http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perisytiharan_Hak_Asasi_Manusia_Sejagat
Pada lazimnya, hak asasi manusia adalah berdasarkan kepada perisytiharan yang dibuat oleh Perhimpunan Agung Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu (UN) pada 10 Disember 1948. Perisytiharan ini yang dikenali sebagai Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat (UDHR) telah membahagikan hak asasi manusia kepada empat kebebasan utama iaitu: kebebasan daripada ketakutan kebebasan daripada kemahuan kebebasan bersuara kebebasan kepercayaan. Ia menyenaraikan pelbagai hak asasi manusia, daripada hak sivil dan politik sehinggalah hak ekonomi, sosial dan kebudayaan.
Isi kandungan [sorokkan] 1 Hak yang termaktub dalam UDHR 2 Latar belakang 3 Hak kemanusiaan dalam undang-undang antarabangsa 4 Pautan luar 5 Rujukan [sunting]Hak yang termaktub dalam UDHR
Hak sivil dan politik seperti yang termaktub dalam UDHR ialah: Perkara 5 - Kebebasan daripada seksaan atau layanan atau hukuman yang zalim, tidak berperikemanusiaan atau menghinakan; Perkara 9 - Kebebasan daripada dikenakan tangkapan, tahanan atau pembuangan negeri secara sewenang-wenangnya. Perkara 13 - Kebebasan untuk bergerak; Perkara 20 - Hak untuk kebebasan berhimpun secara aman dan menubuhkan
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persatuan; dan Perkara 21 - Hak untuk mengambil bahagian dalam kerajaan negaranya, secara langsung atau melalui wakil-wakil yang dipilih dengan bebas. Hak ekonomi, sosial dan kebudayaan seperti yang termaktub dalam UDHR ialah: Perkara 16 - Hak untuk kehidupan berkeluarga; Perkara 23 - Hak untuk keadaan-keadaan pekerjaan yang adil dan berfaedah; Perkara 25 - Hak untuk suatu taraf hidup yang memadai bagi kesihatan dan kebajikan diri dan keluarganya, termasuklah makanan, pakaian, perumahan dan pengawasan perubatan; Perkara 26 - Hak untuk pelajaran; dan Perkara 27 - Hak untuk secara bebas mengambil bahagian dalam kegiatan kebudayaan masyarakatnya, menikmati kesenian dan sama-sama merasai kemajuan sains dan faedah-faedahnya. [sunting]Latar belakang
Hak kemanusiaan merujuk kepada hak yang dimiliki oleh semua insan. Konsep Hak kemanusiaan adalah berdasarkan andaian bahasa semua insan memiliki satu bentuk hak yang sama, sebagaimana mereka memiliki indentiti insan, yang tidak dipengarahui oleh faktor tempatan, perkauman dan kewarganegaraan. Pada dasarnya, Hak kemanusiaan boleh difahamkan dari dua segi, yakni dari segi perundangan dan juga dari segi moral. Dari segi perundangan, Hak kemanusian merupakan satu bentuk hak yang dinikmati oleh seorang warganegara seperti apa yang telah termaktub dalam undang-undang negara berkenaan. Contohnya,dalam perlembagaan malaysia terdapat penerangan mengenai hak kemanusiaan yang terlindung di bawah perlembagaan[1]. Percabulan hak kemanusiaan yang berkenaan, mungkin akan membawa kepada tindakan undang-undang yang sewajarnya. Penakrifan hak kemanusiaan dari segi undang-undang adalah berbeza dari satu negara ke satu negara yang lain.
