Atlas of Geological maps of Asia

International project

Atlas of Geological Maps of Asia and Adjacent Areas

VSEGEI Publishing House St. Petersburg • 2016

UDC: 55(98)(054.4):528:001.83(5)

International project. Atlas of geological maps of Asia and adjacent areas. Eds. O. V. Petrov (VSEGEI), Dong Shuwen Shuwen (CAGS), E. A. Kiselev Kiselev,, A. F. Morosov Morosov (Rosnedra).. – SPb.: VSEGEI Publishing House, 2016. – 48 p. dra)

ISBN 978-5-93761-249-6 International project “Atlas of geological maps of Asia and adjacent areas” is aimed at creating a modern integrated geological basis for Northern, Central and Eastern Asia in the form of an Atlas of general geological maps at 1 1  : 2.5 2.5 M scale, with databases and explanatory notes. Works under this joint project have been carried out since 2002 by the geological surveys of five countries: Russia, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan and the Republic of Korea. The study involved representatives from the National Academies of Sciences, higher education institutions, commissions and subcommissions for the Geological Map of the World World under the auspices of UNESCO. Atlas outlines a brief history of the project and presents the geological, tectonic, mineragenic and metallogenic maps that have been compiled. Joint activity by the geological surveys from five countries resulted in development of new knowledge in geology, tectonics, and mineralization of large crustal blocks of the Asian continent and in compilation of a new innovative 3D cartographic product and evaluation of the mineral potential in the continental, shelf, and oceanic domains of Central, Northern and Eastern Asia.

Commission for the Geological Map of the World President Dr President Dr.. Philippe Rossi Secretary General Dr General Dr.. Manuel Pubellier

9 785937 612496

ISBN 978-5-93761-249-6

© A. P. P. Karpinsky Russian Geological Research Institute, 2016

CONTENT

Introduct ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 1. Atlas of geological maps of Central Asia and adjacent areas in scale 1 : 2.5М 2.5М (2002–2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern Easter n Asia (2008–2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. Geological map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia in scale 1 1  : 2.5M 2.5M 2.2. Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia in scale 1 1  : 2.5M 2.5M 2.3. Metallogenic map of Northern-C Northern-Central-Eastern entral-Eastern Asia in scale 1 : 2.5M 2.5M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4. Minerogenic map of energy resources in Northern-Central-Eastern Asia (oil, gas and coal) in scale 1: 1 : 2.5M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Deep processes and metallogeny of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia . . Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References Refere nces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

INTRODUCTION

International cooperation in the study of geological structure of Asia, initiated by the geological surveys from five countries (Russia, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan and the Republic of Korea), was launched fifteen years ago under the project “Atlas of geological maps of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia and adjacent areas at 1 1 : 2.5M 2.5M scale”. The aim of the project was to create a modern integrated geological basis for Northern, Central, and Eastern Asia in the form of an atlas of general geological maps. An important task was to evaluate the metallogenic potential in cross-border areas of the partici pating countries. Area covered by the project is extremely diverse in geological structure and incorporates more than 11% of the total area of the world continents

Fig. 1. The areas of maping covered in the International project on geological maps of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas. Atlas of Central Asia and adjacent areas at 1:2.5M (stage 1); 3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia (stage 2) and Deep processes and metallogeny of NorthernCentral-Eastern Asia (stage 3)

(fig. 1). The Pacific mobile belt is on its east; the long-lived near E-W belt of active interaction between the Laurasian and Gondwana cratons and paleooceanic and collision systems of different age dividing them passes in the central part. This Earth’s segment is the key to solve the fundamental issues in regional geology, tectonics, structural geophysics, geochemistry, metallogeny, and mineralogy. This area is extremely rich in mineral resources. Works under the project was organised by the national geological surveys surveys and assisted by representatives from the national academies of sciences, higher education institutions, commissions and subcommissions for the Geological Map of the World under the auspices of UNESCO. To achieve this goal, an organizational and financial mechanism of the interaction has been realized between the participating countries, where each country finances its part of the work independently, and methodical, technical, and technological issues are addressed collectively during the annual workshops and field trips. All this served as a basis for launching a unique information resource on geology, tectonics, and metallogeny of Central Asia based on the world-level digital geological mapping. The first stage of this international cooperation started from 2002 was named the “Atlas of the geological maps of the Central Asia and adjacent areas at the scale 1 : 2.5M” 2.5M” (fig. 2). Six workshops of countries participating in the project were held since the beginning of this project stage until its completion (fig. 3). These efforts resulted in linking of geological maps for border areas of the CIS countries and compilation of a set of seven maps at 1 1  : 2.5M 2.5M scale, including geological, tectonic, metallogenic, energy resources, maps of magnetic anomaly and gravity fields, space image of the CIS countries. In August 2008, the project was completed by presentation at the 33rd International Geological Congress in Oslo of four maps from the Atlas: geological, tectonic, metallogenic, and map of energy resources. These maps enabled to specify the geological structure features in border areas of the Russian Federation, Mongolia, China, Kazakhstan, and to

INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONA L PROJECT

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Fig. 2. Signing of the agreement on the starting of the International (China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and the Repulbic of Korea) project “Atlas of the ge ological maps of the Central Asia and adjacent areas at the scale 1 : 2.5M” (Beijing, October 2002)

identify cross-border metallogenic belts promising for discovery of new mineral deposits. The second stage of the project titled “3D “ 3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia” Asia ” started in 2008. Mapped area was extended to the north and north-east of Russia (to the border of the shelf) and to the southern half of China to cover the Meso-Cenozoic ore bearing volcanic-plutonic belts of the Paci fic active continental margin. Draft integral digital maps, geological, tectonic, metallogenic, and energy resources, have been prepared for the extended project area. Compilation of such maps is impossible without a broad involvement of materials on potential fields and deep structure; therefore, one of the main objectives to the project was passing to 3D geological mapping and wide use of geophysical data. In 2012 the Atlas of geological maps was shown at the 34th IGC in Brisbane in Australia ( fig. 4). It included the geological, tectonic, metallogenic maps, and map of energy resources. Geological map of the Atlas (coordinator – China) allowed generalization and integration of recent cartographic materials in border areas of

Fig. 3. Fifth working meeting in Daejeon, Korea (2006)

Russia and adjacent states as well as preparation in a generalized from of the geological map for a huge territory of Central Asia in a uni fied legend based on the international geological time scale. Tectonic map map (coordinator – Russia) was com piled by the specialists of Russian Academy of Sciences and leading experts from different geological institutions. The map shows large structures composed of consolidated crust of six age stages. Indicator structural-material rock complexes characterizing different geodynamic settings are re flected. Metallogenic map of the Atlas is Atlas is a unique summary of data on the ore content in Central Asia. Tectonic map of Central Asia is used as a basis; it is supplemented with structural material and metallogenic characteristics of tectonic units. Map of energy resources resources of the Atlas contains information on distribution of coal- and oil-and-gas bearing sedimentary basins, basins, large and unique unique deposits and local areas of coal- and oil-and-gas accumulation in the project territory, re flecting geodynamic types of productive sedimentary basins. The map is accompanied by a database made using modern GIS technologies.

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Fig. 4.


А,

B. Tectonic and metallogenic maps of Northern, Central, and Eastern Asia at 1 :2.5M scale displayed during the International Congress in Brisbane at the Chinese and Russian booths (2012)

During the third stage of the project, which received its own name “Deep processes and metallo geny of Northern-Central-Eastern Northern-Central-Eastern Asia”, Asia”, the pro ject area has covered most of the Eurasian continent, including the shelf seas of the Arctic and Pacific basins. The present stage of the project enables to further put into practice procedures of 3D geological mapping. Map compilation is based on deep seismic data and drilling of superdeep parametric wells. The project is also aimed on the compilation of a set of geophysical maps at 1  : 5M 5M scale including a map of crustal thickness, a map of crustal types, a map of sedimentary cover thickness and others. There is also work in progress to compile geotransects that cross the main tectonic structures of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia. An important element of collaboration under the project is to hold workshops, geological field trips,

and scientific exchange of young professionals. To date, we have already conducted 17 international workshops and 18 joint field trips to study the key geological features, sequences, and individual de posits in i n the participating countries (fig. 5, 6). Ten international geological field trips were organized from 2010 to 2015, including the Norilsk ore region, North and Central Mongolia, South Ural, Tibet, Lake Baikal region, Kamchatka Peninsula, southern and southeastern provinces of China. In December 2014, the Chinese party organized a geological field trip to the third world’s largest in reserves platinum-copper-nickel deposit Jinchuan and to the oldest in China Shandong Province gold deposits, which was attended by the Russian delegation. In August 2015, a field trip for the leading Chinese experts in metallogeny visited the Central Aldan gold-uranium ore region. This excursion ena-

Fig. 5. Field trips: Tibet (2012), Karelia, Russia (2007)

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Fig. 6. 12th Workshop (Korea, 2014), 11th Workshop Workshop (Russia, St. Petersburg, 2013)

bled participants to expand their understanding of the peculiarities of geological structure and formation of the unique gold objects in the Aldan Shield. These field trips were attended by more than 120 geologists from various states, including heads of geological surveys of the participating countries. The third stage of the project, the development of which is planned out to 2020, has not yet been accomplished. Thanks to the joint efforts, we hope that the project will develop dynamically and continue in spite of the natural change of generations of geologists. As a result of the project, which summarizes the leading-edge technologies in geological mapping, geophysical and isotope-geochronological research methods, we have to show that the overview and

summary geological mapping, which has always been the essence of the state geological survey activity in most countries of the world, is an effective way of geological study of large cross-border crustal blocks and evaluation of their metallogenic and fuel and energy potential. Although the current maps of the “Atlas of geological maps of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia and adjacent areas” already cover a large part of the Asian continent, the range of issues related to the geological structure, tectonics, and evaluation of metallogenic potential in our countries is constantly growing, representing wide opportunities for international cooperation of geologists who specialize in different areas of the geological science.

