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THE
AMERICAN OF
INSTITUTE
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ARCHITECTURAL STANDARDS TENTH
EDITION
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JOHN RAY HOKE, JR., FAIA EDITOR IN CHIEF
L10HN New York
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Chichester
WILEY •
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SONS, Brisbane
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SUBSCRIPTION NOTICE Architectural Graphic Standards is updated on a periodic basis to reflect important changes in the subject matter. If you purchased this product directly from John Wiley & Sons, we have already recorded your subscription for this update service. If, however, you purchased this product from a bookstore and wish to receive future updates or editions billed separately with a 15-day examination review, please send your name, company name (if applicable), address, and the title of the product to: Supplement Department John Wiley & Sons, Inc. One Wiley Drive Somerset, NJ 08875 (800)-225-5945
This book is printed on acid-free paper. @ The drawings, tables, data, and other information in this book have been obtained from many sources, including government organizations, trade associations, suppliers of building materials, and professional architects or architecture firms. The American Institute of Architects (AlA), the Architectural Graphic Standards Task Force of the AlA, and the publisher have made. every reasonable effort to make this reference work accurate and authoritative, but do not warrant, and assume any liability for, the accuracy or completeness of the text or its fitness for any particular purpose. It is the responsibility of users to apply their professional knowledge in the use of information contained in this book, to consult the original sources for additional information when appropriate, and, if they themselves are not professional architects, to consult an architect when appropriate. Copyright ©2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY,COM. To order books or for customer service call (BOOl-CALLWILEY (225-59451.
library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Ramsey, Charles George, 1884-1963. [Architectural graphic standards] Ramsey/Sleeper architectural graphic standards/John Ray Hoke, Jr., editor in chief.10th ed. p. em. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-471-34816-3 (cloth: alk. paper) 1. Building-Details-Drawing. 2. Building-Details-Drawings-Standards. I. Title: Architectural graphic standards. II. Sleeper, Harold Reeve, 1893-1960. III. Hoke, John Ray, 1950-IV. Title. TH2031 .R35 2000 721'.028'4-dc21 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
99-087348
CONTENTS
Publisher's Note Forevvord Preface
ix
3
x
xi
A Vievv of Architectural Graphic Standards at the Beginning of the Tvventy-First Century xiii Timeline
Acknovvledgments
1
4
xiv
A Tribute to Architectural Graphic Standards
xv
xvi
5
GENERAL PLANNING AND DESIGN DATA 1
SITEWORK
183
MASONRY
184
209
Masonry Mortar 210 Masonry Accessories 212 Masonry Units 218 Glass Unit Masonry 244 Stone 247
METALS
259
Metal Materials 260 Metal Fastenings 264 Structural Metal Framing 266 Metal Joists 273 Metal Deck 275 Cold-Formed Metal Framing 277 Metal Fabrications 284 Ornamental Metal 291 Expansion Control 296
Human Dimensions 2 I Egress Planning 8 Building Systems 13 Seismic Design 37 Lighting Design 47 Acoustical Design 63 Building Security 73 Site, Community, and Urban Planning 81 Flood Damage Control 101 Automobiles, Roads, and Parking 103 Trucks, Trains, and Boats 115 Construction Information Systems 122
2
CONCRETE
Concrete Forms and Accessories Concrete Reinforcement 189 Cast-in-Place Concrete 192 Precast Concrete 201
6
WOOD AND PLASTICS Introduction 298 Design Load Tables 300 Wood Treatment 314 Wood and Plastic Fastenings 317 Rough Carpentry 323 Structural Panels 339 Heavy limber Construction 341 Wood Decking 352 Sheathing 355 Wood Trusses 361 Glued-Laminated Construction 373 Finish Carpentry 378 Architectural Woodwork 380
143
Subsurface Investigation 144 Excavation Support Systems 145 Piles and Caissons 146 Water Distribution 147 Sewerage and Drainage 148 Paving and Surfacing 156 Site Improvements and Amenities 159 Retaining Walls 170 Planting 177
v
297
7
Fireplaces and Stoves 570 Flagpoles 573 Identifying Devices 574 Lockers 576 Fire Protection Specialties 577 Protective Covers 579 Postal Specialties 583 Partitions 584
THERMAL AND MOISTURE PROTECTION 397 Waterproofing and Dampproofing 398 Thermal Protection 402 Exterior Insulation and Finish Systems 404 Vapor Retarders 405 Shingles, Roofing Tiles, and Roof Coverings 406 Roofing and Siding Panels 413 Membrane Roofing 415 Flashing and Sheet Metal 429 Sheet Metal Roofing 434 Flashing 438 Roof Specialties and Accessories 450 Gutters and Downspouts 459
8
DOORS AND WINDOWS
11
463
Fire Rating and Security 464 Door and Window Openings Metal Doors and Frames Wood and Plastic Doors
467
469 473
Specialty Doors 478 Entrances and Storefronts Windows
486
Skylights
498
Hardware
12
515
Plaster and Gypsum Board 516 Tile 531 Stone Floor and Wall Coverings 534 Terrazzo 538 Special Ceiling Surfaces 539 Special Flooring 541 Unit Masonry Flooring 542 Wood Flooring 543 Resilient Flooring 546 Carpet 547 Wall Coverings 549 Special Wall Surfaces 551 Acoustical Treatment 552 Paints and Coatings 556 Special Coatings 561
10
SPECIALTIES
FURNISHINGS
613
Lamps 614 General Use Furniture 615 School and Library Furniture 619 Residential Furniture 624 Classic and Contemporary Furniture Ecclesiastical Furniture 635 Office Furniture 637 Interior Plants and Planters 641
503
FINISHES
587
482
Glazing 512
9
EQUIPMENT
Security and Vault Equipment 588 Teller and Service Equipment 589 Instrumental Equipment 591 Commercial Laundry and Dry Cleaning Equipment 593 Vending Equipment 594 Audiovisual Equipment 595 Loading-Dock Equipment 598 Solid Waste Handling Equipment 599 Food Service Equipment 600 Residential Equipment 609 Darkroom Equipment 612
13
SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION
627
643
Air-Supported Structures 644 Special Purpose Rooms 645 Sound, Vibration, and Seismic Control 653 Radiation Protection 654 Pre-Engineered Structures 656 Building Automation and Control 660 Detection and Alarm 662 Fire Suppression 663
14
563
Compartments and Cubicles 564 Service Walls 565 Wall and Corner Guards 567
CONVEYING SYSTEMS Elevators 666 Escalators and Moving Walks Material Handling 673
vi
672
665
15
MECHANICAL
Historic Storefronts 857 Historic Structural Systems 858 Historic Interiors 860
677
Mechanical Insulation 678 Building Services Piping 679 Plumbing 690 Special Systems 704 Heat Generation Equipment 705 Refrigeration and Heat Transfer 710 HVAC Systems 716 Air Distribution 726
16
ELECTRICAL
20
Residential Room Planning 864 Nonresidential Room Planning 876 Child Care 889 Health Clubs 891 Museums 892 Airports 896 Health Care 900 Ecclesiastical 904 Detention 907 Justice Facility Planning 908 Assembly 913 Retail 922 Animal Care 926 Greenhouses 931 Housing 932 Waste Management 942 Distribution Facilities 945 Storage Facilities 948 Processing Facilities 949
737
Basic Electrical Materials and Methods 738 Special Systems 745 Transmission and Distribution 748 Lighting 752 Communications 758
17
SPORTS AND GAME FACILITIES 759 Field Sports 760 Track and Field 770 Court Sports 772 Tableand Bar Sports- 780 Aquatics 781 Equestrian 790
21
Ice and Snow Sports 791 I Target Shooting and Fencing 794
18
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN 795
HISTORIC PRESERVATION
ACCESSIBILITY
951
Introduction 952 Building Blocks 956 Curbs and Parking 960 Ramps 962 Elevators 963 Doors 966 Communication 967 Mobility Aids 968 Fumiture 970 Toilets and Bathrooms 971 Residential 974
Climate 796 Solar Radiation and Building Orientation 799 Natural Ventil~tion 807 Climate Response and Building Design 808 Energy Conse'tvation 813 Passive Solar 819 Active Solar 823 Shading 826 Thermal Transmission 829 Environmental Construction 833
19
BUILDING TYPES AND SPACE PLANNNING 863
Appendix
977
Graphic Symbols 978 Drawing Methods 986 Geometry 995 Mathematical Data 1005 Structural Calculations 1008 Classical Architecture 1011 Metric 1017
843
Introduction 844 Historic Masonry 846 Historic Wood 849 Historic Architectural Metals 851 Historic Roofs 852 Historic Windows 853 Historic Entrances and Porches 855
Directory Index
1023
1049
vii 1;:
PUBLISHEItS NOTE
Soon after the publication of Architectural Graphic Standards, suggestions and requests came from many enthusiastic readers. These called for changes and additions and inevitably the decision was made to publish a second edition in 1936, which was almost 25 percent larger than the first. Recovery from the Great Depression had begun when the second edition came out, and with rising construction activity the demand for Architectural Graphic Standards increased. To serve its users' growing needs, work soon began on a third edition which, when published in 1941, was almost twice as large as the original edition. World War II lengthened the interval between editions; the fourth edition, prepared by Sleeper, appeared in 1951 and had grown to 614 pages. The fifth edition (with 758 pages), Sleeper's last revision, was issued in 1956. The coauthors' achievements in the initial decade, followed by the efforts of Sleeper, provided untold thousands of users with an invaluable resource for almost 30 years. Harold Sleeper's foresight led to his suggestion, which was heartily supported by John Wiley & Sons, that The American Institute of Architects be asked to assume the editorial responsibility for the sixth and subsequent editions. This was proposed at the June 1964 annual convention of The American Institute of Architects, and within a month a contract between John Wiley & Sons and the Institute led to the fulfillment of Harold Sleeper's wish. Now, more than 60 years after publication of the first edition, we look back on a remarkable record. Each edition has surpassed its predecessors. The book has grown fivefold in length, immeasurably in depth, and is now packaged in a variety of formats designed for the changing information requirements of architects, their students, and their colleagues in the design and construction fields. The collected editions are a chronicle of twentieth-century architectural practice and reflect as well those times when progress has meant preservinq (and hence respecting) our architectural heritage. John Wiley & Sons takes pride in the part the company has played in the enduring success of Architectural Graphic Standards and in the association with The American Institute of Architects. Generations of readers have benefited from this work, and we look forward to meeting the needs of generations to come. BRADFORD WILEY" Chairman John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
hroughout most of the twentieth century, publication of a new edition of Architectural Graphic Standards has been a signal event at John Wiley & Sons. More than a million copies of Ramsey and Sleeper's book have influenced several generations of architects, engineers, and designers of the built environment, as noted by Robert Ivy and Philip Johnson in their respective essay and tribute to this tenth edition. For half of the life of Architectural Graphic Standards, Wile't·has been proud to have The American Institute of Architects as its publishing partner in this great ongoing endeavor. The release of the tenth edition of Architectural Graphic Standards is an unprecedented event even by the high standards set by this landmark publication. For the first time, revised print and digital versions are being released simultaneously. Also for the first time, both versions are fully integrated and contain the same content, in formats that are tailored to their respective media. This integration culminates a major investment of effort and re,sources, and ensures that Architectural Graphic Standardst'will continue to be not only a definitive reference but also a valuable design tool.
