truth tr uth of life life from felt felt experience, and experience, and not from boo books”. ks”.

21.4 Anan Anand’ d’ss Writi ritin ngs Anand’s Anand’s writings are to be studied s tudied in relation relation to the movement of thirties iin n England. For, as a writer he was shaped in the thirties when social problems were more important than t han the individual, individual, and when the old ‘Fates’ –’God’ and ‘Nature’-were ‘Natu re’-were superseded superse ded by the new ‘Fates’- ‘Economics’ and ‘Politics’, since they the y governed the t he common man. Anand Anand lived in London for over twenty years from 1924 to t o 1945, 19 45, and naturally naturally he was profoundl pro foundly y influenced influenced by the thirti thirties es movement. movement. In London he came under numerous literary literary,, political political and social influences, influences, and it is in them that the sources so urces of o f his his synthesis of Marxist and humanist humanist thought tho ught can be seen. He realized the significance of the thirties movement, since it “began to see political political,, social social and human human causes as genuine genuine impulses impulses for the novel and poetry”. Hence, Hence, a close understanding underst anding of the thirti t hirties es movement is essential to comprehend correctly correct ly Anand’s Anand’s entire political philosophy. philosophy. Under the t he impact impact of o f this movement, it became a fashion and a compulsion to be on the t he Left, to be an amateur Marxist. The converts, as John Lehmann Lehmann points out, had “a desire to express a new humanism, humanism, a new belief in in brotherhood brotherho od and the value of o f the life life of every single breathing breathing man and woman”. woman”. Also, Also, they believe believed d that art should should be propaganda, and that itit should principally deal with class struggle. The T he writers were deeply de eply involved involved in the struggle st ruggle for a new society so ciety.. Anand Anand activel act ively y participated in almost almost all the important importa nt conferences and a nd activities of the decade. dec ade. He happened happe ned to read Karl Marx’s Marx’s letters on o n India which which considerably clarified clarified and strengthened strengthe ned his thoughts. Tho Though ugh he did not take ta ke up party par ty membership, membership, yet he followed followed his new creed vigorously. vigorously. Not No t only o nly this, he edited Marx’s letters for the t he Indian public. public. He was deeply impressed impressed by the human values underlying underlying Marxism, Marxism, and among these values, according acco rding to him, him, “the dignity of man iiss the highest”. highest ”. Besides, Marxism Mar xism unfolded to him an interpretation interpret ation of, and a solution to, t o, the miseries miseries and hardships ha rdships of his fellow fellow human beings. W Written ritten under the influence influence of o f the thirties movement, Anand’s early novels are mainly a li liter terature ature of o f protest. prot est. Like many boo books ks of this period, they t hey describe the daily life life of the oppressed op pressed and an d offer glimpses glimpses of the oppresso o ppressors. rs. They belong to a kind of social realism which lays lays stress str ess on human misery misery without clearly showing showing the possibili possibility ty of a better future.

21.4.1 Anand’s Humanism Anand’s central preoccupat preocc upation ion in his his writings is with with humanism. He regards art ar t and 313


literatu literature re “as the instruments of humanism”. humanism”. The creative cr eative artist should have ardent love for human beings, beings, especially especially the downtrodden, downt rodden, and should offer them his own exuberant passion by shari sharing ng with with them them ‘the ‘the burni burning ng and mel melting ting’’ whi which is an intri ntrinsic nsic aspect aspect of life ife at its its intens ntensest est.. This enables the th e writer, as well as the reader, rea der, to t o maintain the equilibrium e quilibrium in in his life, life, and live cheerfully even in in the face of o f the tragic trag ic events of o f the world. world . This humanism was, in Anand’s case, the compul co mpulsion sion to write books. He came to grasp it under the influence influence of Marx, Guru Nanak, Gandhi and others, and it was the outcome of the synthesis synthesis of the best best in in Asia Asia and and Europe. In Apology In Apology for Heroism, Heroism, he he states stat es his position as a humanist: ‘I believe, first first and foremost, foremost , in human human beings, in Man, the whole man ...The ...T he humanism which I prefer does not n ot rest on o n a Divine Divine Sanction Sanct ion ... but puts its faith in the creative imaginati imagination on of o f man, in his his capacity to transform himself, himself, in the tireless mental mental and physical physical energy with which he can, often o ften in the face of great odds, o dds, raise r aise himself himself to tremendous heights of dignity dignity and redeem redee m the world from its misery and pain....’ pain... .’ Anand’s humanist humanist philosophy p hilosophy finds its most systematic expression expr ession in his book, Is book, Is There There a Contemporary Indian Civilization? He Civilization? He elaborates elaborate s it it as follows: 1.

Thi This hum human aniism plac places es man in the the cen centre tre of all all thi things. ngs.

2.

This This hum humani anism sm belie believes ves that matter matter prece precedes des mind ind in in any any metaph metaphys ysic ical al attitude attitude towards towards the universe.

3.

This This hum humani anism sm beli believe evess that that man man is an evoluti evolutionar onary y product product of the matter matter of whic which h he he is part.

4.

This This hum human aniism, sm, whic which h puts puts man man in the the centr centree of the Univ Univer erse, se, bel beliieves eves that that hum human an beings beings possess possess the potential potential power to under understan stand d many many problem problems, s, hithert hitherto o undream undreamtt of, both in relation relation to themselves and and to nature. nat ure.

5.

This This huma humani nism sm beli believes, eves, in in opposit oppositiion to all all theori theories es of fatal fataliistic stic accepta acceptance nce of God, prede predesti stina nati tion on and and deter determ minism nismthat that hum human bei beings, ngs, condi conditi tion oned ed byman’ an’s histo history ry,, posse possess ss genuine freedom of creative choice and action.

6.

The human humaniism beli believes eves in in an an ethi ethicc whi which is based based on hum human an psych psychology ology and human human values, in this this earthy existence, achieved through the relati r elations ons of o f persons and persons, perso ns, and persons and a nd society.

7.

This This huma humani nism sm belie believes ves that the the indi indivi vidual dualattains attains ful fulll manh manhood ood by integra integrati ting ng his his person personal al satisfactions and continuous creative self-development through significant creative work with the hand, the heart and the brain ....

8.

This This hum human aniism belie believes ves in the the widest widest and deepest deepest possi possibl blee deve develop lopme ment nt of creati creative ve art and the t he awareness of beauty. beauty.

9.

This This hum humani anism sm belie believes ves in the the brother brotherhood hood of man through through the the aff affiirmati rmations ons of love. love.

10.

This This humani humanism sm believ believes es in in the appl applica ication tion of ima imagi ginati nation, on, reason and and scie scienti ntiffic method method in all human undertakings, making room ro om for the understanding underst anding of different different instincts and 314


emotions. 11.

This This huma humani nism sm belie believes ves in the constan constantt questioni questioning ng of the basi basicc assum assumpti ptions ons and and convictions of inventive inventive science, science, employing, employing, throughout, throu ghout, human tests based on o n moral values.

12. This T his humanism humanism wishes wishes to connect connec t itself to internatio inte rnational nal humanism, humanism, so that, that , in spite of differences, differences, a co mprehensive mprehensive universalize outlook may prevail prevail ... . Anand’s Anand’s humanism, humanism, as stated st ated above, is an amalgam of the best of o fAsiatic and European Euro pean knowledge and traditions. traditions. G.S. G.S.Balarama Balarama Gupta rightly discovers discovers in his human humanism ismthe Protego Pro tegorean rean concept of o f man as the measure of all things. Anand Anand points to the growth growt h of the humanist humanist values values in Buddha, the medieval Hindu saints, Islam, Guru Nanak, Rammohan Roy, Roy, M.N.Roy M.N.R oy and Jawaharlal Nehru. Really, Really, his concept co ncept of o f comprehensive humanism is is not, not , in any way, strikingly original. Knowing it fully well, he plainly says: “... by humanism I do not mean anything more or less than what it has always meant, illumination illumination or enli e nlightenment ghtenment in the interests of man, true to to his highest nature and his noblest vision”.