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1. ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF CENTRAL ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS IN SCALE 1:2.5M (2002–2008) Coordinating Board of Atlas: DONG Shuwen, LI Tingdong (China), (China), B. B. Uzhkenov, A. Kiselev (Kazakhstan), LEE Tai Sup, KIM Bok Chul (Republic of Korea), O. Chuluun, D. Javkhlanbold (Mongolia), A. F. F. Morozov, Morozov, O. V. V. Petrov (Russia)

Compilation of the “Atlas of geological maps of Central Asia and adjacent areas” at scale 1 : 2.5 2.5М М was realized from 2002 to 2008. The Atlas consists of geological, tectonic, metallogenic maps and map of energy resources with databases on deposits of solid minerals, oil and gas. Digital maps are com piled on a unified geographic base; they cover the Asian part of Russia, Northern China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, countries of Central Asia, Northern and Southern Korea.The international project Atlas of geological maps of Central Asia and adjacent areas was implemented within a five-sided (Russia, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea) international project. A compilation of the Bedrock geology map and the Map of energy resources was coordinated by CAGS, while VSEGEI was responsible for tectonic and metallogenic maps. Each of five countries-participants of the project compiled digital maps on its territory in a uni fied coordinated legend at its own expense. Such organizational- financial mechanism provided detailed coordination of geological surveys during project execution. In the Geological map ( fig. 7), well-known and new data on the geological structure of a considerable part of the Asian continent with an area of more than 20M km 2 are summarized and uni fied in one legend. Tectonic map (fig. 8) was based on the two main conceptions: consolidated earth crust and double-

layered structure of the Earth crust. Consolidated earth crust – the Earth’s layer with base and roof, which has undergone (partially or completely) folding, metamorphism and granitization, distinguished on composition, structure and physical parameters from overlapping (plate cover) and underlying (up per mantle rocks) formations of lithosphere. Earth crust has double-layere double-layered d structure consolidated folded basement of various age and plate cover (sometimes with pre-plate complexes). Tectonic map shows geological structures formed as a result of interaction of two main types of tectonic processes, deep mantle diapirism and lithosphere plate tectonics. From the Russian part, Russian Academy of Sciences and CGMW Subcommissions for Northern Eurasia and Tectonic maps took an active part in map compilation. Metallogenic map ( fig. 9) reflects spatial-time regularities of deposits formation in conditions of two main types of tectonic processes show: 1. Ore deposits of intraplate settings; 2. Deposits of active- and passive marginal-continental geodynamic settings. Tectonic map of Central Asia was used as a special-purposed base for the metallogenic map. Minerogenic map of energy resources ( fig. 10) contains information on distribution of coal- and oil-and-gas bearing sedimentary basins, large and unique deposits and local areas of coal- and oil-andgas accumulation in the project territory, re flecting geodynamic types of productive sedimentary basins.


f o s p a m l a c i g o l o e g f o s a l t a t c e j o r p l a n o i t a n r e t n i / n o i t a r e p o o c t n / i / ) e n e r a / u t r n . i e e c g a j e s d v . a w d w n w a / a / : i p s t t a h n r e n t o s e a e l b i l d a n a v l a ( a r t M n 5 . e 2 c : n 1 r e e h l t a r c s o n t a s a e r a t n e c a j d a d n a a i s A l a r t n e C f o p a m l a c i g o l o e G . 7 . g i F


r o N , o l s O / , ) 8 e 0 r a 0 t 2 n t s e u c a g j u d a A ( d s s n e r a a g i n s o a C l n r a e c t i g s o a e l o e d n G a l l a a r n t o n i t e a c n r n e t r e n h I t r d r o 3 n 3 f e o h t s p e r a o m f e l a b i c 8 g 0 l 0 o 2 o n e g i f d e o s h a s l i t l b a u t p c e s j a o w r p p l a a m n o e i h t T a . n r e t M 5 n . i 2 / : n o 1 i e t a l r a e c s p t o a o c s t a n i e r / a n e t / u n r e . c i a j e g d e a s . d v n w a w a / w i s / : A p l t t a r h t n e n C o e f l o b i p l a a v a m ( c ) i n y o a t w c e T . 8 . g i F


f o s p a m l a c i g o l o e g f o s a l t a t c e j o r p l a n o i t a n r e t n i / n o i t a r e p o o c t n ) i / / e n e r a / t u r n . i e e c g a j e s d v . a w d w n w a / a / : i p s t t a h n r e n t o s e a l e b i l d a n v a a l ( a r t M n 5 . e 2 c : 1 n r e e h l t a r c s o t n a s a e r a t n e c a j d a d n a a i s A l a r t n e C f o p a m c i n e g o l l a t e M . 9 . g i F


) / e r a t n e c a j d a d n a a i s a n r e t s M a e 5 . d 2 n : a 1 l e a l r a t c s n t e a c s n r a e e r h a t t r o n n e c f a j o d s a p a d m n l a a a i c i s g o A l l o a r e g t n e f o C s a n l i t a s e t c r c e u j o o s r e p r l y a g n r o e i t n e a f n o r e p t n a i / m n o c i i t n e a g r e o p r e o o n c i t n M i . / 0 n e 1 / . u g r i i . F e g e s v . w w w / / : p t t h n o e l b i l a v a (

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2. 3D GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES AND METALLOGENY OF NORTHERN, CENTRAL AND EASTERN ASIA (2008–2013)

The second stage of the project titled “3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia” have started in 2008. Mapped area was extended to the north and northeast of Russia (to the border of the shelf) and to the southern half of China to cover the Meso-Cenozoic

ore-bearing volcanic-plutonic belts of the Paci fic active continental margin. Geological map and Map of energy resources (coordinator – China), Tectonic map and Metallogenic map (coordinator – Russia) are compiled for the extended project area.

2.1. Geological map of Northern-Centr аl-Eastern Asia in scale 1 : 2.5M

Authors: Li Tindong, Geng Shufang, Fan Benxian, Ding Xiaozhong, Ju Yuanjing, Ye Dingheng, Liu Yanxue, Wang Liya, Deng Danyun, Fu Derong, Wang Zhenyang, Liu Ping, Li Wei, Zhao Min, Han Kunying, Wang Wei, Yao Peiyi (China), (China), B. B. S. Uzhkenov Uzhkenov,, A. K. Mazurov (Kazakhstan), B. C. Kim, J. H. Hwang, S. R. Lee (R. O. Korea), O. Tomurtogoo, H. Gantumur, B. Zul, T. Minjinsor (Mongolia), O. V. Petrov, E.A. Kiselev, A. N. Klushkin, V. I. Kolesnikov, O. A. Kondiaian, I. M. Migovich N. A. Rumyanceva, S. P. Shokalsky, V. V. Starchenko, S. I. Strelnikov, N. G. Vlasov, A. S. Volsky (Russia)

The compiled geological map is the first-of-itskind international geological map of Asia depicting the geology of both the continent and offshore areas (fig. 11). The map spans the main territory of Asia and its peripherical regions from the Alps in the west to the Mariana Trench in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Java Trench in the south. It is an essential document for users to explore the geology of Asia from a global perspective and a helpful tool to understand the tectonic relationship between the Asian continent and its neighbouring continents and oceans. Asia is a composite continent consisting of three major cratons – the Siberian, Indian and Arabian – and three huge orogenic belts including a number of minor cratons and microcontinents.

The main body of the Asian continent took its shape during the Mesozoic. The orogenic belts belong respectively to three global tectonic domains: the Paleo-Asian, Tethyan and Paci fic. The small cratons, such as Sino-Korea, Yangtze, Tarim, and Sibumasu, are assumed to be related to the tectonic transform zone between Gondwana and Siberia. Initially situated in the northern margin of Gondwana before the disappearance of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, these cratons, after the closing of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and then the opening of the Tethys, were located in the southern margin of Paleo-Asia. The fact that ophiolites in Asia appear to get progressively younger from north to south sheds some light on the Phanerozoic evolutionary process of the dispersion of Gondwana and the accretion of Asia accompanied by a southward migration of its orogenic belts.

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Fig. 11. Geological map of the Northern-Centr аl-Eastern Asia in scale 1:2.5M (avalible on http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)


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2.2. Tectonic map of Northern-Centr аl-Eastern Asia in scale 1:2.5M

Editors-in-Chief: O. V. Petrov, Yu. G. Leonov (Russia), Li Tingdong (China), O. Tomurtogoo (Mongolia) Authors: O. V. Petrov, S. P. Shokalsky, I. I. Pospelov, F. V. Zanin, G. A. Babin, S. Yu. Belyaev, N. A. Berzin, A. N. Bulgatov, I. V. Gordienko, N. I. Gusev, A. I. Khanchuk, T. N. Kheraskova, G. L. Kirillova, A. E. Kontorovich, V. N. Melnikov, V. N. Puchkov, N. A. Rumyantseva, A. V. V. Ryazantsev, Ryazantsev, G. A. Shatkov, Shatkov, M. A. Shishkin, A. P. P. Smelov, Smelov, S. D. Sokolov, Sokolov, V. V. S. Staroseltsev, Staroseltsev, V. I. Shpikerman, I. N. Tikhomirov, С hen hen Вinwei, Geng Shufang, Chen Tingyu, Ren Liudong, V. Ya. Koshkin, B. S. Tsirelson, G. Dedjidmaa, О. Tomurtogoo, Hwang Jae Ha, Kim Bok Chul, Kee Weon-Seo, Kim Sung Won

Fig. 12. Tectonic map of the Nor thern-Centrаl-Eastern Asia in scale 1 :2.5M (available online on http://ccgm.org/en/maps/172tectonic-map-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-9785937612151.html, http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)