T
ROBERT C. GARBER Publisher Professional/Trade Publishing John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
n the fall of 1932, the lowest point of the Great Depression, my father W. Bradford Wiley joined John Wiley & Sons and soon learned that a promising new book had been published in May. Martin Matheson, then manager of marketing, had persuaded Charles George Ramsey, AlA, author of an earlier Wiley textbook, and his younger colleague, Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, to develop their ideas and prepare the plates for what became Architectural Graphic Standards. Subsequently, Matheson directed the design and layout of the book and personally oversaw its production and manufacture. The immediate acceptance and success of Architectural Graphic Standards extended far beyond its anticipated audience of architects, builders, draftsmen, engineers, and students. Interior designers, real estate agents and brokers, homeowners, insurance underwriters, and lovers of fine books all carne to be among its users and admirers.
I
ix
FOREWORD
be a professional. To that list, I would like to add the many individuals, firms, trade associations, professional societies, and manufacturers who have given this publication its authority. Their contributions are credited throughout this book on the appropriate pages. I would also like to acknowledge and thank three Institute editors: Joseph N. Boaz, AlA (sixth edition); Robert T. Packard, AlA (seventh edition); and John Ray Hoke, Jr., FAIA (eighth, ninth, and tenth editions). John has led this project for the last quarter-century, defining the technical content essential to a new generation of architects. Because of the collective wisdom and dedication of the Institute's editors, the basic principles of service to the industry that were set forth in the original edition continue to be advanced. I would also like to thank two gifted individuals who have enriched this new edition: Robert Ivy, FAIA, editor in chief of Architectural Record, for his inspiring essay, and AlA Gold Medal recipient Philip Cortelyou Johnson, FAIA, for his provocative tribute. To each and every person associated with this special project I offer the words of Eero Saarinen, FAIA, who wrote in the foreword to the fifth edition: "Just as Vitruvius gives us understanding of the vocabulary of Renaissance architects, so Architectural Graphic Standards will show the future the dizzying speed and expanding horizons of architectural developments and practice in our time." (May 1956).
n behalf of The American Institute of Architects (AlA), I am delighted to celebrate with our partners, John Wiley & Sons, the publication of the tenth edition of Architectural Graphic Standards. Since 1964, this indispensable tool of the trade has been a resource in helping the AlA carry out its historic commitment to the architectural profession and the public we serve by helping to bring order to this nation's building design standards. What is remarkable about this work and the key, I believe, to its success has been the fact that Architectural Graphic Standards is the fruit of a thoughtful, cooperative process that makes every member of our industry an interested stakeholder. This book has empowered and inspired generations of architects to create a better built environment. The collected editions are a chronicle of the best architectural practices of the twentieth century. Indeed, I would go so far as to make a claim that the very nature of modern practice is encapsulated in the pages of this splendid book. Each chapter, each page, and each detail assists the architect in the design process from programming through construction. Everyone at the AlA and every practicing architect is indebted to the founding authors, Charles George Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, for their leadership in creating this catalyst for coherence and coordination in a historically fragmented industry. Without it, modern practice would likely not be as advanced. In this edition, there are so many contributions from talented AlA members and building design experts that it is impossible to acknowledge all of them here. These men and women gave unselfishly and creatively so that the whole profession wili benefit from their knowledge and wisdom. Such generosity is at the heart of what it means to
O
NORMAN L. KOONCE, FAIA Executive Vice President/CEO The American Institute ot Architects Washington, DC
x
PREFACE
size for any edition yet). But in terms of real change, with revisions to old pages and new pages added, the book's growth in content is estimated to be about 63 percent. For those who keep records, we have omitted 232 ninth edition pages, revised 224 pages, added 333 new pages, and transferred 465 pages unchanged from the ninth edition. The 232 ninth edition pages we have omitted constituted about 26 percent of that edition. This process of weeding out has helped enrich the book by making room for new material. Most of the pages that were eliminated were out of date or determined to be of little interest to today's professional. Because of the large number of new pages in this edition, I have not attempted to list them by name. Therefore, I encourage you to open the tenth edition and its CD-ROM product, located in the back cover of the book, and begin your journey. An important new chapter titled" Accessibility" is based on the design standards of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Today, both existing buildings and new construction must comply with ADA requirements for accessibility. A special team of experts helped define and develop these new pages. My sincere thanks for their good work and dedication go to Thomas Davies, AlA; Mark J. Mazz, AlA; lawrence G. Perry, AlA; and Kim Beasley, AlA. The publication of a major new edition of Architectural Graphic Standards requires the time, energy, and expertise of many people. I would like to thank all of the great people at Wiley, but especially Robert C. Garber, publisher: Joel Stein, editorial director; Robert J. Fletcher IV, production manager; Debbie lynn Davis, new media director;Beth A. Weiselberg, associate editor; and Jim Harper, editorial assistant, for their commitment to this immense and complex project. I would also like to thank two very important players at Wiley who continue to shape the future and the very nature of this important work. One is Stephen Kippur, executive vice president, and president, ProfessionalfTrade Division. The other is Katherine Schowalter, vice president, Professional/Trade Division. At the AlA, I am delighted with the dedication of our professionals. My special thanks go to three important people who make things happen. They are Janet Rumbarger, managing editor; Pamela James Blumgart, assistant editor; and Richard J. Vitullo, AlA, contributing editor. I am fortunate to have them as my friends and associates over three editions. I also want to thank Fred R. Deluca, senior vice
he American Institute of Architects and John Wiley & Sons, Inc. are proud to offer to the building design and construction community the tenth edition of Architectural Graphic Standards (AGSl, for the first time in simultaneous release with a CD-ROM version. Since AGS was first published in 1932, more than a million copies of this comprehensive source of design data and details have helped shape twentieth-century buildings and cities. With the tenth edition, this influential volume, established by Charles George Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA, will continue into the next millennium as a trusted companion to all who seek its guidance and reference. Historically, the primary audience of AGS has been made up of architects, interns, and construction specifiers as well as civil, structural, and mechanical engineers and students in all these fields. In addition, however, a very important secondary market exists for AGS. This group is composed of general contractors, subcontractors, home builders, estimators, specialty contractorsfdevelopers, planners, landscape architects, interior designers, building code officials, building owners and building engineers, construction trade associations, historians and preservationists, facility space planners, librarians, homeowners, and lawyers. Since the publication of the sixth edition in 1971, and under the care of The American Institute of Architects, AGS has generally been organized according to the principles of MasterFormat®, which is published by the Construction Specifications Institute. MasterFormat® organizes construction data and information into classifications based on building trade or specialty, reflecting the assembly-line character of the modern construction industry. In the tenth edition, an effort has been made to conform even more carefully to the MasterFormat® system. As a result, most pages have new and improved page titles and section names. Chapters 2 through 16 conform to MasterFormat®, while chapters 1, 17, 18, 19,20, and 21 contain sections that are compatible with or complementary to MasterFormat®. The tenth edition of AGS is the largest and most improved edition to date in terms of growth and content. It consists of approximately 11,000 illustrations in twenty-one chapters. Much of the core information, or about 50 percent of the book, has remained unchanged. The new edition has increased by 127. pages or about 14 percent. It now has 1,022 content pages, as compared to the 895 content pages in the ninth edition (one of the largest increases in
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xi
president/COO, for his many years of service in the care of one of this Institute's most cherished programs. I would like to thank two very special people who have joined our AGS celebration-my dear friend Robert Ivy, FAIA, editor in chief of Arctiitectutel Record, for his insightful essay on the historical context of AGS; and one of this nation's most prominent architects, Philip Cortelyou Johnson, FAIA, for his inspired tribute. We are grateful for their important contributions. Finally, I want to pay tribute to the memory of the original editors, Charles George Ramsey, AlA, and Harold Reeve Sleeper, FAIA who created the first five landmark editions. They made a wise decision in entrusting the future of their life's work to The American Institute of Architects, which has nurtured the book with great care and passion for its integrity. As the standard bearer of Ramsey's and Sleeper's original vision, Graphic Standards is poised at the beginning
of the new millennium, prepared for service for the next century and beyond. In conclusion, I want to express my deep appreciation to the AlA members and other contributors for their good efforts in the making of the tenth edition. We honor them by acknowledging their contributions on the relevant page or pages, as well as on the acknowledgments page following the preface. Their valuable and inspired service to the Institute is a fine example of how the profession continues its undaunted support of Architectural Graphic Standards year after year. John Ray Hoke, Jr., FAIA Editor in Chief Washington, DC January 2000
xii
A VIEW OF
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHIC STANDARDS AT THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Part of this work's beauty is its organization. Its clear drawings; charts and graphs, and now its digital bits, offer information on a mind-boggling range of issues that mirror the design and building process. It answers the question, "How do you do that?," from site planning to building systems. Graphic Standards presupposes the interrelationship of parts to whole projects, a nineteenth-century notion articulated by Wright when he said, "The part is to the whole as the whole is to the part." Here, small details link into larger systems, ultimately joined into entire constructions embracing larger sites, a linked unity of great complexity, divisible into bite-sized chunks. Physical wisdom is represented in graphic ways. Throughout the millennia, humankind has recognized subtle changes in dimensions that make big kinetic or aesthetic differences. Consider the lowly step. Graphic Standards presents tread/riser diagrams that acknowledge the enormous physical changes felt with minor shifts in width to height ratios. It remains to the architect to devise the actual stair, but all can appreciate the underlying facts. You can read this book as social history as well. Sections on accessibility, ecology, town planning, and historic preservation all arose following specific movements in the larger civilization. Likewise, the exquisite renderings from earlier in this century, with their complicated analyses of shade and shadow, have disappeared: Software has rendered such knowledge almost arcane, as the electronic GPS system eclipsed dead reckoning. However, the potential unlocked by the computer age only underscores our need for a resource like Graphic Standards. When all things are possible, we need to know what things are best. Great freedom on the screen will be well-served by rock-solid craft and a knowledge of materials. The editors and contributors to this body of knowledge have, in a sense, created their own architecture with Architectural Graphic Standards. It, and its complementary digital version, form a structure of firmness, commodity, and delight. Accessible and well-crafted, this sturdy and vast treasury of ideas allows us to study, adopt, and modify the accumulated wisdom of the past into our own new ideas. Thus armed, we step forward in time.
he tenth edition of Architectural' Graphic Standards
arrives on the cusp of change, as both a century and a T millennium tick into memory, It has been a period of extremes-scientific optimism tempered by overwhelming societal trauma, social improvement and two World Wars, Le Corbusier and Albert Speer, Einstein's cosmic vision and atomic weapons, Cold War and commerce. Two houses built early in the twentieth century in Pasadena, California, illustrate divisions present early in the previous century. The first, Greene and Greene's Gamble house, represents the apotheosis of hand craft, a contemporary wooden temple on a hillside rubbed to near perfection, as open and forthright as the capitalist family it served. Just down the hill, Frank Lloyd Wright sounds a more complex chord at La Minatura, a sophisticated example of modular block construction, advanced for its moment, yet hinting at unresolved psychological forces. The two residences represent radically different ideals, prescient of clashes that would follow in succeeding years. At the turn of the twenty-first cePl'tury, our own models seem to be virtual ones, a galaxy of computer-generated, biomorphic shapes developed by architect Frank Gehry and his coterie. The cyber revolution seems to promise endless formal possibilities through easily calculated custom fabrication. We have traveled far from Wright and the Greenes. Bombarded by new information, which assaults us in an electronic torrent, we stand on an invisible divide with the sense that new ways of building are underway. Where can those of us concerned with shaping the built environment turn for help? Throughout roughly two-thirds of the last hundred years, this encyclopedia of building convention and practice has offered succor and advice. Architectural Graphic Standards has been a repository of good ideas and a framework for constructing new ones; its content is singular, based on architecture's specific language, which is drawing. Since 1932, architects, engineers, and a host of others have turned to its pages as they would a knowledgeable mentor. The representations in Graphic Standards are ideal, not specific, meant to embody the best thinking and applications in universal settings, allowing the reader to tailor details to the real world. As a source of ideal principles, the book stands with other seminal antecedents, such as the work of Vitruvius from the first century BC; as a comprehensive resource, it compares to the work of Sir Banister Fletcher almost two thousand years later, with a nod to Diderot and the encyclopedists of eighteenth-century France.
