irst Pu-lished in .reat /ritain in 1000 -( oundr( /oos /oos Hu-ert2s 3ane 4o(le 5oad &t Peter Port .uernse( .61 15. Tel "1%1 "1%1 71+1 Cop(ri8ht 9 1000 -( Ian Heath The ri8ht of Ian Heath to -e identified as the author of this :or has -een asserted in accordance :ith sections 77 and 7% of the Cop(ri8ht 4esi8ns and Patents Act 10%%*
I&/N 1#0"1!;#;%#+ I&/N 07%#1#0"1!;#;%# Print I&/N< 07%10"1!;";+ 4i8ital I&/N< 07%10"1!;;% All ri8hts reserved* No part of this pu-lication ma( -e reproduced, stored in a retrieval s(stem, or transmitted in an( form or -( an( means, electronic, mechanical, photocop(in8, recordin8 or other:ise, :ithout the prior permission in :ritin8 of the pu-lishers*
Other -oos -( the same author< Armies and Enemies of the Crusades 1096–1291 =>5. 107%? Byzantine Armies 886–1118 =Ospre( 1070? Armies of the Dark Aes 600–1066 +nd edition =>5. 10%"? A !aramers" #uide to the Crusades =Patric &tephens 10%"? Armies of the $iddle Aes )ol*1 =>5. 10%+? Armies of the $iddle Aes )ol*+ =>5. 10%? The %ikins =Ospre( 10%!? Armies of &eudal Euro'e 1066–1(00 +nd edition =>5. 10%0? The )rish !ars 1*8+–160( =Ospre( 100;? The Tai'in ,e-ellion 18+1–66 =Ospre( 100? Byzantine Armies 1118–1*61 AD =Ospre( 100!? Armies of the .i/teenth Century )ol*1 =oundr( /oos 1007? Armies of the ineteenth Century Asia )ol*1 =oundr( /oos 100%? Armies of the ineteenth Century Asia )ol*+ =oundr( /oos 100%? The orthEast &rontier 18(3–1901 =Ospre( 1000?
INTRODUCTION
One of the principal pro-lems encountered in :ritin8 this -oo has -een the difficult( of stoppin8 it from -ecomin8 either an anthropolo8ical surve(, or a histor( of 1$th centur( e'ploration* Preventin8 it from doin8 either has not -een alto8ether possi-le, nor, perhaps, entirel( desira-le, since in contrast to the relative uniformit( of much of >estern Europe -( this time, it :as their cultural diversit( :hich ena-led the American peoples to -e told apart, -oth amon8 themselves and -( the earl( European e'plorers :hose :ritin8s are our main source of information* Nevertheless, I have tried to concentrate principall( on those aspects of their dress and customs :hich are most relevant to their militar( rather than their social or8anisation @ thou8h the t:o :ere often insepara-le @ and to their st(le of fi8htin8, -oth a8ainst each other and, :ith var(in8 de8rees of success, a8ainst the European invaders* It is not an alto8ether prett( stor(* All the earl( European vo(a8es of e'ploration :ere distin8uished -( the pride, i8norance, 8reed, and casual -rutalit( of the maorit( of their participants* None of the earl( colonial po:ers @ &pain, Portu8al, rance, and En8land @ :ere entirel( innocent in this conte't, -ut of them all it :as the &panish 4on5uistadores :ho proved to -e the -ravest, the most determined, and (et at the same time the ver( :orst am-assadors that an alien civilisation could ever hope to foist upon an unsuspectin8 Ne: >orld* The( had their critics even :ithin &pain, nota-l( in the person of /artolomB de 3as Casas, :ho :rote that &paniards operatin8 in the Americas acted lie ravenin8 -easts, illin8, terrorisin8, afflictin8, torturin8, and destro(in8 the native peoples, :ith the stran8est and most varied ne: methods of cruelt(*2 It :as this sort of oppro-rium that led to the so#called /lac 3e8end2 of &panish malevolence, :hich En8land in particular e'ploited to considera-le political advanta8e at the time, and :hich to a 8reater or lesser de8ree has coloured forei8n attitudes to:ards &pain and &panish#speain8 countries ever since* Althou8h the vaunted mi8ht of the fa-ulous Aztec and Inca empires2 collapsed lie a prover-ial house of cards in the face of European militar( e'pertise, success proved pro8ressivel( less eas( to come -( for the conquerors as the centur( ran its course* 4espite -ein8 decimated -( the ne: diseases :hich accompanied each European e'pedition, numerous unsophisticated American peoples proved resilient enou8h to :ithstand and sometimes even to turn -ac the invaders* &ome :ere not conquered for centuries, :hile others chose to -e decimated to the point of e'tinction rather than su-mit* As Doseph de Acosta o-served in the 1!%"s< 3et no man thin that the Indians are of no consequence and if the( do thin so, then let them 8o and put it to the test*2 >herever possi-le the line dra:in8s :hich illustrate this volume are taen directl( from, or at the ver( least -ased on, pictures -( 1$th centur( artists or pu-lished in 1$th centur( -oos* An( reconstructions that have -een necessitated -( the a-sence of survivin8 contemporar( illustrations are -ased instead on archaeolo8ical finds, 1!th or 17th centur( representations, and the detailed descriptions of e(e#:itnesses* Needless to sa(, I have not attempted to deal :ith ever( Amerindian people, ust those :ith :hom the 4on5uistadores and other European adventurers came into more than fleetin8 contact durin8 the course of the period under revie:* Nor are individual European conquests or Indian re-ellions covered in an( detail, that not -ein8 the specific purpose of this series* I have concentrated instead on the or8anisation, fi8htin8 st(le, and appearance of the opposin8 forces, and am hopeful that the end product :ill surprise a 8reat man( readers :ho had previousl( thou8ht that the conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires2 constituted the sum total of &panish militar( activit( in the Ne: >orld in 5enaissance times* Ian Heath 4ecem-er 100%
CONTENTS The Caribbean 1492–1603 …...................... 7 Mesa!eri"a ".14#0–1600 ….................... 26 S$%h &!eri"a 1#00–1600 ….................... '# Nr%h &!eri"a 1497–160' ...................... 121 S(anish &!eri"a 1492–1600 …............... 14# )ib*i+ra(h, …......................................... 170
The Cari--ean 10+F1$";
T-E EST INDIES
The islands that 8o to mae up the >est Indies consist of the 3esser Antilles, the .reater Antilles, and the /ahamas* It is 8enerall( a8reed that :hen the &paniards arrived the four main islands of the .reater Antilles @ Cu-a, Hispaniola, Damaica, and Puerto 5ico @ :ere no:n respectivel( to their native populations as Cu-a, A(ti =:hence modern Haiti?, 6ama(e or Ga(maca =spelt Damai8ua2 -( 1!"+?, and /oriquBn or /orichi* Ho:ever, Pietro artire d2An8hiera =more usuall( referred to in En8lish -oos as Peter art(r? :rote that the native name for Hispaniola :as actuall( Juizquella, and it seems that A(ti =:hich meant rou8h hi8hlands2? actuall( referred onl( to a mountainous re8ion in the east of the island* The .reater and 3esser Antilles :ere peopled principall( -( Ara:as1 and Cari-s respectivel(, :hile an earlier Ara:a people, the 3uca(os, inha-ited the /ahamas =the &paniards consequentl( referrin8 to these islands as the Islas 3uca(as?*
T-E &R&&/S
i8ratin8 north:ards from the coasts of )enezuela and .uiana either side of the Orinoco delta, the Ara:as had occupied the entire >est Indian archipela8o durin8 the course of the first millennium A4* >hen the &paniards arrived in 10+, ho:ever, the( :ere themselves in the throes of -ein8 pushed steadil( north -( the Cari-s* The( lived in lar8e a8ricultural communities consistin8 of loose, unfortified clusters of houses, each villa8e 8enerall( havin8 a population of 1F+,"""* The( :ere 8overned -( hereditar( chieftains called 4a4i5ues, a term :hich the &paniards su-sequentl( utilised indiscriminatel( to refer to the native rulers found in ever( corner of the Americas* Amon8 the Ara:as the office of cacique seems to have 8enerall( descended from father to eldest son, -ut if a cacique left no sons of his o:n then his sister2s son inherited instead* If a cacique inherited in this :a( @ i*e* via his mother @ then at his death it :as her nearest relative :ho succeeded, not his* In Puerto 5ico and Hispaniola at least this method of succession occasionall( resulted in the e'istence of female caciques, nota-le amon8st :hom :ere Hi8uanama, cacique of Hi8Ke(, and Anacaona, :ho succeeded to the chieftainship of Gara8ua at the death of her -rother /ehBchio*
In the four main islands of the .reater Antilles some caciques :ielded considera-le po:er over a domain :hich mi8ht encompass man( villa8es e'tendin8 over a considera-le tract of territor(* E'cept in Puerto 5ico, :here a sin8le cacique =A8ue(-anL? seems to have held s:a(, each island appears to have consisted of several principal and numerous smaller chiefdoms, or 4a4i4azos, as the &paniards called them* Those of the principal caciques :ere su-divided into -et:een ten and t:o dozen smaller districts under lesser caciques* Damaica, for instance, had -et:een ei8ht and ten main 4a4i4azos, :hile Cu-a had perhaps si'* Hispaniola had five, comprisin8 those of the chieftains .uacana8ari of arien, Colum-us2 lo(al all( .uarione' of a8ua Caona-M of a8uana a(o-ane' and Cotu-anama of Hi8Ke( and /ehBchio of Gara8ua* Thou8h lea8ues :ere occasionall( formed, individual caciques acted lar8el( independentl( of one another =on one occasion, durin8 the Puerto 5ican re-ellion a8ainst the &paniards in 1!11, an alliance :as even formed :ith the chiefs of the nei8h-ourin8 island of &t* Croi'?*2 /elo: the caciques came their -lood#in, adopted or other:ise, called nitanos* The &paniards considered these to -e no-les, and recorded that in :artime the( provided the caciques :ith their -od(8uards, :hile in peacetime the( assisted in the 8overnment of individual villa8es* 4espite the estimates of earl( &panish e'plorers that there :ere a million or more Ara:as in Hispaniola alone =a census of 10!$ 8ives 1*1; million, at a time :hen num-ers in &panish# controlled areas of the island had alread( declined -( perhaps t:o#thirds?, and that there :ere a further $"",""" on Puerto 5ico and Damaica, it seems liel( that their true num-ers :ere pro-a-l( smaller* odern estimates of the population at first contact var( dramaticall(, from +"",""" up:ards, -ut it is certainl( possi-le that there :ere as man( as a million in all* Ho:ever, in a pattern that :as to recur repeatedl( throu8hout the Ne: >orld thereafter, these num-ers dropped dramaticall( follo:in8 the arrival of the 4on5uistadores, as :ar, disease, starvation, and enslavement too their toll* The Ara:a population of Hispaniola, :hich ma( have stood at +!"F;"",""" in 10+, had dropped to $",""" -( as earl( as 1!"%, and to 11,""" -( 1!1%* /( the 1!;"s there :ere said to -e less than !""* The stor( :as the same else:here* /( 1!!" ust 1,""" free Ara:as :ere left of Cu-a2s estimated pre#Conquest population of 1"",""", and onl( $" could -e found on Puerto 5ico in 1!+, :hile the /ahamas had -een entirel( depopulated -( &panish slave#raids as earl( as 1!1;*3 Thou8h a fe: isolated pocets ma( have survived lon8 enou8h to mer8e
:ith the incomin8 &panish population, the Ara:as of Hispaniola, Damaica, and Puerto 5ico :ere all effectivel( e'tinct -( the middle of the centur(* In addition to the Ara:as proper, there :as a su-#8roup called the Ci8ua(o livin8 in the mountains and alon8 the north#east coast of Hispaniola, :ho spoe a different lan8ua8e* Colum-us descri-es those of Ca(a-o, :ho he calls the acori', as -ein8 of stran8e speech2, and o-serves that the( and the lon8#haired2 Ci8ua(o of Huha-o province :ere more :arlie than the Ara:as* &ince, unlie most Ara:as, the( are recorded to have used -o:s, it is conceiva-le that the( :ere of mi'ed Ara:aFCari- descent, ethnolo8ists havin8 noticed other distinctive Caritraits in the mea8re evidence availa-le2* The( are said to have -een a-le to raise 1!,""" :arriors* )esti8es of the .reater Antilles2 a-ori8inal population also survived alon8side the Ara:as in some areas* /artolomB de 3as Casas sa(s these :ere called .uanahaca-i-es, -ut toda( the( are 8enerall( referred to as Ci-one(s =as a result of an earl( misreadin8 of 3as Casas?* Another source sa(s the( :ere referred to as Cenavas, meanin8 fleet as deer2* A considera-l( more primitive people than the Ara:as, the( follo:ed a nomadic e'istence, feedin8 themselves -( huntin8 and fishin8 rather than a8riculture, and livin8 in temporar( camps :hich :ere often in caves* /( the time the &paniards arrived the Ci-one( :ere confined to :estern and isolated parts of central Cu-a, and the south#:est corner of Hispaniola* The( still constituted perhaps as much as 1" of Cu-a2s population, and thou8h e'perts differ re8ardin8 e'actl( ho: much territor( the( held, it is si8nificant that, despite havin8 Ara:a names, the five :estern#most Cu-an provinces2 mentioned -( earl( &panish :riters @ .uanahaca-i-es, .uani8uanico, arien, Ha-ana, and HanL-ana @ all contain :idespread evidence of Ci-one( occupation -ut little of Ara:a* >ith the e'ception of the 3uca(os, Ara:a Indians :ere 8enerall( shorter than the &paniards* The( had a copper#coloured comple'ion descri-ed -( contemporaries as reddish2, clear -ro:n2, or a chestnut colour2, and deformed their sulls from -irth so that the( had -road, flat foreheads* This ma( have -een a factor in the claim made -( some &paniards that their sulls :ere so thic that the &paniards often -roe their s:ords in hittin8 them*2 The Ci-one(, ho:ever, didn2t indul8e in cranial deformation* The Ara:as appear to have :orn their -lac hair in a variet( of st(les, 3as Casas descri-in8 it as lon8 and tied in a not either on the forehead or at the -ac of the sull* Colum-us2 companion 4ie8o Chanca sa(s that the Ara:as of
Hispaniola had their heads shaved in places and in places have tufts of tan8led hair of such shapes that it cannot -e descri-ed2, :hile Colum-us himself :rote in 10+ that the 3uca(os :ore theirs short do:n to the e(e-ro:s, e'cept a fe: locs -ehind, :hich the( :ear lon8 and never cut*2 The Ci8ua(o :ore theirs :aist#len8th, dra:n -ac and fastened -ehind, and put into a small net of parrots2 feathers2, :hich Colum-us descri-es as plumes of feathers of parrots and other -irds2 :orn -ehind the head* All the sources a8ree that the( :ent lar8el( naed, .onzalo ernLndez de Oviedo =1!+!? -ein8 alone in mentionin8 the :earin8 of a certain leaf as -road as a man2s hand2 =presuma-l( a penis sheath? to conceal their private parts* It :as onl( after the Conquest that 8enital coverin8s :ere :idel( adopted* The Damaican Ara:as, ho:ever, are descri-ed -( AndrBs /ernLldez in 10 as havin8 the -reast and stomach covered :ith palm leaves2, pro-a-l( indicatin8 some sort of short plaited palm 8arment* ost men decorated themselves e'tensivel( :ith -lac, :hite, red =especiall( for :ar?, and (ello: paint, at least some such decoration tain8 the form of tattoos* /ernLldez descri-ed the Damaican Ara:as as painted a thousand colours, -ut the maorit( -lac2, :hile Colum-us descri-ed the 3uca(os as paintin8 themselves -lac, :hite, red, or an( colour that the( find* &ome of them paint their faces, others the :hole -od(, some onl( round the e(es, others onl( the nose*2 Oviedo tells us that the Ara:as of Hispaniola and Cu-a tattooed their -odies :ith the ima8es of their demons in -lac colour2* The Ci-one( are specificall( descri-ed as usin8 red and (ello: paint, :hile the Ci8ua(o are said to have stained themselves completel( -lac :ith charcoal, some encountered in -attle -( the &paniards in 10% -ein8 descri-ed as all painted and spotted, -lac and red2* /od( ornaments comprised pendants, ear#plu8s, and nose#plu8s of 8old or coloured stone, and neclaces of seeds, seashells, or -eads of a variet( of materials, includin8 mar-le, cla(, -one, and :hite, 8reen, and red stones* One -ead neclace presented to Colum-us comprised %"" stone -eads, -ut most comprised pro-a-l( no more than a fe: score* .reen and :hite stones mi8ht also -e inserted in the chees and forehead* Caciques and nitanos :ere distin8uished -( their ornaments, 3as Casas descri-in8 such men as :earin8 in addition -racelets, anlets, earrin8s as lar8e as -racelets, and, as a s(m-ol of a cacique2s ran, a pectoral variousl( descri-ed as moon, disc, or fleur#de#lis shaped and as lar8e as a plate2* All these
decorations :ere of 8old or a 8old#copper allo( called uarin or tum-aa* 5adial coronets of coloured feathers :ere also :orn, /ernLldez mentionin8 seein8 such coronets of -oth :hite and 8reen feathers set ver( close to8ether2 amon8st the no-le retinue of a Damaican cacique, others of :hom :ore :hat he descri-es as a lar8e plume in the shape of a zelada Qsalade helmetR2* He also mentions that the principal cacique he sa: in 10 :ore a lar8e open cro:n of small stones, 8reen and red, arran8ed in order, and intermin8led :ith some lar8er :hite stones And he also :ore a lar8e ornament hun8 over his forehead, and from his ears t:o lar8e diss of 8old :ere suspended -( some little strin8s of ver( small 8reen stones* Althou8h he :as naed, he :ore a 8irdle, of the same :ormanship as the cro:n, and all the rest of his -od( :as e'posed*2 The forehead ornament :as pro-a-l( one of the small stone fi8ures of men, representin8 their 8ods, :hich Ara:a :arriors :ore on their foreheads in -attle* These little fi8urines :ere depicted :ith their nees dra:n up and a prominent penis* Numerous earl( e'plorers remared on the peaceful disposition of the Ara:as, and especiall( those of Damaica and Cu-a Colum-us, for instance, repeatedl( descri-es them as un:arlie2* The( are said to have :arred amon8 themselves onl( rarel(, thou8h the( often had to defend their villa8es a8ainst Cari- raids launched from the 3esser Antilles* The Ara:as of Puerto 5ico :ere the most :arlie, dou-tless as a result of sufferin8 the 8reatest num-er of Cari- attacs* Characteristic Ara:a :eapons :ere spears, thro:n stones, darts =hurled -( means of spear# thro:ers?, and t:o#handed palm:ood s:ords2 called ma4anas* The macana :as actuall( a variet( of clu-, descri-ed as -ein8 lon8 and heav(, t:o fin8ers thic narro:in8 to the ed8es, and capa-le of cleavin8 throu8h even a helmeted &panish head at a sin8le -lo:* The spear#thro:ers @ :hich for :ant of a -etter :ord the &paniards initiall( called tiraderos =slin8s2? @ :ere less sophisticated than those later found in esoamerica =for :hich see the te't accompan(in8 i8ure ;!?, and comprised no more than a 8rooved :ooden stic :ith a fish-one pe8 at one end and a pair of -raided#cotton loops for the first t:o fin8ers at the other* 4ie8o Chanca recorded in 10; that usin8 these, the Hispaniolan Ara:as could shoot their fire#hardened darts to a considera-le distance :ith much accurac(2* Oviedo mentions that the points of such darts @ :hich :ere tipped :ith a sharpened piece of :ood, a fish2s tooth, or sundr( other natural materials @ :ere desi8ned to -rea off in the :ound* A more unusual Ara:a :eapon :as a variet( of stinpot,
in :hich no'ious 8as :as 8enerated -( addin8 pepper to -urnin8 coals contained in a cla( pot* Thou8h -o:s :ere also used in some quarters their distri-ution :as erratic, and the( seem to have -een found predominantl( in those areas most influenced or threatened -( the Cari-s* The -o: :as not found at all in Cu-a at first contact, 4 for instance, -ut :as :idel( used in Puerto 5ico and amon8 the Ci8ua(o of Hispaniola and their Ara:a nei8h-ours in the 4a4i4azo of Hi8Ke(, :here it :as more often found in the hands of no-les than commoners* Colum-us descri-es Ci8ua(o -o:s -ein8 as lar8e as those of rance and En8land2, and their unfletched arro:s as a 7ara and a half or + 7aras lon8 =the 7ara -ein8 the len8th of a man2s arm, or ;; ins% cm?, tipped :ith the same materials as the darts descri-ed a-ove after the arrival of the &paniards iron nails :ere also utilised* Ci8ua(o and Hi8Ke( arro:s :ere customaril( poisoned usin8 a local her-, -ut those of the Puerto 5ico Ara:as :ere not* Colum-us states that the Ci8ua(o didn2t shoot as in other parts, -ut in a certain :a( :hich cannot do much harm*2 3ittle is recorded of Ara:a tactics* Thou8h, lie other Indians, the( appear to have favoured the use of am-ushes and surprise attacs, the( are also recorded to have fielded lar8e phalan'es of men in the open field :hen fi8htin8 the &paniards, :hich :ere led -( musicians :ith conch#shell trumpets =AndrBs /ernLldez mentions the Damaican Ara:as usin8 -lac :ooden trumpets :ith ela-orate carvin8s of -irds and other conceits2?* The( ma( also have had fla8s of some sort, the Damaican cacique descri-ed -( /ernLldez havin8 a :hite -anner :ith no desi8n on it2* Ara:a :arriors too 8reat pride in their a-ilit( to dod8e missiles, and practised this at ever( opportunit(*
Trinia
The Ara:as :ho survived the Cari- mi8ration in some corners of the 3esser Antilles :ere no:n as I8neri, a Cari- term* The( :ere said to -e more :arlie than other Ara:as, :hich dou-tless e'plains ho: the( survived in the first place* The -ul of them :ere to -e found in Trinidad and To-a8o, a &panish report of 1!+" acno:led8in8 that the( also occupied the islands of /ar-ados, .i8antes, and ar8arita* There :ere, nevertheless, several attempts -( the &paniards to 8et Trinidad2s population officiall( redesi8nated as Cari-, in order that it could -e le8all( enslaved =the island :as -ein8 ille8all( raided for slaves from 1!1" on?, and, ironicall(, Cari-s did indeed -e8in to settle on the island in the course of the 1$th centur(, havin8
apparentl( esta-lished themselves on the northern coast -( c*1!;"* ar8arita2s I8neri population seems to have -een similarl( displaced -( Cari-s -( the 1!$"s at the latest* Colum-us had discovered Trinidad in 10%, and it theoreticall( -elon8ed to his famil( from that time until Antonio &edeSo attempted to esta-lish the first &panish settlements there in the 1!;"s, :hich had to -e a-andoned in the face of fierce opposition from the Indians inha-itin8 the north# east corner of the island =pro-a-l( Cari-s?* Other attempts at colonisation in 1!!; and 1!$0F7" :ere similarl( unsuccessful, and permanent occupation onl( commenced in 1!0+ :ith the foundation of &an DosB =saced -( &ir >alter 5alei8h en route to .uiana in arch 1!0! #?* As else:here in the >est Indies, the native population :ent into catastrophic decline after the arrival of the &paniards* Trinidad2s estimated +"",""" I8neri inha-itants in 1!; had -een halved -( 1!7", and stood at ust ;!F",""" -( c*1!0!* >hen the /ritish captured Trinidad +"" (ears later there :ere onl( a thousand Indians left* In 8eneral appearance the I8neri :ere similar to the Ara:as of the .reater Antilles, 8oin8 naed e'cept for a -elt* Ho:ever, the( also demonstrated Cariand even mainland )enezuelan characteristics* Their chiefs :ore 8old pectorals, and 8old cro:ns2 and ea8le#shaped frontlets on their heads, :hile their :arriors painted themselves red, :ore their hair lon8 lie the Cari-s, had coloured cotton head-ands, and :ore feather decoration* Armament consisted of spears, darts, spear#thro:ers, macanas, slin8s, and -o:s firin8 feathered arro:s tipped :ith poisoned -one heads* nlie the Ara:as of the .reater Antilles the( also used shields, descri-ed as -ein8 round or rectan8ular*
The S(anish Cn$es%
>hen, in 10+, Christopher Colum-us discovered the /ahamas, follo:ed -( Cu-a and Hispaniola =3a Isla EspaSola?, he :as actuall( looin8 for the ar East, and initiall( -elieved that Cu-a :as Dapan, or possi-l( a peninsula of mainland China or some other place in the Indies =:hence the inha-itants :ere mistaenl( referred to ever after as Indians2?* 5eturnin8 :ith 17 ships and some 1,+"" men in Novem-er 10;, he esta-lished the first permanent &panish settlement in the Americas at Isa-ela, on Hispaniola, -ut almost immediatel( met :ith resistance from the lar8er part of the Ara:a population* Tain8 the field a8ainst them :ith ust +"" foot, +" horse, and a
contin8ent of pro#&panish Indian au'iliaries @ the e( to ever( 1$th centur( &panish success in the Ne: >orld @ Colum-us defeated the main Ara:a -od( at the /attle of )e8a 5eal in late# arch 10!* Another re-ellion erupted in 10%, :hen Ci8ua(os -esie8ed the settlement of ConcepciMn, -ut Colum-us :as a8ain a-le to disperse them at the head of a-out a hundred &paniards -aced up -( ;,""" Ara:a au'iliaries, traditional enemies of the Ci8ua(o* 4espite his militar( successes, his incompetence as an administrator nevertheless led to Colum-us -ein8 replaced as 8overnor in 1!"" -( rancisco de /o-adilla* He :as succeeded in turn -( NicolLs de Ovando =1!"+F0?, :ho conquered Gara8ua in 1!"; =after -rutall( e'terminatin8 its caciques at a :elcomin8 feast and han8in8 their queen, Anacaona? and Hi8Ke( in 1!", eliminatin8 Hispaniola2s last po:erful independent cacique* In 1!+", ho:ever, Enriquillo, the ne: cacique of Gara8ua, re-elled, and onl( su-mitted on favoura-le terms in 1!;; after the &paniards had -een una-le to defeat him in the field* &panish control of the island :as consolidated -( the foundation of as man( as 1! ne: to:ns durin8 Ovando2s term as 8overnor* Colum-us2 second vo(a8e of 10;F0 had also discovered the 3esser Antilles, Puerto 5ico, and Damaica* The island of Puerto 5ico :as actuall( named &an Duan /autista -( Colum-us, -ut -ecause of :hat .irolamo /enzoni terms the a-undance of 8old and silver found there2 it soon -ecame &an Duan de uerto ,i4o =the rich port2?* Its colonisation -e8an in 1!"%, the Indians puttin8 up little resistance, perhaps looin8 upon the &paniards as potential allies a8ainst the Cari-s, :ho had alread( esta-lished themselves in eastern parts of the island* /( 1!11, ho:ever, the( had endured as much as the( could stand of the &paniards2 depredations and cruelt( and re-elled under the leadership of caciques .ua(-anL and .uarione', :ho even received support from the local Cari-s* 4espite initial success =/enzoni reports that the( illed a-out 1!" &paniards :ho :ere dispersed a-out the island seein8 8old2?, the re-ellion :as crushed -( Duan Ponce de 3eMn -( Dune* Colum-us had -een stranded on Damaica for a (ear in 1!";F, -ut its first formal &panish settlement :as not esta-lished until 1!"0, :hen his son 4ie8o ColMn =8overnor of Hispaniola 1!"0F1! and 1!1%F+$? sent Duan de Esquivel to occup( the island* His e'pedition appears to have met :ith no resistance, the Damaican Ara:as -ein8 found to -e of a ver( pacific temperament* Damaica remained a colonial -ac:ater thereafter until it :as eventuall( seized from &pain -( the /ritish in 1$!!* Its native
population :as virtuall( e'tinct -( as earl( as 1!10* On discoverin8 Cu-a in 10+ Colum-us had initiall( called it Duana, -ut its native name had soon prevailed* It :as not until 1!11 that the first &panish settlement :as esta-lished, and Cu-a remained less important than Hispaniola for the rest of this period, despite its capital Havana -ein8 a vital sta8in8 post for fleets home:ard#-ound to &pain* The ;""#stron8 e'pedition :hich 4ie8o ColMn had sent to occup( Cu-a in 1!11 :as commanded -( 4ie8o )elLzquez, :ho -( 1!1! had conquered much of its eastern half* Ho:ever, the rest of the island, especiall( remote parts of the :est, remained unsu-dued, and after the maorit( of 4on5uistadores had moved to the mainland durin8 and in the immediate aftermath of CortBs2 conquest of e'ico, a 8eneral Indian re-ellion erupted in 1!+;* Thou8h this :as rapidl( suppressed, lin8erin8 pocets of resistance persisted into the 1!!"s, flarin8 up into re-ellion :henever the opportunit( arose, nota-l( in 1!;%F :hen the &paniards suffered several reverses* In the first three decades of the centur( the tin( &panish presence in the >est Indies :as seriousl( :eaened -( the launchin8 of e'peditions to the mainland, :hich frequentl( all -ut depopulated Cu-a, Damaica, and Puerto 5ico* The fact that fe: of those :ho set out on such enterprises ever returned meant that the &panish population 8re: onl( slo:l(* There :ere still onl( a-out 7"" &paniards on Cu-a in 1!!", and onl( 1,!"" on Damaica even at the -e8innin8 of the 17th centur(* A report of 1!%+ put the entire free population of Hispaniola at ust +,""", even :hen Indians, mestizos =people of Euro#Amerindian mi'ed parenta8e?, and mulattoes =people of Euro#African mi'ed parenta8e? :ere included*
T-E C&RI)S
The Cari-s2 name @ more properl( rendered Caliponam, Calina8o, or Calino, meanin8 harmful nation2 or quarrelsome people2 @ :as 8iven to them -( the Ara:as on account of their raidin8 propensities* Colum-us rendered their name Cari-ales, :hich, -ecause the Cari-s :ere eaters of human flesh =the( ate their enemies2 -odies in order to inherit their :arlie qualities?, 8ave rise to our :ord canni-als2*6 The( had alread( driven the Ara:as out of most of the 3esser Antilles -efore the &paniards arrived, and -( the late#1!th centur( :ere re8ularl( raidin8 south:ards a8ainst Trinidad and the coasts of )enezuela and .uiana, especiall( the Orinoco delta re8ion and north:ards to Puerto 5ico and Hispaniola, possi-l( even fora(in8 as far
as Cu-a and the /ahamas* The( had occupied the offshore Puerto 5ican island of )ieques, and had started to esta-lish permanent footholds alon8 the southern and eastern coasts of Puerto 5ico itself, so it seems liel( that -ut for the &panish Conquest the( :ould have eventuall( pushed the Ara:as out of the .reater Antilles too* Their inter#island raidin8 continued una-ated throu8hout the 1$th and 17th centuries, since the &paniards, realisin8 that the 3esser Antilles laced sufficient mineral :ealth to mae them via-le for colonial e'ploitation, sa: no 8ood reason to confront such a patentl( hostile people* The onl( si8nificant &panish intrusions into Cari- territor( :ere unsuccessful e'peditions a8ainst .uadeloupe in 1!11 and 1!1!, -oth repulsed :ith sizea-le losses, and several equall( unsuccessful attempts to esta-lish a settlement on 4ominica* Other:ise onl( slave#raiders ventured here, official authorisation havin8 -een 8ranted for the :holesale enslavement of the Cari-s in 1!";* This led to the depopulation of numerous islands durin8 the 1!+"s and 1!;"s as their Cari- =and I8neri or Ara:a @ the slavers :ere not particularl( discriminatin8? inha-itants :ere enslaved, illed, or forced to flee to the mainland or other islands* Other than the occupation of islands close to the mainland, such as CuraUao in 1!+7 and Trinidad on several occasions -et:een 1!;+ and 1!0+, the first permanent European settlements in the 3esser Antilles did not appear until the 17th centur(, startin8 :ith the 4utch colon( founded on &t* Eustatius in 1$""* an( islands nevertheless resisted European conquest ri8ht up until the 1%th centur(* Cari- or8anisation :as ver( simple* Each villa8e :as independent under its o:n chief, :ho :as treated :ith deference -ut had little real authorit(, &te:ard =10%? o-servin8 that Cari- men :ere individualists, and the( looed do:n upon the Europeans for tain8 orders*2 Chieftainship :as not hereditar( -ut elective, the holder 8enerall( -ein8 chosen for his martial qualities, his a8e, his :isdom, or -ecause he had inherited 4ara4oli =s(m-ols of authorit( @ see -elo:? from his ancestors* Each villa8e also usuall( had one or t:o elected :ar#chiefs =u-utu?, e'perienced :arriors :ho held their posts for life and :ere invaria-l( accompanied -( a retinue of :arriors :herever the( :ent* T:o or more u-utu customaril( too part in ever( Cari- raid, one -ein8 acno:led8ed as overall commander for the duration of the e'pedition* To ud8e from later evidence each canoe in a raidin8 part( :as commanded -( its o:ner, :ho -ailed :hile the rest of the cre: paddled* Their canoes, lie those of the Ara:as, :ere du8#outs, :hich came in a variet( of sizes,
some -ein8 onl( -i8 enou8h to carr( one man, :hile others could hold up to !"* The lar8est :ere called 'iroues, :hich had their sides -uilt up :ith plans* These could -e up to " ft =1+*+ m? lon8, :hile the lar8est of the smaller variet( :ere a-out half that size* /( the latter part of the 1$th centur( -oth t(pes could -e found fitted :ith masts =three and t:o respectivel(?, pro-a-l( adopted in imitation of &panish practice* 4ie8o Chanca records that the Cari-s :ere prepared to travel 1!" lea8ues on a raidin8 e'pedition, and, as :e have alread( seen, the( ma( have travelled a 8reat deal further if the( did indeed reach as far as the /ahamas* On lon8 ourne(s the( :ould stop and rest on uninha-ited islands encountered en route, actuall( plantin8 patches of edi-le crops on some of these to cater for such an eventualit(* As :ith ever( other Indian tri-e, the Cari-s relied on surprise to 8ive them an advanta8e in their attacs, preferrin8 to fall on an enem( villa8e :hile it still slept, either at da:n or -( the li8ht of a full moon* ost Ara:a and Cari- communities posted sentries near potential landin8 sites to :atch out for raidin8 parties, and if so much as a -arin8 do8 lost the raiders their element of surprise the( :ould usuall( a-andon the e'pedition, re8ardless of ho: far the( mi8ht have travelled* If the( remained undiscovered, the raiders :ould attac in three parties, ho:lin8 and shootin8 fire#arro:s into the thatched roofs* If their attac failed to over:helm the enem( :ithin the ne't fe: hours the( :ould collect to8ether their dead and :ounded and :ithdra: at noon* Thou8h a second attac :as occasionall( attempted, it :as more usual for the enterprise to -e a-andoned* In a successful raid, the captured villa8e :ould -e looted and the enem( dead roasted and eaten* emale prisoners, especiall( the (oun8 and handsome2, -ecame part of the captor2s famil( =individual :arriors sometimes ended up :ith dozens of concu-ines in this :a(?, :hile an( men taen alive :ere illed and eaten at the su-sequent victor( feast* Ho:ever, men :ith :hom the raiders traded durin8 their peacetime ventures :ere released, a tit#for#tat arran8ement that :ould 8uarantee the captor2s life :hen his o:n villa8e :as raided* Chanca records that captive -o(s :ere castrated and emplo(ed as servants until the( are full( 8ro:n, and then the( ill and eat them2* ost Cari- raidin8 parties involved a couple of hundred :arriors* In 1!+", for instance, five canoes :ith 1!" men landed on the eastern end of Puerto 5ico, as did 11 canoes :ith !"" men in 1!;"* In &eptem-er 1!+0 ei8ht 8reat canoes2 attaced &an Duan har-our, :hile Dohn Ha:ins :itnessed a raid -( +"" Cari-s on the &panish settlement of
/or-urata, )enezuela, in 1!$* Considera-l( lar8er forces could -e assem-led on occasion, as is proved -( the raid launched a8ainst the rench and En8lish settlement on &t* Vitts in 1$+!, :hich involved an estimated ,""" Cari-s* Dohn &pare, :ho accompanied Ha:ins, :rote that :hen fi8htin8 &panish slave#raiders the( choose for their refu8e the mountains and :oods :here the &paniards :ith their horses cannot follo: them* And if the( fortune to -e met in the plain :here one horseman ma( overrun 1"" of them, the( have a device of late practised -( them to pitch staes of :ood in the 8round, and also small iron QspiesR to mischief their horses2* Cari-s :ere shorter and stocier than Ara:as, practised cranial deformation, and -ore facial tattoos from the time that the( :ere initiated as :arriors =descri-ed -( Chanca as a hundred thousand devices, such as crosses and other marin8s of different inds2?* The( :ore their hair lon8 and most often loose, cuttin8 it short onl( a-ove the e(es* &ome, ho:ever, tied it in some undefined :a( on the -ac of the head, decoratin8 the not :ith maca: feathers* en and :omen alie painted themselves red, in part at least to eep a:a( the -itin8s of mosquitoes2* Chanca descri-es some as havin8 their e(es and e(e-ro:s stained2, pro-a-l( :ith -lac paint* The( :ent naed lie the Ara:as, -ut differed in coverin8 their penis :ith a sheath, &pare e'plainin8 that the men covered no part of their -od( -ut their (ard, upon the :hich the( :ear a 8ourd or piece of cane, made fast :ith a thread a-out his loins, leavin8 the other parts of their mem-ers uncovered*2 De:eller( comprised the usual mi'ture of feathers, fish#-ones and stone pendants in their pierced ears, noses and lips, and neclaces of :ood, stone, -one and shell -eads* The most hi8hl(#prized items, ho:ever, called 4ara4oli, :ere crescent# shaped pieces made of 8old#copper allo( = tum-aa? ed8ed :ith :ood* These came in various sizes, the smallest -ein8 used as ear, nose, and lip plu8s, :hile others :ere :orn as pendants round the nec* /ecause the metal from :hich the( :ere made could onl( -e o-tained -( raids onto the mainland these :ere re8arded as a si8n of hi8h ran, 8enerall( -ein8 :orn onl( on ceremonial occasions and rarel( durin8 raids* A chief seen on 4ominica in 1!0$ had the model of a lion in shinin8 -rass Qi*e* tum-aaR han8in8 upon his -reast2 and carried a &panish rapier* The characteristic :eapon of the Cari-s :as a $ ft =1*% m? lon8-o: firin8 lon8 poisoned arro:s* The latter, ept in a cane quiver of the -i8ness of a man2s arm2, :ere made of reed :ith fish#-one, tortoise#shell, or fire#hardened :ooden points* The(
had no fletchin8* &pare recorded that the( are so 8ood archers that the &paniards for fear thereof arm themselves and their horses :ith quilted canvas of t:o inches thic, and leave no place of their -od( open to their enemies, savin8 their e(es, :hich the( ma( not hide, and (et oftentimes are the( hit in that so small a scantlin8*2 He adds that the poison :as fatal :ithin the space of + hours* Other :eapons consisted of darts, and clu-s called -outou, decorated and painted :ith 8eometric and anthropomorphic patterns* The len8th of the -outou apparentl( depended on a :arrior2s ran, those of chiefs -ein8 up to !F$ ft =1*;F1*% m? lon8*
IURES 1 2. &R&&/ &RRIORS There are fe: 1$th centur( pictures that can -e claimed :ith certaint( to portra( >est Indian natives* i8ure 1 is a reconstruction -ased in part on dra:in8s made in 1!+0 -( Christopher >eiditz, of Indians taen -ac to &pain -( CortBs* Thou8h usuall( descri-ed as Aztecs the( are clearl( not, and it is possi-le that the( represent Ara:as* Certainl( several aspects of their appearance conform to earl( :ritten descriptions of Ara:a adornment, nota-l( the loose cloa of coloured feathers, and the stones set into the chees and forehead* /oth of these features appear to have -een characteristic of Ara:a caciques, as too, pro-a-l(, :as the feather decoration of the -elt* It is nevertheless possi-le that the dra:in8s portra( Indians from else:here in the Cari--ean, not least -ecause one fi8ure is sho:n :ith a shield :hen none of the &panish descriptions mention the Ara:as of the .reater Antilles usin8 these* i8ure +, ho:ever, is
definitel( an Ara:a, -ein8 -ased on pre#Conquest fi8urines* &everal sources mention 8irdles2 such as that :orn here, :hich :ere of :oven cotton* Those of chiefs :ere sufficientl( hi8hl( prized that the( :ere considered suita-le 8ifts for presentation to Colum-us* He is armed :ith a spear#thro:er, darts, and a clu-* &pear#thro:ers had once -een emplo(ed throu8hout the Americas, and remained :idespread, -ut -( the 1$th centur( the( had -een replaced in man( areas -( the -o:* &ee the te't descri-in8 i8ure ;! for further details* 3 4. C&RI) &RRIORS i8ure ; is derived principall( from dra:in8s e'ecuted -( a mem-er of 4rae2s e'pedition of 1!%!F%$ in :hat is no:n as the 4rae anuscript2* Note the small red 8ourd containin8 his arro:#poison, :hich, the te't e'plains, :as made -( mashin8 to8ether the leaves of a tree called mensenille, the -lood of a -leatin8 toad, and the flesh of a centipede2* &pare sa(s that other 8ourds carried :hen on an e'pedition contained the uice of sorrel QandR flour of their maize, :hich -ein8 moistQenedR, the( eat2* i8ure , -ased on 17thF1%th centur( sources :hich demonstrate that Cari- costume had not chan8ed si8nificantl( in the interim, :ears a small -reechclout, has his hair tied up @ apparentl( on the top of his head @ and has a feather head#dress* /oth men are armed :ith lon8-o: and -outou* #. C&RI) OM&N Each Cari- :arrior :as accompanied on campai8n -( one or more :omen, :hose o- it :as to prepare his food and to appl( his -od(#paint each mornin8* Cari- :omen :ere also prepared to fi8ht, and Colum-us2 first part( ashore on .uadeloupe in 10$ :as confronted -( a verita-le arm( of Cari- :omen armed :ith
lon8-o:s* Their onl( dress consisted of a small :hite cotton -reechclout pulled throu8h a strin8 front and -ac in the form of an apron, and :hite cotton -ands -elo: the nees and a-ove the anles, resultin8 in sli8htl( s:ollen calves* The &paniards are said to have used these le88in8s as a 8uaranteed :a( of accuratel( distin8uishin8 Ara:as from Cari-s*
NOTES 1 These are often erroneousl( referred to as Taino* an( Ara:a tri-es :ere still to -e found throu8hout the northern part of &outh America* 2 The Indians of &t* Croi' @ no: part of the & )ir8in Islands @ :ere pro-a-l( Ara:as rather than Cari-s, thou8h the( appear to have demonstrated aspects of -oth cultures* /( 1!1! &t* Croi' had -een entirel( depopulated -( &panish slavers* 3 The &paniards re8arded the /ahamas as utterl( :orthless and made no attempt to colonise them, instead simpl( enslavin8 and removin8 the population to Hispaniola, Cu-a, and Puerto 5ico* 4 &te:ard =10%? su88ests that the -o:s recorded in use -( Cu-an Ara:as durin8 a su-sequent sta8e of the &panish conquest :ere pro-a-l( a later addition2* # He :as driven off :hen he attaced ar8arita island and CumanL in Dune* &everal attempts -( the &paniards to esta-lish themselves in .uiana -et:een 1!+ and 1!7$ all failed, and European conquest and settlement of the re8ion did not start in earnest until the -e8innin8 of the 17th centur(* There :ere several En8lish e'peditions here, of :hich the most nota-le :ere those of 5alei8h in 1!0! and 1$17, 3aurence Ve(mis in 1!0$, and Charles 3ei8h in 1$", the last even attemptin8 to found a colon(* 6 A report of 1$!% records that the Cari-s deemed rench people delicious and -( far the -est of the Europeans, and ne't came the En8lish* The 4utch :ere dull and rather tasteless, :hile the &paniards :ere so strin8( and full of 8ristle as to -e practica-l( uneata-le*2
