Rose-Mary Reynolds Assess the view that pressure groups are becoming too powerful. Provide theory and examples to illustrate. (45 marks)
Pressure groups can be seen as one o ne of the main elements of the United States political system. This is mainly because it performs numerous functions that allows for the enhanc ement of democracy such as participation, influencing government policy and educating the public on various issues. nfluencing government is one of the main functions that pressure groups carry out as they do not see! to gain political power however it is considered that by influencing government has made them essentially too powerful. The argument on the basis that pressure groups are too powerful is founded that as they are not accountable should not be able to be as influential as they currently are. This argument can be supported by theories such as the revolving door syndrome and the iron triangle that see! to e"plain how pressure groups are greatly influential. #n the other hand, the argument can be made that pressure groups are largely sub$ected to factors that limit their success and their ability to be g reatly successful, such as membership si%e, funds, etc. Thus it is argued that pressure groups are relatively wea! as they have many obstacles to overcome in order to be deemed successful, which many groups within the US, are not. &ithin this essay, a discussion discussion will be held in order to determine whether pressure groups are essentially too powerful or are relatively relatively wea! within the United States. Pressure groups can be defined as a group of people who see! to e"ert pressure on legislators, public opinion, etc, in order to promote their own ideas or welfare. 's 's noted by (a!er, there are a plethora of pressure groups e"isting within the US today. today. This is largely largely due to factors such as the increasing role of government and political parties becoming less representative as well as the many benefits associated with $oining a pressure group. The role of government has considerably e"panded in recent years therefore gives citi%ens more opportunities to pressure groups to influence government. 'dditionally, pressure groups have also seen growth due to political parties reducing their role in being representative to the public. Political Political parties do not always ade)uately represent the interests of all members within society* therefore more pressure groups were created as political parties !ept failing to represent the public+s pu blic+s interests. interests. astly, individuals are able to reali%e the many man y benefits when $oins a pressure group such as material, purposive and solidarity benefits. (ennett notes that material benefits benefits refers to individuals $oining a pressure groups in order to gain the tangible rewards that individuals or companies get in return for their donations to a particular pressure group. P urposive benefits refer to not $oining a pressure group to gain any an y benefits for themselves but to be a part pa rt of a movement or to ma!e society a better place. Members also $oin in order to gain solidarity benefits which are social benefits brought about from interacting with individuals sharing sharing the same views and interests. Therefore it can be seen that there are many pressure groups within the US representing a vast number of interests and views due to several factors encouraging this growth. n order to gain a comprehensive co mprehensive understanding of whether pressure groups are too powerful, it is important to discuss the distinctions of pressure groups, their relating functions and the methods utilised in order to perform such functions. 's mentioned previously, there are a vast
Rose-Mary Reynolds number of pressure groups representing numerous interests. Therefore it is important to establish the two broad categories or distinctions pressure groups within the US fall into which are institutional and membership pressure groups. nstitutional pressure groups refer to groups that see! to represent other organisations and groups. These include businesstrade groups such as the US hamber of ommerce, labour unions such as the /omestic &or!ers United, agriculture groups such as 0armers Mar!et ollation, professional groups which represent the economic interests for members of various professions such as the 'merican Medical 'ssociation and intergovernmental groups representing the interests of government to other governments such as the United 1ations. Membership pressure groups, on the other hand, represent individual 'mericans rather than other groups. Pressure groups within this category are ideological groups which often wor! on a variety of specific issues, with their wor! driven by deeply held beliefs such as the 1ational 'ssociation for the 'dvancement of olored People 21''P3. Single-issue groups are groups that focus all their energy on a single defining issue such as the 1ational Rifle 'ssociation 21R'3. #ther membership pressure groups include public interest groups such as 1ational 4ducation 'ssociation and thin! tan!s such as 'nalysis 5roup. The various distinctions of pressure groups have been established, it is imperative to discuss the functions of these groups and what methods do they employ to carry them out. Pressure groups on a broad scale perform several functions such as representation, participation, education, agenda setting and scrutiny. These pressure groups are able to provide representation of certain issues and interests that are not reflected by p olitical parties. (ennett notes that pressure groups enable citi%ens to have their views represented and their grievances articulated. Through pressure groups, they are also able to have their views represented at all three arms of government. Pressure groups allow for an increase in citi%en participation apart from elections and in specific policy areas. 'mericans see! far greater and more often oppo rtunities to participate in the political process rather than elections which are only one day within the entire year, every four years. Pressure groups also allows for participation in a specific policy area for e"ample pro-guns, anti-abortion. 'dditionally, pressure groups provide education to the public on issues that the government do not want to directly address. They may ma!e citi%ens aware of the outcomes of decisions made by government or the possible dangers if certain issues are not properly addressed. #ne of the most important functions pressure groups perform is agenda building which is essentially influencing the agenda or policy of political parties, legislatures and bureaucrats in order to give priority to their member+s interests. 'n e"ample of agenda building would be in the case of manufacturers and distributors of /s, video cassettes and computer software wor!ing together to get the government+s attention to focus on the problem of piracy of such goods. (ennett notes that as a result, hina agreed to close down factories that were illegally duplicating 'merican goods. astly, pressure groups also perform the function of scrutini%ing and analysing government action and Supreme ourt decisions. The basic functions of pressure groups have been addressed however it is now imperative to discuss the various strategies utili%ed in other to carry out their various functions. #ne of the