ROBERT IVY, FAIA Editor in Chief Architectural Record
xiii
TIMELINE The increase in size and complexity of Architectural Graphic Standards since its initial publication has mirrored the extraordinary accomplishments of architecture in the 20th century. Architecture landmarks
Architectural Graphic Standards
Pennsylvania Station, New York (McKim, Mead and White) John Wiley & Sons publishes Architectural Details, a prototype for Architectural Graphic Standards La Villa Savoye, Poissy, France (Le Corbusier) Chrysler Building, New York (William Van Alen) Wiley publishes first edition of Architectural Graphic Standards Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania (Frank Lloyd Wright) 10,000th copy sold 100,000th copy sold The Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut (Philip Johnson) Fourth edition published: changes in building technology trigger 80% increase in length over prior edition Fifth edition published: last edition prepared by Charles Ramsey and Harold Sleeper Seagram Building, New York (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) Salk Institute, La Jolla, California (Louis Kahn) John Hancock Center, Chicago (Bruce Graham/Skidmore Owings and Merrill)
Sixth edition published: first edition edited by The American Institute of Architects; incorporates Uniformat organization
AlA Headquarters, Washington, DC (The Architects Collective) Centre Pompidou, Paris (Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano) National Gallery of Art East Wing, Washington, DC (I. M. Pei)
Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Washington, DC (Maya Lin) Ninth edition published: incorporates ADA guidelines; new material on building systems and energy-efficient design First digital version of Architectural Graphic Standards released as CD v1.0
J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, California (Richard Meier) Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain (Frank Gehry)
1,000,000th copy sold Tenth edition of book and version 3.0 of CD published
xiv
A TRIBUTE TO
ARCHITECTURAL GRAPHIC STANDARDS n 1932, the same year Henry-Russell Hitchcock and I collaborated in writing The International Style, John Wiley & Sons brought out a little-known book titled Architectural Graphic Standards. Both of these books, in different ways, helped usher in the era of Modernism and contributed to my amazing journey in architecture. Sixty-eight years later and ten editions complete. Architectural Graphic Standards, or as I like to call it, Graphic Standards, has quadrupled in size and immeasurably in depth of content, thanks to the dedicated work of its gifted editors, architects, and contributors. I even understand that it is in digital form on CD-ROM located in the back cover of this book. What's next, a Graphic Standards website? I can't think of another book published this century that has supported, taught, and delighted our profession as much as Graphic Standards. These ten editions are a chron-
icle of twentieth-century U.S. architectural practice standards. Furthermore, the book is one of the most unifying and focused reference works available in the world. I have always considered my Graphic Standards as important in design as is my pencil. Every architect loves it, wears it out, and keeps it within arm's length. It is a combination of the Encyclopedia Britannica and the telephone book-or maybe it's the Whole Earth Catalog of architecture! No architect can be without Graphic Standards, and with it every architect is empowered and equipped to practice architecture.
I
PHILIP C. JOHNSON, FAIA The Glass House New Canaan, Connecticut July 7, 7999
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xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Edward Allen, AlA David Arkin, AlA Christopher Arnold, FAIA, RIBA Randall I. Atlas, AlA, PhD, CPP Charles M. Ault Chip Baker Gordon B. Batson, PE Erik K. Beach Kim A. Beasley, AlA Ralph Bennett Tedd Benson James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD John Birchfield Reed A Black Richard Boon Ben Brungraber, PhD., PE Robert D Buckley, AlA Robert P Burns, AlA David Campbell Dennis Carmichael John Carmody David Collins, FAIA Mark Conroy Dean Cox, AlA Mark Knapp Crawfis Thomas 0 Davies Jr., AlA Fred Davis, CLEP Larry O. Degelman, PE Joseph Demkin, AlA Brent Dickens, AlA
Anthonv DiGreggarlo Valerie Eickelberger Richard Eisner, FAIA John Eliker Dale Ellickson, FAIA Carrie Fischer Russell S. Fling, PE Robert P Foley, PE
Jacqueline Jones Philip Kenyon Don Klabin Thomas R. Krizmanlc, AlA James W Laffey Elin Landenburger Michael G. Lawrence, AlA Grace S Lee William T Mahan, AlA Mark J. Mazz, AlA Keith McCormack, /O.IA Kevin R McDonald, AlA McCain McMurray, AlA Joseph P Mensch, PE Walter Moberg David Natella
Mark J. Forma Kenneth D. Franch, PE, AlA Michael Frankel, CIPE Douglas J. Franklin Sidney Freedman J. Francois Gabriel Edgar Glock Ronald L Gobbell, FAIA Paul Gossen Alfred Greenberg, PE, CEM
Donald Neubauer. PE Paul Nimitz Beth Nixborf Thomas F O'Connor, AlA, FASTM Pearse O'Doherty, ASLA Kathleen 0' Meara Steven A Parshall, FAIA Lawrence G. Perry. AlA Jessica Powell
Walter T. Grondzik, PE Jeff Haberl, PhD, PE Tedd Hallinan Grant Halvorsen, SE, PE Don Hardenbergh Daniel F.e Hayes, AlA Greg Heuer Richard F. Humenn, PE D.J. Hunsaker Mary K Hurd Robert Ivy, FAIA Hugh Newell Jacobsen, FAIA Kenneth D. Jaffe Philip Cortelyou Johnson, FAIA
xvi
Robert Prouse. IALD, IES Isabel Ramirez D. Neil Rankins Darrel Rippeteau, AlA Michael A. Ritter, PE Richard M Roberts, AlA
Richard Rodgers Robert C. Rodgers, PE Carl Rosenberg, AlA Debbie Rathgeber Ryon, PE Robert Sardinsky Christopher Save reid Michael Schley, AlA Thomas Schueler James E. Sekela, PE Stephen Selkowitz Neil Thompson Shade Robert W ShuIdes, PE Mary S. Smith, PE John Soltis Stephen B. Soule William W. Stewart, FAIA Kristie Strasen Doug Sturz Jim Swords Charles A. Szoradi, AlA Art Thiede Joel Ann Todd Charles B. Towles, PE Brian Trimble, PE Thomas Turvaville, AlA James Urban, ASLA Jeffrey R. Vandevoort Richard J Vitullo, AlA James W. G. Watson, AlA Ed Williams Stephen Wise
ONE
GENERAL PLANNING AND DESIGN DATA . Human Dimensions Egress Planning
2
Site, Community, and Urban Planning
81
8 Flood Damage Control
Building Systems
101
13
Seismic Design
37
Automobiles, Roads, and Parking 103
Lighting Design
47
Trucks, Trains, and Boats
Acoustical Design Building Security
63 73
Construction Information Systems 122
115
2
Anthropometric Data: Adult INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
rate, differences are small when compared with size variations.
The following anthropometric drawings show three values for each measurement: the top figure is for the large person or 97.5 percentile; the middle figure. the average person or 50 percentile; and the lower figure, the small person or 2.5 percentile. The chosen extreme percentiles thus include 95%. The remaining 5% inelude some who learn to adapt and others. not adequatelv represented. who are excluded to keep designs for the rnaloritv from becoming too complex and expensive. Space and access charts are designed to accept the 97.5 percentile large man and will cover all adults except a few giants. Therefore, use the 97.5 percentile to determine space envelopes, the 2.5 percentile to determine the maximum "kinetospheres" or reach areas bv hand or foot. and the 50 percentile to establish control and displav heights. To accommodate both men and women, it is useful at times to add a dimension of the large man to the corresponding dimension of the small woman and divide bV 2 to obtain data for the average adult. This is the wav height standards evolve. Youth data are for combined sex. Although girls and bovs do not grow at the same
Pivot point and link systems make it easy to construct articulating templates and manikins. Links are sirnplified bones. The spine is shown as a single link; since it can flex, pivot points mav be added. All human joints are not simple pivots. though it is convenient to assume so. Some move in complicated patterns like the roving shoulder. Reaches shown are easv and comfortable; additional reach is possible bV bending and rotating the trunk and bv extending the shoulder. Stooping to reach low is better than stretching to reach high. The dynamic bodv mav need 10% more space than the static posture allows. Shoes have been included in all measurements; allowance may need to be made for heavV clothing. Sight lines and angles of vision givtn ill one place or another applv to all persons.
92.0
n4~
203
m
19.4
I :~ I ~~:~
178
70.5
155
Standin9 H ei!tl t
~
--;--
1905 75.0 1770 69.8 1640' 64.6
1.+
I.....
~ -I' . . . ~
1
T:;;
[I
CI.. ~ul.,
455 425
Thoracic
tr~b~
9.3 8.7 8.5
l]ill575 62.4 1460 57.6 1345 52.9
Ul3~ ~~'.~ 315 12.4
i
192 18.0
5.7
~~
4
•
r\
ti .j,80-,20
.
Ir('
0
[J[ ~~~ ~:~ 175
Q 90 L 6.9 7.4 175 160
Elbow Hei!tlt
..
r1ml175 46.3 1090 43.0 1005 39.6
6.3
20
~ 850 775
Pivot Points
36.3 33.5 30.6
1--0[00 280 265
[]I
18.1 16.7
390
15.3
11n 35
UI I
.
680 620
Wldth~ J 14.9
,
13.1
295
11.7
Standing Height
~
790
1665 1540
00
70.4 65.5 60.6
[I 455 425
400
1_r:: HiP) PIV \--
28.9 26.8 24.5
[1[ -~
18.0 16.8 15.7
2190 ..10 175
13.9
12.4
180
~
8.3 7.5 6.9
0[ 25 390 355
links
[]I 10
380 345
14.8
290 265
Male and
1905 1775 1640
11.4 10.5 9.7
female S1anding heights (including shoes)
75.0 69.8 64.6
1790 1665
70.4 large ~ 97.5 percen.tile } includes 65.5 average = 50 I"'erce-ntlle 95% U.S.
1540
60.6 small
=
2,5 oercentue
adults.
Niels Diffrient, Alvin A. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York. New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
7.7 7.3 7.2
nrl 80 75
3.3 3.1 3.0
0[
11.2 10.5 9.9
s
16 . .7 15.4 140
290
\
.7 16 13.8 11.5
Ol{] 370 310
16.2 14.9 13.6
14.6 12.3
)
58.0 { 53.7 49.6 85 265 250
Elbow Height
~
105 40.3 :43.5
7.7 7.1 6.4
1025 935
36.9
) 0[
10.1
235
9.3
220
8.7
[I
7.5 6.9 6.3
55
Crotch Hei!tlt
5 3: 4.0 790 31.2
~ 730
' I-
28.7
90 175 160
Finger Height
~27.1
I ~gJ~~:~
-I '65 2.6 ~~ ~:j r~ 39--
I--
I ~g
t"\
-i -I
J
J
Shoe Length 75 10.9 260 10.2 240 9.4
265 245
10.4 9.7 8.9
~:~
2.9
I ~ ~:g ~5.8
m
Shoe Widlh
V lILI'[l;~ §j3.5
225
Lli-
.JL i~
nID ~
95 185 185
liJ
Pelvic Link
Hip W. Silting SO 17.7
16.2
r!l
11.2
~
l
17.7
liJ
6.2 57 5.3
475 1365 1260
CG
15.8
315
'195
10.6 10.0 9.7
207135"
0[
2.7 2.5 2.2
55 145 135
& ,"'-J
T' Un ,
70 255 235
o
65 55
3~ g:~
lHI:3502: ·J
355
m
17.7 16.0 14.4
70 14.5 350 13.7 [ 325 ] [ 12.8
Hip W. Sitting
[iJ
--
For Men Or Women. C.G. Is Within Pelvic link.