21.4.2 Characters For Anand, the novel begins with character. The novelist draws his charact ers from the real men and women whom he happens to know in actual life. life. Some So me people haunt the t he writer and compel co mpel to him, him, and he knows kno ws them fully fully well for a pretty pret ty long period. Thus real re al people people are the germ germ of the novel novel. Speaki Speaking of his his beginn beginniing as a novel novelist, ist, Anand Anand states that he felt felt interested in some people and they forced him to pu putt them down in novels. His His first novel, Untouchable, Untouchable, was centered upon u pon a sweeper boy, Bakha, whom he adored as a hero from his childhood “because he was physically like like a god, go d, played all the games superbly sup erbly and could recite whole cantos from the epic poem Heer poem Heer Ranjha of Waris Waris Shah ... .” . ” He was obsessed with his tragedy which lay in the fact that this extraordinarily talented boy was always insulted by most of the people people because because of his his low caste, caste, and could could never never get a chance chance to go to school school.. Throughout his literary literary career, career, Anand Anand wrote wrot e about real r eal people like like Bakha, Munoo, Gangu, Lal Singh, Birpal Singh, Gauri and others whom he knew quite closely in his early life. He reincarnates them repeatedly repeat edly in his his writings, writings, not photographically photographically but artistical art istically ly and imaginativel imaginatively y. Of his his fictional characters charac ters modeled mod eled after the people peo ple with whom he chanced to t o live at one or the other stage stag e of his life, life, Anand writes in his special Preface to t o the t he second Indian I ndian edition ofT ofTwo Leaves and a Bud (1951): (1951): All these heroes, hero es, as the o ther men and women who had emerged in my my novels and short stories, sto ries, were dear to me, because they were the reflections reflections of the real people I had known during my childhood childhood and youth. yo uth. And And I was only repaying repaying the debt de bt of gratitude grat itude I owed o wed them for much of the inspiration they had given me me to mature into manhood, manhoo d, when I began to to interpret their t heir lives lives in my my writing. writing. They were not mere phantoms…. They were flesh flesh of my flesh and blood of my blood, and obsessed me in the way in which certain human beings 315


obsess an artist’s soul. And I was doin do ing g no more than what a write does when he seeks to interpret the truth from the realities of his life. However, since art is not the literal transcript transcript of life, life, these characters, characters , taken ta ken directly from life, life, are considerabl co nsiderably y transformed by the author aut hor’’s creative creat ive imagination, imagination, and thus become strikingly original and unique. unique. Anand confesses that the characters charac ters taken t aken from my intimate intimate experience, but are transformed transfor med creatively from within within -often a lamb becomes becomes a lion and a dove becomes bec omes jackal. I rely on my subconscious subconscious life a good goo d in my my creative work, wor k, and allow my fantasy to play havoc with facts”. Indeed, Anand puts a lot of his dream elements into his characters, thus making them strange creatures. The more and more he thinks and writes about them, t hem, the more and more compl co mplicated icated and rare human beings beings they grow. Apropos Apropos of o f his his creation of Bakha, he writes: “… I kept on o n dreaming dreaming about several strains in the central character of Bakha, almost as a s though though I was molding his his personality perso nality and transmuting tra nsmuting it from actuality into into the hero of o f a nightmare”. nightmare”. Anand feels that the writer should s hould have an inner inner desire to depict de pict the beauty, tenderness, terror, terr or, etc. in the lives of his characters. charact ers. In I n addition, he should become beco me one with his people in order to make them living living and interesting. Describing his own process pro cess of creating characters, charact ers, Anand says: ‘I had to go through their sufferings sufferings and little joys joys as my own. I had to become weak with their weaknesses. I had become beco me strong with the strength streng th of their resilience. resilience. I had to buil build up parall parallel el world worlds, s, to refl reflect, ect, in my somewh somewhat at crooked crooked mirror irror,, since since imitati itation on of nature nature is not possible ….’Also, Anand Anand thinks t hinks that the novelist novelist should depict man in his essential nature -his primeval primeval innocence and his desire to t o attain a higher consciousness. He himself himself has always striven to achieve this ideal ideal of character-creat charact er-creation ion in his his fiction. fiction. Characters in the novel no vel should be given given maxi maximum mum freedom to expres expresss themsel themselves ves so as to make the book both a convin convincin cing g picture of life life and artistically artistically satisfyi satisfying. ng. But to achieve achieve it, the noveli novelist st has to annihil annihilate ate his his personality personality.. By By keeping keeping him himsel selff aloof from his book, he is also able able to avoid avoid sentim sentimental entality ity which damages a work of art irreparably irrepa rably.. Anand says in this connection: connec tion: I must admit that the struggle stru ggle to extirpate extirpat e the novelist’s novelist’s own personali perso nality ty and ideas, ideas, in order to give scope for fo r the character charact er to express himself himself,, was very hard. I had the benefit benefit of o f the criticism criticism of another anot her Indian intellectual, intellectual, Dr. K.S.Shelvankar K.S. Shelvankar.. Once I explained to him the terms of reference of the novel, he was ruthless r uthless and sat down d own with me to cut all the projection pro jectionss which might might intrude the t he author’ author ’s personali perso nality ty onto the characters. This T his made made for certain cert ain resilience resilience and established the necessary distance to exclude sentimentality sentimentality.. However, Anand thinks that the t he writer should in no case sacrifi sa crifice ce the ‘quick’ of his own passion for the central centr al character. While While writing writing his masterpiece, Untouchable, Untouchable, he did not eliminate eliminate the ‘quick’ of his own passion passio n for Bakha and did not no t adopt ado pt “a formalist empty shell approach” to the work, for it is the writer’s warmth for for his character that endears e ndears him him to the reader. Anand Anand declares that he has not put his intell intellectual ectual ideas into Bakha, but has certain cert ainly ly maintained maintained his warmth towards him. He regards r egards the ‘quick’ of human experience, experience, which he calls tenderness, as so something mething indispensable indispensable to the writer t o create cre ate interesting and life-like life-like 316


characters. When given given full freedom to think, feel and act according acco rding to his own psychology, psychology, a character sometim so metimes es goes beyond the t he control of the author, aut hor, and runs away with the narrative. Like many great novelists, Anand is ful fully ly aware of o f this fact. While commenting briefly briefly on his novel, Private novel, Private Life of an Indian Prince, Prince, he remarks: Most writers know how ho w a character in a novel; sometimes sometimes takes control and runs away with the the story stor y. The author has been content to allow allow Dr. Shankar to take possession of the narrative, as well as become Sancho Panza to t o the Prin P rince’ ce’ss Don Quizote. Differing Differing from most most of the Indian Ind ian writers like like Bankim Chand Chatterji, Chatt erji, Sarat Chand C hand Chatterji, Chatt erji, Ratannath Sarshar and Rabindra nath Tagore, Anand, perhaps under the influence influence of Rousseau, Rousseau , Gogol, Gog ol, Tolsto Tolstoy y and Gorky, Gorky, believes believes that “even the so-calle so-ca lled d lowest dregs of o f humanity, living in utmost poverty, squalor and degradation, could become heroes of fiction”. This is the reason why he makes sweepers, coolies co olies and the lowly like Bakha, Munoo, Gangu, Ga ngu, Gauri, Lalu and others as the t he central figures figures of some so me of his best best known books. To Anand, Anand, the t he modern writer, w riter, living living in a highly highly complex world, is concerned co ncerned with multi-dimensional multi-dimensional characters. Quite often o ften he is obsessed by characters charact ers who, by their actions and words, wo rds, unfold their inner life, life, and reveal the tensions which cause cau se disharmony and discord in life. life. The author should sho uld emphasize emphasize the harmonies resulting from the discords disco rds of these people. peo ple. Besides, he should deal with with characters who are dangerous and are able to get rid of their subjective despair desp air.. They are capable of facing those who may destroy destr oy them. They should be portrayed portrayed as havi having ng confli conflicts cts in their their hearts hearts and minds minds like ike the people people we see around around us. They They should be shown sho wn immersed immersed in active act ive discussion and disruption because be cause light can be felt only when the darkness, which is the opposite of light, light, is understood. understoo d. They T hey should should be depicted with all the unreasonableness of the human heart and temperamen te mperamentt emanating from the unconscious.