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undang-undang. Maka anggota-anggota masyarakat berkenaan akan cuba megelakkan diri daripada mencabuli hak masing-masing dengan penuh perasaan moral. Kewujudan, keabsahan dan isi kandungan Hak kemanusiaan telah menjadi isu pendebatan dalam bidang falsafah dan sains politik. Dari segi perundangan, Hak kemanusiaan telah termaktub dan diberi takrifan dalam undang-undang antarabangsa, dan juga dalam undang-undang bagi sesetengah negara. Walaupun begitu, cara penakrifan dan pelakasaan hak kemanusiaan masih memperlihatkan kepelbagaian. [sunting]Hak kemanusiaan dalam undang-undang antarabangsa
Pada tahun 1948,resolusi Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat[1] telah diterima oleh Perhimpunan Agung Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu. Dengan tidak mengenakan kuatkuasa undang-undang, ia mendesak negara anggotanya supaya menegakkan sejumlah hak kemanusiaan, termasuklah hak sivil, hak ekonomi dan hak sosial. Resolusi ini juga menekankan bahawa hak berkenaan merupakan teras untuk mewujudkan "kebebasan,keadilan dan keamanan di Dunia". Perisytiharan ini menyarankan supaya kelakuan kerajaan terhadap rakyat seharusnya disempadankan bersamping tanggugjawab kerajaan terhadap rakyat diperjelaskan. Usaha untuk mewujudkan kuatkuasa undang-undang berkaitan dengan piagam ini,telah menimbulkan pendebatan antarabangsa mengenai apakah hak kemanusian yang harus diabsahkan. Tetapi pada akhirnya, 2 perjanjian antarabangsa telah diadakan. Yakni: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (terbuka untuk ditandatagani sejak 1966, dikuatkuasakan pada 23 Mac 23, 1976)[2] International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (terbuka untuk ditandatangani sejak 1966, dikuatkuasakan pada 3 Januari, 1976)[3] Bagi negara yang telah menandatangai perjanjian ini, mereka mempunyai tanggungjawab untuk menegakkan hak kemanusian yang disenarikan dalam perjanjian yang berkenaan. [sunting]Pautan luar
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Rencana Mengenai Hak dan Etika Laporan Kebebasan Hak Asasi Manusia Negara Malaysia 2010 [sunting]Rujukan
Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat - Universal Declaration of Human Right ↑
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (terbuka untuk ditandatagani sejak 1966, dikuatkuasakan pada 23 Mac 23, 1976)
↑
↑
International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat (Bahasa Inggeris: Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UDHR) ialah satu pengisytiharan makluman yang diamalkan oleh Perhimpunan Agung Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu (A/RES/217, 10 Disember 1948 di Palais de Chaillot, Paris). Perisytiharan ini terdiri daripada 30 perkara yang menggariskan pandangan Perhimpunan Agung terhadap hak asasi manusia yang dijamin ke semua rakyat. Rang Undang-undang Hak Asasi Manusia Antarabangsa terdiri daripada Pengisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat, Waad Antarabangsa mengenai Hak-hak Ekonomi, Sosial dan Kebudayaan, dan Waad Antarabangsa mengenai Hak-hak Awam dan Politik dan dua Protokol Pilihannya. Pada tahun 1966, Perhimpunan Agung mengamalkan dua Perjanjian terperinci yang menlengkapkan Rang Undang-undang Hak Asasi Manusia Antarabangsa; pada tahun 1976, setelah perjanjian-perjanjian tersebut ditandatangani sebilangan negara individu yang mencukupi, maka Rang Undang-undang ini memegang kuasa perundangan antarabangsa.[1] Isi kandungan [sorokkan] 1 Sejarah 2 Penciptaan 3 Struktur dan implikasi perundangan 4 Pujian dan kritikan
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5 Rujukan 6 Pautan luar [sunting]Sejarah
Sebelum Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat diisytiharkan, beberapa negara telah mengisytiharkan pengisytiharan yang seumpamanya, termasuk Undang-undang Hak Asasi England, Undang-undang Hak Asasi di Amerika Syarikat, dan Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia dan Warganegara di Perancis. [sunting]Penciptaan