Rose-Mary Reynolds most important functions pressure groups perform would be influencing the government+s policy and agenda. Pressure groups are able to do this through lobbying which according to &ayne, is the behaviour of people who accost their elected representatives in the lobbies of legislatures and other government buildings and try to persuade them how to vote on an issue. (a!er notes that it is the process of building relations with lawma!ers to secure favourable policy outcomes and influence the legislative agenda. obbying can ta!e many forms as noted by &ayne which includes a statement to a public official indicating a group+s position on an issue, a trip by influential constituents in order to plead a group+s case. obbying can also be direct meaning lobbyists themselves contact public officials or indirect where they would persuade and encourage others to do so. (ennett notes that this may be the most effective method which can be seen as it has been recorded that in 6787, there were 86,99: registered lobbyists, it has been described as a ;persuasion industry+. Many pressure groups have spent considerable amounts of money on lobbying, for e"ample the US hamber of ommerce has spent over <:= million on lobbying activities. Pressure groups also see! to influence policy by mobilising their members and supporters to vote for a candidate. This method is !nown as endorsing and can be seen as a very effective method especially when groups are single-issued or sufficient amount of members 2potential voters3 are present in !ey states. 'n e"ample of this would be the 1ational Rifle 'ssociation 21R'3 who endorsed Mitt Romney as the presidential candidate and has its members living disproportionately in 8= !ey battleground states and >7 battleground US ?ouse districts, therefore candidates do not want to upset this important voting bloc as noted by (a!er. 4ndorsing also involves donations to political action committees 2P's3. These groups see! to influence how voters loo! at the candidates without instructing their members to vote by utili%ing funding vehicles. These are responsible for collecting and allocating mone y on the behalf of these groups due to the introduction of electoral funding laws. Therefore pressure groups are still able to e"ert influence by funding to individual candidate+s campaigns. The issue can now be argued on whether or not pressure groups are too powerful within the United States. Those that propose this argument, agree that it is due to the fact that pressure groups are able to influence the three arms of the government as well as contributing to the theories of revolving door syndrome and iron triangles, have essentially made pressure groups too powerful. 'ccording to &right, modern 'merican government is deeply penetrated by pressure groups, resulting in public policy-ma!ing to be a product of interactions between groups and public officials. The 0irst 'mendment of the onstitution legitimi%es lobb ying of the egislatures, 4"ecutive and ourts by pressure or interest groups as it affirms the right of the people to petition the government. These pressure groups are able to influence the three branches of government and therefore manipulate government action and decisions made at every level of federal government. &ithin the United States, as noted by (a! er, ongress is the chief law-ma!ing body and is therefore an obvious target for pressure group activity. They are able to influence the way in which the ?ouse and Senate members vote by either ma!ing direct contact with members of ongress or through contact with congressional committees. Pressure groups are usually able to effectively influence the decision of government due to the divided
Rose-Mary Reynolds government which refers to the situation where the two chambers of ongress being held by different parties giving groups a greater chance of watering down legislation it disapproves of as noted by (a!er. Pressure groups also hold the power to influence presidential appointments to many positions in the e"ecutive branch which is a responsibility of the Senate. This was seen in 89@:, when Robert (or! was President Ronald Reagan+s nominee for the Supreme ourt however due to serious opposition from groups such as 1ational #rganisation for &omen 21#&3, the Senate re$ected his nomination. Pressure groups are also able to influence the 4"ecutive as well as the Audiciary arms of government. &hen loo!ing at the 4"ecutive branch of government, pressure groups are able to influence the president and his team of advisers. The president+s ability to mould the legislative direction can be used by pressure groups to achieve their aims or they can encourage the president to use his e"ecutive orders to change the direction of policy. The latter was evident in the constant reinstatement and reversal of the ;Me"ico ity Policy+ which bans federal funding for family planning clinics that give abortion advice. Most recently, President #bama reversed the policy to ensure these groups received federal funding. 'dditionally, pressure groups are also able to influence the $udiciary mainly through litigation and amicus curiae. 0or those groups that wish to prevent a hostile ma$ority from depriving them of what they consider their basic right, the courts are a last resort. 4ssentially, groups who have not garnered any success lobbying ongress or the 4"ecutive arms, are able to gain success through litigation. The 1R' is a notable e"ample as in the past has used the courts to challenge gun restriction laws in order to uphold the constitutional ;right to bear arms+. 