21.4.3 Compactness Anand knows the value of a well-built and compact novel. That is why when he commenced his his literary literary career; he paid great attention at tention to the compactness co mpactness and proper form of his books. He tell t ellss us that when he found his long long confessi co nfessional onal narrative narrative of over two t wo thousand t housand pages unmanageab unmanageable le and shapeless, shapeless, he picked picked up some some characters from it and built built around them short and co mpact novels. Nevertheless, he was worried wo rried about, and dissatisfied dissatisfied with, them because he found t hem “still “still formless”. formless”. However Ho wever new the theme and the ‘implied ‘implied value judgments’ judgments’ of a prose-narrative prose-narrative may be, it becomes becomes a novel only when it is “couched “couched in in the language of fiction, fiction, with some respe respect ct for the integral patt pattern”. ern”. If the form of the novel is is loose, the novelist has to t o explore the techni t echnical cal devices in order to make it artistical art istically ly satisfy satisfying. ing. True, Anand does not approve appr ove of the looseness of the form of the novel. It is on this this ground grou nd that he finds finds fault with Munshi Mu nshi Prem Chand’s master masterpiece piece in Hindi language, Godan. Godan. The novel, according accor ding to him, him, is an art form, and has its own integral pattern. patter n. Anand affirms affirms that the novel, no vel, being something sober and true tr ue to life, should be built on 317


a plot which is free from art artifi ificiality ciality and sensationa se nsationalism. lism. He dismisses Kipling’ Kipling’ss long narrative, nar rative, the Naulakha the Naulakha,, as something other than the novel because it abounds in artificiality and sensationalism sensationalism,, and is, therefore, not worthy of serious attention. attent ion. True, the novel should not be sentimental sentimental and melodramatic. melodramatic. Anand Anand avers ave rs that even the best craftsmanship can only result in mawkishness and vulgarity, vulgarity, if the book lacks in a genuine appreciation apprec iation of the social, soc ial, political, political, psychol psychologi ogical cal and other other proble problem ms of people people.. The The struct structure ure of the nine nineteen teenth th century century novel novel with with a definite beginning, beginning, middle middle and an end does not no t find favour with Anand. Anand. The twentieth t wentieth century ce ntury fiction fiction writers like James Joyce, Marcel Proust and a nd others have convincingly convincingly proved that a prose narrative narrative can assume assume the novel-form novel-form and can be created out of anythi anything, ng, provided provided it is imparted imparted a pattern. As a matter o f fact, he is fascinated fascinated by the new structural trend t rend in the modern novel; the replacement of o f the traditional structurestruc ture-aa beginning, a middle middle and an end-by “the poetic poet ic pattern pat tern without plot”. p lot”. Several Se veral of his novels, including including the first-viz. Untouchable, Untouchable, evidence it. Anand attaches due signif significance icance to conscious c onscious craftsmanship. craftsmanship. Though he may not be as deliberate and painstaking an artist as Jane Austen, Henry James, Hemingway and Joyce Cary, yet yet often ofte n he he works work s hard to revise and redraft his book so as to make its meaning meaning and form as artistically art istically satisfying as possible. Like Joyce Jo yce Cary who laboured labo ured indefatigably indefatiga bly on his first novel, Aissa novel, Aissa Saved and and Hemingway who re-wrote re-wrot e The Old Man and the Sea over a a hundred times, Anand repeatedly read and re-read, shaped and re-shaped his first novel, Untouchable. Untouchable. He recalls: rec alls: “I would wou ld cut, but find the sac sacrifi rifice ce of o f my previous previou s words difficult. difficult. Then I would add marginal marginal corrections correct ions and leave leave it”. This tortuous tortu ous process pro cess of revising revising the book continue continued d tir tirel elessl essly y for years. years. He assidu assiduousl ously y worked on it for nearly nearly five five years. years. Indeed, Indeed, Anand regards meticulous craftsmanship craftsmanship as very import important ant for a good goo d novelist. He admi ad mires res R.K.Narayan as an adept craftsman, craftsman, who interprets the moods of his characters and imparts a definite definite pattern patte rn to the book bo ok without obvious o bvious imposition imposition and intervention. He offers value value judgme judgments nts quite quite often; often; but these these comments, comments, instead nstead of appeari appearing inesse inessenti ntial al and deli deliberate in the design of the book book,, interpret the t he will will of the characters. Th This is is is the reason why he is able able to achieve “organic composition as on canvas, where comparison and contra sts bring out the internal crisis of the human personality”. perso nality”.

21.4.4 Form and Content Anand holds a definite definite view on the t he relationship between form and content. content . Form For m is important important in a work of art, but it should not be achieved achieved at the cost of content. Borrowing Bo rrowing Roy Campbell’ Campbell’ss phrase, he writes Saros S aros Cowasjee: Co wasjee: “… it is no use keeping the form, the kerb, and the edge all right right and destroy destro y the bloody bloody horse-… .” . ” Further, Furth er, in his his review of o f Henry Green’s Green’s Loving, Loving, he he states stat es that the primary concern of art is not form but sensibili sensibility ty.. However, this t his does not mean that content is all-im all-import portant. ant. FormFo rm- the ‘shaping principle’ principle’ as Northrop Frye calls it - is equally indispensable to a work of o f art. As a matter of o f fact, both should be complem co mplementary entary and supplementary to each ot her. her. He rightly points points out o ut that the technique of fiction fiction writing greatly changes with the passage of time. The changed human situation and environment 318


necessitates new devices in place place of the old ones. That is why the modern novelist, novelist, in order to to delineate the contemporary human situation and environment dominated by the modern technology, tec hnology, employs the techniques te chniques which are radically different different from the narrative narrat ive devices used in the earlier centuries. In his writing writing Anand Anand makes use of o f the various narrative narr ative modes. He is aware awa re of the basi basicc advan advanta tages ges of every everyon onee of them them.. He knows knows that that the the firs firstt perso person n sing singul ular ar narra narrati tive ve techn techniique que enables the writer to make the infrequent comments and generali genera lizations zations convi convincing. ncing. He illustr illustrates ates it by referring to Raja Rao’s Rao ’s The Serpent and the Rope, Rope, and stated state d that the novelist’s novelist’s use of the first-person first-perso n singular method method “helps to make the incidental comment comment natural”. natu ral”.Anand Anand points to another an other advantage ad vantage of the use of the first-perso first-person n singular singular in a novel. The ‘I’ of this narrative mode may be purposively purposively employed employed in a book as a neutral neutr al character, who can have his own identity as much separately separate ly from from other ot her men and women in the book as a s from the author aut hor himself. himself. Anand resorts resor ts to this t his narrative technique in his his well-known novel, Pri novel, Private vate Life of an an Indian Prince Prince,, and comments on this device in his “Autho “Author’s r’s Note” prefix pr efixed ed to the t he book: The neutral ‘I’ of the first first person perso n singular singular has tended, in this book, to become a character in his his own right. …the ‘I’ in this novel is is not to be mistaken mistaken for the author, aut hor, who has reverted to the t he Indian tradition of anonymity anonymity and looks loo ks on, like Siva’s Siva’s searing third eye, at the unfolding of this tragicomedy. Anand regards the t he omniscient-autho omniscient-authorr device as indispensable indispensable for probing pro bing and depicting the intricacies of the people. peo ple. An An omniscient omniscient narrator narrat or is like a God, seeing and portraying men and women in the most effective manner: … the novelist is a new kind of God, who loves people, who overcomes his own isolation, puts his own knots alongside theirs, grows with them, manifests himself in the multiplicity of their beings and releases them t hem into into their t heir own unique life, and co-exists with them t hem in in the joys and sorrows sor rows of their very human lif life. e. Anand holds that a definite advance in the novel no vel form has has been made by James James Joyce’ Jo yce’ss stream of consciousness technique, extended further by Dorothy Richardson and refined by Virginia Woolf. It was a coincidence that he got a copy of James Joyce’s banned book, Ulysses, Ulysses, from his friend friend and literary mentor, Bonamy Dobree, Dobree , and was deeply deep ly impressed by it. Also, Also, he chanced to see Proust’ Proust ’s remarkable use of the stream of consciousness techni tec hnique que in Remembrance in Remembrance of Things Past , which absorbed him for years “with its reiterations of feelings, feelings, in integra integrall musical musical rhythms”. The stream of consciousness consciou sness technique, acco rding to Anand, is the product pro duct of o f the shattered shatter ed world of of the modern machine age in which man incessantly strives to achieve integration integration amidst the tensions and pulls of too to o much of o f technology. technology. Naturally Nat urally, Anand is of the view that a modern writer, who has something significant significant to commun co mmunicate icate to the world, wo rld, will, will, in all all probability probability,, resort to Joyce’s Joyce’s process, and cannot go g o back to the narrative form of the novels of earlier periods. This T his technique technique is invaluable invaluable for recording reco rding the various levels of the consciousness consciousness of the people peo ple and the drama of the soul. Besides, the t he unities of time 319


and place are possibl po ssiblee by recording the details d etails of one day of o f the life life of a character with the help of this technique. technique. More Mor e than that, the device can enable the novelist to reproduce repro duce “the disturbed, restless and paranoiac stream of consciousness of the people peo ple of our tim t ime”, e”, not in the form of raw material as Joyce has done, but in such a manner “as to suggest value judgments judgments about the characters”.