Oleh sebab kekejaman yang dilakukan Jerman Nazi semakin jelas selepas Perang Dunia Kedua, maka masyarakat sejagat bersependapat bahawa Piagam Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu tidak cukup mendefinasikan hak-hak asasi yang dimaksdukannya[perlu rujukan], maka timbulnya keperluan untuk satu perisytiharan sejagat yang menerangkan secara terperinci hak-hak individu[2]. John Peters Humphrey dari Kanada diundang oleh Setiausaha Agung Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu untuk mengerjakan projek ini lalu menjadi menggubal utama Perisytiharan. Humphrey dibantu oleh Eleanor Roosevelt dari Amerika Syarikat, Jacques Maritain dan René Cassin dari Perancis, Charles Malik dari Lubnan, P. C. Chang dari Republik China, dan lain-lain. Perisytiharan ini diratifikasi ketika Perhimpunan Agung pada 10 Disember 1948 melalui undian 48 setuju, 0 tidak setuju, serta 8 pengecualian (semua negara Blok Soviet, Afrika Selatan dan Arab Saudi).[3] Sungguhpun peranan utama yang dimainakn oleh warga Kanada tersebut, namun Kerajaan Kanada mula-mulanya mengecualikan diri daripada mengundi mengenai draf Perisytiharan, tetapi kemudian mengundi untuk menyokong draf muktamadnya di Perhimpunan Agung.[4] [sunting]Struktur dan implikasi perundangan
Dokumen ini dibentangkan mengikut tradisi undang-undang awam, termasuk satu mukadimah diikuti 30 artikel. Dokumen ini dijadikan sebagai satu kenyataan objektif-objektif yang perlu diikuti kerajaan-kerajaan sedunia. Sebilangan peguam antarabangsa percaya bahawa Deklarasi ini membentuk
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Manusia 1968 memberikan nasihat agar perisytiharan ini "membentuk satu kewajipan untuk ahli-ahli masyarakat antarabangsa" kepada semua orang. Perisytiharan ini telah berfungsi sebagai asas untuk dua waad hak asasi manusia PBB tanpa ikatan yang asal, iaitu Waad Antarabangsa mengenai Hak-hak Awam dan Politik, dan Waad Antarabangsa mengenai Hak-hak Ekonomi, Sosial dan Kebudayaan. Sehingga masa ini, perisytiharan ini masih dipuji oleh para akademik, penyokong, dan mahkamah-mahkamah perlembagaan. [sunting]Pujian dan kritikan
[sunting]Pujian "Keseluruhannya, Perwakilan Amerika Syarikat percaya bahawa ini adalah satu dokumen yang bagus – dokumen yang unggul pun – dan kami mencadangkan untuk memberi sokongan penuh kepadanya. [...] Sambil memberi kelulusan kami kepada Perisytiharan pada hari ini adalah penting sekali untuk kami mengingati dengan jelas perwatakan asas dokumen tersebut. Ini bukan satu perjanjian; ini bukan satu persetujuan antarabangsa. Perisytiharan ini bukan dan tidak bertujuan menjadi kenyataan undangundang atau kewajipan mengikut undang-undang. Perisytiharan ini ialah Perisytiharan prinsip-prinsip asas hak asasi dan kebebasan[....] Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat bakal menjadi Magna Carta antarabangsa bagi semua manusia di merata tempat." Eleanor Roosevelt, pengerusi wanita pertama Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi Manusia (CHR) yang menggubal Perisytiharan ini, [5] 9 Disember 1948. "Demi semangat muhibah di kalangan manusia seluruh dunia, dokumen itu lebih daripada perkataan sahaja: Dokumen itu ialah bukti kemanusiaan sedunia, satu standard yang mana sesiapa sahaja di Bumi boleh menghadap pengadilan mana-mana kerajaan di Bumi." bekas Presiden Amerika Syarikat Ronald Reagan (Mac 1989, US Department of State Bulletin) Dalam satu ucapan pada 5 Oktober 1995, Paus John Paul II menggelar UDHR sebagai "salah satu ekspresi nurani manusia teragung di zaman kita". Kenyataan oleh Marcello Spatafora bagi pihak Kesatuan Eropah pada 10