T-E S5&NIS- M&IN
Thou8h it soon came to include the >est Indies and the Cari--ean &ea itself, the term &panish ain2 :as initiall( coined -( 1$th centur( En8lishmen to descri-e that part of &panish# occupied Central America :hich -ordered on the
Cari--ean -asin, consistin8 of coastal )enezuela and Colom-ia, Panama, and the eastern parts of Costa 5ica, Nicara8ua, and Honduras* &panish discoveries here had -e8un :ith Colum-us2 vo(a8e alon8 the coast of )enezuela in 10%* urther e'peditions -( various adventurers -et:een 100 and 1!"0 resulted in the e'ploration of the entire coast -et:een )enezuela and Honduras, and led in 1!"0 to the 8rantin8 of ro(al patents to 4ie8o de Nicuesa and Alonso de Hoeda to esta-lish the first settlements on the mainland, then no:n simpl( as Tierra &irme* In 1!1" Hoeda founded &an &e-astiLn de ra-L =:here rancisco Pizarro, future conqueror of Peru, :as placed in command? on the northern coast of Colom-ia, -ut this :as -urnt do:n in an Indian attac and :as a-andoned as untena-le soon after:ards* &anta arWa la Anti8ua del 4ariBn :as then esta-lished in its stead, to -ecome capital of the Isthmus re8ion* Nicuesa, mean:hile, had founded Nom-re de 4ios in Panama at much the same date* The s(stematic lootin8 of the re8ion2s mineral :ealth, mean:hile, had alread( -e8un at the turn of the centur(, and :as sufficientl( profita-le that after 1!1; the Isthmus of 4ariBn :as customaril( referred to as Castilla del ro* Pedro Arias de Avila, or Pedrarias as he :as no:n, :as appointed captain#8eneral of the ne: province in Dul( 1!1;, and moved the capital from 4ariBn to Panama, on the Pacific coast, at the end of 1!10* The other principal to:ns of the re8ion :ere the Colom-ian ports of &anta arta, founded -( 5odri8o de /astidas in 1!+!, and Carta8ena, founded -( Pedro de Heredia in 1!;;* All of these settlements :ere to su-sequentl( serve as -ases for the e'ploration, conquest, and e'ploitation of the interior* At the opposite end of the &panish ain, Honduras and Nicara8ua :ere conquered durin8 the 1!+"s, thou8h in some places Indian resistance sputtered on for another t:o decades* ost of the coastal tri-es inha-itin8 this re8ion :ere soon destro(ed, in the maorit( of cases -( the mid#1!"s, :hen, for instance, /enzoni states that the "","""#stron8 pre#Conquest population of Honduras had d:indled to less than %,"""* Amon8 the more si8nificant tri-es :ere the Nicarao,7 Chorote8a, and &u-tia-a of Nicara8ua the .uetar, )oto, and &uerre of Costa 5ica the Cuna, .ua(mW, and ChocM of Panama the Cueva, Calamari =or Caramairi?, and Tairona of coastal Colom-ia and the mainland Cari-s and Ara:as of )enezuela* The Calamari, :ho called themselves the ocana, :ere one of the most po:erful* Their territor( la( -et:een ra-L and the 5Wo a8dalena, :here the( lived in villa8es surrounded -( stocades consistin8 of livin8 trees or canes* It has -een surmised that
the( ma( have -een related to the Cari-s, since the( :ere especiall( noted for their archer(, their eatin8 of slain enemies, and the fact that the :omen :ent to :ar as :ell as the men one 1%#(ear#old 8irl captured -( the &paniards in the vicinit( of Carta8ena in 1!1 claimed to have illed as man( as ei8ht 4on5uistadores -efore she :as taen* &ometimes the :omen @ especiall( the (oun8er 8irls @ merel( served as porters, -ut :hen the( fou8ht the( used the same sort of $ ft =1*% m? lon8-o: as the men, made of -lac palm:ood* This :as used to shoot poisoned palm:ood or reed arro:s :ith stone, fish#scale or fire#hardened :ooden tips* Other Calamari :eapons comprised palm:ood clu-s, slin8s, spear#thro:ers, and -lo:pipes firin8 poisoned darts, :hich the &paniards are said to have particularl( feared* The( also used t:o varieties of shield, apparentl( round or rectan8ular* The( differed from the Cari-s in :earin8 their hair short* 4ress, such as it :as, consisted under most circumstances of no more that a sheath for the penis =sometimes coverin8 the testicles too?, thou8h /enzoni mentions that those livin8 round Carta8ena :ore a decent -anda8e round the loins2* The penis sheath :as often made of 8old decorated :ith pearls prior to the &panish Conquest, -ut havin8 -een o-li8ed to cede these to the &paniards2 the( made do :ith a simple cala-ash thereafter* or decoration the( :ore 8old pendants, rin8s, neclaces, ear#plu8s, nose#plu8s, and so on, plus red and -lac -od(#paint =also recorded in Costa 5ica, Panama, and else:here in the re8ion?* Thou8h virtual or a-solute nudit( also prevailed in Panama and Costa 5ica, the use of clothin8 in peacetime =usuall( a coloured cotton -reechclout and tunic? and cotton armour in :artime :as more usual in Honduras and Nicara8ua* Honduran Indians, for instance, :ore thic padded cotton corselets, :hich 8ave adequate protection a8ainst Indian arro:s and even :ithstood several -lo:s from our s:ords*2 )arious chroniclers record the use of cotton armour and quilted cotton helmets in Nicara8ua* Indeed, the culture of -oth Honduras and Nicara8ua :as esoamerican rather than &outh American, Nicara8ua in particular consistin8 of several distinct cit(#states rather than clusters of tri-al villa8es @ :hich is hardl( surprisin8 since several tri-es here :ere of the same Nahuatl ori8in as the Aztecs* /enzoni sa(s that the peoples2 ha-its :ere nearl( all lie those of the e'icans2, :hile Pascual de Anda8o(a =1!1? sa(s that the( :ere ver( civilised lie those of e'ico, for the( :ere a people :ho had come from that countr(, and the( had nearl( the same lan8ua8e2* The Nicarao :ore sleeveless tunics, -reechclouts, and mantles, the upper classes :earin8 cotton :hile commoners
su-stituted ma8ue( fi-re* &ome at least :ere tattooed, nota-l( on their arms* The( had an elite of no-le :arriors called ta'aliue, :ho Oviedo sa(s shaved their entire head e'cept for a three#cornered patch on the cro:n, :here the hair :as allo:ed to 8ro: to a-out + ins =! cm? :ith a sin8le lon8 loc 8ro:in8 from the middle =a description :hich su88ests that their hair :as :orn in much the same st(le as that of Aztec :ua4hi45ueh or &horn Ones2, for :hom see i8ures ;+F;?* >eaponr( in -oth Honduras and Nicara8ua comprised spears, spear# thro:ers, -o:s, macanas, and shields of tree -ar or li8ht :ood, covered :ith cotton or feathers the macanas :ere of the esoamerican variet( depicted in i8ure +% and full( descri-ed in its accompan(in8 caption* Those seen in Honduras :ere descri-ed as lon8 :ooden s:ords, :ith 8rooves on each side, :here the ed8e of -lade should -e, :ith sharp flints :hich cut lie steel, lashed into them :ith tarred t:ine2* Aztec#st(le -ac#standards :ere also in use =for :hich see i8ure +7?* Arms :ere customaril( stored in local temples and onl( distri-uted in :artime, :hen the :arriors :ere led -( a :ar#chief appointed -( the rulin8 council, the tri-al chief not usuall( 8oin8 into -attle* =If present he :ould tae command onl( if the :ar#chief :as illed, or else :ould appoint another :ar#chief on the spot*?* Panama straddled the invisi-le frontier -et:een the furthest limits of esoamerican and &outh American cultural influences, so that of its principal tri-es the .ua(mW, livin8 in the direction of :hat is no: Costa 5ica, :ere related to -oth the a(a and Nahuatl peoples of e'ico, :hile the ChocM at the opposite end of the Isthmus @ :ho succeeded in resistin8 the &paniards until the second half of the 17th centur( @ :ere related to the uisca of Colom-ia* The middle portion of the countr( consisted of numerous pett(#states of :hich the most si8nificant -elon8ed to a tri-e no:n as the Cuna or Cuna#Cueva, &panish sources reportin8 that these had three principal chiefs and !; lesser chiefs2* &imilar pett(#states e'isted amon8 the .ua(mW of the Coi-a re8ion, :here more than a dozen put up a spirited resistance to earl( &panish attempts to occup( their territor(* The first conquistador e'pedition here, under .onzalo de /adaMz in 1!1!, :as -eaten so -adl( -( the forces of the most po:erful of these states, Paris, or Parita, that the &paniards a-andoned their loot and fled in disorder* Antonio )Lzquez de Espinosa led a second e'pedition in 1!17, :hich mana8ed to defeat the Paris Indians @ :ho fou8ht in -attalions2 @ onl( after a da(#lon8 -attle* The most po:erful chief north of the Azuero peninsula, rraca, remained unconquered at his death in
that En8lish pirac( came of a8e* There :ere ten documented En8lish raids durin8 the period 1!7"F7, the most famous of :hich :ere 4rae2s attacs of 1!7+F7; on Nom-re de 4ios, Carta8ena, and the Camino ,eal =ro(l road2? -et:een Panama and Nom-re de 4ios, alon8 :hich treasure shipments from Peru :ere transported -( mule# train for shipment -ac to &pain*11 Thou8h Thou8h it netted little in terms of profit, 4rae2s e'pedition of ust t:o ships and 7; men succeeded in puttin8 the fear of .od into the &paniards, not least -( its alliance :ith the dreaded Cimaroons =escaped Ne8ro slaves @ see the chapter on &panish America?* Other allies, :ho participated in 4rae2s attac on a mule#train outside Nom-re de 4ios, comprised a part( of rench corsairs under the noted navi8ator .uillaume le Testu, :ho :as mortall( :ounded durin8 the fi8htin8* The 1!%"s sa: surprisin8l( fe: e'peditions in the Cari--ean, thou8h En8lish raiders turned up in some of the Ne: >orld2s more une'pected quarters* In 1!%$F%%, for instance, Thomas Cavendish had emulated 4rae -( circumnavi8atin8 the 8lo-e and in 1!%7 had raided PunL island off the coast of Peru and follo:in8 the amal8amation of the Portu8uese and &panish thrones in 1!%" there :ere several raids on /razilian ports and coastal shippin8 durin8 the late#1!%"s and 1!0"s* The most si8nificant of these e'peditions :as the capture of Pernam-uco for a month in 1!0! -( the allied squadrons of Dames 3ancaster and t:o rench corsairs, )enner and Dean 3enoir, musterin8 -et:een the three of them some seven or 11 ships* Nevertheless, the principal e'pedition of the decade :as 4rae2s re#appearance in force in 1!%!F%$ :ith as man( as +1 ships, nine pinnaces, +,;"" men, and a plan to esta-lish a permanent En8lish presence in the Cari--ean* His intention :as to sac -oth &anto 4omin8o in Hispaniola and the coastal to:ns of the &panish ain, and to put ashore landin8#parties :hich, actin8 in concert :ith the Cimaroons, :ould seize Nom-re de 4ios and Panama to secure control of the Camino ,eal * .arrisons :ould then -e left in Carta8ena, Nom-re de 4ios, Panama, and Havana, :hich, it :as proposed, :ould also -e seized as the fleet headed -ac to:ards En8land* 12 It :as a -old plan that :as, nevertheless, doomed to failure* 4rae2s fleet descended on &anto 4omin8o on Ne: 6ears2 4a( 1!%$, landin8 a-out 1,""" men =&panish sources report -et:een !!" and 1,+""? :ho s:iftl( over:helmed the &panish defences*13 After sittin8 amidst the ru--le of their victor( for a month ne8otiatin8 ransom terms for the release of the cit(, in e-ruar( the En8lish moved on to Carta8ena, destro(in8 the minor port of 5Wo de la Hacha en route* Ho:ever, thin8s had started to 8o :ron8< alread( onl( 1,+"" of 4rae2s ori8inal +,;"" men remained fit for dut(, the rest havin8 either succum-ed to disease or fallen to enem( action* In addition 4rae :as runnin8 -ehind :hatever schedule he mi8ht have set himself, :hich had 8iven the &paniards time to reinforce Carta8ena2s defenders to a stren8th of a-out a thousand men @ comprisin8 !!"F$"" &paniards =includin8 ! horsemen?, "" Indians, and +! Ne8ro freemen @ plus the &panish element of the cre:s of t:o 8alle(s moored -eneath the to:n :alls, comprisin8 a-out another +"" men* As man( as !""F$"" men =said -( a &panish e(e# :itness to have comprised ;"" arque-usiers, 1"" piemen,
and +"" Indian archers? had -een assi8ned to defend a rampart thro:n up across a nec of land adacent to the har-our, supported -( -et:een four and si' 8uns* The En8lish landin8#part( of a-out a thousand men drove the &paniards from the rampart -( push of pie and rushed on into the to:n itself, :here the( found ever( street -loced -( -arricades* Thou8h the &paniards made little effort to defend these the lo8 of one of 4rae2s ships records that the En8lish suffered 8reat anno(ance -( the Indian arro:s comin8 ver( thic out of the houses a-out their ears, :ith :hich man( of us :ere hurt, and the arro:s -ein8 poisoned, some died2* Another contemporar( report records other men -ein8 mischieved to death :ith certain prics or small stics sharpl( pointed, of a foot and a half lon8, the one end put into the 8round, the other empoisoned, sticin8 fast up2* These too :ere the :or of the Indians* 4espite their defences and preparations, ho:ever, the &paniards :ere driven out, and 4rae spent another si' :ees ne8otiatin8 the cit(2s ransom* /( this time onl( %"" of his men remained fit* Even thou8h his losses :ere made 8ood to some e'tent -( the freed slaves =renchmen, Ne8roes, oors, .rees, &paniards, and +"" Turs? from the t:o &panish 8alle(s destro(ed in Carta8ena har-our, it :as clear that at this rate of attrition his forces :ere in serious dan8er of -ein8 decimated -e(ond recover(* Plans to capture Nom-re de 4ios and Panama, and to leave permanent 8arrisons in the Cari--ean, :ere therefore a-andoned, and 4rae sailed for home, destro(in8 the &panish fort at &an A8ustWn in lorida en route* He had lost a total of 7!" men* 4urin8 the 1!0"s there :ere an avera8e of 1 En8lish e'peditions to the Cari--ean ever( (ear, :ith as man( as +! in 1!0%* That led -( 4rae and Dohn Ha:ins in 1!0!F 0$, aimed at &an Duan de Puerto 5ico and Panama, :as the lar8est, comprisin8 +7 ships, 1,!"" seamen, and +,!""F ;,""" soldiers, -ut it met :ith even less 8ood fortune than 4rae2s solo fora( a decade earlier* Ha:ins died on the out:ard passa8e, and the &paniards, lon8 since fore:arned of the impendin8 En8lish attac, had time to reinforce Puerto 5ico :ith 1,!"" fresh troops from &pain* >hen his attac :as consequentl( driven off :ith considera-le loss 4rae sailed for Nom-re de 4ios, raidin8 alon8 the coast of the mainland as he :ent* Nom-re de 4ios :as found lar8el( deserted, and he seized the fort and -urned the to:n* He then despatched 0"" men, or8anised into five or seven companies under his lieutenant, Thomas /aserville, to traverse the Isthmus and tae Panama, -ut after marchin8 throu8h torrential rain for three da(s these encountered stiff &panish opposition on the fourth and, :ith their provisions and po:der ruined -( the do:npour, the( :ere o-li8ed to :ithdra:* 5e#em-arin8 its landin8# part(, the fleet then sailed alon8 the coast of Honduras and Nicara8ua, its cre:s contractin8 d(senter( en route after landin8 to find :ater* >hen 4rae himself died of the -lood( flu'2 in Danuar( 1!0$ command devolved on /aserville, :ho called an end to the disastrous e'pedition and sailed for home :ith the remainin8 1 or 1! ships =several havin8 either -een lost to the enem( or scuttled in consequence of havin8 insufficient men left to cre: them?* It :as left to another cele-rated En8lish corsair, .eor8e Clifford, Earl of Cum-erland @ author of a dozen raids -et:een 1!%$ and 1!0% @ to succeed :here 4rae had
not in capturin8 &an Duan de Puerto 5ico, :hich he did in 1!0% :ith a fleet of 1% ships and 1,""" men* He had intended to hold the port permanentl(, -ut once a8ain unsustaina-le losses to tropical disease o-li8ed the En8lish to :ithdra: :ithout installin8 a 8arrison* The frequenc( of such semi#official En8lish ventures su-sequentl( declined, there -ein8 onl( ten alto8ether -et:een 1$"" and 1$";, :hen the lon8#runnin8 An8loF&panish conflict effectivel( came to an end* &R&RE The maorit( of pirate flotillas operatin8 in American :aters initiall( consisted of no more than a sin8le ship equipped for -oth fi8htin8 and tradin8, accompanied -( a smaller vessel of a t(pe called a pinnace or 'ata4he, :hich, havin8 a shallo: draft and -ein8 provided :ith up to 1% oars a side as :ell as sails, :as -etter suited to the inshore :or called for in coastal operations* The pinnace mi8ht displace as little as +" tons and could have a cre: of as fe: as +" men or as man( as 7", -ut carried little or no armament -e(ond a num-er of small 7ersos =1F11+ pdr -reech#loadin8 s:ivels?* No raidin8 force recorded in the first half of the centur( ever comprised more than %""F 1,""" men and si' vessels, of :hich t:o at the ver( least :ere pinnaces* 4urin8 the 1!!"s, ho:ever, the rench despatched lar8er fleets :hich included ro(al :arships as :ell as privateers, and carried sizea-le contin8ents of troops for deplo(ment ashore* The ten ships :hich sailed under ranUois le Clerc in 1!!;F! constituted the first of these more su-stantial ventures, and included t:o ro(al :arships and three or four pinnaces* ost En8lish e'peditions of the period 1!7+F1$"; :ere of three ships or less* Onl( those :hich received ro(al -acin8 :ere an( lar8er, -ein8 sometimes accompanied -( ro(al :arships =t:o served under 4rae in 1!%!F%$, and five in 1!0!F0$?* 4rae2s e'pedition of 1!7+F7; appears to have -een unique in carr(in8 three prefa-ricated pinnaces a-oard one of its t:o ships, :hich :ere unloaded and re#assem-led :hen he arrived at his destination in the .ulf of 4ariBn* Pinnaces :ere sufficientl( important to the success of a privateerin8 enterprise that e'peditions :ere 8enerall( a-andoned if the lar8er ships lost touch :ith them for an( reason, :hile the pinnace commander sometimes decided to utilise the advanta8es of his vessel for his o:n profit, a-andonin8 the accompan(in8 ship to 8o a#rovin8 on his o:n* In the a-sence of their o:n navi8ational charts, earl( rench raiders depended heavil( on the no:led8e and e'perience of disaffected &panish pilots, /enzoni recordin8 in the 1!"s that it :as some &paniards, practised in that navi8ation, :ho led the enem( so that the rench also -ecame as familiar :ith those :aters as the &paniards themselves2* It :as, for instance, a &paniard :ho 8uided five rench ships into Carta8ena har-our in 1!, :here the( landed 1"" men and saced and -urnt the to:n* /efore lon8, ho:ever, rench corsairs ne: as much a-out navi8atin8 in the Cari--ean and the Atlantic sea#lanes as their &panish counterparts, and had accumulated sufficient intelli8ence of &panish stren8th in the re8ion to ena-le them to launch their attacs :ith impunit(* /enzoni noted that althou8h in the -e8innin8 the( restricted themselves to the vicinit( of Hispaniola and &an Duan de Puerto 5ico, (et :hen those districts ceased to (ield rich prizes the(
frequented more of the islands, and even some of the provinces on the mainland2, pilla8in8 to:ns and capturin8 ships :herever the( :ent* The audien4ia of &anto 4omin8o reported in 1!1 that rench corsairs no:in8 the :eaness of these ports landed in man( of them in full da(li8ht, QandR -urned and ro--ed some :ithout meetin8 an( resistance2* )er( fe: &panish attempts to repel pirate landin8#parties :ere ever successful, and at least some of those that :ere o:ed their success more to -ri-er( than force of arms* Indeed, /lasco NXSez )ela =1!;0? considered that ;"" corsairs could seize an( coastal to:n on the &panish ain that the( cared to, re8ardless of its size or stren8th, and it is readil( apparent from the sources that the &paniards2 poor leadership and lac of adequate arms virtuall( 8uaranteed the pirates success on land* &o lon8 as the( mana8ed to avoid t he lar8er and more heavil(#armed &panish :arships sometimes despatched a8ainst them there :as also ver( little that the( needed to fear at sea* Normal rench raidin8 practice, as recorded -( a &panish e(e#:itness in 1!71, :as for the cre: of the pinnace to mae the attac :hile the lar8er ship stood offshore, the -oot( -ein8 su-sequentl( transferred to the ship, :hich :ould periodicall( return to Normand( to sell it* This is e'actl( ho: &ores :ent a-out attacin8 Havana in 1!!!, :hen he landed the -ul of his men -( means of his pinnaces and ships2 -oats to outflan the to:n2s defences and launch an overland attac from the rear* On this particular occasion the rench set fire to the fort2s 8ates to smoe out its 8arrison after several hours of fi8htin8* The &panish 8overnor had mean:hile rallied the population =:hich, as :as customar( under such circumstances, had fled inland :ith the 8reater part of its porta-le valua-les at first site of the corsairs? and returned :ith such armed men as he could muster, -ut :as -eaten off* 4rae emplo(ed much the same tactics in his attac on &anto 4omin8o in 1!%$, puttin8 his landin8#part( ashore several miles a:a( to launch a surprise attac from the rear :hile his main fleet ept the to:n2s defences occupied from the sea:ard side* This -ecame the characteristic modus o'erandi of En8lish privateers thereafter* The S(anish res(nse 5eco8nisin8 the increasin8 pro-lems presented -( pirac( as earl( as Dul( 1!++, the &panish Cro:n stipulated that ships main8 the transatlantic vo(a8e should -e of at least %" tons =increased to 1"" tons in 1!;?, and issued re8ulations 8overnin8 the minimum armament that each vessel :as required to carr(, consistin8 of at least t:o -rass 8uns, si' iron ones, and several smaller pieces* Ho:ever, it seems that these :ere rarel( complied :ith, since /enzoni states that the principal cause of &panish ship losses :as the avarice of the o:ners for on quittin8 &pain, such :as their avidit( to fill up :ith merchandise and passen8ers that the( did not put the due num-er of 8uns on -oard nor even the num-er ordered -( the Council of the Indies2* Commissioners sent to e'amine that ships :ere armed in accordance :ith these re8ulations :ere simpl( -ri-ed to loo the other :a(* Consequentl(, continues /enzoni, if a :ell#armed little rench alleonette happened to meet a ship of even 1,!"" or +,""" salme Qc*;""F"" tonsR the( attaced her :ithout the least fear, no:in8 ho: ill &panish ships
esoamerica c*1!"F1$""
T-E &TECS Thou8h modern -oos tend to treat the so#called Aztec Empire2 as if all of its people Y especiall( those of the )alle( of e'ico Y shared the same ori8ins, the Aztecs1# :ere, in fact, ust one of up to " Nahuatl# speain8 Chichimec tri-es :hich had mi8rated into Central e'ico in the 1;th centur(, pro-a-l( from the north#:est, and su-sequentl( overran the Toltec Empire* Other tri-es involved in this mi8ration included the follo:in8< Acolhua Chalca Cholulteca Coui'ca Cuitlahuaca Culhua
Hue'otzinca alinalca atlatzinca ichoaca i'tec Nonoalca
Otomi Tepaneca Tlahuica Tla'calteca Totonaca Gochimilca
ost settled in the re8ion :here the principal to:n su-sequentl( -ore their name =the Cholulteca in Cholula, the Culhua in Culhuacan, the Gochimilca in Gochimilco, and so on?* The most important of them Y i*e* those :hich mana8ed to retain their independence until the
1$th centur( Y are dealt :ith individuall( further on in this chapter* Earl( in the 1th centur( the Aztecs esta-lished the cities of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco on islands in 3ae Te'coco in the )alle( of e'ico, Tenochtitlan achievin8 ascendanc( in 1+% -( formin8 an alliance :ith the nei8h-ourin8 cit(#state of Te'coco to overthro: the rulin8 Tepaneca people* &oon after:ards =1;1? the cit( of Tlacopan =Tacu-a? oined :ith Tenochtitlan and Te'coco to create the Triple Alliance2, round :hich the so#called Aztec Empire 8re:* E'pansion proceeded rapidl( from the 1"s, :ith to:n after to:n -ein8 coerced or -eaten into su-mission* Each su-u8ated communit( :as permitted to retain its o:n ruler and 8ods, -ut :as thereafter o-li8ed to mae re8ular pa(ments of tri-ute to the storehouses of Tenochtitlan in order to maintain the empire2s administration, priesthood, and militar( potential failure to do so -rou8ht s:ift and merciless retri-ution* /( the time the &paniards arrived in 1!10 the ruler of Tenochtitlan, al:a(s the pre#eminent leader of the Alliance, had -ecome undisputed master of its empire, :hile the rulers of Te'coco and Tlacopan had -ecome his o:n carefull( selected appointees* 3eader of the Aztec nation :as the Tlatoani =&peaer2?, also called the Tlato5ue, ;ueytlatoani =5evered &peaer2? or Tla4ate4uhtli =Chief of men2?* Effectivel( he :as the in8 or paramount chief, -ut his office :as technicall( elective and theoreticall( he could -e deposed* In realit(, ho:ever, the in8ship :as hereditar(, each Tlatoani -ein8 elected from amon8 the indred of the same rulin8 line -( a council of chief men and priests the onl( variation from European practice :as that -rothers and nephe:s :ere usuall( selected in preference to sons @ for instance, A'a(acatl, Tizoc, and Ahuitzotl, :ho ruled successivel( in the period 1$0F 1!";, :ere all -rothers, :hile Ahuitzotl2s successors octezuma II =1!";F+"? and Cuitlahuac =1!+"? :ere his nephe:s, -ein8 sons of A'a(acatl* Cuitlahuac :as succeeded in turn -( Ahuitzotl2s son Cuauhtemoc =1!+"F +!?, the ver( last Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan* The &peaer :as assisted -( a man called the Cihua4oatl =&erpent#>oman2? @ :ho :as his chief minister and deput( in all thin8s @ and -( four other senior officials :ho :ere pro-a-l( the same as the elected leaders of the four quarters into :hich Tenochtitlan :as divided, :hose responsi-ilities com-ined -oth civil and militar( functions* These :ere the Tla4ate4atl =Cutter of en2?, the Tla4o4h4al4atl =aster of the House of 4arts2?, the Ezhuahua4atl =/lood#&hedder2?, and the Tlilan4al5ui =aster of the House of 4arness2? or :uauhno4htli =Chief of the Ea8le and Pricl( Pear2, an allusion to the em-lem of Tenochtitlan that can still -e found on e'ico2s national fla8 toda(?* One of these officials :as usuall( the heir# apparent and all :ere commonl( the Tlatoani2s -rothers, cousins, or insmen of the ro(al -loodline* Provincial 8overnors or commanders :ere also no:n as tla4ate4atl or tla4o4h4al4atl * The structure of Aztec societ( had -ecome distinctl( stratified -( the 1$th centur(* /eneath the &peaer of Tenochtitlan came the rulers of tri-utar( or su-ordinate
to:ns =some havin8 more than one?, these -ein8 lie:ise called tlatoani, other:ise teu4tlato5ueh =usuall( translated as ud8es2?* Ne't came the senior no-ilit( or chieftains =teteu4tin?, :ho :ere heads of the no-le houses and :ere equivalent in ran to the chieftains of 10th centur( North American tri-es* /eneath them :ere the no-les -( -irth2, the 'i'iltin, :ho :ere variousl( the issue or descendants of rulers =tlato4a'i'iltin? or of chieftains =te4'i'iltin?, called tlazo'i'iltin if -( le8al :ives or 4al'an'i'iltin if -( concu-ines* These 'i'iltin16 or lesser no-ilit( actuall( constituted a sizea-le proportion of the population of Central e'ico @ 1 in Hue'otzin8o, for instance, and perhaps +" in Tenochtitlan @ and provided the nucleus of most armies* Ne't came the upper#classes of the common people, comprisin8 the ea8le no-les2 =5uauh'i'iltin? :ho had -een raised to no-le status -( their martial achievements, and the headmen =4a'oleh5ueh? of each to:n :ard or 4al'ulli =literall( -i8 house2?* /eneath these came the commoners =ma4ehualtin?, :ho :ere a mi'ture of su-ects of the teteu4tin -ondsmen or farm# hands =mayeh5ueh or tlalmaitin? and slaves =tlatla4ohtin?* Technicall( militar( service :as required :hen necessar( from most elements of Aztec societ(, an o-vious e'ception -ein8 the slaves, -ut in realit( the onus of responsi-ilit( la( :ith the upper classes @ :ho :ere e'pected to perform militar( service as an o-li8ation of their social status and :ere shamed if the( did not @ and those commoners specificall( trained for a militar( career*
TR&ININ &ND &D&NCEMENT
Aztec parents decided on their children2s careers, most sons -ein8 e'pected to follo: in their father2s footsteps* Those :ho :ere 8oin8 to -e :arriors had their hair 8ro:n in a distinctive st(le from the a8e of ten, :ith a lon8 tuft called a 'iltontli at the -ac* Their trainin8 too place throu8h t:o t(pes of school, no:n as the tel'o4h4alli =(ouths2 house2? and the 4alme4a4 =ro: of houses2?* &ray /ernardino de &aha8Xn, author of the Code/ &lorentino, records that a tel'o4h4alli :as to -e found in each cit( :ard =thou8h he sa(s else:here that each :ard of Tenochtitlan had 1" or 1! such tel'o4h4alli2, :hich is more liel(? and that it :as attended mostl( -( commoners, :hile a 4alme4a4 :as to -e found attached to each of certain important temples and :as attended onl( -( the no-ilit( and such commoners as had -een dedicated to the priesthood* Thou8h &aha8Xn implies entr( at an earlier a8e, the tel'o4h4alli :as attended from the a8e of 1! @ after the child had -een reared -( his parents2 @ accordin8 to the Code/ $endoza =c*1!0?, and concentrated on educatin8 its students in the art of :ar, the teachers -ein8
veteran soldiers =te5uihuah5ueh?, teachers of (ouths2 =tia4h4a4auhtin?, and no-le :arriors = 'i'iltin?* The 4alme4a4, -( contrast, principall( tau8ht reli8ious su-ects, and its students :ere admitted at a much earlier a8e, some:here -et:een five and 1; =sources differ?* >hen the( reached 1! those 4alme4a4 students :ho needed to learn militar( sills :ere sent for their lessons to the -arracs of the elite Ea8le and Da8uar :arriors in the palace precinct, a factor :hich helped to perpetuate the superior militar( standards Aztec societ( e'pected of its no-ilit(* suall( no student :as e'pected to actuall( fi8ht until he :as +" (ears old, -ut at least some @ once the( had proved the( :ere stron8 enou8h @ -e8an to -e taen on campai8n at an earlier a8e, carr(in8 the arms and equipment of individual te5uihuah5ueh, to :hom the( effectivel( served as apprentices* In e'ceptional circumstances the( mi8ht even fi8ht :hile still onl( in their teens, such as :hen an arm( of 1$F1% (ear olds :as deli-eratel( fielded as an insult to an enem(2s fi8htin8 a-ilities* Tlatoani octezuma I =1"F$%? even sent out -o(s up:ards of 1+ (ears of a8e2 a8ainst the Chalca, armin8 them :ith -o:s, shields, and macanas, :ith orders to follo: close -ehind the main arm( to mae the Chalca thin that t:o armies had -een raised a8ainst them* Once the( reached maturit( at the a8e of +" the (oun8 men left their schools and :ere considered to -e novice :arriors, -ut an( further advancement could onl( -e achieved -( the tain8 of captives in -attle* A :arrior :ho succeeded in tain8 his first captive, even :ith the help of up to si' other :arriors, 17 :as thencefor:ard considered a leadin8 (outh2 = tel'o4hyah5ui? and a captor =tlamani?, and his tuft of hair :as cut off 1' -ut a :arrior :ho proved una-le to tae a captive after three or four campai8ns :as deemed a dis8race* He :as contemp#tuousl( referred to as a 4ue/'al4hi4a4'o, a (outh :ith a -a-(2s tuft2, and accordin8 to &aha8Xn :ould thro: himself into the ne't -attle in a :ild frenz(, to tae a prisoner at an( cost* If even then he still needed the help of others to tae his captive his head :as plastered :ith feathers, -ut if he failed completel( the top of his head :as shorn, cut lie a rin8#shaped carr(in8 pad2* Presuma-l( he had to eep this humiliatin8 hair#st(le until he finall( too a prisoner, died in the attempt, or :as in effect cashiered* >hen a :arrior had taen three captives he -ecame a tia4h4auh or teacher of (ouths2 himself* our captives made him a tel'o4htlatoh =ruler of (ouths2, the 8overnor of a tel'o4h4alli school? and a te5uihuah or valiant :arrior2, 19 entitlin8 him to a distinctive hair#st(le =see i8ures F$?* >arriors :ho too five or si' prisoners -ecame tontin =Otomis2? and qualified for another distinctive hair#st(le =i8ure ;!?, and if the( too even more the( -ecame :ua4hi45ueh or &horn Ones2 =i8ures ;+F; the literal translation of their name is scraped heads2?* Thou8h -oth these rans are sometimes thou8ht to have -een attaina-le onl( -( no-lemen, &aha8Xn alludes to &horn Ones2 :ho came from the tel'o4h4alli, :hich :ould impl( that at least some came from a non#no-le -ac8round* Alvarado Tezozomoc, :ritin8 -efore 1!$+, sa(s that each tomitl or :ua4hi4
too command of 1"" men on campai8n, -ut other sources put them in the front ran or rear8uard, or intersperse them :ith the ran and file to -olster the resolve of the latter, :hich is perhaps Tezozomoc2s meanin8 =he also refers to one tomitl or :ua4hi4 -et:een ever( three or four :arriors2, pro-a-l( meanin8 rans? 4ie8o 4urLn 20 pro-a-l( had this arran8ement in mind :hen he :rote of a (outh :ho had never -een to :ar -efore2 -ein8 placed ne't to each seasoned :arrior2, in order that the latter could tae care of the (oun8er men and 8ive them protection*2 If, in octezuma II2s time, a fifth captive :as taen from Atli'co, Hue'otzin8o, or Tliliuhquitepec, then his captor received especiall( 8reat honour and :as called a 5uauhyah4atl =8reat captain2?, :hile a si'th captive from these places qualified a :arrior for the ran of tla4o4h4al4atl or tla4ate4atl * Thou8h unpaid, :arriors received re:ards and preferments commensurate :ith their -attlefield performance, includin8 clothes, e:eller(, slaves, land, and appointment to or promotion in administrative office* ost Aztec officials :ere chosen from the :arrior class, thou8h &aha8Xn reports that, despite their -attlefield sill, tontin and &horn Ones2 :ere e'cluded from holdin8 office -ecause of their :ild nature* Tezozomoc, ho:ever, contradicts him -( claimin8 that eminent :ua4hi45ueh sometimes held ver( hi8h posts indeed, includin8 even those of Tla4ate4atl , Tla4o4h4al4atl and :uauhno4htli* Certainl( at the ver( least &horn Ones2 :ould seem to have sat in the :ar# councils the &peaer held :ith the Da8uar and Ea8le societies* an( of the distinctions of each of these various classes of :arrior actuall( too the form of rich clothin8 or e:eller(, and from octezuma I2s time on:ards it :as ordained that -rave men2 :ere no lon8er to -u( their o:n lip#plu8s, ear#plu8s, 8old neclaces, -racelets, shields, :eapons, insi8nia2 =standards?, man(#coloured feathers2, mantles, or -reechclouts, all of these items henceforth -ein8 amon8 those 8iven out -( the &peaer as pa(ment for memora-le deeds2* The distri-ution of such insi8nia, man( elements of :hich :ere associated :ith civilian attire rather than :ar#dress, too place at a special ceremon( cele-rated each (ear in the eleventh of the Aztecs2 1% months, 4h'aniztli* As some indication of the value of such 8ifts, an ornate feather mantle :as considered to -e equivalent to the price of 1"" canoes =a cotton mantle :as :orth one canoe?* >arriors :ho performed poorl( on campai8n mi8ht actuall( -e stripped of their re:ards* tontin and :ua4hi45ueh, for instance, are said in one source to have fou8ht in pairs on the -attlefield, and if one :as illed and the other ran a:a( the survivor :as dishonoured and relieved of his ran until such time as the &peaer mi8ht decide to restore it, perhaps after the miscreant had e'perienced a (ear or t:o of dis8race, or had re# qualified for his status -( the capture of additional prisoners* The punishment for :earin8 items of dress or e:eller( to :hich one had no ri8ht :as death*
E8ITE &RRIORS rom &aha8Xn2s Code/ &lorentino it is apparent that te5uihuah5ueh, tontin, and &horn Ones2 alie :ere armed, equipped and fed at the e'pense of the state, and other sources indicate that the( lived in :arrior houses2 =te5uihua4a4alli? @ communal lod8in8s equivalent to -arracs @ in the palace precinct* The same is also true of the reli8ious :arrior#societies no:n as the Ea8le >arriors =:ua5uauhtin? and Da8uar >arriors =4elomeh?, occasionall( referred to collectivel( as :uauhtlo4elotl or Ea8le#Da8uars* 21 These comprised a caste of initiates fi8htin8 for the attainment of spiritualit(2*22 Onl( te5uihuah5ueh =i*e* :arriors :ho had taen four or more captives? could enter either of these orders, -ut details of an( other selective process that ma( have -een involved are not no:n* Certainl( not ever( te5uihuah automaticall( -ecame a mem-er, despite the Code/ $endoza2s attri-ution of a a8uar :ar# suit to all men :ho too four prisoners, and some additional qualification ma( have -een required to -ecome an Ea8le >arrior in particular* Certainl( pictorial evidence indicates that Ea8le >arriors :ere considera-l( less numerous than Da8uars, and si8nificantl( most of the survivin8 pictures depictin8 ea8le :ar#suits sho: them -ein8 :orn -( rulers or chieftains* &i8nificantl( too, the survivin8 tri-ute lists do not include a sin8le picture of or allusion to an ea8le :ar#suit, so clearl( the demand must have -een on a ver( small scale indeed, compared to an annual requirement of close to ;" a8uar :ar#suits* The maorit( of those :ho did 8ain admission to either societ( :ere mem-ers of the no-ilit(, and even :here commoners of equal militar( e'pertise :ere admitted the( :ere held in less re8ard than the no-le elements* The( even appear to have lived in their o:n distinct house2 :hereas the no-le mem-ers :ere accommodated in ea8le houses2 =5uauh4alli?, thou8h -oth alie :ere :ithin the palace precinct* Doseph de Acosta =1!%%? records that ever( order of these ni8hts had his lod8in8 in the palace, mared :ith their em-lems* The first :as called the Princes2 3od8in8, the second of Ea8les, the third of 3ions and Ti8ers Qi*e* Da8uarsR, and the fourth of 8re( ni8hts QAcosta2s name for the tontinR* The other common officers :ere lod8ed -elo: in meaner houses* If an(one lod8ed out of his station, he suffered death*2 >hen the( -ecame too old to fi8ht, Da8uar and Ea8le >arriors :ere no:n as :uauheuhueh =Ea8le Elders2?, and it is apparent from 4urLn2s :or that the( continued to perform important duties on campai8n @ such as eepin8 the men in order on the march, marshallin8 them into formation on the -attlefield, and tain8 char8e of the arm(2s camps @ -ut the( no lon8er :ore their ea8le or a8uar :ar#suits or carried arms 4urLn mentions that the( simpl( carried staffs in their hands and :ore head-ands, lon8 shell ear#plu8s and la-rets*2
The :ua4hi45ueh and tontin :ere considered the most coura8eous of all Aztec :arriors and :ere 8reatl( feared -( their enemies, the sources referrin8 to them fi8htin8 lie madmen in -attle :ithout re8ard for their o:n safet(* 4urLn records that each &horn One2 s:ore never to flee even if faced -( +" enemies, nor tae one step -ac:ard2, and that each tomitl made a vo: not to retreat even if faced -( 1" or 1+ enemies, -ut rather to die*2 nsurprisin8l(, therefore, the( suffered 8rievous losses in an( Aztec defeat, such as a8ainst the Tarascans in 17%0, :here the( must have -een virtuall( if not actuall( :iped out =onl( +"" of the arm(2s Tenochtitlan contin8ent reputedl( survived?* &aha8Xn noted that the &horn Ones2 :ere also descri-ed as momi44atl4ani, meanin8 the( :ho hurl themselves to death2, a name compara-le to the :arrior#societ( of craz( do8s :ishin8 to die2 of the North American Cro: Indians, :ho sou8ht death in -attle -( their o:n -oldness, ust as &aha8Xn else:here sa(s that the &horn Ones2 did* Indeed, there are enou8h similarities -et:een the little that :e no: of the tontin and :ua4hi45ueh on the one hand and such Plains Indian contrar(2 :arrior#societies on the other to demonstrate that ultimatel( -oth pro-a-l( shared the same cultural ori8in* 23 Torquemada descri-es the &horn Ones2 as -ehavin8 lie fools or craz( people on the -attlefield, and &aha8Xn liens their comportment to that of -uffoons, o-servin8 that the( dressed clumsil( and, else:here, that the( :ere vain and outspoen, all of :hich denotes such self# confidence in their martial a-ilities that the( could not -e -elittled -( either detrimental appearance or unsocia-le conduct* .oin8 -ac to the parallels :ith Plains Indians, it is also interestin8 to note that &horn Ones2 appear to have often -een held -ac as a reserve or placed in the rear8uard, :hich tallies :ith the customar( -ehaviour of a Che(enne contrar(2 8roup, the /o:strin8 &ociet(2, :ho too no part in -attles :here victor( :as inevita-le -ut onl( attaced :hen the tide had turned a8ainst them* ost of the time, ho:ever, the :ua4hi45ueh and tontin =in that order? :ere in the forefront of -attle, and, as alread( noted, the( mi8ht even -e temporaril( interspersed amon8 ine'perienced :arriors, a role in :hich Da8uar and Ea8le :arriors :ere also emplo(ed* =This practice ori8inated durin8 a campai8n a8ainst etztitlan in 1%1 :hen, seein8 the morale of his recruits -adl( shaen -( the ferocit( of the etzoteca attac, an Aztec commander recommended that one or t:o or three2 veterans should -e placed amon8 each troop of them to 8ive them stren8th and spirit2* This ena-led the Aztecs to drive -ac the ne't attac and 8et themselves safel( a:a( from the -attlefield*? The e'istence of all of these elite 8roups ma( la( -ehind the claims made -( some 1$th centur( :riters that the Aztec &peaer maintained a sizea-le -od(8uard* rancisco 3Mpez de .Mmara24 provides one of the clearest references to this -od(, statin8 that octezuma QIIR had dail( a compan( of $"" 8entlemen and lords to act as his -od(8uard, each :ith three or four armed servants to :ait on him, some even :ith as man( as +" or more, accordin8 to their ran and :ealth so alto8ether the( num-ered ;,""" in the palace 8uard, some sa( man( more2* He concedes himself, ho:ever,