21.4.5 Stream of Consciousness Technique Anand regards the stream of consciousness technique as something very valuable, valuable, and uses it, with slight alteration, alterat ion, in his first novel, Untouchable and Untouchable and in The Road and The Big Heart . He elaborates the advantages of the use of o f it it inUntouchable in Untouchable thus: thus: first, it has enabled him to impart impart the t he book a fairly fairly neat framework, framework, appropriate ap propriate for the t he dramatization dramatization of the central character charac ter’’s inner experience; seco ndly, ndly, it has given him the joyful awareness awarenes s of eternality of time which speciall spec ially y pleases the t he Indian in him. him. He employs it effectively inThe in The Road , and is aware of o f it as shown by his fol following lowing remark: I, theref t herefore, ore, pursued the mirror game, at various various levels levels of consciousness of the people, peo ple, concave and a nd convex, involved in this drama of the ro ad. You You will notice that, that , technically, technically, it is not a straight straight narrative, but diversified diversified by breaking through throug h the obvious planes to the t he impalpable impalpable world of feelings of the characters character s involved. Thus Anand finds the stream of consciousness technique te chnique a convenient device to be employed employed limitedly limitedly for for the t he purpose purpo se of o f depicting directly directly the internal experiences of the t he characters so as to reveal their essential esse ntial humanness and the fusion of their inner psychological reality with with the outer o uter social reality. reality. Neverthel Nevertheless, ess, the artist artist in Anand Anand does not fail to percei perceive ve the danger danger of this this device device of story-telli stor y-telling. ng. If an intellectual intellectual novelist attempts to t o render the stream st ream of consciousness of a naive character, he runs the t he risk of o f falsif falsifyin ying g the illogical illogical logic of his character’ character ’s heart by inserting inserting in it his own o wn intellectuality. While While writing Untouchable, Untouchable, Anand faced the t he difficulty difficulty in making a correct correct and artistic use of o f it. He was confronted with the problem of keeping artistic detachment so that his own intuitive experiences might might not intrude intrud e into Bakha’s stream of consciousness. In a word, wor d, Anand Anand uses this narrative technique in a modified form, simplif simplifyin ying g it in order to present effectively effectively a vivid vivid picture both bo th of o f his character’ character ’s mind and of social milie milieu. u. But for Untouchable, Untouchable, The Road and The and The Big Heart , he usually follows in his novels the conventional modes of narration. A novelist, novelist, in Anand’s Anand’s opini op inion, on, can amalgamate amalgamate the t he various techniques t echniques of sto rytelling in his work. He cites the instance of Raja Rao’s Kanthapura Rao’s Kanthapura in in which the author interpenetrates interpenetrat es the narrative narra tive with character analysis analysis and also employs “Joyce’s “Joyce’s technique and automatic auto matic writing in in long passages, passa ges, assim as simil ilating ating these influences influences within the context of prophetic prop hetic writing”. Anand is aware of the importance importance of styl st ylee in a book, though t hough he has not talked t alked much about it in his critical critical writings. writings. No doubt, the content is of vital vital importa importance nce for a writer; but tthe he 320


manner of presentation and expression cannot be ignored. In his discussion on “Creative Writing riting in the Present Crisis”, he states: stat es: ‘Of course, it is not enough eno ugh to want to say something. something. Everything Everything depends on o n how one says it it - how ho w the imagination imagination of a writer can transform tra nsform the various various realities, realities, interpenetrate characters with insight, insight, and ‘connect’ the t he poetry and the t he prose. And, certainly cert ainly,, there ther e has to be some so me kind kind of style’.

21.4.6 Creative Use of Language Anand speaks about abou t the creative use of language in literatu literature. re. He justifies justifies his frequent use of the Punjabi vernacular vernacu lar in his fiction. fiction. He asserts asser ts that his use of Indian phraseology phraseolog y needs no defense because it is natural. In fact, the t he novelist’s novelist’s style should be in complete harmony with his his characters. characte rs. It should sho uld express adequately adequ ately the feelings feelings and thoughts of o f a character in a particul particular ar situati situation. on. Anand Anand illustrates llustrates it from his his use of prose to portray portray Lakha’ Lakha’ss feelin eelings gs and thoughts. He writes: The motive force for his words wor ds is the creation creat ion of an emotional complex, which is a peculiarity peculiarity of the pariah world. I wished wished to reproduce in in his his speech the very breath of his his voice, the confused, co nfused, almost almost inchoate, smoke of o f his his feelings feelings of despair, and the suppressed fire fire of his half half dead person. perso n. The creative creat ive writer breaks break s the rules of grammar grammar and coins new words so as to enrich e nrich the language. In suppo support rt of o f this argument, argument, Anand Anand cites the instances of the three th ree Irish writers: George Moore, Moo re, Bernard Shaw S haw and James Joyce. “The talent of o f the true imaginati imaginative ve writer,” says he, “is like like a flame. flame. It burns away the t he dead wood wo od of accepted acc epted works wo rks and shines forth in original images. The style of language, which belongs to him or her, is the expression of the total tota l personality personality,, projected pro jected to a vision beyond vision beyond the routine ro utine experience”. Thus Anand Anand approved appro ved of the writer’s fondness of word coinage. He admires James Joyce’s technique of worldcoinage as employed inUlysses in Ulysses and and other books boo ks because he does so for the sake of conveying conveying his vision as effectively and artistically art istically as possible. Anand himself employs employs Joyce’s device of word-coinage word -coinage in his novels, especiall espec ially y in in Untouchable. Anand is averse to the artificiality of prose style. The purpose of writing is to communicate, and hence the writer should sho uld write in in simple, simple, natural, natur al, direct and honest prose. pr ose. He should follow Gandhiji’s Gandhiji’s advice to write simply and directly directly without using us ing tricks. Anand eulogizes the inartificial and felt prose pro se style of the novels of the first few Indian-English writers, of o f Sri Aurobindo’s letters, letters , of Vivekananda’s Vivekananda’s lect lectures ures and of o f Nehru’s Autobiography Autobiography.. However, in great works wo rks the style has a soaring and poetic tendency. He describes describes it by the metapho metaphorr of pigeon pigeon.. In this this kind kind of prose prose styl style, “the “the words words soar soar in the imagi imagina nati tion on like pigeon pigeonss in fligh light, t, shri shrill ll when they are frightened, nervous and sensitive, sensitive, often o ften soft and soo thing, somewhat heavyfooted, but always compelled compelled by the love of o f flight”. flight”.

214.7 Anand’s Fiction as “a Literature of Protest” Anand’s fiction fiction may be called called “a litera literature ture of protest” prot est” - a kind of literature literat ure which he 321


holds in high high esteem because it strikes hard at the root ro otss of sectionalism, sectionalism, snobbery, snobbery, contempt, cont empt, etc. which cause the modern man’s degeneration and despair. His creative writings writings are doubtless saturated saturat ed with the element element of o f protest prot est which is inalienabl inalienably y related to his view view of o f lif life. e. He writes, as he says, from “compulsions of a morbid obsession o bsession with myself myself and the people peo ple who possessed pos sessed me, deep in my conscience”. His works wor ks are not mere exercises of intellectual Marxism, Marxism, as many beli believe; eve; but they are a spontaneous expression of o f a protest prote st against the shockingl shoc kingly y sordid and painful spectacle specta cle of human misery. misery. Anand’s Anand’s inherent sense se nse of o f justice roused ro used in him, even when he was a child, child, a protest prot est against God Go d who for no reason reaso n singled singled out ou t his lovely lovely innocent innocent cousin Kaushalya Kaushalya to die. Later, the t he young novelist novelist could c ould not compromise with with “his father’s subservience to the British” and his mother’s “faith “faith in ritualistic ritualistic observance, superstitions superst itions and gullibili gullibility”. ty”. It was again again this sense of just justice ice that compelled him to raise his angry voice against ag ainst the suppression suppre ssion of freedom of thought tho ught and expression, expr ession, religious religious hypocrisy and social repression. A committed humanist, he heralds a revolt, a creative c reative struggle str uggle to bring about a new society. He does not no t indulge in in diatribe but makes a constructive constru ctive protest. prot est. With With a sense of satisfaction, he recalls: I certainly cert ainly felt, in the midst midst of my own poetry po etry and exile, the compulsion co mpulsion that it is better not to win w in applause by conforming to my establishment, but to face the t he privileged privileged order ord er and to claim the right to notice the existence of men like like Bakha. And I was determined to take t ake all the punis punishm hmen entt of all all confron confrontati tation on … I wanted wanted to renoun renounce ce those those who who have have for centuri centuries es incl include uded d in the prison of the fourfold order the men whom they also continually destroyed as their enemies enemies by duty. duty. I wanted to t o reveal how much men had changed from what they original o riginally ly were -the contrast co ntrast being available available in in the lesser way out, a living living crucifixion, crucifixion, or o r prolonged prolonge d suicide. I wanted to t o show the vast death of o f my country countr y before the limping limping life life promised promised by one-legged politics. politics. I wished to abnegate the death, by slow degrees, as in a vast concentration co ncentration camp, the death through alienation, alienation, caused by the need of everyone to earn a pittance from the flunkeys flunkeys of the few white sahibs, sahibs, the death deat h whose bleached bones were scattered scat tered across a cross the landscape landscape in various attitudes of prostration prostrat ion before the tin gods and the t he clay gods and the brass brass gods. I wanted wanted to bring bring to light ight the ghosts ghosts of the “dead “dead souls” souls” murder murdered ed without without a rite rite by the Dharma bugs. I wanted to beckon bec kon all the phantoms, so that they t hey should haunt haunt the dreams dr eams of the half-dead, and awaken them, the m, may be, to the lingering lingering sparks of life ... I wanted to burn and shine like: like: “Tiger, “Tiger, tiger, t iger, burning bright ….” Anand candidly wrote about the poor with whom he was most familiar. True, he immersed immersed himself himself “in “in the sub-world sub-wo rld of the poor, po or, the insulted insulted and the injured, injured, through continuous pil pilgrim grimages ages to the vil villages lages,, the smal smalll town and and big big townbastis townbastis of of our country”. He abhorred all sort of o f distincti distinction on of caste, creed, class, status, the t he outworn and outdated out dated traditions and conventions. Realizing the impor importance tance of o f his role and responsibility responsibility at a turning point of o f India’s India’s history, history, he was determi det ermined ned to become “the fiery fiery voice of the people, who, through his own torments, urges urg es and exaltations, exaltations, by realizing realizing the pains, frustrations and aspirations of others, and by cultivating his his incipient incipient powers po wers of expression, expres sion, transmutes transmutes in art all feel feelings, ings, all thought, all experience experience … .” Unlike his great predecessors predece ssors like like Tagore, Sarat Sa rat Chandra and Munshi Mu nshi 322