Shoulder Height
('
OJITrHIP
380 335
69.0 61.5
166 152 135
SO 405 365
285
Finger Height
0
75.5
0,.2
n!fl
Weiftlt Kg & Lb
11.9 11.1 10.4
'-----'-'-'----H",c-t-'.,... I 228-82" Crotch Height
Maximum safe temperature of metal handles is 50°C (122°F) and of nonmetallic handles, 62°C (144°F); maximum air temperature for warm air hand dryers is 60°C (l40°F); water temperatures over 46.1·C (115° F) are destructive to human tissue. Environrnental temperature range is 17.2 to 23.9°C (63 to 75° F). Weights lifted without discomfort or excessive strain are 22.7 kg (50 Ib) for 90% of men and 15.9 kg (35 lb} for women; limit weight to 9.07 kg (20 Ib) if carried bv one hand for long distances. Push and pull forces, like moving carts. are 258 N (58 lbf] and 236 N (53 Ibf) initiallv, but 129 N (29.1 Ibf) and 142 N (32Ibf) if sustained. Noise above the following values can cause permanent deafness: 90 dB for 8 hr. 95 dB for 4 hr. 100 dB for 2 hr. 105 dB for 1 hr. and 110dB for 0.5 hr.
.----tl----;-
' ..
180_380
425
6.8
-
:z:
16.7
Standing Slump Can Be
Eye level
~----\ ~~~.~ ~ I ~~~ !60.6
ljJ70 10.7 230 9.0 195 7.7
Link
3.5 3.3 3.1
85 80
-
1 ce:;~ ~~~::~~:~ ~ ~
I r--jjJ~~::::;;:j~~=~ \ l.
,-
145
m
~:~ ~:;
Shoulder Height
L. (
65 6.1
220 215
~It---.>
\
[165 155
1illl21O 8.7
~. ~
235
m ~70-90"_~J--~~ :;:
24
0['
Jr;H:'~' 1 "-
153
90 365 345
~~
60
SAFETY INFORMATION
The metric system of measurement has been included, since it is used in scientific work everywhere and is the most practical system of measurement ever devised. Millimeters have been chosen to avoid use of decimals. Rounding to 5 mm aids mental retention while being within the tolerance of most human measurements.
Weight Kg & lb (Includes Avg. Clothes). Data Are For load ComPUtations, Not Health Purposes.
BO.5
Disabilities are to be reckoned as follows: 3.5% of men and 0.2% of women are color blind; 4.5% of adults are hard of hearing; over 30% wear glasses; 15 to 20% are handicapped, and 1% are illiterate. Left-handed people have increased in number to more than 10%.
20 105 95
_
4.B
4.2 3.7
I~~ I~ ~
2 3'-
75
30
,IA\---'I:l:'r.-----'-;.~t
I -/ lC
IJ
1 401 1 5
I
Dimensional notation svstern:
~
ooo
100 25.4
39.3} Numb~~ appearin. g in bOo xes ~re measurements 3.9 in milfimeters , Numbe~ outSIde boxes are 1.0 measurements in Inches
Anthropometric Data: Children Combined
Ages
Sex Data
Years
1BOO
70.8
Avg-- 15
1675
Small ---
1545 1625 1485 1350
659 60.8
"
M
A Birth
15
12 G
0
HS J,. HS 4 th.
2 nd .
KOG
t
5
1330 1210
52.3
500
41.1 465 lOBS 42.1 425
Reach High Distance C Reach 0
735 29.0 6B5 21.0 635 25.1 665 620 565 600 550
26.2 24.3
22.3
485
23.6 21.7 19.1
550 495 445
21.7 19.5 11.5
19.7 480
19.0 11.1
18~3
435 16.7 390
15.3
Reach
Ey,
Radius E
level F
144{) 56.7 660 1375 54.1 610 1315 51.7 570 1320 52.0 600 1250 49.2 555 1185 46.6 510 1175
1120 1040 1080 1015
960 970 915 865
53.2
1440
56.6
1320
52,0 47.3
1315 1220 1125
51.8 48.0 44.2
t185
46.7 43.0 ::9.1
18.2 16,5 J48
395 350 300
156 137 11,9
350 310 265 320 2B5 250
13.8 12.1 10.5
290 260 230
11.5 10.3
95
930
36,7
725 505
28.6
240 205
19.9
150
370 350 330
14.6
345 320 295 310 290 275 290 280 260
13.5 12.6
270 255 240
Low
58.5
Head
465 420 375
12.6 11.3
99
91 BO 6.0
13.8 13.0
11.7 12.3
11.4 10.8
11.4 11.0 10.2 10.7
10.0
94
465 430 405 420 390 360 375 350 320 345 325 305 315 300 2BO
Height F
Height G
Length H
Foot Length J
Eye
Height E
1460 1370 1260
860 790 730
33.9 31.1 2B.7
790 735 6B5
31.1 28.9 26.9
270 250 230
10.6
1685 1565 1445
31.9 28.7 25.4 27.7
710 660 600 640 5B5 515
240 220 195
9.5 B.6 76
47.8
2B.0
44.0 40.3
22.0 16.5
37.3 34.1 30.7
B6 7.B 6.9 79 71 63 71 63 5.6
1215 1120 1025
200 195 190
220 200 175 200 lBO 160 lBl 161 141
1100
7.6 7.0 6.5
Bl0 730 645 705 630 560 630 565 50S 545 490 430
2BO
7B 7.3 6.7 7.7 7.1 6.5
225 220 215 215 215 210 210 205 205 205 205 200
1085 995 B90
42.8
22.0
39.'
18.0
35.0
13.5
175
6.9
195
28.9
175
22.2
B35 640
13.0
63 4.0
56 43
32.B
160 100
141 110
25.1
9.0
3.1
440
17.4
3.5
Length 0
155 145 140 155 145 135 150 140 130 150 140 130 145 135 125 135
200 190 lB5
7.9 74 72
200 lB5 170 200 185 170 195 lBO 165 195 180 165
79 73 6.B
6.2 5B 5.5 61 57 53 6.0 5.6 52 59 5.5 5.1 5.B 54 5.0 5.2 4.9
125 95
3.B
18.3 17.0 16-7 15.3
14.' 14.8 13.8 12.7 13.7 12.8 12.0
12.4 11.8 11.0
125
430 400 360
15.7 14.2
420 390 350
3B5 345 305
15.1 13.6 12.1
375 335 300
335 300 265 300 270 245 260 235 210
13.0
325 290 255 290 260 235 255 220 195
17.0
11.9
10.4 11.8 10.6
96 10.3
9.3 8.2
16.6 15.3
13.8 14.7
13.2 11.8
12.8 11.4 10.1 11.4
10.3 9.3 10.0
B.8 7.7
1065 960 1060 970 890 945 B65 7BO 735
6.9 5.0
565 375
1205 1080
42.5
1165
45.8 42.0 37.7
4L8 38.2 35.1
14.9
24.9
22.0 24.7
25.9
23.7 25.1
23.1 2~.3
23,1
19.3 17.0
5B5 525 470 515 460 415
375
14.7
415
16.4
245 170
9.6
305 195
12.0
22.3 19.8 21.5
6.6
20.7 18.6 20.3 18.2 16.3
7.6
4.4 4.1 3.9
355 325 290
12.7
100 95 90 95 90 B5 90 B5 BO 85 BO 70
39 3.B 3.5 3.7 3.5 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.1
320 2BO 250
11.1
270 245 220 245 220 210
3.3 3.1 2.B
215 200 lB5
14.0 11.5
12.5
9.B 10.6 9.6 B6 9.6 87 B2 8.4 7.8 7.2
7.4 6.9 G.? 67 60 5.2
190 175 160 170 150 130 145 130 110 130 115 100
5.7 5.1. 4.4 5.1 4.5 3.9 4.2 3.6 3.1
105 90 BO
2B5 270 250
11.3 10.6
170 160 150
6B 6.3 5.9 6.2 5.B SA 5.8 5.5 5.1 5.3 4.9
260 245 225
10.3
135 125 120
4.7
Work Up To Hat Shelf Lavatory Height H TopJ A"" Height G 1675 66.0 760 30.0 915 15 36.0
43.3 41.0 38.9
12 9 7
1485
5
1090
1320 1220
58.5 685 52.0 635 585 43.0 485 48.0
795 25.0 695 23.0 635
31.3
570
22.5
27.0
19.0
27.3
76.5
56.8
1520 1385
59.9 54.5
37.0
1250
49.2
23.5
1335
52.6
1220
48.0 43.3
36.5 27.0
51,5
17.0
Lb
169 152 137 114 B2 52 Bl 59 38 62 49 36 49 39 29.5 29 20 7.5
U
73 6.9 65
240 220 195 220 200 175 190 170 145
Kg
66.4 61.7
69.0 62.0
T
185 175 165
160 145 135 145 140 130
Weight
Level K
9.9 91
BO
S
115 105 100
1160 45.6 1100 43.3
23.6 1100 1040 990 46.3 540 21.2 975 44.0 495 19.5 925 40.9 435 17.1 880 42.6 SOD 19.6 890 4{).0 445 17.5 B50 31.7 395 15.6 815 38.1 430 16.9 B15 36.1 385 15.2 770 34.1 345 13£ 720 21.9 20.1
54.0
49.6
52.2 47.5
Q
25.9 1215 47.8 24.1 22.4
57.5
1325
Arm
Crotch
Shoulder
BB B6 BA B.5 8A 8.2 B.3 81 8.0 B.l B.O 7B 79 77 75 77
p
0
N
15.9
H,..,
Head
Width C
M
V
High
63,9
1200
1090 995
Reach B A"" Reach A 2085 82.0 815 32.0 15 1915 15.3 730 28.7 1765 6g.4 665 26.2 1860 13.2 70S 27.6 12 1705 61.1 630 24.7 1545 60.9 560 22.1 1645 64.8 60S 23.B 1510 59.4 55!> 21.8 1345 53.0 510 20.0 1505 59.3 545 21.5 1370 53.9 510 20.1 1245 49.0 485 19.0
Shoulder Width B
Standmq Height A
Large
3
99 9.6 B9 .9.4 B6 7.7 B.6 7B 6.9 7.6 67 57
255 240 220
10.1 9A B.7
195 lBO 165
7.6 7.0 6.5
230 215 195
91 B.5 76
175 160 145
6B 6.2 5.8
210 190 160
B.2 7A 6.3 7. 6.5 5.8 6.3 5.7 5.1
150 140 130 140 130 120 130 120 115
60 5.7 51 5.7 5.2 4.B
190 165 150 160 145 130
Sea
Table
Work
Depth K
5.1 4.7 4.5
Height l
Length M
460
18.0 650
25.5
420 3BO
16.5
590 15.0 525
23.3
18.9
300 275
11.8
14.0
17.5
250
9.9
25.0 355
330
480 13.0 445
20.7
370 14.6 340 13.3 10.8
38.4 36.5 34.6
""., Hei!t'tN
35.0 33.5
Age,
32.0
15
405
15.9
32.1 30.4 28.4
12
370 325 290 265
14.6
9 7
Starting School Grades
5
Chalk Board Height
Seat To
11.4
Spacing 0
Width R
Basic Table Width S
6.0
175
6.8
445
17.5
5.7 5.4 5.1 4.8
160 140
6.2 420 5£ 355 5.1 330 5.0 305
16.5
380 370
760 30.0 710 2BO
14.0
330
13.0
305 280
12.0
610 610
24.0
13.0
11.0
535
21.0
Backrest
12.B 10.4
Min Backrest Height P
0 150 145 135 130 120
130 125
Armrest
12.0
"".,
15.0 14.5
24.0
l...-.-.--coK_-+-H o
Standing heiqhts (including shoesl-typiCal example 1800 1675 1545
