Battleship For other uses, see Battleship see Battleship (disambiguation). (disambiguation). 1783.[4] This arms race culminated at the decisive Battle decisive Battle [5][6] A battleship is a large armored large armored warship with warship with a main of Tsushim Tsushimaa in 1905; the outcome of which significantly influenced influenced the design design of HMS Dreadnought .[7][8] The launch of Dreadnought in in 1906 commenced a new nava navall arms arms race race whi which ch was was wide widely lyco cons nsid ider ered ed to have have been been [9] an indir indirec ectt cause cause of Wor orld ld War I. The Naval Treatie Treatiess of the 1920s and 1930s limited the number of battleships, though technical innovation in battleship design continued. Both the Allies the Allies and and the Axis the Axis powers deployed powers deployed battleships during World War II. The value of the battleship has been questioned, even during the period of their prominence.[10] In spite of the immense resources spent on battleships, there were few pitched pitched battlesh battleship ip clashes clashes.. Even Even with their their enormous enormous firepower and protection, battleships were increasingly increasingly vulnerable to much smaller, cheaper weapons: initially the torpedo and torpedo and the naval the naval mine, mine, and later aircraft and the guided missile. missile.[11] The growing range of naval engagements led to the aircraft the aircraft carrier replacing carrier replacing the battleship battleship as the leading capital ship during World War II, with the last battleship to be launched being HMS Vanguard in 1944. Battleships were retained by the United States Navy into Navy into the Cold the Cold War for War for fire fire support purposes support purposes before being stricken from the U.S. Naval U.S. Naval Vessel Register in Register in the 2000s. The firepower of a battleship demonstrated by USS Iowa (c. 1984). The muzzle blast distorts the ocean surface. surface.
1
Ship Shipss of the the line line
battery consisting of heavy caliber battery consisting heavy caliber guns. guns. During the late Main article: Ship article: Ship of the line 19th and early 20th centuries the battleship was the most A ship of the line was a large, unarmored wooden unarmored wooden sail sailpowerful type of warship, and a fleet a fleet of of battleships was vital for any nation any nation that that desired to maintain command maintain command of the sea. sea. The word word battleship was was coin coined ed arou around nd 1794 1794 and and is a concontraction of the phrase line-of-battle ship , ship , the dominant woode woodenn warsh warship ip during during the Ag Agee of Sa Sail il..[1] The term term came came into formal use in the late 1880s to describe a type of ironclad warship, warship,[2] now referred to by historians as preas predreadnought battleships. battleships. In 1906, the commissioning of HMS Dreadnought heral heralded ded a revo revolut lutio ionn in battle battlesh ship ip design. Following Following battleship designs, designs, influenced influenced by HMS Dreadnought , were referred to as "dreadnoughts " dreadnoughts". ". Battleships were a symbol of naval of naval dominance dominance and national might, and for decades the battleship was a major factor in both diplomacy both diplomacy and and military military strategy. strategy.[3] The Napoléon (1850), the first steam battleship global arms global arms race in race in battleship construction began in Europe, following the 1890 publication of Alfred Thayer ing ship on which was mounted a battery battery of of up to 120 Mahan's Mahan 's The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660– smoothbore guns guns and and carronades carronades.. It was a gradual evoluevolu1
2
2 IRON IRONCL CLADS ADS
tion of a basic design that dates back to the 15th century, and, apart from growing in size, it changed little between the adoption of line of line of battle tactics battle tactics in the early 17th century and the end of the sailing battleship’s heyday heyday in the 1830s. 1830s. From 1794, 1794, the alternati alternative ve term 'line of battle battle ship' was contracted (informally at first) to 'battle ship' or 'battleship'.[1] The sheer number of guns fired broadside broadside meant meant a sail battleship could wreck any wooden enemy, holing her hull,, knocking down masts hull down masts,, wrecking her rigging rigging,, and killing her crew. However, the effective effective range of the guns was as little as a few hundred yards, so the battle tactics of sailing ships depended in part on the wind. The first major change to the ship of the line concept was the introduc introduction tionof of stea steam m pow power er as an auxil auxiliar iaryy propulsion system.. Steam system Steam power power was gradually gradually introduc introduced ed to the navy navy in the first first half half of the 19th 19th centu century, ry, initia initiallllyy for small small craft and later for frigates for frigates.. The French The French Navy introduced Navy introduced steam to the line of battle with the 90-gun Napoléon in 1850[12] —the first true steam battleship.[13] Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship-of-the-line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h), regardless of the wind conditions: conditions: a potentially decisi decisive ve advantage advantage in a naval engageme engagement. nt. The introduction of steam accelerated the growth in size of battleships. France and the United Kingdom were Kingdom were the only countries to develop fleets develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships,, although several other navies operated small numships bers of screw battleships, including Russia including Russia (9), (9), Turkey Turkey (3), Sweden (3), Sweden (2), (2), Naples Naples (1), (1), Denmark Denmark (1) (1) and Austria and Austria [14][3] (1).
2
2.1
Explos Explosiv ivee shells shells
Guns that fired explosive or or incendiary incendiary shells were shells were a major threat to wooden ships, and these weapons quickly became widespread after the introduction of 8 inch shell guns as part of the standard armament of French and American line-of-battle ships in 1841. [15] In the Crimean the Crimean War,, six line-of-battle ships and two frigates War frigates of the Russian Black sian Black Sea Fleet destroyed Fleet destroyed seven Turkish frigates and three corvettes corvett es with explosive shells at the Battle the Battle of Sinop in 1853. 1853.[16] Later Later in the war, war, French French ironc ironclad lad floatin floatingg batbatteries used similar weapons against the defenses at the Battle of Kinburn. Kinburn.[17] Nevertheless, wooden-hulled ships stood up comparatively well to shells, as shown in the 1866 Battle of Lissa,, wher Lissa wheree themod the modern ern Austr Austria iann steam steam two-de two-deck cker er SMS Kaiser ranged ranged across a confused battlefield, rammed an Italian ironc ironclad lad and took took 80 hits hits from rom Itali Italian an ironc ironclad lads, s,[18] many of which were shells, [19] but including at least one 300 pound shot at point blank range. Despite losing her bowsprit and bowsprit and her foremast, and being set on fire, she was ready for action again the very next day. [20] 2.2
Iron Iron armor armor and and constru constructi ction on
Iron Ironcclads lads
Main article: Ironclad article: Ironclad warship The adoption of steam power was only one of a number HMS HM S Warrior Warrior (1860) , , the Royal Navy’s first ocean–going iron hulled warship.
The deve develo lopm pmen entt of highhigh-ex expl plosi osive ve shel shells ls made made the use of iron armor iron armor plate plate on warships necessary. In 1859 France 1859 France launched Gloire, the first ocean-going ironclad warship. She had the profile of a ship of the line, cut to one deck due to weight considerati considerations. ons. Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most journeys, Gloire was fitted with a propeller, and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armor. [21] Gloire prompted further inthe Royal Navy, Navy, anxious to prevent France The French Gloire (1859), the first ocean–going ironclad ocean–going ironclad war- novation from the Royal from gaining a technological lead. ship of technological technological advances which revolutionized revolutionized warship design in the 19th century. The ship of the line was overtaken by the ironclad the ironclad:: powered by steam, protected by metal armor, and armed with guns firing high-explosive firing high-explosive shells.. shells
The superior armored frigate Warrior followed followed Gloire by only only 14 month months, s, and both both natio nations ns embar embarke kedd on a progr program am of building new ironclads ironclads and converting converting existing screw ships ships of the line line to armor armored ed friga rigates tes..[22] Withi Withinn two years years,, Italy, Austria, Spain Austria, Spain and and Russia had all ordered ironclad warships, and by the time of the famous clash of the USS the USS
3 Monitor and the CSS Virginia at the Battle of Hampton a mixed-caliber secondary battery amidships around the Roads at least eight navies possessed ironclad ships. [3] superstructure.[2] An early design with superficial similarity to the pre-dreadnought is the British Devastation class of 1871.[25]
The slow-firing 12-inch (305 mm) main guns were the principal weapons for battleship-to-battleship combat. The intermediate and secondary batteries had two roles. Against major ships, it was thought a 'hail of fire' from quick-firing secondary weapons could distract enemy gun crews by inflicting damage to the superstructure, and they would be more effective against smaller ships such as cruisers. Smaller guns (12-pounders and smaller) were The French Redoutable , the first battleship to use steel as the main reserved for protecting the battleship against the threat of building material [23] torpedo attack from destroyers and torpedo boats.[26] Navies experimented with the positioning of guns, in turrets (like the USS Monitor ), central-batteries or barbettes, or with the ram as the principal weapon. As steam technology developed, masts were gradually removed from battleship designs. By the mid-1870s steel was used as a construction material alongside iron and wood. The French Navy’s Redoutable , laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876, was a central battery and barbette warship which became the first battleship in the world to use steel as the principal building material. [24]
3
Pre-dreadnought battleship
The beginning of the pre-dreadnought era coincided with Britain reasserting her naval dominance. For many years previously, Britain had taken naval supremacy for granted. Expensive naval projects were criticised by political leaders of all inclinations. [3] However, in 1888 a war scare with France and the build-up of the Russian navy gave added impetus to naval construction, and the British Naval Defence Act of 1889 laid down a new fleet including eight new battleships. The principle that Britain’s navy should be more powerful than the two next most powerful fleets combined was established. This policy was designed to deterFrance andRussia frombuilding more battleships, but both nations nevertheless expanded their fleets with more and better pre-dreadnoughts in the 1890s.[3]
Main article: Pre-dreadnought battleship The term “battleship” was officially adopted by the Royal
Diagram of HMS Agamemnon (1908), a typical late predreadnought battleship Pre-Dreadnought battleship USS Texas , built in 1892, was the first battleship of the U.S. Navy. Photochrom print c. 1898.