Prem Chand, the t he champions of the humble and peasantry, Anand, with his characteristic characte ristic doggedness delved deep into the t he depth of human human consciousness of the lowly, the squalor and ugliness of human life, against a background of taboos-ridden society and its callous laws. Significantly Significantly enough, Anand, more than any other Indian I ndian writer, had felt on his pulses the fate of the underdog underdo g and the underprivil underp rivileged, eged, who, who , before him remained remained mostly unnoticed in Indian literature. literatur e. Anand Anand was much pained to see the “life quick” in man, being crushed under unde r the heavy weight of man-made man-made laws, the t he scheme of cruelty and exploitation, exploitation, the t he decadent and perverted orthodoxy orthodo xy that held India India in its devili devilish sh grip. But it would wo uld not be wise to put labels on Anand’s Anand’s writings, as a s he is genuinely humane. Incidentally Inc identally,, the proletariat proletariat in him had all the courage co urage to protest against the odds of o f the prevailing prevailing social order of his times. times. He very well knew that “This struggle requires the courage to say the unmentionable things, the unconventional truths, the t he recognition of our civilization.” civilization.” Like Charles Dickens Dickens he is a true tr ue social protestor prot estor - the elements of which are visible visible in his novels especially espe ciallyUntouchable Untouchable and and coolie, coolie, the two early masterpieces which evidence evidence his steep “journey away from Bloomsbury literary literary consciousness co nsciousness to the non-literary worlds, whose denizens have always been considered ‘vulgar’ and unfit for the respectable resp ectable worlds”. In these two books, he identifies identifies himself himself with the despair, helplessness, agony and misery of his protagonists like like Bakha and Munoo whom he elevates to the status stat us of heroes heroe s of fiction fiction from the darkest pits o off poverty, squalor and degradation. degrada tion. Strikingly sincere in in his portrayal of truth about abo ut the intricacies of human existence, existence, he felt that “the novel no vel should interpre interprett the truth of life, life, from felt experience, and not from books”. books” . A committed humanist, he found fiction fiction as the most appropriate app ropriate vehicle vehicle of his genuinely genuinely new ideas and realities. He writes: I felt that, only through fiction, which is the transformation, through the imagination, imagination, of the concrete concret e life, life, in words, sounds so unds and vibrations, one may probe into the many layers layers of human consciousness consciou sness in its various phases. p hases. Illustration from the Novels

21.4.7.1 Untouchable Mulk Raj Anand’s first five novels including some of his best work, Coolie, Untouchable, Two Leaves and a Bud, The Th e Village Village and and Acr Across oss the Black Waters, aters, appeared between between 1933 and 1940, althoug although h he had had alrea already dy written written a consid considerab erable le amount amount before before this, this, including including a study of o f Persian paintings paintings and a boo k on o n curries. He is passionately concerned with the villages, with the ferocious poverty and the cruelties of caste, with orphans, untouchables and urban labourers. He writes in an angry reformist way, way, like a less humorous Dickens and a more mor e emotional emot ional Wells, Wells, of the personal pe rsonal sufferings induced by economi econo mics cs really really economics, one feels, even when he is writing writing of o f caste. His sharpest, best-organized best- organized novel is Untouchable, Untouchable, which was very highly highly thought of by E.M.Forster. E.M.Fo rster. It is an interesting combination of hard material, narrow nar row specifi s pecificc theme and throbbing t hrobbing Shelleyan m manner. anner. The action, occupying a single day, is precipitated by a great “catastrophe”, an accidental “touching” 323


in the morning. Everything that follows is affected by it, even the innocent and vividly realized hockey match. Of the three solutions hinted at to the problem of the untouchable — Christ, Christ, Gandhi and Main Drainage — it is the t he last which is more favourable. Untouchable (1935), Untouchable (1935), which “poured out o ut like hot lava” from the volcano of o f Anand’s Anand’s “crazed imagination” despite the t he best best efforts efforts of scholars scholars like like Bonamy Bonamy Dobree, Dobree, Maurice Maurice Brown and others to seek seek a publis publisher her,, was rejected by nineteen publishers for “too much misery, evil and degradation in it”. E.M.Forster, whose Preface to the novel made the book acceptable to a publisher, publisher, has, without rhetoric and circumlocution, circumlocution, praised pr aised Anand Anand for “directness of the attack” at tack” and has frankly brought out the fact that Indians I ndians “… have evolved a hideous nightmare unknown unkno wn to the West: West: the t he belief belief that the t he products product s are ritually ritually unclean unclean as well as physical physically ly unpleasant, unpleasant, and that those who carry them away or otherwise ot herwise help help to t o dispose of o f them are outcastes outcast es from society. society. Really, Really, it takes tak es the human mind to evolve anything so devili d evilish. sh. No animal could have hit on it.” Anand was hailed for portraying por traying the stark realiti r ealities es of poverty po verty,, dirt and squalor that t hat engulfed the milli millions ons of silent sufferers, sufferers, and for his sincere protest prot est against such an internal system. Describing Describing the t he creative process of writing writing Untouchable, Untouchable, he says: Untouchable was, Untouchable was, in its sources, a ballad ballad born of o f the freedom freedom I had tried to win for truth truth against the age-old age -old lies of the Hindus by which which they upheld discrimination discrimination …. Someone So meone in the great Mahabharata great Mahabharata had had cried “Caste, caste - there is no caste”. And I wanted to repeat this truth trut h to the ‘dead ‘de ad souls’, sou ls’, from the compassion of my self-explanations self-explanations in the various Hindu hells, hells, in the hope that I would wo uld myself myself come clean after after I had been through the t he sewer, as it were. wer e. The novel has proved a great gr eat success; it has not o nly run into many editions, editions, but has been been transl translated ated into more more than twenty twenty langu language agess of the world. world. The The story of Bakha Bakha,, a scaven scavenger ger,, a descendant of “the weakness of the down-trodden, down-trodd en, the helplessness helplessness of the poor”embodies poor”embodies Anand’s vehement protest prot est against ag ainst the indignant fourfold Hindu caste cast e system, which kills kills the valiant, valiant, the t he beautiful and the glorious. In I n the midst of his spiritual conflicts conflicts and emotional emot ional crises, the sweeper-lad s weeper-lad wishes to t o dress himself himself like like a “gentleman” “gen tleman” in the ‘fashion’ of Tommies. Tommies. He is noble, healthy, healthy, vibrates with life, life, just in contrast to his dirty profession and appall ap pallingl ingly y subhuman status. The graphic g raphic description of o f Bakha’s Bakha’s morning and evening rounds round s of regimental latrines, his deputizing for his father’s job in in the town, town, the insults heaped on o n him for not announcing his approach, approac h, the molestation molestatio n of his his sister Sohini by the devil incarnate incarnate,, hollow-cheeked hollow-chee ked Pundit Pund it Kali Nath, the flingin flinging g of the t he bread on the brick pavement near the gutt er to be picked up by him - all these present p resent a world of untold unt old horrid horr id miseries miseries and humiliatio humiliations. ns. Anand’s Anand’s rage against aga inst the high-caste Hindus, who have cleverly condemned a whole communi co mmunity ty of people, peop le, is evident. “Noble savages” like Bakha and Munoo are not permitted to give vent to all the latent potenti potential aliities ties of manh manhood ood in them them.. Bakha Bakha’’s sinc sincere ere cravi craving ng for for “Red “Red Lamp Lamp”” cigar cigarette ettes, s, trouser trousers, s, puttees, puttees, sola sola topi is an unconsci unconscious ous reaction reaction against against the lif life that has been forced forced upon him him by his “smoky “smoky world of refuse”. His traumatic experience, experience, when he gets a slap for poll po lluting uting the caste Hindu by his his unholy touch followed by the crescendo cres cendo of o f “Dirty “Dirty dof! Son So n of a bitch”, forces him to delve deep into his conscience, the ver very y truth of his existence. He realizes rea lizes his his fate: “Untouchable! “Untou chable! Untouchable! Untouc hable! That’ That ’s the word! wor d! Untouchable! Untou chable! I am an Untouchable!” Untouc hable!” And so 324