70.8 large 15 year youth ~ 97.5 percent.ile } combined 65.9 average 15 year youth '"50 percentile sex data 60.8 small 15 year youth'" 2.5 cercentue U.S. youths
Dimensional notal ion system
ooo
100 25.4
GTIJ
39.3} Numb~rs appea.ring in b.OXe5 are measurements 3.9 III millimeters Numhers outsHre boxes are 1.0 measurements In incht:S
Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Workstations: Standing
4
SERVING AT A COUNTER (FOOD COUNTERf
Counter Depth
535-610
21-24
18
Two or More
Counter
Servers
Height
96
I 2030 lao
_-4,..J.--=.c~L:.:-I
16
§J36
2440
Minimum Aisle Space One Server _-l..J---::":-~:"'"
Residential Ceilings
STANDING HEIGHT STCS. COMBINED ADULT SEX
Viewing Distance To Standard DisPlays
2440 96-
13-28
ADJUSTMENTS FOR THE ELDERLY
Residential Ceiling High Reach, Higtl Shelves
Minimum Ceilings
_ _ lower03
low Reach, low Shelves-Raise
2135
84
2030 80 + L...:.=":":'~":":''':'':'-l---~It 30'
Residential Doors
Shelving Depth Work Surfaces
I ower0 1.5
~\~ 5:;~g~~ndeliers
1980
78
1905
75
Highest Head Top
1880
74
Clothes Line (Max)
1830
72
2M
~3
Office Doors
230-305
9-12
Shower Head (Max)
1830 72
No See Over Hat Hooks (Mall:) Highest Shelf (Men) Shower Head Clear IMinl
1780 70
Rail ForEveningDresses Top Of Mirror
1730 68
Highest Shelf (Womenl
1920
1780 1655
10"
30"
1600 63
Catwalk Head Clear (Mini
1790
1575 62
Avg Adult Eye level
1665 1540
1475 58
Thermostats
1395
55
See Over
1370
54
Grab Bars Phone Dial Hgt
1320
52
1270
50
1220 48 1145
45
1120 44
1065
42
1015
40
915
36
M
840 33
lowest Reach Level
230
a Datum Male and 1905 1775 1640
female standing heigtlts (including shoes]: 75.0 69B 64.6
1790 1665 1540
70.4 large:: 97.5 percentile} includes 65.5 average=50pen:entile 95% us. 60.6 small ., 2.5 percentile eccns
Niels Diffrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Highest File Door Push Plates Shower Valves Walt5witch Plate Deal Plate Push Bar On Doors Bar (Hi) Counters, Doorknob IMa)() Safety Handrails, Bars Entrance lock (MaK) Ironing Board (Hi) Handrails, Ironing Board (Hi) Counters, Doorknob (Min)
Zone
Panic Bars
790
31
lavatory Rim
760
30
letter Slot, Rails On Steps
760
30
Ironing Board (lo)
455
18
Wall QutJets
405
16
Highest Step
Rung Spacing
305
12
205
8
Bar Rails
190
7.5
Stair Riser (Opt I
150
6
Toe Space (MaxI
75
3
ToeCle.r IMinl
25
Optimum Shelving
535-610
21-24
Cavity For Stool Storage
lowest Reach Level
Threshold (Maxi
Dimensional notation system:
ooo
ITm 100 25.4
39.3} ~um.b_~rs aPpea.rin9 in boxes are measurements 3.9 In rndlimeters. Numbers outside boxes are 1.0 measurements In inches.
Workstations: Seated HIGH WORK SEATS (BANK AND TICKET COUNTE RSl
MEDIUM HIGH WORK SEATS (POST OFFICE CDUNTE RI
SEATING ANGLES Reclining Postures Retaxing Postures Alert Postures
610-710 24-28
I
Sit Or Stand Work Positions
a
Work Postures SO
0°
13-14
5
22
Hip Anqles 110-130° Relax 95_130" Work And Alert
light Sources Reflect In EYeGlasse5
Easy Head Rotation
(79 0 Maximums)
Minimum Table Widths
1o
24
27
30
SITTING HEIGHT STDS. COMBINED ADUL T SEX
50" ADJUSTMENTS FOR THE ELDERLY Easy
Head Movements 50° Maximum
I
light Sources Below Visual Limit line
Create Glare
1450
57
Highest Head Top
High Forward Reach, Eye level, Head Heig--t
1420
56
Mirror Top
Reach Radius
1370
54
No See Over
1370
54
Floor Lamp (Hi)
~ lower~ 2.2 Decrease~ 2.5 /
50" ~i9h Visual Limit FunctIOnal GriPS
1270
50
1195
47
Avg Eye Level
1170
46
High File. Front Tab
1090
43
See Over Hgi
1065
42
Phone Dial Hqt
1015
40
Floor Lamp (La!
High Shelf
M
3.8 3.2 2.7
Ma)(WC Height
Sitting
18.5 16.8 15.6
Male and
1905 , 775 1640
36
lunch Counter
34
High File, Top Tab
790
31
Sewing Table
760
30
Stool For 42 Counter Hasp. Bed (Hi) Work Table Desk
735
29
685
27
Iron Board
660
26
Typing Table
635
25
610
24
Table (Min! Knee Space Side Tables Chair For 36 Counter Coffee Table (Hi) Wall Outlets
455
18
455
18
8.d
445
17.5
Work Chair
400
15.8
Toilet Seat
380
15
Seat (Min) Park Seat
305
12
FOOl Stool (Hi)
280
"
Coffee Table {Loj
400
Height
470 425 395
915 865
150
715 655 600
28.1 25.8 23.7
female standing heights (including shoesl:
75.0 69_8 64.6
1790 1665 1540
70.4 65.5 60.6
large = 97.5 percentile} includes 95% u.S adults
average '"' 50 percentile small = 2.5 percentile
Foot Ring 24 Chair
150
Toe Space (Max)
75
Toe Clear. (Min)
50
Foot Sroot It.ol Dimensional notation system
~
ooo
100 25.4
39.3} Numben appea.rin g in b.oxes are measurements 3.9 In miltirneters. Numben cctsioe boxes are 1.0 measurements In Hlches
Niels Diffrient. Alliin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates: New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Space Usage
6
PASSAGES FOR ONE
PASSAGE FOR TWO
FACING DOORS
-----
Door Opening Outward
Door A
~36 Door B
E!30
OoorA
1805 71
1600 63
©
FACING DOOR::
PASSAGE FOR FOUR
SINGLE DOOR
Door B 1650 65
©
@ @
©
78
Note: Also See Wheelchair Requirements
© ©
(Q)
Door Opening Outward
Min Door A
2440 610
24@
96
Min Door B
2135
84
© <1D
Prefer Straight And Short Corridors With Two Way Traffic; "I" And 'L' Shapes Cause Blockages. Make Flow Plans OFFICE SPACE
LIVING SPACE
Table For One;
685 27
-NOTE~P;et;rFront Load Dishwashen:
female standing hei~ts (including shoes):
Male and
1905 1175 1640
75.0 69.8 64.6
1790 1665 1540
10.4 65.5 60.6
large"97.spercentile} includes average" 50 percentile 95% U,S. small '" 2.5 percentile adults
English Beds: Small Single 900 x 1900;NewStd.Single 1000 x 2OOO;Small Double 1350 x 1900; New Std. Double 1500 x 2(X)()
Niels Diffrient. Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Dimensional notation sY'tem: ooo 39.3} Numbers apPearing in boxes ~re measurements 100 3.9 in millimeters. Numbers outsIde boxes are 25.4 1.0 measurements in inches.
~
Accessibility SIDE
CQARtQORS
PASSAGEWAY
FRONT
CATWALK
WITH ONE BAG
HALLWAYS
WITH TWO BAGS
7
(:AAAYING TRAY
1 Person 2 People
rrnsl49 f1880174
,...,
I
<
<
I MANHOLES
CEILING AND
~22.8
FLOOR HATCH
TOP AND BOTTOM ACCESS
~i' ~~13 ~
HEAD ACCESS
Diameter
~9.3Bare ~12.5safetv
<$)-
~5To
Hot
fiNGER ACCESS
TWO FINGER
0
r=I
TWIST ACCESS 1.3 Bare
~ 1.5 Glove [!]O.3 To R
d
r::::-l
EKclUd~2.5 G~~;
I
?:/Il
Exetuoe
~2Bare
Round
I
Object
~'{
SIT";ING UPRIGHT
CRAWL·WAYS
~25Min
0
~30Prefer
185
Height
Width
~2.3 ~4Bare
§]s
~3.5Bare
~4
@D6
~4.5GIOve
~:~
~6Glove
~S=~i~~h
I
=:::::;:>For Cia
Reet
I
II Hound
~useHei9hl - - - - - - ' For Dlil
I
I
RELAXEDSEATlNG
Width With Armrest
~22.8Min
~2BMin
TWO HAND REACH ACCESS (No Vision)
ARM ACCESS TO SHOULDER
,
36
MINIMUM HAND ACCESS TO WRIST
FINGER TIP PUllS
~OrSquare
~3.2 Minimum
~3.8Bare
Hand Curled With Or Without Screw
~ I
SITTING ON FLOOR Work Width
L
L
~8 ~5
Height
~'9.5~5
FOOT OPENINGS
HANDLE OPENI NGS
L
H
~3.8 ~1.5Bare
..H.
G4.5 0
L/2 For Two F m(lf~rs
L/2 For Two Fingers
[ _~JO. 75 Minimum
TWO ARM REACH ACCESS (No Visionl
~
l
$'~'
31
Prefer
915
HAND FLAT ACCESS Height Width
ARM ACCESS TO ELBOW
2
Min
•
Width No Armrest:
[865]34 Depth I
CRAWL PIPE
m; @ 1 Max AbOlie Floor
[!60] 30
§J18 Min Oia Or$quare
~36Spac:e
WALL ACCESS
I--
I
«
L
2 Glove
Dia
.j
•.
SQUATTING
STOOPING
(For Short Durauoos!
(For Short Durations)
ca=;5J 0.3 0.9
L
~12
H
[!2i]4.5Bare
~13 ~5Shoes ~15.5 ~6.5 Boots
JLlolJC KNEELING (Prefer Knee Padl
~25Min
Maximum Recline
[l1OOl67
[l98O] 78
Datum SUPINE
[1005]75
PRONE
R
~
96
I ~p~~~,20
~43017 Male and 1905 1775 1640
female standing heig,ts (including shoes): 75.0 69.8 64.6
1790 1665 1540
70Alarge" 97.5 percentile} includes 65.5average"5Dpercentile 95% U.S. 60.6 small" 2.5 percentile adults
Dimensional notation svstem:
~
ooo
100 25A
39.3} Numbers appearing. in boxes are measurements 3.9 1.0
In mll.,meten. Numbers outsioe boxes are measurements in meres.