that the( put on this 8uard and sho: of po:er2 to impress the &paniards and that ordinaril( it :as smaller*2 Certainl( 4urLn records that the :ua4hi45ueh and tontin in an arm( of octezuma I2s time totalled onl( a-out +,""" men, even thou8h these had -een assem-led not ust from Tenochtitlan -ut from all the provinces2* Althou8h modern authorities 8enerall( dismiss the idea of a formal -od(8uard it is :orth notin8 that ernando de Alva I'tlil'ochitl, nephe: of the last ruler of Te'coco =:ho one :ould therefore e'pect to -e :ell# informed in such matters?, reported the e'istence of :arriors and captains :hose special responsi-ilit( :as to 8uard the &peaer and his famil(, :hile the 4on5uistador /ernal 4Waz del Castillo refers to octezuma II havin8 over +"" of the no-ilit( in his 8uard, in other rooms close to his o:n2* 4urLn too, quotin8 from a lost Aztec chronicle, specificall( mentions 8uardsmen in at least t:o passa8es @ surroundin8 the Tlatoani A'a(acatl in -attle a8ainst the atlatzinca in 17%, and accompan(in8 Ahuitzotl =1%$F1!";? durin8 a reli8ious ceremon( @ in the second instance providin8 a reasona-l( detailed description of them :hich is :orth quotin8 in full, :herein he calls them 8allant soldiers, ever( one of them of no-le -lood* All of these carried a staff in their hands, -ut no other :eapons* On their heads the( :ore their s(m-ols of ran as ni8hts these consisted of t:o or three 8reen or -lue feathers tied to their hair :ith red ri--ons* &ome :ore the feathers erect on their heads :hile others :ore them han8in8* On their -acs hun8 as man( round tassels as the num-er of 8reat deeds the( had performed in -attle* These tassels :ere attached to the feathered head-ands* All these :arriors :ore splendid e:eller(*2 Certainl( a complete a-sence of -od(8uards of an( description seems hi8hl( unliel(, even in an orderl( theocrac( lie the Aztec empire* If the( :ere indeed provided -( an( of the elite :arriors mentioned a-ove :e do not no: :hich, thou8h the Ea8les and Da8uars seem the most liel( candidates*
OR&NIS&TION
As has alread( -een mentioned, Tenochtitlan :as divided into four quarters or 4am'ans* ollo:in8 its conquest -( Tenochtitlan in 17; the nei8h-ourin8 Aztec cit( of Tlatilolco -ecame a fifth quarter2* Each quarter comprised several 4al'ulli @ :ards or in#8roups =of :hich there appear to have -een +" in all -( 1!10? @ divided in turn into smaller famil( 8roupin8s called tla/ila4alli, of :hich there :ere pro-a-l( t:o or three per 4al'ulli* This same or8anisation :as transferred to the arm( :hen it :as mustered, :ith 4al'ulli units @ each servin8 under its o:n elected clan :ar#chief, a tia4h4auh @ com-ined into four =later five? lar8er divisions under the 4am'an chieftains* &ometimes, :hen
ver( numerous, a 4am'an2s :arriors :ere su-divided into smaller units, each comprisin8 at most t:o or three 4al'ulli* Each 4al'ulli had its o:n standard and :ent into -attle shoutin8 the name of its :ard* nit or8anisation throu8hout esoamerica :as -ased on the vi8esimal s(stem, the smallest unit -ein8 the 'antli, or -anner2, of +" men* Technicall( the ne't unit should have -een the compan( of "" men = tzontli, or +" ; +"? and the lar8est :as certainl( the /i5ui'illi of %,""" men =+" ; ""?, -ut there is sufficient evidence to indicate that units of 1"" and +"" men also e'isted, perhaps as su-divisions of the tzontli* 5eferences even occur to -odies %""F1,""" stron8, -ut these :ere pro-a-l( com-inations of several smaller units* Juite ho: these various unit sizes relate to the administrative structure of 4am'an and 4al'ulli outlined a-ove is unclear* It has -een su88ested that each 4al'ulli fielded "" men and each 4am'an %,"""* Pro-a-l( &aha8Xn is referrin8 to -ands of +""F"" men :hen he descri-es Aztec units as comprisin8 men of a particular 8roup or indred2, :hich is presuma-l( an allusion to either a tla/ila4alli or a 4al'ulli* nits as small as +"" men, and pro-a-l( those of 1"", each had their o:n standard =pro-a-l( that of the unit2s commander?, :hich :as placed in the centre of the unit in -attle* There is also some evidence to su88est that individual units ma( have used some sort of distin8uishin8 com-ination of colours for identification, presuma-l( in the form of an item of clothin8* Certainl( the chronicler no:n as the Anon(mous Conquistador, after descri-in8 Aztec :ar#suits, refers to ho: one compan( :ill :ear them in :hite and red, another in -lue and (ello:, and others in further different com-inations2, and 4Waz del Castillo :rote of the defenders of Tenochtitlan in 1!+1 that each separate -od( of the e'icans :as distin8uished -( a particular dress and certain :arlie devices2* In the 1%th centur( Clavi8ero, usin8 earlier sources, :rote that units :ere distin8uished -( the colour of the pluma8e :hich the officers and no-les :ore over their armour2* Ho: this :ored in conunction :ith the complicated Aztec strictures re8ardin8 the :earin8 of different colours and costumes, alluded to in the fi8ure captions -elo:, remains unclear* The size of an Aztec arm( depended on the tas in hand* It could involve no more than the no-le elements of the Triple Alliance itself, includin8 the Ea8le and Da8uar >arriors or a full muster of the :arrior#class, i*e* all of those :ho had opted for a full#time2 militar( career as opposed to the common militiamen =the yao5uiz5ueh? a 8eneral call#to#arms of a 8reater or smaller part of the entire population a universal muster of the Triple Alliance and some or man( of its tri-utar( to:ns or a com-ination of an( of these @ for instance, an arm( mi8ht comprise ust the :arrior#classes of the Triple Alliance and several tri-utaries* The maorit( of field#armies appear to have -een in the re8ion of +"F !",""" stron8, -ut for the campai8n a8ainst Coi'tlahuaca in 1!"$F7 reputedl( +! /i5ui'illi, or +"",""" men, :ere raised @ not an entirel( impossi-le fi8ure if the hi8hest of the various estimates of e'ico2s population c*1!"" =-et:een five and +! million? are at all accurate, -ut
certainl( hi8hl( impro-a-le, for lo8istical reasons if no other* Troops of tri-utar( to:ns :ere technicall( o-li8ed to serve once a (ear, the normal practice -ein8 for them to -e mustered -( the to:n2s o:n tlatoani and then =in the :ords of a ,ela4ihere the campai8n :as local each :arrior carried his o:n provisions on his -ac in a net -a8, -ut for campai8ns further afield tlamemes, or porters, :ere used* &ometimes these :ere sent ahead to leave suppl( caches alon8 the arm(2s line of march for as lon8 as the( :ere in Triple Alliance territor(* To:ns en route :ere e'pected to provide additional supplies and equipment :here the( failed to do so provisions :ere sometimes taen -( force, -ut an( form of unauthorised lootin8, in either friendl( or even enem( territor(, :as other:ise a capital offence, -e it so much as an ear of corn pluced from the roadside* >omen 8enerall( accompanied the arm( to coo and to carr( additional household equipment that mi8ht -e needed* Even :ith these relativel( sophisticated lo8istical arran8ements, ho:ever, ensurin8 the availa-ilit( of adequate supplies in such a thinl( populated land @ especiall( once the arm( had entered enem( territor( @ :as no eas( tas* Consequentl( dela(s, len8th( halts, and lon8 sie8es, all presented insurmounta-le difficulties* As a result sie8es :ere rarel( attempted, most to:ns -ein8 taen -( frontal assault*
&aha8Xn records that on the march the arm( adhered to a strict order of precedence* Priests :ent first, follo:ed -( the arm(2s 8enerals :ith the Ea8les, Da8uars, and veteran :arriors ne't came the rest of the Triple Alliance2s o:n troops then those of Tlatilolco, Acolhuacan, Tepaneca, Gilotepec and the so#called :ua5uata2 =i*e* men :ith slin8s tied round their heads, a name &aha8Xn else:here applies to the atlatzinca? and after them the contin8ents of other tri-utar( to:ns and provinces* &trict militar( discipline :as enforced -oth on the march and in -attle* >hen the arm( :as in arra( no#one mi8ht -rea rans or cro:d in amon8 the others2, and chieftains :ould then and there sla( or -eat :hoever introduced confusion2* Those found 8uilt( of almost an( sort of -attlefield misconduct :ere customaril( stoned to death follo:in8 a court#martial hearin8*
& ST&NDIN &RM:
odern authorities are unanimous that the Aztecs had no standin8 arm(* Nevertheless, as :e have alread( seen, the( did have men :hose :orin8 lives :ere dedicated to militar( service and :hose career advancement could onl( come throu8h that service :ho earned their eep -( fi8htin8 and :ho :ere housed and fed -( the state* Certainl( there is never an( su88estion in a contemporar( source that non#no-le :arriors, at least of the ran of te5uihuah and up, had an( other form of income or livelihood, other than receivin8 @ lie tia4h4auh5ueh =men :ho had taen three captives? @ 8ifts from parents in pa(ment for providin8 their children :ith a militar( education, and certainl( in this respect the( :ere full#time professionals* Ho:ever, the( remained collections of individuall( coura8eous :arriors rather than properl( constituted, formall( administered and disciplined companies, and outside of their service either on campai8n or in a civil administration capacit( @ even acceptin8 that the( :ere forever at the &peaer2s -ec and call @ their time appears to have -een effectivel( their o:n* In addition it needs to -e -orne in mind that all such men :ere :hat :e :ould toda( consider officers, or at least senior NCOs, so that there :as no such thin8 as a permanent ran#and#file militar( service :as ver( much a secondar( responsi-ilit( for Aztec commoners, :hose principal dut( :as to farm the land* In this re8ard if no other, the Aztecs can hardl( -e considered to have had a standin8 arm(* Ho:ever, this conclusion calls for an e'planation of the frequent &panish references to the e'istence of Aztec 8arrisons2 = uarni4i
the frontier of ichoacLn, and another on the frontier of PLnuco, -et:een Tu'pan and the to:n :hich :e called Almeria on the north coast*2 ,ela4i
T-E S5&NIS- CON;UEST >hen Hernando CortBs2 e'pedition sailed for e'ico in e-ruar( 1!10 he :as nominall( actin8 as captain#
8eneral of 4ie8o )elLzquez, 8overnor of Cu-a, even thou8h the latter had actuall( cancelled his commission and ordered his arrest after ealous rivals had persuaded the 8overnor that CortBs presented a potential threat to his authorit(* >ith his fleet of 11 ships, carr(in8 !"% soldiers, 1"0 seamen, +"" Ara:a porters, some Ne8ro slaves, several artiller( pieces, and 1$ horses, CortBs proceeded do:n the coast of 6ucatan and landed at the site of :hat is no: )eracruz on .ood rida( 1!10* After fruitless e'chan8es :ith Aztec am-assadors sent from Tenochtitlan, he coerced the local Totonac Indians to re-el and then, in Au8ust, he set out inland :ith some "" &paniards, 1! horses, si' 8uns, and a minimum of several hundred Indian :arriors and porters* 4espite the fact that CortBs had hoped for support from the Aztecs2 traditional Tla'caltec enemies, an unlooed#for clash :ith the latter2s vedettes led to t:o hard#fou8ht encounters at the -e8innin8 of &eptem-er, and it :as onl( after:ards that the Tla'caltecs allied themselves to the &panish cause* CortBs2 e'pedition then resumed its march, reinforced -( thousands of Tla'caltec :arriors =CortBs claims 1"",""", /ernardino )Lzquez Tapia sa(s ",""" either :a( all -ut !F$,""" :ere sent home?* Heavil( defeatin8 an attempted Aztec am-ush at Cholula, the 4on5uistadores entered Tenochtitlan :ithout opposition on % Novem-er 1!10* Confronted :ith such a fait a44om'li, octezuma had no choice -ut to treat the invadin8 arm( as honoured 8uests* He :as, nevertheless, placed under house#arrest soon after:ards on suspicion of encoura8in8 opposition to the &paniards else:here in the countr(* &everal tlatoani, contemptuous of the &peaer2s failure to put up an( :orth:hile resistance to the 4on5uistadores, no: or8anised a plot to overthro: him and e'pel the &paniards, -ut octezuma learnt of the conspirac( and arran8ed :ith CortBs for the rin8leaders @ his nephe: Cacama of Te'coco, his -rother Cuitlahuac of Itzapalapa, and the tlatoani of Tacu-a and Co(oacLn @ to -e arrested* octezuma su-sequentl( declared himself a vassal of &pain* &oon after:ards, in April 1!+", :ord arrived from )eracruz that PLnfilo de NarvLez had arrived from Cu-a :ith %" horse, over %"" foot =includin8 %" arque-usiers and 1;" cross-o:men?, and 1;F10 8uns, under orders from 4ie8o )elLzquez to either arrest CortBs or thrust him out of the in8dom2* Assem-lin8 ust +!" men, CortBs immediatel( marched to confront NarvLez and over:helmed his superior force in a sudden ni8ht#attac :hich resulted in little loss of life* NarvLez himself :as :ounded and captured, after :hich most of his men s:itched sides and returned to Tenochtitlan :ith CortBs* ean:hile, durin8 CortBs2 a-sence from the cit( his lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado had massacred man( Aztecs at a reli8ious festival, to seize their e:els accordin8 to .irolamo /enzoni, thou8h others sa( it :as -ecause the ceremon( :as one :hich involved human sacrifice, :hich CortBs had for-idden* ore pro-a-l(, as Alvarado himself claimed, the clima' of the cele-ration :as planned to -e the si8nal for the Aztecs to attac and ill the &paniards* Certainl( there :ere indications that Aztec :arriors :ere -ein8 mustered :ithin Tenochtitlan in preparation for an insurrection, and once Alvarado had launched his attac the small &panish 8arrison and its
Tla'caltec allies :ere immediatel( -eaten -ac and -esie8ed in the Palace of A'a(acatl -( a verita-le multitude of Indians* The initial spate of attacs su-sequentl( a-ated sufficientl( for CortBs to re#enter Tenochtitlan unopposed, -ut once there he :as trapped as the entire population rose in revolt* octezuma :as mortall( :ounded @ it is uncertain -( :hom @ durin8 an attempt to ne8otiate :ith his -rother Cuitlahuac, :ho had -een released and elected Tlatoani in his stead, and, in a series of -itter en8a8ements fou8ht throu8hout the canal#intersected cit(2s narro: streets, -rid8es and cause:a(s, the &paniards2 attempts to disperse the encirclin8 Aztecs :ere -eaten -ac* After a :ee of fi8htin8 CortBs sa: no alternative -ut to :ithdra: from Tenochtitlan* The evacuation, :hich commenced on the ni8ht of ;" Dune 1!+", proved such a desperate enterprise that it -ecame no:n as the o4he Triste =&ad Ni8ht2?* Nearl( $"" &paniards and +,""" Tla'caltec :arriors had -een illed -( mornin8, alon8 :ith untold num-ers of hosta8es, prisoners, and female camp#follo:ers* ost of the treasure looted from the &peaer2s palaces :as also lost* The survivors :ere nevertheless a-le to halt the Aztec pursuit at the /attle of Otum-a =Otompan? on 7 Dul(, fou8ht in open 8round :here the 4on5uistadores :ere a-le to tae advanta8e of their superior :eapons and fe: remainin8 cavalr(* CortBs then spent the :inter of 1!+"F+1 re8roupin8 in Tla'cala, :hile smallpo' @ introduced into Central e'ico amon8st the men :ho had accompanied NarvLez @ decimated the Triple Alliance, the Tlatoani Cuitlahuac -ein8 amon8st those :ho succum-ed* 5einforced to %$ horse, over %"" foot, 1% 8uns, and +"F +,""" =one source sa(s 7!,"""? Tla'caltec au'iliaries, CortBs returned to la( sie8e to Tenochtitlan in a( 1!+1, his attacs -ein8 supported -( 1; -ri8andines :hich ship:ri8hts :ith the e'pedition had -uilt and launched on 3ae Te'coco* On 1; Au8ust, after 0; da(s of intense fi8htin8 in :hich the Aztecs had suffered enormous losses, the last Aztec Tlatoani, octezuma2s cousin Cuauhtemoc, :as captured as he attempted to flee the cit( -( canoe* All or8anised resistance su-sequentl( collapsed* The rest of Central e'ico :as su-u8ated -( CortBs2 captains :ithin the ne't fe: (ears and -ecame the province of Ne: &pain, CortBs -ein8 officiall( reco8nised as 8overnor in Octo-er 1!++*
&R&RE
As :e have seen, the Triple Alliance :as not reall( an Empire2 at all, -ut a con8lomeration of su-u8ated or allied to:ns and cit(#states all o-li8ed to pa( various forms of tri-ute to the central 8overnment in Tenochtitlan* Inevita-l( from time to time one or more of these tri-utaries :ould re-el, and an Aztec arm( :ould -e despatched to -rin8 them -ac into line =:hich is :h( the survivin8 records sho: some to:ns -ein8
conquered -( several successive &peaers?* Alternativel( an independent to:n from :hich tri-ute had -een demanded mi8ht refuse to pa( it, and a8ain an arm( :ould -e despatched to persuade the recalcitrents to compl(* The enem( :ould normall( -e 8iven the option of voluntar( su-mission first, -( such actions as installin8 the Aztecs2 chief 8od in his temple or offerin8 immediate pa(ment of an( overdue tri-ute, and his to:n :as onl( attaced if he declined* In this sense there :as no such thin8 as a surprise attac, since -oth sides :ere full( co8nisant of the actions of the other, usuall( throu8h the activities of their spies and am-assadors, and an enem( chief :as usuall( rituall( anointed and presented :ith :eapons -( the Aztecs2 emissaries as a si8n that :ar had -een declared a8ainst him* >hen the Aztec forces eventuall( arrived -efore the enem( to:n -oth sides :ould dra: up for -attle, and once a8ain the Aztecs :ould demand the to:n2s su-mission* Then priests :ould li8ht an incense#soaed -onfire -et:een the armies, and one last opportunit( :as 8iven to the enem( to su-mit, -efore the flames :ent out* 4Waz records that the Tla'caltecs lit such a fire in front of the &paniards prior to their main -attle a8ainst them in 1!10, the priests tellin8 CortBs that he should quit the land -efore the fire:ood :hich the( had piled up should -urn a:a(* Then the :arriors, dra:n up in -attle arra(, started to :histle and sound their trumpets and drums*2 If neither side had :ithdra:n or su-mitted :hen the flames died the priests scattered the em-ers in ever( direction ust as the( intended to scatter their enemies* Ne8otiations -ein8 thus concluded, the si8nal for -attle :as 8iven -( a priest -lo:in8 on a conch#shell trumpet, most often at da:n* There :as nothin8 disor8anised a-out their -attle# arra(< the Anon(mous Conquistador descri-es their squadrons2 movin8 :ith perfect order2 and maintainin8 formation :onderfull(2* The mem-ers of each contin8ent :ent into action in a set order, the militar( orders 8enerall( advancin8 first, follo:ed -( the veterans and then the rest of the arm(* Ho:ever, some su-ect re8ions sent in their (ouths first @ presuma-l( to 8ive them an opportunit( to tae prisoners and there-( earn promotion @ follo:ed ne't -( their more e'perienced men, and onl( then -( the no-ilit( and veterans* The most succinct description of Aztec -attlefield comportment is that of .eronimo de endieta =1!0$?, :hose -rief account features most of the e( elements* He :rote that at the outset the( sped stones -( slin8s, and rods lie darts2, and that the( also thre: stones -( hand* Thereafter the( resorted to s:ord and shield, and the archers :ent in at the same time :ell protected there-(, and thus the( spent their ammunition After the van8uard had used a 8ood deal of its ammunition the( char8ed :ith s:ord and dart, the s:ord -ein8 of :ood, lon8 and lined :ith cuttin8 pieces of flint* It :as tied to the :rist in order that the( mi8ht drop it in order to seize an enem( :ithout losin8 the :eapon, as their main o-ect :as to capture men alive* The( had no st(le of fencin8, neither did the( char8e directl(, -ut sirmished and rushed -ac and forth* At first one side :ould turn to flee, as it seemed, the enem( pursuin8,
illin8, and :oundin8 and capturin8 all those la88in8 -ehind* Then the side fleein8 :ould suddenl( turn on its pursuers, :ho fled in turn*2 endieta notes that the -attle continued thus as in a tournament2 until the troops involved, -ecomin8 tired, :ere replaced -( fresh companies :hich came for:ard to tae up the fi8ht2* This use of rela(s of fresh troops ma(, in fact, have -een one of the e(s to the Triple Alliance2s militar( supremac(, since 1$th centur( &panish authors onl( attri-uted this practice to the Aztecs* One source claims that the( replaced men in the fi8htin8 line as frequentl( as ever( 1! minutes, thou8h it seems liel( that in realit( the intervals :ould have varied, since it :ould have -een necessar( to :ait for a convenient lull in the fi8htin8 -efore such a tric( manoeuvre could -e attempted* The fact that it :as possi-le at all sa(s much for Aztec discipline, :hich is praised in passin8 -( several contemporar( &panish :riters* ost -attles started as sirmishes and then 8raduall( intensified until the issue :as decided, 4ie8o unoz Camar8o notin8 ho: if the first compan( into action :as pushed -ac another :ould come up to its support, o-li8in8 the enem( to send for:ard another in turn< In this :a( further squadrons came up until a 8reat -attle developed, thou8h reserves :ere al:a(s ept -( -oth sides2* >here the( :ere of superior stren8th the Aztecs :ould simpl( rel( on :ei8ht of num-ers to -ear the enem( do:n, -ut the preferred tactic :as envelopment, often achieved -( the fei8ned fli8ht of a deco( -od( dra:in8 the enem( for:ard into a carefull( pre#planned am-ush* &ources descri-e ho:, in flat countr( :here no other cover :as availa-le, the Aztecs :ould even di8 shallo: holes the ni8ht -efore the -attle =da:n attacs -ein8 favoured27? and hide men in these, or else simpl( la( do:n on the -are 8round and cover themselves :ith 8rass, after :hich the 8enerals sent out small -ands to sirmish :ith the enem( and lead them to :here the :arriors :ere hidden* Then :ith a 8reat din the concealed :arriors leapt out on the enem(2s -acs, trappin8 them -et:een t:o forces*2 4Waz records an instance :here slin8ers and archers attaced from three sides :hile s:ordsmen attaced from the fourth* 3Mpez de .Mmara records the Tla'caltecs utilisin8 ust such an am-ush in their first en8a8ement a8ainst CortBs in 1!10, in :hich the( sent for:ard 1,""" sirmishers to lure the &paniards and their Totonac allies into an am-ush :here an alle8ed %",""" :arriors la( hidden in ditches and ravines2* An archer2s quiver contained ust +" arro:s, :hile the hi8hest num-er of avelins or darts usuall( taen into action :as five, and more often three or four, so it seems liel( that the initial missile phase of a -attle :as of onl( -rief duration, even allo:in8 for the re#use of spent missiles* 6et it :as occasionall( sufficient to repel the enem(* At other times a particularl( stu--orn foe mi8ht -e intermittentl( su-ected to missile#fire throu8hout the course of an action, the -arra8e -ein8 rene:ed -et:een char8es as the com-atants fell -ac* The &paniards considered Aztec slin8shot more dan8erous than their archer(, and it is si8nificant that most of the areas :hich mana8ed to retain their independence a8ainst the Aztecs until the &panish
&outh America 1!""F1$""
T-E INC&S 4urin8 the second half of the 1!th centur( the Juechua# speain8 Incas, under their ruler Pachacutec Inca 6upanqui =1;%Z71?, under:ent an era of such rapid e'pansion that :hen the &paniards arrived onl( !" (ears after Pachacutec2s death the Inca state encompassed a hu8e area that stretched almost the entire ;,!""#mile len8th of the Andes* This included not ust the :estern t:o#third of modern Peru #' -ut also :estern /olivia, most of Ecuador, a strip of north# :estern Ar8entina, northern Chile, and perhaps even a small portion of southern Colom-ia* /( a mi'ture of flatter(, threat and force, handreds of different tri-es and cultures had -een successfull( accommodated :ithin a sin8le, inte8rated state under the Juechua ruler, the .a'a )n4a* All alie :ere desi8nated Incas2 -( su-sequent historians, and their countr( has -ecome no:n to posterit( as the Inca Empire2 -ut to the Indians themselves it :as simpl( Ta:antinsu(u, the 3and of the our Juarters2, in allusion to its division into the four maor provinces or quarters of Antisu(u in the east, Cuntisu(u in the :est, Chinchasu(u in the north, and Collasu(u in the south, all respectivel( named after one of the principal tri-es livin8 in those directions in relation to the countr(2s capital, Cuzco* Each of these :as administered -( an A'u, usuall( a close relation of the .a'a )n4a* The empire also contained four lin8uistic 8roups, composed of the Juechua themselves, the coastal Chimu, the A(mara to the south, and the ru to the north, -ut under Inca domination all alie :ere o-li8ed to spea Juechua* The Inca empire reached its 8reatest e'tent under Hua(na CLpac =10;F1!+7?, and mi8ht have continued to e'pand -ut for the :ar of succession that -roe out -et:een his sons HuLscar and Atahualpa follo:in8 his death* This -itter conflict :as still in pro8ress :hen the &paniards Y ust $+ cavalr(men, 1"$ infantr(men, and a couple of small 8uns, under rancisco Pizarro Y reached Inca territor( in 1!;+, and :as one of the factors that facilitated the 4on5uistadores2 su-u8ation of the countr(* HuLscar, the le8itimate heir, :as decisivel( defeated -( his half-rother2s 8enerals Juizquiz and Calcuchima at Am-ato, Tome-am-a, Caa-am-a, and Cuzco in 1!;+, and, captured in the last of these en8a8ements, he :as later illed on Atahualpa2s orders* ollo:in8 the massacre of his unarmed escort durin8 ne8otiations :ith Pizarro, Atahualpa himself :as seized -( the &paniards in Novem-er 1!;+ :hile encamped at Caamarca, and :as e'ecuted in Dul( 1!;; despite havin8 paid a ransom of sta88erin8 proportions to secure his li-ert(* After occup(in8 Cuzco in Novem-er 1!;;, Pizarro then installed HuLscar2s -rother anco Inca 6upanqui as a puppet &apa Inca* #9 In 1!; anco and his forces :illin8l( oined :ith Pizarro2s lieutenant, 4ie8o de Alma8ro, in defeatin8 the northern Inca arm( commanded -( the last of Atahualpa2s principal 8enerals, Juizquiz* anco must have soon re8retted his decision to side :ith the &paniards, ho:ever, as their 8reed and depredations s:iftl( -rou8ht his empire to its nees* Eventuall( he fled from Cuzco and -e8an a re-ellion :hich resulted in the deaths of some %"" conquistadores* He laid sie8e to Cuzco itself in e-ruar( 1!;$ :ith an alle8ed !"F1"",""" :arriors and %",""" au'ialiaries =other sources claim up to +"","""
or even more?, -ut :as una-le to retae the cit(, even thou8h its tin( 8arrison num-ered ust 10" &paniards, %" horses, and a fe: handred Indian au'iliaries* A separate arm( of $",""" men sent a8ainst 3ima received no support from the local population and :as repulsed :ith heav( losses :hen it attempted to face up to &panish cavalr( on the coastal plains* rustrated at ever( turn -( the resolute defenders of Cuzco and its environs, and :ith elements of his arm( steadil( desertin8 to the &paniards, in arch 1!;7 anco finall( raised his sie8e and retired into the mountainous province of )ilca-am-a, straddlin8 the frontiers of :hat are no: eastern Peru and /olivia, :here, follo:in8 the eventual collapse of his re-ellion in 1!;0, he esta-lished :hat is toda( often referred to as the Neo#Inca Empire2, :ith its capital at )iticos* anco and his sons &a(ri TXpac, Titu Cusi 6upanqui, and TXpac Amaru ruled in succession from here, :a8in8 desultor( 8uerrilla :arfare a8ainst the &paniards and pacified Indians of Daua and Huaman8a for much of the time, until )icero( rancisco de Toledo invaded )ilca-am-a in 1!7+* indin8 the frontier virtuall( un8uarded =apparentl( in consequence of an epidemic that :as ra8in8 throu8h the Inca population?, the &paniards and their CaSari Indian allies s:iftl( over:helmed :hat little opposition the( encountered* The .a'a )n4a TXpac Amaru :as captured in fli8ht -( a detachment under artWn .arsWa de 3o(ola, and his e'ecution -rou8ht the Inca line to an end* 60 &u-sequent e'pansion from their Peruvian po:er#-ase too the &paniards north, south and east* In the north, 4ie8o de Alma8ro and &e-astiLn de /elalcLzar fou8ht their :a( to Juito in 1!;, defeatin8 Juizquiz2s arm( en route* Alma8ro then returned to Peru :hile /elalcLzar consolidated &panish control of the re8ion -efor pushin8 on into Colom-ia =see the section on Ne: .ranada?* At the opposite end of the countr(, the advance into :hat is no: Chile -rou8ht the &paniards into contact, and ceaseless conflict, :ith the apuche Indians =see the section on the Araucana?* E'ploration east of the Andes Y into the Peruvian ontaSa and its /olivian equivalent, the 6un8a Y often :ith disastrous consequences, occured -et:een 1!;+ and 1!7", and a handful of scattered to:ns :ere esta-lished alon8 the :estern ed8e of the ontaSa after 1!$"* Ho:ever, stiff opposition from the Chuncho =the 8eneric name for the local forest tri-es? had resulted in the a-andonment of nearl( all of these settlements -( 1$""*
OR&NIS&TION The overall population of the Inca empire in the 1$th centur( is unno:n =it has -een variousl( estimated at -et:een t:o and ten million61?, -ut that it could raise at least 1"",""" men :ithout puttin8 an( undue strain on its resources is apparent from the fact that three separate armies each of ;"F",""" men are credi-l( reported as -ein8 in the field in mid#1!;+, :hile later the same (ear HuLscar alone is said to have fielded %",""" men, and Atahualpa2s 8enerals onl( sli8htl( less* An estimated ;!,""" men are said to have died at the civil :ar -attle of Caa-am-a, and 1!F1$,""" at Am-ato* Althou8h durin8 the closin8 sta8es of the empire2s e'istence an unno:n num-er of full#time soldiers had
-e8un to -e raised, lar8el( for frontier 8arrison duties, the maorit( of Inca :arriors :ere invaria-l( militiamen* Technicall( ever( a-le#-odied man -et:een the a8es of +!F !" =(on8er if married, and occasionall( up to the a8e of $"? :as classified as an au4a 4amayo or a person fit for :ar2, lia-le for militar( service, -ut it :as not usual for them all to -e summoned at once* In practice a district provided a predetermined num-er of men to the arm( :hen called upon, lar8er num-ers, or reinforcements, onl( -ein8 summoned :hen necessar(* >hen the 4a'aris4a or call to arms :ent out these contin8ents :ould assem-le either at Cuzco, or at some convenient point on the road if their lands la( alon8 the arm(2s anticipated line of march* This service :as o-li8ator( and the man :ere unpaid, the state providin8 their :eapons, uniforms, and sustenance from the tri-ute it collected* Technicall( there :as no time limit to the duration of such service -ut often troops served in rotation, 62 those remainin8 at home -ein8 required to till and eep their nei8h-ours2 fields durin8 their a-sence* The( :ere al:a(s led -( their o:n chiefs in conunction :ith a veteran Inca officer appointed -( the state* Pascual de Anda8o(a :rote in the 1!"s that their :ives and children customaril( accompanied them on the march, dou-tless to carr( their provisions, tents, and other necessities* He also states that Inca soldiers never entered a villa8e Q-utR had their tents in the fields2, a polic( dou-tless aimed at maintainin8 strict discipline* Their principal arms :ere dictated -( local preferences and e'pertise Y the Anti and Chuncho used -o:s, for instance, the Huanca slin8s and spears, the Conchi darts, slin8s and -olas, and so on Y -ut men :ithin a contin8ent :ere al:a(s uniforml( armed* In addition some effort :as made to ensure that troops mo-ilised for a campai8n :ere suited to the environment in :hich it :as to tae place =for e'ample, sendin8 troops from the hot coastal lands to fi8ht in the thin air of the mountains :as avoided?, so more often than not the maorit( :ere dra:n from the provinces adacent to the area to -e attaced* As :ell as eliminatin8 the need to send armies trampin8 up and do:n the countr( this also provided a useful outlet for the animosit( of recentl(#conquered frontier provinces, :hose peoples tended to -e the -itterest enemies of their nei8h-ours an(:a(* Inca societ( :as or8anised on a decimal -asis for administrative purposes, each of the countr(2s four quarters -ein8 divided into smaller provinces of 1",""" households, those in turn into 8roups of 1,""" households, and so on* Inevita-l(, therefore, similar or8anisation :as applied to the arm(* nfortunatel( :e do not no: the names -( :hich the various units :ere called, 63 onl( the titles of their commanders< 1" men Chun4a4amayo4 !" men i4h4a 4hun4a4amayo4 1"" men a4ha4a 4amayo4 1,""" men ;uaran4a 4amayo4 +,!"" men A'u, assisted -( an a'uratin !,""" men ;atun a'u, assisted -( a hatun a'uratin Pedro de Cieza de 3eMn =1!!1? mentions units of !"" and 1",""" as :ell, the e'istence of :hich is certainl( liel( since similar units of householders e'isted in the civil administration, -ut :e have no iformation re8ardin8 their officers* The lo:est t:o rans 8iven, the 4hun4a4amayo4s, :ere usuall( held -( local civilian officials called 4amayo4s, :ho in all pro-a-ilit( :ere responsi-le for the
same men in their civilian lives* Their principal responsi-ilities included ensurin8 that their men :ere adequatel( provided :ith clothes, arms and supplies* On the march these needs :ere catered for -( the e'istence of a sophisticated net:or of 8overnment storehouses =4ol4a? and road#houses =tam-o64?, the latter -ein8 located at re8ular intervals =of F$ lea8ues or a da(2s ourne(2 accordin8 to &panish sources, i*e* a-out 1+F1% miles? alon8 the entire len8th of the countr(2s 1,"""#mile Y some sa( +!,"""# mile Y net:or of roads*6# Their maintenance :as the responsi-ilit( of the local villa8es* Each :as stoced :ith sufficient equipment and victuals to maintain the arm( on its march throu8h Inca territor(, so that the need to fora8e :hilst in their o:n lands :as eliminated an(one :ho did so :as therefore flo88ed or e'ecuted* /e(ond the frontier, ho:ever, the arm( had to -e accompanied -( a massive support train comprisin8 thousands of llamas, herders =at the rate of a-out one per 1!F+" animals?, and porters* or further details see the te't descri-in8 i8ures 1!1 and 1!+* The arm(2s elite units :ere provided -( the Inca troops themselves, composed of the militar( contin8ents of the capital2s t:o rival divisions of ;anan =pper? and ;urin =3o:er? Cuzco Y meanin8 north and south respectivel( of the ru-am-a 5iver Y :hich :ere competitive almost to the point of hostilit(, their men 8enerall( marchin8 :ell apart and encampin8 at a distance* 66 Their soldiers :ere called huamin4a, meanin8 veterans2, and their t:o commanders :ere the huamin4a 'usari5uen a'u, the officers commandin8 the veterans2* The veterans received formal militar( trainin8 as part of their comin8 of a8e on reachin8 1 or 1!, -ein8 tau8ht not the use of variors :eapons -ut also ho: to manufacture such of them as did not require a smith(* The( under:ent numerous tests of coura8e and stamina, on successful completion of :hich the( received assorted insi8nia denotin8 their status, includin8 havin8 their ears pierced, and -ein8 permitted to :ear a -reechclout, as :ell as -ein8 8iven the traditional Inca :eapons of slin8, mace and shield* It is dou-tless such men that rancisco de Gerez =1!;? :as alludin8 to in his description of Atahualpa2s arm( as comprisin8 de'trous and e'perienced soldiers, :ho had served in it from -o(hood*2 It :as from amon8 these that the arm(2s captains, the au4ak'ussak , :ere chosen, responsi-le for ever( militar( dut( 8reat and small, from commandin8 a patrol to providin8 -asic trainin8 for provincial troops* Gerez descri-ed them leadin8 their men :ith as much order as Turs2* The hi8hest militar( officer of the empire, the Aucacunap apu =Chief of soldiers2?, :as invaria-l( from pper Cuzco, :hile the Au4ata ya4ha4hik a'u =Chief in char8e of or8anisin8 the soldiers2? :as from 3o:er Cuzco* Other senior officers included the ;inantin au4ata suyu4hak a'u =Chief :ho assi8ns units to their proper place2?, equivalent to a 1$th centur( European &er8eant#aor, and the .eri4a4 or Juartermaster* The commander of an arm( in the field :as called an A'us5ui'ay, assisted -( an aide called an A'us5ui'rantin* The A'us5ui'ay :as usuall( an uncle, -rother, or some other close relation of the .a'a )n4a* Thou8h the( :ere dou-tless or8anised alon8 identical lines, the Neo#Inca armies of anco Inca 6upanqui and his sons :ere a mere shado: of their pre#Conquest counterparts* The( had access to infinitel( fe:er men and, unsurprisin8l(, laced the cohesion and morale of earlier Inca armies, desertions -ein8 commonplace* The(
consequentl( appear to have contin8ents of Anti tri-esmen*
depended
heavil(
on
-OUSE-O8D TROO5S On the field of -attle the .a'a )n4a :as carried in a litter =see i8ure 1!;? amon8 men called the Au5ui4ona, made up of his nearest in* These :ere usuall( accompanied in addition -( the $an4o'4hurin4uz4os, men of the ro(al ayllus67 descended from earlier .a'a )n4as the no-le Ayllu4uz4os, or Incas -( privile8e2 and the =anan4ona, the rei8nin8 .a'a )n4a2s personal retainers* &ome or all of these constituted part at least of the sizea-le -od(8uard for the .a'a )n4a recorded -( &panish chroniclers* .arcilaso de la )e8a =:ho lived in Peru until 1!!0? is dou-tless e'a88eratin8, as :as his tendenc(, :hen he 8ives the total of these household troops in HuLscar2s time =1!+!F;+? as 1",""" men* ore credi-le, perhaps, is the description of Atahualpa2s tent in 1!;; 8iven -( Gerez, :ho sa(s it :as surrounded -( "" Indians, :ho appeared to -e a -od(8uard2, :hile the procession of +,""" =some sa( !F $,"""? attendants and courtiers :ith him at his capture -( Pizarro the same (ear included ;"" archers and 1,""" spearmen* The spearmen :ere pro-a-l( CaSari, :hile the archers are liel( to have -een Anti or Chuncho tri-esmen* anco Inca 6upanqui2s murderers are recorded to have -een overtaen and illed -( Anti 8uards in 1!! =anco is said to have had a total of !,""" 8uardsmen?, and $""F7"" Anti :ere associated :ith the .a'a )n4a Titu Cusi 6upanqui2s household c*1!$!* The CaSari :ere the first permanent -od(8uard unit to -e emplo(ed -( the .a'a )n4a, -ein8 taen on -( Hua(na CLpac Y :ho :as impressed -( their coura8e and fi8htin8 a-ilities Y to:ards the end of the 1!th centur(, not ver( lon8 after the conquest of CaSar -( his father, TXpac 6upanqui =171F0;?* The fact that it :as deemed necessar( to tae on a 8uard at all, and the fact that it :as a 8uard comprised of ne:l( conquered forei8ners to -oot, are clear indications that -( this sta8e in the empire2s e'pansion an element of distrust had 8ro:n up -et:een .a'a )n4a and his no-ilit(* Earl( si8ns of this had alread( -een made apparent -( Hua(na CLpac2s heav( dependence on non#Juechua commanders and troops in his conquest of Ecuador, and appears to have -een ustified -( the fact that, durin8 the fi8htin8 a8ainst the Caranqui people of Juito, Hua(na2s traditional :artime -od(8uard of Cuzco no-ilit( had a-andoned him :hen he :as overthro:n from his litter =the =anan4ona rescued him?* Hua(na su-sequentl( underlined his distrust -( movin8 his court a:a( from Cuzco to Tome-am-a in the CaSari2s o:n Ecuadorian homeland, a decision :hich, ho:ever, ma( also have -een influenced -( a desire to create an independent or semi#independent state for his favourite ille8itimate son Atahualpa, :ho accompanied him to Tome-am-a :hile the le8itimate heir HuLscar :as raised in Cuzco =this -ein8 the root of the civil :ar -et:een the half#-rothers in 1!+7F;+?* 4espite the favour that Hua(na had sho:n them, ho:ever, the CaSari remained lo(al to HuLscar, as the le8itimate heir, rather than to Hua(na2s favourite, Atahualpa* As a result Atahualpa2s forces, drivin8 south from Juito in 1!;+, utterl( destro(ed Tome-am-a and attempted to :ipe out the male CaSari population, A8ustWn de [Lrate =1!!!? claimin8 that $",""" :ere illed :hile Hernando Pa-los =1!%+? states that all the
CaSari died, so that of the !",""" there had -een, no more than ;,""" remained2* nsurprisin8l(, therefore, the survivors :ere amon8st the first to all( themselves to the &paniards :hen the Conquest -e8an Y :hich maes it dou-l( ironic that the( should end up providin8 the ver( last -od( of 8uards for a .a'a )n4a, :hen "" of those in &panish service escorted Hua(na2s 8randson TXpac Amaru to his e'ecution in Cuzco in 1!7+*
E
&R&RE In the a-sence of contemporar( sources =the Incas had no :ritten alpha-et 6'? particulars re8ardin8 the state of Inca :arfare in the pre#Conquest period are virtuall( non# e'istent nor can much -e e'trapolated from later, lar8el( &panish accounts* All :e reall( no: of their -attlefield tactics is that the Incas favoured a direct thrust at the location of the enem(2s commander andor chief idol* This :as often launched -( onl( one element Y usuall( a third Y of the arm(, :hile the remainder :ere either held -ac as a reserve, :aitin8 for the critical moment :hen the enem( had spent his stren8th -efore oinin8 the attac, or :ere sent to launch flan attacs on the enem( :hile he :as still full( en8a8ed to his front* 5eserves :ere also used to cover the arm(2s retreat if the main attac met :ith stiff opposition* The attac itself :as led -( slin8ers =firin8 shot the size of a hen2s e88 accordin8 to rancisco de Gerez?, follo:ed -( archers and then avelinmen, to soften up the enem( -efore the t:o armies