long as he continues co ntinues to clean c lean the latrines, he will will never get rid of o f this label. label. “They think we are dirt, because beca use we clean their dirt.” He occasionally o ccasionally stirs out o off his his humility humility and is is on the point of o f revolt, but the sparks of his angry voice are hushed by his realization of harsh realities. realities. The novel proposes three probable solutions to Bakha’s Bakha’s problem of cleaning cleaning the latrines: he can accept the kind offer of the S Salvation alvation Army Chief, Chief, Colonel! Hutchinson’ he can take tak e comfort in Gandhi’s Gandhi’s mild mild reprimand of caste-Hindus cast e-Hindus and the eulogy e ulogy of untouchables unto uchables as Harijan Harijanss (sons of God); he can ca n hope for new life wi with th the introduction introdu ction of “the machine”, suggested by the poet. The last last (the machi machine), ne), an obvious obvious referen reference ce to the the flush flush system system,, appeal appealss to him him and he wishes to know further about is. Anand’s protest against the miserable life of the untouchables acquires a new significance significance in the context o off numerous recent incidents of o f atrocities, comm co mmitted itted by the Hindus on the Harijans the Harijans.. How they are burnt alive, killed killed in cold blood, deprived de prived of their land and houses—is houses —is a sordid sord id story with no parallel in histo history ry to match it. It is a m matt atter er of great irony that most of the poli po litical tical parties in in India have professed at one stage or the other to be true t rue Gandhians but little little substantial substantial has been done for the emancipation emancipation of the untouchables. untouchables. Practice of untouchabil untoucha bility ity has been made a cr crim imee under the t he Indian Constitution, Constitut ion, still there are mill millions ions of untouchables who have to depend on the dirty job of cleaning the latrines for their bread. Political promises promises to ameliorat amelioratee their sufferings sufferings are just a lip service, as nothing very concrete has been done do ne to introduce flush system system in all the cities and villages villages of the country. co untry. India’s India’s present predicamen predicament, t, after thirty years of independence, independence, is a vindi vindication cation of Anand’s Anand’s vivid vivid imagination. imagination. In the t he matter of religion, religion, Anand has always vehemently protested prot ested against the mystic mystic origins and myth-making. myth-making. He recall re callss his first first sharp reaction react ion to the t he merciful merciful God on o n the death of o f his his innocent cousin co usin Kaushalya at the t he tender age of nine: But God did not answer my protest. So I have tended to regard regar d him, him, since then, as the enemy of mankind. mankind. In fact, fac t, from fro m that time my belief belief in the man with a big beard sitting s itting on the top to p of the sky, determin deter mining ing the fate of everyone, everyo ne, has been shaken more mor e or less completely co mpletely.. Anand was impressed by the Christian missionary missionary Colonel Hutc Hutchinson; hinson; but he rejected Christianity Christianity for its unscientif u nscientific ic creation of myth and its view that tha t man is a born sinner. Naturall Natur ally y, Anand made humanity as his his chief concern. The T he gospel of o f Christ, Christ, as a s inUntouchable inUntouchable,, does not interest inter est Bakha. Bak ha. He raises a volley of questions about abou t the identity of “Yessuh “Yessuh Messih”. Hutchinson’s Hutchinson’s devotional devot ional songs fail arouse Bakha’s Bakha’s emotions, since Christianity does not appear ap pear to touch t ouch the fringe of his problem. problem. Theology does not satisfy him him and the temporary charm of Sahib’s Sahib’s company soon soo n evaporates. evaporate s. The Colonel Colone l makes makes a muddle of the whole thing. Hinduism also, with its network ne twork of castes, cast es, its mysticism and illogical illogical and blind blind faiths, has been severely opposed opp osed by Anand. Anand. Bakha’s B akha’s visit visit to the t he temple is much revealing. The author autho r gives a strikingly realistic analysis analysis of Bakha’s Bakha’s mental confli c onflicts cts and spiritual crises, when he is filled filled with awe at the sight of twelve-headed twelve-headed and ten-armed ten -armed gods and goddesses godde sses of the Hindus. Hindus. The invocation to dif d ifferent ferent gods god s and goddesses godd esses (“Ram, Ram, Sri, Hari, Narayan, Sri Sr i Krishna”, Krishna”, “Hey Hanuman Jodah, Kali Mai”, “Om, Om, Shanti Deva”) appears to draw him towards the temple and 325


“seemed to advance towards him like like a monster, and to envelop him”. him”. Anand frowns at the religion religion that does do es not all a llow ow its devotee devot ee to have a free access to his deity deity.. The low hoarse cry “Polluted, Poll Po lluted uted,, Poll Po lluted” uted” rudely ru dely shakes him, him, for, to his amazement, he discovers that t hat his entry has defiled the temple of his deity. deity. He is dazed and his blood is congealed. His discovery of the priest’s attempt to molest Sohini rouses not only the hero in him him to strike back, but also his indignation indignation at the co ld lifeless lifeless gods who fail to protect prot ect an innocent girl g irl from the indecent advances and lusty clutches of o f a devil. Anand Anand mocks at the hypocrisy and hollowness of Hindu religion for its its curse c urse of o f “pollution “pollution by touch” tou ch” which baffles baffles all reason, sensibi s ensibility lity and good sense, s ense, in contrast to t o the t he allowance of all sorts of unclean practices like gargling and spitting in the stream, relieving in the open, swindling by the moneylender as Ganesh Nath does, and manipulation manipulation of the t he scales by the confectioner co nfectioner..

21.4.7.2 Coolie In Coolie(1936), Coolie(1936), the t he macrocosm of real India, Anand Anand presents, as John Lehmann puts, “... not the feudal feudal splendors splendors and feudal feudal mysti mystici cism sm of traditi traditional onal India Indian n literatu literature, re, but the hard and suff su ffering ering lives of the milli millions ons of o f his his country’s co untry’s poor”. Munoo’ Munoo ’s forced journey from his idyllic idyllic surro surroundings undings through throug h the madhouse prison pr ison of a shrewd and vindictive vindictive housewife, housew ife, the wife wife of a bank babu, babu, the short respite resp ite at Daulatpur under the roof of Prabha, the sordid sord id cotton industry of Bombay and lastly the crazy, yet comforting comfort ing world of a highly immora immorall and pretentious pretentio us Anglo-Indian woman in the t ranquil hills hills and valleys with death following on its heels - is variably a ceaseless quest for happiness. Munoo, the t he cooli coo lie, e, has been humanized and is assigned assigned a place in serious literature literat ure by Anand, and a nd he represents repr esents millions millions of coolies, coo lies, not only o nly in in India but all all over the world. world. He is an objec objectt of exploi exploitati tation on in one way or the other and he has has to bear bear his misfortunes misfortunes with a patient pat ient shrug. “The wild bird of his his heart fluttered every ever y now and then t hen with desire for happiness.” Anand indicts indicts the new value o off the so-called social order for its selfishness selfishness and sadistic sa distic cruelty. cruelty. Munoo Muno o is thoroug t horoughly hly convinced convinced of o f his inferiority inferiority,, and the t he soul of o f a servant is instilled instilled into him. him. In a rage, rage , he bursts out: o ut: “The “Th e babus are babus are the Sahib-logs, Sahib-logs, and all servants look alike; there must only be two kinds of people in the world: the rich r ich and the poor.” The novel is a sincere protest prot est against the emergence of o f a new world of money, money, wageslaves, distinction of class and status and man’s man’s haunting loneliness. Anand Anand discovers to t o his shock that t hat the coolies coo lies like like Munoo are completely co mpletely beaten down do wn by the curse of o f money money power in the Iron Age. The mean prevailing social order and the new values created by this new civili civilization zation strike str ike at, as in the case ca se of Munoo, the instinctive natural natural warm-heartedness and spirituality spirituality that underli unde rline ne the real zest for life. life. Its infernal infernal effects effects lead to tragic waste and suffering suffering and the t he individual individual is is not able to redeem r edeem himself himself from from the clutches of hard possessiveness and a soft emotionalism. emot ionalism. Even the best moments of Munoo’ Munoo ’s life life marred by the thought: thou ght: “We “We belong to suffering! suffering! We We belong to t o suffering! My love.” love.” They are born bor n to suffer suffer and “blush unseen”. The introduction introduct ion of machine machine increased increased production pro duction but it gave birth to the problem pro blemss of employment, employment, slum areas, lust for w wealth, ealth, colonial colonial imperialism imperialism and, and, above above all, the confl con flicts icts between between 326