16 The Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas at 1 1 : 2.5M 2.5M scale (fig. 12) was compiled by the A. P. Karpinsky Russian Geological Institute – VSEGEI (CGMW Subcommission for Northern Eurasia) and the Geological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (GINRAS), (CGMW Subcommission for Tectonic Maps) in the framework of the International project “3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia”. In this project, the Russian party (years 2007– 2013) was represented by the Federal Agency on Mineral Resources of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, VSEGEI, GIN-RAS and geological institutes of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The geological surveys of China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, and the Republic of Korea were associated participants. The compiled map of the Atlas covers the territory of the Asian part of Russian (including Urals and Pre-Uralian region), Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Korean Peninsula and Central Asian republics Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. The Explanatory Note of this map results from 10-years of international collaboration of geologists from six countries: Russia, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Republic of Korea and Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. In addition to the above-mentioned states, the map also exhibits the tectonic structure of a number of Central Asian countries: Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Structurally, the map covers three major Eurasian tectonic domains. The Central Asian (UralMongolian) mobile belt is the central structure of the map. On the map, it covers such regions and structures as the Urals, Kazakhstan, Tien Tien Shan, Altai and Sayan Mountains, Trans-Baikal region, Mongolia, and overlying younger platforms and sedimentary basins (West Siberian, Turan, Junggar, AmurZeya, and partially Songliao). The Central Asian mobile belt is located between the largest and most ancient cratons of the Earth: East European, Siberian, North China (Sino-Korean), and Tarim. To the south, the Central Asian mobile belt is constrained by the Tethyan domain that includes structures of the Pamirs, Kunlun, Kunlun, Tibet – Himalayas and Indochina. The eastern Pacific domain encompasses the following folded regions: Verkhoyansk – Kolyma, Chukotka – Koryak, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, and S ikhote Alin Mountains, as well as the Southeastern Coastal fold zone of Southern China. The Explanatory Note is greatly enhanced by numerous new determinations of absolute age of rocks, in particular old metamorphic complexes


from cratonic basements and magmatic complexes. Special attention was paid to the age of ophiolites as a key to understanding the most important stages in the crustal evolution and the Earth as a whole. The writing and editorial work of the Explanatory Note was carried out by a team that associated compilers, authors of the maps and, for a large part, leading scientists and tectonic specialists from institutes of the GIN-RAS: Institute of Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry (IGEM RAS), Institute of Geology (Ufimian Scientific Centre of the RAS), AN, Zavaritsky Institute of Geology and Geochemistry (Ural Branch of the RAS), Geological Institute (Siberian Branch of the RAS). It is worth to mention Chapter 16 “Tectonic evolution of the Ural-Mongolian mo bile belt during the Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic” for the successive paleogeographic reconstitutions and conclusions it presents in this note. The compilation of the Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas at the scale of 1 : 2M, as well as the other maps of the “3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia” can be considered as the first major international experience for the generalization of integrated geological data and a successful example of cooperation of experts from different countries whose knowledge and research potential brought about increasing contacts in the geoscience community and innovative cartographic products. Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas re flects the current state of knowledge about tectonics of this vast area. Legend for the Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas practically is the broadened legend to the tectonic map of Central Asia and adjacent areas published in 2008 as the map of the Atlas of Geological maps of Central Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1 : 2.5M [Tectonic Map…, 2008]. Fundamental principle of the legend to the Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia and adjacent areas appeared in the legend to the 3rd edition of the International Tectonic map of Europe [International Tectonic Map…, 1996]. In it, the legend for the first time was presented tabular which has shown the sequence of tectonic events in the geological history of the European continent and the main stages of formations of the sedimentary covers and sedimentary basins on ancient (Archean-Proterozoic) and young (Paleozoic-Mesozoic) crystalline and folded basements. The periods of ophiolite and ophiolite structure originations, stages of continen-

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Fig. 13. Informational block of the legend to the Tectonic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia

tal riftogenesis, fold deformations in the structures of for-deep and intra-mountainous depressions and basins etc. corresponded to this sequence of tectonic events. That legend was created for tectonic map at scale 1 : 5M and re flected not only the main stages of origination and deformation of the earth’s crust (continental, transitional or oceanic) but also the principal rock assemblages (sedimentary, volcanogenic, and intrusive) of different paleodynamic settings. The same principle of composition was built into legend of the started in 2000 International Tectonic map of Asia at scale 1 : 5M as the project of the

Commission for the Geological map of the World (CGMW). For this legend, the consecutive row of tectonic events was increased, their geochronological correlations, tectonic events exclusive for South and East Asia (Indosinian and Yanshanian tectonic ones) were added. Legend to the International Tectonic Tectonic map of Asia at scale 1 : 5M was directly used in the Tectonicmap of Central Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1 : 2.5M. Without changing the principles of legend creation, the map’s executive editors and editors-in-chief had to supplement it considerably with some new parts and symbols pursuant to the following conditions.

18 1. Considerable changing of the scale gave in detail the image data in the map, tectonic bodies with different rock assemblages. The legend for the following blocks was added: – Rock assemblages of paleooceanic crust, – Volcanic Volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rock rock assem blages of continental and transitional crust, – Sedimentary rock assemblages of continental and transitional crust, – Metamorphic rock assemblages, – Ma M afic, ultramafic and alkaline rock assem blages, – Granite assemblages. 2. There appeared the possibility to show in the map the tectonic nappes and thrusts formed by both rocks of basement and sedimentary cover, or only by sedimentary cover. Great importance was attached to ophiolitic allochtons. 3. Considerable extension of legend is explained by the destination of Tectonic map in the Atlas. A tlas. It reflected not only the composition of consolidated crust and sedimentary layer but was also planned as a base map for the Metallogenic map. Therefore, it was very important to show in the Tectonic map a great diversity of rock associations with different mineragenic orientation. This makes clear not only the wide spectrum of volcanic, volcano-sedimentary, intrusive rocks (including different granitoids). The authors were compelled to include into legend a large group of non-scale symbols ( first of all, for intrusive complexes). In contrast to non-scale symbols for glaucophane schist (blueschist) and eclogite, the non-scale symbols for magmatic rock do not carry the tectonic information. Legend to the Tectonic map of Northern-CentralEastern Asia and adjacent areas at scale 1 1 : 2.5M 2.5M has underdone the insigni ficant changes in connection with broadening of map territory and including into map the new structural elements which did not come into previous tectonic map of 2008. Informational Informat ional block of legend (fig. 13) includes the sequence of tectonic events com bined into tectonic cycles: Pre-Riphean, Riphean-Cadomian, Caledonian, Variscan, Kimmerian, Alpine-Himalayan. Pre-Caledonian part of tectonic events shows the correlation of Russian and Chinese geochronological subdivisions and corresponding tectonic events. This scheme appeared as a result of cooperative investigations of the authors of the Atlas in the Pre-Uralian part of the East-European Platform in Russia and North China (Sino-Korean) and Yangtze platforms in China in 2005–2007. Therefore, for convenience of the Tectonic map users, the authors have kept the traditional Russian and Chinese stratigraphic


(geochronological) subdivisions and names of im portant tectonic events. Tectonic events in informational block correspond to the following reorganizations of the Earth’s crust: age of cratonization (mainly in the ArchaeanProterozoic), age of crust consolidation (metamor phism, magmatism, and deformations), deformations), time of foldfoldthrust deformations (both in fold-thrust belts, and in sedimentary covers), and time of remobilization and destruction of the crust (continental riftogenesis, thermal-magmatic and structural reworking). Column “Ages of tectonic units” includes the color spectrum for all tectonic bodies re flected in the tectonic map and indexes for their designation. Column “Platform cover” shows the diversity of sedimentary covers of the ancient and young platforms (and sedimentary basins) in dependence from the age of the lowermost rocks in sedimentary succession. By this indicator (time of the beginning beginning of sedimentation) all sedimentary covers are divided into the following groups: – Riphean – Early Vendian (for (for North China Platform this sedimentary complex starts earlier that the Early Riphean with accumulation of Changcheng Fm. with the age of basal layers of 1800 Ма Ма,, while in the Bashkir anticlinorium in the Cis-Urals part of the East European Platform, since 1600 Ма Ма); ); – Late Vendian – Early Paleozoic. These sedimentary complexes started to form during interval of the Late Vendian (in China from Sinian) – Cam brian; – Late Paleozoic – beginning of sedimentary covers formation in the Early – Middle Devonian, corresponds to origination of the epi-Caledonian platforms. – Late Permian – Triassic. Triassic. In that time the the largest epi-Variscan platforms started to form; among them Turan young platform, West Siberian sedimentary basin and others. – Jurassic. Origination of such sedimentary basins as Songliao, Huabei in China. – Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous. – Paleogene – Neogene. Numerous intra-mountainous and fore-deep depressions are mostly situated in South Eurasia and along the Paci fic active continental margins; their origination depended on the active Cenozoic tectonics. Sedimentary covers of this age continue to accumulate along the Arctic Ocean coast. Block Rock assemblages of paleooceanic crust includes the standard complex of symbols for designation both preserved successions of paleooceanic crust (ophiolite with preserved sequence) and dismembered ophiolite (ultrama fic protrusions etc.), the outcrops of which occur more frequent than


ophiolitic successions. Symbol “ophiolitic mélange” (serpertinite mélange) is more widespread because namely mélanges accompany the majority of collisional and accretionary structures formed at the places of paleooceanic basin and marginal seas. The symbol “Basalt-carbonate cover of intraoceanic seamounts…” is used much rarely because these paleostructures very rarely remain in the foldthrust belts and areas (the examples are known in the Mongol-Okhotsk belt of the Central Mongolia and in some ophiolite sutures of Kunlun Mts. and Tibetan Plateau). Volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rock assemblages of continental and transitional crust. crust. This block mostly includes the symbols for widespread volcanic associations; among them there are recent complexes and paleoanalogues: rock assemblages of ensimatic and ensialic island arcs, active Andeantype continental margins, and also assemblages of marginal seas and intra-arc basins. Special place in the legend belongs to volcanic complexes associated with destruction of the crust: rift and riftogenous structures, “hot spots”, basaltic floods etc. Sedimentary rock assemblages of continental and transitional crust. crust. This part of legend re flects the variety of sedimentary rock assemblages of passive continental margins (with separated troughs in limits of continental slope), marginal seas. Molasses are represented by marine, continental (including coal-bearing) and volcanogenic types. Special note is given to platform sedimentary covers (cratons occupy the largest part of the tectonic map) and adjoining passive margins (including shelves): car bonate, and terrigenous-carbonate, terrigenous, car bonate-turbidite (calcarenite, calcilutite and others) rock assemblages. For intracontinental basins the following rock assemblages are determined: tuffturbidite for rift basins and terrigenous (sometimes coal-bearing) for overlapping basins. Symbol “nonlithified marine sediments” is mainly used for the Cenozoic sediments of the Arctic and Paci fic coasts. Metamorphic rock assemblages. assemblages. Here the main accent is made at three principal facies of metamorphism (granulite, amphibolite, and green-schist facies). As metamorphic rocks of ultrahigh pressure (eclogite) or low-temperature (blueschists) have a huge geotectonic importance, they are shown by non-scale symbols. Separate symbol group shows the metamorphic degree in collisional belts and sutures. Symbol of the Precambrian greenstone and granite-greenstone belts intends for basements of cratons. Ma fi fic, c, ultrama fi ficc and alkaline rock assemblages. assemblages. This group of symbols is created especially for reflecting mineragenic orientation of ma fic, ultra-