Navy in the re-classification of 1892. By the 1890s, there was an increasing similarity between battleship designs, and the type that later became known as the 'predreadnought battleship' emerged. These were heavily armored ships, mounting a mixed battery of guns in turrets, and without sails. The typical first-class battleship of the pre-dreadnought era displaced 15,000 to 17,000 tons,had a speed of 16 knots (30 km/h), and an armament of four 12-inch (305 mm) guns in two turrets fore and aft with
In the last years of the 19th century and the first years of the 20th, the escalation in the building of battleships became an arms race between Britain and Germany. The German naval laws of 1890 and 1898 authorised a fleet of 38 battleships, a vital threat to the balance of naval power.[3] Britain answered with further shipbuilding, but by the end of the pre-dreadnought era, British supremacy at sea had markedly weakened. In 1883, the United Kingdom had 38 battleships, twice as many as France and almost as many as the rest of the world put together. By 1897, Britain’s lead was far smaller due to compe-
4
4 DREADNOUGHT ERA
tition from France, Germany, and Russia, as well as the development of pre-dreadnought fleets in Italy, the United States and Japan.[27] Turkey, Spain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Chile and Brazil all had second-rate fleets led by armored cruisers, coastal defence ships or monitors.[28] Pre-dreadnoughts continued the technical innovations of the ironclad. Turrets, armor plate, and steam engines were all improved over the years, and torpedo tubes were introduced. A small number of designs, including the American Kearsarge and Virginia classes, experimented with all or part of the 8-inch intermediate battery superimposed over the 12-inch primary. Resultswere poor: recoil factors and blast effects resulted in the 8-inch battery being completely unusable, and the inability to train the primary and intermediate armaments on different targets led to significant tactical limitations. Even though such innovative designs saved weight (a key reason for their inception), they proved too cumbersome in practice. [29]
4
Dreadnought era
See also: Dreadnought In 1906, the British Royal Navy launched the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought . Created as a result of pressure from Admiral Sir John (“Jackie”) Fisher, HMS Dreadnought made existing battleships obsolete. Combining an “all-big-gun” armament of ten 12-inch (305 mm) guns with unprecedented speed (from steam turbine engines) and protection, she prompted navies worldwide to re-evaluate their battleship building programs. While the Japanese had laid down an all-big-gun battleship, Satsuma, in 1904[30] and the concept of an all-big-gun ship had been in circulation for several years, it had yet to be validated in combat. Dreadnought sparked a new arms race, principally between Britain and Germany but reflected worldwide, as the new class of warships became a crucial element of national power. Technical development continued rapidly through the dreadnought era, with steep changes in armament, armor and propulsion. Ten years after Dreadnought 's commissioning, much more powerful ships, the superdreadnoughts, were being built. 4.1
Origin
In thefirst years of the 20th century, several navies worldwide experimented with the idea of a new type of battleship with a uniform armament of very heavy guns. Admiral Vittorio Cuniberti, the Italian Navy’s chief naval architect, articulated the concept of an all-big-gun battleship in 1903. When the Regia Marina did not pursue his ideas, Cuniberti wrote an article in Jane 's proposing an
Vittorio Cuniberti
“ideal” future British battleship, a large armored warship of 17,000 tons, armed solely with a single calibre main battery (twelve 12-inch {305 mm} guns), carrying 300millimetre (12 in) belt armor, and capable of 24 knots (44 km/h).[31] The Russo-Japanese War provided operational experience to validate the 'all-big-gun' concept. At the Yellow Sea and Tsushima, pre-dreadnoughts exchanged volleys at ranges of 7,600–12,000 yd (7 to 11 km), beyond the range of the secondary batteries. It is often held that these engagements demonstrated the importance of the 12-inch (305 mm) gun over its smaller counterparts, though some historians take the view that secondary batteries were just as important as the larger weapons.[3] In Japan, the two battleships of the 1903-4 Programme were the first to be laid down as all-big-gun designs, with eight 12-inch guns. However, the design had armor which was considered too thin, demanding a substantial redesign.[32] The financial pressures of the RussoJapanese War and the short supply of 12-inch guns which had to be imported from Britain meant these ships were completed with a mixed 10- and 12-inch armament. The 1903-4 design also retained traditional triple-expansion steam engines.[33]
5
4.2 Arms race
with the ship (the wing turrets had limited arcs of fire and strained the hull when firing a full broadside, and the top of the thickest armor belt lay below the waterline at full load), the Royal Navy promptly commissioned another six ships to a similar design in the Bellerophon and St. Vincent classes. An American design, South Carolina , authorized in 1905 and laid down in December 1906, was another of the first dreadnoughts, but she and her sister, Michigan, were not A preliminary design for the Imperial Japanese Navy's Satsuma launched until 1908. Both used triple-expansion engines and had a superior layout of the main battery, dispensing was an “all-big-gun” design. with Dreadnought 's wing turrets. They thus retained the same broadside, despite having two fewer guns. As early as 1904, Jackie Fisher had been convinced of the need for fast, powerful ships with an all-big-gun armament. If Tsushima influenced his thinking, it was 4.2 Arms race to persuade him of the need to standardise on 12-inch (305 mm) guns.[3] Fisher’s concerns were submarines and See also: World War I naval arms race destroyers equipped with torpedoes, then threatening to outrange battleship guns, making speed imperative for capital ships.[3] Fisher’s preferred option was his brain- In 1897, before the revolution in design brought about by child, the battlecruiser: lightly armored but heavily armed HMS Dreadnought , the Royal Navy had 62 battleships building, a lead of 26 over France and with eight 12-inch guns and propelled to 25 knots (46 in commission or [27] 50 over Germany. In 1906, the Royal Navy owned the km/h) by steam turbines.[34] field with Dreadnought . The new class of ship prompted It was to prove this revolutionary technology that Dread- an arms race with major strategic consequences. Manought was designed in January 1905, laid down in Oc- jor naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts. tober 1905 and sped to completion by 1906. She carried Possession of modern battleships was not only vital to ten 12-inch guns, had an 11-inch armor belt, and was the naval power, but also, as with nuclear weapons today, first large ship powered by turbines. She mounted her represented a nation’s standing in the world.[3] Germany, guns in five turrets; three on the centerline (one forward, France, Japan,[36] Italy, Austria, and the United States all two aft) and two on the wings, giving her at her launch began dreadnought programmes; while Ottoman Turkey, twice the broadside of any other warship. She retained a Argentina, Russia,[36] Brazil, and Chile commissioned number of 12-pound (3-inch, 76 mm) quick-firing guns dreadnoughts to be built in British and American yards. for use against destroyers and torpedo-boats. Her armor was heavy enough for her to go head-to-head with any other ship in a gun battle, and conceivably win. [35]
5
World War I
See also: Naval warfare of World War I The battleship, particularly the dreadnought, was the dominant naval weapon of the World War I era. There were few serious challenges at that time. The most significant naval battles of World War I, such as Jutland (May 31, 1916 – June 1, 1916), were fought by battleships and their battlecruiser cousins. [37]
HMS Dreadnought (1906)
Dreadnought was to have been followed by three Invincible-class battlecruisers, their construction delayed to allow lessons from Dreadnought to be used in their design. While Fisher may have intended Dreadnought to be the last Royal Navy battleship,[3] the design was so successful he found little support for his plan to switch to a battlecruiser navy. Although there were some problems