, Niels Dilfrient, Alvin R. Tilley; Henry Dreyfuss Associates; New York, New York
HUMAN DIMENSIONS
Occupant load Calculations
8
GENERAL The information for determining occupant load shown in the table on this page comes from three model building codes in use in the United States: 1. BOCA National Building Code (BOCA). 1996 edition. with permission of the Building Officials and Code Administrators International. Inc .• publisher. 2. Standard Building Code (SBC). 1997 edition. with permission of the Southern Building Code Congress International, tnc., publisher, with all rights reserved. 3. Uniform Building Code (UBC). 1997 edition. with permission of the International Conference of Building Officials. publisher. Occupant load generally is defined as the maximum capacity of a building or room given as the total number of people present at anyone time. For occupant loads, it is generally assumed that all areas of a building will be occupied at the same time, with some exceptions noted in specific codes. For example. the UBC states, "Accessory use areas. which ordinarily are used only by persons who occupy the main
areas of an occupancy, shall be provided with exits as though they are completely occupied, but their occupant load need not be included in computing the total occupant load of the building' rUBC Sec. 3302 la)). Most codes require that to determine multiple use building or area occupancies, the occupant load (OU must be based on the use that produces the most occupants. For example, the occupant load for a school multiple use room, which will be used for classroom activities (Ot. factor 20) as well as assembly space (OL factor 15), is calculated using the 15 sq ft per occupant factor. If buildings or areas contain two or more separate occupancies, the overall occupant load is determined by computing occupant loads for various areas and adding them together for an aggregate occupant load.
EXITS All three major codes use occupant loads to determine the size and number of required exits. Based on occupant loads and area uses, it is possible to determine the required number of exits and the arrangement and sizes of exit components. All three codes (BOCA. SBC. and UBC) consider an exit to be more than merely a door. Although specific definitions vary with each code, exits usually are considered to be continuous and unobstructed means of egress to a public way and may include such building elements as doors, corridors, stairs, balconies, lobbies, exit courts, etc. Elevators are not considered exits. Requirements for arrangement. size. and operation of exits vary; consult applicable codes for specific information.
When calculating occupant load for areas with fixed seating in benches or pews, the number of occupants is based on one seat for each 18 in. of bench or pew space. In dining areas with booth seating, the number of seats is based on 24 in. for each seat.
MINIMUM EXITS BASED ON USAGE
OCCUPANT LOADS MAXIMUM FLOOR AREA PER OCCUPANT (SQ FT) USE
BOCA
Assembly areas 2-concentrated use (without fixed seats): auditoriums, bowling alleys3, churches, dance floors. lodge rooms, reviewing stands, stadiums
7 net
Assembly areas-less concentrated use: conference rooms, dining/drinking areas, exhibit rooms, gymnasiums, lounges,
15net
SBC
USC!
7 net
15net
7
15
staqesAssembly areas-standing space Business areas 5 Courtrooms (without fixed seats)
3 net 100 gross
100 gross
3 net
40 net
40 net
Day care facilities Dormitories Educational Classroom areas Shops and vocational rooms Industrial areas 6 Institutional? Children's homes, homes sanitariums, hospitals Inpatient treatment areas Outpatient areas Sleeping areas
for
aged.
nursing
homes,
20 net 50 net
20 net 50nel
100 gross
100 gross
-
240 gross 100 gross 1209ross
-
240 gross 100 gross 120 gross
Kitchens (commercial) Libraries Reading rooms Stack areas
3 100
50 net 100 gross
6
Aircraft hangars
10
Auction rooms
30
Assembly areas
50
Bowling alley
50
Children's homes
6
Classrooms
50
40
Congregate residences
10
Courtrooms
50
50
Dormitories
10
Dwellings
10
Exercise rooms
50
Health care facilities Sleeping rooms Treatment rooms
8 10
20 50 200 80 240
-
120
50 100
lobbies (accessory to assembly area)
7
locker rooms
USAGE Aged. homes for the
35
200 . 50 net 100 gross
2 EXITS MINIMUM REQUIRED WHERE OCCUPANT LOAD IS AT LEAST,
50
Hotels and apartments
10
Kitchens (commercial)
30
Library reading rooms
50
locker rooms
30
Manufacturing areas
30
Mechanical equipment rooms
30
Nurseries for children (day care) Offices
7 30
Parking garages
30
Mechanical equipment areas
300 gross
300 gross
300
Mercantiles Basements Ground floors Upper floors Storage, stockrooms, shipping areas
School shops rooms
30 gross 30 gross 60 gross 300 gross
30 gross 30 gross 60 gross 300 gross
30 30 60 300·
Skating rinks
50
Storage and stockrooms
30
200 gross
200 gross
200
200 gross
200 gross
Stores (retail sales rooms) Basements Ground floors Upper floors
2 exits minimum 50 50
Parking garages Hesidential"v Hotels and apartments Dwellings Skating rinks I Rink area Deck
-
I
-
Storage areas
300 gross
Swimming pools Pool Deck All other areas 1. Both BOCA and SBC use net and gross floor areas to determine occupant load. UBC does not differentiate between net and gross areas. 2. Occupant loads for assembly areas with fixed seats are determined by the actual number of installed seats. 3. Occupant load calculations for bowline alleys under BOCA and SBC use 5 persons per alley in addition to the tabular values indicated. 4. Stages are considered assembly areas--less concentrated use (15 sq ft per occupant) in UBC, not separately classified in BOCA or SBC. 5. USC classifies business areas as office occupancy. 6. USC classifies industrial areas as manufacturing areas.
ICBO; SBCCI; BOCA James O. Rose, AlA; University of Wyoming; laramie, Wyoming Annica S. Emilsson; Rippeteau Architects, P.c.; Washington, D.C
EGRESS PLANNING
-
-
-
200 300
15net
-
-
50 15
-
300 gross
-
300 50 15 100
7. BOCA and SBC classify areas within institutional occupancies; UBC classifies by occupancy description only. 8. UBC classifies mercantile areas as store-retail sales rooms. 9. UBC considers storage and stockroom areas as storage occupancy (300 sq ft per occupant). 10. BOCA and SBC do not separate hotel/apartment and dwelling occupancies. 11. BOCA does not classify skating rinks separately from other assembly areas of less concentrated use (15 sq ft per occupant). SBC does not separate areas within skating rinks.
and
vocational
50
Swimming pools
50
Warehouses
30
All other
50
9
Stair Design GENE~AL
Stairways are an essential component in the circulation and egress systems of most buildings. They are also the site of accidents resulting in approximately 4000 deaths and one million injuries requiring hospital treatment annually In the United States. For these reasons, stairway design is strictly controlled by building regulations.
The information on this and the following page on stair design summarizes -most common building code and access regulation requirements. Be sure to check local regulations as welt. MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS: Consult the table below on building code stairway requirements to determine dimensional limits for treads. risers, and stair width. Verify that local codes are not more restrictive. TREAD AND RISER SIZES: Use the stair proportioning graph on the associated AGS stair design page to find the number of risers, riser height, and optimum tread depth. STAIR WIDTH: In addition to the minimums shown on this page, stair widths must also meet occupant load requirements based on use group and floor area. Consult the local building code. LANDINGS: Landings at least as wide as the stair itself are required at the top and bottom of the stair and at intermediate points if necessary to ensure that no single flight has a rise greater than 12·It (3658 rnrn), STAIR LAYOUT: A sample stairway plan and section are shown on the following page on stair design. Some tips for stair layout follow: 1. Maintain minimum headroom of 6 It 8 in. (2032 mm) for non-residential and 6 ft 6 in. (1981 mm) for residential stairs. 2. Avoid flights with fewer than three risers to minimize tripping hazards. 3. The use of door alcoves is recommended to prevent stairway doors from obstructing the egress travel path. 4. For prefabricated stairs. the stairwell enclosure should be oversize by several inches for-ease of stair installation and to avoid structural conflicts.
iTJmt_ ~,o"."
up to 42 in. {1067 mm} are permitted by some building codes. Intermediate ralls or balusters must be spaced so that a sphere of either 4 or 6 in. 1102 or 152 mmJ. depending on the code and use group, cannot pass through any part of the guard. Guardrail designs with horizontal rails that are easily climbed are not recommended and, in some cases. are restricted. For residential stairs. guardrails 36 in. (914 mm) in height are usually permitted.
3'1" MIN
I
~
STAIR DETAILS Treads and risers within a flight must be uniform in size within close tolerances. Treads must be slip resistant. The shape of nosings and risers must meet the requirements shown below. Carpeting or other stair coverings should be applied securely and should not create a nosing radius greater than permitted. Handrails. guardrails. and stairways themselves must meet structural load requirements.
60.M~
EXTENSION DIMENSION
RETURN
12" 1 TREAD BOTTOM EXTENSION
RETURN TO WALL IS ADDITIONAL TO REQUIRED EXTENSION, TYP. (TOP AND BOTTOM)
Templer. John. The Staircase. 2 vets. Cambridge. M,ass.: MIT Press, 1992. NOTE
I
PLAN
Metal Stairs Manual. National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers, 1992.
See pages in other Architectural Graphic Standards chapters for stair construction details in various materials and for other applications. 112"(13 rnm: RADIUS MAX----·~-----
SUPPORT HANDRAIL FROM BELOW SO GRIPPING SURFACE IS NOT INTERRUPTED
RETURN TO WALL
REFERENCES
Most interior stairs are designed to the steepest limits permitted by code so as to occupy the least amount of space. However, tread and riser combinations that are less steep may be considered for exterior stairs. grand stairs. or stairs of just a few risers. The most common rule for the comfortable proportioning of stairs in these cases is 2 x riser height + tread depth = 25 in. (635 rnrn). Consider testing life-size mock-ups of stairs of unusual proportions to verify their ease of use.
1'1.'(38 mrm CLEAR SPACE BETWEEN HANDRAIL AND WALL
ENDS OF HANDRAILS MUST RETURN SMOOTHLY INTO A WALL, FLOOR, OR POST
Winders (radiating risers) in stairs normally are permitted only in single-family residences. Minimum tread depth requirements at the inside of the winders may limit the inside radius of the stair. Spiral stairs typically are permitted in single-family residences and for access to mezzanines of limited area in other building types. With certain tread depth restrictions, circular stairways are permitted in most buildings. Alternating tread stairways are permitted for some mezzanines and for access to rooftops. The use of fixed ladders is limited to access to restricted areas. such as rooftops and elevator pits.
TREAD AND RISER PROPORTIONING
rnrru
SECTION
Access regulations in some localities require floor material strips of contrasting color located at the top approach to a stair and at the lowest tread. These markings are intended to aid the visualtv'imoaired in identifying the limits of the stair. The application of such markings may be appropriate even where not required. particularly where a high proportion of elderly or visually impaired users are anticipated.
SPECIAL STAIR CONFIGURATIONS
""'"0 ""~
BE 1 114 TO 1'12 " (3 2 TO 38 IN OUTSIDE DIAMETER
I
ELEVATION
-,
HANDRAILS The accompanying diagrams summarize most handrail requirements for nonresidential stairs. For residential stairs not covered by ADA, most codes permit handrails on only one side of the stair, without top and bottom extensions. In some cases a greater range of heights is also permitted. The ADA recommends (but does not require) additional handrails at lower heights where stairs are used by children.