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penuh dengan idealisme tetapi juga padat dengan keazaman untuk menerima pengajaran dari zaman silam dan tidak mengulangi kesalahankesalahan yang sama. Penting sekali, dokumen ini meletakkan hak asasi manusia di kedudukan terpenting perangkaan prinsip-prinsip dan kewajipan untuk membentuk hubungan dalam masyarakat antarabangsa." [sunting]Kritikan dari segi Islam Negara-negara majoriti Islam, seperti Sudan, Pakistan, Iran, dan Arab Saudi, sering mengkritik Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat kerana kelihatan gagal mengambil kira konteks kebudayaan dan keagamaan negara majoriti Muslim. Pada tahun 1981, wakil Iran ke Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, menyatakan pendirian negaranya mengenai Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat, dengan berkata bahawa UDHR ialah "satu pemahaman sekular mengenai tradisi Yahudi-Kristian" yang tidak mampu dilaksanakan oleh umat Islam tanpa melanggar undang-undang Islam.[6] Terdapat 57 negara Muslim yang menjadi ahli Pertubuhan Pertubuh an Persidangan Islam (OIC)[7]. Pada 30 Jun 2000, OIC secara rasminya memutuskan untuk mendukung Deklarasi Kaherah tentang Hak Asasi Manusia dalam Islam[8], iaitu dokumen alternatif yang menyatakan bahawa manusia hanya menikmati "kebebasan dan hak menjalani kehidupan penuh hormat menurut hukum Syariah Islam"[9]. [sunting]Kritikan lain Jeane Kirkpatrick, Duta Amerika Syarikat ke Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu, membincangkan bahawa hak ekonomi tertentu tidak boleh menjadi hak asasi manusia, kerana hak ekonomi perlu disediakan oleh orang lain melalui pengekstrakan secara paksa, contohnya cukai, dan bahawa hak ekonomi menidakkan hak-hak orang lain yang tidak terpisah.[10] Kirkpatrick
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Kadang-kala, peruntukan tertentu terdedah kepada kritikan kerana kandungannya. Contoh: Perkara 26 memupuk ide pendidikan sejagat percuma, dan kadang-kadang dipersendakan sebagai "hak memaksa orang lain membiayai pendidikan anak saya." Hak untuk memiliki harta secara berkongsi dengan orang lain kadang-kadang ditentang aktivis-aktivis antikorporat. Hak untuk kahwin di luar kasta atau kaum sendiri turut ditentang ramai penyokong dasar segregasi. [sunting]Rujukan
Paul Williams, Ed., "The International Bill of Human Rights", Entwhistle, 1981. This is the first book edition (ISBN 0-034558-07-8) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, with a forward by Jimmy Carter.
↑
↑
http://www.universalrights.net/main/creation.htm
Lihat http://www.unac.org/rights/question.html di bawah "Who are the signatories of the Declaration?"
↑
↑
http://www.journal.law.mcgill.ca/abs/vol43/2schab.pdf
↑
Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly
Littman, David. "Universal Human Rights and Human Rights in Islam". Midstream, February/March 1999 http://mypage.bluewin.ch/ameland/Islam.html
↑
↑
http://www.oic-oci.org/
↑
http://www.oic-oci.org/english/conf/fm/27/27th-fm-political(3).htm#60
↑
http://www.religlaw.org/interdocs/docs/cairohrislam1990.htm
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254 Comments Kebebasan bersuara adalah kebebasan untuk bersuara tanpa batas atau penapisan. Istilah yang bersinonim, kebebasan menyatakan pendapat kadangkala digunakan sebagai maksud kepada bukan sahaja kebebasan bersuara secara percakapan verbal, tetapi juga tindakan mencari, menerima dan menyebarkan maklumat atau idea, dengan tidak mengira medium yang digunakan. Kebebasan bersuara dan menyatakan pendapat berkait dengan, tetapi berasingan dengan, konsep kebebasan berfikir atau kebebasan menilai. Dalam realiti, hak kebebasan bersuara tidak bersifat mutlak di mana-mana negara dan hak ini lazimnya dihadkan, misalnya dalam konteks “kebencian”. Ini disebabkan menggunakan kebebasan bersuara selalunya dalam konteks amalan yang saling bertentangan. Hak kebebasan bersuara diiktiraf sebagai hak asasi manusia di dalam Perkara 19 Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat dan diiktiraf dalam undang-undang hak asasi manusia antarabangsa dalam Perjanjian Antarabangsa mengenai Hak-hak Sivil dan Politikal (ICCPR). ICCPR mengiktiraf hak kebebasan bersuara sebagai “hak mendapatkan pendapat tanpa gangguan. Kesemua manusia akan mempunyai hak untuk menyatakan pendapat”.