ed8e of a lon8 pole so as to stand out stiffl( and not to flap in the :ind* Each in8 had his arms and em-lems painted on it, -ecause each of them chose different ones, althou8h the most usual for the Inca linea8e :ere the rain-o: and the t:o serpents stretched out the len8th of it, parallel :ith the frin8e that served as a cro:n* To this, each in8 :ould normall( add as his device and em-lem :hatever fi8ures he chose, such as a lion, an ea8le and other thin8s* or a frin8e this standard had certain lon8 red feathers placed at intervals*2 A 8uard of t:o men carr(in8 8old maces mounted on lon8 poles normall( accompanied the ro(al standard* Other em-lems carried into -attle -( lar8er field#armies :ere t:o carved stone idols =hua4as? representin8 Huanacauri and the first .a'a )n4a, anco CLpac* Pro-a-l( these :ere transported on litters* &maller forces carried one or more hua4as representin8 less si8nificant 8ods* All of these :ere ept in the temples in Cuzco until the( :ere needed*
NOTES #' The name Peru2 resulted from pre#conquest &panish confusion :ith the province of /irX =coastal Colom-ia :est of the Atrato 5iver?, :here earl( e'plorers had first heard rumours re8ardin8 the e'istence of the Inca empire* #9 Initiall( another of HuLscar2s -rothers, TXpac Hualpa @ :hose name is variousl( rendered in &panish sources as Tupa .ualpa, Tu-alipa, and Toparca @ had -een selected -( Pizarro to -e puppet .a'a )n4a, -ut he had died prior to the capture of Cuzco, pro-a-l( from poison administered on the orders of an Inca 8eneral of the Atahualpan faction, Calcuchima* At the time of the &panish Conquest, anco had -een a:a( in the east on an e'pedition a8ainst the Anti, other:ise it is liel( he :ould have -een selected as .a'a )n4a strai8ht a:a(* As adherents of the le8itimist faction, all of HuLscar2s -rothers naturall( re8arded the &paniards as allies a8ainst Atahualpa* 60 anco :as murdered in 1!! -( seven &panish fu8itives :ho had sou8ht refu8e at his court follo:in8 the defeat of re-el forces led -( Alma8ro the 3ad2* He :as succeeded -( his son &a(ri TXpac, a minor, :ho, follo:in8 his ne8otiated su-mission to the &paniards in 1!!! and his death in 1!$", :as succeeded in )iticos -( his older half#-rother, anco2s ille8itimate son Titu Cusi 6upanqui, :ho seems to have had himself proclaimed .a'a )n4a in a-out 1!!%* At his death in turn in 1!71 Titu Cusi :as succeeded -( his half#-rother TXpac Amaru* ollo:in8 anco2s re-ellion his -rother Paullu TXpac =d*1!0?, havin8 deserted to the &paniards durin8 the sie8e of Cuzco, :as enthroned as puppet .a'a )n4a -( the re-el 4ie8o de Alma8ro =father of Alma8ro the 3ad2? in 1!;7, and :as su-sequentl( reco8nised in turn -( Pizarro, Alma8ro the 3ad2, and )aca de Castro* He survived -ein8 captured fi8htin8 for Alma8ro at 3as &alinas in 1!;%, and for Alma8ro the 3ad2 at Chupas in 1!+, simpl( -ecause the victorious Pizarrist faction considered that the( could mae more use of him alive than dead* Hostilities -et:een the &paniards and the Neo#Incas of )ilca-am-a :ere suspended on several occasions :hile the former sou8ht the voluntar( su-mission of the latter* On other occasions dissident &paniards appear to have assisted Neo#Inca raiders @ this :as certainl( true of fu8itives :ho too refu8e in )iticos follo:in8 the defeat of rancisco HernLndez .irMn in 1!!* 61 This had dropped to a-out + 1+ million -( 1!$" and 1 1+ million at the most -( 1!0"* 62 It has -een estimated that -et:een a fifth and a seventh
of a province2s men :ould normall( -e in arms at one time* 63 It is quite possi-le that the units :ere simpl( called -( the same :ord as :as used for the num-er of men the( contained @ 4hun4a =1"?, 'i4h4a4hun4o =!"?, 'a4ha4 =1""?, huaran4a =1,"""?, and so on* 64 These :ere lar8e stone -uildin8s some 1""F1!" ft =;"F ! m? lon8 and ;"F!" ft =0F1! m? :ide* T(picall( the( contained provisions =dried meat, maize, -eans, dried potatoes, and other ve8eta-les?, plus caches of arms, clothin8, and foot:ear* 6# .overnment runners :ere similarl( posted at intervals alon8 all Inca roads, ena-lin8 messa8es to -e transmitted at a speed of some 1!" miles a da(* It is said that a messa8e from Cuzco too ust ten da(s to 8et to Juito in Ecuador* The road net:or -oasted t:o north#south hi8h:a(s, one on the coast and one in the mountains, lined -( numerous east#:est routes* 66 The e'tent of their rivalr( is apparent from the fact that in the civil :ar -et:een HuLscar and Atahualpa the( supported opposite sides, ;anan Cuzco supportin8 HuLscar :hile ;urin Cuzco -aced his -rother* 67 The ayllu, or e'tended famil(, :as the cornerstone of Inca societ(* It is descri-ed -( contemporar( &panish and mestizo chroniclers as a related 8roup of insmen descended from a common ancestor in the late#Inca administration, ho:ever, it :as sometimes no more than a convenient 8roupin8 of households, related or other:ise, :ithin a local communit(* The ro(al ayllus, of :hich there :ere ten in the 1$th centur(, :ere descendants in the male line from earlier .a'a )n4as* In addition the rei8nin8 Inca had his o:n ayllu* 6' All administrative records :ere maintained -( means of notted, coloured strin8s =5ui'u?* 69 This com-at ended :ith + of the &paniards dead after t:o hours of fi8htin8* The Incas also lost several men, mostl( to arque-us and cross-o: fire =five of the &paniards :ere arque-usiers and seven :ere cross-o:men the rest :ere armed :ith s:ord and -ucler?* 70 That is not to sa( the( :ere entirel( free from superstition :hen it came to fi8htin8* ost militar( activities :ere preceded -( the sacrifice of numerous llamas, and anco2s attacs on Cuzco :ere invaria-l( timed to coincide :ith the full moon =ena-lin8 the &paniards to predict and prepare for them?* 71 Poma de A(ala remared that some of the Anti soldiers enlisted -( Hua(na CLpac Inca, to demonstrate the vastness of his empire, :ere naed sava8es in the ha-it of eatin8 their enemies* The( fed themselves on the flesh of defeated no-les*2 72 Accordin8 to ontesinos arm( commanders :ere also permitted to :ear the mas4a 'ay4ha , -ut not over the forehead, instead :earin8 it on the left side of the head :hen the( marched to :ar and on the ri8ht :hen the( returned victorious =-ein8 removed completel( if the( returned in defeat?* .irolamo /enzoni lie:ise refers to no-les :earin8 a :oollen tassel2 over the left ear* Pro-a-l( such masca pa(cha :ere -lac lie the llauto*
T-E &R&UC&N& Amon8st the numerous Inca conquests of the period up to 1!" :as the northern portion of modern Chile, as far south as the 5Wo aule* Thou8h 4ie8o de Alma8ro had led a tentative and costl(73 fora( in the same direction in 1!;!F;$ follo:in8
his appointment as 8overnor of Ne: Toledo2 =as it :as proposed to name the lands stretchin8 south:ards from Peru?, &panish e'pansion in this direction onl( -e8an in earnest :ith Pedro de )aldivia2s e'pedition of 1!" 4on5uistadores and 1,""" Indians in 1!" and the foundation of the to:n of &antia8o in e-ruar( 1!1* 3ie the Incas -efore them, the &paniards su-dued the Indians of northern Chile :ith their customar( speed and efficienc( -efore meetin8 :ith stiffer opposition in the forested :etlands -e(ond the 5Wo aule from tri-es :ho, -( 1!$0, the( :ere referrin8 to as Arau4ano, or Araucanians* These :ere, in fact, apuche Indians =the name means people of the land2?, thou8h the( often called themselves oulches or Pehuelches, :hich simpl( meant :arriors2* The &paniards, ho:ever, mistaenl( assumed that the province contained three distinct cultural 8roups comprisin8 the apuche, Picunche =people of the north2, :hom the( had alread( defeated?, and Huilliche =people of the south2?, :ithout realisin8 that each individual 8roup of apuche simpl( used the latter t:o terms as a means of referrin8 to its nearest northern and southern nei8h-ours* The Incas, :ho had referred to the apuche as either Au4a =:arriors2 or enemies2? or romau4a =:ild enemies2?, had never mana8ed to conquer them* ollo:in8 a apuche victor( over the Incas south of the 5Wo aule in 1$", in an en8a8ement descri-ed -( /erna-B Co-o as the hardest fou8ht and fiercest -attle that the Peruvians ever had2, Pachacutec Inca 6upanqui ordered his captains to pull -ac and fortif( the northern -an of the aule, sa(in8 that for the time -ein8 it :ould -e the frontier for the Araucana and the ed8e of his empire and the dominions of the Incas never passed that line2* A second attempt at conquest in 101 :as similarl( unproductive, and even in northern Chile the Incas :ere una-le to do more than -uild a fe: forts and impose a veneer of Juechua administration* The &paniards :ere initiall( to meet :ith little more success* The Picunche, or northern apuche, raided &antia8o as earl( as autumn 1!1, and it :as onl( in the 1!!"s that Pedro de )aldivia -e8an to push 8raduall( further south, esta-lishin8 the to:ns of ConcepciMn =1!!"?, Imperial =1!!1?, and )aldivia =1!!+?, as :ell as three important forts at Arauco, Tucapel, and PurBn in :hat :as to prove the heartland of su-sequent apuche resistance* Ho:ever, follo:in8 the destruction of Tucapel in 4ecem-er 1!!; -( the more important of the t:o principal apuche leaders, the elected :ar#captain or to5ui 3autaro =his chief, CaupolicLn, -ein8 the other?, Pedro de )aldivia :as illed and eaten :hen his relief force of ust " men :as am-ushed and :iped out* His lieutenant and eventual successor rancisco de )illa8rL =8overnor of Chile from 1!$"? :as no more successful :hen he set out to reven8e )aldivia2s death, and :as forced to retreat after losin8 0" of his 1!" men* The &paniards su-sequentl( a-andoned ConcepciMn, :hich :as -urnt -( the apuche, and :hen )illa8rL returned and started to re-uild it in 1!!! he :as a8ain driven a:a(* /( 1!!$ 3autaro had pushed the &paniards -ac as far as the 5Wo aule* He had captured ever( &panish to:n and fort south of the river e'cept Imperial and )aldivia, and :as steadil( inchin8 to:ards the 4on5uistadores2 capital, &antia8o, :hen his forces :ere surprised and destro(ed -( )illa8rL in April 1!!7, at Peteroa on the ataquito, :here 3autaro :as illed* The follo:in8 (ear sa: three -attles -et:een CaupolicLn and the ne: 8overnor, .arcWa Hurtado de endoza, at ConcepciMn, 3a8unillas, and illarapue* The &paniards :on all of these, thou8h in t:o the( :ere pushed to the -rin of disaster -efore the( triumphed< at 3a8unillas the cavalr( :ere -eaten, -ut their piemen saved the da(, :hile at illarapue it too the fire of si' &panish 8uns to -rea up a dense formation of
apuche spearmen sufficientl( for the cavalr( to 8et in amon8 them* CaupolicLn :as captured and tortured to death in 1!!0, :hich -rou8ht the first phase of serious fi8htin8 to an end* One of the principal reasons for the man( successes of the apuche a8ainst the &paniards durin8 the 1$th and 17th centuries :as their adapta-ilit(* As earl( as 1!!1, after -ein8 ridden do:n -( the &panish cavalr( in various encounters, the( learnt to attac in column in :aves of usuall( no more than 1"" men, rather than in a sin8le massed phalan' as in the past, each :ave attacin8 in rapid succession and retirin8 in turn to 8round unsuita-le for horsemen, :hile the ne't :ave resumed the fi8ht, thus 8raduall( e'haustin8 the &paniards :hile themselves continuall( attacin8 :ith fresh or rested men* The( also learnt to cut the &paniards2 line of retreat :ith felled trees and -arricades, forcin8 them to tae less suita-le routes :here am-ushes could -e prepared in advance* )arious other techniques emplo(ed to counter the effectiveness of &panish cavalr( included the use of nooses and lassoes to unhorse riders, :hile in one attac each :arrior simpl( held a lar8e piece of tim-er in front of him* ost effective of all, ho:ever, :as their adoption -( 1!!$ of lon8 spears, :hich the( thrust into the horses2 faces, a &panish contemporar( o-servin8 that the( maintained as close and serried a line of pies as if the( had -een e'pert .erman infantr(2* It :as :ith this formation that the( succeeded in repellin8 a &panish cavalr( char8e at the /attle of illarapue* Nevertheless, the apuche2s adoption of the pie :as onl ( the -e8innin8 of -ad ne:s for the &paniards* /( 1!!% the( had also -e8un to use captured firearms effectivel( =thou8h the( possessed ver( fe:? -( 1!$+ some :ere to -e found ridin8 horses and -efore the end of the centur( the( had even started to imitate &panish or8anisation and tactics* Artiller( also fell into apuche hands on several occasions from 1!! on, nota-l( durin8 the :ar of 1!0%F1$"1, -ut lac of e'pertise and sufficient po:der prevented it from -ein8 put to use* Horses :ere captured for the first time in 1!", and t:o &paniards :ere spared specificall( in order to teach their captor ho: to ride* Ho:ever, the s(stematic accumulation -( the apuche of ever( &panish horse the( could la( their hands on -e8an onl( :ith the defeat of )aldivia in 1!!; and of )illa8rL in 1!!, and their to5ui 3autaro is recorded to have 8one into -attle on horse-ac for the first time in 1!!$* Horses came into :idespread use amon8 the apuche in the 1!$"s and sizea-le -odies of cavalr( :ere to -e found in their armies -( 1!$%, -efore lon8 num-erin8 up to $"" horsemen* In 1!00 a apuche arm( is reported to have included as man( as ;,""" cavalr( as :ell as +,""" infantr(, and in 1$"1 it :as said that the( could muster up to ,""" cavalr( in all, :hile the Chilean &paniards :ere hard pushed to field as man( as $""*74 17th centur( &panish sources sometimes record entire apuche armies -ein8 mounted, and tell us that in -attle those formin8 the centre of the line dismounted and fou8ht on foot :hile their horses :ere taen to the rear, onl( the :arriors on each flan remainin8 on horse-ac, :here the( formed up in t:o lines* In the 1$th centur(, ho:ever, the( ma( have used their horses onl( as a means of transport, and appear to have usuall( dismounted all their men on the -attlefield* In those instances in :hich, at the ver( end of the centur(, apuche cavalr( ma( have appeared on the -attlefield for the first time the( are said to have formed up on the :in8s of their infantr( @ another imitation of &panish practice @ :ith the to5ui commandin8 the ri8ht and one of his lieutenants commandin8 the left* /( 1$11 apuche horsemen :ere sufficientl( e'perienced to not onl( tae on &panish cavalr( in the open field, -ut to -eat them*
apparentl( run out of :ater* The Portu8uese, ho:ever, had suffered sufficientl( hi8h casualties =Thevet claimin8 that 1+" had died for ever( renchman illed? that &L settled for demolishin8 the fort and torchin8 several local Tamo(o villa8es and made no effort to pursue the rench fu8itives* Consequentl( these continued to thrive amon8 the Tamo(o of .uana-ara /a( for several (ears more, assistin8 in the fortification of several Indian villa8es and the emplacement of much artiller(2* &L received orders to hunt them do:n in 1!$;, -ut it too until 1!$!F$7 for sufficient reinforcements to arrive from Portu8al, -( :hich time there :ere said to -e onl( a-out ;" of ort Coli8n(2s renchmen still at lar8e* The Portu8uese and their TememinM Indian allies eventuall( fell on the Tamo(o forts in Danuar( 1!$7 and e'tirpated the man( renchmen2 amon8 their defenders* ollo:in8 this victor( the Portu8uese founded the to:n of &\o &e-asti\o do 5Wo de Daneiro on the adacent mainland* 4espite the fact that the rench and their Tamo(o allies :ere defeated repeatedl( on land throu8hout the 1!7"s, and lost numerous vessels to the Portu8uese at sea, rench ships nevertheless ept comin8 -ac for car8oes of -razil:ood @ there :ere 11 in .uana-ara /a( on a sin8le occasion in 1!70, for instance, and four on another occasion in 1!%"* The main theatre of rench operations, ho:ever, no: shifted north to ParaW-a and &er8ipe, :here renchmen seem to have -een encountered helpin8 the Indians in almost ever( campai8n that the Portu8uese launched a8ainst the Poti8uara and Tupinam-L from the 1!7"s until the end of the centur(, -ein8 present in sufficient num-ers on some occasions for their drums to -e heard and rench fla8s to -e seen fl(in8 amon8 the Indians* Their on8oin8 failure to secure control of the entire coastline continued to cost the Portu8uese dear, ena-lin8 the rench to clin8 tenaciousl( to their p recarious footholds and o-li8in8 the Portu8uese to rel( on the dan8erous sea route for communication, :here monsoon conditions frequentl( caused their forces to suffer unfortunate dela(s or considera-le losses* Ho:ever, as a result of a successful campai8n a8ainst the Tupinam-L in 1!%0F0" the( :ere finall( a-le to secure a land#route -et:een /ahWa and Pernam-uco, ena-lin8 them to oust the rench from &er8ipe* The rench nevertheless continued to maintain a stron8 presence in Poti8uara territor( @ the districts of ParaW-a and 5Wo .rande do Norte at the north#east tip of /razil @ to the end of the centur(* Even after the Portu8uese had made considera-le head:a( into this re8ion in 1!07F00 almost a thousand miles of unoccupied coastline -et:een 5Wo .rande do Norte and the mouth of the Amazon remained open to rench traders, and the rench threat onl( came to an end :ith the elimination of their settlement on aranh\o island in 1$1!*
5ORTUUESE )R&I8 ollo:in8 its discover(, /razil :as initiall( leased to a consortium of 3is-on merchants, -ut reverted to the Cro:n in 1!"!* The earliest Portu8uese settlements :ere small, some:hat impermanent affairs referred to as feitorias, a term usuall( translated as factories2 or :arehouses2, denotin8 :hat in later colonial times :ould -e descri-ed as tradin8#posts* The first official settlement :as that esta-lished at &\o )icente in 1!;+* T:o (ears later, the -asis of the colon(2s future or8anisation :as set do:n :hen Vin8 Do\o III divided the :hole coast of /razil into
1 hereditar( captaincies2 =4a'itanias?, :hich -et:een 1!; and 1!;$ :ere assi8ned to 1+ court favourites in the form of 1! separate 8rants, the t:o principal recipients, or donat>rios @ artWm Afonso de &ousa and his -rother Pero 3opes @ receivin8 t:o each, one of the latter2s consistin8 of t:o separate parts* All the donat>rios :ere, -( necessit(, rich men, since the( :ere e'pected to develop their 8rants at their o:n e'pense and pa( specified ta'es to the Cro:n* In e'chan8e the captains :ere a:arded :hat :as, in effect, a-solute po:er :ithin their colonies, :ith the ri8ht to lev( their o:n ta'es and to commerciall( e'ploit their lands as the( sa: fit, thou8h the Cro:n retained its monopol( in the -razil:ood, spice, and slave trades* The first -atch of 8rants comprised =north to south? ItamaracL, Pernam-uco, /ahWa, P]rto &e8uro, EspWrito &anto, &\o TomB, 5Wo de Daneiro, &anto Amaro, &\o )icente, and &ant2ana, :hich :ere all a:arded in 1!;* In 1!;! ParLaranh\o, CearL, PiauW, 5Wo .rande do Norte, and ParaW-a :ere added alon8 the coast north of Pernam-uco, and IlhBus :as created from the northern portion of P]rto &e8uro* Ho:ever, some donat>rios =nota-l( those of PiauW, 5Wo de Daneiro, and &ant2ana? made little or no attempt :hatsoever to occup( their 8rants, and of those :hich :ere actuall( colonised durin8 the 1$th centur(, a com-ination of insufficient resources and Indian attacs @ lar8el( provoed -( attempts to enslave the local population @ all -ut destro(ed three =/ahWa, ParLaranh\o, and &\o TomB? in the mid#1!"s, and seriousl( :eaened another t:o =EspWrito &anto and P]rto &e8uro?* T:o more =CearL and &ant2ana? :ere a-andoned entirel(, and onl( those of artWm Afonso de &ousa at &\o )icente and 4uarte Coelho at Pernam-uco =:hich he called Ne: 3usitania? eno(ed mared success* >hen the captaincies failed to flourish, the Cro:n in 1!0 issued a decree limitin8 the donat>rios2 po:er and esta-lishin8 a central 8overnment -( the appointment of a 8overnor, :ho :as also made captain of /ahWa and Captain#.eneral over all the other captains* The first 8overnor :as TomB de &ousa, cousin of artWm Afonso, :ho founded the to:n of &\o &alvador in /ahWa as his capital* He :as succeeded -( 4urate da Costa =1!!;F!7? and em de &L =1!!7F7+?* ollo:in8 &L2s death the administration of /razil :as su-divided into t:o provinces, one centred at P]rto &e8uro and the other at EspWrito &anto, each under its o:n 8overnor, -ut this e'periment :as short# lived* A sin8le 8overnment :as restored in 1!7%, :hen it -ecame the office of a 8overnor#8eneral* 5o(al authorit( remained some:hat of a fiction, ho:ever, and :as certain onl( in /ahWa, some 8overnors never even venturin8 -e(ond their o:n captainc(2s frontiers* /( the end of the centur( Portu8al had secured effective control of no more than the t:o re8ions centred round /ahWa and Pernam-uco in the north =:here a-out 7" of the colon(2s Portu8uese population lived?, and &\o )icente and &\o Paulo in the south* The union of the &panish and Portu8uese cro:ns in 1!%" had no discerni-le effect on the 8overnment of /razil, :hich remained in the hands of Portu8uese '0 administrators* ilitar( command :as initiall( fra8mented amon8st the individual captains, -ut after 1!0 it -ecame the responsi-ilit( of a 8overnment official called the Ca'it?o $
4a'it?omith a population of no more than 1 1+ million -( 1!;+, and :ith its resources alread( stretched, Portu8al had no surplus manpo:er availa-le :ith :hich to populate and develop its /razilian colonies* an( earl( emi8rants :ere consequentl( deredados @ criminals convicted of an(thin8 from murder to pett( theft @ -ut even :ith such reluctant colonists as these the countr( remained no more than thinl( populated at -est, and -( the end of the 1$th centur( onl( the eastern coast and a narro: strip of territor( reachin8 at -est some $" to 1"" miles inland had -een sparsel( occupied, even in the successful captaincies* This shortfall in manpo:er :as compensated for -( the enslavement of the Indian population and the introduction of Ne8ro slaves* The colonists depended particularl( heavil( on Indian slave#la-our, despite the fact that after 1!7" Indians could theoreticall( onl( -e enslaved if the( :ere captured in arms a8ainst the Portu8uese in :hat :as euphemisticall( referred to as a ust :ar2 approved -( the 8overnor* Ho:ever, after 1!7 the definition of :hat constituted a ust :ar2 -ecame -road enou8h to admit almost an( sort of e'pedition a8ainst the Indians, official or other:ise* /( 1!% there :ere at least 1%,""" Indian slaves in /razil* There :ere also +F;,""" Ne8ro slaves -( 1!7", and at least 1,""" -( 1!%7, compared to a Portu8uese population inclusive of mamelu4os =the issue of Indian mothers -( Portu8uese fathers? of ;,$" in the late#1!$"s, +!,""" in 1!%, and ;",""" -( 1$""* nsurprisin8l(, in vie: of these fi8ures, the Portu8uese depended heavil( on the support of their slaves in conflicts :ith the rench, and /o'er =10$0? states that the Portu8uese relied much more on the fi8htin8 qualities of their African slaves than did an( of the other European
colonisin8 nations*2 Certainl( .a-riel &oares de &ousa reported in 1!%7 that /razil could muster ,""" .uinea Ne8roes to assist in its defence, compared to onl( +,""" Portu8uese and $,""" Indians* T:o (ears earlier, ho:ever, ern\o Cardim seems to sa( that /ahWa alone could raise ;,""" Portu8uese, %,""" Christian Indians, and ;F,""" Ne8ro slaves, and Pernam-uco +,""" Portu8uese and +,""" slaves =another contemporar( sa(s up to 1",""" slaves and +,""" Christian Indians2?* Else:here Pernam-uco is said to have -een a-le to raise ;,""" Portu8uese foot, "" horse, '1 and up to !,""" Ne8ro and Indian slaves* The Portu8uese authorities claimed to -e a-le to muster ust +,""" Indian au'iliaries in 1!!;, -ut this seems to -e a 8ross under#estimate of their potential since in 1!$0F71 the donat>rio of Pernam-uco alone fielded as man( as +",""" in support of the si' small militia detachments that he and the nei8h-ourin8 captaincies had assem-led for a campai8n a8ainst the CaetB* Ever( Portu8uese militar( e'pedition :as invaria-l( accompanied -( a sizea-le contin8ent of allied or Christianised Indians, usuall( num-erin8 at least several hundred and on most occasions outnum-erin8 the Portu8uese on a ratio of four or five to one, thou8h t:o contin8ents of "" Portu8uese @ the lar8est forces that seem to have seen service in the field durin8 the 1$th centur( @ :ere accompanied -( ust 7"" and as man( as ;,""" Indians respectivel( in 1!7! and 1$"1* Indian au'iliaries even cheerfull( participated in campai8ns aimed at the enslavement of other Indians, most such raids -ein8 conducted -( the aulistas, or people of &\o Paulo, the maorit( of :hom :ere themselves half# Indian, TupW#speain8 mamelu4os* A document of 1!7+ reported of the aulistas that from the time that the( leave school to their old a8e, their :hole lives consist of 8oin8 out to -rin8 in Indians and sell them In the :hole to:n of &\o Paulo there are not more than one or t:o :ho do not 8o out to capture Indians, or send their sons out, or other mem-ers of their famil( includin8 even ud8es and cler8(men2* Their fora(s into the sert?o or -ac:oods in search of precious metals, 8emstones and slaves :ere no:n in this period as entradas or 'i4adas, -ut the( have since achieved fame, or even notoriet(, as -andeiras or fla8s2, a term that -e8an to -e applied to such e'peditions onl( in a-out 1$;!* The name -andeirantes -( :hich the raiders themselves have -ecome famous did not come into use until as much as a centur( later* The slavers :ere predominantl( mamelu4os, :ith a fe: :hites, -ut the -ul of their raidin8 parties :ere made up of -o:#armed TupW and, later, .uaranW Indians, sometimes escorted -( a handful of Portu8uese soldiers :here the e'pedition had -een formall( commissioned -( the 8overnment or a to:n council* &uch raidin8 parties varied considera-l( in size, thou8h -( the 17th centur( at the latest the( :ere often of several hundred men* The e'pedition leader commonl( assumed the title 4a'it?om
Portu8uese, -ut mo4am-os -( the slaves? sprin8in8 up in remote areas inaccessi-le to all -ut the most determined pursuer* /( 1!07 Pero 5odri8ues :as a-le to :rite that the re-ellious .uinea Ne8roes :ho live in the mountains2 had -ecome the colonists2 :orst enemies, re8ularl( launchin8 raids on Portu8uese settlements* Even the Indians :ere said to -e afraid of them* The he(da( of these runa:a( communities, ho:ever, did not come until the 17th centur(, :hen Palmares, the lar8est and lon8est#lastin8 of the 5uilom-os, :as esta-lished* &uccinctl( descri-ed -( 3an8 =1070? as a self#sufficient African in8dom located in the interior of Ala8oas2, this lasted from 1$"; until 1$0* or information on runa:a( slaves else:here in the Americas see the chapter on &panish America*
T-E TU5I The sheer volume of individual tri-es :ith :hom the( came into contact in coastal /razil -e:ildered the Portu8uese and &paniards, :ho, -( the end of the 1$th centur(, had 8rouped and la-elled them for convenience as .uaranW =or CariM?, Poti8uara, Tamo(o, Tapu(a, To-a(ara, and Tupinam-L, even thou8h some of these actuall( comprised several distinct peoples and continued to -e no:n -( several alternative names* The canni-alistic TupW tri-es :ere the most important of them, not least -ecause the( :ere the first /razilian people :ith :hom European e'plorers came into contact* The term TupW2 actuall( em-raced numerous related tri-es, the most si8nificant of :hich :ere the Tupinam-L =includin8 the Tamo(o and Ararape?, Tupiniin =or ar8a(a?, To-a(ara, Poti8uara, Tupina, TemiminM, and CaetB* These had onl( recentl( mi8rated into the coastal lands, drivin8 out the .^#speain8 peoples :ho had previousl( occupied the same re8ion* /( the time of first contact the TupW had overrun most of the /razilian coastline from the mouth of the Amazon south:ards -e(ond modern &\o Paulo* Each tri-e consisted of numerous palisaded villa8es that :ere made up of four to ei8ht communal houses, each of :hich could
accommodate up to ;" families* These villa8es moved location a-out once ever( five (ears* The Poti8uara :ere considered the most po:erful TupW people, artWm 3eit\o =1!%!? descri-in8 their tri-e as the lar8est and most united of an( in /razil2, :hile .a-riel &oares de &ousa reports that the( :ere a-le to field armies of +",""" men* Inter#tri-al :arfare :as endemic @ a Portu8uese report of 1!;1 states that ever( t:o lea8ues the( are at :ar :ith one another2 @ this conflict providin8 victims for their sacrificial rituals and canni-alism* Consequentl( the various TupW tri-es had no qualms a-out all(in8 themselves :ith the Portu8uese and rench invaders a8ainst one other*'2 Tupinam-L and TemiminM could -e found fi8htin8 for -oth, -ut the Tupiniin and To-a(ara fou8ht principall( for the Portu8uese* Ho:ever, the Tupiniin re-elled in 1!$+ and in 1!% an avaricious slaver2s treacher( drove the To-a(ara to all( :ith their traditional Poti8uara enemies a8ainst the Portu8uese, so that the authorities had to resort to arms to :in them -ac* The Tamo(o, CaetB, and the po:erful Poti8uara of ParaW-a fou8ht for the rench, the Tamo(o and Poti8uara achievin8 frequent successes a8ainst the Portu8uese in the second half of the centur(* In the course of the 1!$"s, ho:ever, the Tamo(o :ere 8raduall( pushed inland, and in 1!7! :ere all -ut destro(ed -( Antonio de &alema* >hen the ship:reced En8lishman Anthon( Vnivet encountered the Tamo(o in 1!07 he found them still to -e the most mortal enemies that the Portu8uese have in all America2, -ut in attemptin8 to retae their conquered lands that (ear under his 8uidance the last survivors :ere annihilated, a third -ein8 illed and the rest captured and enslaved* /( 1!%7 the CaetB had also -een e'terminated, em de &L havin8 declared :ar on them in 1!$+* &ome Poti8uara, on the other hand, mana8ed to maintain a sha( peace :ith the Portu8uese from 1!$" until 1!7, thou8h :arfare :as continuous thereafter for the rest of the centur(, and an anon(mous Desuit :rote in 1!% that no# one can resist the fur( of this nation of victorious heathen*
Crude drains of 'alisaded Tu' 7illaes 'u-lished in ;ans .tadens -ook in 1++3
The( are personall( more spirited than an( others, and so -rave that the( do not fear death*2 The rench =still sailin8 alon8 the coast most (ears to procure car8oes of -razil:ood? provided them :ith arms, and -( 1!% :ere teachin8 them ho: to construct earth:ors complete :ith to:ers and trenches, reinforced :ith lo8s as a defence a8ainst artiller( fire* &uch fortifications :ere emplo(ed durin8 the sie8e of a Portu8uese fort on the ParaW-o 5iver in 1!%F%!, and artWm 3eit\o descri-es one he encountered in 1!%! :hich had seven trenches, three to:ers, lo8 -arricades, and -oo-(#traps comprisin8 trees released -( trip#cords to fall on the attacers* After (ears of fi8htin8, the Poti8uara si8ned a treat( :ith the Portu8uese onl( in 1!00, and after a final revolt in 1$"1 capitulated for 8ood, their ener8ies thereafter -ein8 channelled inland a8ainst the sinister AimorB tri-es on -ehalf of their ne: masters* The final rench attempt to esta-lish a colon( on the coast of /razil :as amon8 the Tupinam-L of aranh\o island in 1$1+F1!* The principal :eapon amon8 the TupW :as a -o: that, to ud8e from contemporar( :oodcuts, :as usuall( some $ 1+F7 ft =+F+*1 m? lon8* Dean de 3Br( =1!!$? sa(s it :as made of red or -lac :ood, AndrB Thevet =1!!%? descri-in8 these materials respectivel( as a t(pe of cane that 8re: on the coast, and hayri, a -lac palm:ood so heav( that it :ould sin lie iron2 in :ater* The stave :as apparentl( decorated :ith inlaid marquetr( patterns usin8 coloured :ood, and the -o:#strin8 :as d(ed 8reen or red* Their -o:s are so much lon8er and stron8er than those :e have,2 :rote de 3Br(, that one of our men could scarcel( dra: one, far less shoot it The( can dra: and shoot them so fast that, :ith due respect to the 8ood En8lish -o:men, our sava8es @ holdin8 their suppl( of arro:s in the hand :ith :hich the( hold the -o: @ :ould have fired off a dozen :hile Qthe En8lishR :ould have released si'2* Hans &taden =1!!7? and Pero de a8alh\es =1!7$? lie:ise report that the( shoot ver( rapidl(2 and that the( :ere such silful archers that it is a marvel for one of them to miss his mar no matter ho: difficult it ma( -e*2 The Poti8uara in particular are said to have -een such accurate shots that an arro: fired -( them never misses2* The arro:s themselves :ere an ell lon8 =! ins1*1 m?, made of reed :ith fli8hts consistin8 of t:o lon8 feathers of rose#colour, -lue, red, and 8reen, and of such lie colours2* The( :ere tipped :ith fish or animal teeth, -one, or -ar-ed heads carved from hayri, or simpl( had their tips sharpened and fire#hardened* These traditional arro:heads -e8an to -e replaced -( nails and other t(pes of iron -lade follo:in8 the arrival of the rench and Portu8uese* Thevet reported that their arro:s :ere so stron8 that the( :ill pierce a 8ood mail corselet2, :hile a Portu8uese e(e#:itness :rote in 1$"1 that TupW arro:s could 8o throu8h quilted -reastplates or curates2* Their other main :eapon :as the ta4a'e, a flat, paddle#shaped clu- made of heav( red or -lac :ood, :ith an oval or circular head, a-out an inch thic, :ith ed8es descri-ed as ver( finel( sharpened2* This could -e up to !F$ ft =1*!F1*% m? lon8, and :as most often :ielded t:o#handed* 3ie the -o:, it mi8ht have a pattern of coloured :ood inlaid into it, and its handle :as often decorated :ith feathers, particularl( durin8 cele-rations* TupW :ars :ere fou8ht predominantl( as a means of e'actin8 reven8e and tain8 prisoners* Their traditional tactics :ere to sirmish to8ether, more on ni8hts than on
da(s2, sirmishes and surprise ni8ht#attacs on enem( settlements -ein8 preferred over pitched -attles* Attacs on villa8es =:hich :ere invaria-l( palisaded? :ere launched at da:n to the sound of 8ourd trumpets, fire#arro:s -ein8 shot into the roofs of the huts and the villa8ers -ein8 illed or captured as the( fled* A villa8e e'pectin8 such an attac :ould plant s:athes of :ooden spies -e(ond the palisade to 8all and pierce the feet of their enemies2, there-( 8ivin8 :arnin8 of the attac* On those occasions :here a pitched -attle occurred the( :ould dra: up in a mass phalan'* Dean de 3Br( sa(s that as soon as the t:o sides came :ithin +""F ;"" (ds =1%"F+7! m? the( 8reeted one another2 :ith a hail of arro:s, a8alh\es relatin8 that it :as a ver( stran8e si8ht to see t:o or three thousand naed men on opposin8 sides shootin8 :ith -o:s and arro:s at one another :ith loud shouts and cries, all hoppin8 a-out :ith 8reat a8ilit( from one spot to another so that the enem( :as una-le to tae aim or shoot at an( definite individual2* en hit -( arro:s simpl( tore them out and returned to the fra(* >hen the( :ere finall( in a melee :ith their 8reat :ooden s:ords and clu-s,2 continues de 3Br(, the( char8ed one another Qlie -ulls2, sa(s VnivetR :ith mi8ht( t:o#handed -lo:s2, and thereafter it :as a fi8ht to the finish, each :arrior fi8htin8 for as lon8 as he could move his arms and le8s* All of those taen alive, men, :omen, and children, Indians and Europeans alie, :ere sacrificiall( e'ecuted and eaten* Ho:ever, this mi8ht not occur for a considera-le time after:ards, some prisoners even havin8 time to marr( and -ear children durin8 their captivit(* 5e8ardin8 the -attlefield comportment of TupW :arriors, Ameri8o )espucci :rote after his vo(a8e of 1!"1F+ that there is no order or discipline in their fi8hts, e'cept that the( follo: the counsels of the old men*2 a8alh\es lie:ise noted that the( fou8ht in a disorderl( fashion and often countermand one another2s orders to the point of quarrellin8, -ecause the( have no captain to restrain them*2 Thevet sa(s that the TupW 8reatl( feared the noise of firearms, -ut the( seem to have soon -ecome accustomed to it, the same chronicler recordin8 that a hu8e Tamo(o chief named Cunham-e-e carried t:o 8reat musets2 into -attle a8ainst the TemiminM* rom a picture in Thevet2s a Cosmora'hie ni7erselle =1!7!?, :hich sho:s them -ein8 fired from Cunham-e-e2s shoulders -( one of his :arriors =Cunham-e-e stands :ith his -ac to the enem( for this operation?, it is clear that the pieces in question, said to have -een captured from a Portu8uese ship, are s:ivels or :all#8uns, capa-le of firin8 -ullets :hich Thevet claims :ere as lar8e as a tennis -all2* 3ie other /razilian tri-es, those TupW livin8 on the coast or alon8 the 8reat rivers also made considera-le use of canoes, :hich are descri-ed as -ein8 made out of the -ar of a sin8le tree2* These could carr( up to +"F;" :arriors* The Tamo(o :ere even prepared to en8a8e the Portu8uese @ :ho themselves made considera-le use of native canoes @ on the open sea, and :ere sometimes victorious in such encounters* 3Br( sa(s that the TupW :ere of a ta:n( shade, lie the &paniards or ProvenUals2* /e(ond an occasional penis#strin8, or at the ver( most a sheath of leaves round the 8enitals =sometimes :orn -( old men?, the( lar8el( :ent naed, especiall( in com-at, :hen an( clothes the( possessed @ and these :ere a commodit( distri-uted freel( amon8 them -( the rench and traded :ith them -( the Portu8uese'3 @ -ein8 taen off -eforehand*
North America 107F1$"%
8ORID& Thou8h it is almost certain that the e'istence of land north of the /ahamas had -een no:n since at least 1!"+, it :as not until arch 1!1; that this particular corner of the North American mainland :as reco8nised as havin8 -een officiall(2 discovered, :hen Duan Ponce de 3eMn stum-led upon it :hilst he :as searchin8 for more islands that could -e raided for Indian slaves* /ecause he discovered it on the &unda( -efore Easter he named it lorida =from as4ua &lorida, the &panish name for Palm &unda(?, a term :hich, as far as the &paniards :ere concerned, encompassed not ust the peninsula of lorida itself -ut also a lar8e tract of the adacent mainland, in particular the area that -ecame .eor8ia and the Carolinas, and sometimes the entire North American coast, from almost as far south as PLnuco in e'ico to as far north as Ne:foundland* Ever( &panish attempt to esta-lish a permanent presence here durin8 the first half of the centur( met :ith failure in the face of stiff Indian opposition, invaria-l( sufferin8 enormousl( heav( losses in the process* The first :as led -( Ponce de 3eMn himself, :ho landed in &an Carlos /a( on lorida2s :est coast in 1!+1 :ith +"" men and !" horses, onl( to -e repelled -( the local Calusa Indians* urther e'peditions follo:ed< under 3ucas )Lsquez de A(llMn to the land of Chicora2 in >in(ah /a(, &outh Carolina, in 1!+$ =!"" men, a-out 1"" :ives, children, mons, and Ne8ro slaves, and %0 horses? under PLnfilo de NarvLez at Tampa /a( in lorida in 1!+7F+% =$"" men and 1 or + horses90? and under Hernando de &oto in 1!;0F; near Tampa /a( a8ain =!7" men and +1; or ++; horses, plus perhaps 1"" servants and slaves?* All four of these :ould#-e conquerors paid :ith their lives< Ponce de 3eMn :as mortall( :ounded -( an arro:, A(llMn and de &oto -oth died of sicness, and NarvLez, after his advance inland :ith ;"" men and " horses had -een driven -ac, dro:ned :hen he attempted to sail do:n the coast in a flotilla of small -oats :hich :ere little more than rafts and :ere :reced :ith the loss of all -ut a-out %"F0" men, nearl( all of :hom su-sequentl( succum-ed to disease and Indian attacs* Another colonisin8 enterprise in 1!!0F$1, commanded -( TristLn de 3una, :as similarl( unsuccessful* 4espite the failure of the earlier e'peditions, some of them nevertheless represent incredi-le feats of endurance and e'ploration* 4e &oto2s march inland :ith !!" men and a-out +"" horses traversed parts of lorida, .eor8ia, &outh Carolina, Tennessee, and Ala-ama, :here, in Octo-er 1!", the &paniards fou8ht a maor -attle :ith Chocta: Indians at a-ila =o-ile?, in :hich 1%F++ men and seven or 1+ horses :ere illed and another 1!" or +!" men and up to 7" horses :ere :ounded, :hile the Chocta:s lost +,!""F;,""" men* The( then ourne(ed on throu8h ississippi, Aransas, Olahoma, and finall( 3ouisiana* On arrivin8 at the coast the ;1" survivors constructed -oats and sailed do:n to Tampico in Ne: &pain* As :ell as the Chocta:, tri-es encountered en route included the Ala-ama, the Caddo confederation, and the Natchez* The four survivors91 of NarvLez2s ill#fated compan(, :hich had -een harassed to virtual e'tinction -( Apalachee Indians,