RADIUS"','(13
~ ---""--'OPEN RISER
~C--S-Q-U--CA==RE
GUARDRAILS Guardrails 42 in. (1067 mm) in height are typically required on the open sides of nonresidential stairs. When handrails are used in combination with a ·guardrail, handrail heights
NOT OK
OK
ACCEPTABLE NOSINGS AND RISERS
OR ABRUPT UNDERSIDE
UNACCEPTABLE NOSINGS AND RISERS
NOT OK
NOTES 1. When considering metal pipe rails, do not confuse the nominal size by which pipes are specified with the actual outside diameter of the pipe. The outside diameter is larger than the nominal size. 2. Handrails must be continuous on both sides of a stair. Ends of handrails must extend beyond the stair as shown above. 3. The gripping portion of a handrail must be equivalent to a 114to 1 y, in. (32 to 38 mm) diameter round rail.
HANDRAIL DETAILS CONFORMING TO ADA AND MOST BUILDING CODES
BUILDING CODE STAIRWAY REQUIREMENTS BUILDINGS OTHER THAN SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES MINIMUM TREAD DEPTH
RISER RESTRICTIONS
MINIMUM STAIR WIDTH
SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENCES MINIMUM TREAD DEPTH
RISER RESTRICTIONS
MINIMUM STAIR WIDTH
1998ADAAG
11" (279mm)
No limits
48" (1219 mm) clear between handrails for stairs adjacent to an area of rescue assistance
No limits
No limits
1996 BOCA National 8uilding Code 1997 Standard Building Code
11" (279mm)
T' (178 mm) maximum 4" (102 mml minimum
44"(1118mm) 36" (914 mm) for occupancy of 50 or fewer 44" (1118 mm) 36" (914 mm) for occupancy of 50 or fewer in some cases
9" 1229 mm)
8'1.' (210 mm)
36" (914 mm)
9" (229 mm)
7 31.'
36" (914 mmJ
1997 Uniform Building Code
11" (279 mm) .
44"11118mm) 36" 1914 mrnl for occupancy of 49 or fewer 60" (1524 mm) for educational use group with occupancy of 100 or more
9" (229 mm)
8" (203 mm)
9" (229mm)
31."
7 (197 mm) maximum 2R + T must equal 25" (635 mm)
17" (178 mm) maximum 4" (102 mm) minimum
1197 mm)
Joseph lana. Architect; Boston, Massachusetts Edward Allen, AlA; South Natick, Massachusetts Rippeteau Architects, P.C.; Washington, D.C.
EGRESS PLANNING
No limits
36" (914 mm)
10
Stair Design STAIR DESIGN AND BUILDING CODES
STAIR PROPORTIONING GRAPH
mmllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllill1111111111111111111111111111111111111111 130 5"
mm
140
150
5.5"
160 6"
170
180
RISER HEIGHT 6.5" 7"
190
200 8"
12'
3600
Building codes are updated regularly, so it is best to consul" the current copy of the applicable building code (the SOC National Building Code. the Standard Building Code. or tl' Uniform Building Code) for tread and riser dimensions. Th International Building Code will also offer a standard fc these dimensions when it is published in 2000.
210
75
8.25"
U OJ
::J
0
3400
STAIR DESIGN EXAMPLE 1
OJ
,,'
'
An exit stairway in a theater rises a total of 20 ft 3 in. This dimension is off the graph shown at left, which means thaat least one landing must be inserted in the stair. Sele( two flights of 10ft 1 'h in. rise each. Looking for the hiqhes possible riser, read across to the 18-riser sloping line (before crossing the 7 in. maximum riser height line). ther upward to read a riser height of 6.75 in. Reading downwarc to the bottom horizontal axis, the optimum tread dimensior is 11 Y.! in. This figure can be rounded down to the leg;=; minimum of 11 in. to make the st~r a~ compact as pass! ble.
U
3200
U
0
'!! 0:
w
'0'
3000
Ul
it ..J
'"
2800
i=
Z
9'
w 0
iii
2600
w
a:
STAIR DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
X ::E
II
2200
2000
'Ill OJ
o
ci
W
I 0:
A stairway in a single-family house rises 8 ft lOin. anc' needs to be as compact as possible according to CASC requirements. Read across to the 13-riser sloping line, the: upward to read a riser of 8.15 in.
'"
8'
2400
NOTES
7'
0 0
1. Stairs should be laid out in both plan and section. The dl mensions shown on this page are samples only . 2. Landings must be at least as wide as the stair. 3. No single flight may rise more than 12 It 0 in. 1365Smrr» vertically. 4. In each flight, there is one more riser than tread. 5. Handrails may project up to 3 Y.2 in. (S9 mm) into the required stairway width. They must be continuous or the ends must extend beyond the top and bottom of the stair. Stairs serving areas of rescue assistance must have 4 It clear between handrails. 6. Stairway doors must swing with the direction of egress travel and must not obstruct more than half of the required landing width at any point in the swing. Wher fully open doors must not strike handrails (including extensions) and not project more than 7 in. (178 mm into the travel path. 7. See AGS page on areas of rescue assistance for more restrictive stair dimensioning requirements.
..J
u,
6 I'BOO
ci:
6'
0
0
..J u,
1600 5'
'400
'200
4'
1000 3' 800
600
2'
ALLOWABLE HEAD HEIGHT 400
mm
" Ul
0:'
y~~ 1'-<0
OPTIMUM TREAD DEPTH (READ RIGHT TO LEFT) 2R + T '" 25" (635
1//////////
V i.->
HANDRAIL
'/2 REQUIR ED LANDING WIDTH MIN
///
1/
r
mrrn
/
III 0 ' "
Ul
//////////
0:'
v
0
V V
.~~
V
I I-
"
V
_' a:t-
'03:
'"
IUl
.:!"m~ I' - <0 _. a: t-
......
100e{
'---
V
V V / I l-
0
03:
.~~
-c lUl
r//////
V V V V V
///////////////~//
PLAN SAMPLE STAIRWAY
Joseph lana, Architect; Boston, Massachusetts Edward Allen, AlA; South Natick, Massachusetts Rippeteau Architects, P.C.; Washington, D.C.
EGRESS PLANNING
I
4'-0"
NOTE
Measure allowable head height at nosings.
Spiral and Circular Stairs ,-
-
II
,-
FRAMING DIMENSIONS (IN.)
DIAMETER
--~-~~-~~"
~-
-N' .,1
l-----
/'
CENTER
1/
2"
OUTSIDE DIAMETER
II'
40
4B
52
60
64
72
76
BB
C
44
24 28 52
26 30 56
30 34 64
32 36 68
36 40 76
38 42 80
44
8
20 24
A
COLUMN 1
HANDRAIL
B
,-----
l
I
o
I
....
I
I I
I
BALCONY RAIL
I
I
1 .. SQUARE BARS
I I I I I I I
:I 1f--t--:=~~=;jT"
I
W
48 92
96 48 52 100
c A
>-
----71~~~~~~~
STAIR DIAMETER
-----TOP CAP
V
\
BALCONY RAIL
11
o
114" X 2" MOUNTING PLATE WITH 3/ 8" HOLES
m I L
," SQUARE BALUSTER-
..J
PLAN-RiGHT-HAND UP
o
I
W
I I I I
I
L
jI
STRINGERS
....J
PLAN-LEFT-HAND UP
NOTES
~
ELEVATION
1. For spiral stairs. larger diameters increase perceived comfort, ease of use. and safety. 2. Tread and platform materials: The most common materials are steel (regular and galvanized), aluminum, and wood. Steel and aluminum can be smooth plate, checker
PLATE
TREADS""
V
plate, pan type, and bar. A variety of hardwoods can be used. although many manufacturers use steel substructures to support the wood finish surface. 3. Refer to local and national codes for dimension and construction requirements and allowable uses.
BASEPLATE
ELEVATiON
SPIRAL STAIRS
SPIRAL STAIR DESIGN DIMENSIONS (IN.) Diameter
Center column
Lb/9 It Tread detail A Tread detail B 27° tread detail C
27" tread detail 0 30 0 tread detail C 30 tread detail 0 0
Landing size
40 4 205 4 18 9
48 4 220 4 22 1 /4
7 5/. 10 '/2 8'/2 22
'l
l /
e
8 12 9 / 16 8 5/a 26
52 4 235 4 24 12 'I. 8 'I. 13 5 / a 8 3/. 28
60 4 250 4 28 13 15 / 16 8 3 /. 15 3 / . 8 7 /a 32
64 4 265 4 32 14 7 / . 8 1/ 2 16 3 / . 9 34
72 4 310 4 34 16 3 / . 8 5 /. 18 7 / a 9 1/ 4 38
76 4 325 4 36 17 5 / . 8 3/ . 19 7 / a 9 3 /a 40
96
88 6% 435 5
6 /. 42 20 '/2 10 23 11 'fa 46
6% 485 6% 48 22 5 / 16 10 '/2 25 '/a 11 '/2 52
PLAN
~t
A~1u B
,
12" TREAD DETAIL
NOTE
Design considerations for circular stairs are similar to those for spiral stairs. A fabricated steel tube serves as a onepiece stringer to which treads are bolted or welded. Risers can be open or closed. Numerous finishes are available. and treads can be made of laminated wood.
CIRCULAR STAIRS
I
I I I I I
==~~==;=~=r~==--'f----11-:-~
I I I
I I I I I
I I
I I I I
I I I
I IL
I J
I
I
L
~
PLAN-RiGHT-HAND UP
PLAN-RIGHT-HAND UP
FLOOR-TO-FLOOR TREAD COUNT
FLOOR-TO-FLOOR TREAD COUNT
FLOOR-TO-FLOOR TREAD COUNT
FINISH FLOOR HEIGHT (IN.)
FINISH FLOOR HEIGHT (IN.)
FINISH FLOOR HEIGHT (IN.)
84to 91 92 to 98 99 to 105 106to112 113 to 119 120 to 126 127to133 134 to 140 141 to 147 148 to 154
NUMBER OF STEPS
CIRCLE DEGREE
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
270 292'/2 0 315 0 337'/2 360 0 382'/2 405 0 427'/2 450 0 472'/2 0
0
90 to 96 97 to 104 105 to 112 113 to 120 121 to 128 129t0136 137 to 144 145 to 152 153 to 160 161 to 168
NUMBER OF STEPS
CIRCLE DEGREE
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
297" 324 0 351 0 375 405 0 432' 459 0 486 0 513 540 0 0
0
85 to 95 96 to 104 105to 114 115to 123 124 to 133 134 to 142 143 to 152 153 to 161 162 to 171 172 to 180
NUMBER OF STEPS
CIRCLE DEGREE
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
NOTE
NOTE
16 treads per circle. Riser height: 6Jh to 7 in.
13112 treads per circle. Riser height: 7Yzto 8 in.
12 treads per circle. Riser height: 8Yzto 9Y.!in.
22 1/2 0 TREAD SPIRAL S'rAIRS
27 0 TREAD SPIRAL STAIRS
30 0 TREAD SPIRAL STAIRS
NOTE
David W. Johnson; Washington, D.C.
EGRESS PLANNING
270' 300 0 330' 360 390 420 450 0 480 0 510 540 0 0
0
0
0
12
Treads, Risers, and Nosings CAST ABRASIVE SURFACE
Sup·RESISTANT SURFACE
SLIP-RESISTANT
RUBBER
----------~-
RADIUSED EDGE
--------------
NOSING CAST IN IRON. ALUMINUM. NICKEL. OR BRONZE ANCHOR
II" MIN TREAD
VINYL OR RUBBER NOSING ~ GROOVES FOR TRACTION
MINIMUM EXPOSURE OF METAL AT RISER
FLUSH JUNCTURE OF RISER AND
GRADUALLY RADIUSED NOSING
_
FLUSH ABRASIVE NOSING SET ON ALUMINUM BASE
WIDTH
TREAD
TREADS AND RISER SIZES Riser and tread dimensions must be uniform for the length of the ,stair. ANSI specifications recommend a minimum tread dimension of 11 in. nosing-ta-nosing and a riser height of 7 in. maximum. Open risers are not permitted on stairs accessible to persons with disabilities.