19 mafic, and alkaline rocks, some of them have widespread distribution (for example, Platinum-bearing belt of the Urals, see Chapter 4), or peridotite-gab bro differentiated massifs like Norilsk one. Also the anorthosite plutons and kimberlite pipes are shown in the map for the cratons. Granitoid assemblages. assemblages. This group of symbols unites granitoids of all most important paleodynamic settings of their formation. We We determined among them: plagiogranites of ensimatic island arcs, granites of ensialic island arcs and volcano-plutonic belts, wide variety of granites of collisional belts, syntectonic granites of shear zones. Also granites with specific mineralization (scale and non-scale symbols) are presented in the legend. Rapakivi, grey “gneisses” and tonalite-trondhjemite gneisses (TTG complex) are shown as unique granitoides for the basements of cratons. Mixtite and tectonic rock assemblages. assemblages. Com plexes of the accretionary prisms are very widespread in the fold-thrust belts and sutures, especially in the Phanerozoic ones. Olistostromes are typical of rock assemblages underlying tectonic allochtons, overthusts, nappes. Olistostromes are very often presented in the fore-deep basin complexes and are the elements of continental molasses. Mylonites and blastomylonites in some outcrops have enough width to be shown as lengthy shear zones (Irtysh shear zone, several zones of the Ana bar Shield). Structural and metamorphic reworking of rock assemblages.. Structural and metamorphic (or therassemblages mal-magmatic) reworking of ancient rock assem blages results in progressive (with intensive magmatism) or regressive (without magmatic events) changes of older complexes. In the map, the time of reworking is shown by the color of the strongest changing (with recombination and origination of new metamorphic mineral association), or the time of the latest reorganization (in case of retrograde metamorphism). Zones of superimposed structural reworking involve substantially the pre-mountainous parts of the fore-deep depressions and basins. The best examples are represented by the folded sedimentary cover of Tajik block, pre-Kopet Dagh depression, Kalpin fold-thrust system in the north of Tarim Basin and numerous others. Faults. This Faults. This block of legend includes practically all types of faults (with the exception of tectonic nappes) which are needed to explain the structural features of both consolidated crust and deformed sedimentary covers, basin sedimentary complexes. Nappe boundaries boundaries.. Among nappe boundaries, three main types are distinguished: involving only

20 sedimentary cover (thin-skinned tectonics), involving both fragments of the basement and sedimentary cover rocks (thick-skinned tectonics), ophiolitic allochtons. In the map, the most famous ophiolitic allochtons such as West Uralian are shown (see Chapter 4): Sarmara, Kraka (southern part of the Urals), and Polar Uralian allochtonous ma fic-ultramafic massifs. Mesozoic complexes of cordillera-type metamor phic cores and elements elem ents.. Here, the typical faults as listric and detachment displacements are shown. For the Mesozoic metamorphic cores authors have included the special scale symbol. Other elements. elements. This block of legend mostly consists of widespread symbols usually used in tectonic maps. But it contains such speci fic symbols as “Boundaries of fold regional elements for the areas with removed sedimentary cover” and “Boundary of craton”. The first of them shows the position of front of overthrusting (or detachment displacements) along the areas between platform and its cover (or sedimentary basin), on the one hand, and younger fold-thrust belt, on another one.

Tectonic zoning Being a part of the Tectonic map of NorthernCentral-Eastern Asia and adjacent area, the territory of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia, by the tectonic essence, represents a compound ensemble of tectonic structures of different age and origin (fig. 14). This ensemble includes ancient cratons (Siberian, East European, Sino-Korean, or North China), massifs and blocks with thick continental crust of different age (Cathasian blocks, Yangtze Platform, Paleo-Gondwanaland blocks of Ti bet and Pamirs, Himalaya, Tarim-T arim-Tajik ajik Platform) and blocks of unidenti fied origin (basement of the Junggar Basin, Qaidam, Hami-Turpan, Fergana depressions etc.). Central position of the map belongs to the Central Asian fold belt (in Russian part – to the UralMongolian mobile belt), originated as a result of long-time (more than 400 Ma) evolution at the place of the Paleoasian Ocean as a part of the Paleopacific Ocean. During evolution of the Paleoasian Ocean, accretion processes prevailed over others when isolated cratons (paleocontinents) “accreted” by paleooceanic, paleo-island arc and others com plexes, joined to the paleocontinent margins by the processes of subduction or obduction. Simultaneously, separated blocks with continental type of crust (microcontinents) of different origination were accreted – Paleo-Siberian, Cathasian, Laurentian and others.


Ultima analysi, analysi, originated structure at the place of the Paleoasian Ocean acquired the features of a mosaic structure which is characteristic of accretionary type (or Paci fic style) of the Earth’s crust evolution. Linearity of the accretionary complexes of the Urals is conditioned, first of all, by the structural homogeneity of the continental margin of the East European craton, to which paleooceanic, paleo-island arc complexes and isolated microcontinents (such as East Uralian block) have been accreted. In tectonic plan, accretionary and obduction complexes of the Urals are similar to those of the Eastern Appalachians on the structurally homogenous margin of the North American craton. It is quite interesting because Appalachian structures have been formed along the Iapetus boundary which was a direct prolongation of the Paleoasian Ocean. Repeated processes of accretion and destruction in the internal parts of the Paleoasian Ocean (in the modern structure – in the central part of the Central Asian fold belt), presence of numerous continental blocks with different sizes (microcontinents), re peated redistribution of the structures and fragments fragments of new-formed crust have determined the mosaic structures of Kazakhstan, Altay-Sayan mountain area, Northern Mongolia and other regions. Peculiarities of mosaic structure of the Central Asian fold belt are demonstrated in the Tectonic map. Structures of Kazakhstan, Altay-Sayan area, and Northern Mongolia are represented as agglomerate of blocks (or collage of terranes), differing by the age and origination. Age of these blocks (Baikalian, Early and Late Caledonian, Early Variscan are predominant) is shown by color. Therefore, the largest regional structures look like color mosaics. Different specks of rock assemblages explain their paleodynamic or structural-material properties (oceanic and marginal sea complexes, island arc and intra-arc volcanic and volcano-sedimentary association; blocks with mature, granite-gneiss, or with newly-formed, granite-metamorphic, crust). Multi phase, expanded in time magmatism, magmatism, especially granitic, in a greater degree emphasizes the structural mosaicity, considerable duration of the consolidated crust formation, complex processes of accretion and often differently directed collision. Pacific style of evolution when the new su percontinents emerged (such as Northern Eurasia after closure of the Paleoasian Ocean in the Late Paleozoic) was changed by Indo-Atlantic style. Processes of non-linear geodynamics were superseded by linear processes which are the constituent parts of standard “Wilson’s Cycle”. Cycle includes the


21

Fig. 14. Map of tectonic zoning of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia (inset map to the Tectonic map of Northern-CentralEastern Asia and adjacent areas, 1 :2.5M)

22 following successive evolutional stages: continental rifting; spreading increase of neogenic ocean; its reduction with formation of ensimatic volcanic arc and marginal sea (or of the Andean-type active continental margin with volcanic belt); continental collision with a widespread formation of collision granite intrusions and batholiths. One of the most important features of the Indo-Atlantic structures is the presence of narrow and lengthy ophiolite zones and sutures. They include, as a rule, metamorphosed paleooceanic and intra-oceanic (island arc and marginal sea) complexes, supra-subduction ophiolites and ophiolitic mélanges. Linear structures (and sutures) are typical, first of all, for the Tethyan domain of the Central Asia, i.e. from the Paleotethys ophiolite zone of the Northern Pamirs – Kunlun – Qinling – Dabeishan in the north and southward in the Pamirs P amirs – Tibetan – Himalayan part of the Tectonic map. These narrow and lengthy (on tectonic map more than 3000 km) zones are controlled by outcrops of ophiolitic (serpentinite) mélange and neighboring belts of supra-subduction and collision granitoid intrusions. The seismo-active strike-slips are situated in the recent structures along zones and sutures, as the most rheologically unstable structures. Mongol-Okhotsk linear belt is one of the best representatives of changing of the Paci fic accretionary style of crustal tectonic evolution by the Indo-Atlantic collision one. It seems to us that this tendency is the general regularity of the Earth’s evolution when supercontinents combined due to accretion processes start to break-up with formation of paleooceans of the Atlantic type. Origination of the Mongol-Okhotsk paleoocean (the same of the South Anyui Paleoocean) took place as the result of rifting of heterogeneous consolidated crust including both the ancient blocks with thick continental crust and relatively thin and weakly consolidated accretionary systems of paleooceanic complexes. This rifting and later collision in conditions of heterogeneous crust determined the peculiarity of collision and postcollision magmatism of the Mongol-Okhotsk belt, specificity of geochemistry and, as consequence, variety of different ore deposits. Carrying out analysis of the tectonic composition of the Central Asian fold belt we separate in the map the following main structures: – cratons, – fold belts, – sedimentary basins. Cratons in the Russian part of the map are represented by the largest continental blocks: East European and Siberian platforms. The most ancient continental crust has a more widespread distribution


than their shield and platform parts. For example, the largest part of Siberian craton is covered by complexes of peri-continental marginal basins (in Mesozoides of Northeast Russia) or by the Mesozoic volcanogenic rocks of the Paci fic (OkhotskChukotka) volcanic belt. Formation of the continental crust in both cratons had finished at the end of the Paleoproterozoic and, since the Riphean (Mesoproterozoic) the platform regime was settled. Siberian Craton in the Riphean (since Mesoproterozoic) was a very stable structure and the Riphean (Mesoproterozoic) sediments are distributed practically on the whole territory of the platform. In the East European Platform, the Riphean (beginning from the Mesoproterozoic) is represented by aulacogen’s piftogeneous facies; cover sediments, beginning from the Vendian (Ediacaran), are widespread everywhere. We regard both platforms as structures with consolidated crust formed to the beginning of the Mesoproterozoic. Fold belts belts of different age in Northern, Central and Eastern Asia include in their structures both neogenic consolidated crust which was formed in the process of evolution of paleooceanic structures and blocks with ancient continental crust, which were “involved” during the process of new consolidated crust formation. These blocks underwent younger granitic magmatism and metamorphism practically synchronous with the accretion-collision processes in the fold belt. Therefore, we do not show them in the scheme of tectonic zoning but describe in the chapters of Explanatory Note devoted to the separated tectonic structures (fold belts and areas) or regional territories. For neogenic consolidated crust the most important complexes-indicators re flected in the map are: a) paleooceanic crust with different parts of ophiolite succession or mélange; b) sedimentaryvolcanogenic and magmatic assemblages of transitional (island arc) stage and c) complexes-indicators of final formation of the consolidated crust (granitic intrusions and batholiths) and molasses. Exactly the latter distributes all fold structures of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia by the age of consolidated crust. Summing all geological data which are available to the present time, we determine the following structures with consolidated crust among fold belts in the Russian and adjacent parts of the Tectonic map of Northern-Cent Norther n-Central-Easte ral-Eastern rn Asia and adjacen adjacentt areas, which formed: – to the end of the Neoproterozoic (Timan and Yenisei ridge); – to the middle of the Devonian (Altay-Sayan and Sayan-Baikal mountain areas, Kazakhstan, Northern Tien Shan, Altun – Qilian – Northern Qinling and others);