Hak Asasi Manusia. Pada lazimnya, hak asasi manusia adalah berdasarkan kepada perisytiharan yang dibuat oleh Perhimpunan Agung Pertubuhan Bangsa-Bangsa Bersatu (UN) pada 10 Disember 1948. Perisytiharan ini yang dikenali sebagai Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat (UDHR) telah membahagikan hak asasi manusia kepada empat kebebasan utama iaitu:
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Perkara 5 – Kebebasan daripada seksaan atau layanan atau hukuman yang zalim, tidak berperikemanusiaan atau menghinakan; Perkara 9 – Kebebasan daripada dikenakan tangkapan, tahanan atau pembuangan negeri secara sewenang-wenangnya. Perkara 13 – Kebebasan untuk bergerak; Perkara 20 – Hak untuk kebebasan berhimpun secara aman dan menubuhkan persatuan; dan Perkara 21 – Hak untuk mengambil bahagian dalam kerajaan negaranya, secara langsung atau melalui wakil-wakil yang dipilih dengan bebas. Hak ekonomi, sosial dan kebudayaan seperti yang termaktub dalam UDHR ialah:
Perkara 16 – Hak untuk kehidupan berkeluarga; Perkara 23 – Hak untuk keadaan-keadaan pekerjaan yang adil dan berfaedah; Perkara 25 – Hak untuk suatu taraf hidup yang memadai bagi kesihatan dan kebajikan diri dan keluarganya, termasuklah makanan, pakaian, perumahan dan pengawasan perubatan; Perkara 26 – Hak untuk pelajaran; dan Perkara 27 – Hak untuk secara bebas mengambil bahagian dalam kegiatan kebudayaan masyarakatnya, menikmati kesenian dan sama-sama merasai kemajuan sains dan faedah-faedahnya. Perisytiharan Hak Asasi Manusia Sejagat – Universal Declaration of Human Right
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Written by Haris Zalkapli Mesir yang menyaksikan satu perubahan politik pada masa ini membawa tajuk demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia dalam tajuk utama berita dunia hari ini.
Suasana yang wujud di Mesir dan seluruh Asia Barat ketika ini semakin menjadikan demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia sebagai agenda utama dalam politik rantau terbabit dan juga seluruh dunia.
Dalam hal ini, melalui debat di media global, peranan Amerika Syarikat sebagai kuasa besar pendukung ide kebebasan demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia mula kelihatan dengan jelas, walau apapun penilaian sebenar peranan AS di Asia Barat.
Perkembangan di Tunisia dan Mesir kini mencetuskan kembali gelombang perubahan akibat protes rakyat yang kali terakhir berlaku di bawah Presiden George W Bush.
Sejak Barack Obama memenangi pilihan raya dan menjadi presiden AS pada 2009, agenda mempromosikan demokrasi seperti yang ditafsirkan daripada satu ucapan Presiden Woodrow Wilson telah bermula.