By virtue of geography, the Royal Navy was able to use her imposing battleship and battlecruiser fleet to impose a strict and successful naval blockade of Germany and kept Germany’s smaller battleship fleet bottled up in the North Sea: only narrow channels led to the Atlantic Ocean and these were guarded by British forces. [38] Both sides were aware that, because of the greater number of British dreadnoughts, a full fleet engagement would be likely to result in a British victory. The German strategy was therefore to try to provoke an engagement on their terms: either to induce a part of the Grand Fleet to enter
6
5 WORLD WAR I
ing Action of 19 August 1916 proved inconclusive. This reinforced German determination not to engage in a fleet to fleet battle.[41]
German High Seas Fleet during World War I
battle alone, or to fight a pitched battle near the German coastline, where friendly minefields, torpedo-boats and submarines could be used to even the odds.[39] Germany’s submarines were able to break out and raid commerce, but even though they sank many merchant ships, they could not successfully blockade Great Britain – in contrast to Britain’s successful battleship blockade of Germany, which was a major cause of Germany’s economic collapse in 1918. The Royal Navy on the other hand, successfully adopted convoy tactics to combat Germany’s submarine blockade and eventually defeated it. [37]
Warspite and Malaya at Jutland
In the other naval theatres there were no decisive pitched battles. In the Black Sea, engagement between Russian and Turkish battleships was restricted to skirmishes. In the Baltic Sea, action was largely limited to the raiding of convoys, and the laying of defensive minefields; the only significant clash of battleship squadrons there was the Battle of Moon Sound at which one Russian predreadnought was lost. The Adriatic was in a sense the mirror of the North Sea: the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought fleet remained bottled up by the British and French blockade. And in the Mediterranean, the most important use of battleships was in support of the amphibious assault on Gallipoli.[42]
In September 1914, the threat posed to surface ships by German U-boats was confirmed by successful attacks on British cruisers, including the sinking of three British armored cruisers by the German submarine SM U-9 in less than an hour. The British Super-dreadnought HMS Audacious soon followed suit as she struck a mine laid by a German U-boat in October 1914 and sank. Such a threat that German U-boats posed to British dreadBritain’s Grand Fleet noughts, it was enough to cause the Royal Navy to change in the North Sea to reduce The first two years of war saw the Royal Navy’s battle- their strategy and tactics [43] ships and battlecruisers regularly “sweep” the North Sea the risk of U-boat attack. Further near-misses from making sure that no German ships could get in or out. submarine attacks on battleships and casualties amongst Only a few German surface ships that were already at cruisers led to growing concern in the Royal Navy about sea, such as the famous light cruiser Emden, were able the vulnerability of battleships. to raid commerce. Even some of those that did manage As the war wore on however, it turned out that whilst subto get out were hunted down by battlecruisers, as in the marines did prove to be an incredibly dangerous threat to Battle of the Falklands, December 7, 1914. The results older pre-dreadnought battleships, as shown by examples of sweeping actions in the North Sea were battles such such as the sinking of the Mesûdiye, which was caught in as the Heligoland Bight and Dogger Bank and German the Dardanelles by a British submarine[44] and the HMS raids on the English coast, all of which were attempts by Majestic and HMS Triumph were torpedoed by U-21 as the Germans to lure out portions of the Grand Fleet in an well as HMS Formidable, HMS Cornwallis , HMS Briattempt to defeat the Royal Navy in detail. On May 31, tannia etc., the threat posed to dreadnought battleships 1916, a further attempt to draw British shipsinto battleon proved to have been largely a false alarm. HMS AudaGerman terms resulted in a clash of the battlefleets in the cious turned out to have been the only dreadnought sunk Battle of Jutland.[40] The German fleet withdrew to port by a submarine in WWI. [37] While battleships were never after two short encounterswith theBritish fleet. Less than intended for anti-submarine warfare, there was one intwo months later, the Germans once again attempted to stance of a submarine being sunk by a dreadnought battledraw portions of the Grand Fleet into battle. The result- ship. HMS Dreadnought rammed and sank the German
7
6.1 Rise of air power
U-29 on 18 March 1915 off Moray Firth. [37]
Profile drawing of HMS Nelson commissioned 1927
The sinking of SMS Szent István , after being torpedoed by Italian motor boats
Whilst the escape of the German fleet from the superior British firepower at Jutland was effected by the German cruisers and destroyers successfully turning away the British battleships, the German attempt to rely on U-boat attacks on the British fleet failed. [45] Torpedo boats did have some successes against battleships in World War I, as demonstrated by the sinking of the British pre-dreadnought HMS Goliath by Muâvenet-i Millîye during the DardanellesCampaign and the destruction of the Austro-Hungarian dreadnought SMS Szent István by Italian motor torpedo boats in June 1918. In large fleet actions, however, destroyers and torpedo boats were usually unable to get close enough to the battleships to damage them. The only battleship sunk in a fleet action by either torpedo boats or destroyers was the obsolescent German pre-dreadnought SMS Pommern . She was sunk by destroyers during the night phase of the Battle of Jutland. The German High Seas Fleet, for their part, were determined not to engage the British without the assistance of submarines; and since the submarines were needed more for raiding commercial traffic, the fleet stayed in port for much of the war.[46]
6
international limitations to prevent a costly arms race breaking out.[48] While the victors were not limited by the Treaty of Versailles, many of the major naval powers were crippled after the war. Faced with the prospect of a naval arms race against the United Kingdom and Japan, which would in turn have led to a possible Pacific war, the United States was keen to conclude the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess, and required Britain to accept parity with the U.S. and to abandon the British alliance with Japan. [49] The Washington treaty was followed by a series of other naval treaties, including the First Geneva Naval Conference (1927), the First London Naval Treaty (1930), the Second Geneva Naval Conference (1932), and finally the Second London Naval Treaty (1936), which all set limits on major warships. These treaties became effectively obsolete on September 1, 1939 at the beginning of World War II, but the ship classifications that had been agreed upon still apply.[50] The treaty limitations meant that fewer new battleships were launched in 1919–39 than in 1905–14. The treaties also inhibited development by putting maximum limits on the weights of ships. Designs like the projected British N3-class battleship, the first American South Dakota class, and the Japanese Kii class—all of which continued the trend to larger ships with bigger guns and thicker armor—never got off the drawing board. Those designs which were commissioned during this period were referred to as treaty battleships.[51]
Inter-war period 6.1
For many years, Germany simply had no battleships. The Armistice with Germany required that most of the High Seas Fleet be disarmed and interned in a neutral port; largely because no neutral port could be found, the ships remainedin British custody in Scapa Flow, Scotland. The Treaty of Versailles specified that the ships should be handed over to the British. Instead, most of them were scuttled by their German crews on June 21, 1919 just before the signature of the peace treaty. The treaty also limited the German Navy, and prevented Germany from building or possessing any capital ships.[47]
Rise of air power
As early as 1914, the British Admiral Percy Scott predicted that battleships would soon be made irrelevant by aircraft.[52] By the end of World War I, aircraft had successfully adopted the torpedo as a weapon.[53] In 1921 the Italian general and air theorist Giulio Douhet completed a hugely influential treatise on strategic bombing titled The Command of the Air , which foresaw the dominance of air power over naval units.