– to the end of the Carboniferous – Early Permian (East Urals, Ob-Zaisan fold area, Southern Tien Shan, Central Kazakhstan and Junggar-Balkhash fold area, western part of the Mongol-Okhotsk fold belt and others); – to the Middle – Late Triassic (Northern Pamirs, Pamirs, Kunlun ophiolite zones, Beishan – Solonker belt and others); – to the beginning of the Cretacous (Oloy fold zone and South Anyui ophiolite zone, Sikhote-Alin); – to the end of the Late Cretaceous (Koryak fold-thrust belt); – in the Cenozoic (Kamchatka and Sakhalin). We excellently understand that consolidated crust of the most above mentioned fold structures formed during enough long time and went through several phases. The best indicator showing the final formation of consolidated crust is the time of sedimentation starting and formation of sedimentary covers of young platforms and sedimentary basins. Sedimentary basins principally distinguish form the sedimentary covers of platforms by their structure and evolution style. If in the history of platform evolution their cover in lateral direction was changed by shelf and slope facies of the surrounding paleooceans, then the sedimentary basin, as a rule, originated in the interior of fold or orogenic structures framing. This determined the properties of internal structure and sedimentation in basins. For the sedimentary basin the following features are predominant: heterogeneous and different-aged separated blocks of the basement, its relative tectonic instability; considerable and huge thicknesses in the central part of the basin; mainly terrigenous character of sediments; sometimes internal tectonic reconstruction in the sedimentary basin.

23 Thus, in the West Siberian Basin, since the Late Triassic, the sedimentary successions formed, the thickness of which exceeded the long-time accumulated cover of the adjacent East European and Siberian platforms. Heterogeneous basement of the West Siberian Basin (see Chapter 5) includes the pre-Riphean (i.e. pre-Mesoproterozoic) continental crust of the Siberian Craton, Caledonian consolidated crust of Northern Kazakhstan, Variscan Variscan accretionary consolidated crust of the East Uralian zone and Ob-Zaisan fold area. This does not rule out that such heterogeneity and tectonic activity along boundaries of rheologically different blocks determined the conditions of sedimentation in the basins. Considerable internal reorganization of the basin in the process of its evolution is peculiar only of the Mesozoic basins in the northeast and east of China: Songliao (at the Early and Late Cretaceous boundary) and Huabei (at the Paleogene and Neogene boundary). It was connected with the Yanshanian movements in the limits of North China (SinoKorean) Platform and continuing collision between North China (Sino-Korean) and Yangtze platforms. Turan Basin (or plate) represents an exception from the above mentioned examples, and it is the epi-Variscan young platform. Deformations in its basement and cover are caused by continuing collision of the Arabian Plate with the south of Eurasia and connected with simultaneous origination of tectonic structure and growth of the Kopet Dagh Mountain Ridge. In the Russian part of the map, the main basins are West Siberian and Amur-Zeya ones, and in Chinese part – Songliao, Huabei, Sichuan, Junggar, Hami-Turpan and Qaidam basins.

24


2.3. Metallogenic map of Northern-Centr аl-Eastern Asia in scale 1:2.5M

Editors-in-Chief: O. V. Petrov, A. F. Morozov, E. A. Kiselev, S. P. Shokalsky (Russia), Dong Shuwen (China), O. Chuluun, O. Tomurtogoo (Mongolia), B. Uzhkenov, M. Sayduakasov (Kazakhstan), Hwang Jae Hae, Kim Bok Chul (Republic of Korea). Authors: G. A. Shatkov, E. M. Pinsky, N. S. Solovyev, V. P. Feoktistov, V. V. Shatov, L. D. Rucheikova, V. A. Guschina, Yu. B. Mironov, А. V. Molchanov, V. L. Masaytis, V. V. Puring, L. I. Krasny, А. S. Volsky, B. A. Blyuman, А. E. Sobolev, N. I. Gusev, V. A. Shamakho Shamakhovv, V. A. Stromov, St romov, V. V. F. F. Proskurnin, Pro skurnin, V. I. Shpikerm Shpikerman, an, V. V. V. Firsov, Fir sov, S. I. Strelnikov (Russia), (Russia), Chen Chen Tingyu, Geng Shufang, Dong Shuwen, С hen hen Вinwei, Hao Meiying, Huang Dianhao, Song Tianrui, Sheng Jifu, Zhu Guanxiang, Yan Keming, Min Longrui, Jin Ruogu, Liu Ping, Fan Benxian, Ju Yuanjing, Wang Zhenyang, Han Kunying, Wang Liya (China), G. Dedjidmaa, О. Tomurtogoo, В. Delgertsogt, Ts. Enkhbat Enk hbat (Mongolia), Kim Bok Chul, Hwang Jae Ha (Republic of Korea); A. L. Kiselev, Kiselev, О. A. Fedorenko, L. A. Miroshnichenko, D. V. Gurevich (Kazakhstan) Metallogenic map of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia in scale 1 : 2.5M (fig. 15) compiled under the international project of five countries (Russia, China, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan) is tectonic and geological maps of the Atlas at 1 : 2.5 scale. Geological base of the map enables objective imaging of genetic and paragenetic associations of mineralization with geological structural-material complexes, such as the areas of small granite intrusions, dyke and volcanic pipe belts, including kimberlites. Paleovolcanic structures controlling the placement of uranium, tin, gold etc. deposits are shown where necessary. Special attention is given to the analysis of specific mineralization epochs. We analyze the geodynamic settings associated with different deposit types. These and other factors of metallogenic analysis are re flected in the legend to the Metallogenic map and in the diagrams in its marginal parts.

Database (catalogue) of mineral deposits Each deposit has up to 23 characteristics ( fig. 16). Major among them: name of the deposit, country, administrative reference, geographic coordinates, referencing to sheets at 1 : 1M scale, group of minerals, main and accompanying minerals, genetic and geological commercial type, field size (large, medium, small), ore quality (rich, ordinary, poor), age of deposit, referencing to metallogenic zoning targets. A total of 7081 deposits are characterized. These include 88 kinds of minerals. They are assigned to 11 groups of fields with a different colour in the map. These are ferrous, non-ferrous and rare metals, rare and rare-earth elements, uranium, noble metals, diamonds, precious and ornamental stones,

agricultural materials, mining chemical and industrial raw materials, optical materials, salts. Deposits are referred to 23 formation-genetic groups, which have a certain character shape in the map. Genetic characterization is complemented by information on the target relationship with one of the 223 geological and commercial types of deposits, which are in the form of tables. Deposit margins were agreed. They enable clear attribution to the categories of large, medium and small, often without giving exact figures of reserves. The analysis of this information allows metallogenic potential assessment of both metallogenic zoning targets and certain minerals. Except for clear typi fication of field sizes, special attention was given to analysis of the mineral raw material quality. This is re flected in the database and in the map. It should be noted that 7081 mineral deposits shown in the map ( fig. 17) are owned by ten states. We emphasize that 2966 fields, including 569 large ones are in Russia; 1782 fields, of which 362 are large, are shown in China. The following metallogenic units are distinguished. Planetary metallogenic belt is a global zoning unit corresponding to planetary mobile belts over 5 million km2 in area. Metallogenic superprovince is a group of geodynamically and metallogenically interconnected provinces characterized by conjugation of the ma jor mineralization epochs. These are the Ural-Tien Shan, Mongol-Okhotsk and other superprovinces, 27 in all (fig. 1). Area of superprovinces is 0.5–1.5 million km2. Metallogenic provinces are the main targets in the regional metallogenic analysis. They cover large, geodynamically isolated parts of superprov-


25

Fig. 15. Metallogenic map of the Northern-Centrаl-Eastern Asia in scale 1:2.5M (avalible on http://www.vsegei.ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)


g n i n o z c i n e g o l l a t e m f o e r u t c u r t S . 6 1 . g i F

27


Fig. 17. Map accounted for 7081 mineral deposits in different countries

inces. As a rule, they are limited by large boundary faults. Area of provinces is 2–5 × 105 km 2. A total of 90 provinces are in the map. Metallogenic areas or metallogenic zones are large parts of provinces. They are allocated based on significant structural and material heterogeneities in composition and differences in metallogenic specialization. Area of metallogenic zones is 5–10× 5–10 × 104 km 2. 231 units of this rank are allocated. Ore region or ore zone is a local productive part of metallogenic area. Major geological prerequisites for the allocation of ore regions are structurally linked ore knot associations. Area of ore

regions and zones is 1–3 × 103 km2 (linear zones up to 100 km). A total of 650 ore regions and ore zones are shown in the map. Ore knot is a site concentrating ore deposits both within ore regions and outside of them. It is assumed that ore knot is a unitary (elementary) ore-forming system. It contains in its depths one or more commercial fields. Ore knot area is 2–8 × 102 km 2. 1200 ore knots are shown in the map. All metallogenic zoning targets contain information on the composition (specialization), age (metallogenic epoch), and extent of mineralization (metallogenic potential).