Agenda di bawah Obama ini dimulakan dengan satu bentuk yang lebih
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Di bawah Presiden Jimmy Carter, hak asasi mula menjadi satu tunjang penting dalam dasar luar AS, dalam usaha memenangi sokongan dan ikutan dalam persaingan dengan kuasa Komunis.
Sehingga hari ini, hak asasi manusia dan demokrasi yang menjadi salah satu agenda paling menarik dalam politik antarabangsa, dengan Washington mengambil peranan kepimpinan dalam hal ini.
Demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia juga menjadi alat dala diplomasi untuk mencapai pelbagai tujuan, termasuk sebagai kempen menentang negara bukan sahabat.
Melalui kepimpinan moral dalam isu ini, AS membina dan mengukuhkan pengaruhnya, menjelaskan kepentingan hak asasi manusia dan demokrasi dalam diplomasi AS di seluruh dunia.
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Negara-negara di bawah naungan China dan Rusia menjadi medan persaingan kuasa AS dengan dua kuasa yang jauh kurang demokratik tersebut.
Dalam banyak kes, ide demokrasi, hak asasi manusia dan pasaran bebas menjadi sangat menarik bagi negara-negara yang dinaungi kuasa tidak menyanjung ide kebebasan seperti Barat.
Malah, di negara Iran, kuasa yang menganggap dirinya sebagai satu kuasa yang cukup besar untuk menjadi penaung dalam sistem global, tarikan ide kebebasan Barat turut mampu menggugat, sepeti disaksikan dalam pilihan raya presiden pada 2009.
Revolusi di Mesir dan Tunisia hakikatnya merupakan kesinambungan perubahan-perubahan rejim yang disaksikan di rantau Asia Tengah dan Kaukasus pada separuh pertama dekad lalu.
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Tidak jauh dari situ, berlaku Revolusi Hijau di Iran pada 2009. Terbaru dunia menyaksikan Revolusi Jasmin di Tunisia dan kebangkitan di Mesir yang masih belum mempunyai satu nama yang dipersetujui.
Kesemua kebangkitan ini dikemukakan sebagai desakan menuntut kebebasan, demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia dan juga ekonomi pasaran bebas, dengan dimensi geopolitik dan persaingan kuasa besar menduduki tempat kedua.
Hal yang sama boleh diperhatikan di Tunisia dan Mesir, yang ekonomi dan kebebasan menjadi perhatian utama, dan juga cerita yang paling menarik seperti tindakan membakar diri.
Persoalan moral dalam isu ini dimulakan dengan pemimpin zalim tersebut, dengan isu sokongan kuasa besar terhadap rejim itu sehingga membolehkan mereka bertahan berdekad-dekad agak diabaikan.
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mencabar dengan peningkatan kuasa-kuasa lain kini.
Haris Zalkapli: Mesir dan kempen demokrasi global Written by Haris Zalkapli Mesir yang menyaksikan satu perubahan politik pada masa ini membawa tajuk demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia dalam tajuk utama berita dunia hari ini.
Suasana yang wujud di Mesir dan seluruh Asia Barat ketika ini semakin menjadikan demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia sebagai agenda utama dalam politik rantau terbabit dan juga seluruh dunia.
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demokrasi” di bawah Bush.
Pada asasnya, usaha penyebaran demokrasi seperti dilaksanakan melalui dasar luar AS bersandarkan pada 14 perkara yang digariskan oleh Wilson suatu masa dahulu.
Walaupun melalui tafsiran yang berbeza-beza, kempen menyebarkan demokrasi, dengan asas hak asasi manusia telah menjadi satu dimensi penting dasar luar AS sejak Perang Dingin.
Di bawah Presiden Jimmy Carter, hak asasi mula menjadi satu tunjang penting dalam dasar luar AS, dalam usaha memenangi sokongan dan ikutan dalam persaingan dengan kuasa Komunis.
Sehingga hari ini, hak asasi manusia dan demokrasi yang menjadi salah satu agenda paling menarik dalam politik antarabangsa, dengan Washington mengambil peranan kepimpinan dalam hal ini.