In the 1920s, General Billy Mitchell of the United States Army Air Corps, believing that air forces had rendered The inter-war period saw the battleship subjected to strict navies around the world obsolete, testified in front of
8
6 INTER-WAR PERIOD
all of their battleships, plus their battlecruisers, with distinctive "pagoda" structures, though the Hiei received a more modern bridge tower that would influence the new Yamato-class battleships. Bulges were fitted, including steel tube arrays to improve both underwater and vertical protection along the waterline. The U.S. experimented with cage masts and later tripod masts, though after Pearl Harbor some of the most severely damaged ships such as West Virginia and California were rebuilt to a similar appearance to their Iowa-class contemporaries (called tower masts). Radar, which was effective beyond visual Bombing tests which sank SMS Ostfriesland (1909), September contact and was effective in complete darkness or adverse 1921 weather conditions, was introduced to supplement optical fire control.[57] Congress that “1,000 bombardment airplanes can be built Even when war threatened again in the late 1930s, battleand operated for about the price of one battleship” and ship construction did not regain the level of importance that a squadron of these bombers could sink a battleship, which it had held in the years before World War I. The making for more efficient use of government funds. [54] “building holiday” imposed by the naval treaties meant This infuriated the U.S. Navy, but Mitchell was never- that the building capacity of dockyards worldwide was theless allowed to conduct a careful series of bombing relatively reduced, and the strategic position had changed. tests alongside Navy and Marine bombers. In 1921, he bombed and sank numerous ships, including the “unsink- In Germany, the ambitious Plan Z for naval rearmaable” German World War I battleship SMS Ostfriesland ment was abandoned in favor of a strategy of submarine warfare supplemented by the use of battlecruisers and the American pre-dreadnought Alabama.[55] and Bismarck -class battleships as commerce raiders. In Although Mitchell had required “war-time conditions”, Britain, the most pressing need was for air defenses and the ships sunk were obsolete, stationary, defenseless and convoy escorts to safeguard the civilian population from had no damage control. The sinking of Ostfriesland was bombing or starvation, and re-armament construction accomplished by violating an agreement that would have plans consisted of five ships of the King George V class. It allowed Navy engineers to examine the effects of various was in the Mediterranean that navies remainedmost communitions: Mitchell’s airmen disregarded the rules, and mitted to battleship warfare. France intended to build six sank the ship within minutes in a coordinated attack. The battleships of the Dunkerque and Richelieu classes, and stunt made headlines, and Mitchell declared, “No sur- the Italians four Littorio-class ships. Neither navy built face vessels can exist wherever air forces acting from land significant aircraft carriers. The U.S. preferred to spend bases are able to attack them.” While far from conclusive, limited funds on aircraft carriers until the South Dakota Mitchell’s test was significant because it put proponents class. Japan, also prioritising aircraft carriers, nevertheof the battleship against naval aviation on the back foot.[3] less began work on three mammoth Yamato-class ships Rear Admiral William A. Moffett used public relations (although the third, Shinano, was later completed as a caragainst Mitchell to make headway toward expansion of rier) and a planned fourth was cancelled. [11] the U.S. Navy’s nascent aircraft carrier program. [56] At the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, the Spanish navy consisted of only two small dreadnought battleships, España and Jaime I . España (originally named Alfonso 6.2 Rearmament XIII ), by then in reserve at the northwestern naval base The Royal Navy, United States Navy, and Imperial of El Ferrol, fell into Nationalist hands in July 1936. Japanese Navy extensively upgraded and modernized The crew aboard Jaime I murdered their officers, mutheir World War I–era battleships during the 1930s. tinied, and joined the Republican Navy. Thus each side Among the new features were an increased tower height had one battleship; however, the Republican Navy generand stability for the optical rangefinder equipment (for ally lacked experienced officers. The Spanish battleships gunnery control), more armor (especially around tur- mainly restricted themselves to mutual blockades, conrarely in direts) to protect against plunging fire and aerial bomb- voy escort duties, and shore bombardment, [58] ing, and additional anti-aircraft weapons. Some British rect fighting against other surface units. In April 1937, ships received a large block superstructure nicknamed the España ran into a mine laid by friendly forces, and sank “Queen Anne’s castle”, such as in the Queen Elizabeth with little loss of life. In May 1937, Jaime I was damand Warspite, which would be used in the new conning aged by Nationalist air attacks and a grounding incident. towers of the King George V -class fast battleships. Ex- The ship was forced to go back to port to be repaired. ternal bulges were added to improve both buoyancy to There she was again hit by several aerial bombs. It was counteract weight increase and provide underwater pro- then decided to tow the battleship to a more secure port, tection against mines and torpedoes. The Japanese rebuilt but during the transport she suffered an internal explo-
9 sion that caused 300 deaths and her total loss. Several Italian and German capital ships participated in the nonintervention blockade. On May 29, 1937, two Republican aircraft managed to bomb the German pocket battleship Deutschland outside Ibiza, causing severe damage and loss of life. Admiral Scheer retaliated two days later by bombarding Almería, causing much destruction, and the resulting Deutschland incident meant the end of German and Italian support for non-intervention.[59]
lantic, the Germans used their battleships as independent commerce raiders. However, clashes between battleships were of little strategic importance. The Battle of the Atlantic was fought between destroyers and submarines, and most of the decisive fleet clashes of the Pacific war were determined by aircraft carriers.
In the first year of the war, armored warships defied predictions that aircraft would dominate naval warfare. Scharnhorst and Gneisenau surprised and sank the aircraft carrier Glorious off western Norway in June 1940.[61] This engagement marked the last time a fleet 7 World War II carrier was sunk by surface gunnery. In the attack on Mers-el-Kébir, British battleships opened fire on the French battleshipsin the harbor near Oran in Algeria with Main article: Battleships in World War II The German battleship Schleswig-Holstein—an obso- their heavy guns, and later pursued fleeing French ships with planes from aircraft carriers. The subsequent years of the war saw many demonstrations of the maturity of the aircraft carrier as a strategic naval weapon and its potential against battleships. The British air attack on the Italian naval base at Taranto sank one Italian battleship and damaged two more. The same Swordfish torpedo bombers played a crucial role in sinking the German commerce-raider Bismarck .
Yamato during sea trials, October 1941.
The Imperial Japanese Navy's Yamato (1940), seen here under air attack in 1945, and her sister ship Musashi (1940) were the heaviest battleships in history.
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise
Pennsylvania leading battleship Colorado and cruisers attack on Pearl Harbor. Within a short time five of eight Louisville , Portland , and Columbia into Lingayen Gulf , U.S. battleships were sunk or sinking, with the rest damPhilippines , January 1945 aged. The American aircraft carriers were out to sea,
however, and evaded detection. They took up the fight, and eventually turned the tide of the war in the Pacific. The sinking of the British battleship Prince of Wales and her escort, the battlecruiser Repulse, demonstrated the vulnerability of a battleship to air attack while at sea without sufficient air cover, settling the argument begun by Mitchell in 1921. Both warships were under way and en route to attack the Japanese amphibious force that had invaded Malaya when they were caught by Japanese landBattleships played a part in major engagements in At- based bombers and torpedo bombers on December 10, lantic, Pacific and Mediterranean theaters; in the At- 1941.[62] lete pre-dreadnought—fired the first shots of World War II with the bombardment of the Polish garrison at Westerplatte;[60] and the final surrender of the Japanese Empire took place aboard a United States Navy battleship, USS Missouri . Between those two events, it had become clear that aircraft carriers were the new principal ships of the fleet and that battleships now performed a secondary role.
10 At many of the early crucial battles of the Pacific, for instance Coral Sea and Midway, battleships were either absent or overshadowed as carriers launched wave after wave of planes into the attack at a range of hundreds of miles. In later battles in the Pacific, battleships primarily performed shore bombardment in support of amphibious landings and provided anti-aircraft defense as escort for the carriers. Even the largest battleships ever constructed, Japan’s Yamato class, which carried a main battery of nine 18-inch (46 cm) guns and were designed as a principal strategic weapon, were never given a chance to show their potential in the decisive battleship action that figured in Japanese pre-war planning.[63] The last battleship confrontation in history was the Battle of Surigao Strait, on October 25, 1944, in which a numerically and technically superior American battleship group destroyed a lesser Japanese battleship group by gunfire after it had already been devastated by destroyer torpedo attacks. All but one of the American battleships in this confrontation had previously been sunk by the attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequently raised and repaired. When Mississippi fired the last salvo of this battle, the last salvo fired by a battleship against another heavy ship, she was “firing a funeral salute to a finished era of naval warfare.”[64] In April 1945, during the battle for Okinawa, the world’s most powerful battleship, [65] the Yamato, was sent out against a massive U.S. force on a suicide mission and sunk by overwhelming pressure from carrier aircraft with nearly all hands lost.