'lso, amicus curiae, which (a!er states it is a legal briefing which summarises a pressure group+s standpoint on the legal issue being considered. t can be seen that because pressure groups have ample opportunity to easily influence government and its public policy ma!ing process. This is highly undemocratic as pressure groups are unaccountable to the public and are only concerned with their promoting their group+s issues. Therefore due to the fact that unelected groups are able to yield such power within the United States federal government essentially ma!es it too powerful. 'nother argument in support of pressure groups being essentially too powerful is the revolvingdoor syndrome. #ne of the controversies surrounding pressure groups would have to be the fact that many lobbyists are former politicians or their staff members. (a!er defines it as the idea that the same people dominate public policy ma!ing and pressure groups as many lobbyists are former politicians or their aides. This theory contributes to the theory of elitism which means that 'merican politics is dominated by one group. Pressure groups essentially e"ist in order to ensure that society is plural and allows for the diversity of groups a nd levels the playing field in which all groups have the same opportunities. ?owever, the revolving door theory shows that this is not the case as the same individuals within government are also within these pressure groups, ma!ing these groups dangerously powerful as they are very li!ely to meet little to no opposition on gaining support from the different arms of government. 4"amples of the e"istence of the revolving door syndrome can be seen with /arleen /ruyan, a Pentagon official responsible for overseeing the purchase of military e)uipment. She secured $obs at (oeing for her daughter and
Rose-Mary Reynolds son-in-law $ust months after awarding them a <6B.= billion contract, then two years later too! up a lucrative $ob at (oeing with a salary of a )uarter of a million dollars. ron triangles are also deemed as another factor that contributes to pressure groups being too powerful within the United States. (a!er defines an iron triangle as a political community featuring three very powerful plays in the political process. This includes pressure groups, congressional committees and the federal bureaucracy 2groups not ideologically supported by the president3 sharing aims thus developing a strong relationship said to have given them an iron grip on public policy. ron triangles enable for these political players to effectively dictate and attempts by ongress or the president for reform. The very e"istence of iron triangles allowing pressure groups to yield such power is very undemocratic as it therefore once again allows unelected and thus unaccountable groups to ma!e !ey policy decisions. The most criticised iron triangle has been the military industrial comple" 2M3 which includes the relationship between the /efense /epartment, the congressional armed forces committees and the leading weapons manufacturers which many argue has contributed to the US'+s huge defence budgets. The argument can also be now held that the US is a healthy pluralist democratic society and pressure groups are relatively wea! within the political system as there are many chec!s and balances that limit pressure group power and prevent them from dominating the system as stated by (a!er. These limitations include several acts such as the ?onest eadership and #pen 5overnment 'ct 677: which attempted to eliminate the revolving door b y specifying that individuals leaving public office had a ;cooling-off+ period before they can lobb y and also banning lobbyists from e"tending gifts to members of government. ?owever, the revolving door syndrome remains a prevalent issue as many state officials now lobbyists will still have important contact or friends in their previous wor! places that the y can easily encourage and influence. 'dditionally, the 0ederal 4lection ampaigns 'ct 89:> banned individual donation and therefore established a system of federal funding for ma$or party candidates. Though this was in an attempt to prevent wealth of pressure groups, there have been many loopholes within the system such as P's and =6:s that still allow pressure groups to ma!e wealthy donations. #ther limitations e"ist in the form of regulatory agencies which are established in order to oversee the affairs of many groups within the US. ?owever, many of these wa tchdog agencies have turned into lapdogs as pressure groups and many of these agencies have a close relationship which is !nown as the regulatory capture theory. ' notable e"ample of this would be when the Securities and 4"change ommission report in 677@ discovered that due to heavy lobbying by five ma$or investment ban!s, ban!s opted when to be in or out of supervision resulting in its failure to regulate the financial sector. t can also be argued that government, being the elected and accountable institution within the United States political process still holds a considerable amount of power. Those public officials and governmental bodies that pressure groups aim to influence may opt to neglect their views which are a very common occurrence. That is why many smaller pressure groups would utili%e
Rose-Mary Reynolds different methods to garner attention towards their issue. ?owever, it is mostly the groups with a large membership and a great amount of funds that stand a better chance at influencing government. ?owever, it is still up to the government whether to entertain pressure groups, even though it may be unwise as it may bring an unfavourable loo!, their bid or proposal for a specific cause can be entirely overloo!ed. Pressure groups do have a limiting role within the US as they cannot ma!e any policy ma!ing decisions themselves and are also sub$ected to the will of the three arms of government that they aim to influence. ?owever, pressure groups+ role within society should not be to the e"tent that it is today. /ue to the si%e and success of many groups, the influence that they yield undermines the basis of democracy within society as individual candidates can be easily ;bought+ through great donations and any serious opposition can lead to the withdrawal of the group+s members support and vote which can substantially harm a candidate. Therefore, pressure groups are not sub$ect to the many limiting factors that are put in place because society has created several loopholes and corrupted alternatives. Therefore, it can be said that pressure are becoming too powerful because they are able to directly and indirectly change public policy and agenda when they are not elected and accountable members of the United States political system.