28 Scheme of metallogenic province and region specialization shows that the majority of provinces are heterogeneous in composition of minerals. Continental margin of the Paci fic is characterized by province specialization for tin, tungsten (SC), tin and base metals (SA), gold, non-ferrous and rare metals (OKH). Mongol-Okhotsk superprovince superpro vince (MO) is specialized for gold, uranium, rare and nonferrous metals. Relatively common are the com bination of ferrous metal with non-ferrous metal deposits (Ural-U, North China – YWQ, GH etc.). An important result of the work on the metallogenic map and its explanatory note are age determination of deposits and analysis of 11 mineralization epochs and their manifestation in the map area. Analysis of the available data shows that many metallogenic provinces are polychronous, i.e. mineralization took place in them in several stages. Permian-Triassic age of deposits in Central Kazakhstan, Middle and South Tien Shan, Rudny Altai, iron skarn deposits in South Siberian Platform is clearly manifested. To the east of Baikal, the pro portion of deposits related to the Late Mesozoic mineralization increases dramatically. Various mineralization epochs are manifested differently on platforms and mobile belts. In the North China paraplatform, YWQ and JL-NK pro vinces are characterized by polichronous iron, copper, nickel and gold deposits, and by diversity of their genetic types. For example, iron deposits are metamorphogenic ferruginous quartzite (AR), skarni fied ferruginous quartzite (PP1), and magnetite skarn (NP, PZ 2–3, J3 –K 1). In general, polichronous mineral deposits are typical of all the ancient platforms. A different pattern is observed in fold-and-thrust systems of the Mongol-Okhotsk superprovince. It is dominated by deposits related to J 2–3 and J3 –K 1. Ore knots belonging to earlier mineralization epochs are preserved in the form of small “islands” (i.e. Ozerny ore knot with polymetallic mineralization – PZ1 –PZ2). In general, eastern margin of the map is characterized by the Mesozoic mineralization.

Metallogenic potential evaluation Metallogenic provinces vary widely in deposit distribution density, and, respectively, ore regions and ore knots. This makes it possible to classify 90 metallogenic provinces shown in the map according to the metallogenic potential features ( fig. 18, 19). Based on the parameters of each province – area, total number of fields, quantity of large deposits and presence of unique high-value objects – four groups of provinces are identi fied: unique, large, ordinary, and poor, including poorly studied.


Unique metallogenic provinces include the Uralian, Yanshan-Wutai-Lesser-Qin Ling (North China), South China, Kerulen-Argun, Liaodong North Korea, Aldan-East Stanovoy, Baikal and others. Unique deposits are located in these provinces: Almaz-Zhemchuzhina (Cr), Bazenovskoe (asb), Berezovskoe (Au), Bayan Obo (TR), Dailin (W), Sihuashan (W), Xian Hualien (Sn), Streltsovskaya group (U), Udokan (Cu), Katuginskoe (Ta, Nb), Elkon group (U), Komdok (Zn), Anshan (Fe), Kholodninskoe (Zn, Pb), Sukhoi Log (Au), and many others. These provinces are characterized by a wide ore-geochemical spectrum of mineral deposits: siderophilic-chalcophilic in the Urals, lithophilic-chalco-siderophilic in North China, essentially lithophilic in South China, Transbaikalia, and East Mongolia. This category includes provinces and areas with large reserves of valuable minerals (Au, U, diamonds, Cu, Ni, Pt, W, Sn, Hg etc.). For example, Chu-Syrdarya (U), Kyzylkum (Au – Muruntau, U – Uchkuduk), Alakit-Olenek Alakit-Olenek (diamonds – Aikhal, Zarnitsa), Norilsk (Ni, Cu, Pt – Talnakh), and South Gobi (Au-Cu-porphyry – Oyu-Tolgoi) etc. The second group comprises 24 metallogenic provinces with fewer large deposits, compared with the first group. On the number of large fields, Mongol-Transbaikalia, Selenga-Oldoy, Bureya-Jiamusi-Khanka, and Sikhote-Alin provinces are distinguished here. A set of minerals in this group of provinces is also quite large, but still st ill in some cases inferior to the first group. These provinces also possess unique deposits: Kalmakyr (Cu, Mo) in the Middle Tien Shan province, Dzhezkazgan (Cu) in the Kokshetau-Ulutau province, Olimpiada (Au) in the Yenisei Ridge province, Zamarskoe (Au) in the Mongol-Okhotsk province, Dalnegorskoe (B) in the Sikhote-Alin province etc. The third group, numbering 26 metallogenic provinces and noticeably inferior in ore and especially in the number of large and unique fields to the first two groups, also has a signi ficant metallogenic potential. It contains large copper porphyry and tungsten deposits in the Balkhash area, Carlin type gold deposits in the Sunpan-Hansa province, a unique copper-nickel deposit Jinchuan in OrdosAlashan province, as well as abundant metallogenic potential in South Korea (LUMC) and other minerals, particularly salts in West China and the Russian Fore-Urals provinces. The fourth group (24 sites) mostly contains “closed” relatively poorly studied metallogenic provinces of Western and Eastern Siberia (T (TaimyraimyrSevernaya Zemlya, Yenisei-Khatanga, etc.), Tarim and Turan platforms, Tibet, Himalayas, etc.


s a e r a d n a s e c n i v o r p f o n o i t a z i l a i c e p s c i n e g o l l a t e m f o p a M . 8 1 . g i F

30


Fig. 19. Metallogenic provinces and regions in terms of metallogenic potential 1 – unique, 2 – highly, 3 – medium, 4 – poor and poorly studied


Comprehensive metallogenic analysis of the area outlined new patterns in the ore deposit distribution in the border areas of Russia and China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan. Extensive cross-border ore concentrating metallogenic zones, longitudinal and transverse with respect to the Mongol-Okhotsk suture tectonic zone are revealed; they concentrate almost all major commercial meso- and epithermal mainly Mesozoic deposits of gold, molybdenum, uranium, fluorite (Genhe-Anikino, Darasun-Streltsovo, Onon-Choy balsan). These zones, along with well-known large deposits, accommodate a number of prospects in the light of the revealed laws requiring further study. Some specific areas can be recommended for prediction based on the research. Junction (interference) zones of the Mongol-Okhotsk and Central Asian mobile belts with the Pacific planetary belt can be very promising for investigations within the Sikhote-Alin metallogenic province. This concerns identified in our map two continent-ocean transition zones. It highlights a series of subparal lel metallogenic zones with characteristic large deposits: Bhajal-Yam-Alin (tin – Pravourmiyskoe, Festivalnoe, etc.), Central Sikhote-Alin (W – Vostok 2, Lermontovskoe), Primorskaya (tin – Arsenyevoe, Furmanovskoe etc.), Pribrezhnaya (gold – Mnogovershinnoe, boron – Dalnegorskoe, lead-zinc – Nikolaevskoe (T (Tetyuhe). etyuhe). However, the origin of

31 these zones is insuf ficiently studied, and their metallogenic potential is probably not yet exhausted. Recommendations by the Mongolian geologists on individual parts of the Mongol-Okhotsk super province are noteworthy. In the Khentei-Dauri Khentei-Dauriaa area, these are Au in Zamarsky ore region, W in Ikh-Khairkhan ore cluster. In the Central Mongolia province, Cu-Mo (Erdenet geological and commercial type); in Kerulen area, U (Streltsovo type – Gurvan Bulag, Dornot), Pb-Zn (Ulanskoe type – Ulanskoe, Tzav), fluorite (Borunder, Khara-Airag), REE (Mushugay-Khuduk); in South Gobi province, Au-Cu (Oyu Tolgoi), Cu-Mo (Tsagaan-Suburga), U (Nars, etc., Dzunbain group), fluorite (Orgon), REE (Khan-Bogdo). Resulting information can be considered a justification for further comprehensive geological and forecasting studies. The authors believe that it is possible to develop and prove the preconditions necessary for prediction of unique ore deposits. This requires geological and geochemical solutions for ore source issues and substantiation of formation models of unique ore knots (for the predetermined geological and commercial types of deposits). Modern analysis and isotope-geochrono isotope-geochronological logical research methods can signi ficantly clarify ore genesis, identify groups of minerals directly involved in the oreforming processes.

32


2.4. Minerogenic map of energy resources in Northern-Centr аl-Eastern Asia (oil, gas and coal) in scale 1: 1 : 2.5M

Authors: Geng Shufang, Yi Ronglong, Chen Bingwei Chen Tingyu, Liu Ping, You Guoqing, Fan Benxian, Ju Yuanjing, Han Kunying, Wang Zhenyang, Wang Liya (China), (China), B. B. S. Uzhkenov, V. F. Saidukasov, A. I. Kiselev, Kiselev, O. A. Fedorenko, V. V. A. Bykadorov, Bykadorov, V. V. A. Popov, Popov, E.S. Votsalevsky Votsalevsky,, N. V. Mavlyutdinova (Kazakhstan), (Kazakhstan), W. W. S. Kee, B.C. Kim, J. H. Hwang (R. O. Korea), T. Enkhbat, L. Altangerel, T. Minjinsor (Mongolia) (Mongolia),, A. I. Larichev, V. I. Vyalov, V. N. Melnikov, E. V. Olennikova, S. V. Shcherbakova, G. N. Vasileva, G. V. Sokolova (Russia)