8 COLD WAR
ship was equally irrelevant in the face of a nuclear attack as tactical missiles with a range of 100 kilometres (60 mi) or more could be mounted on the Soviet Kildin-class destroyer and Whiskey-class submarines. By the end of the 1950s, smaller vesselclasses such as destroyers, which formerly offered no noteworthy opposition to battleships, now were capable of eliminating battleships from outside the range of the ship’s heavy guns. The remaining battleships met a variety of ends. USS Arkansas and Nagato were sunk during the testing of nuclear weapons in Operation Crossroads in 1946. Both battleships proved resistant to nuclear air burst but vulnerable to underwater nuclear explosions. [66] The Italian battleship Giulio Cesare was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed Novorossiysk ; she was sunk by a leftover German mine in the Black Sea on October 29, 1955. The two Andrea Doria-class ships were scrapped in 1956.[67] The French Lorraine was scrapped in 1954, Richelieu in 1968,[68] and Jean Bart in 1970.[69] The United Kingdom’s four surviving King George V class ships were scrapped in 1957, [70] and Vanguard followed in 1960.[71] All other surviving British battleships had been sold or broken up by 1949. [72] The Soviet Union’s Marat was scrapped in 1953, Parizhskaya Kommuna in 1957 and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya (back under her original name, Gangut , since 1942)[73] in 1956-7.[73] Brazil’s Minas Geraes was scrapped in Genoa in 1953, [74] and her sister ship São Paulo sank during a storm in the Atlantic en route to the breakers in Italy in 1951.[74]
Argentina kept its two Rivadavia -class ships until 1956 and Chile kept Almirante Latorre (formerly HMS 8 Cold War Canada) until 1959.[75] The Turkish battlecruiser Yavûz (formerly SMS Goeben, launched in 1911) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell her back to Germany was refused. Sweden had several small coastal-defense battleships, one of which, HSwMS Gustav V , survived until 1970.[76] The Soviets scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s, whilst plans to build a number of new Stalingrad -class battlecruisers were abandoned following the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953.[77] Thethree old German battleships Schleswig-Holstein, Schlesien, and Hessen all met similar ends. Hessen was taken over by the Soviet Union and renamed Tsel . She was scrapped in 1960. Schleswig-Holstein was renamed Borodino, and Operation Crossroads was used as a target ship until 1960. Schlesien, too, was ship. She was broken up between 1952 After World War II, several navies retained their ex- used as a target [78] isting battleships, but they were no longer strategically and 1957. dominant military assets. Indeed, it soon became ap- The Iowa-class battleships gained a new lease of life in parent that they were no longer worth the considerable the U.S. Navy as fire support ships. Radar and computercost of construction and maintenance and only one new controlled gunfire could be aimed with pinpoint accuracy battleship was commissioned after the war, HMS Van- to target. The U.S. recommissioned all four Iowa-class guard . During the war it had been demonstrated that battleships for the Korean War and the New Jersey for battleship-on-battleship engagements like Leyte Gulf or the Vietnam War. These were primarily used for shore the sinking of HMS Hood were the exception and not bombardment, New Jersey firing nearly 6,000 rounds of the rule, and with the growing role of aircraft engage- 16 inch shells and over 14,000 rounds of 5 inch projecment ranges were becoming longer and longer, making tiles during her tour on the gunline, [79] seven times more heavy gun armament irrelevant. The armor of a battle-
11
USS Missouri launches a Tomahawk missile during Operation Desert Storm.
rounds against shore targets in Vietnam than she had fired in the Second World War. [80] As part of Navy Secretary John F. Lehman's effort to build a 600-ship Navy in the 1980s, and in response to the commissioning of Kirov by the Soviet Union, the United States recommissioned all four Iowa-class battleships. On several occasions, battleships were support ships in carrier battle groups, or led their own battleship battle group. These were modernized to carry Tomahawk missiles, with New Jersey seeing action bombarding Lebanon in 1983 and 1984, while Missouri and Wisconsin fired their 16 inch (406 mm) guns at land targets and launched missiles during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. Wisconsin served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Desert Storm , firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign. The primary threat to the battleships were Iraqi shore based surfaceto-surface missiles; Missouri was targeted by two Iraqi Silkworm missiles, with one missing and another being intercepted by the British destroyer HMS Gloucester .[81]
The American Texas (1912) is the only preserved example of a Dreadnought-type battleship that dates to the time of the original HMS Dreadnought.
worldwide. A number are preserved as museum ships, either afloat or in drydock. The U.S. has eight battleships on display: Massachusetts, North Carolina , Alabama, Iowa, New Jersey , Missouri , Wisconsin and Texas. Missouri and New Jersey are now museums at Pearl Harbor and Camden, New Jersey, respectively. Iowa is now on display as an educational attraction at the Los Angeles Waterfront in San Pedro, California. Wisconsin was removed from the Naval Vessel Register in 2006 and now serves as a museum ship in Norfolk, Virginia.[89] Massachusetts, which owns the distinction of never having lost a man while in active service, was acquired by the Battleship Cove naval museum in Fall River, Massachusetts in 1965.[90] Texas, the first battleship turned into a museum, is on display at the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site, near Houston. North Carolina is on display in Wilmington, North Carolina. Alabama is on display in Mobile, Alabama. The wreck of the U.S.S. 9 Modern times Arizona, sunk during the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, is designated a historical landmark and national gravesite. All four Iowa ships were decommissioned in the early The only other 20th-century battleship on display is the 1990s, making them the last battleships to see active ser- Japanese pre-dreadnought Mikasa. vice. USS Iowa and USS Wisconsin were maintained to a standard where they could be rapidly returned to service as fire support vessels, pending the development of a superior fire support vessel. These last two battleships 10 Strategy and doctrine were finally stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register in 2006.[82][83][84] The Military Balance and Russian 10.1 Doctrine Foreign Military Review states the U.S. Navy listed one battleship in the reserve (Naval Inactive Fleet/Reserve Battleships were the embodiment of sea power. For 2ndTurn)in2010. [85][86] The U.S. Marine Corpsbelieves Alfred Thayer Mahan and his followers, a strong navy that the current naval surface fire support gun and missile was vital to the success of a nation, and control of the seas programs will not be able to provide adequate fire support was vital for the projection of force on land and overseas. for an amphibious assault or onshore operations. [87][88] Mahan’s theory, proposed in The Influence of Sea Power With thedecommissioning of thelast Iowa-class ships, no Upon History, 1660–1783 of 1890, dictated the role of battleships remain in service or in reserve with any navy the battleship was to sweep the enemy from the seas.[91]
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10 STRATEGY AND DOCTRINE
While the work of escorting, blockading, and raiding might be done by cruisers or smaller vessels, the presence of the battleship was a potential threat to any convoy escorted by any vessels other than capital ships. (This concept came tobe knownas a "fleet in being".) Mahan went on to say victory could only be achieved by engagements between battleships, which came to be known as the “decisive battle” doctrine in some navies, while targeting merchant ships (commerce raiding or guerre de course , as posited by the Jeune École) could never succeed. [92] Mahan was highly influential in naval and political circles throughout the age of the battleship, [3][93] calling for a large fleet of the most powerful battleships possible. Mahan’s work developed in the late 1880s, and by the end of the 1890s it had a massive international impact, [3] in the end adopted by many major navies (notably the British, American, German, and Japanese). The strength of Mahanian opinion was important in the development of the battleships arms races, and equally important in the agreement of the Powers to limit battleship numbers in the interwar era.
the development of radio, direction finding and traffic analysis would come into play, as well, so even shore stations, broadly speaking, joined the battlegroup. [95] ) So for most of their history, battleships operated surrounded by squadrons of destroyers and cruisers. The North Sea campaign of the First World War illustrates how, despite this support, the threat of mine and torpedo attack, and the failure to integrate or appreciate the capabilities of new techniques,[96] seriously inhibited the operations of the Royal Navy Grand Fleet, the greatest battleship fleet of its time. 10.3
Strategic and diplomatic impact
The presence of battleships had a great psychological and diplomatic impact. Similar to possessing nuclear weapons today, the ownership of battleships served to enhance a nation’s force projection.[3]
Even during the Cold War, the psychological impact of a battleship was significant. In 1946, USS Missouri was dispatched to deliver the remains of the ambasThe “fleet in being” suggested battleships could simply by sador from Turkey, and her presence in Turkish and their existence tie down superior enemy resources. This Greek waters staved off a possible Soviet thrust into the in turn was believed to be able to tip the balance of a Balkan region.[97] In September 1983, when Druze miliconflict even without a battle. This suggested even for in- tia in Lebanon's Shouf Mountains fired upon U.S. Maferior naval powers a battleship fleet could have important rine peacekeepers, the arrival of USS New Jersey stopped strategic impact.[94] the firing. Gunfire from New Jersey later killed militia leaders. [98] 10.2
Tactics 10.4
While the role of battleshipsin both World Wars reflected Mahanian doctrine, the details of battleship deployment were more complex. Unlike the ship of the line, the battleships of the late 19th and early 20th centuries had significant vulnerability to torpedoes and mines, which could be used by relatively small and inexpensive craft. The Jeune École doctrine of the 1870s and 1880s recommended placing torpedo boats alongside battleships; these would hide behind the larger ships until gun-smoke obscured visibility enough for them to dart out and fire their torpedoes.[3] While this tactic was vitiated by the development of smokeless propellant, the threat from more capable torpedo craft (later including submarines) remained. By the 1890s, the Royal Navy had developed the first destroyers, which were initially designed to intercept and drive off any attacking torpedo boats. During the First World War and subsequently, battleships were rarely deployed without a protective screen of destroyers.