endured an even more epic ourne(, eventuall( reachin8 the frontier of Ne: .alicia in &onora, on the Pacific coast of e'ico, nine (ears later, in 1!;$, after man( adventures* The ne't &panish attempt to esta-lish a foothold in the area :as prompted -( the arrival in lorida of the rench* In Dune 1!$+ a rench reconnoitrin8 e'pedition consistin8 of t:o ships and 1!" Hu8uenots 92 under Dean 5i-ault and 5enB .oulaine de 3audonni_re, sent -( the Hu8uenot leader Admiral Coli8n(, had erected a small fort =Charlesfort? on Parris Island, some 1! miles north of the mouth of the &avannah 5iver, -ut its +!#stron8 8arrison had mutinied soon after and a-andoned it, -uildin8 a small -oat and sailin8 a:a( to -e rescued -( an En8lish ship* The &panish, findin8 Charlesfort empt( in Dune 1!$, razed it to the 8round* A second rench e'pedition, of three ships and ;"" men commanded -( 3audonni_re, constructed a lar8er -ase @ ort Caroline @ in Timucua Indian territor( opposite modern Dacsonville, at the mouth of the &t* Dohns 5iver, in Dul( 1!$* 3audonni_re himself descri-es this fort as -ein8 -uilt in the form of a trian8le* The side to:ard the :est, :hich :as to:ard the land, :as enclosed :ith a little trench and raised :ith turfs made in the form of a -attlement nine feet hi8h the other side, :hich :as to:ard the river, :as enclosed :ith a palisade of plans of tim-er after the manner that 8a-ions are made* On the south side there :as a ind of -astion :ithin :hich I caused an house for the munitions to -e -uilt it :as all -uilded :ith fa8ots and sand, savin8 a-out t:o or three feet hi8h :ith turfs :hereof the -attlements :ere made*2 The rench :ere initiall( :elcomed -( the Indians, and :hen soon after:ards the( found themselves runnin8 short of provisions, the( opted to serve a in8 of the loridians a8ainst other of his enemies for mil and other victuals2* This chief :as Outina, the ruler of some " villa8es in the vicinit( of the &t* Dohns 5iver* The support of the rench ena-led him to :in t:o victories over his rival Potanou, -ut this alliance of convenience did not last lon8* In a ver( short time the rench, havin8 made the inha-itants :ear( of them -( their dail( cravin8 of maize2, resorted to seizin8 Outina earl( in 1!$! and ransomin8 him for a suppl( of provisions* Predicta-l(, the Indian response :as hostile, the rench -ein8 chased a:a( in a runnin8 -attle that lasted for several miles and cost man( lives* 3audonni_re eventuall( released Outina, -ut the dama8e :as done, and fi8htin8 -et:een the rench and Indians continued* The situation had deteriorated to the point :here 3audonni_re :as considerin8 a-andonin8 ort Caroline :hen, in Au8ust 1!$!, 5i-ault arrived :ith a reinforcement of seven lar8e ships paced :ith $"" colonists* The &panish remained -lissfull( una:are of the rench colon(2s e'istence until the( captured a pinnace cre:ed -( a small -and of renchmen :ho, discontented :ith 3audonni_re2s leadership, had ventured out on an unauthorised privateerin8 fora(* Admiral Pedro enBndez de AvilBs :as immediatel( despatched from &pain :ith an e'pedition consistin8 of over +,!"" soldiers and seamen in ; ships =onl( four of :hich, ho:ever, :ere of an( real size?* The &panish fleet en8a8ed the rench ships -elo: ort Caroline at the -e8innin8 of &eptem-er 1!$!, onl( da(s after 5i-ault2s arrival, -efore :ithdra:in8 further do:n the coast to re8roup as a storm -re:ed* 5i-ault too advanta8e of the pause to load his men a-oard the rench ships and sail off to see out the &panish fleet, :hich ena-led enBndez in turn, -( landin8 !"" men and
marchin8 overland, to catch ort Caroline virtuall( undefended* Accordin8 to 3audonni_re2s o:n account he had -een left :ith ust ! of 5i-ault2s people in the fort, inclusive of lace(s2, :omen, and children =onl( nine or ten :ere actuall( soldiers?, :hile of his o:n men onl( 1$ or 17 :ere fit enou8h to -ear arms, the rest -ein8 either sic or sufferin8 from :ounds inflicted durin8 the conflict :ith Outina* Attaced une'pectedl( at da:n, the fort :as s:iftl( overrun* 3audonni_re and a-out !"F$" renchmen escaped into the :oods, -ut 1+ other men :ere illed or e'ecuted, and !"F7" :omen and children captured* A-out +" of the fu8itives :ere later intercepted and illed, another ;" mana8ed to escape to survivin8 rench -oats, and ten more fled to the Indians* 5i-ault2s ships had mean:hile -een stranded ashore -( a storm, and the victorious &paniards no: marched to atanzas Inlet and -luffed +"" survivors of their cre:s into surrenderin8 and then e'ecuted all of them -arrin8 a dozen Catholics and four craftsmen* >hen another 8roup of ;!" survivors :as encountered 1!" of these surrendered and met the same fate, includin8 5i-ault* The remainin8 +"" attempted to -uild, or more pro-a-l( repair, a ship from their -eached vessels -ut :ere overtaen and captured -( the &paniards and condemned to the 8alle(s* This -rou8ht the centur(2s most si8nificant rench colonial enterprise in North America to a sad end, and the &paniards set a-out esta-lishin8 a num-er of missionar( outposts and forts of their o:n @ includin8 three -uilt in the vicinit( of ort Caroline @ :ith mi'ed fortunes* /rief information on these can -e found in the chapter on &panish America* rench tradin8, fishin8, and pirac(, mean:hile, continued una-ated in American coastal :aters for the rest of the centur(, and included a reven8e attac mounted -( 4ominique de .our8ues, :ho raised his o:n fleet of three ships, %" seamen, and 1!" soldiers, and arrived in lorida in sprin8 1!$%* All(in8 himself to the local Indians led -( Outina2s principal enem(, &atouriona, de .our8ues and his Indian au'iliaries attaced the three &panish forts at ort Caroline one -( one* /oth of the smaller forts :ere s:iftl( over:helmed and all -ut 1! of the 8arrison massacred in each case* A sortie of $" arque-usiers from ort Caroline itself :as also cut off and massacred, after :hich the rest of the 8arrison fled into the :oods, :here .our8ues2 Indian allies set on them* The prisoners taen in all three forts :ere then han8ed and the forts razed, after :hich de .our8ues and his fleet sailed -ac to rance* In 1!77 the rench -riefl( re#esta-lished themselves in lorida, -ut the lar8e 8alleon :hich -rou8ht them there, commanded -( Nicolas &trozzi, :as :reced in the process* 3andin8 at Charlesfort @ temporaril( a-andoned -( the &paniards =:ho called it &an elipe? @ &trozzi2s +%" men had constructed themselves a trian8ular tim-er fort measurin8 $$ paces on each side, -ut this :as overrun -( local .uale and Cusa-o Indians, :ho illed up to +"" renchmen* This disaster had occurred -( sprin8 1!7%, :hen &panish forces reoccupied the site and found it littered :ith renchmen2s -ones* Told that a further %"F1"" renchmen had -een captured -( or taen shelter :ith various tri-es, the &paniards spent the ne't couple of (ears tr(in8 to trac these do:n, thou8h the( onl( ever found a-out ;" =nearl( all of :hom the( e'ecuted?* The lar8est individual -and encountered consisted of +" -ein8 har-oured -( the Cusa-o Indians of CoUapo(, a tri-e :hich had lon8 -een in arms a8ainst the &paniards an e'pedition
under Pedro enBndez arquBs consequentl( attaced CoUapo(, illin8 three of the fu8itives and capturin8 and han8in8 the other 17* urther forei8n vessels seen or reported in the vicinit( of Charlesfort from late#1!77 until 1!%" :ere suspected to have -een clandestine rench efforts to resuppl( or rescue its erst:hile 8arrison* One ship landed elements of its cre: near old ort Caroline in Dul( 1!%", these -ein8 attaced and over:helmed -( a &panish detachment :hich illed ! men and captured numerous others* Indians reported the appearance of (et another rench landin8#part( near Ca(a8ua =Charleston Har-or? at the end of 1!%1, -ut the &paniards sent out from &an elipe in search of them found no#one*
T-E INDI&NS The principal Indian peoples of 1$th centur( &panish lorida comprised the Timucua in the east, as far north as Cum-erland Island the a(uca, A(s, Te8esta, Toco-a8o, and Calusa93 south of osquito Inlet the Apalachee -et:een the Aucilla and Apalachicola rivers at the head of Apalachee /a( the 6amasee and .uale =pronounced >ali2?94 @ usho8ean tri-es related to the Crees @ in .eor8ia the closel(#related Cusa-os, :ho lived around the &panish settlement of &anta Elena to their north and finall( the Chocta: to the :est of Apalachee /a(, the lar8est tri-e in the American south#east after the Cheroee* an( of these tri-es :ere vesti8es of the disappearin8 ississippi culture that had dominated the south#east corner of North America for a-out the past !"" (ears* ntil relativel( recentl( this culture :as thou8ht to have had its he(da( in the period 1;""F1!"", -ut it is no: 8enerall( considered to have survived until at least the mid#1$th centur(* Interestin8l(, numerous aspects of the culture2s art and artefacts, as :ell as its temples set on earth p(ramids, indicate lins :ith esoamerica, and some tradin8 is certainl( no:n to have e'isted -et:een the t:o re8ions* Nearl( all of these tri-es :ere e'tinct -( the mid#1%th centur(* Their overall population even at the time of first contact ma( have -een no more than !"F7!,""", livin8 in small scattered communities that :ere 8enerall( concentrated at the mouths and alon8 the courses of the area2s navi8a-le rivers* The people a-out :hich :e no: most, :ith :hom -oth the rench and &paniards came into collision, :ere the Timucua, a non#ississippian people* Those :ith :hom the rench came into contact consisted of three tri-es< the &atouriona, the Outina, and the Potanou* These :ere semi#nomadic, Duan 5o8el :ritin8 in 1!$0F7" that nine out of the t:elve months the( :ander a-out :ithout an( fi'ed a-ode*2 3ie all North American peoples, the Timucua tri-es =of :hich there appear to have -een 1! in all? :ere each led -( a chief :ho e'ercised considera-le po:er and (et remained in effect no more than a first amon8 equals2, retainin8 his status and authorit( -( personalit( and persuasion rather than -( force* The &panish 8enerall( referred to Timucua and most other loridian chiefs as caciques, -ut called those of the .uale and the Casu-o mi4os* 3oose confederations in :hich a po:erful tri-e dominated its nei8h-ours @ such as the " villa8es under Outina, and the ;" under &atouriona @ :ere presuma-l(
led -( particularl( charismatic chiefs, to :hom, in the case of the .uales, the &paniards allocated the title mi4o mayor , literall( -i8 chief2* issionar( interference in the succession of a .uale mi4o mayor , named Duanillo =:ho the ranciscan friars o-ected to on the 8rounds that he had more than one :ife?, prompted the so#called Duanillo 5e-ellion in 1!07, in :hich the &panish missionar( outposts :ere all :iped out* Duanillo :ent on to lead some " canoes and "" men a8ainst the principal &panish settlement in the area, the 'residio of &an Pedro on Cum-erland Island, -ut he :as routed -( the small &panish 8arrison and the local Christianised Timucua Indians =the Tacatacuru tri-e? livin8 round the fort* .overnor .onzalo Bndez Canzo then arrived :ith 1!" men from &anta Elena and, accompanied -( man( Timucua and lo(al .uale Indians, mounted a punitive e'pedition, and -( -urnin8 the re-el villa8es, destro(in8 their crops, and e'ecutin8 several chiefs, he :as a-le to -rea the -ac of the re-ellion -( sprin8 1$"1* Duanillo himself fled into the forests and made his last stand in the stocaded villa8e of 6fusinique, :hich fell to pro#&panish .uales soon after, :hen Duanillo :as amon8 the +$ re-el chiefs illed in the fi8htin8* The remainin8 hostiles then fled into the interior* All the sources a8ree that loridian Indians :ere ta:n( in comple'ion and of 8reat stature2, 8reater than that of Europeans* Their dress is descri-ed in some detail -( various chroniclers* The .entleman of Elvas2, a chronicler of de &oto2s e'pedition, descri-es it as comprisin8 a mantle, a deersin -reechclout or loincloth made lie a linen -reech2, and deersin moccasins, the last -ein8 customaril( :orn onl( :hen travellin8 or on the :arpath other:ise the( preferred to 8o -arefoot* The mantle :as :orn in such a :a( that the ri8ht arm :as left -are, this -ein8 the customar( fashion throu8hout the American south#east* .arcilaso de la )e8a =1$"!?, :hose account :as compiled from earlier sources, sa(s that it :as of fur, and that the deersin -reechclout :as varicoloured2 =in 1!$! Nicolas le Challeu' descri-ed that of the Timucua as stran8el( decorated2?, so dou-tless it -ore painted patterns* Dohn Ha:ins, :ho visited ort Caroline in 1!$!, descri-es Timucua deersin 8arments as painted some (ello: and red, some -lac and russet, and ever( man accordin8 to his fanc(*2 )ariations in dress noted amon8 some tri-es included :hat appear to have -een penis sheaths =or perhaps -reechclouts? of plaited palm leaves amon8 the Calusa, and deersin le88in8s, noted -( chroniclers of the de &oto e'pedition on several occasions for this form of le8#:ear see the section on Canada and Ne: rance -elo:* 5odri8o 5anel descri-es those :orn -( the Apalachee as -ein8 -lac :ith :hite ties* The Apalachee also :ore fur cloas in :inter, principall( of marten* The Timucua :ore their hair lon8, a-out 1% ins =! cm? lon8 accordin8 to Dacques le o(ne =3audonni_re sa(s do:n to their hips2?, -ut tied it up on top of the head in a distinctive not :ith that lo:er do:n round the forehead and the -ac cut short into a rin8 a-out t:o fin8ers :ide, lie the rim of a hat2* The .uale appear to have :orn their hair in much the same st(le* 3e Challeu' sa(s that this trussin8 of their hair2 served as a quiver for some of their arro:s in :ar* 3e o(ne @ :ho, lie 3e Challeu', :as a mem-er of the doomed rench colon( of 1!$F$! @ provides details of the st(les of ornamentation the( favoured, comprisin8 feathers of different inds, neclaces
of a special sort of shell, -racelets made of fish teeth, -elts of silver#coloured -alls, round and o-lon8, and pearl anlets* an( of the men :ore round, flat plates of 8old, silver or -rass, :hich hun8 upon their le8s, tinlin8 :ith little -ells*2 The .entleman of Elvas records that loridian Indians painted2 their sin red and -lac, and most sources record the :idespread use of -oth -od(#paint and tattoos on face, -od(, arms, and thi8hs -( most Timucua and .uale men* 5i-ault, for instance, descri-es the Timucua as paintin8 their -odies -lue, red, and -lac 3audonni_re records that QsomeR painted their faces :ith -lac, and the rest painted it :ith red2, :hile man( had patterns priced into their flesh2 on torso, arms and thi8hs and 3e o(ne notes that the( :ere in the ha-it of paintin8 the sin around their mouths of a -lue colour2* Dohn Ha:ins o-served in 1!$! that the( paint their -odies also :ith curious nots, or antique :or, as ever( man in his o:n fanc( deviseth, :hich paintin8 the( use :ith a thorn to pric their flesh In their :ars the( use a sli8hter colour of paintin8 their faces, there-( to mae themselves sho: the more fierce :hich after their :ars ended the( :ash a:a( a8ain*2 The Chicasa:s encountered -( de &oto2s e'pedition as it :ent further :est :ere descri-ed -( the .entleman of Elvas as havin8 their -odies, thi8hs and arms ochered and d(ed :ith -lac, :hite, (ello: and red, striped lie unto panes, so that the( looed as if the( :ent in hose and dou-lets and some of them had plumes, and others had horns on their heads, and their faces -lac, and their e(es done round a-out :ith streas of red, to seem more fierce*2
&R&RE It is clear from all the sources that the principal :eapon of virtuall( all the tri-es of the re8ion :as the -o:, the onl( e'ceptions apparentl( -ein8 the Chocta:s of Pensacola /a( and o-ile /a(, :ho, :e are told, carried neither -o:s nor arro:s2 -ut instead attaced NarvLez2s e'pedition :ith slin8s and darts2 in 1!+%, the :ord slin8s2 here -ein8 an allusion to spear#thro:ers, also recorded in use amon8st Indians encountered -( de &oto2s e'pedition at the mouth of the ississippi* .arcilaso de la )e8a descri-es the darts thro:n :ith these as -ein8 a-out $ ft =1*% m? lon8, and capa-le of passin8 throu8h a man armed :ith a coat of mail2* E(e#:itness accounts mae little or no mention of shields or spears -ein8 used amon8 the Timucua, thou8h /ernal 4Waz del Castillo noted Calusa :arriors usin8 spears as :ell as ver( lar8e -o:s2 in 1!17, :hile the Calusa :ho chased off Ponce de 3eMn2s part( in 1!+1 are descri-ed as -ein8 armed :ith shields and -o:s* Their -o:s :ere as tall as the men :ho used them, and had a dra: :ei8ht of a-out !" l-s =mediaeval En8lish lon8-o:s, -( comparison, had a dra: :ei8ht of an(:here -et:een a-out 7" and 1!" l-s?* &aid to -e made of oa or similar stron8 and heav(2 :ood =Ha:ins sa(s a ind of (e:, -ut -lacer than ours2, pro-a-l( meanin8 hicor( or -lac locust?, the( :ere stout enou8h @ e'a88eratedl( descri-ed as the thicness of a man2s arm2 -( Ca-eza de )aca @ to -e used as a clu- :hen a :arrior2s arro:s :ere spent* The( :ere sometimes decorated :ith coloured patterns* A test carried out -( the &paniards durin8 de &oto`s e'pedition
soldie soldiers rs fi8hti fi8htin8 n8 for the Timucua imucua chief chief Outina Outina in 1!$* 1!$* nlie their counterparts in /razil =see i8ures 1%" and 1%1?, 1%1?, the renc rench h :ere :ere not esta-l esta-lish ished ed in lorid loridaa lon8 lon8 enou8h for their dress and equipment to -e adapted to suit local conditions* Consequentl( these Hu8uenots are attired and armed identicall( to their co#reli8ionists -ac in rance, in a st(le completel( unsuited to the -ac:oods of North America* Ho:ever, 3e o(ne2s pictures ma( have -een dra: dra:n n from from memo memor( r( rath rather er than than on the spot spot,, and and had had possi-l( -een tailored to suit their European audience =as some some of the the Indi Indian an deta detail ilss defi defini nite tel( l( :ere :ere?* ?* /( 1!$! 1!$! 3audonni_re2s men :ere some:hat more ra88ed than those portra(ed here, Ha:ins findin8 that man( of them :ere -arefoot =he provided them :ith !" pairs of shoes?* All ren rench ch fi8h fi8hti tin8 n8 men men in lor lorid idaa :ere :ere foot foot#s #sol oldi dier ers, s, incidentall(, none of their e'peditions -ein8 accompanied -( an( horses* 3e o(ne2s pictures demonstrate that -( far the maorit( of the renchmen in lorida :ere arque-usiers, onl( their officers -ein8 armed :ith s:ord#and#-ucler or polearm* The( also indicate that in action the soft soft caps :orn -( i8ures +" and and +"! :ere usuall( replaced replaced -( helmets*
NOTES 90 Thou8h the e'pedition had started out :ith 1%" horses, man( had died durin8 the lon8 vo(a8e from &pain* 91 Three &paniards @ amon8 them the chronicler Alvar NXSez Ca-eza de )aca @ and a Ne8ro slave* The latter, named named Estevan, Estevan, :as later later &ray &ray arcos de Niza2s scout in Ne: e'ico, :here :here he :as illed illed -( [uni Indians in 1!;0* Contra rar( r( to a misc miscon once cept ptio ion n popu popula larr amon amon8s 8stt 92 Cont historians, and despite the fact that the maorit( of 1$th centur( rench e'peditions in the Ne: >orld :ere led -( Hu8uenots Hu8uenots =rench =rench Protestan Protestants? ts? @ includin8 includin8 5o-erval, 5o-erval, 5i-a 5i-ault ult,, 3aud 3audon onni ni_r _re, e, es8 es8ou ouez ez de la 5och 5oche, e, Pier Pierre re Chauvi Chauvin n de Tonne Tonnetui tuit, t, and Pierre Pierre du .ua de onts onts @ rench attempts to esta-lish colonies in the Americas :ere all motivated -( nationalism rather than reli8ion* 93 It is said that at a-out the end of the 1!th centur( centur(,, or possi-l( some:hat later, later, Ara:a Ara:a Indians from Cu-a, led -( a chief chief named named &eque &equene ne and his son Carlo Carlos2, s2, settled settled in southern lorida at an unidentified site named A-ai-o and su-u8a su-u8ated ted their their nei8hnei8h-our ours* s* The The ultima ultimate te fate fate of this this Ara:a colon( is unno:n, -ut it is at least theoreticall( possi-le that the chief called Calusa or Carlos2 livin8 in the 1!$"s, after :hom the &paniards named this epon(mous tri-e, tri-e, :as :as desce descende nded d from from his earlie earlierr namesa namesae* e* Chief Chief Calusa is said to have controlled some !"F7" villa8es in southern lorida, :hile the Te8esta, A(s, and some other tri-es :ere also to some e'tent under his s:a(* It :as Calusa Indians that -oth Ponce de 3eMn and HernLndez de CMrdo-a encountered @ the latter fatall( @ :hen the( set foot in lorida in 1!1+ and 1!17 respectivel(* Tradition maintains that the A(s :ere related to the 3uca(os livin8 in the /ahamas at the -e8innin8 of the 1$th centur(, :hich :oul :ould d su88 su88es estt that that the( the(,, if not not the the Calus Calusa, a, mar mar the the northernmost limit of Ara:a mi8ration* 94 .uale2 :as a term of convenience that :as adopted -( the &paniards, and em-raced several tri-es* 9# 3audonni_re records that Outina put the rench, :ith their arque-uses, in the forefront, to the end =as the( said? that the noise of their pieces mi8ht astonish their enemies2* Consequentl(, since the renchmen could not march so secretl(2 as the Indians, Potanou2s villa8e 8ot :ind of the impendin8 attac and issued out in 8reat companies2, -ut
fled on receivin8 a volle( from the rench* On another occasion ;" rench arque-usiers accompanied ;"" Indians a8ainst Potanou, :ith the rench a8ain -ein8 placed in the van8uard* 96 It seems liel( that such cane shields :ere the ori8inal characteristic shield#t(pe of south#east North America, -ut had -een lar8el( displaced durin8 the 1!thF1$th centuries -( the circular leather variet( found amon8 the northern tri-es*
IRINI&
En8land, lie rance, did not acno:led8e the division of the entire une'plored :orld -et:een &pain and Portu8al, &ir >illiam Cecil =later 3ord /urlei8h? tellin8 the &panish am-assador in 1!$+ that the Pope had no ri8ht to partition the :orld and to 8ive and tae in8doms to :homsoever he pleased*2 It :as, consequentl(, onl( a matter of time -efore operations commenced aimed at esta-lishin8 a permanent En8lish presence in the Ne: >orld* En8land2s En8land2s first colonial enterprise in the Americas @ the proposed foundation of a settlement in Ne:foundland @ came came to nou8 nou8ht ht in 1!%; 1!%; :hen :hen t:o t:o of the the thre threee ship shipss involv involved ed in the initia initiall recon reconnai naissa ssance nce :ere :ere lost lost off off the North American coast :ith all hands, includin8 the e'pedi e'peditio tion2 n2ss leader leader &ir Humphr Humphre( e( .il-er .il-ertt =&ir =&ir >alter alter 5alei8h2s step#-rother?* Instead it :as 5oanoe Island, in Pamlico &ound, that -ecame the site of her first colon(* In order to flatter the )ir8in Jueen2 Eliza-eth I and o-tain her patrona8e, the colon( :as, at 5alei8h2s 5alei8h2s su88estion, named )ir )ir8in 8inia2 ia2 =thou8 =thou8h h the site :as actua actuall( ll( in :hat :hat is no: North Carolina?* The failure of 5alei8h2s 5alei8h2s attempts to esta-lish settlements here in 1!%! and 1!%7 @ &ir rancis 4rae rescued the survivors of the first colon( after his fora( into the >est Indies in Dune 1!%$, :hile the 1"" settlers planted in the second had disappeared -( 1!0" 97 @ resulted resulted in part at least from the opposition opposition of man( of the local local Al8onian# Al8onian#spea speain8 in8 tri-es* tri-es* These These consisted consisted of the Cha:a Cha:ano noe, e, Croato Croatoan an =later =later called called Hatte Hattera ras?, s?, oratu oratuc, c, Neusio, Pomoui =or Pomeioc?, 5oanoe, &ecotan, and >eapemeoc =or 6a:pim?, each comprisin8 an(thin8 from one to 1% often palisaded villa8es* The initial friendliness of the local local 5oano 5oanoee Indian Indianss soon soon soured soured into into hostil hostilit( it(,, at :hich point the Croatoan tri-e allied itself :ith the En8lish settlers a8ainst them* The first permanent En8lish colon( @ esta-lished sli8htl( further north at Damesto:n, in :hat is no: )ir8inia proper, in April 1$"7 @ :as confronted -( the si8nifica si8nificantl( ntl( more po:erful po:erful Po:hatan Po:hatan confeder confederation ation,, 9' consistin8 of almost all the tri-es found on the Dames and 6or rivers @ the Chesapeae, Chicahomin(, Pamune(, Potom otomaac, Po:a o:ahat hatan, an, and 5app 5appaahann hannoc oc* * This This confed confedera eratio tion n had -een -een :elded :elded to8eth to8ether er -et:e -et:een en a-out a-out 1!7+ and 1$"7 -( Po:hatan =eroan4e = eroan4e,, or chief, of the tri-e of that name, and father of the cele-rated Pocahontas?, and lasted until the death of his successor Opechancanou8h in the 1$"s* Individual villa8es could raise from t:o to +"" :arriors, and a tri-e could muster +"F"" dependin8 on size, the maorit( -ein8 a-le to muster 1"" at most* In 1$"7 Dohn Dohn &mith &mith enume enumerat rated ed the Po:hat Po:hatan an confe confeder derati ation on as comprisin8 +% tri-es :ith a-out +,;%! :arriors, -ut omits several :hich :ould have pro-a-l( -rou8ht the total to nearer +,!""* >e are are fortunate in havin8 not ust ust several several fairl( detailed contemporar( descriptions of these peoples, datin8 -oth to the 1!%"s and to the first fe: decades of the 17th centur(,
-ut also the e'quisite :ater#colours of Dohn >hite, 8overnor of the second 5oanoe settlement, :ho, lucil( for posterit(, :as 8atherin8 supplies in En8land :hen his colon( vanished* All the sources a8ree that the Indians here :ere taller than Europeans, and of a ta:n( or chestnut comple'ion* Occasionall( the( :ent naed, -ut most men :ore a -reechclout, :hich in this period :as usuall( of deer, -ear, or seal sin, -ut later :as often of cloth o-tained -( trade* This appears to have -een :orn in t:o different :a(s, -ein8 either simpl( tied round the :aist, or else passed -et:een the le8s and secured -( means of a thin leather -elt, often a snaesin, throu8h :hich it :as pulled to han8 do:n lie a frin8ed apron at the front, :hile a tail mi8ht -e suspended at the -ac* A frin8ed mantle mi8ht also -e :orn in cool :eather, tied across one shoulder and passin8 under the opposite arm* This :as made of hemp, mul-err( -ar fi-re, ra--it# sin, deersin, or various other t(pes of sin or fur =-ear, -eaver, deer, fo', moose, otter, racoon, and squirrel are all mentioned in 17th centur( sources?* The( 8enerall( :ore sins :ith the fur left on in :inter, -ut in summer :ithout2* Those :oven from -ar fi-re or hemp :ere usuall( d(ed, most often red -ut also -lac or (ello:, :hile the deersin mantles and -reechclouts of the upper classes mi8ht -e painted or decorated :ith :hite -eads, co:rie shells, animal teeth, pearls, or copper trinets* =A mantle -elieved to have -een Po:hatan2s, -rou8ht -ac to En8land earl( in the 17th centur(, is coloured -lue and decorated :ith the st(lised fi8ures of a man flaned -( t:o rearin8 animals, and surrounded -( more than ;" discs, all made up out of small :hite shells*? ost men :ent -arefoot, -ut occasionall( s:amp#moccasins2 :ere :orn, these consistin8 of a sin8le piece of moose hide or deersin dra:n ti8ht round the foot -( means of laces at the toe and heel, the rear laces -ein8 often tied round the anles in addition* Earl( 17th centur( sources mention that in :inter and for protection :hen travellin8 Po:hatan Indians also :ore the same sort of tanned deersin le88in8s =leather stocin8s up to their t:ists2? as are descri-ed under i8ure +1+, and the( :ere dou-tless :orn in the 1$th centur( too* These :ere fastened to the :aist#-elt at the top and the moccasins at the -ottom* 3ie the mantle, the( :ere frequentl( decorated :ith coloured desi8ns* &eparate sleeves of deep furr2d cat2 =-o-cat fur? mi8ht also -e :orn, as descri-ed under i8ure +17* The 5oanoes and &ecotans :ore red, :hite, and -lue -od(#paint, :hile the Po:hatans often painted their heads and shoulders red, and some painted their -odies (ello: or -lac* >illiam &trache( =c*1$1%? sa(s that the Po:hatans paint and cross their foreheads, chees and the ri8ht Qi*e* the shavedR side of their heads diversel(2, :hile >illiam >ood =1$;? records that )ir8inian Indians on the :ar#path painted their faces :ith diversit( of colours, some -ein8 all -lac as et, some red, some half red and half -lac, some -lac and :hite, others spotted :ith divers inds of colours2* ace#paintin8 in :artime appears to have -een predominantl( -lac and red, -ut :hite, (ello:, and -lue :ere also used* >hite2s pictures sho: that specific devices mi8ht also -e tattooed on the -ac of the shoulder, such as those in fi8ure detail +"%a* These :ere lar8e enou8h to -e identifia-le at a reasona-le distance* &ince a 8roup of &ecotan Indians in one picture all have different devices the( are o-viousl( not tri-al, and perhaps indicate status or famil( affiliation* >ood ma( have had similar devices in
mind :hen he recorded of )ir8inian Indians that man( of the -etter sort Q-earR upon their chees certain portraitures of -easts, as -ears, deers, mooses, :olves, c, and some of fo:ls as of ea8les, ha:s, c,2 all tattooed in -lac* Others have certain round impressions do:n the outside of their arms and -reasts, in form of mullets or spur#ro:els, :hich the( imprint -( searin8 irons2* The characteristic hair#st(le throu8hout the re8ion comprised a co'com- or rid8e of short, upri8ht hair across the cro:n from the front of the head to the nape of the nec, :ith the hair on the left side of the head 8ro:n an ell lon82 =and sometimes tied in a not a-ove the ear?, :hile that on the ri8ht side :as shaved ver( close2 =to stop it flappin8 a-out the -o:strin8 :hen the( dra: it2, accordin8 to a later source?* The hair :as sometimes d(ed red, and the not on the left side :as often stuc :ith man( coloured 8e:8a:s2, the decorations listed in the sources includin8 ture( and ea8le feathers, the -ro:#antler of a deer, the dried hand of an enem(, copper crescents, the :hole sin of a ha: stuffed :ith the :in8s a-road2, -uzzard and other -irds2 :in8s =:ith a rattlesnae rattle attached?, and various sea#shells suspended from strin8s* >ood, ho:ever, implies that this half#lon8half#short st(le :as appropriate onl( to (oun8 men and :arriors, and that older men :ore their hair ver( lon8, han8in8 do:n in loose dishevelled :omanish manner other:ise tied up hard and short lie a horsetail, -ound close :ith a fillet*2 It is perhaps this st(le that )errazzano had in mind :hen, at the -e8innin8 of the centur(, he descri-ed North Carolinian Indians as havin8 their hair tied in a pon( tail* &ome 5oanoe and Po:hatan chiefs certainl( seem to have had their hair lon8 on -oth sides of the head, and either notted -ehind each ear or at the -ac of the nec* .a-riel Archer =1$"7? sa(s that the in8s and -est amon8 them have a ind of coronet of deers2 hair coloured red2, :orn round their notted hair* &uch red coronets2 :ere dou-tless the same as those seen amon8st the Armouchiquois of aine -( Dames 5osier in 1$"!, descri-ed as a ind of coronet a-out QtheR head, made of a su-stance lie stiff hair coloured red, -road, and more than a handful in depth, :hich :e ima8ined to -e some ensi8n of superiorit(*2 =&ee also i8ure +1!*? ost men also had their ears pierced in t:o or three places, :arriors :earin8 earrin8s consistin8 of strin8s of -one, stone or shell -eads, stained pearls, up to five or si' -one or copper pendants, or the le8 of an ea8le, ha:, ture( or some other -ird, of :hich the cla:s han8 upon the chee2 =compare to fi8ure detail 10%-?* Other e:eller( included pearl or -ead neclaces and -racelets, :hile Archer mentions some havin8 chains of lon8 lined copper a-out their necs2*
&R&RE The principal :eapon of all the Indians faced -( En8lish settlers durin8 the period 1!%!F1$+" :as the lon8-o:* This measured !F$ ft =1*!F1*% m? @ a survivin8 e'ample datin8 to 1$$" is $$ ; ins =1*7 m? from tip to tip @ and :as made predominantl( of :itch#hazel or sometimes hicor(* artin Prin8 descri-es one he sa: in 1$"; as painted -lac and (ello:, the strin8s of three t:ists of sine:s, -i88er than our -o:strin8s*2 &trache( records the ran8e of Po:hatan e'amples as " (ds =;$*! m? level, or ver( near the mar, and 1+" is their -est at random2* >ood :rote that Indian -o:s :ere quic, -ut not ver( stron8, not illin8 a-ove si' or seven score QpacesR2* The
3a-rador coast in 1!!!, the !"" survivors =:hich 8ives some idea of the size occasionall( attained -( these temporar( settlements? -ein8 shipped -ac to rance -( the victorious /asque fishermen* There :as not another serious rench attempt esta-lish a colon( in Canada until 1!0%, :hen es8ouez de la 5oche :as 8ranted the some:hat hollo: title of lieutenant#8eneral of Canada, Hochela8a, Ne:foundland, 3a-rador, the .ulf of &t* 3a:rence, and Acadia* He responded -( collectin8 another +!" reluctant colonists from rance2s ails and dumpin8 them on inhospita-le &a-le Island, 0" miles out into the Atlantic east of Nova &cotia* Onl( 11 survived to -e rescued and repatriated in 1$";* A considera-l( smaller venture :as the esta-lishment -( Pierre Chauvin in 1!00 of a tradin8#post at Tadoussac, 1+! miles north of &tadacona on the &t* 3a:rence, -ut of the 1$ men he left there onl( five :ere found alive :hen he returned in 1$""* It :as onl( in the openin8 (ears of the 17th centur( that permanent rench to:nships :ere finall( esta-lished, -( Pierre du .ua de onts at Port#5o(al in Acadia =Nova &cotia? in 1$"!, and -( &amuel de Champlain at Jue-ec in 1$"%* En8land2s principal interest in the re8ion throu8hout the centur( involved searchin8 for a direct sea#route to the East @ the fa-led North#>est Passa8e @ :hich resulted in the three e'peditions of artin ro-isher in 1!7$F7%, Humphre( .il-ert2s fatal enterprise of 1!%;, and the three vo(a8es of Dohn 4avis in 1!%!F%7* .il-ert formall( laid claim to Ne:foundland on -ehalf of the En8lish Cro:n in Au8ust 1!%; -ut died in a ship:rec on the :a( home, and the claim :as never made 8ood*
T-E INDI&NS E'cept for the Iroquois, the Huron, the Inuit =or Esimos?, and possi-l( the /eothu, all the tri-es encountered here durin8 the period under revie: -elon8ed to the Al8onian lin8uistic famil(* The so#called 3aurentian Iroquoians of &tadacona and Hochela8a, :ith :hom Cartier and 5o-erval had dealin8s in 1!;!F;, are pro-a-l( another e'ception* Their e'act ethnic -ac8round is -( no means clear, -ut it is 8enerall( a8reed that the( :ere pro-a-l( of Iroquoian stoc and ma( indeed have -een true Iroquois* Competition -et:een the Hochela8ans and &tadaconans and their Iroquois and Al8onian nei8h-ours, apparentl( concernin8 the ri8ht to trade furs :ith the rench, resulted in their disappearance in the late#1$th centur(* The &tadaconans seem to have alread( -een dispersed -( or durin8 the 1!%"s, and arc 3escar-ot =1$"$? states that the Hochela8ans, alon8 :ith such Al8onian tri-es as lived in the &t* 3a:rence valle(, :ere :iped out -( an invasion of %,""" Iroquois ei8ht (ears a8o2, therefore c*1!0%* The( had certainl( disappeared -( 1$";* Of the re8ion2s other tri-es, the Iroquois and Hurons :ere the lar8est and most po:erful, and :hen Champlain arrived at the -e8innin8 of the 17th centur( the( had -een fi8htin8 one another for !" (ears, part of an on8oin8 stru88le -et:een the Iroquois and other tri-es for control of the &t* 3a:rence valle(* The fact that the name Iroquois2 appears to -e a rench rendition of the Al8onian :ord for a snae provides adequate testimon(
of ho: much the Iroquois :ere loathed -( their enemies* Occup(in8 an area that came to -e no:n as Iroquoia, encompassin8 the in8er 3aes and the Hudson 5iver district, the Iroquois actuall( comprised a confederation of five tri-es @ :hence the term the ive Nations2 104 su-sequentl( applied to them @ consistin8 of =from :est to east? the &eneca, Ca(u8a, Ononda8a, Oneida, and oha:* This confederation came into e'istence durin8 the 1$th centur(, possi-l( -( c*1!+! -ut more pro-a-l( after 1!!", under the leadership of the oha: leaders 4e8ana:idah and Hia:atha* Its overall population is estimated to have stood at a minimum of +",""" -( 1$"", out of :hich it could field some +,!"" :arriors* The most important of the ive Nations, and the most feared -( the nei8h-ourin8 Huron, icmac, and onta8nais, :ere the oha:, &eneca, and Ononda8a, of :hom the last :ere the most :arlie =thou8h it :as the &eneca :ho :ere the principal participant in the :ar :ith the Huron?* Individual tri-es :ere autonomous in most affairs under their o:n chiefs, or sa4hems* Their Iroquoian#speain8 Huron enemies, :ho called themselves Ouendat or >endat, consisted of a similar confederation, consistin8 initiall( of ust t:o principal tri-es @ the Atti8na:antan and Atti8neenon8nahac @ :hich :ere oined -( the Ahrendahronon c*1!0" and the Tahontaerat c*1$1", -oth of :hich :ere possi-l( descendants of the vanished 3aurentian Iroquioans* These four tri-es lived in 1% villa8es situated at the heart of an area of little more than 7"" square miles no:n as Huronia, l(in8 east of 3ae Huron* Champlain relates that -( the Hurons2 o:n estimate their villa8es :ere peopled -( +,""" :arriors, :ithout includin8 in this the ordinar( inha-itants, :ho ma( amount to ;",""" souls2, and some modern estimates put their population c*1$"" even hi8her, at ","""* The /eothus d:elt throu8hout Ne:foundland at first contact, -ut the( :ithdre: inland as European fishermen -e8an to esta-lish themselves alon8 the coast, and in 1!%; &ir Humphre( .il-ert2s e'pedition reported that in the south parts :e found no inha-itants, :hich -( all lielihood have a-andoned these coasts, the same -ein8 much frequented -( Christians -ut in the north are sava8es, alto8ether harmless*2 The( :ere the onl( local tri-e :hich declined to -ecome involved in tradin8 furs :ith the :hites, :hich led to an invasion of Ne:foundland -( European trappers from 1!%" on, and inevita-le confrontations* The /eothu population declined rapidl( as a result, and one modern estimate puts their num-ers at the end of the centur( as lo: as !""* The principal Al8onian peoples :ith :hom the rench came into contact at an earl( date comprised the Armouchiquois, icmac, onta8nais, Nasapi, and Otta:a* Of these, the Armouchiquois or Eastern A-enai, -itter enemies of the icmacs and on hostile terms :ith the rench, occupied an area that comprised in essence the south#:estern t:o#thirds of modern aine* Accordin8 to &amuel Purchas =1$"+?, their total population :as 1,""", includin8 ;,""" adult males* The icmacs, :ho as :ell as the Armouchiquois also fou8ht :ith the /eothus, oha:s, and &tadaconans, :ere to -e found throu8hout Nova &cotia, Cape /reton, Prince Ed:ard Island, and the .aspB Peninsula, and consequentl( :ere
noted for their seamanship* Thou8h earl( rench sources 8enerall( refer to them as &ouriquois, the( are also found -ein8 called Toudamans =-( Cartier?, Tontaniens =-( AndrB Thevet?, and Tarantines =-( 17th centur( En8lish colonists?* Their num-ers :ere estimated at a-out +,""" in 1$1+, and ;F;,!"" in 1$1$* The onta8nais, :ith :hom Cartier had made contact in 1!;, lived -et:een the &t* 3a:rence and Dames /a( on the ed8e of the Arctic Ocean, :here their traditional Iroquois enemies had driven them durin8 the 1!th centur(, :hile the related Nasapi lived in 3a-rador and :ere enemies of the Inuit* The onta8nais and Iroquois :ere still at :ar :hen Champlain first encountered them* The total population of the onta8nais at first contact :as at least !,""", and pro-a-l( nearer 1","""* The Otta:a @ earl( rench renditions of this Huron :ord include Andatahouat and Ondataouaouat @ :ere an Oi-:a tri-e, :hose name means Traders2* Allies of the Hurons, the( lived on anitoulin Island and around the shores of .eor8ian /a(, on the north side of 3ae Huron* The 8overnment of all these tri-es :as -( means of councils of elders or chiefs, usuall( called sa4hems or saamores in earl( rench sources* The( have no special chiefs :ith a-solute command,2 records 3escar-ot, -ut rather pa( honour to the eldest and -ravest, :hom the( appoint captains -( :a( of honour and respect, and of :hom there are several in a sin8le villa8e As to the :ars the( undertae, or raids into enem( countr(, t:o or three of the elders or valiant captains :ill undertae to lead such an e'pedition, and :ill 8o to nei8h-ourin8 villa8es to inform them of their intention, 8ivin8 presents to those of the said villa8es to o-li8e them to 8o and accompan( them on the said :ar#path The( desi8nate the place :here the( intend to 8o QandR the( derive honour if the( succeed, -ut if the( fail the dishonour remains :ith them2* In the e'treme north lived the Inuit =:hich means simpl( the people2?, :ho :ere found, in the area and period under revie:, mostl( in .reenland, /affin Island, and northern 3a-rador as far south as Anticosti Island at the mouth of the &t* 3a:rence, as :ell as sometimes crossin8 the strait of /elle Isle into northern Ne:foundland* Al8onian#speain8 Indians called them Esimo2, meanin8 eaters of ra: meat2, Inuit -ein8 their o:n name for themselves =thou8h the .reenland Inuit called themselves Vatladlit instead?* Their first contact :ith Europeans since the )iin8 a8e is 8enerall( re8arded to have -een at the time of ro-isher2s e'pedition of 1!7$, -ut it seems liel( that fishermen had encountered them earlier than this* Certainl( Indian tradition has it that Inuit :ere responsi-le for the destruction of a &panish fishin8 settlement in /radore /a( on the coast of 3a-rador in a-out mid#centur(* Almost ever( En8lish e'pedition seein8 the North#>est Passa8e seems to have sirmished :ith small -ands of Inuit at one time or another* 3ocal Indian costume ran8ed from the occasional nudit( of some Al8onians to the comprehensive fur s:addlin8 of the Inuit* Other than in the e'treme north, the fundamental items of dress almost ever(:here :ere -reechclout, mantle, and moccasins* In :arm :eather the men of most tri-es :ore no more than the -reechclout,