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kepimpinan moral AS dalam agenda demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia terus diperkukuhkan.
Di luar Jabatan Negara, pertubuhan-pertubuhan ini menjadi tunjang yang melaksanakan dasar luar AS.
Secara praktiknya, ide yang disebarkan oleh AS itu diletakkan dalam satu pakej yang bukan sahaja mengandungi kebebasan demokratik dan hak asasi tetapi juga dasar ekonomi pasaran bebas yang direstui kuasa-kuasa Barat.
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Sejak 2003, Asia Tengah dan Kaukasus menyaksikan satu demi satu diktator tumbang, dalam satu siri peristiwa berpofil tinggi yang dikemukakan sebahagian besar media Barat sebagai peralihan bermakna daripada autoritarianisme kepada demokrasi pasaran bebas.
Bermula 2003, tercetus Revolusi Ros di Georgia, Revolusi Jingga di Ukraine pada 2004, dan Revolusi Tulip di Kyrgyzstan pada 2005.
Tidak jauh dari situ, berlaku Revolusi Hijau di Iran pada 2009. Terbaru dunia
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Dengan presiden yang berwajah menarik untuk ditonjolkan kepada dunia tarikan nilai-nilai demokrasi yang terus mendapat sambutan, usaha mempromosi demokrasi jelas sekali terus dilaksana di bawah Obama, dengan hanya sedikit perubahan berbanding pentadbiran Republikan sebelumnya.
Pelaksanaan agenda ini, walaupun sarat dengan komplikasi moralnya, tidak dapat dielakkan daripada diteruskan, kerana isu demokrasi dan hak asasi manusia ini memberi satu kelebihan moral kepada kuasa besar itu untuk terus mengukuhkan kedudukan dalam persada global yang semakin mencabar dengan peningkatan kuasa-kuasa lain kini.
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demokrasi konstitusional dan demokrasi yang mendasarkan dirinya pada ajaran komunisme (Budiardjo, 1977: 55). Secara umum demokrasi diartikan pemerintahan oleh rakyat di mana kekuasaan tertinggi berada di tangan rakyat dan dijalankan langsung oleh mereka atau oleh wakil-wakil yang mereka pilih di bawah sistem pemilihan bebas
(Ravietch, 1991: 4).
Demokrasi yang banyak dipraktekkan sekarang ini adalah demokrasi konstitusional dimana ciri khasnya adalah pemerintah
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negaranya. Begitu juga dengan tingkat jaminan perundangundangan yang diberikan terhadap badan kehakiman sehingga tidak memihak, pemilihan umum yang bebas, kebebasan untuk menyatakan pendapat, kebebasan berserikat, berorgani-sasi dan oposisi serta pendidikan kewarganegaraan. Hendri B. Mayo dalam Budiardjo (1977: 62) mengemukakan bebarapa nilai yang mendasari demokrasi seperti berikut: a. menyelesaikan perselisihan dengan damai dan secara
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d. hak-hak minoritas; e. jaminan hak asasi manusia; f. pemilihan yang bebas dan jujur;
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tertulis. Kebebasan berbicara dan berpendapat adalah darah hidup setiap demokrasi (Ravitch, 1989: 9). Selanjutnya dikatakan oleh Ravitch (1989:9) warga suatu demokrasi hidup dengan
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penyusunan dan pelaksanaan program kerja dari suatu organisasi, dalam prilaku kehidupan sehari-hari baik dalam keluarga, sekolah ataupun dalam masyarakat. Pelaksana-an dari
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yang disebut dengan nilai-nilai Pancasila. Menurut Sihombing (1984: 9) untuk mendapatkan pengertian demokrasi Pancasila secara lengkap dan utuh diperlukan 2 alat pengukur yang saling
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kebudayaan sebab kebudayaan terujud dan disalurkan melalui prilaku manusia. Proses pembudayaan berlangsung sepanjang kehidupan
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