Value for money
Battleships were the largest and most complex, and hence the most expensive warships of their time; as a result, the value of investment in battleships has always been contested. As the French politician Etienne Lamy wrote in 1879, “The construction of battleships is so costly, their effectiveness so uncertain and of such short duration, that theenterprise of creating an armored fleet seems to leave fruitless the perseverance of a people”. [99] The Jeune École school of thought of the 1870s and 1880s sought alternatives to the crippling expense and debatable utility of a conventional battlefleet. It proposed what would nowadays be termed a sea denial strategy, based on fast, long-ranged cruisers for commerce raiding and torpedo boat flotillas to attack enemy ships attempting to blockade French ports. The ideas of the Jeune Ecole were ahead of their time; it was not until the 20th century that efficient mines, torpedoes, submarines, and aircraft that allowed similar ideas to be effectively Battleship doctrine emphasised the concentration of the were available[99] implemented. battlegroup. In order for this concentrated force to be able to bring its power to bear on a reluctant opponent The determination of powers such as Germany to build (or to avoid an encounter with a stronger enemy fleet), battlefleets with which to confront much stronger rivals battlefleets needed some means of locating enemy ships has been criticised by historians, who emphasise the fubeyond horizon range. This was provided by scouting tility of investment in a battlefleet which has no chance of forces; at various stages battlecruisers, cruisers, destroy- matching its opponent in an actual battle. [3] According to ers, airships, submarines and aircraft were allused. (With this view, attempts by a weaker navy to compete head-to-
13 head with a stronger one in battleship construction simply [13] “Hastened to completion Le Napoleon was launched on May 16, 1850, to become the world’s first true steam battlewasted resources which could have been better invested ship” , Steam, Steel and Shellfire , Conway’s History of the in attacking the enemy’s points of weakness. In GerShip, p. 39. many’s case, the British dependence on massive imports of food and raw materials proved to be a near-fatal weak- [14] Lambert, Andrew, Battleships in Transition, pub Conness, once Germany had accepted the political risk of way1984, ISBN 0-85177-315-X pages 144–147. unrestricted submarine warfare against commercial shipIn addition, the Navy of the North Germany Confederping. Although the U-boat offensive in 1917–18 was ulacy (which included Prussia) bought HMS Renown from Britain in 1870 for use as a gunnery training ship. timately defeated, it was successful in causing huge material loss and forcing the Allies to divert vast resources [15] “The canon-obusier [shell gun] originally constructed by into anti-submarine warfare. This success, though not ulColonel Paixhans for the French Naval Service ... was timately decisive, was nevertheless in sharp contrast to subsequently designated the canon-obusier of 80, No 1 the inability of the German battlefleet to challenge the of 1841 ... the diameter of the bore is 22 centimetres supremacy of Britain’s far stronger fleet. (8.65 inches).” See: Douglas, Sir Howard, A Treatise on
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See also Arsenal ship List of battleships
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List of battleships by country
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List of battleship classes
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List of sunken battleships
Naval Gunnery 1855 , 4th Edition 1855, republished Conway Maritime Press, 1982, ISBN 0-85177-275-7, p. 201. The British undertook trials with shell guns trials at HMS Excellent ', starting in 1832. A Treatise on Naval Gunnery 1855, p. 198. For the US introduction of 8-inch shell guns into the armament of line-of-battle ships in 1841, see: Tucker, Spencer, Arming the Fleet, US Navy Ordnance in the Muzzle-Loading Era , pub US Naval Institute, 1989. ISBN 0-87021-007-6, p. 149.
[16] Lambert, Andrew D, The Crimean War, British Grand Strategy Against Russia, 1853–56 , Manchester University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-7190-3564-3, pp. 60–61. [17] Lambert, Andrew: Battleships in Transition, pp. 92–96.
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Notes
[18] Clowes, William Laird, Four Modern Naval Campaigns , Unit Library, 1902, republished Cornmarket Press, 1970, ISBN 0-7191-2020-9, p. 68.
[1] “battleship” The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED Online. Oxford University Press. April 4, [19] Clowes, William Laird. Four Modern Naval Campaigns, pp. 54–55, 63. 2000. [20] Wilson, H. W. Ironclads in Action – Vol 1, London, 1898, [2] Stoll, J. Steaming in the Dark? , Journal of Conflict Resop. 240. lution Vol. 36 No. 2, June 1992. [21] Gibbons, Tony. The Complete Encyclopedia of Battle[3] Sondhaus, L. Naval Warfare 1815–1914, ISBN 0-415ships, pp. 28–29. 21478-5. [22] Gibbons, pp. 30–31. [4] Herwig pp. 35, 41, 42. [23] Gibbons, p. 93. [5] Mahan 1890/Dover 1987 pp. 2, 3. [24] Conway Marine, “Steam, Steel and Shellfire”, p. 96. [6] Preston (1982) p. 24. [7] Breyer p. 115.
[25] Gibbons,Tony: The Complete Encyclopedia ofBattleships, p. 101.
[8] Massie (1991) p. 471.
[26] Hill, Richard. War at Sea in the Ironclad Age , ISBN 0304-35273-X.
[9] Sondhaus 2004, p. 207.
[27] Kennedy, p. 209.
[10] O'Connell, Robert J. (1993). Sacred vessels: the cult of the [28] Preston, Anthony. Jane’s Fighting Ships of World War II battleship and the rise of the U.S. Navy. Oxford [Oxford- [29] Preston, Anthony. Battleships of World War I , New York shire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508006-8. City: Galahad Books, 1972. [11] Lenton, H. T.: Krigsfartyg efter 1860
[30] Gibbons, p. 168.
[12] “Napoleon (90 guns), the firstpurpose-designed screw line [31] Cuniberti, Vittorio, “An Ideal Battleship for the British of battleships”, Steam, Steel and Shellfire , Conway’s HisFleet”, All The World’s Fighting Ships, 1903, pp. 407– tory of the Ship , p. 39. 409.
14 [32] Breyer, Battleships and Battlecruisers of the World , p. 331. [33] Evans and Peattie, Kaigun, p. 159.
12 NOTES formation colleague, Flight Lieutenant G. B. Dacre, was forced to land on the water owing to engine trouble but, seeing an enemy tug close by, taxied up to it and released his torpedo. The tug blew up and sank. Thereafter, Dacre was able to take off and return to the Ben-my-Chree .
[34] Burr, Lawrence (2006). British Battlecruisers 1914–18 . Oxford: Osprey Publishing. pp. 4–7. ISBN 1-84603008-0. [54] Boyne, Walter J. “The Spirit of Billy Mitchell”. Air Force Magazine, June 1996. [35] Gibbons, pp. 170–171.
[55] “Vice Admiral Alfred Wilkinson Johnson, USN Ret. ''The Naval Bombing Experiments: Bombing Operations’' [37] “Are Battleships Obsolete?". the Wells Brothers. 2001. (1959)". History.navy.mil. Archived from the original on Retrieved 15 January 2015. January 14, 2009. Retrieved January 31, 2009. [36] Ireland, Bernard Janes War at Sea, p. 66.
[38] Gilbert, Adrian (2000). The encyclopedia of warfare: [56] Jeffers, H. Paul (2006). Billy Mitchell: The Life, Times, from earliest time to the present day, Part 25 . Taylor & and Battles of America’s Prophet of Air Power . Zenith Francis. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-57958-216-6. Retrieved Press. ISBN 0-7603-2080-2. April 17, 2012. [57] “CombinedFleet.com”. Combinedfleet.com. Archived [39] Keegan, p. 289. from the original on February 3, 2009. Retrieved January 31, 2009. [40] Ireland, Bernard: Jane’s War At Sea , pp. 88–95. [41] Padfield 1972, p. 240.
[58] Gibbons, p. 195.
[42] Andrew Marr’s The Making of Modern Britain Episode [59] Greger, René. Schlachtschiffe der Welt , p. 251. 3. [60] Gibbons, p. 163. [43] Massie, Robert. Castles of Steel , London, 2005. pp. 127– [61] Gibbons, pp. 246–247. 145. [44] Compton-Hall, Richard (2004). Submarines at War [62] Axell, Albert: Kamikaze, p. 14. 1914–18 . Periscope Publishing Ltd. pp. 155–162. ISBN [63] Gibbons, pp. 262–263. 1-904381-21-9. [45] Massie, Robert. Castles of Steel , London, 2005. pp. 675. [46] Kennedy, pp. 247–249. [47] Ireland, Bernard: Jane’s War At Sea , p. 118. [48] Friedman, Norman. U.S. Battleships, pp. 181–2. [49] Kennedy, p. 277.
[64] Samuel Eliot Morison, History of US Naval Operations in World War II Vol. 12, Leyte, p. 141. [65] Jentschura, Dieter, Mickel p. 39. [66] Operation 'Crossroads’ — the Bikini A-bomb tests , in Ireland, Bernard (1996). Jane’s Battleships of the 20th Century. New York: HarperCollins. pp. 186–87. ISBN 000-470997-7.