made of deer, -eaver, or seal sin* Passin8 -et:een the le8s, this :as secured around the :aist -( a leather strap, over :hich its ends hun8 as t:o squarish flaps each a-out a foot lon8* The mantle too one of t:o forms< a lon8er variet( :hich :as :orn lie a cloa, usuall( :ith one arm e'posed, or a nee#len8th t(pe coverin8 most of the -od(, :hich :ent under the ri8ht arm and :as tied a-ove the left shoulder -( means of a leather strin8, and occasionall( secured round the :aist -( a -elt* The mantle could -e of almost an( ind of fur or sin, 3escar-ot tellin8 us that it :as made of man( sins if these :ere of otters or -eavers, and of a sin8le sin if it :as of moose, -ear, or l(n'2* The sins used in their clothin8 :ere frequentl( decorated* The Iroquois appear to have often d(ed theirs -lac, :hile the /eothu coloured theirs :ith red ochre =:hence their nicname of 5ed Indians2, later applied to all North American Indians?* Champlain descri-es the trimmin8s on onta8nais and other Al8onian clothes as comprisin8 strips of porcupine#quill :hich the( d(e a ver( -eautiful scarlet colour2, :hile those on Huron clothes :ere made of 8lue and of the scrapin8s of the said sins, :ith :hich the( mae -ands in man( :a(s in places puttin8 -ands of red or -ro:n paint amidst those of the 8lue, :hich are al:a(s pale2* In :inter, and in the north, fur mantles :ere su-stituted for sin, and le88in8s and sleeves :ere added* These are all descri-ed under i8ure +17, :hile Inuit costume is descri-ed under i8ures +1%F++"* occasins :ere each made of a sin8le piece of moose hide :ithout an( stren8thenin8 for the heel or sole* The succinct description of a later :riter, 3afitau =17+?, e'plains ho: each moccasin :as pucered over the toes of the foot, :here it is se:n :ith cords of 8ut to a little leather ton8ue* Then it is taen up :ith ties of the same sin, passed throu8h holes cut at re8ular intervals and tied a-ove the heel after -ein8 crossed on the instep of the foot*2 The( :ere usuall( made out of pieces of old moose sin previousl( used for ro-es, the 8rease these had a-sor-ed partiall( compensatin8 for the fact that the leather :as untanned* Even then, 3escar-ot sa(s, the( did not last lon8, especiall( :hen the( 8o into :ater( places2* Once the Indians had started tradin8 :ith the rench some items of European dress inevita-l( -e8an to appear amon8st them* .a-riel Archer, for instance, records encounterin8 a icmac chief in 1$"+ :ho :ore a :aistcoat of -lac :or, a pair of -reeches, cloth stocin8s, shoes, hat, and -and2, and adds that one or t:o more had also a fe: thin8s made -( some Christians2* Dohn /rereton, :ho :as also present, sa(s that the chief :ore :aistcoat and -reeches of -lac ser8e2, and that another Indian :ore a pair of -lue -reeches* The local Indians :ere on the :hole taller than Europeans, and of a comple'ion 8enerall( descri-ed as ta:n( or olive* The( :ere frequentl( painted or tattooed :ith 8eometric patterns, stripes, and pictures of animals, men, and spirits, :hich sometimes covered the entire -od(* .a-riel &a8ard =1$;+? tells us that the Hurons paint their -od( and face in various colours, -lac, 8reen, (ello:, red, violet, and in man( other :a(s2, and tattooed their faces :ith representations of snaes,
lizards, squirrels, and other animals2* &ome:hat later, ranUois du Creu' reported that some of them ma( -e seen :ith the nose and e(es -lue and the e(e-ro:s and chees -lac others :ith -lac, red and -lue stripes from the ears to the mouth others :ith stripes runnin8 from ear to ear across the forehead, and three stripes across each chee others :ill -lacen the :hole face hideousl( :ith the e'ception of the forehead and the point of the chin and a circle around the e(es2* The Iroquois are similarl( reported to have -een heavil( tattooed, especiall( on the face, throat, chest, arms and le8s the Otta:a :ere much carved a-out the -od( in divisions of various patterns2 and painted their faces different colours the Armouchiquois painted their -odies -lac, and their faces -lac, red, or (ello:, :ith stripes of e'cellin8 -lue over their upper lips, nose and chin2 and the icmac are variousl( reported to have painted their faces red, their e(e-ro:s :hite, their noses -lue, and their -odies an unspecified colour, pro-a-l( -lac* As :ith their clothes, the /eothu painted themselves completel( red, and earl( descriptions record that the( also had stripes tattooed across their faces, Pietro Pasquali8o relatin8 ho: those seen in 1!"" :ere mared on the face in several places some :ith si', some :ith ei8ht, some :ith more lines2, :hile a report of 1!"0 states that the( :ere tattooed on the face :ith a small -lue vein from the ear to the middle of the chin, across the a:s*2 Their hair :as usuall( -lac =thou8h &a8ard notes that some Hurons had chestnut#coloured hair?, and :as :orn in a variet( of st(les* acial hair :as assiduousl( pluced out amon8st the maorit( of tri-es, -ut Inuit, icmac, and Armouchiquois sometimes had sli8ht -eards* Personal adornment lar8el( consisted of feathers, plus silver or copper -racelets, and copper or -ead earrin8s and neclaces* eathers :ere :orn in the hair in various :a(s, -ut important men mi8ht have them round the :hole head, or in fashion of a coronet2 round a hair#not at the -ac of the head* 3escar-ot sa(s that Iroquois chiefs :ore feathers far loftier than the others2, :hile .a-riel Archer2s icmac chief had han8in8 a-out his nec a plate of rich copper in len8th a foot, in -readth half a foot2 =compare to i8ure +"7?* In addition all :arriors customaril( carried a shoulder#-a8 to hold their provisions and to-acco*
&R&RE >eaponr( of the local Iroquoian and Al8onian tri-es consisted principall( of the usual com-ination of -o:s, clu-s, and to a lesser e'tent thro:in8#spears* Their -o:s :ere lar8e =later sources descri-e them as almost the hei8ht of a man2, or full five and a half feet lon82?, fairl( strai8ht, and made of such :oods as red cedar, maple, mountain ash, :(ch elm =horn-eam?, and fir* ost :ere :ell#made, -ut the scarcit( of tim-er in the su-#Arctic zone meant that /eothu :eapons :ere often nott (, and of ver( rude appearance2* =This shorta8e of suita-le :ood pro-a-l( also e'plains the use of slin8s amon8st the /eothu that Dohn Ca-ot sa: in 107*? An Armouchiquois :itch#hazel lon8-o: tested -( Dames 5osier in 1$"! :as found a-le to carr( an arro: five or si' score QpacesR stron8l(2 :hen fired in the En8lish
manner* &everal earl( chroniclers descri-e the arro:s as ; ft =01 cm? lon8 and made of reed, -ut Champlain sa(s the( :ere of :ood, and later sources specificall( mention cedar and pine* The( :ere fletched predominantl( :ith three cro: or ea8le feathers, -ut the /eothu are said to have used 8oose feathers, :hile 3escar-ot sa(s that if feathers :ere unavaila-le the Hurons made do :ith strips of -eaver sin* The( :ere tipped mostl( :ith -one, stone, and fire#hardened :ood, thou8h the Armouchiquois made considera-le use of horseshoe cra- tails* >henever possi-le the( su-stituted iron heads, or heads cut from -rass, o-tained -( tradin8 :ith the rench* Archaeolo8ical finds su88est that this process ma( have alread( -een under:a( as far inland as the &eneca Iroquois at the -e8innin8 of the centur(* The arro:s :ere held in a quiver across the -ac, made of decorated leather, leather#covered -ar, or, at least amon8 the icmacs, cane* Their :ooden clu-s appear to have -een predominantl( of the variet( favoured -( the Hurons and Iroquois, called aFeas, descri-ed -( >illiam >ood =1$;? as consistin8 of staves of t:o feet and a half lon8, and a no- at one end as round and -i8 as a foot-all2* 3afitau descri-es such -all#headed clu-s as made of ver( hard :ood, t:o or t:o and a half feet lon8, squared on the sides, and :idened or rounded to the :idth of a fist at its end2* or their 8eneral appearance see i8ure +1!* 3escar-ot :as dou-tless descri-in8 such a :eapon :hen he :rote in 1$"$ that the icmacs used :ooden maces shaped lie a crozier2* /laded clu-s of the t(pe held -( i8ure +1; :ere also in use, the -lades sometimes -ein8 of steel -( the end of the centur(* Pietro Pasquali8o =1!"1?, :ritin8 of .aspar de Corte 5eal2s vo(a8e of 1!"", ma( have had this t(pe of clu- in mind :hen he o-served that the /eothu used s:ords of a ind of stone2, since Ca-ot mentions onl( that the( used :ooden clu-s2* Amon8 the fe: references to spears are >ood2s description of the oha:s usin8 avelins tipped :ith sea#horse2 =seal? teeth, and 5osier2s o-servation that the Armouchiquois emplo(ed darts headed :ith -one2* &hields, :here carried, :ere either round and made of leather or rectan8ular and made of :ood, :ith a usuall( rounded top ed8e* The latter variet(, 8enerall( referred to in earl( rench sources as a pavise, :as favoured -( the Hurons and Iroquois* Thou8h Champlain also depicts a onta8nais :arrior :ith such a shield =i8ure +1!?, 3escar-ot states that this tri-e used round shields2, pro-a-l( indicatin8 that, lie the Hurons @ to :hom &a8ard attri-utes -oth shields :hich cover almost the :hole -od(2 and others, smaller, made of -oiled leather2 @ the( used -oth t(pes* &ince 3escar-ot descri-es the icmac as also usin8 shields :hich cover their :hole -od(2 it can -e assumed that the( too pro-a-l( emplo(ed the rectan8ular variet(, :hile Champlain2s pictures sho: an Otta:a :arrior =i8ure +1$? :ith a round shield* Huron shields are later descri-ed -( 3afitau as -ein8 of :illo: or -ar, covered all over :ith one or man( sins* &ome are of ver( thic sin* The( :ere of all sizes and shapes*2 &a8ard sa(s the( :ere made of cedar -ar* As :ell as shields some Iroquoians also used -od(#armour, for details of :hich see i8ure +1;* As amon8st the Indian population almost ever(:here
else in the Americas, most tri-al :arfare depended on raids, am-ushes, and surprises, particularl( amon8st the :eaer tri-es, :ho dared not face the po:erful Hurons or, more especiall(, the Iroquois in the open field* Their :ars are carried on solel( -( surprises, in the dead of ni8ht, or, if -( moonli8ht, -( am-ushes or su-tlet(,2 e'plains 3escar-ot* >henever possi-le, raidin8 e'peditions :ere launched in the summer or earl( autumn :hen there :as sufficient ve8etation to provide cover* The :ar-and :ould travel -( canoe :here possi-le, and :hen 8oin8 overland al:a(s :ent sin8le file, the last man in the column havin8 the responsi-ilit( of concealin8 their tracs* 4escri-in8 Huron practice, Champlain tells us that the( divide their men into three troops, that is, one troop for huntin8, scattered in various directions another troop, :hich forms the -ul of their men, al:a(s under arms and the other troop made up of scouts, to reconnoitre alon8 the rivers and see :hether there is an( mar or si8n to sho: :here their enemies or their friends have 8one The hunters never hunt in advance of the main -od(, nor of the scouts, in order not to 8ive alarm or to cause confusion, -ut onl( :hen these have retired, and in a direction from :hich the( do not e'pect the enem(* The( 8o on in this :a( until the( are :ithin t:o or three da(s2 march of their enem(, :hen the( proceed stealthil( -( ni8ht, all in a -od(, e'cept the scouts* In the da(time the( retire into the thic of the :oods, :here the( rest :ithout an( stra88lin8, an( noise, or the main8 of a fire even for the purpose of cooin82* 10# 3escar-ot praises their po:ers of endurance at such times, o-servin8 that the( can endure hardness in the :ar, lie in the sno: and on the ice, and suffer heat, cold, and hun8er2* ull#scale -attles :ere also not unno:n, these 8enerall( tain8 place in -road da(li8ht* At the time of first contact it appears to have -een customar( to dra: up in close order on such occasions, as the Iroquois encountered -( Champlain did, -ut the introduction of firearms106 seems to have put an end to this* 3escar-ot
provides interestin8 details of the de8ree of practise :hich :ent into perfectin8 these close#order -attle formations* He sa(s that their chiefs tae stics a foot lon8, one for each of their men, and represent the chiefs -( others sli8htl( lon8er* Then the( 8o into the :ood and level off a place five or si' feet square, :here the head man, as ser8eant#maor, arran8es all these stics as seems -est to him* Then he calls all his companions, :ho approach full( armed, and he sho:s them the ran and order :hich the( are to o-serve :hen the( fi8ht :ith their enemies And after:ards the( retire from that place and -e8in to arran8e themselves in the order in :hich the( have seen these stics* Then the( min8le amon8 one another and a8ain put themselves in proper order, repeatin8 this t:o or three times, and the( do this at all their camps Qi*e* their halts on the marchR, :ithout an( need of a ser8eant to mae them eep their rans, :hich the( are quite a-le to maintain :ithout 8ettin8 into confusion*2 /attle customaril( opened :ith an e'chan8e of archer(, in :hich lar8e num-ers of arro:s :ould -e fired :ithout tain8 particular aim, their practice under such circumstances apparentl( -ein8 to dra: the -o: onl( to a-out the -ottom of the ri-#ca8e, or even to the :aist, placin8 8reater stress on the volume of their fire than its accurac(, thou8h Juinn =10%;? states that their sill in shootin8 at a distance -( this method :as also considera-le*2 As an aid to rapid fire it is recorded at a later date that the /eothu :ould tae four arro:s, three -et:een the fin8ers of their left hand, :ith :hich the( hold the -o:, and the fourth notched in the strin8, QandR dischar8e them as quic as the( can dra: the -o:, and :ith 8reat certaint(*2 >hen the( ran out of arro:s the( :ould close for hand#to#hand com-at :ith 8reat clamours and fearful ho:lin8s, in order to astonish the enem( and to 8ive themselves mutual assurance*2 On the :hole one side :ould flee after sufferin8 a relativel( small num-er of casualties* After their slain enemies2
,amusio"s 'lan of the aurentian )ro5uoian 7illae of ;o4helaaG in4ludin hy'otheti4al details of the 4onstru4tion of its defen4es )n the foreround Ha45ues Cartier meets the lo4al 4hiefs
&panish America 10+F1$""
&panish conquests in the Ne: >orld durin8 the earl( part of this period :ere achieved lar8el( -( free-ootin8 adventurers, led -( captains :ho at -est held indefinite ro(al commissions and at :orst laced an( sort of authorit( for their actions :hatsoever* In the maorit( of cases e'peditions :ere or8anised in accordance :ith the terms set out in a8reements called 4a'itula4iones, ne8otiated -et:een the Vin8, the e'pedition leader, and the adventurers the latter hired to accompan( him* The leader of such a venture, referred to as an adelantado =advancer2?, :as, -( necessit(, a no-leman or at least a 8entleman, :ho a8reed to finance the entire e'pedition out of his o:n pocet =or out of the pocets of his sponsors? in e'chan8e for the Cro:n 8rantin8 him :hat :as, in effect, a-solute po:er over the re8ion :hich he :as to e'plore or discover* All the earl( &panish vo(a8es to and e'peditions in the Ne: >orld :ere financed and carried out -( this means, Colum-us himself -ein8 an adelantado* The s(stem :as onl( eventuall( ended under Vin8 Philip II =1!!$F0%?, :ho 8raduall( appointed and installed salaried 8overnors in place of the adelantados* Initial success in an e'pedition 8uaranteed the support of further -ands of adventurers @ dra:n lar8el( from the >est Indies once colonies had -e8un to -e esta-lished there, -ut also from &pain @ all een to cash in on a profita-le enterprise hence the stead( flo: of reinforcements to CortBs and his captains, for instance, throu8hout the course of their e'ican campai8ns* 5eadil( availa-le manpo:er :as limited, ho:ever, and the ne:l(# esta-lished colonies of Hispaniola, Cu-a and Puerto 5ico :ere sometimes all -ut stripped of their entire populations* Even then man( e'peditions :ere too small* Others :ere inadequatel( provisioned, or -adl( led, and resulted in the deaths of hundreds of 4on5uistadores* The initial conquests of e'ico, Central America and Peru therefore had to -e achieved :ith incredi-l( small armies of rarel( more than a fe: hundred &paniards, and o:ed their success more to luc, inspired leadership, and the support of sizea-le -odies of Indian au'iliaries, than to numerical stren8th* Indeed, :ith the sin8le e'ception of CortBs2 doomed 1,;""#stron8 arm( in 1!+", :hich lost some %7" men fi8htin8 a8ainst the Aztecs, the onl( armies to include in e'cess of a thousand &paniards :ere those that the( fielded a8ainst each other in the civil :ars that pla8ued Peru throu8hout the t:o decades after 1!;7* Even the lar8est of these did not reach +,""" men, and armies of -et:een "" and 1,""" :ere more usual* =In 1!!;, for e'ample, the ro(alists under Alonso de Alvarado fielded "" horse, ;"" piemen, and ;"" shot, :hilst the forces of the re-el rancisco HernLndez .irMn totalled ust 1"" arque-usiers, ;"" other foot and an unno:n num-er of cavalr(* In 1!1 Alma8ro the 3ad2 fielded ust ;"" horse, 1"" arque-usiers, and 1!" piemen, and the follo:in8 (ear )aca de Castro2s arm( totalled no more than 7"" men, includin8 ;7" horse and 17" arque-usiers*? After 10% adelantados customaril( re:arded individual 4on5uistadores :ith the ri8ht @ no:n initiall( as re'artimiento, and su-sequentl( as encomienda @ to collect Indian tri-ute from a specific area, most often in the form of la-our* The demands placed on the Indians -( the recipient, or en4omendero, :ere at first limited to specific tass for limited periods, -ut it did not tae lon8 for most
en4omenderos to re#interpret their 8rants as official authorisation to treat the Indians as their personal propert(, and to 8overn the specified lands as the( sa: fit* The Indians there-( -ecame slaves, to -e e'ploited, a-used, or punished as the en4omendero pleased* Thou8h the 8rantin8 of ne: en4omiendas ended :ith the introduction of the so# called Ne: 3a:s2 of 1!+;, those alread( e'tant :ere maintained unchan8ed thereafter, and enslaved Indians remained slaves* All that the en4omendero had to do in return for his privile8ed status :as to provide militar( service, and sometimes mone(, :henever called upon* .overnment of &pain2s first colonies in the Ne: >orld :as initiall( in the hands of Christopher Colum-us, :ho had -een appointed )icero(, -ased in Hispaniola* Ho:ever, his administrative incompetence resulted in a succession of 8overnors -ein8 installed in his stead after 1!""* The title of )icero( :as revived in 1!;! for the 8overnor of Ne: &pain, -ased in e'ico Cit( =as the old Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had -een renamed?, and in 1! a second )icero(, -ased in 3ima, :as appointed to 8overn Peru* These administered the individual re8ions into :hich their vicero(alties :ere su-divided throu8h advisor( -odies called audien4ias @ primaril( udicial councils, usuall( composed of four or five oidores =ud8es?, a fiscal, and, later, a president @ :hich had the Vin82s -lessin8 to pressure the )icero( into adoptin8 its vie:s or policies* /( the end of the centur( there :ere four or five audien4ias per vicero(alt(, these often -ein8 further su-divided into provinces = 'ro7in4ias or o-erna4iones? under their o:n 8overnors* The 'ro7in4ias :ere su-divided in turn into smaller territories :hich :ere each under either an al4alde mayor =:here a si8nificant &panish settlement e'isted? or a 4orreidor =:here the population :as lar8el( Indian?, there -ein8 respectivel( 7" and more than +"" of these in Ne: &pain alone -( the 1!7"s* American audien4ias esta-lished :ithin the t:o vicero(alties -( the earl( 17th centur( comprised< New Spain &anto 4omin8o =1!+$? e'ico =1!+%? .uatemala =1!;? .uadalaara =1!%? Peru Panama =1!;%?10' 3ima =1!+? Ne: .ranada, or &anta B de /o8otL =1!0? 3a Plata, or Charcas =1!!0? Juito =1!$;? Chile =1$"0? At the time that the Panama audien4ia :as esta-lished it :as intended that it should -e responsi-le for all &panish colonies -et:een Nicara8ua and the southern tip of the continent, -ut this situation lasted onl( until 1!;, :hen the audien4ia of 3os Confines109 :as esta-lished :ith responsi-ilit( for .uatemala, Honduras, El &alvador, Nicara8ua, and Panama, plus Chiapas, Ta-asco, and 6ucatLn in e'ico* This :as -ased initiall( at .racias in Honduras, -ut after 1!0 its capital :as shifted to &antia8o de los Ca-alleros in .uatemala* &horn of Panama =:hich :as reinstated as a separate audien4ia, :ith ne: -oundaries, in 1!$;?, as :ell as Ta-asco and 6ucatLn in e'ico, this -ecame the audien4ia of .uatemala in 1!7"* Panama2s :estern frontier su-sequentl( -ecame the dividin8 line -et:een the t:o vicero(alties, thou8h the
situation :as some:hat confused -( the fact that the audien4ia of &anto 4omin8o in Hispaniola, 8overnin8 the >est Indies and lorida and nominall( su-ordinate to Ne: &pain =-ut in effect autonomous?, also had urisdiction over the northern coastal lands of )enezuela, even thou8h the rest of that re8ion came under the audien4ia of Ne: .ranada, :hich :as ans:era-le to the )icero( of Peru* This inevita-l( led to 8overnment of the re8ion -ein8 some:hat fra8mented and occasionall( incoherent* )icero(s and 8overnors :ere all appointed -( the in8, :ho :as 8uided in his choice -( a -od( of at -est partisan and at :orst corrupt @ or at the ver( least seriousl( mis8uided @ ro(al advisors, referred to as the Council of the Indies =ConseFo de las )ndias?* This :as ori8inall( created as a su-#committee of the Council of Castile -efore -ein8 constituted as a separate and distinct entit( in 1!+* Initiall( most of the Councillors :ere mem-ers of the cler8(, -ut -efore lon8 la:(ers, attorne(s, and accountants prevailed* These invaria-l( had convoluted a8endas of their o:n and little no:led8e or understandin8 of e'ploration, colonial 8overnment, or militar( affairs, -e(ond :hat the( could deduce from -alance sheets* It :as their i8norance of the Ne: >orld2s 8eo8raph( in particular that :as responsi-le for much of the rivalr( and armed conflict that occurred amon8st &panish officials in the Americas* On numerous occasions men :ere issued :ith ro(al :arrants :hich failed to clarif( the frontiers of the re8ions the( had -een appointed to 8overn, to the e'tent that it :as relativel( commonplace @ at least durin8 the first half of the centur( @ for t:o or more men to -e 8iven either authorit( over, or license to e'plore, the same area, there-( creatin8 disputes that :ere frequentl( settled -( assassination or a trial of stren8th on the -attlefield* ilitar( command :as in the hands of another Cro:n appointee referred to as the captain#8eneral, a post :hich durin8 this period :as 8enerall( held -( the )icero( himself* He :as 8uided in :artime -( a council of :ar made up of his most e'perienced officers* The )icero( personall( led his troops in the field onl( rarel(, the e'peditions of Antonio de endoza a8ainst the Cazcanes in 1!+, and of artWn EnrWquez =)icero( of Ne: &pain 1!$%F%" and Peru 1!%1F%;? a8ainst the Chichimecs in 1!7", -ein8 the e'ceptions rather than the norm* ost preferred instead to dele8ate authorit( to their su-ordinates* Ho:ever, even in dire emer8encies a )icero( needed to 8et the a8reement of the audien4ia and the Vin82s local treasur( officials -efore he could declare :ar or dra: the necessar( funds to finance militar( action, and in his a-sence the audien4ias :ere themselves in char8e of militar( affairs* In the provinces militar( command :ent to a lieutenant captain#8eneral =teniente de 4a'it>n eneral ?, usuall( referred to simpl( as captain#8eneral2, :ho @ especiall( in frontier areas @ :as usuall( the local 8overnor, other:ise his lieutenant#8overnor =teniente de o-ernador ?, and either :a( usuall( an affluent individual e'pected to personall( su-sidise the province2s militar( affairs* Another important variet( of militar( official, :ho onl( first appears in the 1!%"s, :as the provincial 'aador or pa(master, responsi-le for pa(, inspections, and 8eneral administration* 4espite the fact that no permanent standin8 arm( :as esta-lished until the mid#17th centur(, the vicero(alties :ere e'pected to -e militaril( self#sufficient e'cept in cases of :ar :ith a rival European po:er* After the late#
1!$"s )icero(s and local 8overnors 8enerall( had access to relativel( small =and sometimes almost ne8li8i-le? num-ers of re8ular troops, rarel( e'ceedin8 a fe: hundred men in an( one province even at the end of the centur( @ there :ere ust %"" soldiers in Panama in 1!%7, for instance, and onl( +!" in lorida in 1$""* The lar8est num-er of re8ular soldiers to -e found in an( part of &panish America at the end of the 1$th centur( appears to have -een in Chile, :here continuous :ar :ith the apuche Indians necessitated the maintenance of a-out 1,!"" men on a full#time -asis =3Mpez )az reportin8 in 1!%$ that the Chilean authorities spend all the 8old that the land (ieldeth in the maintenance of their soldiers2?* or the -ul of their militar( manpo:er, ho:ever, colonial officials depended on a mi'ture of volunteers, men raised at their o:n e'pense, militiamen provided -( the to:ns and lando:ners, and Indian au'iliaries* The fe: &panish re8ulars, :hether raised at the e'pense of the in8, the )icero(, the local 8overnor, or even the local municipal authorities, :ere chiefl( to -e found in the to:ns and speciall( constructed forts alon8 the coast =to repel the raids of rench, En8lish, and 4utch corsairs? and in the 'residios -uilt alon8 restless portions of the colonies2 frontiers* Individual local 8arrisons, ho:ever, sometimes consisted of no more than a captain, a handful of artiller(men =often no more than three, and occasionall( ust one?, and a fe: servants or slaves* ost of the availa-le artiller(, :hich appears to have -een considera-le, :as found in the same locations plus the lar8er to:ns =4rae2s attacs on &anto 4omin8o and Carta8ena in 1!%$ found more than 0" servicea-le 8uns @ three#quarters of them -rass @ in these t:o places alone?, -ut it sa: little service in the field outside of Peru2s mid# centur( civil :ars* 4urin8 the latter the rival factions fielded a-out si' 8uns apiece in several -attles, the ro(alists -ein8 a-le to muster up to a dozen on occasion -( tain8 additional suita-le pieces from the )icero(2s ships* The lar8est artiller( train recorded in the Ne: >orld durin8 the centur( seems to have -een that of .onzalo Pizarro in Peru in Octo-er 1!, :hich totalled as man( as ++ 8uns, plus !" artiller(men, a 8uard of ;" arque-usiers, and more than $,""" Indians carr(in8 the cannon and munitions on their -acs2 @ an allusion to the customar( practice adopted -( the &paniards in the Americas of havin8 their 8uns hauled or even, especiall( in Peru, 4arried -( teams of Indian -a88a8e#handlers* This :as necessitated -( -oth the relative scarcit( and hi8h value of horses and the severit( of the terrain* .arcilaso de la )e8a descri-es the technique as utilised in Peru< Each piece of artiller( :as lashed to a thic -eam more than fort( feet lon8* A series of poles ran under this -eam each a-out t:o feet apart and sticin8 out a-out a (ard on either side of the -eam* Each of these poles :as held -( a pair of Indians, one at each end The( -ore the :ei8ht on their necs, :here the( :ore pads so that the heavil( laden poles should not hurt them too much, and the Indians :ere chan8ed ever( +"" paces, since the( could not carr( such a :ei8ht an( 8reater distance*2 On the occasion he is descri-in8, 1",""" Indians :ere involved in the transport of 11 8uns, the -arrels and carria8es of :hich :ere carried separatel(* 4urin8 the second half of the centur( small -od(8uard units :ere esta-lished for the )icero(s* rancisco Pizarro2s ro(al :arrant authorisin8 the conquest of Peru had also
8iven him permission to raise a 8uard of + hal-erdiers, or perhaps arque-usiers, -ut he apparentl( never did* &uch a compan( of ala-arderos :as eventuall( raised in Peru in 1!!!, as :ere cavalr( units of lancers and archers2 =the latter term actuall( denotin8 cross-o:men and arque-usiers? these totalled 1"" lancers, !" archers2 and !" hal-erdiers -( 1!$0* At much the same date, ho:ever, )icero( EnrWquez de Almansa of Ne: &pain =1!$%F%"? :as authorised to have a 8uard of ust +" men* ilitar( service :as e'pected from &paniards settled in the Ne: >orld from the outset, and after Octo-er 1!" it -ecame o-li8ator( for all a-le freemen a8ed 1$F" to serve in the militia* Nevertheless, the accepta-ilit( of paid su-stitutes implies the availa-ilit( of additional men :ho clearl( did not o:e service on their o:n account =perhaps impermanent residents, such as seamen, or even forei8ners, such as the Italians and Portu8uese prominent amon8st Pizarro2s forces in Peru in the 1!"s?* The use of fines to emplo( su-stitutes is recorded as earl( as 1!+0, :hen NuSo de .uzmLn forced reluctant draftees to purchase e'emption -( each contri-utin8 a certain sum of mone( to hire a su-stitute2 for his e'pedition into Ne: .alicia* ilitiamen pursued their o:n occupations durin8 the :ee -ut theoreticall( assem-led for drill on &unda(s and for field#da(s once ever( four months, performed 8uard dut( at least once a month, and had to mae themselves availa-le for active service in the field :henever called upon* In e'chan8e for this the( :ere paid a small salar( and received assorted privile8es, nota-l( e'emption from prosecution and from the pa(ment of various ta'es* /( a-out mid#centur( most provinces appear to have -een capa-le of fieldin8 from 1"" up to a-out !"" militiamen, or sometimes more, :hile the maorit( of individual settlements could field no more than !"F1"" prior to c*1!%"* The lar8er, lon8#esta-lished to:ns :ere inevita-l( the e'ception* &an Duan de Puerto 5ico theoreticall( had access to 1!"F+"" militiamen in the 1!$"s, Carta8ena a-out ;"" =c*1!$"?, Havana !"" =1!%$?, and &anto 4omin8o alle8edl( 1,""" =1!7"?* Officers :ere provided -( a mi'ture of eminent citizens and local 8randees -ut, initiall( at least, :ere invaria-l( 'eninsulares =i*e* men -orn in &pain?, thou8h 4riollos @ colonial#-orn &paniards @ :ere -e8innin8 to appear amon8 them -( the latter part of the centur(* &enior officers :ere al:a(s veterans of &pain2s European :ars* /( the 1!%"s a-out t:o#thirds of the men the( commanded :ere 4riollos* There appears to have -een no official limit to the period for :hich a militiaman mi8ht -e called to the colours, this dependin8 entirel( on circumstances* As a result some :ere almost, if not actuall(, permanentl( under arms, sometimes for (ears at a time, and most served often enou8h to -ecome e'perienced soldiers =somethin8 :hich man( alread( :ere, since :e read time and a8ain of local men :ho :ere veterans of &pain2s various European :ars, nota-l( in Ital( and the 3o: Countries?* As a rule the -est qualit( men assisted in the 8uardin8 of e( cities and fortresses, and the :orst :ere used to 8uard the coasts @ :hich to some e'tent e'plains the timid response often met :ith -( corsair landin8#parties< &panish troops confrontin8 &ir Dohn Ha:ins in 1!$, for instance, fired a sin8le volle( and then ran a:a(* Ho:ever, official &panish polic( appears to have -een for the militia not to put up a resolute defence under such circumstances, -ut to simpl( offer such resistance as the( could and then retreat into the adacent
countr(side :ith their families and as much of their mova-le 8oods as the( could mana8e, leavin8 the enem( to -e dealt :ith, :hen necessar(, -( a relief force assem-led specificall( for the purpose* /( the 17th centur( the normal o-li8ation seems to have -een for men to serve in the militia durin8 ten consecutive (ears* Thou8h most militiamen served on foot some :ere cavalr(men* Nom-re de 4ios could field ;" horsemen in 1!!, for instance, Carta8ena " in 1!$$, Panama !" in 1!77, and &anto 4omin8o 1"" in 1!%; =compared to ;"", +"", !", and !"" foot#soldiers respectivel(?* The en4omenderos tended to provide the -ul of such cavalr(, those of each to:n 8enerall( constitutin8 an individual compan(* >hen taen on for the duration of a campai8n the( received no pa(, remuneration instead tain8 the form of further 8rants of land or improved terms re8ardin8 the en4omiendas the( alread( held refusal to serve 8enerall( resulted in confiscation of land andor the en4omendero2s Indian :or#force* Nevertheless, it seems liel( that not all of the men provided :ere necessaril( of a particularl( hi8h standard< of $+" cavalr( revie:ed in e'ico Cit( in 1!;$, for instance, onl( !" :ere found to -e in a fit state to tae the field, :hile in 1!+, durin8 the i'ton >ar, it :as discovered that man( of endoza2s cavalr(men laced the trainin8 or sill to serve effectivel( on horse-ac, and had to -e rele8ated to the infantr(* Ordinar( cavalr(men and foot#soldiers hired in Ne: &pain received a 8old peso and food allo:ance in 1!!+, :hile those hired in Peru received a lump#sum of a-out a (ear2s pa( on recruitment in order to equip themselves, -ut :ere luc( if the( ever sa: another penn( thereafter unless the campai8n :as unusuall( lon8* ortunatel( for the authorities most &paniards in the Americas :ere reputedl( proud enou8h to not even tae pa( from the Vin8 in time of :ar2, :hich, if true, is ust as :ell* On ver( rare occasions monthl( ration pa(ments :ere distri-uted* 4urin8 the initial phase of the &panish conquest units :ere made up ad hoc and, unsurprisin8l(, :ere of no particular size or composition* After re8ular 8overnment had -een esta-lished infantr( companies normall( consisted of 1!" or +"" men =thou8h the( :ere invaria-l( understren8th?, :hile cavalr( units :ere most commonl( of a-out +" men* /( the second half of the centur( infantr( companies in the field :ere lar8el( made up of men equipped entirel( :ith firearms, thou8h a sizea-le proportion @ perhaps as man( as a third @ seem to have either su-stituted or carried a s:ord and -ucler in addition :hen fi8htin8 Indians, and polearms :ere not unno:n* Pies :ere also issued as and :hen necessar(, for the defence of coastal to:ns a8ainst conventionall( equipped En8lish or rench forces deplo(in8 piemen of their o:n* >hen piemen :ere needed for field service, as durin8 Peru2s civil :ars, the( ma( have -een or8anised into separate companies certainl( the( served in separate units on the -attlefield, as :as customar( in Europe* Ho:ever, militar( equipment :as 8enerall( in short suppl(, and until the late#1!;"s militiamen usuall( provided their o:n :eapons, :hich consequentl( varied considera-l( in -oth t(pe and qualit(* Thereafter the Cro:n sent out occasional shipments of arms to equip the colonists, -ut records sho: that in the 1!"s and 1!!"s these usuall( comprised -et:een three and five pies to ever( firearm supplied, a ratio that improved to one or more firearms per pie durin8 the 1!$"s* Official orders for armour and :eapons often
remained unfilled even (ears after the( :ere sent in, and militiamen and re8ular soldiers alie continued to -e 8enerall( left to their o:n devices :hen equippin8 themselves* 3eather and cotton armour, shields and horses :ere invaria-l( o-tained privatel(, -ut firearms, mail corselets and plate armour :ere onl( availa-le =officiall(, at least? via the vicere8al authorities @ :hich pro-a-l( 8oes a lon8 :a( to:ards e'plainin8 :h( the( remained relativel( uncommon* )icero(s could usuall( onl( e'pect to receive a-out half of all the munitions the( ordered from &pain, if the( received an(thin8 at all* An order for arque-uses sent from e'ico in Danuar( 1!7+, for instance, :as still outstandin8 nearl( five (ears later, in 4ecem-er 1!7$* It is therefore unsurprisin8 to find that a 8reat man( firearms :ere actuall( o-tained -( smu88lin8 and other unofficial sources of suppl(*
MEild >est in em-r(o, complete :ith ranches, prospectors, :a8on trains, isolated forts, and sudden Indian raids, all set a8ainst a sand(, cactus#studded -acdrop* /ein8 lar8el( nomadic, the Indians here :ere infinitel( harder to pin do:n and defeat than the sedentar( tri-es of Central e'ico had -een, and pursuin8 their small raidin8 parties :as ain to chasin8 after shado:s* The solution to the pro-lem :as the esta-lishment at e( points of small forts called 'residios, the 8arrisons of :hich could patrol the area and provide escorts for the :a8on trains travellin8 to and from the valua-le silver mines that had -een esta-lished deep :ithin Indian territor(* )icero( Antonio de endoza =1!;!F!"? :as the first to consider -uildin8 a line of 'residios, follo:in8 the suppression of the re-ellion of 1!1F+, in order to provide a screen a8ainst the possi-ilit( of incursions -( the unconquered northern tri-es* Ho:ever, construction of the first t:o did not -e8in until 1!$0* ore :ere -uilt throu8hout the 1!7"s, and +" more in the 1!%"s as conflict in the re8ion intensified* Their num-ers onl( declined to:ards the end of the centur(, as the Chichimec threat receded* The standard 'residio :as rectan8ular, :ith non# crenellated :alls, -attlements that provided the roofs of the -uildin8s :ithin =:hich surrounded an open quadran8le?, to:ers at t:o or more corners, and one 8ate* The earliest had 8arrisons comprisin8 ust a senior soldier called a 4audillo =or 4a-o? and four or five men, -ut later, as the Indians o-tained horses for themselves and there-( increased their mo-ilit(, the( increased to -et:een a-out a dozen and +" or so men* an( 8arrisons remained understren8th, ho:ever, and it :as not unno:n for them to -e dis-anded entirel( simpl( to cut costs, a constant lac of mone( -ein8 ust as severe a handicap to &panish militar( operations in the Americas as it :as in Europe, lar8el( in consequence of inter#departmental rivalr( and an over#indul8ence in red tape -( the ro(al treasur( a8ents -ased in e'ico Cit( =:ho at times refused even to o-e( the orders of the )icero( himself?* &mall patrols and escorts of four to ten men :ere still -ein8 mounted -( these presidial 8arrisons even in the 1!%"s, -ut -( then lar8er, full#time patrols of up to " men :ere also -ein8 maintained in the field, commanded -( a
commissioned captain assisted -( an alfIrez and a sarento* In addition some :ealth( lando:ners and mine# o:ners maintained their o:n salaried soldiers under special licence from the )icero( and, from 1!7!, :a8on trains :ere required -( la: to provide t:o :ell#armed men per 4uadrilla =a squad2 or unit2, presuma-l( in this instance meanin8 a sin8le :a8on?* All of these various soldiers :ere arque-us#armed cavalr(men on cotton# armoured horses infantr( on the northern frontier :ere provided mostl( -( Indian au'iliaries, ver( occasionall( -aced up -( local militiamen* ull#scale punitive e'peditions comprised at most "F!" &panish cavalr( and %"F!"" Indian au'iliaries, and :ere usuall( commanded -( the provincial lieutenant captain#8eneral* The soldiers :ere mostl( criollos =$" -( the 1!%"s? and occasionall( mestizos, :hile European#-orn &paniards constituted at most onl( a-out a third of them, thou8h this last 8roup still included most of the officers, usuall( lando:ners commissioned to raise troops :henever called upon to do so* Ordinar( cavalr(men :ere still -ein8 paid as little as +!" 'esos per annum even in 1!7$, despite the fact that a captain in 1!$1 reconed that the men in his compan( that (ear had each spent -et:een 1,""" and +,""" 'esos on horses and equipment and even in 1!%", :hen pa( :as increased to ;"" 'esos, it :as still considered that no soldier could adequatel( equip himself for less than a thousand* Even so, pa( peaed at ust !" 'esos in 1!%1, despite the fact that the resultant lo:#qualit( recruits often actuall( provoed Indian hostilit( -( their unrul( -ehaviour, some even operatin8 protection racets or indul8in8 in the ille8al slave trade in order to au8ment their mea8re salaries* Even captains officiall( received onl( !"" 'esos in the 1!7"s, increased to $"" in 1!%1, -ut in practice their pa( varied -et:een !!"F%""* Pa( :as issued in advance in up to three instalments a (ear, thou8h men posted to the most inaccessi-le spots 8ot theirs onl( once a (ear if the( 8ot it at all*
8ORID& The fact that the maorit( of treasure ships travellin8 -et:een the Americas and &pain passed throu8h the &traits of lorida inevita-l( rendered lorida itself of considera-le strate8ic importance, and led to several inauspicious attempts to esta-lish a settlement there durin8 the first half of the centur(, :hich have -een outlined in the chapter on North America* The lar8est of these :as Hernando de &oto2s e'pedition of 1!;0F;, :hich had landed some $"" people =includin8 ei8ht clerics -ut apparentl( onl( four :omen?* ollo:in8 the failure of this enterprise and the lapse of de &oto2s ro(al :arrant, it :as decided that the )icero(alt( of Ne: &pain should itself anne' the re8ion rather than depend on the escapades of profit#seein8 entrepreneurs such as de &oto* At the end of 1!!7, therefore, )icero( 3uWs )elasco of Ne: &pain =1!!"F$?, :as ordered to esta-lish a colon( on &t* Helena Island =&outh Carolina?, some +" miles north of the mouth of the &avannah 5iver, thou8h this instruction :as su-sequentl( revised, directin8 instead that a settlement should first -e esta-lished on the .ulf coast of lorida itself* To this end a fleet of 11 ships, :ith !"" soldiers, +" horses =of :hich onl( 1;"F1" survived the vo(a8e?, and 1,""" settlers and