the labour and the mill-owners, mill-owners, followed by strikes and lock-outs, lock-out s, trade unionism, unionism, psychological complexes and emotional steril ste rility ity.. Anand discovers in the life of cooli coo lies es a real world of o f shocking miseries miseries and a strange race “shivering, weak, bleary, bleary, with twisted, t wisted, ugly u gly black faces, black, filthy filthy,, gutless, gut less, spineless ... vacant looks, idiots, idiots, looking at the t he smoky heavens ... with w ith horrible unexpressed pain, p ain, large large writ w rit on their t heir faces”. faces”. The crushing weight of machine-civil machine-civilization ization causes a fearful conflict conflict of master-servant relationship. relationship. Even the t he primary emotions of love are a re adversely affected, affected, as the t he workers are ar e stuck in the mud of contentment. The sharks, bulls and bears of industrial world exploit the coolies’ co olies’ lack of resistance, wit and courage. cou rage. A life, life, like that of Munoo, deprived of its its courage co urage and healthy passions, cannot produce pro duce anything anything creative. The profes professi sional onal Trade Trade Union Union leaders, eaders, the modern modern Judas, Judas, who sing sing to the temper temper of capit capital alis ists, ts, like ike Lala Onkar Nath, Nat h, further increase increa se the suff su fferings erings of the co olies. Love of o f money, money, which is a natural natur al corollary coro llary of industrial industr ial life, life, has dehumanized man. It has robbed ro bbed him of his passions and a nd given him the numbness of iron. Even Munoo’s uncle Daya Ram becomes a victim of the lure of money, money, with his characteristi characte risticc hillman’ hillman’ss tender te nder emotions -hardened and dried up. He wants to keep k eep the t he wages of Munoo to himself and leaves him to the t he mercy of the ill-tempered, ill-tempered, selfish selfish and vindictive woman, to be crushed cru shed to death like his mother, who “moved the mill stone, sto ne, round rou nd and round rou nd till she had languished and expired.” He gets g ets blows on o n his his ribs for hunger and ragged ragged tunic for his clothe clothes. s. Daya Ram’s love of money and the sense of o f inferiority, inferiority, during the service in the bank, cchil hilll all his warm-heartedness. warm-hearted ness. It has been maintained by many many scholars that it is not possible p ossible for for a writer to create c reate significant significant works wor ks in a language that is not his mot mother-to her-tongue. ngue. Anand’s Anand’s entire fiction is a protest prote st against such a baseless conviction. conviction. His language language is an easy natural Indian English. English. It is a shade of English just just like Irish English or London Cockney, C ockney, with the inevi inevitable table echoes echo es of the mothertongue. With its Indian queerness and distortions, Anand’ Anand’ss technique of word-coin-age, wo rd-coin-age, use of swear words, wor ds, epithets from Punjabi and Hindustani Hindustani reveal the real personality of the speaker and make him characteristically characteristically revealing. revealing. Speaking of the language of the Indo-English writers, Raja Rao remarks: One has to convey in a language language that is not one’s one’s own, the spirit that is one’s one’s own. One has to convey co nvey the various shades and omissions of a certain thought-movement that looks maltreated in an alien language. I used the word “alien”, yet English is not really an alien language to t o us.... us. ... We are all instinctively bili bilingual, ngual, many of us writing w riting in our language and in English. We We cannot canno t write write like the English. E nglish. We We should sho uld not. not . We We cannot ca nnot write w rite only o nly as Indians. We We have grown to look at a t the large world as part of us. In fact, the t he imaginative imaginative use of the E Engli nglish sh language in creative work wo rk is different different from “higgledy and piggledy” English. Surprisingly enough, there are about one thousand Indian words wor ds in the Oxford English Dictionary, Anand’s Anand’s own contribution co ntribution exceeding exc eeding fifty fifty words. It is the socio-economic socio-ec onomic changes changes that characterize char acterize the Indian English. English. The hand-over of the mothertongue continues in the expression of even those Indians, Indians, who have the privilege privilege of getting get ting education at Oxford or o r Cambridge Cambridge or London. Hence the conscious use of phrase from 327


Indian languages in English is natural. About his h is first first novel,Untouchable novel, Untouchable,, Anand recalls: In sinking sinking my own roots root s into Bakha’s world, world, I had overcome overco me the partial isolation isolation of living living for some so me years abroad abro ad and talking t alking for long periods pe riods in English rather than t han in Punjabi. And Gandhi had had said: “If you don’t want to write w rite in your mother-to mother-tongue ngue then say your say in any other language that comes c omes to hand.” Again Again he had advised: advised: “The ardour of the untouchabl unto uchables es who had become touchables in the Sabarmati Ashram Sabarmati Ashram had had obliterated the intellectualized falsi alsiti ties es of of the the clev clever er Bl Bloomsb oomsbury uryiite in in me. me. I had retai retained ned the love love of word word vibrat vibration ions. s. I wanted wante d to show s how the growth gro wth of o f a native native soul sou l from from within the native body, the glimmer glimmer of flashes flashes of consciousness conscious ness in the supposedly most depressed depre ssed people, peo ple, the craving for life life right in in the midst of misery misery and torpor. to rpor.

In the end, e nd, it may be remarked that it is only a talented talente d writer like Anand who can, with the help of the mother-tongue, create the actual atmosphere by depicting depicting realisticall realistically y the tensi t ensions, ons, confusions and emotional crises of his characters. Untouchable and Untouchable and Coolie are Coolie are brilliant examples of the creative activity in Indian literature. Anand’s works are a long series of his sincere protest protest agains againstt social social evil evils in the hope of seeki seeking ng happi happine ness ss for hims himsel elff and the toili toiling ng mill million ions. s. He writes: The passions which have occupied me were, perhaps, my own dominant dominant moods, and, therefore, all those characters c haracters may be said to be part of o f the same autobiography, of the torments, ecstasies and deliriums of the last two generations, in search of happiness on this earth, for myself and other human beings.

21.4.7.3 Morning Face Face and Private Life of an Indian Prince As a writer Mulk Raj Anand lacks lacks the t he concrete concre te sagacity sagac ity,, the fines the finesse se,, the “appetite for the illustr illustrational” ational” - to use Henry He nry James’s James’s phrase - which marks marks everything that R. R.K.Nar K.Narayan ayan writes; nor does d oes he have that t hat sense of o f the metaphysical nature of man we find find in the other distinguished novelist, novelist, Raja Rao. But he has a stricken st ricken and genuine feelin feeling g for the deprived, a grasp of o f the social structure structur e of his society and an extraordinary extrao rdinary fluency fluency of communication. communication. This fluency fluency of communication has something so mething Russian in it, and Russian R ussian too (but in an infini infinitely tely more attractive sense than the earlier Marxist-dominated way) are two later works, Morn works, Morning ing Face (1968) and Priv and Private ate Life of an Indian Indian Prince Prince (revised, 1970). These two t wo books book s which which are, it appears from Saros Cowasjee’s introduction, highly autobiographical, summon up the great name of Dostoevsky Dosto evsky in their pouring out of an intensely realized realized personal persona l grief. They show in addition how the t he mind mind which created Coolie came Coolie came to be formed, how t he boy Krishna Krishna once folded lovingly lovingly into the family family,, becomes be comes coldly detached and alone. The T he rhythm of this desperate desper ate progress is defin defined ed with with an unusual unusual purity purity and precision precision,, and and so with with the same mastery mastery is the collapse of the prince’s mind mind in Pri in Private vate Life of an Indian Prince. Prince. In In both these works, wor ks, free as they are from undue political scaffolding, scaffolding, there is an extraordinary e xtraordinary combination combination of o f psychological 328