“Minerogenic map of energy resources of Northern-Central-Eastern thern-Central-Ea stern Asia at 1 : 2.5M scale” (hydrocarbon and coal layers) ( fig. 20) has been prepared as a separate map of the “Atlas of geological maps of the Northern, Central, Eastern Asia at 1 : 2.5M scale” under the project “3D Geological Structures and Metallogeny of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia”. Its predecessor is the map of energy resources from the “Atlas of geological maps of Central Asia and adjacent areas at 1 1  : 2.5M 2.5M scale” (2008), as the final result of joint work by experts from China (map curator), Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and the Republic of Korea. The map was published in 2014 by Beijing Cartographic Publishing House. Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences and its institutions were coordinator and collective editor in its preparation for publication. The map fully covers the Asian part of Russia (without water area), the entire territory of China, Mongolia, the Central Asian republics and the Korean Peninsula. Map incorporates major petroleum provinces in this part of Asia, such as ancient Siberian, Tarim, North China, Yangtze Yangtze platforms, young West SibeS iberian, Turan, Junggar, Songliao platforms, individual promising basins (including inter-mountain) within the Altai-Sayan-Mongolian folded area. Some promising basins of the south of Western Siberia and the Far East expand in Kazakhstan and China. All these oil-and-gas provinces and basins are shown in the map. Hydrocarbon map layer re flects the state of oiland-gas geological knowledge of huge Asian areas, modern views on the formational structure, tectonics, geodynamics, development and placement of hydrocarbon deposits in oil-and-gas basins, further prospects for increasing oil and gas resources. Map database includes a huge amount of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of oil-and-gas provinces, regions, individual districts and oil-andgas fields. This enables to express in the map new

patterns of ontogeny and spatial distribution of hydrocarbons in various types of sedimentary basins. Method for compiling fuel and energy resources maps of the Atlas takes into account both the methodological metho dological developments of Russian geological and petroleum institutes, as well as the principles of drawing up such maps in the Chinese petroleum geology research institutions. These differences are recorded in synthetic Sino-Russian legend to the “Minerogenic map of energy resources” and in the map itself, which first combined data for both hydrocarbon and coal resources, as well as respective basins bearing them. Combination in a single map of visual information on the hydrocarbon material and coal required generalization, synthesis, and analysis of a huge amount of information on geology, petroleum and coal potential of sedimentary basins using a single technology developed by the Chinese and Russian experts and agreed with other participating countries. In the compiled “Minerogenic map of energy resources of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia” oil-andgas resources have a natural priority in structuraltectonic and petroleum zoning, oil-and-gas provinces and basins, structure and age of the sedimentary cover, oil-and-gas fields, petroleum generating and thermal characteristics of the major oil-and-gas provinces in China, Siberia, and Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan. Therefore, the basis (substrate) for this map was information from the Geological map of the Atlas and inset map for the Tectonic map of the Atlas. Extra-basin folded areas are classi fied by the age of folding (Baikalian, Caledonian, Variscan, Cimmerian, Laramian, Alpine-Himalayan). Map legend includes, above all, a number of structural symbols, somehow characterizing the structure of sedimentary basins, their position among fold-thrust belts and systems. According to the legend, legend, the map shows sedimentary basins of different ages (from Meso-, Neoproterozoic to


33

Fig. 20. Minerogenic map of energy resources of Northern-Centrаl-Eastern Asia at 1 :2.5M scale (avalible on http://www.vsegei. ru/en/intcooperation/international-project-atlas-of-geological-maps-of-northern-central-and-eastern-asia-and-adjacent-are/)

34 Cenozoic), regardless of their filling with petroleum raw material. However, the energy potential of these basins is shown by a special series of signs “Oil-gas field and Type of trap”. This takes into account almost all possible basins: from proper oil bearing to substantially gas-bearing, and naturally all possible intermediate options. The legend also refers to the association of oil and gas deposits to certain elements of basins (structural trap, lithologic trap, stratigraphic trap, and bedrock trap of oiland-gas fields). Essential addition to characteristic of petroleum basins and provinces is a group of signs “Boundary and thermal system of basin” with gradation from “hot” to “cool” basins. From these characteristics one can estimate the physical and chemical state of hydrocarbons in reservoirs. Coal basins, in addition to their structural characteristics, contain the genetic types of coals and their rank (Genetic type of low rank coal: peat, brown, flame, soft; Genetic type of medium rank coal: gas, rich, coking; Genetic type of high rank coal: hard, lean, anthracite). Coal fields are ranked in the map by size of their possible open pit development and depending on their re flection in 1: 1 : 1M map (from large to small).


Since petroleum and coal basins and fields are almost always confined to the same tectonic structures (sedimentary covers of cratons, sedimentary basins on basement of various age, rift-related structures, intermountain and piedmont troughs, molasse basins), the so-called “Petroleum & Coal Provinces” received the highest ranked in the map. Map of Russia highlights such major provinces as: Volga-Uralian, West Siberian, Lena-Tunguska, Yenisei-Khatanga, Khatanga-V Khatanga-Vilyui. ilyui. China’ China’ss largest provinces are Songliao, Dahing Gan (on the adjacent territory of Northeast China to East Mongolia), Hua Bei and South Xinjiang (including Tarim, Junggar and Turpan-Hami basins). In Central Asia, the map shows: Karakum-Afghan-T Karakum-Afghan-Tajik ajik (Turkmenistan, South Uzbekistan and Tajikistan), Syrdarya-Fergana (border areas of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan) petroleum and gas provinces. Province in which petroleum potential does not really matter, or these kinds of fuel and energy raw materials are not available are distinguished in the map separately. They are united in the group “Coal-bearing Provinces”. They are most prevalent in Russia (world famous Kuznetsk, Kansk-Achinsk, Pechora and Southeast Baikal with border Mongolia), in Mongolia – Central Mongolian, and in China – Ordos (Qingshui Basin) and others.

35


3. DEEP PROCESSES AND METALLOGENY OF NORTHERN-CENTRAL NORTHERN-CENTRAL-EASTERN -EASTERN ASIA

The third phase of the project launched at the 10th Workshop in Irkutsk (Russia) in September 2013 received its own name “Deep processes and metallogeny of Northern-Central-Eastern Asia”. Project area was significantly expanded and covered a large part of the Eurasian continent, including the shelf seas of the Arctic and Paci fic basins. One of the main tasks was the generalization of the set of compiled maps from 1 1  : 2.5M 2.5M to 1 1 : 5M 5M scale than

was concerned to four maps: geological, tectonic, metalligenic and map of energy resources. The use of 3D geological mapping methods has been considerably extended. The compilation of a set of geophysical maps at 1 1  : 5M 5M scale and geotransects across major tectonic structure of Northern, Central, and Eastern Asia was proposed. Geotransects of all countries-participant of the Project provide a sound basis for imaging Earth’s crust of

Fig. 21. Proposed super-extended Geotransect including Synoprobe pro file 4 (yellow line)

36


Fig. 22. The draft of magnetic anomaly map

tectonic structures Russian net of Geotransects have a total length more than 16 000 km (fig. 21, red lines). The first geotransect (yellow line), including Russian and Chines deep pro files crosses the Ural Foldbelt, West Siberian Depression, Altai-Sayan Region, Tibet Plateau and Himalayas. It shows the Earth crust architecture along N-S crosssection more than 7000 km.

We are going to create a super-extended Geotransect sometime in the future. This transect is based on the Russian deep line 1-SB, currently in progress and shot in recent years Synoprobe pro file 4. In this regard, deep pro file is expected to be connected with the Synoprobe profile 4 (fig. 21). Chinese experts use the data collected under the governmentally go vernmentally sup ported scientific program SinoProbe, performed to

37


Fig. 23. The draft of gravity anomaly map

investigate the composition, structure, and evolution of the continental lithosphere of China and the processes affecting the formation of natural resources and occurrence of geological hazards. The extended set of geophysical maps at scale of 1 : 5M including magnetic and gravity anomaly map (fig. 22, 23) will be the base of new additional maps, schemes and sections covering the deep structure of the territory: 1) The Moho topography ( fig. 24); 2) Thickness of the sedimentary cover ( fig. 25); 3) Thickness of the Earth crust ( fig. 26);

4) Maps of accretion-collisional tectonics and related metallogeny, maps of large igneous provinces, rifts and related metallogeny, maps of earthquake epicenters (fig. 27); 5) Sketch map of the Earth’s crustal types (fig. 28, 29). When carrying out works, Russian experts use data obtained by reference geological-geophysical lines, parametric and superdeep wells under the state programs on studying the geological structure of the territory of the Russian Federation and its continental shelf.

38


Fig. 24. The draft of the Moho surface map

39


Fig. 25. The first draft of the map of sedimentary cover thickness

40


Fig. 26. The draft of consolidated crust thickness


B

A

d e t a i c o s s a d n a s c i n o t c e t n o i s i l l o c n o i t e r c c a f o p a m e h t f o t f a r d – B , ) 5 1 0 ) 2 ( 5 1 0 M 2 5 : ( 1 M e 5 l : a 1 c s l t e a a s c s t i s t o a s p i e t d s o d p e e t d a l i c a r o s e s i a n d m n a s t f i r , ) s P I L ( s e c n i v o r P s u o e n g I e g r a L f o p a m e h t f o t f a r d – A . 7 2 . g i F

42


Crustal types in Northern, Central, Eastern Asia and the Far Eastern region of the continent-ocean transition Modern ideas about the crustal types are based on numerous deep seismic studies carried out in different parts of the world, and attempts to systematize them in connection with the peculiarities of geological structure and tectonic history in the regions [Deep Structure..., 1991; Seismic models..., 1980; Structure and dynamics..., 2006; Continental Lithosphere..., 1991; Meissner, 1986; Mooney, 2007; McNutt, Caress, 2007, etc.]. It is generally accepted differences in the structure and composition of the oceanic and continental crust underlying the majority of published crust typifications from seismic data [Belousov, Pavlenkova, 1989; Mooney, 2007; Kashubin et al., 2013 etc.]. Tab. 1. provides a summary of the structural models and velocity parameters of major layers in the oceanic and continental crust, which, along with data on thickness of different layers and crust in general, serve as a basis for crust typi fication. Eurasian continent and its Far Eastern region of the continent-ocean transition have been suf ficiently studied by deep seismic surveys. Signi ficant amounts of research are performed in the continental part of Russia, Kazakhstan, and China; the continent-ocean transition area has been investigated by researchers from Japan, Russia, China, and Korea. Compiled on this basis maps of crustal thickness [Milshtein et al., 2012], sedimentary cover

thickness and zoning scheme on the potential field nature compiled using the magnetic anomaly and gravity fields, enabled to compile a sketch map of crustal types in Northern, Central and Eastern Asia and the Far Eastern region of the continent-ocean transition, shown in fig. 29. Above the columns, main types of the earth’s crust, shown in fig. are given. Under the columns, main tectonic structures of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia, corresponding to a given type are listed, and references to key publications are cited. Crust of the region is very diverse. There are blocks both with thin (less than 5 to 6 km) essentially 2-layer oceanic crust and with very thick (over 70 km) crust in the Tibet and the 4-layer consolidated crust of the Urals. Three main crustal types are identified in the scheme: oceanic, transitional, and continental, each being subdivided into several subtypes (see tab. 2). Two subtypes of the oceanic crust (subtypes 1 and 2 in fig. 28) differ, first of all, in the crust thickness. Thin crust (less than 5–6 km) is common in the deep-water part of the Paci fic Ocean and in the Eurasian basin of the Arctic Ocean. It consists of two oceanic layers (2nd and 3rd layers of the oceanic crust in tab. 1) overlain by thin sediment [Iwasaki et al., 2013] ( fig. 29). In the area of the Bonin Rise in the Paci fic Ocean, there is a thicker oceanic crust (20 km). The increase in the thickness is due to the thrusting of one oceanic plate onto the other and the appearance in the lower crust of the