[50] Ireland, Bernard. Jane’s War At Sea , pp. 124–126, 139– [67] Fitzsimons, Bernard, ed. (technical assistance from Bill 142. Gunston, Antony Preston, & Ian Hogg) Illustrated Ency[51] Sumrall, Robert. The Battleship and Battlecruiser , in Garclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare . London: diner, R: The Eclipse of the Big Gun . Conway Maritime, Phoebus, 1978, Volume 2, p. 114. London. ISBN 0-85177-607-8. pp. 25–28. [68] Fitzsimons, Volume20, p. 2213, "Richelieu". No mention [52] Kennedy, p. 199. of her sister, Jean Bart . [53] From the Guinness Book of Air Facts and Feats (3rd edition, 1977): “The first air attack using a torpedo dropped by an aeroplane was carried out by Flight Commander Charles H. K. Edmonds, flying a Short 184 seaplane from HMS Ben-my-Chree on August 12, 1915, against a 5,000 ton (5,080 tonne) Turkish supply ship in the Sea of Marmara. Although the enemy ship was hit and sunk, the captain of a British submarine claimed to have fired a torpedo simultaneously and sunkthe ship. It wasfurther stated that the British submarine E14 had attacked and immobilised the ship four days earlier. However, on August 17, 1915, another Turkish ship was sunk by a torpedo of whose origin there can be no doubt. On this occasion Flight Commander C. H. Edmonds, flying a Short 184, torpedoed a Turkish steamer a few miles north of the Dardanelles. His
[69] Gardiner, Robert (Ed.); (1980); Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships 1922–1946 ; ISBN 0-85177-146-7; p. 260. [70] Fitzsimons, Volume 15, p. 1636, "King George V " [71] Fitzsimons, Volume 23, p. 2554, "Vanguard " [72] Gardiner, pp. 7, 14. [73] Fitzsimons, Volume 10, p. 1086, "Gangut " [74] Fitzsimons, Volume 17, p. 1896, "Minas Gerais" [75] Fitzsimons, Volume 1, p. 84, "Almirante Latorre" [76] Gardiner, p. 368.
15 [77] McLaughlin, Stephen (2006). Jordan, John, ed. Project [98] “USS New Jersey”. Dictionary of American Naval Fight82: The Stalingrad Class. Warship 2006. London: Coning Ships. Archivedfrom the original on February 3, 2007. way. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-84486-030-2. Retrieved March 18, 2007. [78] Gardiner, p. 222. [79] Polmar, p. 129. [80] History of World Seapower, Bernard Brett, ISBN 0-60303723-2, p. 236. [81] Defence power: developments of the decade [82] Naval Vessel Register for BB61. U.S. Navy, December 14, 2009. Retrieved: November 19, 2013.
[99] Dahl, Erik J. (Autumn 2005). “Net-Centric before its time: The Jeune École and Its Lessons for Today”. U.S. Naval War College Review 58 (4). Retrieved 29 June 2015.
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[83] Naval Vessel Register for BB64. U.S. Navy, April 30, 2012. Retrieved: November 19, 2013. •
[84] “Iowa Class Battleship”. Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved March 18, 2007. [85] The Military Balance 2010. North America. United States. p. № 35 [86] Зарубежное военное обозрение — 2010. № 07. Справочные данные: вооруженные силы зарубежных стран [87] The USMC has revised its Naval Surface Gunfire Support requirements, leaving some questions as to whether or not the Zumwalt -class destroyer can meet the Marine qualifications. [88] United States General Accounting Office. “Naval Surface Fires Support”. Federation of American Scientists. Archived from the original on March 15, 2007. Retrieved March 18, 2007. [89] “WCBC files lawsuit”. Associated Press. April 14, 2010. Retrieved: April 15, 2010. [90] U.S.S. Massachusetts Memorial Committee. “Battleship Cove: Exhibits”. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
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[91] Massie, Robert K. Castles of Steel , London, 2005. ISBN 1-84413-411-3. [92] Mahan, A.T., Captain. Influence of Sea Power on History, 1660–1783. (Boston: Little Brown), passim.
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[93] Kennedy, pp. 2, 200, 206. [94] John Pike (May 3, 2007). ""Fleet In Being”, Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 18 March 2007”. Globalsecurity.org. Archived from the original on February 13, 2009. Retrieved January 31, 2009. [95] It could presage an enemy sortie, or locate an enemy over the horizon. Beesly, Patrick. Room 40 (London : Hamish Hamilton) [96] Beesly. [97] “USS Missouri”. Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Naval Historical Center. Archived from the original on March 15, 2007. Retrieved March 18, 2007.
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References Appel, Erik et al. (2001). Finland i krig 1939– 1940 – första delen (in Swedish). Espoo, Finland: Schildts förlag Ab. p. 261. ISBN 951-50-1182-5. Archibald, E. H. H. (1984). The Fighting Ship in the Royal Navy 1897–1984 . Blandford. ISBN 0-71371348-8. Axell, Albert et al. (2004). Kamikaze – Japans självmordspiloter (in Swedish). Lund, Sweden: Historiska media. p. 316. ISBN 91-85057-09-6. Brown, D. K. (2003). Warrior to Dreadnought: Warship Development 1860–1905 . Book Sales. ISBN 978-1-84067-529-0. Brown, D. K. (2003). The Grand Fleet: Warship Design and Development 1906–1922 . Caxton Editions. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-84067-531-3. Brunila, Kai et al. (2000). Finland i krig 1940– 1944 – andra delen (in Swedish). Espoo, Finland: Schildts förlag Ab. p. 285. ISBN 951-50-1140-X. Burr, Lawrence (2006). British Battlecruisers 1914– 18 . New Vanguard No. 126. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84603-008-0. Corbett, Sir Julian. “Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905.” (1994). Originally Classified and in two volumes. ISBN 1-55750129-7. Friedman, Norman (1984). U.S. Battleships: An Illustrated History . Naval Institute Press. ISBN 087021-715-1. Gardiner, Robert (Ed.) and Gray, Randal (Author) (1985). Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, 1906–1921. Naval Institute Press. p. 439. ISBN 978-0-87021-907-8. Gardiner, Robert (Ed.) (1980). Conway’s All the World’s Fighting Ships, 1922–1946 . Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-85177-146-7. Gardiner, Robert (Ed.) and Lambert, Andrew (Ed.). Steam, Steel and Shellfire: Thesteam warship 1815–1905 – Conway’s History of the Ship . Book Sales. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-7858-1413-9.
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14 FURTHER READING
Gibbons, Tony (1983). The Complete Encyclopedia of Battleships and Battlecruisers – A Technical Directory of all the World’s Capital Ships from 1860 to the Present Day . London, UK: Salamander Books Ltd. p. 272. ISBN 0-517-37810-8. Greger, René (1993). Schlachtschiffe der Welt (in German). Stuttgart, Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag. p. 260. ISBN 3-613-01459-9. Ireland, Bernard and Grove, Eric (1997). Jane’s War At Sea 1897–1997 . London: Harper Collins Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 0-00-472065-2. Jacobsen, Alf R. (2005). Dödligt angrepp – miniubåtsräden mot slagskeppet Tirpitz (in Swedish). Stockholm, Sweden: Natur & Kultur. p. 282. ISBN 91-27-09897-4. Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Jung, Dieter; Mickel, Peter (1976). Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-087021-893-4. Keegan, John. The First World War . ISBN 0-71266645-1.
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Kennedy, Paul M. (1983). The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery . London. ISBN 0-33335094-4.
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Lambert, Andrew (1984). Battleships in Transition – The Creation of the Steam Battlefleet 1815–1860 . London: Conway Maritime Press. p. 161. ISBN 0-85177-315-X.
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Lenton, H. T. (1971). Krigsfartyg efter 1860 (in Swedish). Stockholm, Sweden: Forum AB. p. 160. Linder, Jan et al. (2002). Ofredens hav – Östersjön 1939–1992 (in Swedish). Avesta, Sweden: Svenska Tryckericentralen AB. p. 224. ISBN 91-631-20356. Mahan, Alfred Thayer (1987). The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 . New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-25509-3.
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Massie, Robert (2005). Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany and the Winning of the Great War at Sea . London: Pimlico. ISBN 1-84413-411-3.
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O'Connell, Robert L. (1991). Sacred Vessels: the Cult of the Battleship and the Rise of the U.S. Navy . Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1116-0.
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Padfield, Peter (1972). The Battleship Era . London: Military Book Society. OCLC 51245970. Parkes, Oscar (1990). British Battleships . first published Seeley Service & Co, 1957, published United States Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-075-4.