slaves =the former -ein8 mostl( Christian Tla'caltec Indians from e'ico? @ :as despatched to Pensacola /a( in mid#1!!0 under the ne:l(#appointed 8overnor of lorida, TristLn de 3una ( Arellano* Ho:ever, lie its predecessors, this em-r(o colon( failed to prosper and had to -e a-andoned in 1!$1* Horses, incidentall(, did not last lon8 in an( of the &panish e'peditions to lorida, all those :hich did not die of disease, hun8er, or Indian arro:s invaria-l( endin8 up -ein8 eaten* Even after the &paniards esta-lished a permanent presence here the num-er of horses failed to increase, despite occasional shipments of additional animals from Cu-a and Hispaniola* There :ere ust 1! or 1$ left in &an A8ustWn in 1!7", all of :hich had -een eaten -( 1!7;* It too the arrival of rench settlers in 1!$+ to prompt more determined &panish efforts to colonise lorida, another private individual @ the francopho-ic Pedro enBndez de AvilBs @ -ein8 8ranted authorit( to conquer the re8ion as Captain#.eneral of lorida* 110 5aisin8 a force of nearl( +,$!" soldiers and settlers, 1"" horses and ; ships in &pain, lar8el( at his o:n e'pense =onl( +00 men and one ship -ein8 provided -( the Cro:n?, he descended on the small rench colon( at ort Caroline in &eptem-er 1!$! and annihilated it, su-sequentl( esta-lishin8 three forts on this site, :hich he renamed &an ateo, and a fourth =&an Duan de Pinos? at &an A8ustWn, further south on lorida2s Atlantic coast* The follo:in8 (ear he occupied and refortified a deserted rench site at Charlesfort on Parris Island =&outh Carolina?, renamin8 it &an elipe, havin8 alread( -uilt a ne: 'residio called &anta Elena on nei8h-ourin8 &t* Helena Island* &everal smaller fortlets and ranciscan missionar( outposts :ere also esta-lished, at Tequesta and &an Antonio on the :est coast, AWs, Toco-a8o, &anta 3ucWa =no: &t* 3ucie? and atanzas on the east coast, and Doada and A'acan in .eor8ia* Another small fort :as -uilt at &an Pedro de Tacatacuru on Cum-erland Island in 1!%7* 111 Each of the fortlets had a 8arrison of onl( a-out ;" men, thou8h there :ere said to -e +"" at AWs :hen it :as first erected* Half#a#dozen small forts :ere esta-lished in the direction of North Carolina -( an e'pedition of 1+! men under Duan Pardo =sent out from &anta Elena -( enBndez in 1!$$F$%?, -ut these had a lifespan of no more than a fe: months, the Indians overrunnin8 all of them -( sprin8 1!$% after one of the 8arrison commanders had made the fundamental mistae of 8ettin8 involved in tri-al politics -( providin8 militar( support to one tri-e a8ainst another* ost of the 8overnor2s various other fortifications fared little -etter* rench raiders destro(ed the trio of forts at &an ateo in 1!$% and the( :ere not re-uilt* The outpost at Tequesta :as a-andoned in 1!7", as :as that at &an Antonio at some point -et:een 1!$%F71 in consequence of a risin8 led -( the most po:erful local chief, Calusa* The other loridian fortlets :ere nearl( all over:helmed -( local Indians at much the same date, and certainl( -( c*1!7!* atanzas survived a little lon8er on account of its -ein8 onl( 1% miles south of &an A8ustWn, :hich :as itself partiall( destro(ed in an Indian attac at a-out this time, :hen the po:der ma8azine e'ploded after -ein8 set ali8ht -( fire#arro:s* The Desuit mission at A'acan :as destro(ed in an Indian attac in 1!71, Doada :as a-andoned soon after, and nine small ranciscan missions esta-lished in .eor8ia in 1!0 survived onl( until 1!07, :hen a .uale uprisin8 :iped them out too =missionar( activit( here :as
rene:ed in 1$"1?* At the end of the centur( &an Pedro provided the sprin8-oard from :hich operations a8ainst the .uale re-els :ere launched* All of the &panish forts in 3a lorida :ere constructed of tim-er, and thus hi8hl( suscepti-le to the vicissitudes of the local su-#tropical climate, :hich rotted :ood in ne't to no time* An En8lish report descri-es the :alls -ein8 none other -ut :hole masts or -odies of trees set upri8ht and close to8ether in the manner of a pale2, :ith :hatever 8uns the( -oasted -ein8 mounted on platforms constructed of la(ers of tree#truns :ith earth paced -et:een the truns in 1!%$ &an A8ustWn2s fort had 1; or 1 8uns, includin8 si' -ronze pieces, and in 1!7$ &anta Elena had four -ronze 8uns =:ith another t:o -uried near-(?* In a-out 1!7+ another report descri-ed &anta Elena and &an A8ustWn forts as -ein8 made of plans and thic -eams for pillars2, and maes the o-servation that their tim-ers rotted from the damp climate after onl( four or five (ears, so that their 8arrisons had to :or all (ear round to eep them in a fit state of repair* This in turn led to much discontent, since the men often received no pa( or rations for months at a time, and the report closes :ith the o-servation that the( :ould have mutinied if the( had had a -oat to 8et a:a( in* The fort at &an A8ustWn destro(ed -( 4rae2s e'pedition in 1!%$ =see -elo:? :as actuall( the si'th of nine forts -uilt in succession on this site -et:een its foundation and the end of the centur(, those :hich :ere not destro(ed -( rot variousl( succum-in8 to fire, floods, and hurricanes* In Novem-er 1!$7 &an ateo had a 8arrison of +"" men, &an A8ustWn another +"", and &anta Elena $"* Ho:ever, -( 1!7; there :ere onl( +! soldiers each at &an A8ustWn and &anta Elena accordin8 to one of the colonists, 3Mpez de )elasco recordin8 that the stren8th of lorida2s entire 8arrison and colon( stood at ust 1!" soldiers and as man( civilians =la-ourers2? -( then* In 1!7$ there are said to have -een ust +"" men in the t:o survivin8 'residios at &anta Elena and &an A8ustWn =&an elipe had -een temporaril( a-andoned it :as -riefl( reoccupied after 1!7%?, and enBndez2s nephe: and successor Pedro enBndez arquBs found ust 1;0 soldiers and la-ourers2 in &anta Elena at his arrival there in 1!77* Ho:ever, other sources put overall 8arrison stren8th at a-out +7! men the follo:in8 (ear* Either :a(, the d:indlin8 8arrisons :ere descri-ed as -ein8 in 8reat :ant2 -( 1!%* T:o (ears later &ir rancis 4rae, havin8 alread( saced &anto 4omin8o in Hispaniola and Carta8ena in Ne: .ranada, attaced and -urned &an A8ustWn en route -ac to En8land, over:helmin8 its defences in ust t:o da(s, despite the assistance provided to the 8arrison -( local Timucua Indians, :ho launched at least one unsuccessful sortie a8ainst the En8lish attacers the En8lish sources 8ive its 8arrison at that date as 1!" men* Ho:ever, the fort :as su-sequentl( re-uilt, and :hen it :as decided to a-andon &anta Elena the follo:in8 (ear &an A8ustWn thereafter constituted the onl( si8nificant &panish stron8hold left in lorida, its 8arrison @ recorded as +!" men in April 1$"" @ -ein8 so closel( invested -( hostile Indians112 that it stood no chance of ever fulfillin8 the role envisa8ed for it< to protect &pain2s interests in south#east America and &panish shippin8 usin8 the straits* It therefore comes as little surprise to learn that -( 1$"+ it :as -ein8 proposed -ac in &pain that the province should -e a-andoned entirel(, and another five (ears :ere to elapse -efore a decision to persevere :as finall( reached*
INDI&N &Uestern e'ico in 1!+0F ;1 and !,""" Tarascans marched to defeat :ith Alvarado in 1!1, the same (ear as ust +" &paniards :ere accompanied -( +,""" Indian friends2 in rancisco de Cardenas2 e'pedition a8ainst anco Inca 6upanqui* 1!,""" Indians are said to have set out :ith 4ie8o de Alma8ro2s e'pedition from Peru to Chile in 1!;$, :hile for the sie8e of Tenochtitlan in 1!+1 CortBs had the services of at least +"F+,""", provided -( Tla'cala, Hue'otzinca, Cholula, Te'coco, Chalco, Gochimilco, and Tacu-a* The lar8est au'iliar( force of all :as pro-a-l( that of perhaps ",""" Indians @ lar8el( Tla'caltecs, Tarascans, and Otomi, -ut includin8 contin8ents from various other Christianised e'ican tri-es @ :hich accompanied endoza north to crush the Teul Chichimecs in 1!+* &uch au'iliaries :ere at first allo:ed to pursue their -loodthirst( tradition of ritual sacrifice* After the fall of Tenochtitlan, for instance, the Tla'caltecs indul8ed in a feast of sacrificed Aztecs, even tain8 home portions of flesh for those :ho had sta(ed -ehind in Tla'cala, and Tarascan au'iliaries :ere lie:ise allo:ed to sacrifice their captives undistur-ed after the conquest of Colima* /artolomB de 3as Casas even claimed =dou-tless :ith more than a little e'a88eration? that Pedro de Alvarado2s au'iliaries in .uatemala :ere provided :ith nothin8 at all to eat, -ein8 instead allo:ed to eat the Indians the( captured2* Ho:ever, this period of e'pedient tolerance of native custom appears to have -een short#lived, and in e'ico Christianisation of the Indians follo:ed hard on the heels of conquest -efore the end of the 1!+"s* Of all the Indian au'iliaries fielded durin8 the 1$th centur( pride of place must 8o to the Tla'caltecs, :ho stood -( CortBs and his 4on5uistadores in their darest hour, after the Aztecs had driven the &paniards from Tenochtitlan in 1!+", illin8 t:o#thirds of them in the process* Tla'caltec contin8ents served in ever( maor &panish campai8n in e'ico durin8 the first half of the centur(, a record of :hich the( :ere immensel( proud*
A Tla'caltec :arrior actuall( saved CortBs2 life in the fi8htin8 at Gochimilco in 1!+1* Even the &paniards @ not 8enerall( 8iven to humilit( at this date @ acno:led8ed their de-t to the lo(alt( of their Tla'caltec allies, 8rantin8 them as a re:ard full e'emption from the sometimes considera-le tri-ute demands and o-li8ator( personal service imposed on other Indians, a privile8e the( :ere still eno(in8 in 1$"+* 3o(al Tla'caltec colonists :ere later transplanted to settlements on the northern frontier, to help secure it a8ainst Chichimec raiders, as too :ere Indians from Cholula, ichoacLn and else:here* &uch colonists :ere encoura8ed to perform militar( service :hen called upon -( the promise of slaves and land, thou8h sometimes such service :as nevertheless e'acted under duress, and fines mi8ht -e imposed on those :ho declined to provide it* Althou8h Tla'caltecs and Tarascans served there in considera-le num-ers, the &paniards2 principal allies in their northern conquests :ere the Otomis* These provided the -ul of the au'iliar( troops fielded in the Chichimec >ar of 1!!"F0", sometimes unsupported -( an( &panish soldiers :hatsoever, and some of their chieftains received commissions ain to those issued to &panish officers* The Christianised Otomi chieftain NicolLs de &an 3uWs of Tula, for instance, :as commissioned as a captain and captain# 8eneral2 of Indians in 1!!7, :ith authorit( to use the arms of offence and defence necessar( for such office2 and instructions to arm (ourself in full re8alia to distin8uish (ourself from the 1,""" Indians :ith -o:s and arro:s2 under his command he :as even authorised to 8o to :ar accompanied -( a drum, -u8le and fife* Even so, thou8h he had sole command of his :arriors he nevertheless had to -e accompanied -( a &panish liaison officer on all his campai8ns and :as accounta-le to the al4alde mayor in Dilotepec* Another Otomi chieftain, HernLndez de TapWa, is recorded to have maintained his o:n troop of !"" archers for service a8ainst the Chichimecs* The !"" Indians recorded -( Dohn Chilton accompan(in8 " &panish soldiers throu8h Chichimec territor( in Tamaulipas in 1!7+ :ere pro-a-l( Otomis too he descri-es them as all 8ood archers and naed men2* The service of such :arriors :as initiall( paid for -( 8ifts of food, clothin8, and trade 8oods, -ut e'emption from some or all of their tri-ute pa(ment and personal service o-li8ations -ecame the norm from the 1!7"s* A fe: :ere maintained on a permanent -asis, either -( the state or -( individual lando:ners, and served primaril( in the role of scouts* /ands of Ara:a Indians receivin8 re8ular monthl( salaries :ere -ein8 similarl( maintained on a semi#permanent -asis in Cu-a -( a-out mid#centur(, for use a8ainst those of their countr(men still in arms a8ainst the &panish conquerors* Inevita-l( one of the principal pro-lems of emplo(in8 Indian au'iliaries in -attle :as the difficult( of distin8uishin8 friend from foe* It :as eas( enou8h if the au'iliaries :ere :earin8 &panish#st(le clothes or carr(in8 &panish :eapons, -ut the sources mae it a-undantl( clear that Indian costume and :eapons continued to prevail in Northern e'ico and most of &outh America throu8hout the centur(, thou8h in /razil the Tupiniin and To-a(ara au'iliaries found in Portu8uese service are said to have :orn :hite shirts* As earl( as 1!+1 &panish cavalr( fi8htin8 in atlatzin8o illed si' or ei8ht of their o:n Otomi au'iliaries after mistain8 them for Aztecs, and this :as dou-tless not an isolated incident* Even the
introduction of simple field#si8ns @ such as the pieces of red felt :orn in the head-ands of Antonio de Espeo2s Indians in Ne: e'ico in 1!%+F%;, or the :hite crosses2 =pro-a-l( saltires? painted on the chest and -ac of NXSez Ca-eza de )aca2s .uaranW au'iliaries in Ar8entina in 1!+ @ :ere no certain 8uarantee of safet( in the heat and confusion of -attle, and Ca-eza de )aca himself conceded that such devices helped ver( little after several of his .uaranWs :ere still accidentall( illed -( over#enthusiastic &panish soldiers durin8 a close ni8ht#-attle* Pro-a-l( such occurrences 8raduall( diminished as, :ith e'perience, the &paniards -ecame more familiar :ith the individualities of costume, hair#st(le and so forth that distin8uished one tri-e from the ne't, -ut it is unliel( that the pro-lem :as ever entirel( eliminated*
S8&ES &ND CIM&ROONS Ne8ro slaves accompanied all of the earl( &panish e'peditions* CortBs had as man( as ;"" :ith him durin8 his campai8n in e'ico in 1!+1, and it :as reconed that there :ere some 1",""" scattered throu8hout the Ne: >orld -( 1!+%* 3as Casas sa(s that -( 1!" this fi8ure had increased to 1"","""* An oidor of &anto 4omin8o reported the presence of +",""" Ne8ro slaves on Hispaniola alone c*1!$", and there are said to have -een over +",""" in e'ico -( 1!7"* Thou8h a report of 1!%+ is pro-a-l( e'a88eratin8 :hen it claims that there :ere -( then +!,""" Ne8roes on Hispaniola, it is of interest in its o-servation that the island2s compara-le &panish population :as ust +,""", even includin8 Indians, mestizos, and mulattoes* Ale'ander rsino tells us at much the same date =1!%1? that there :ere onl( a-out +,7!" &paniards in Peru, less than 1,;"" in Chile, and ust "" in Panama* >ith as man( as +,""" Ne8ro slaves -ein8 officiall( =and perhaps t:ice as man( more unofficiall(? imported into &panish America ever( (ear -( 1!!+, it is hardl( surprisin8 that the &paniards soon started to loo upon their slaves as an untapped source of militar( manpo:er* Individual Ne8ro slaves are occasionall( mentioned fi8htin8 alon8side their &panish masters from the ver( -e8innin8 of the Conquest*113 Ho:ever, the first time the( appeared on the -attlefield in si8nificant num-ers :as durin8 the period of the Peruvian civil :ars :hich -e8an in 1!;7, :hen desperation pro-a-l( drove man( men on -oth sides to arm their slaves for the first time* Ne8ro slaves fou8ht on )aca de Castro2s side at the /attle of Chupas in 1!+, for instance, :hile in 1!% .onzalo Pizarro armed a num-er of his Ne8ro and Indian slaves :ith lances and put them on horse-ac to deceive the enem( into thinin8 his forces lar8er than the( :ere* Then in 1!!;F! HernLndez de la Nazca, one of .irMn2s captains, or8anised the first -lac infantr( compan( in the Ne: >orld, consistin8 initiall( of 1!" slaves =later +!"F;""? captured durin8 the destruction of ro(alist propert(* These :ere armed :ith a mi'ture of a8ricultural implements =hoes2? and firearms, and :ere promised their freedom in e'chan8e for militar( service a8ainst the ro(alists* .arcilaso de la )e8a reports that .irMn 8ave them an independent command2, :ith a slave called aster Duan as their captain#8eneral* Apart from the Ne8ro commander,2 he continues, the re-el leader appointed Ne8ro captains, :ho piced their ensi8ns,
ser8eants, and corporals, and fifers and drummers an( Ne8roes in the ro(alist camp :ent over to the re-el side :hen the( ne: that rancisco HernLndez had treated their relatives so honoura-l(, and the( fou8ht a8ainst their masters for the duration of the :ar* The re-el leader made full use of these soldiers, sendin8 them out :ith &panish corporals to 8ather provisions*2 At the /attle of PucarL the( and 7" &panish arque-usiers :ere sent to launch a frontal attac on the ro(alist camp :hile the rest of the arm( attaced from the rear* Else:here Ne8ro slaves served in the defence of coastal to:ns a8ainst pirate raiders, as at Havana in 1!!!, 114 &an Duan de Puerto 5ico in 1!!7, Carta8ena in 1!$" and 1!7+, and &anto 4omin8o in 1!%;, and :hen the first militia companies :ere esta-lished in Cu-a in 1!%$ in response to 4rae2s threatened attac on Havana the( included man( men of colour2, thou8h these ma( have -een lar8el( mulattoes rather than pure#-looded Ne8roes since the independent -lac compan( formed from such militiamen in 1$"" :as called the Com'aJa de ardos i-res =Compan( of ree ulattoes2?* ree -lacs, :ho onl( -e8an to appear to:ards the middle of the centur( as particularl( enli8htened individuals re:arded their most lo(al slaves :ith manumission, :ere less common* Nevertheless, there :ere as man( as !" amon8st the !"F !"" men mustered to defend Carta8ena a8ainst 4rae in 1!%$, and a compan( of free Ne8roes commanded -( a Ne8ro captain too part in the operations a8ainst 4rae2s landin8#part( in Panama in 1!0!* In 1$1", ho:ever, there :ere still onl( 1% in the :hole of Panama, compared to ;,!"" Ne8ro slaves* Thou8h constantl( short of :orers -ecause their slaves died so often, the &paniards never looed to improve their conditions or treat them more humanel(, -ut simpl( imported ever more slaves* &o harsh :ere the conditions in :hich the( lived that a si8nificant num-er inevita-l( fled* an( :ere run do:n and recaptured -( huntin8 parties of men and do8s called ran4headores @ a dan8erous occupation :hich cost the lives of man( &paniards* Others elected to remain :ithin &panish colonial societ( -( choosin8 themselves a ne: master, or pretendin8 to -e freemen @ a certain Duan )aliente, for instance, fled his ori8inal master in Ne: &pain and ended up servin8 :ith his o:n arms and horse in Pedro de )aldivia2s e'pedition in Chile in 1!", :here he :as eventuall( illed in -attle -( the apuche Indians* an(, ho:ever, simpl( fled into the hills, :here it :as ne't to impossi-le for the &paniards to find them* The earliest official record of such an event dates to 1!"+, and -( the ver( ne't (ear the pro-lem had alread( 8ro:n to serious enou8h proportions on Hispaniola that the import of further slaves :as temporaril( suspended* /ut the situation did not improve durin8 the 1$th centur(, and -( 1!7" it :as -ein8 claimed that ;" of the slaves imported into the Americas ever( (ear succeeded in escapin8 into the -ush* /( the 1!;"s the &paniards had nicnamed such runa:a(s 4imarrones, or Cimaroons =from the &panish :ord 4imarr
/a(ano in Panama, and 6an8a in #ran Chi4hime4a @ claimed to have ori8inall( -een in8s in their .uinean or An8olan homeland* The Cimaroons -uilt themselves villa8es and 8re: crops alon8side these, includin8 -ananas, -eans, maize, cotton, su8ar cane, and to-acco* e: descriptions of earl( aroon villa8es or 4um-es =from the African :ord mikum-e, meanin8 a hideout? appear to have survived, or at least have not -een pu-lished* Ho:ever, it can -e 8enerall( supposed that the( resem-led 17th centur( 'alen5ues =as the( :ere su-sequentl( called, from the &panish :ord for a stocade?, :hich consisted of small settlements of 1!F+" :attle#and#dau- huts @ easil( re-uilt once an attacin8 &panish force had :ithdra:n @ surrounded -( a palisade of lo8s or thorn entan8lements and one or more ditches lined :ith sharpened staes* Other defences often encountered consisted of -oo-(#trapped false trails* It :ould seem from 1$th centur( sources that earlier villa8es ma( not have -een fortified as often or :ith as much sophistication, -ut at least one Cimaroon stron8hold on the /alsas 5iver in Panama, attaced -( the &paniards in 1!77, had a fort2* =Its defenders, includin8 a handful of En8lish corsairs under Dohn O'enham, 11# :ere driven out, a-andonin8 the fort and settin8 fire to it and the villa8e as the( fled*? The &paniards had discovered this villa8e more -( luc than sill, and numerous sources allude to the difficult( of findin8 Cimaroon -ases, :hich :ere so :ell#hidden in the forests that it :as said to -e possi-le to :al ri8ht past one :ithout noticin8 it* The stren8th of a Cimaroon -and :as increased -( the arrival of additional runa:a(s, and -( the capture of slaves from the &paniards* orci-l( li-erated slaves, ho:ever, :ere at first :atched closel( in case the( should turn out to -e spies, and the( 8enerall( seem to have served some sort of pro-ationar( period -efore -ein8 trusted :ith arms* An( Cimaroon :ho deserted or attempted to -etra( the communit( :as illed* Ne8ro freemen, incidentall(, :ere not recruited the( :ere neither lied nor trusted -( the Cimaroons, :ho re8arded them as to all intents and purposes &paniards, and consequentl( treated them as such* The onl( :a( that Cimaroon children could therefore -e -orn free :as -( intermarria8e :ith Indians =their issue -ein8 referred to -( the &paniards as zam-os?, :hich often resulted in the Cimaroons -ein8 at :ar :ith some of the local Indian tri-es, from :hom the( had idnapped Indian :omen* ale runa:a(s considera-l( outnum-ered females, so this :as the onl( :a( that most could 8et a :ife* 5ivalr( :ith other Cimaroon -ands also occasionall( led to -loodshed* .irolamo /enzoni attri-utes this enmit( to the fact that man( Cimaroons had -een sold into slaver( -( their o:n tri-e2s enemies, and :here mem-ers of these enem( tri-es :ere found to -e present in a rival -and friction :as sure to ensue* As a result, he o-serves, the( do not do the harm to the &paniards that the( mi8ht if the( :ere all united2, thou8h the( :ere a-le to mae common cause amon8 themselves2 :hen necessar(* The &paniards considered that -urnin8 the runa:a(s2 fields and there-( leavin8 them :ithout an( means of su-sistence :as the most effective :arfare :hich can -e :a8ed upon the Cimaroons*2 The fact that in the :inter season2 @ i*e* the middle months of the (ear @ the Cimaroons :ere una-le to conceal their foodstuffs 8ro:in8 in the fields, and :ere compelled -( the heav( rains to sta( in the shelter of their villa8es, made this the ideal time to attac them, :hereas after their crops had -een harvested
in the summer the( :ere a-le to secrete these and themselves in the -ush :here not a man could find them* urther,2 continues a &panish report of 1!71, in the Q:interR rains the Ne8roes leave a trail in the mud :herever the( 8o, and cannot avoid doin8 so nor can the( travel -( the rivers, for the( are s:ollen* In the summer the( can travel thus, and leave no trail*2 The Cimaroons :ere reported to not a:ait an attac their defence is to flee and to hide in the remotest, most secret fastnesses of the mountains, a-andonin8 their villa8es, some of :hich the( -urned as soon as the( ne: that our men :ere approachin8*2 Indeed, the( had a nac for disappearin8, .eneral 4ie8o de rias Treo reportin8, re8ardin8 a campai8n a8ainst them in Panama in 1!7%, that after capturin8 a villa8e on the PiSos 5iver he had 8one over the :hole re8ion :ithout findin8 a Ne8ro or trace of an(, -ecause the( have separated and fled to remote and hidden fastnesses, QandR there remained no Ne8ro :ho could -e cau8ht, or even laid e(es upon2* Consequentl( the &paniards often used captured Cimaroons =especiall( those :ho had su-mitted voluntaril(? as tracers, to hunt do:n their elusive countr(men* All Cimaroons :ere capa-le of advancin8 throu8h the forests in perfect silence, :hich made them ideal as scouts, and the( could detect the presence of &paniards at a considera-le distance -( the smell of their smoulderin8 arque-us matches* A succinct description of Cimaroon comportment durin8 a sirmish is provided -( rancis 4rae2s nephe: and namesae, :ho records that :hen a compan( of &paniards marched out to confront 4rae2s attac on )enta Cruces in 1!7;, the Cimaroons, after initiall( tain8 shelter from the &paniards2 arque-us fire, all rushed for:ard one after another, traversin8 the :a( :ith their arro:s read( in their -o:s and their manner of countr( dance or leap, ver( lustil( sin8in8 yo 'ehoK yo 'ehoK and so 8ot -efore us, :here the( continued their leap and son8 after the manner of their o:n countr( :ars, till the( and :e overtoo some of the enem( :ho, near the :ood2s end, had conve(ed themselves :ithin the :oods to have taen their stand /ut our Cimaroons -roe in throu8h the thicets on -oth sides of them, forcin8 them to fl(2* One Cimaroon :as illed -( a pie thrust, -ut he :as their onl( casualt(* At one time or another in the course of the centur( there :ere pro-lems :ith slave re-ellions and Cimaroon -ands in almost ever( corner of &panish America, as follo:s<
-is(ani*a The first slave revolt in the Ne: >orld too place at &anto 4omin8o in 4ecem-er 1!++, most of the re-els -ein8 han8ed :hen it :as crushed* The leader of the principal -and of Hispaniolan Cimaroons -( 1!+ @ :hen it :as -elieved that there :ere +F;,""" runa:a( slaves scattered across the island @ :as 4ie8o de .uzmLn, :ho :as illed in a confrontation :ith ;" &panish soldiers, durin8 :hich 10 Cimaroons and one &paniard :ere illed and 1$ &paniards :ere :ounded* His place :as then taen -( 4ie8o de Campo* /enzoni records that the &paniards finall( seein8 that these -lacs multiplied, and that all the &paniards :ho fell into their hands :ere made to die under ever( sort of torment, -e8an to collect men to8ether and send them into all parts of the island :here the Ne8roes hid
themselves* At first it turned out ver( favoura-le to the &paniards, for tain8 :ith them some Ne8roes, under promise of li-ert(, :ho ne: the localities, the( used to attac them in the ni8ht, and findin8 the people asleep the( captured and illed a 8reat man( of them* /ut thereafter the runa:a(s learned to eep :atch and to -e vi8ilant, :here-( the &paniards often 8ot the :orst of it* Thus the Ne8roes have no: -ecome so fierce and numerous, that :hen I :as residin8 on the island, it :as asserted that there :ere up:ards of 7,"""* And in the (ear of 1!!, :hile I :as residin8 there, it :as reported that the Cimaroons =for so the &paniards in those countries call the outla:s? had oined a 8eneral re-ellion, :ere scourin8 over ever( part of the island, and doin8 all the mischief the( could* >hereupon the almirante, 4on 3ui8i Colom-o sent some messen8ers to entreat and supplicate them to -e content to live peacea-l(, for the &paniards :ould do the same and :ould not anno( them an( more*2 &endin8 -ac a messa8e that he did not trust their promises, 4ie8o de Campo defeated one &panish force sent a8ainst him -ut :as su-sequentl( captured* He saved his life -( a8reein8 to 8uide further &panish e'peditions a8ainst the Cimaroons, -ut :as soon after:ards illed -( his former companions* He :as succeeded as leader -( a slave named Captain 3em-a, :hose -and, livin8 the life of hi8h:a(men, had d:indled from 1" to a mere +" men -( 1!%, :hen 3em-a :as illed* This did not mar the end of the Cimaroon pro-lem on Hispaniola, ho:ever, since in the ver( same (ear the &paniards -ecame a:are for the first time of another -and :hich had apparentl( e'isted, undiscovered, since the -e8innin8 of the 1!;"s, -ut their he(da( appears to have -een over -( mid#centur(*
5ana!a A 8eneral risin8 of Ne8ro slaves :as onl( put do:n :ith 8reat difficult(2 here in 1!;1, and in the 1!"s /enzoni reported that amon8 the :oods on the eastern side, not ver( far from Nom-re de 4ios, there are num-ers of Ne8ro runa:a(s, :ho have illed man( &paniards sent -( the 8overnors to destro( them*2 These had also allied themselves :ith the local Indians, and the( steadil( -ecame more po:erful, eventuall( threatenin8 the transit of treasure shipments overland from Panama to Nom-re de 4ios alon8 the Camino ,eal * An official of Panama reported in 1!7" that the matter :hich, in this in8dom, most ur8entl( demands remedial action is the pro-lem of dispersin8 the Cimaroons, Ne8ro outla:s in re-ellion in its mountainous, unpopulated interior2, :ho :ere numerous2 =sources su88est there :ere a-out ;,""" -( this date? and ro--ed travellers on the roads* He descri-es their principal settlement as -ein8 )allano, ;" lea8ues from Nom-re de 4ios, and states that 1" &paniards, includin8 1"" arque-usiers, had ust -een sent a8ainst them* This force :as su-sequentl( maintained in the field continuousl( -( the Panamanian authorities, -ut :as una-le to do more than eep the roads clear* >hat :as alread( a dan8erous situation reached crisis point durin8 the 1!7"s :hen the Cimaroons -e8an to support the raids of En8lish corsairs, the &paniards reco8nisin8 that -ecause of -ein8 so thorou8hl( acquainted :ith the re8ion and so e'pert in the -ush2 the
Cimaroons could sho: En8lish pirates methods and means to accompan( an( evil desi8n the( ma( :ish to carr( out2* One En8lish account of 1!7+ descri-es the Cimaroons of Panama as -ein8 under t:o in8s of their o:n* The one inha-iteth to the :est, the other to the east of the :a( from Nom-re de 4ios to Panama2* Another sa(s that there :ere three -ands, consistin8 of a small 8roup in the vicinit( of Panama :ho lived -( attacin8 traffic -et:een Panama and )enta Cruces, and t:o su-stantiall( more si8nificant -ands, one at Puerto /ello under Pedro andin8a =:ho claimed, :ith considera-le e'a88eration, to -e a-le to raise 1,7"" men, and is recorded to have raided Nom-re de 4ios itself?, and the other @ the lar8est Cimaroon -and of all @ in the district of )allano in the south, under Duan )aquero, :ho is sometimes called /a(ano in &panish sources =a corruption of )allano2?* rancis 4rae unior records that the Puerto /ello Cimaroons had -een attaced in 1!7+ -( a 1!"#stron8 &panish e'pedition 8uided -( a captured Cimaroon* These had surprised the to:n half an hour -efore da(, -( :hich occasion Qi*e* -ein8 darR most of the men escaped, -ut man( of their :omen and children :ere slau8htered or taen* /ut the same mornin8 -( sun#risin8 =after their 8uide :as slain and that the Cimaroons had 8athered themselves in their stren8th? the( drove the &paniards to such e'tremit( that, :hat :ith the disadvanta8e of the :oods =havin8 lost their 8uide and their :a(?, :hat :ith famine and :ant, there escaped not ;" of them to return2* Duan )aquero appears to have often am-ushed the &panish mule and slave#-orne treasure traFin from Panama on his o:n count, and in 1!7; he and a handful of his men assisted rancis 4rae2s attempts to emulate him* 4rae had +" En8lish and renchmen and " Cimaroons :hen he attaced the mule train at )enta Cruces in Danuar( 1!7;, and ;" En8lish and renchmen and !" Cimaroons in his second attac, near the Campos 5iver, in April* Cimaroons also accompanied 4rae across the isthmus to attac the Pearl Islands in the Pacific the same (ear* It :as the Cimaroon alliance :ith 4rae, O'enham, and a handful of other En8lish corsairs in the 1!7"s that finall( propelled the &paniards into decisive action a8ainst them* In Dune 1!77 the )icero( of Peru provided 1! men, and these, initiall( accompanied -( $" mulattoes and Ne8roes servin8 as porters =:ho, unsurprisin8l(, deserted durin8 the march?, spent the ne't si' months scourin8 the )allano re8ion for O'enham2s pirates and the Cimaroons, capturin8 most of the former -ut failin8 to su-due the latter, despite -urnin8 their chief to:n of 5onconcholon and man( other villa8es -esides* After the failure of the campai8n the &paniards opened peace ne8otiations :ith the principal t:o Cimaroon societies in Danuar( 1!70, resultin8 in an a8reement that the( should -e allo:ed to settle as free men in t:o ne: &panish to:ns, the )allano Cimaroons at &anta Cruz la 5eal on the Chepo 5iver, and the Puerto /ello Cimaroons at &antia8o del Principe on the rancisca 5iver* Ho:ever, thou8h the latter seem to have settled do:n to their ne: life :ithout unto:ard difficult(, the )allano Cimaroons soon returned to the -ush, and in Octo-er another e'pedition :as mounted a8ainst them* The( remained at lar8e in a( 1!%", -ut soon after:ards Duan )aquero seems to have -een captured and han8ed, and at least some of the )allano Cimaroons su-sequentl( resettled at &anta Cruz la 5eal* Ne: -ands of Cimaroons appeared thereafter, -ut the( never a8ain posed the same
threat as the( had in the 1!7"s* Those Cimaroons :ho settled at &anta Cruz la 5eal and &antia8o del Principe remained lo(al throu8hout the rest of the centur(, -ut their num-ers :ere small* A letter :ritten to Vin8 Philip II in 1!%7 states that most of them are emplo(ed in (our aest(2s service, and the( are 1"" in num-er2, and in a report of 1!0$ &antia8o del Principe is said to have consisted of ust ;" houses* The En8lish :ere una:ar una:aree of the reconc reconcili iliati ation on and -elie -elieved ved that that their their erst: erst:hil hilee Cimaro Cimaroon on allies allies merel( merel( a:ait a:aited ed their their retur return n -efore risin8 in re-ellion a8ainst the &paniards* It therefore came as a rude shoc to 4rae2s captains, as :ell as a surprise to man( &paniards, :ho had dou-ted their fidelit(, to find that the Cimaroons Cimaroons of -oth &anta &anta Cruz la 5eal and &antia8o del Principe rallied to the &panish cause durin8 4ra 4rae2 e2ss raid raid on Pana Panama ma in 1!0! 1!0!F0 F0$* $* en en from from -oth -oth communities served in the field under the -anner of their captain Duan de 5oales, :ho is also one of them2* Those :ho remained at home in &antia8o del Principe :ould not allo: the QEn8lishR to tae :ater at the 5iver ator and illed some of them, includin8 a captain An8ered -( this the enem( sent ten manned launches a8ainst them and Qthe CimaroonsR set fire to their huts and :ithdre: to the -ush, from :hich the( illed a num-er of En8lishmen, a-out +! alto8ether*2 &lave &lave uprisi uprisin8s n8s else: else:her heree in the Cari-Cari--ea ean n zone zone included several in northern Colom-ia, such as at &anta arta in 1!+0 and Coro in 1!;+, and Pascual de Anda8o(a :rot :rotee at the the -e8i -e8inn nnin in8 8 of the the 1!" 1!"ss that that -( then then the the Cimaroons of a villa8e called ompo' :ere more feared in that land than the Indians*2 Indians*2 Allied Allied :ith local tri-es, the Cimaroons of the .uaira peninsula effectivel( rendered this a &panish no#8o zone durin8 the closin8 decades of the centur(* There :as also a slave re-ellion in Honduras in 1!%, and in )enezuela in 1!!+F!!* The latter is said to have initiall( involved ust +"" slave#miners -ut quicl( spread, and received support from the Diraara Indians* This re-ellion came to an a-rupt end :hen the Cimaroon leader, i8uel =referred to in the sources as Vin8 i8uel2, or El ,ey?, ,ey?, :as illed and his men annihilated durin8 an attempt to capture the re8ional capital, /arquisimeto*
Ne> S(ain As earl( earl( as 1!+! 1!+! ther theree is a report report of Ne8ro Ne8ro slaves slaves fleein8 to live :ith the [apotec Indians, and in 1!;7 the Ne8ro slaves of Ne: &pain covertl( elected themselves a in8, apparentl( plannin8 to all( :ith those Indians still in arms and ill the &paniards* Ho:ever, the authorities 8ot :ind of the plot and arrested and e'ecuted the rin8leaders* At least t:o minor slave revolts too place durin8 the 1!"s, and the num-er of runa:a(s steadil( 8re: until )icero( 3uWs de )elasco found it necessar(, in 1!!;, to or8anise a civil militia =the .anta ;ermandad ? to patrol the province2s province2s hi8h:a(s a8ainst their depredator( raids, :hich :ere at their :orst on the stretch -et:een e'ico Cit( and )erac eracru ruz* z* /( 1!7" 1!7" as much much as 1" 1" of Ne: Ne: &pai &pain2 n2ss +","""#str +","""#stron8 on8 slave population population had -ecome -ecome Cimaroons, Cimaroons, and and :ere :ere all(in all(in8 8 :ith :ith hostil hostilee Indian Indianss to raid raid the ver( outl(in8 farms and mines from :hich the( had lar8el( fled* >orst orst hit hit :ere :ere the the nort northe hern rn fron fronti tier er dist distri rict ctss from from .uadalaara to [acatecas, :here the -rutal treatment of
Ne8ro miners, and the isolation of the silver mines in :hich the( toiled, had provided -oth the motivation and the opportunit( for them to re-el in considera-le num-ers* &idin8 :ith the local Chichimec Indians, the( esta-lished stron8 stron8hol holds ds and raided raided the local local &panis &panish h settle settlemen ments ts repeatedl(* /efore lon8 a :ave of similar uprisin8s -e8an to roll steadil( east:ards, and -( 1!7+ the entire area east of a line -et:een e'ico Cit( and [acatecas :as affected, all the :a( to the coast* /( then the situation :as deemed serious enou8h for the )icero( to request =thou8h he did not receive? militar( assistance from &pain, and it :as to 8et :orse (et* Price =107;? sa(s that -( 1!70 the revolt nearl( covered the entire settled area of the colon( outside of e'ico Cit(, in particular the provinces of )eracruz )eracruz and PLnuco PLnuco,, the area area -et:ee -et:een n Oa'ac Oa'acaa and .ualtuco .ualtuco on the Pacific coast, and almost the :hole of #ran Chi4hime4a2* Chi4hime4a2* Cimar Cimaroon oon -ands -ands spran8 spran8 up throu8 throu8hou houtt the re8io re8ion, n, and raidin8 parties and ran4headores coul could d -e found ound ever(:he ever(:here* re* The situation situation :as sta-ilised sta-ilised thereaft thereafter er,, -ut onl( slo:l(* Those Cimaroons allied :ith the Chichimecs in the north too the lon8est to su-due, and their principal leader, 6an8a, onl( finall( su-mitted on favoura-le terms in 1$"0*
5er$ or an assortment of reasons, not least the esta-lishment of a relativel( efficient police force in 1!!7, the Cimaroon pro-lem never 8re: to unmana8ea-le proportions in Peru* Ho:e Ho:eve verr, as earl( earl( as 1! 1! runa runa:a :a(s (s :ere :ere alre alread ad( ( assau assaulti ltin8 n8 and illin illin8 8 men men and ro--in ro--in8 8 farms2 farms2 in the vicinit( of -oth Truillo and 3ima* The lar8est Cimaroon communit( no:n to have e'isted in Peru :as that of +"" runa:a(s at Huara, near 3ima* This :as destro(ed -( an e'pedition of 1+" &paniards in 1!!, all +"" Cimaroons -ein8 illed, as :ere 11 of the &paniards, includin8 their commander* commander* .an8s of 1!F+" Cimaroons, sometimes oined -( &panish rene8ades, continued to 8o a-out ro--in8 the travellers on the roads and the natives2 for for the rest of the centu centur( r(,, -ut -ut neve neverr cons consti titu tute ted d a seri serious ous thre threat at to the the sta-ilit( of the province* &imilar small -ands of Ne8ro hi8h:a(men also e'isted in Chile -( 1!!1*
&R&RE The remara-le success of ridiculousl( small num-ers of &pania &paniards rds over over someti sometime mess vast vast and al:a(s al:a(s superi superior or num-ers of Indian :arriors :as due in part at least to the lac of cohesion amon8st their enemies, the preparedness of Indian peoples to side :ith the invaders, and a failure to comprehend the European concept of total :ar2* 4isease also had its part to pla(, and it is perhaps si8nificant that epidemics of smallpo' =:hich had -roen out in the >est Indies in 1!1%? had s:ept throu8h -oth e'ico and Peru immedi immediate atel( l( prior prior to their their respec respectiv tivee invasi invasions ons -( the 4on5uistadores* 4on5uistadores* rom the moment moment that that the first one :as put ashore ashore on Hispaniola in Novem-er 10;, ho:ever, horses :ere the e( to &panish success in the Americas* The( 8ave the &pan &pania iard rdss not not ust ust dist distin inct ct tact tactic ical al and and lo8i lo8ist stic ical al