Table 1 Generalized structural models and velocity parameters of oceanic and continental crust [Kashubin et al., 2013]

Oceanic crust Major layers

Vp/Vs

Vp, km/s

Vp/Vs

Continental crust Major layers

Water

–

1.45–1.50

–

Water

Sediments

2.1–2.5

2.0–4.5

2.1–2.5

Sediments

2nd layer of the oceanic crust

1.8–2.2

4.2–6.0

1.8–2.2

Basalts interbedded with sediments

–

–

–

5.8–6.4

1.69–1.73

Upper crust

–

–

–

6.3–6.7

1.73–1.75

Middle crust

3rd layer of the oceanic crust

1.81–1.87

6.6–7.2

1.75–1.77

Lower crust

Crust-mantle layer

1.78–1.84

7.2–7.6

1.78–1.84

Crust-mantle layer


43

Fig. 28. Crustal types in Northern, Central, Eastern Asia and the Far Eastern region of the continent-ocean transition

1–2 – oceanic crust: 1 – normal crust of deep-water basins, 2 – thickened crust of oceanic uplifts (sub-continental crust); 3–4 – transitional crust: 3 – crust of subduction zone, 4 – crust of back-arc basins (sub-oceanic crust); 5–11 – continental crust: 5 – reduced 2-layer crust of deep sedimentary basins (sub-oceanic crust), 6 – – reduced 3-layer crust deep of sedimentary basins, 7 – – crust of submerged ridges and rises, 8 – normal crust of platforms, fold systems, and shelf seas mostly with 2-layer consolidated crust, 9 – normal crust of platforms, fold systems, and shelf seas mostly with 3-layer consolidated crust, 10 – thickened crust of 10 – collision areas and inland border zones mostly with 3-layer consolidated crust, 11 – thickened crust of collision areas and inland border zones mostly with 4-layer consolidated crust. Gray lines indicate refraction, DSS lines; standard crustal cores on the DSS are the same as in fig. 29


h t i w e c n a d r o c c a n i d e l i p m o c , a t a d S S D m o r f a e r a n o i t i s n a r t n a e c o - l e t b n a e t n i n t i n o e c n v i n g r e s t s r e a t E e r m a a F r e a p h t t y d i n c o a l , e a v i s d e A i z l n r r e a t s e a n E e g , l a r t n e C , n r e h t r o N n i t s u r c s ’ h t r a E e h t f o n m u l o c l a c i p y T . 9 2 . g i F


crust-mantle complex with wave velocities of 7.4 to 7.6 km/s. In spite of considerable thickness and its similarity to the continental crust, the nature of the Earth’s crust of this rise is oceanic, so, sometimes this crust is considered as “subcontinental” (oceanic crust of continental appearance). The crust of the East Far transitional continentocean area is distinguished in the map as a particular, transitional type. It consists of an extended linear subduction zone (Subtype 3 in fig. 29) where the Pacific crust is submerged under the Eurasia continental margin. [Nakanishi et al., 2009]. Another subtype of the transitional crust in this area (Subtype 4 in fig. 29) is the back-arc basin crust, which is characterized by reduced thickness of the crystalline crust and increased thickness of sediments. In spite of the reduced thickness of the consolidated part, the crust of this subtype retains thin upper crust (at least along the pro file 2DV-M in the Sea of Okhotsk [Kashubin et al., 2011]), which is close in its parameters to the upper continental crust. Since in the thickness and velocity parameters of the lower crust the back-arc basins’ crust resembles the oceanic type, it can be considered as “suboceanic” crust (continental crust of oceanic appearance). The continental crust, covering a large area of the study territory, includes the remaining subtypes (subtypes from 5 to 11 at fig. 29) grouped into four main groups. First group group includes the reduced crust of deep sedimentary basins (subtypes 5 and 6 in fig. 29). The subtypes differ in the number of layers in the crystalline crust underlying thick sedimentary strata of these basins. Subtype 5 (Caspian Lowland) is a typical example of “graniteless” (or “suboceanic”) crust [Volvovsky et al., 1988]. Other deep sedimentary basins shown in the map (Barents Sea, North Chukchi and Vilyui basins) are underlain by 2-layer crystalline crust [Seismic models…, 1980; Roslov et al., 2009; Pavlenkova et al., 2014]. Second group group in this area includes only one subtype (Subtype 7 in fig. 29), which corresponds to the crust of submerged ridges and rises and is represented by the Lomonosov Ridge crust. The continental nature of the underwater Lomonosov Ridge crust is now recognized by most researchers in the Arctic [Jackson et al, 2010; Poselov et al., 2014 et al.] and is generally regarded as an extension of the Eurasian continent to the deep part of the Arctic Ocean.

45 Third group, group, which includes normal crust platforms, fold systems, and shelf seas, occupies most of the territory of Northern, Central, and Eastern Asia and is divided into two subtypes (subtypes 8 and 9 in fig. 29). The subtypes differ in the number of layers of the crystalline crust. Subtype 8 in fig. 29 includes the Verkhoyansk-Chukotka and Amur folded areas and the East Arctic and Far Eastern shelf. The crust thickness of this subtype is usually less than 30–35 km, and in the crystalline crust, as rule, there are two layers – upper and lower crystalline crust [Sakulina et al., 2011]. Subtype 9 in fig. 29 covers the West Siberian Plate, Siberian craton, Omolon Massif, Kazakhstan folded area, and other parts of Central Asia, which crust is characterized by total thickness of about 40 km, and, as a rule, 3-layer structure of the crystalline part [Egorkin et al., 2002]. Forth group, group , which includes the thickened crust of collision areas and inland boundary zones, is also subdivided into two subtypes (subtypes 10 and 11 in fig. 29). As in the previous group, the subtypes differ in number of layers in the crystalline crust. Subtype 10 in fig. includes the Tibetan (with the crust of more than 70 km thick [Li et al., 2006]) and Tien Shan collisional areas, the Yenisei and PreVerkhoyansk boundary areas, and the Novaya Zemlya- Pai-Khoi folded area, characterized by mainly 3-layer crystalline crust structure of 45 to 50 km thick. Subtype 11 in fig. 29 covers the Ural folded area of total crust thickness of about 55 km, within which a crust-mantle layer is fixed under the 3-layer crystalline crust [Druzhinin et al, 1997; Druzhinin et al., 2000; Geotraverse “GRANITE” ..., 2002, and others]. Thus, seismic surveys in Northern, Central, Eastern Asia and the Far Eastern transition continentocean area revealed signi ficant heterogeneity of the crust structure and the existence of a large number of its types and subtypes. Performed constructions (fig. 28, 29) showed regular decrease in the total thickness of the crustal type from the central part of Eurasia to its Far Eastern margins and further to the Pacific Ocean. The decrease in the consolidated crust thickness is associated with the transition from a predominantly 3-layer crystalline crust in the center of the continent to the 2-layer consolidated crust in the continent margin and within shelf seas. Perhaps, the established patterns and identi fied types and subtypes of the crust will allow more grounded global models of Eurasia formation and its interaction with the Pacific Ocean.

46


CONCLUSION

Currently, work on the Atlas of geological maps of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia has been going on for 13 years. Signi ficant progress has been achieved; the compiled compiled maps maps are a qualitatively qualitatively new innovative cartographic product of 3-D geological mapping, which is based not only on the results of litho-geodynamic, formational and basin analysis, but also on a vast body of geophysical data, including deep seismic data, results of drilling of superdeep parametric wells. The project will be dynamically developed and continued despite natural change of generations of geologists. Work on 1 : 5M Geochemical maps of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia Asia has begun; the Chinese side volunteered to be the coordinator of these maps. Within this part of the project, monoelemental maps for metallogenic provinces and regions will be compiled. On their basis, maps of integral geochemical field are being compiled, which allow the assessment of geochemical orientation of geological complexes and metallogenic taxa. The set of complied geochemical maps will be used in assessing the metallogenic potential of the project area during predictive metallogenic studies. It is planned to transform the Atlas of geological maps from the scale of 1 : 2.5M to the scale of 1 : 5M. The project materials will show Arctic and Pacific continent-ocean transition zones. Studying the interaction of structures of the Eurasian continent with the planet’s oldest and youngest ocean is of fundamental scientific importance. We are going to create a super-extended geotransect sometime in the future. In this regard, deep profile is expected to be connected with the SinoProbe Profile 4. Chinese experts use the data collected under the governmentally supported scienti fic program SinoProbe, performed to investigate the com-

position, structure, s tructure, and evolution of the continental lithosphere of China and the processes affecting the formation of natural resources and occurrence of geological hazards. International project Atlas project Atlas of geological maps of Northern, Central and Eastern Asia is Asia is of great im portance not only for re flecting the new level of our knowledge of the geological structure of the region and assessing the mineral potential of this vast and complexly constructed territory. In the course of its realization the sharing of information and technologies by geologists from different countries take place. Evaluation of metallogenic and energy potential of the regions carried out by geological surveys, rather than individual experts, is more objective and grounded. Close cooperation between the geological surveys in the implementation of international projects is of great geopolitical importance, for example, in the development of coherent national positions of states concerning issues of delimitation of the outer limits of the continental shelf in the Arctic, Antarctica and other complex regions. There is no doubt that the future belongs to joint geological mapping projects as an important form for contacting geological surveys of different countries and continents. Acknowledgments This booklet was compiled by the following authors: O. V. Petrov, I. I. Pospelov, S. P. Shokalsky, T. Yu. Tolmacheva, S. N. Kashubin. Work com pleted on the subject s ubject of the Federal Agency of Scientific Organizations of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (registration No 115042370035), with the support from the Russian Science Foundation (grant 16-17-10251).

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International project ATLAS OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS OF ASIA AND ADJACENT AREAS

СПб Картфабрика ВСЕГЕИ. Зак. 41636000.

Atlas of Geological maps of Asia

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