percepti perception on and human human agony. agony. Like all themes themes in art, the theme of exploitation explo itation and a nd social protest prot est in Mulk Raj Anand’s novels also has its corre co rrelates lates in life – in in his own life as well iin n the life around arou nd him. One of these the se correlates was the cantonment. c antonment. He always moved with his father father who, who , as a soldier in army, army, shifted shifted from cantonment to cantonment. He gained gained first-hand knowledge of o f the under-privileged under-privileged particul particularl arly y those of the pre-parti pre-partition tioned ed Punjab. Punjab. Anand Anand had lived ived in the society society of the chil children of untouchables in his childhood and youth. Naturally, therefore, Anand had a feeling of tenderness and sympathy sympathy for the t he down-trodden, down-tro dden, which prompted him to portray po rtray their exploitation in his novels. He himself had been the victim of beatings by the police p olice during the th e Jalianwala Bagh. This may be one of the situations situat ions which created in him an unconscious inclination inclination to project project beatings beatings in his his novel novels. s. His His stay with with Gandhi Gandhiji ji in Sabarm Sabarmati ati Ashram Ashram and his his associa association tion with the students’ Movement, the Kisan Sabha and the Indian National Congress in 1928 would have added poignancy po ignancy to his treatment of social protest. prot est. Anand’s Anand’s range of the theme of social protest has widened from its social aspects to economic and political political ones from novel to novel in the early stage of his career. As a result resu lt of his contact conta ct with Gandhij G andhiji, i, he could cou ld gain close and sympathetic understanding not only o nly of the social soc ial injustices injustices but also of the economic eco nomic and political oppression oppressio n of the down-trodd do wn-trodden en by the high high class people for their own ends. The exploiters in his novels are big landlords, landlords, money-lenders, feudal lords, industrialists, capitali cap italists, sts, tea-planters, temple-priests, temple-priests, tradesmen t radesmen,, school schoo l masters and other o ther high class people. The exploited are the untouchables, landless peasants, laborers and coolies etc. With such a penetr penetrati ating ng insig nsight ht into the social social protest protest and and such a touchin touching g presen presentati tation on of its its vari various ous facets, acets, Anand has carved out o ut for himself himself a niche niche in the temple of fame.

21.5 Le Lett Us Sum Up Through the t he discussion discussion in this unit, we come to realize realize that Anand is the only Indian English English novelist novelist who shows sho ws a thorough tho rough study st udy and understanding of world fiction. fiction. He is saturated saturat ed with the fictional fictional forms forms right from the days of Cervantes down to the present age. He agrees with E.M.Forster’s E.M.Forst er’s view view that the t he content of o f fiction fiction has not changed change d though the techni tec hnique que has changed considerably and the story st ory in the traditional form has, to a great extent, extent , been replaced by the pattern pattern in the narrati narrative. ve. Like Like Percy Percy Lubbock, Lubbock, he stresse stressess that the novel novel has grown in the hands of the masters. From Cervantes’ and and Boccaccio’s simple simple narratives, it it has undergone an almost complete co mplete change in the t he form of Tolstoy’s Tolstoy’s imaginative portrayal portra yal of inner life life as against aga inst the outer ou ter events which usuall usua lly y appear to govern human life life in the works of Thomas Nash, Nas h, Robert Greene, Mrs. Aphra Behn, Fieldin Fielding, g, Smol S mollett lett and Dickens. In the end, it may be said that Anand as a fiction fiction writer has contributed cont ributed not only to the growth gro wth of the Indian English novel, novel, but also also to the novel novel as a literar iterary y genre. genre. His His high high concepti conception on of the role role of Indi Indian Englis English h writer writer also sums up his his own contribution co ntribution to the development deve lopment of the novel.


Accord Ac cordiing to Anand Anand ‘there ‘there is a genu genuiine and vital vital conne connecti ction on betwee between n art art and and li life’. 329


Discuss. 2.

Anan Anand d opines opines that that the the novel novel shoul should d not not be be an exposi expositi tion on of some some sys system tem of phil philosophy; osophy; rather it should sho uld portray the wisdom of the heart. heart . Illuminate. Illuminate.

3.

Anand Anand regard regardss art art and and li literatur teraturee “as “as the the instr instrum umen ents ts of hum humanism anism”. ”. Subs Substan tanti tiate ate your your views.

4.

Anand Anand is averse averse to the the artif artifiiciali ciality ty of prose style style.. Prove Prove the importan mportance ce of this this statement. statement.

5.

Anand nand’’s fi fiction ction may may be call called ed “a “a li literatu terature re of of prote protest st”. ”. Disc Discus uss. s.

6.

‘Ana ‘Anand, nd, with with his his chara character cteriistic stic dogged doggedne ness ss delve delved d deep deep into into the the depth depth of human human consciousness of o f the lowly, lowly, the t he squalor and a nd ugliness ugliness of human life, life, against a background backgro und of taboos-ridden society and its callous laws’. Discuss.

7.

Anand’s Untouchable and Untouchable and coolie, coolie, evidence his steep “journey away from Bloomsbury literary literary consciousness co nsciousness to the t he non-literary worlds, whose denizens have have always been considered ‘vulgar’ ‘vulgar ’ and unfit for for the t he respectable respecta ble worlds”. Discuss.

8.

Anand Anand identi dentifies fies hi himsel mselff with with the despai despair, r, helpl helplessn essness ess,, agony agony and and misery of hisprotagonists hisprotago nists like like Bakha and Munoo whom who m he elevates to the status st atus of heroes of o f fiction fiction from the darkest pits of o f poverty, squalor and degradation. degradat ion. Discuss.

9.

Anand Anand has has been been calle called d the the cham champi pion on of down-trodde down-trodden n and underunder-pri privi villeged people. people. Discuss.


Berry Berry,, Margar Margaret, et, Mul Mulk k RajAnan Anand: d: The The Man and the Nove Noveli list, st, Amster Amsterdam dam : Ori Oriental ental Press, 1971.

2.

Cowa Cowassjee, ee, Sar Saros, os, Cool Cooliie: An Assess sessm ment en , Delhi O.U. P., 1976. 19 76. t, Delhi O.U.P

3.

Cowas Cowasjjee, ee, Saros, Saros, So So Many Many Fre Freed edom oms: s: A Stud Study y of the the Maj Major Ficti Fiction on of Mul Mulk Raj Raj Anand. Anand. Delhi O.U.P., O.U.P., 1977. 1 977.

4.

Derret, Derret, M.E. M.E. The Modern Modern Indi Indian an Novel Novel in Engl Engliish. Brusse Brussells: Unive Universi rsiti ti Libre Libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, 1966. 196 6.

5.

Dutt, Dutt, Prabh Prabhat at Kum Kumar ar.. “Mu “Mullk RajAnan Anand d in in Rel Relati ation on to Tag Tagore ore,, Prem Prem Chan Chand d and and Sarat Sarat Chatterji”, Contemporary Indian Literature, Literature, V-II-12 (Dec. 1965), 19-20. 1 9-20.

6.

Gupta, G.S.Balara .S.Balarama, ma, Mulk Mulk RajAnand Anand:: A Study Study of his his Ficti Fiction on in Human Human Perspecti Perspective ve , , Bareilly Bareilly:: Prakash Book Boo k Depot, Depot , 1974.

7.

Iyen Iyenga garr, K.R. K.R.Sr Sriiniva nivas. s. Indi Indian an Writi ritin ng in Engl Engliish , Bombay: , Bombay: Asia Publishing House, House , 1962.

330


8.

Linds Lindsay ay,, Jack. Jack. The The Ele Elepha phant nt and and the Lotus: Lotus: A study study of the the Novel Novelss of Mulk Mulk Raj Raj Anand Anand,, Bombay : Kutab Popular, 1965.

9.

Mukh Mukher erjjee, ee, Meen Meenak aksh shii. The The Twice wice Born Fict Fictiion. on. New Delhi: Heinemann Heinemann Educational Educat ional Books, 1971.

10.

Naik, Naik, M.K. M.K. Mulk Mulk Raj Raj Anan Anand. d. Del Delhi: hi: Arnold Arnold-He -Hein inem eman ann, n, 1973 1973..

11.

Raizada Raizada,, Harish. Harish. The Lotus Lotus and and the Rose, Rose, Alig Aligarh arh : Facul Faculty ty of Arts, Arts, A.M.U. A.M.U. 1978. 1978.

12.

Shar Sharma ma,, K.K K.K.. Pers Perspe pect ctiives ves of Mulk Mulk Raj Raj Anan Anand d. Ghaziabad: Vimal Vimal Prakashan, 1978. 1 978. ___________

331


Bharata Natya Shastra

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