advan advanta ta8es 8es,, -ut a morale morale advant advanta8e a8e too, too, -ecaus -ecausee the Indians, :ho had never seen such creatures -efore, :ere initia initiall( ll( scare scared d to death death of them* them* Their Their import importanc ancee is summed up :ell -( .irolamo /enzoni, :ho, follo:in8 the defea defeatt and death death of 8over 8overnor nor 4ie8o 4ie8o .utWe .utWerre rrezz of Ne: Ne: Cartha8e at the head of an all#infantr( force, o-served that if :e had possessed -ut four horses the Indians :ould not have fou8ht, for the( dread this ver( spirited animal more than all the arms that the &paniards have used a8ainst them* &o that that the( the( sa( sa( pu-l pu-lic icl( l(,, it is not not the the valo valour ur of the the Christ Christian ians, s, nor their their arms, arms, artill artiller( er(,, lances lances,, s:ords s:ords,, or cross-o:s that have su-dued them, -ut the fear, the fri8ht, inspired -( their horses* And :e no: this -( e'perience, for for in ever( ever( place place :here :here the &paniar &paniards ds have have not -een accompanied -( horses the( have -een vanquished -( the Indians2* Indeed, at first contact the Ara:as, the Aztecs, and dou-tless most other Indian peoples too, thou8ht that each ach &pan &panis ish h cava cavalr lr(m (men en and and his his hors horsee :ere :ere one one supernatural creature :ith four le8s, t:o arms, and t:o head heads, s, and and :ere :ere so reli reliev eved ed :hen :hen the( the( su-s su-seq eque uent ntl( l( discovered that the horse :as ust an animal lie an( other that that :hen :hen the the firs firstt one one :as :as ill illed ed in e'i e'ico co =-( =-( the the Tla' Tla'ca calt ltec ecss in 1!10 1!10?? it :as :as cut cut up and and the the port portio ions ns circulated throu8hout their lands, to demonstrate that such creatures :ere mortal* Even so, it is si8nificant that horses captured -( the Aztecs Aztecs in 1!+"F+1 :ere still sacrificed as if the( :ere human, and their heads ended up alon8side those of &paniards on the temple sull#racs* The tactical tactical advanta8 advanta8es es of the 4on5uistadores2 4on5uistadores2 cavalr( :ere man(, not least in their sheer speed of movement, :hich could frustrate an( attempt at flanin8 movements that their enemies mi8ht attempt in an open field* The effectiveness of even a tin( num-er of &panish cavalr(men on a 1$th centur( American -attlefield is no:here -etter demonstrated than in the /attle of Otum-a in 1!+", :here ust +;, mounted mostl( on :ounded horses, char8ed a8ain a8ainst st a massiv massivee Aztec arm( and, -( ridin8 ridin8 do:n its comma commande nderr, :ere :ere a-le a-le to put the enem( enem( to fli8ht fli8ht** The dan8er of fieldin8 horsemen in such small num-ers, of cours course, e, :as that that individ individual ualss could could -e surrou surrounde nded d and s:amped -( the enem(, and it :as to avoid this that the( char8ed in small 8roups of -et:een three and five a-reast* &uch char8es :ere launched at half#speed rather than at full 8allo 8allop, p, :ith :ith the lance lance held held overa overarm rm and aimed aimed at the enem(2s enem(2s face or throat, for the &paniards learned at an earl( sta8e that an Indian speared throu8h the -od( frequentl( retained sufficient stren8th, determination, determination, and sill to 8rahold hold of the the lanc lance, e, so that that it :as :as :ren :rench ched ed from from the the horseman2s 8rasp -( the impetus of his char8e -efore he could could pull pull it free* free* Indeed Indeed,, de'tro de'trousl usl( ( side#s side#step teppin pin8 8 a hors horsem eman an22s thru thrust st and and 8ra8ra--i -in8 n8 his his lanc lancee -eca -ecame me a common Indian tactic throu8hout the Americas durin8 the 1!+"s and 1!;"s, -ein8 recorded in areas as far apart as Chiapas, .uatemala, PLnuco, lorida, and Peru* Althou8h even even such such an e'peri e'perienc enced ed Indian Indian#fi #fi8ht 8hter er as NuSo NuSo de .uzmLn once lost his lance in this :a(, it :as more usual for ine'perienced ne:comers to -e disarmed thus* /ernal 4Waz del Castillo outlines the &panish cavalr(2s cavalr(2s -attlefield technique, as emplo(ed in e'ico, Central America, Peru, and else:here, in several passa8es< the( :ere al:a(s to eep to8ether2 in parties of three or five, :hich :ere to char8e a-reast at a hand#8allop2 once the accompa accompan(in8 n(in8 cross-o:me cross-o:men n and arque-us arque-usiers iers had fired, fired, :ith their lances held short so as to strie at the faces of
their enemies and put them to fli8ht2* He adds that several of us :ho :ho :ere :ere vete vetera ran n 4on5uistadores had frequentl( frequentl( cautioned the ne: recruits to adopt this mode of attac, -ut man( of them had ne8lected this 8ood advice2, so that in an action a8ainst the Chiapanecs in 1!+, for instance, four of the the less less e'pe e'peri rien ence ced d ones ones had had paid paid dear dearl( l( for for this this ne8lec ne8lect, t, for the Indian Indianss :reste :rested d the lances lances out of their their hands and :ounded them and their horses :ith their o:n :eapons*2 This is dou-tless the reason :h( cavalr(men :ho :ere deemed to -e either insufficientl( e'perienced or inad inadeq equa uate tel( l( equi equipp pped ed are are reco record rded ed to have have -een -een sometimes =in 1!+, for instance? demoted to the rans of the foot#soldier( rather than run the ris of them hamperin8 the manoeuvra-ilit( and effectiveness of an e'pedition2s all#important cavalr( arm* In addition, such :as the tactical =and monetar(b? value of the &paniards2 cavalr( arm that on camp campai ai8n 8n the the spee speed d of an e'pe e'pedi diti tion on22s adva advanc ncee :as :as tailored to suit the pace of its sicest or most -adl( inured horse, even :here this mi8ht put the infantr( of the force under threat of attac for lon8er than :as desira-le* The effect effect of of the &paniards &paniards22 other other princip principal al militar militar( ( introduction to the Ne: >orld @ 8unpo:der firearms @ :as :as surp surpri risi sin8 n8l( l( smal small* l* Even Even thou thou8h 8h Cort CortBs Bs :as accompanied -( 1 artiller( pieces in his initial advance to Tenochtitlan in 1!10, and -( 1! more :hen he returned in 1!+1, 1!+1, the( the( seem seem not to have have e'cite e'cited d an( undue panic panic amon8 the Indians on the fe: occasions that :e no: the( :ere used, despite an o-servation -( one 4on5uistador that that the massed Indian formations presented them :ith an ideal tar8et tar8et** Pro-a Pro-a-l( -l( :hate :hatever ver advant advanta8e a8e the( the( mi8ht mi8ht have have impart imparted ed :as :as ne8ate ne8ated d -( the speed, speed, mo-ili mo-ilit( t(,, and ver( ver( numnum-er erss of the the Indi Indian anss faci facin8 n8 them them** Hand Hand8u 8uns ns :ere :ere similarl( similarl( inconseq inconsequenti uential al compared compared to the considera considera-le -le firepo firepo:e :err of Indian Indian archer archers, s, slin8e slin8ers, rs, and avel avelinm inmen, en, thou8h the( did have the advanta8e of 8reater ran8e* In additi addition on the( the( :ere :ere presen presentt in onl( onl( ver( ver( small small num-er num-erss throu8hout throu8hout the first first half of the centur( =ust 1; of CortBs2 infantr( in 1!10 :ere arque-usiers, as :ere onl( four of the defenders of Cuzco in 1!;$F;7?, so that durin8 much of the initial Conquest period cross-o:s :ere present in at least equal and often superior num-ers* /oth :eapons had the disadvanta8e of -ein8 slo: to reload, :hich placed them them at a sever severee disadv disadvant anta8e a8e :hen confro confronte nted d -( an enem( :ho almost invaria-l( outnum-ered them* It :as in an attempt to minimise this deficienc( that, :hen fi8htin8 the Tla'caltecs in 1!10, CortBs is recorded to have ordered that that his his arqu arquee-us usie iers rs and and cros crosss-o: o:me men n shou should ld fire fire alternatel( so that some of them al:a(s had their :eapons loaded and read(* The char8e of the &panish horse :as sometimes s(nchronised to the effectiveness of the foot# sold soldie iers rs22 fire fire,, :ait :aitin in8 8 unti untill the the cros crosss-o: o:me men n and and arque-usiers had made an( impression2 -efore launchin8 their usuall( decisive char8e* A8ainst the Aztecs at least, the infantr( :ere al:a(s to eep their close formation2, and :ere instructed not to char8e the enem( until ordered to do so* Ho:ever, Ho:ever, the most effective &panish infantr( arm :as the s:ord* As earl( as his coastal vo(a8e -et:een /razil and )enezuela )enezuela in 100F1!"", Ameri8o )espucci )espucci noted that the onl( reason the Indians the( encountered each time the( landed had dared to attac them :as -ecause the( did not no: :hat ind of a :eapon the s:ord :as, or ho: it cuts*2 sed as a thrustin8 :eapon it :as un-eata-le @ a strai8 strai8ht# ht#arm armed ed lun8e lun8e could could pierc piercee ri8ht ri8ht throu8 throu8h h Indian Indian
shields and cotton armour :hilst the s:ordsman himself rema remain ined ed -e(o -e(ond nd the the reac reach h of the the enem enem(2 (2ss slas slashi hin8 n8 :eapons* Time and a8ain 4Waz remars ho: the Indians dre: dre: off off :hen :hen the( the( had prett( prett( :ell e'peri e'perienc enced ed the sharpness of our s:ords2, and the &paniards soon learnt the advanta8e of closin8 :ith the enem( rather than standin8 off, since the Indians had the advanta8e of their missile :eapons :hen at a little distance2* The use of their s:ords s:ords as thrustin8 thrustin8 :eapons :eapons also ena-led the &panish infantr( to eep in ti8ht formation, :hich, :hich, :hen fi8htin8 the Aztecs, presented presented the Indians :ith :ith fe:e fe:err oppo opport rtun unit itie iess to 8ra8ra- and and dra8 dra8 a:a( a:a( an individual for sacrifice those instances in :hich &paniards :ere captured normall( occurred :hen their close arra( had -een -roen* Initiall( -( far the maorit( of &panish foot foot :ere :ere ther theref efor oree s:or s:ord# d#an and# d#-u -uc cle lerr men men =ove =overr a thousa thousand nd out of some some 1,;"" 1,;"" infant infantr( r( in 1!+", 1!+", and 7"" compared to 11% arque-usiers and cross-o:men in 1!+1? and it :as onl( in the second half of the centur( that firearms -e8an to prevail in Ne: &pain* Ho:ever, thou8h hand8uns :ere at first equall( rare in Peru, the need to field field Europe European# an#st( st(le le armies armies follo: follo:in8 in8 the out-re out-rea a of host hostil ilit itie iess -et: -et:ee een n Piza Pizarr rro o and and Alma Alma8r 8ro o in 1!;7 1!;7 encou encoura8 ra8ed ed the more more rapid rapid intro introduc ductio tion n of advanc advanced ed :eaponr( here, so that arque-usiers :ere -ein8 fielded -( the hundred -( the late 1!;"s, Pedro de la .asca raisin8 as man( as 7"" in 1!7* It :as also in Peru that the pie :as most often seen in use, and for the same reasons =-ein8 an a-solutel( useless :eapon for fi8htin8 Indians?* Pies :ere nevertheless availa-le in stora8e in ever( &panish province of the Americas as a precaution a8ainst the threat of attac -( conventionall(#armed rench, En8lish, or 4utch forces* Certainl( the equipment of &panish forts in lorida in 1!7% included lar8e num-ers of pies and half#pies, and the defenders of Carta8ena in 1!%$ :ere a-le to equip at least 1"" piemen* Nevertheless, insufficient quantities of pies :ere found to -e availa-le in Peru durin8 its civil :ars, and da88 da88er erss fitt fitted ed to lon8 lon8 pole poless had had some someti time mess to -e su-stituted* inall(, inall(, durin8 the earl( period of &panish conquest in particular, particular, -ut less so in the second half of the centur(, centur(, the &paniard &paniardss often often too do8s into -attle -attle :ith them to sava8e sava8e the the Indi Indian ans* s* Ovie Oviedo do,, for for insta instanc nce, e, reco record rdss that that the the conquistadores in the Indies2 :ere al:a(s accompanied -( Iris Irish h :olf :olfho houn unds ds and and othe otherr -ol -old, d, sava sava8e 8e do8s do8s2, 2, and and &aha8Xn records ho: these came pantin8, foam drippin82 at the head of a &panish column on the march* The first docu docume ment nted ed use use of a do8 do8 a8ai a8ains nstt the the Indi Indian anss :as :as on Damaica at its discover( in 10, and the follo:in8 (ear Colum-us2 +" cavalr(men at the /attle of )e8a 5eal :ere accom accompan panied ied -( the same same num-er num-er of do8s* do8s* ColumColum-us2 us2 companion 4ie8o Chanca considered considered that a do8 is as 8ood as ten men a8ains a8ainstt the Indians2 Indians2,, and his succe successo ssorr as 8overn 8overnor or in 1!"", 1!"", ranci rancisco sco de /o-adi /o-adilla lla,, :as of the opinion that one &paniard travelled as securel( :ith a do8 as if he too 1"" men :ith him*2 The most famous e'ample of such an animal :as Ponce de 3eMn2s hound /ezerillo, :ho in his time reputedl( illed more Indians than an( &panish soldier, and consequentl( earnt for his master an additional cross-o:man2s pa( and 1 1+ shares of -oot(* Antonio de Herrera =1$"1? records of /ezerillo that the Indians :ere more afraid of ten &paniards :ith the do8, than than of 1"" :ithout :ithout him2* him2* He :as :as eventu eventuall all( ( illed illed in action -( an Indian arro:*
Ho:ever, Ho:ever, the :orst sava8er( that &panish do8s inflicted upon the Indians :as done after the fi8htin8 :as over, not durin8, a nicet( that :as dou-tless lost on their victims* 4ie8o 4urLn tells us that after the capture of Tenochtitlan in 1!+1 CortBs used his do8s to run do:n some of his Aztec prisoners as a form of e'ecution, in the hope that it :ould terrorise the others into revealin8 the :herea-outs of supposed supposed hidden hidden treasure* treasure* A similar -rutal -rutal practice practice :as follo:ed after the overthro: of the Incas, and on numerous other occasions* occasions* The En8lish En8lish su-sequent su-sequentl( l( follo:ed follo:ed the &panish custom of tain8 do8s :ith them to America* In 1!% 5ichard Halu(t advocated the use of mastiffs -oth as 8uar 8uard d do8s do8s and and on the the -att -attle lefi fiel eld, d, as amon amon8s 8stt the the &paniards 5oanoe colon( is recorded havin8 t:o =until the( had to -e eaten?, and artin Prin82s e'pedition to Ne: En8land in 1$"; :as :as accompanied accompanied -( several* urther details of :arfare -et:een the &paniards and native Americans can -e found in the other chapters of this -oo*
T-E CII8 &RS IN 5ERU Thou8h in -road terms these resulted from :idespread resentment of the imposition of &panish ro(al authorit(, in their openin8 sta8es the( too the form of a po:er stru88le -et:een 4ie8o de Alma8ro and rancisco Pizarro* Onl( in the late 1!"s, 8oaded -( the uns(mpathetic handlin8 of the delicate situation -( a ne: )icero(, /lasco NXSez )ela, :as there there a concer concerted ted attempt attempt -( the 4on5uistadores to protect their privile8ed position and prevent the introduction of ne: la:s that, -ein8 desi8ned to protect the ri8hts of the Indian population, the( sa: as a serious threat to their their :ealt :ealth h and po:er po:er** Althou Althou8h 8h neithe neitherr side side could could muster particularl( lar8e armies, there :ere, nevertheless, numerous more or less san8uinar( en8a8ements, of :hich the the foll follo: o:in8 in8 :ere :ere the the most most si8n si8nif ific ican ant* t* The The -att -attle le format formation ionss utilis utilised ed :ere :ere miniat miniature ure versio versions ns of those those emplo(ed on the -attlefields of Europe*
&M&NC& &M&NC&? 12 @$*, 1#37 1 #37 4espite 4espite represen representin8 tin8 their oint interests interests at Court in &pain re8ardin8 the proposed conquest of Peru, rancisco Pizarro had come -ac :ith a patent that named him as sole commander of the enterprise, to the e'clusion of his associate 4ie8o de Alma8ro* 4espite -ein8 compensated :ith a 8rant of e'tensive lands south of Peru, Alma8ro decided that the old Inca capital of Cuzco should also -e his, since it :as his men of Chile2 =as the Alma8rista faction came to -e no:n? :ho had rescued the cit( durin8 the Inca re-ellion of 1!;$* He therefore seized Cuzco -( means of a coup in April 1!;7, arrestin8 Pizarro2s officers and then tain8 to the field :ith !" men, -aced up -( an unno:n num-er of Indian au'iliaries, to confront the !""# stron8 relief force that Pizarro had despatched a8ainst him under Alonso de Alvarado =Pedro2s -rother?* In Dul( their forces forces collided collided at the Apurimac Apurimac -rid8e -rid8e over the AmancL( AmancL( 5iver, 5iver, the Alma8rista Alma8ristass s:iftl( s:iftl( overrunnin overrunnin8 8 Alvarado2 Alvarado2ss ver( stron8 position defended -( pieces of artiller(2* /oth /oth sides sides sho:e sho:ed d a comme commenda nda-le -le reluct reluctanc ancee to shed shed
&panish -lood, and the com-at resulted in onl( three or four deaths* It :as in e'chan8e for his assistance to Alma8ro here that Paullu TXpac :as su-sequentl( enthroned as puppet .a'a )n4a at Cuzco* Peace terms -et:een Alma8ro and Pizarro :ere a8reed in Novem-er, -( :hich Alma8ro :as confirmed in possession of Cuzco in e'chan8e for the release of Pizarro`s imprisoned officers* Thou8h this uneas( settlement :as a humiliation at -est, it 8ave Pizarro the time he needed to re8roup his forces in preparation for the ne't phase of the :ar*
8&S S&8IN&S? 6 &(ri* 1#3' Althou8h this -attle :as the finale of Alma8ro2s re-ellion a8ainst Pizarro, neither of the principal prota8onists actuall( too part< Alma8ro :as ill, and :atched from a hilltop, :hile Pizarro2s forces :ere commanded -( his -rother Hernando* The Alma8ristas, commanded -( 5odri8o de Or8oSez, consisted of $"" men @ half and half horse and foot @ and an unno:n quantit( of 8uns, :hile Pizarro2s ro(alist forces comprised %"" or %%" men =includin8 "" horse and 1;" arque-usiers, the rest -ein8 cross-o:men?* The former :ere dra:n up -ehind a stream at a place :here the hi8h:a( 8oes up a slope :ith a small flat place on one hand and a small s:amp upon the other2* Or8oSez placed his 8uns on one flan =another source sa(s on the road, :hich therefore presuma-l( passed throu8h one flan? and his fe: arque-usiers on -oth flans, and arran8ed his cavalr( in t:o troops, one of :hich, under Captain .uevara, :as placed near the s:amp :ith orders to fall on the ro(alist foot* The ro(alist horse also dre: up in t:o troops* The Pizarrist arque-usiers, advancin8 throu8h the s:amp, -ecame mi'ed up :ith .uevara2s troop of horse, :hich after a -rief sirmish the( :ere a-le to repel -( the accurac( of their fire* Indeed, the fire of Pizarro2s arque-usiers :as the decisive factor in the -attle, .arcilaso de la )e8a statin8 that it did much dama8e and disordered the enem( so that his lines :ere easil( -roen, -oth infantr( and cavalr( :ithdra:in8 from their posts to 8et a:a( from the arque-us fire*2 In desperation Or8oSez char8ed :ith his remainin8 troop of 1"" horse, -ut Pizarro2s cavalr( =under .onzalo Pizarro and Alonso de Alvarado? fell on their e'posed flan :ith such force that the( thre: more than !" men to the 8round2, and Or8oSez himself :as mortall( :ounded in the head -( a -ullet* After a hard fi8ht the Alma8ristas fled, thou8h man( :ere su-sequentl( captured and e'ecuted, includin8 Alma8ro himself =e'ecuted in Dul(?* In all there :ere pro-a-l( a-out +"" men illed from -oth sides, most of them Alma8ro2s, -ut this fi8ure doesn2t appear to include the simultaneous fi8ht that A8ustWn de [Lrate sa(s occurred on one flan -et:een the rivals2 Indian au'iliaries, of :hom Alma8ro is said to have fielded $,""" under Paullu TXpac* ollo:in8 this victor(, rancisco Pizarro 8overned in relative peace until Dune 1!1, :hen, frustrated -( the failure of their attempts to :in support for their cause in the courts, he :as murdered in 3ima -( partisans of Alma8ro2s mestizo son, 4ie8o de Alma8ro el $ozo =the 3ad2?* >hen this ne:s reached &pain a ne: 8overnor, CristM-al )aca de Castro, :as sent to restore order*
C-U5&S? 16 Se(%e!ber 1#42 Attempts -( the men of Chile2 to ne8otiate a settlement :ith the ne: 8overnor :ere frustrated -( their suspicions of his sincerit(, and s:iftl( led to armed confrontation, :ith Alma8ro the 3ad2 leadin8 an arm( of !!" men a8ainst a lar8er ro(alist force of a-out 7"" men under CristM-al )aca de Castro* The latter had some:hat under ;"" arque-usiers and Alma8ro had +!", and -oth sides had artiller( =thou8h the ro(alist 8uns never came up in time to oin the fi8ht?* Pedro Pizarro, present in Alma8ro2s rans, sa(s the re-el artiller( consisted of three falconets, -ut other accounts mention four or even 1$ 8uns* The opposin8 forces dre: up on uneven 8round :ith infantr( in the centre and cavalr( on the flans* Alma8ro positioned his arque-usiers in front and on the flans of his infantr(, men# at#arms formed the front rans of his cavalr(, 116 and his artiller( :as sa(s the re-el artiller( consisted of three falconets, -ut other accounts mention four or even 1$ 8uns* The opposin8 forces dre: up on uneven 8round :ith infantr( in the centre and cavalr( on the flans* Alma8ro positioned his arque-usiers in front and on the flans of his infantr(, men#at#arms formed the front rans of his cavalr(,11$ and his artiller( :as emplaced in a 8ood position2 in advance of the centre* Ho:ever, as the ro(alists advanced to:ards them an hour or t:o -efore sunset the entire re-el arm(, 8uns and all, moved for:ard to meet them, the artiller( @ apparentl( throu8h the premeditated treacher( of its Cretan commander, Captain Candia, :ho Alma8ro personall( illed @ endin8 up in a poor position from :here it could onl( come to -ear on the enem( as the( crested a rise* The successful dischar8e of ust one 8un, :hich illed 17 men, stopped the ro(alist advance onl( -riefl( -efore )aca de Castro2s ser8eant#maor, the octo8enarian rancisco de Carvaal, attaced the artiller( head#on, illin8 the 8unners and the arque-usiers 8uardin8 them and then turnin8 the 8uns a8ainst the rest of Alma8ro2s infantr(* At the same time the cavalr( clashed on -oth :in8s, and soon after:ards the opposin8 piemen closed :ith one another =other sources transposin8 these events?* The ensuin8 sava8e melee lasted until darness fell, -( :hich time all -ut t:o companies on the ri8ht of Alma8ro2s line :ere in fli8ht, and )aca de Castro himself led his reserve of ;"F" horse a8ainst these, routin8 them after a -ris sirmish* Casualties on -oth sides :ere e'traordinaril( hi8h* A total of -et:een +" and !"" &paniards had -een illed and some !"" :ounded, ro(alist losses -ein8 the 8reater* )aca de Castro2s Indian au'iliaries and Ne8ro servants are said to have illed man( additional re-els as the( fled* =/oth sides had Indian au'iliaries* Alma8ro2s :ere a8ain led -( the puppet .a'a )n4a Paullu TXpac, :ho attaced )aca de Castro2s left flan :ith man( Indian :arriors, peltin8 them :ith stones and darts* /ut :hen the leadin8 arque-usiers illed some of them the rest immediatel( fled*2? Of some 1!" re-els taen captive in fli8ht or in near-( Huaman8a, a-out $" :ere su-sequentl( e'ecuted, Alma8ro amon8 them*
&N&;UITO? 1' @an$ar, 1#46 Attempts -( Peru2s first )icero(, /lasco NXSez )ela, to introduce the so#called Ne: 3a:s2, a code of
/i-lio8raph( Aiton, Arthur &cott* Antonio de endoza< irst )icero( of Ne: &pain, 10+7* @ The uster 5oll of the Coronado E'pedition, 10;0* d2Altro(, Terence N* Provincial Po:er in the Ina Empire, 100+* Ana:alt, Patricia 5ieff* Indian Clothin8 /efore CortBs, 10%1* Anderson, Arthur D*O*, and 4ri--le, Charles E* =ed* and trans*?* lorentine Code' =1!!?, =1; vols? 10!"F7!* Andre:s, Venneth 5* The &panish Cari--ean< Trade and Plunder 1!;"F1$;", 107%* @ =ed*?* The 3ast )o(a8e of 4rae Ha:ins, 107+* Andrien, Venneth D*, and Adorno, 5olena =eds*?* Transatlantic Encounters< Europeans and Andeans in the &i'teenth Centur(, 1001* Arcinie8as, .ermLn* .ermans in the Conquest of America, 10;* /aile(, Alfred .* The Conflict of European and Eastern Al8onian Cultures 1!"F17"", 10$0* /andelier, A** On the Art of >ar and ode of >arfare of the Ancient e'icans2 1"th Annual 5eport, Pea-od( useum of American Archaeolo8( and Ethnolo8( II, 1%77* /annon, Dohn rancis* Histor( of the Americas )ol*I, 10!+* /ar-our, Philip 3* =ed*?* The Damesto:n )o(a8es under the irst Charter 1$"$F1$"0 )ol*II, 10$0* /arnes, Thomas C* Na(lor, Thomas H* and Polzer, Charles >* Northern Ne: &pain< A 5esearch .uide, 10%1* /audin, 3ouis* 4ail( 3ife in Peru under the 3ast Incas, 10$1* /eals, 5alph 3* The Comparative Ethnolo8( of Northern e'ico -efore 17!"2 I-ero#Americana II, 10;+* @ The Aca'ee< A ountain Tri-e of 4uran8o and &inaloa2 I-ero#Americana )I, 10;;* /edini, &ilvio A* =ed*?* The Christopher Colum-us Enc(clopedia, =+ vols? 100+* /ethell, 3eslie =ed*?* The Cam-rid8e Histor( of 3atin America )ol*I, 10%* /etts, 5o-ert E* The 3ost Colon(2 Cornhill a8azine 1!%, 10;%* /evan, /ernard* The Chinantec, 10;%* /lom, rans* The Conquest of 6ucatan, 1071* /olton, Her-ert E* The &panish /orderlands, 10+1* /ourne, Ed:ard .a(lord =ed* and trans*?* Narratives of the Career of Hernando de &oto, =+ vols? 10"!* /o:ser, rederic P* The African &lave in Colonial Peru 1!+F1$!", 107* /o'er, C*5* The Portu8uese &ea-orne Empire 11!F1%+!, 10$0* /rand, 4onald 4* An Historical &etch of Anthropolo8( and .eo8raph( in the Tarascan 5e8ion2 Ne: e'ico Anthropolo8ist )IF)II, 10;* /ra(, >ar:ic* Ever(da( 3ife of the Aztecs, 10$%* /rinton, 4*.* The Annals of the Cachiquels, 1%%!* /ruhns, Varen Olson* Ancient &outh America, 100* /runda8e, /urr Cart:ri8ht* 3ords of Cuzco, 10$7* de /r(, Theodor* Americae Parts IF)I, 1!0"F0$* Camp-ell, avis C* The aroons of Da maica 1$!!F170$, 10%%* Cham-erlain, 5o-ert &* The Conquest and Colonization of 6ucatan 1!17F1!!", 10%* Chatelain, )erne E* The 4efenses of &panish lorida 1!$! to 17$;, 101* Chavero, Alfredo* e'ico< Dunta Colom-ina, Homenae L CristM-al ColMn, Antiquedades e'icanes, =+ vols? 1%0+* Chiappelli, redi =ed*?* irst Ima8es of America, =+ vols? 107$* Clar, Dames Cooper =ed* and trans*?* Code' endoza =c*1!0?, =; vols? 10;%* Clavi8ero, rancesco &averio* The Histor( of e'ico, =+ vols? 17%7* Clissold, &tephen* Conquistador< The 3ife of 4on Pedro &armiento de .am-oa, 10;* @ The &even Cities of CW-ola, 10$1*
Cohen, D** =ed* and trans*?* The 4iscover ( and Conquest of Peru, 10$%* Connor, Deanette Thur-er =trans*?* Pedro enBndez de AvilBs< emorial -( .onzalo &olWs de erLs =1!$7?, 10$* Craine, Eu8ene 5*, and 5eindrop, 5e8inald C* =ed* and trans*?* The Chronicles of ichoacLn =1!;0F1?, 107"* Cummin8, >*P* &elton, 5*A* and Juinn, 4*/* The 4iscover( of North America, 1071* 4avies, Ni8el* The ilitar( Or8anisation of the Aztec Empire2 Atti del G3 Con8resso Internazionale 4e8li Americanisti, 107+* @ The Aztecs< A Histor(, 107;* @ The Aztec Empire< The Toltec 5esur8ence, 10%7* 4euss, Vr(st(na* Indian Costume from .uatemala, 10%1* 4i--le, Charles E* Code' en Cruz =1!!;?, =+ vols? 10%1* 4icason, Olive Patricia* The (th of the &ava8e and the /e8innin8s of rench Colonialism in the Americas, 10%* 4iffie, /aile( >* A Histor( of Colonial /razil, 1!""F170+, 10%7* 4ile, Christopher =ed* and trans*?* 3etter to a Vin8 -( HuamLn Poma =1$1;?, 107%* 4omin8uez, 3uis 3* =trans*?* The Conquest of the 5iver Plate =1!;!F1!!!?< lrich &chmidt =1!$7?, 1%01* de 4urand# orest, D*, and Elsin8er, * =eds*?* The & (m-olism in the Plastic and Pictorial 5epresentations of Ancient e'ico, 100;* Eccles, >*D* rance in America, 107+* Ed:ards, A8ustin* Peoples of Old, 10+0* Elliot, .** &cott* Chile, 10"7* Enslo:, &am* The Art of Prehispanic Colom-ia, 100"* Espinosa, .il-ert =trans*?* Histor( of Ne: e'ico -( .aspar PBrez de )illa8rL =1$1"?, 10;;* eest, Christian * The )ir8inia Indian in Pictures, 1$1+F1$+2 The &mithsonian Dournal of Histor( II, 10$$* enton, >illiam N*, and oore, Eliza-eth 3* =ed* and trans*?* Customs of the American Indians compared :ith the Customs of Primitive Times, -( Doseph ranUois 3afitau =17+?, 107* e:es, Desse >alter* The A-ori8ines of Porto 5ico and Nei8h-orin8 3ands2 +%th Annual 5eport of the /ureau of American Ethnolo8(, 10"7* isher, 3illian Estelle* )icere8al Administration in the &panish#American Colonies, 10+$* lanner(, Vent )*, and arcus, Do(ce* The Cloud People, 10%;* licema, Thomas* The &ie8e of Cuzco2 5evista de Historia de America 0+, 10%1* olsom, .eor8e =trans*?* The 4espatches of Hernando CortBs, 1%;* or-es, Dac 4* The Appearance of the ounted Indian i n Northern e'ico and the &outh:est to 1$%"2 &outh:estern Dournal of Anthropolo8( G), 10!0* @ Apache, Navaho and &paniard, 10$"* o:ler, >illiam 5* The Cultural Evolution of Ancient Nahua Civilizations, 10%0* reile, Duan 5odri8uez* The Conquest of Ne: .ranada =1$;$?, 10$1* uentes, Patricia =ed* and trans*?* The Conquistadors< irst Person Accounts of the Conquest of e'ico, 10$* .enet, Dean =ed*?* 5elation des Choses de 6ucatan< 4ie8o de 3anda =1!$$?, 10+%* .erhard, Peter* A .uide to the Historical .eo8raph( of Ne: &pain, 107+* .raham, 5*/* Cunnin8hame* The Conquest of the 5iver Plate, 10+* @ Pedro de )aldivia, Conqueror of Chile, 10+$* @ The Horses of the Conquest, 10;"* .rant, >*3* =trans*?* The Histor( of Ne: rance -( arc 3escar-ot =1$"$?, =; vols? 10"7F1* .reenlee, >illiam /roos =ed* and trans*?* The )o(a8e of Pedro Alvares Ca-ral to /razil and India, 10;%* Halu(t, 5ichard =trans*?* A Nota-le Historie containin8 oure )o(a8es made -( Certaine rench Captaines unto lorida, 1!%7*
@ =trans*? and 5(e, /* =ed*?* The 4iscover( and Conquest of Terra lorida -( 4on ernando de &oto =1!!7?, 1%!1* Hamilton, 5oland =ed* and trans*?* Histor ( of the Inca Empire< /erna-B Co-o =1$!;?, 1070* Hammond, .eor8e P*, and 5e(, A8apito =trans*?* E'pedition into Ne: e'ico made -( Antonio de Espeo 1!%+F1!%;, as revealed in the Dournal of 4ie8o PBrez de 3u'on, 10+0* @ Ne: e'ico in 1$"+< Duan de onto(a2s 5elation of the 4iscover( of Ne: e'ico, 10;%* @ The 5ediscover( of Ne: e'ico 1!%"F1!0, 10$$* Hampden, Dohn* rancis 4rae, Privateer, 107+* Hanoc, Anson riel* A Histor( of Chile, 1%0;* Hariot, Thomas* A /riefe and True 5eport of the Ne: ound 3and of )ir8inia, 1!%%* Hassi8, 5oss* Aztec >arfare< Imperial E'pansion and Political Control, 10%%* @ >ar and &ociet( in Ancient esoamerica, 100+* Hedric, /*C* Velle(, D*C* and 5ile (, C*3* =eds*?* The North e'ican rontier, 1071* Hemmin8, Dohn* The Conquest of the Incas, 107;* @ 5ed .old< The Conquest of the /razilian Indians, 107%* He(den, 4oris =trans*?* A Histor( of the Indies of Ne: &pain -( ra( 4ie8o 4urLn =1!%1?, 100* Hoffman, Paul E* The &panish Cro:n and the 4efense of the Cari--ean, 1!;!F1!%!, 10%"* @ A Ne: Andalucia and a >a( to the Orient< The American &outheast 4urin8 the &i'teenth Centur(, 100"* Holmes, >illiam H* The Tomaha:2 American Anthropolo8ist Ne: &eries G, 10"%* Honour, Hu8h* The Ne: .olden 3and, 107$* Ho:le(, Dames P* The /eothucs or 5ed Indians, 101!* Hudson, Charles* Vni8hts of &pain, >arriors of the &un< Hernando de &oto and the &outh2s Ancient Chiefdoms, 1007* Hume, Ivor Nol* The )ir8inia Adventure, 100$* Husse(, 5oland 4* &panish 5eaction to orei8n A88ression in the Cari--ean to a-out 1$%"2 Hispanic American Historical 5evie: IG, 10+0* Innes, Hammond* The Conquistadors, 10$0* Isaac, /arr( 3* Aztec >arfare< .oals and /attlefield Comportment2 Ethnolo8( GGII, 10%;* Dane, Cecil =ed* and trans*?* &elect 4ocuments Illustratin8 the our )o(a8es of Colum-us )ol*I, 10;"* Dolas, aria =trans*?* The Incas< The 5o(al Co mmentaries of the Inca .arcilaso de la )e8a 1!;0F1$1$ =1$"0?, 10$;* Dones, Oaah 3* Pue-lo >arriors &panish Conquest, 10$$* Veatin8e, aurice =trans*?* The True Histor( of the Conquest of e'ico< /ernal 4iaz de Castillo =1!$%?, =+ vols? 10+%* Veeler, ar( rear =ed*?* &ir rancis 4rae2s >est Indian )o(a8e 1!%!F%$, 10%1* Vell(, I*, and Palerm, A* The Tain Totonac2 &mithsonian Institution, Institute of &ocial Anthropolo8( GIII, 10!+* Vell(, Dohn Eo8han* Pedro de Alvarado, Conquistador, 10;+* Vendall, Ann* Ever(da( 3ife of the Incas, 107;* Vin8-orou8h, Ed:ard Vin8, 3ord =ed*?* Antiquities of e'ico, =0 vols? 10;"F%* Vlein, Her-ert &* The Colored ilitia of Cu-a 1!$%F1%$%2 Cari--ean &tudies )I, 10$$* Vraemer, 5uth &* =trans*?, and Vlinen-or8, )erl(n* The 4rae anuscript, 100$* Vu-ler, .eor8e* The Neo#Inca &tate =1!;7F1!7+?2 Hispanic American Historical 5evie: GG)III, 107* 3andstrm, /rn* Colum-us, 10$7* 3an8, Dames* Portu8uese /razil< The Vin82s Plantation, 1070* 3an8ton, H*H*, and .anon8, >** =ed* and trans*?* The >ors of &amuel de Champlain )ols*IFI) =1!00F1$+"?, 10++F ;+* @ and >ron8, .eor8e * =ed* and trans*?* The 3on8 Dourne( to the Countr( of the Hurons, -( ather .a-riel &a8ard =1$;+?, 10;0*
3annin8, Dohn Tate* The &panish issions of .eor8ia, 10;!* 3atcham, 5*E* Ethnolo8( of the Araucanos2 Dournal of the 5o(al Anthropolo8ical Institute GGGIG, 10"0* 3au-in, 5e8inald and .lad(s* American Indian Archer(, 10%"* 3ehane, /rendan* The North:est Passa8e, 10%1* 3eeson, 5o-ert* The Cimaroons, 107%* 3eon#Portilla, i8uel* The /roen &pears< The Aztec Account of the Conquest of e'ico, 10$+* 3etts, alcolm =ed* and trans*?* Hans &taden< The True Histor( of his Captivit ( =1!!7?, 10+%* 3inares, Ol8a * Ecolo8( and the Arts in Ancient Panama, 1077* 3ivermore, Harold )* =trans*?* 5o(al Commentaries of the Incas -( .arcilaso de la )e8a =1$"0?, =+ vols? 10$$* 3ochart, Dames* &panish Peru 1!;+F1!$", 10$%* 3orant, &tefan* The Ne: >orld< The irst Pictures of America, 10!* 3ovell, >* .eor8e* Conquest and &urvival in Colonial .uatemala, 10%!* 3o:er(, >ood-ur(* The &panish &ettlements >ithin the Present 3imits of the nited &tates 1!1;F1!$1, 10"1* cAlister, 3(le N* &pain and Portu8al in the Ne: >orld 10+F17"", 10%* acie, &elle( D* =ed*?* An Account of the Conquest of .uatemala in 1!+ -( Pedro de Alvarado, 10+* alone, Patric * The &ulin8 >a( of >ar< Technolo8( and Tactics Amon8 the Ne: En8land Indians, 1001* arham, Clements 5* The Conquest of Ne: .ranada, 101+* @ =ed* and trans*?* The 3ife and Accounts of 4on Alonzo Enriquez de .uzman =1!;?, 1%$+* @ =ed* and trans*?* The Travels of Pedro de Cieza de 3eMn A4 1!;+F!" =1!!;?, 1%$* @ =ed* and trans*?* Narrative of the Proceedin8s of Pedrarias 4avila :ritten -( the Adelantado Pascual de Anda8o(a =1!1?, 1%$!* @ =ed* and trans*?* 5eports of the 4iscover( of Peru, 1%7+* @ =ed*?* The Ha:ins2 )o(a8es, 1%7%* @ =ed* and trans*?* The Natural oral Histor( of the Indies -( ather Doseph de Acosta =1!%%?, 1%%"* @ =ed* and trans*?* The &econd Part of the Chronicle of Peru -( Pedro de Cieza de 3eMn =1!!;?, 1%%;* @ =ed* and trans*?* The Dournal of Christopher Colum-us =10+F0;?, 1%0;* @ =ed* and trans*?* Histor( of the Incas -( Pedro &armiento de .am-oa =1!7+?, 10"7* @ =ed* and trans*?* The >ar of Juito -( Pedro de Cieza de 3eMn =1!!;?, 101;* @ =ed* and trans*?* The >ar of Chupas =1!!;?, 101%* @ =ed* and trans*?* The >ar of 3as &alinas -( Pedro Cieza de 3eMn =1!!;?, 10+;* audsle(, Alfred P* =ed* and trans*?* The True Histor( of the Conquest of Ne: &pain, -( /ernal 4iaz del Castillo =1!$%?, =! vols? 10"%F1$* eade, Doaquin* 3a Huasteca, 10+* eans, Philip Ains:orth* all of the Inca Empire and the &panish 5ule in Peru 1!;"F17%", 10;+* @ The &panish ain 10+F17"", 10;!* @ =ed* and trans*?* An Account of the Conquest of Peru :ritten -( Pedro &ancho =1!;?, 1017* @ =ed* and trans*?* 5elation of the 4iscover( and Conquest of the Vin8dom of Peru, -( Pedro Pizarro =1!71?, =+ vols? 10+1* echam, D* 3lo(d* rancisco de I-arra and Nueva )izca(a, 10+7* ilanich, Derald T* lorida Indians and the Invasion from Europe, 100!* ontell, .sta* 4ress and Ornaments in Ancient Peru, 10+0* orison, &amuel Eliot* The European 4iscover( of America, =+ vols? 1071* orris, Earl H* Charlot, Dean and A'tel, Ann* The Temple of the >arriors at Chichen Itza, 6ucatan, =+ vols? 10;1*
urra, Dohn )* Economic Or8anisation of the Ina &tate, 10%"* @ and riosta, Dor8e 3* =eds*?* El Primer Nueva Coronica ( /uen .o-ierno por elipe .uaman Poma de A(ala =1$1!?, =; vols? 10%"* Na(lor, Thomas H*, and Polzer, Charles >* The Presidio and ilitia of the Northern rontier of Ne: &pain 1!7"F17"", 10%$* Ne:son, 3inda A* A-ori8inal and &panish Colonial Trinidad, 107$* @ 3ife and 4eath in Earl( Colonial Ecuador, 100!* Ne:ton, Arthur Percival* The European Nations in the >est Indies 10;F1$%%, 10;;* Nichols, adaline >* The &panish Horse of the Pampas2 American Anthropolo8ist Ne: &eries 1, 10;0* Nicholson, H*/* A5o(al Head-and of the Tla'calteca2 5evista e'icana de Estudios Antropolo8icos GGI, 10$7* No:ell, Charles E* Alei'o .arcia and the >hite Vin82 Hispanic American Historical 5evie: GG)I, 10$* @ The rench in &i'teenth#Centur( /razil2 The Americas ), 100* Nuttall, [elia* &tandard or Head#4ressg2 Papers of the Pea-od( useum of American Archaeolo8( Ethnolo8( I, 1%%%* @ The Atlatl or &pear#Thro:er2 Papers of the Pea-od( useum of American Archaeolo8( Ethnolo8( I, 1%01* @ On Ancient e'ican &hields2 Internationales Archiv fKr Ethno8raphie ), 1%0+* N(rop, 5ichard * =ed*?* Panama< A Countr( &tud(, 10%"* Orellana, &andra 3* The Tzutuil a(as< Continuit( and Chan8e, 1+!"F1$;", 10%* Ortiz, Alfonso =ed*?* Hand-oo of North American Indians )ols*0F1"< &outh:est, 1070* Padden, Charles 5o-ert* Cultural Chan8e and ilitar ( 5esistance in Araucanian Chile, 1!!"F17;"2 &outh:estern Dournal of Anthropolo8( 1;, 10!7* Parr(, D*H*, and &herloc, P** A &hort Histor( of the >est Indies, 10!$* Patere, Dosephine* Enc(clopedia of American Indian Costume, 100* Patterson, E* Palmer* The Canadian Indian< A Histor( since 1!"", 107+* Patterson, .eor8e* The Portu8uese on the North#East Coast of America2 Proceedin8s and Transactions of the 5o(al &ociet( of Canada )III, 1%0"* Penafiel, Antonio* Indumentaria Anti8ua e'icana, 10%* Perri8o, 3(nn I* The American &outh:est< Its Peoples and Cultures, 1071* Peterson, rederic A* Ancient e'ico< An Introduction to the Pre#Hispanic Cultures, 10!0* Peterson, Harold 3* Arms and Armor in Colonial America 1!+$F17%;, 10!$* Pohl, Dohn *4* Aztec, i'tec and [apotec Armies, 1001* Po:ell, Philip >a(ne* The Chichimecas< &cour8e of the &ilver rontier in &i'teenth#Centur( e'ico2 Hispanic American Historical 5evie: GG), 10!* @ &oldiers, Indians &ilver< The North:ard Advance of Ne: &pain, 1!!"F1$"", 10!+* @ e'ico2s i8uel Caldera< The Tamin8 of America2s irst rontier 1!%F1!07, 1077* Price, 5ichard =ed*?* aroon &ocieties< 5e-el &lave Communities in the Americas, 107;* Purchas, &amuel =ed*?* Halu(tus Posthumus or Purchas his Pil8rimes )ols*G)FGG =1$+!?, 10"$* Purd(, /ar-ara A* >eapons, &trate8ies, and Tactics of the Europeans and the Indians in &i'teenth# and &eventeenth# Centur( lorida2 lorida Historical Juarterl( 3), 1077* Juinn, 4avid /* =ed* and trans*?* The 5oanoe )o(a8es 1!%F1!0", =+ vols? 10!!* @ =ed*?* Ne: American >orld< A 4ocumentar( Histor( of North America to 1$1+, =! vols? 1070* @ and Juinn, Alison * =eds*?* The En8lish Ne: En8land )o(a8es 1$"+F1$"%, 10%;* 5ecinos, Adrian, and .oetz, 4elia* The Annals of the Cachiquels, 10!;* 5o-e(, 5ichard C* )ir8inia< our Personal Narratives, 107+*
5o-inson, Perc( D*, and Conacher, Dames /* =ed* and trans*?* The Histor( of Canada or Ne: rance -( ather ranUois du Creu' =1$$?, =+ vols? 10!1* 5oth, H* 3in8* The A-ori8ines of Hispaniola2 Dournal of the Anthropolo8ical Institute G)I, 1%%7* 5o(s, 5alph 3* The Indian /ac8round of Colonial 6ucatan, 10;* 5undall, Thomas =ed*?* Narratives of )o(a8es To:ards the North#>est, 1%0* &auer, Carl Ort:in* Colima of Ne: &pain in the &i'teenth Centur(2 I-ero#Americana GGIG, 10%* @ The Earl( &panish ain, 10$$* @ &i'teenth Centur( North America, 1071* &aville, arshall H* =trans*?* Narrative of &ome Thin8s of Ne: &pain, :ritten -( the Anon(mous Conqueror, 1017* &a(er, Chlo* e'ican Costume, 10%!* &eler, Eduard* Ancient e'ican eather Ornaments2 &mithsonian Institution, /ulletin of /ureau of American Ethnolo8( GG)III, 10"* &impson, 3esle( /(rd =ed* and trans*? CortBs< The 3ife of the Conqueror -( his &ecretar( rancisco 3Mpez de .Mmara =1!!+?, 10$* &elton, 5*A* =trans*?* Antonio Pi8afetta< a8ellan2s )o(a8e =1!++?, 107!* &m(th, >*H* =trans*?* Histor( of the Ne: >orld -( .irolamo /enzoni =1!$!?, 1%!7* &no:, 4ean 5* The Iroquois, 100* &oustelle, Dacques* 3a amille Otomi#Pame du e'ique Central, 10;7* @ The 4ail( 3ife of the Aztecs, 10$1* &pores, 5onald* The i'tec Vin8s and Their People, 10$7* &teele, Ian V* >arpaths< Invasions of North America, 100* &tenzel, >erner* The ilitar( and 5eli8ious Orders of Ancient e'ico2 Actas del G3I Con8reso Internacional de Americanistas, 107* &tetson, Dohn /* =trans*?* The Histories of /razil -( Pedro de a8alh\es =1!7$?, 10++* &te:ard, Dulian H* =ed*?* Hand-oo of &outh American Indians, =7 vols? 10$F!0* @ and aron, 3ouis C* Native Peoples of &outh America, 10!0* &trache(, >illiam* The Historie of Travaile into )ir8inia /ritannia =c*1$1%?, 1%0* &ullivan, Thelma 4* The Arms and Insi8nia of the e'ica2 Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl G, 107+* &:anton, Dohn 5* The Indians of the &outheastern nited &tates2 &mithsonian Institution, /ulletin of /ureau of American Ethnolo8( 1;7, 10$* Thevet, AndrB* 3es &in8ularitBs de la rance Antarctique =1!!%?, 10%1 and En8lish edition, The Ne: ound >orlde =1!$%?, 1071* Thompson, D* Eric &* Tattooin8 and &carification amon8 the a(a2 Notes on iddle American Archaeolo8( and Ethnolo8( $, 10$* Tomlinson, 5e8ina Dohnson* The &tru88le for /razil< Portu8al and The rench Interlopers2 =1!""F1!!"?, 107"* Tozzer, Alfred * =ed* and trans*?* 3anda2s 5elaciMn de la Cosas de 6ucatan2 =1!$$? Papers of the Pea-od( useum of American Archaeolo8( Ethnolo8( G)III, 101* Tri88er, /ruce .* Trade and Tri-al >arfare on the &t* 3a:rence in the &i'teenth Centur(2 Ethnohistor( IG, 10$+* @ The Huron< armers of the North, 10$0* @ =ed*?* Hand-oo of North American Indians )ol*1!< Northeast, 107%* @ and Prender8ast, Dames * Cartier2s Hochela8a and the 4a:son &ite, 107+* Trudel, arcel* The /e8innin8s of Ne: rance 1!+F1$$;, 107;* tle(, 5o-ert *, and >ash-urn, >ilcom- E* The American Herita8e Histor( of the Indian >ars, 1077* )aillant, .eor8e C* The Aztecs of e'ico, 10*