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Pleshakov, Constantine (2002). The Tsar’s Last Armada; The Epic Voyage to the Battle of Tsushima . ISBN 0-465-05791-8. Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the US Fleet. 2001, Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-656-6. Preston, Antony (1982). Battleships. Bison books. ISBN 0-86124-063-4. Preston, Anthony (Foreword) (1989). Jane’s Fighting Ships of World War II . London, UK: Random House Ltd. p. 320. ISBN 1-85170-494-9. Russel, Scott J. (1861). The Fleet of the Future. London. Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). Naval Warfare 1815– 1914. London. ISBN 0-415-21478-5. Sondhaus, Lawrence (2004). Navies in Modern World History. London. ISBN 978-1-86189-2027. Stilwell, Paul (2001). Battleships. New Your, USA: MetroBooks. p. 160. ISBN 1-58663-044-X. Tamelander, Michael et al. (2006). Slagskeppet Tirpitz – kampen om Norra Ishavet (in Swedish). Norstedts Förlag. p. 363. ISBN 91-1-301554-0. Taylor, A. J. P. (Red.) et al. (1975). 1900-talet: Vår tids historia i ord och bild; Part 12 (in Swedish). Helsingborg: Bokfrämjandet. p. 159. Wetterholm, Claes-Göran (2002). Dödens hav – Östersjön 1945 (in Swedish). Stockholm, Sweden: Bokförlaget Prisma. p. 279. ISBN 91-518-3968-7. Wilson, H. W. (1898). Ironclads in Action – Vol 1. London. Zetterling, Niklas et al. (2004). Bismarck – Kam pen om Atlanten (in Swedish). Stockholm, Sweden: Nordstedts förlag. p. 312. ISBN 91-1-301288-6.
Further reading Breyer, Siegfried (1973). Battleships and Battlecruisers of the world, 1905–1970 . London: Macdonald/Jane’s. ISBN 0-356-04191-3. Herwig, Holger (1980). Luxury Fleet, The Imperial German Navy 1888–1918 . Ashfield Press. ISBN 0948660-03-1. Mahan, Alred Thayer. Reflections, Historic and Other, Suggested by the Battle of the Japan Sea. By Captain A. T. Mahan, US Navy. US Naval Proceedings magazine; June 1906, volume XXXIV, number 2. United States Naval Institute Press.
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Massie, Robert (1991). Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War . Random House, NY. ISBN 0-394-52833-6.
External links Comparison of the capabilities of seven World War II battleships Comparison of projected post-World War II battleship designs Development of U.S. battleships, with timeline graph Battleships in the Transportation Photographs Collection - University of Washington Library
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16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
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Battleship Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battleship?oldid=680441857 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, The Epopt, Verloren, Eclecti-
cology, LA2, Danny, Gsl, XJaM, Rmhermen, Phil Bordelon, Roadrunner, Maury Markowitz, Ktsquare, B4hand, Youandme, Hephaestos, Leandrod, Lorenzarius, D, Stewacide, Egil, Stan Shebs, Nanshu, Kingturtle, Jll, Glenn, Med, ²¹², Ghewgill, Conti, Gamma~enwiki, Zoicon5, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Itai, Jose Ramos, Warofdreams, Raul654, Ortonmc, Eugene van der Pijll, RadicalBender, Gentgeen, Moriori, PBS, Sanders muc, Pibwl, Stephan Schulz, MinutiaeMan, Steeev, D anceswithzerglings, SoLando, Carnildo, DocWatson42, Oberiko, Jello~enwiki, Nichalp, Mark.murphy, Dissident, Marcika, Wwoods, Everyking, Michael Devore, Leonard G., Revth, Per Honor et Gloria, Jason Quinn, Iceberg3k, Evilweevil, Grant65, Jaan513, Bobblewik, Stevietheman, Chowbok, Gadfium, Gdr, Yath, Beland, Madmagic, Onco p53, MisfitToys, Kusunose, Mzajac, The Land, Aikibum, Mjs, Balcer, RetiredUser2, Marc Mongenet, Bk0, Huaiwei, Blue387, B.d.mills, Willhsmit, Jcw69, Acad Ronin, Fg2, Lacrimosus, DmitryKo, Freakofnurture, N328KF, Spiko-carpediem~enwiki, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Fvdham, Bishonen, Xezbeth, Guanabot2, Pavel Vozenilek, SpookyMulder, Selleriverket, WegianWarrior, Kbh3rd, MisterSheik, Twilight (renamed), DS1953, KSlayer, Gilgamesh he, Sietse Snel, Kghose, TomStar81, BrokenSegue, Cmdrjameson, WikiEd, Kjkolb, BM, Vicarage, M Perel, Pearle, A2Kafir, Shoka, Orangemarlin, Gothicform, Stephen G. 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File:BB61_USS_Iowa_BB61_broadside_USN.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/BB61_USS_Iowa_
BB61_broadside_USN.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: High resolution download from DefenseImagery Still Asset Details for DNSC8503456 Original artist: PH1 Jeff Hilton File:BS_Bismarck.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/BS_Bismarck.png License: GFDL Contributors: Cropped from a previous version of File:Bb bismarck.png [] Original artist: User:Anynobody File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_134-C2280,_Szent_István,_Sinkendes_Linienschiff.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/b/b3/Bundesarchiv_Bild_134-C2280%2C_Szent_Istv%C3%A1n%2C_Sinkendes_Linienschiff.jpg License: CCBY-SA 3.0de Contributors: This image was provided to Wikimedia Commons by the German Federal Archive (Deutsches Bundesarchiv) as part of a cooperation project. The German Federal Archive guarantees an authentic representation only using the originals (negative and/or positive), resp. the digitalization of the originals as provided by the Digital Image Archive. Original artist: Unknown File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? File:Grand_Fleet_Assembly_(front).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/dc/Grand_Fleet_Assembly_%28front% 29.jpg License: ? Contributors: http://www.the-weatherings.co.uk/Grand%20Fleet.html Original artist: Unknown (signature too small at bottom right) File:HMS_Agamemnon_(1908)_profile_drawing.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/HMS_ Agamemnon_%281908%29_profile_drawing.png License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Self made, using Corel PhotoPaint 6 Software Note on sources: Substantially similar the drawing of the ships in Breyer, Siegfried “Battleships and Battlecruisers of the World”, Macdonald, London 1973. Minor details (positioning of boats, presence of torpedo nets, presence of bridge wings) differ. Original artist: Emoscopes File:HMS_Dreadnought_(1911)_profile_drawing.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/HMS_ Dreadnought_%281911%29_profile_drawing.png License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Self made, using Corel PhotoPaint 6 Software Original artist: Emoscopes File:HMS_Nelson_(1931)_profile_drawing.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/HMS_Nelson_ %281931%29_profile_drawing.png License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Self made, using Corel PhotoPaint 6 Software Original artist: Emoscopes File:HMS_Warspite_and_HMS_Malaya_during_the_battle_of_Jutland.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/f/fe/HMS_Warspite_and_HMS_Malaya_during_the_battle_of_Jutland.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph Q 114833 from the collections of the Imperial War Museums (collection no. 8502-08 [1]) Original artist: photographer not identified File:HMS_warriorjune20092.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/HMS_warriorjune20092.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Photo by User:Geni Original artist: geni File:Hochseeflotte_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Hochseeflotte_1.jpg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? File:Japanese_battleship_Satsuma.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Japanese_battleship_Satsuma. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? File:LaGloirePhotograph.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/LaGloirePhotograph.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? File:Le_Redoutable_(1889).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Le_Redoutable_%281889%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: www.reddit.com Original artist: Anonymous File:Missouri_missile_BGM-109_Tomahawk.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Missouri_missile_ BGM-109_Tomahawk.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Webpage: http://www.combatindex.com/hardware/detail/sea/vintage/ battleships/bb63_photos06.html Original artist: Camera Operator: PH3 BRAD DILLON uploaded to en.wikipedia by TomStar81
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Baker_Edit.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Operation_Crossroads_Baker_(wide).jpg Original artist: United States Department of Defense (either the U.S. Army or the U.S. Navy) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/ File:Ostfriesland_bombed_by_Mitchells_team_p19.jpg Source: Ostfriesland_bombed_by_Mitchells_team_p19.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/ File:TheNapoleonAtToulonIn1852ByLauvergne.jpg Source: TheNapoleonAtToulonIn1852ByLauvergne.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, personal photograph at the Musee de la Marine, Paris. Original artist: Barthélemy Lauvergne File:USS_Texas2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/USS_Texas2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original image: Photochrom print (color photo lithograph) Reproduction number: LC-DIG-ppmsca-18030 from Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Photochrom Prints Collection Original artist: Unknown File:USS_Texas_BB-35.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/USS_Texas_BB-35.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Self-made photo by Jacobst File:US_warships_entering_Lingayen_Gulf_1945.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/US_warships_ entering_Lingayen_Gulf_1945.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This media is available in the holdings of the National Archives and Records Administration, cataloged under the ARC Identifier (National Archives Identifier) 52062. Original artist: U.S. Navy photo 80-G-59525; Post-work: Cobatfor (Pennsylvania ´s radar antennas added that had been removed by the wartime censor)
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File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
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