ABRASIVE EPOXY PREFABRICATED SYSTEM WHERE NOSING IS INTEGRAL WITH
STEELPAN--'(~~~I5I5~~~~
TREAD COVERING
FLUSH JOINT
OSHA standards require finishes to be "reasonably slip resistant" by using nosinqs of slip-resistant finish. Treads without nosings are acceptable provided that the tread is serrated or is of a definite slip-resistant design. Uniform color and texture are recommended for clear delineation of edges.
~ STEEL SUBTREAO TROWELED GROOVES IN SUP-RESISTANT CONCRETE
ABRASIVE STRIPS
NOSING DESIGN ANSI specifications recommend nosings without abrupt edges that project no more than 1'/2 in. beyond the edge of the riser. A safe stair uses a 1/2 in. radius abrasive nosing firmly anchored to the tread, with no overhangs and a clearly visible edge.
RADIUSED
EDGE---MINIMUM OVERHANG AT JOINT
VARIES
ANCHOR
ROUNDED NOSING
ANGLED NOSING .-- TAPERED
END
FLUSH RISER
FULL-TREAD NOSING
PVC NOSING
RISER"DESIGN
ACCEPTABLE NOSING PROFILES (ANSI 117.1-86) V IN YL O R RUBBER NOSING
EXTRUDED ALUMINUM REPLACEMENT TREAD WITH ABRASIVE STRIPS \
CARPET \
Iiiiiiiiiii~~~~~ LEVELING COMPOUND WHERE WOOD. MARBLE. OR CONCRETE TREAD IS WORN OR SPLINTERED
NOTE
Abrasive materials are used as treads. nosings. or inlay strips for new work and as surface-mounted replacement treads for existing work. A homogeneous epoxy abrasive is cured on an extruded aluminum base for a smoother surtace, or it is used as a tiller between aluminum ribs
VINYL NOSING
REPLACEMENT OF TREAD
NOSING DETAILS
Eric K. Beach and Annica S. Emilsson, Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C
EGRESS PLANNING
STRUCTURAL TREAD
INTEGRAL METAL TREAD/RISER
Building Systems-Steel Bar Joist with Bearing Wall
13
INTRODUCTION Combining a wide range of common building technologies, the building systems presented on this and the following pages reflect basic approaches to design, construction, and use of materials in response to a variety of occupancy requirements. Such building systems embody key inteqration issues that arise when components and subsystems are merged to produce complete buildings. Each example includes a summary of the unique system features, a description of the system's most appropriate or particularly advantageous uses, and a discussion of the main opportunities and challenges for systems integration. The drawings stress the essential interconnectedness among design decisions, illustrating the design process as a fusion of the knowledge of many disciplines, each with an understanding of the value and import of the others' contributions.
The examples encompass structural, envelope, mechanical, and interior systems. In most examples one system (usually structural) or a pair of systems tends to dominate the integration potentials and priorities, clearly circumscribing the prudent and possible uses of the other systems. The examples represent common and reasonable combinations and variations, but they are not the only possibilities within a given building vocabulary.
STRUCTURAL Roof: Floor: Walls:
Steel decking and open web steel joists ICI Slab on grade 1M) Concrete masonry bearing wall and concrete footing (H)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Bearing wall and bar joist roof building systems employ masonry walls bearing on a turndown slab on grade or conventional spread footings. The walls support a roof structure of open web steel bar joists, through which mechanical distribution systems are threaded. Spans for J- and H-series open web joists generally may not exceed more than 20 times the joist depth, or more than 50 to 60 ft. Long-span joists are available, as are a wide variety of special shapes. By nature, open web joists spaced at even intervals are best suited to relatively light, uniform loads; joists may be doubled or tripled to ~ccom,!,odate heavier, concentrated loads or may be combined with other steel framing for roof openings and rooftop mechanical equipment. The roof deck may be precast concrete plank, tongue and groove wood decking, or, more commonly, steel decking. Small openings in the roof area can be framed between joists by means of specially designed headers. In buildings with masonry bearing walls, each joist should be anchored to the masonry by means of a joist anchor embedded in the masonry. Steel joists can be designed to cantilever beyond the edges of the bearing walls. Continuous horizontal bracing of both top and bottom joist chords is possible with spot-welded connections at each joist and with the ends of the bracing members anchored to a bearing wall; this type of system is well suited to seismic risk zones.
I
ENVELOPE Roof: Walls: Floor:
Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B) Window assembly (NI, exterior insulation and finish system (EIFS)(D), and canopy assembly (K) Vapor barrier.and dampproofing (l)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The concrete masonry unit (CMU) bearing walls are insulated on the exterior to take better advantage of the wall's thermal mass by placing. it toward the occupied side. Lonq-span open web steel JOistroofs can deflect substantially, and the camber of the joists alone is often not sufficient to maintain the necessary slope to roof drains.
MECHANICAL HVAC: Rooftop unit (AI and ductwork IGI Electrical: Surface-mounted conduit or behind furred-out walls Plumbing:ln partition walls, then through roof Fire safety:Sprinkler system suspended from structure in ceiling plenum (El Principal advantages and characteristics: If ductwork is to be housed within the depth of the joist, headers or branches must be fed through the joist webs, perpendicular to. the spanning direction. The webs of joists must be aligned, and bearing walls with projections must be worked around. Because beams running transverse to the joists may block the threading of piping, ductwork, and wiring, care must be taken that variations in the configuration of
STEEL BAR JOIST WITH BEARING WALL perimeter walls do not disrupt the regular pattern of the joist web elements, interfering with straight runs for mechanical components. If the building owners will also be tenants, relatively fixed interior lighting and mechanical systems may be planned. Otherwise, overhead and in-floor systems should be laid out for maximum flexibility. If the joist depth is insufficient to carry the ductwork, such equipment can be suspended from the bottom chord of the steel joist.
INTERIOR Ceilings: Floors: Walls: Lighting:
Suspended acoustical tile (EI Resilient tile (JI Glazed interior face on CMU (I) Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (F) and natural light (N) Furnishings:Movable displays Princip~1 advantages and characteristics:
Suspended interior ceilings are nearly always preferred to directly attached interior ceilings. Finished ceilings attached directly to the joist bottom chord are not only difficult to alter but must be designed to accommodate the high degree of deflection the roof assembly will experience.
SYSTEM SUMMARY St~e~ open web joist and bearing wall construction yields
buildinqs that have relatively large interior clear spans and flexible interior layouts. The open webbing of the joists provides a lightweight structure that is easily penetrated by mechanical systems. The bottom chords of the joists are used for suspension of interior finishes, lighting fixtures, and air diffusers in finished areas, although they may be left uncovered. Masonry bearing walls and metal joist roofs are among the simplest and easiest to design and build. The relatively low cost of the system makes it attractive for speculative projects, as does the fact that contractors find this construction method familiar and easy to erect. Retail commercial facilities usually require flexibility in lighting, partitioning, and mechanical systems and large expanses of column- and wall-free space; the envelope and structural systems chosen often reflect these demands. The height to which masonry bearing walls can be built without resorting to lateral bracing is limited. so they are used most frequently in one-story structures. Roof spans up to 60 ft can generally be accommodated. The spacing and depth of joists is related to the spanning capability of the roof decking material and the requirements for loads on the roof structure.
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons. 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
14
Building Systems-Steel Frame with Access Floor and Curtain Wall
STRUCTURAL Frame
Steel, with welded and bolted connections IF)
Roof: Steel decking welded to frame (A) Floors, upper: Steel decking welded to primary frame members, with cast-in-place concrete topping (M) Floors, Core:
Slab on grade, with concrete foundabasement:tion (01 Central service core of cast-in-place
concrete Principal advantages and characteristics: Core shear walls add rigidity to frame; composite action of structural steel framing and a steel and concrete floor diaphragm result in relatively long, uninterrupted clear spans with smaller depth of construction. Heights can range from one to more than
100 stories. System allows for off-site fabrication of frame components, easy shipping to site, and rapid assembly; corrugated steel deck becomes a working surface as soon as it is placed and provides torrnwork for concrete topping
ENVELOPE Roof:
Built-up roofing or single-ply membrane on rigid insulation IB)
Walls:
Curtain wall units of glass/frame assemblies IE) and insulated spandrel panels III, attached to structural frame
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board, with foundation drain (N); vapor barrier under slab IP) Principal advantages and characteristics: The envelope is structurally independent of the steel frame, providing flexibility in weight, size, and configuration of the envelope system. Curtain wall units preassembled at the factory must be designed with shipping, storage, installation, and general handling in mind, emphasizing protection from damage at all stages.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ducts, with diffusers, either suspended from structure in ceiling plenum or placed in floor plenum beneath access floor IDI
Electrical and Electrical wires and cables placed mainly telecommuni-in access floor plenum and structural/eleocations:trified floor (H); can also be located in ceiling plenum. for lighting, and in interior wall at spandrel panel Plumbing:
Most plumbing functions placed in core area for efficient vertical circulation of systems
Fire safety:
Sprinkler system suspended from structure in ceiling plenum
Principal advantages and characteristics: Mechanical systems, hidden in floor or ceiling plenums or both, can be accessed through removable panels in ceiling or floor systems.
INTERIOR Ceilings: Floors:
Suspended acoustical tile ICI Carpeted access floor system (l.) and structural electrified floor (HI
Walls:
Gypsum wallboard IJI Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (G) and natural light lEI Open office furniture (K)
Lighting:
Furnishings:
Principal advantages and characteristics· Suspended ceiling provides space for distribution of internal services, but it tends to be used principally for overhead lighting and ductwork. Structural/electrified floors and access floor systems keep all wires and cables in space below finish floor, easily accessible by removable floor panels, allowing high degree of flexibility for interior environment. Buildup of static electricity and the ensuing risk of equipment damage and shocks need to be considered. Access floors are not suited to situations involving heavy point loads or shifting heavy equipment. Stringerless systems are among the most flexible and least costly varieties. but they lack the stability of fully gridded systems and depend on perimeter walls for restraint. Use of access floors as air plenum, requiring tight and uniform joints between access panels, may hinder access to wires, cables, and pipes; ductwork in floor plenums may eliminate the advantages of access floors by blocking the path for wiring, cables, and pipes.
STEEL FRAME WITH ACCESS FLOOR AND CURTAIN WALL
SYSTEM SUMMARY Steel frame and curtain wall construction allows for off-site fabrication of frame and envelope components. easy shipping to the site, and rapid assembly at the site. The steel and concrete in the floors are designed to act as a composite diaphragm, providing a thin, lightweight structural element with or without an access floor. The access floor
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
shown is advantageous in office environments that need especially flexible interior layouts. This system keeps all wires and cables in the space below the finish floor (generally not less than 4 in. deep) and out of wall cavities Although access floors may add to overall floor-to-floor heights, the access floor conceals the most visually obtrusive distribution elements.
Building Systems-Staggered Steel Truss
15
STRUCTURAL Frame:
Roof: Floors. upper: Floor, lowest: Walls:
Staggered story-high steel trusses (0) on steel columns (I) support floor slabs on both top and bottom chords Precast hollow-core concrete plank deck ICI Precast hollow-core concrete plank deck (CI Slab on grade, with concrete foundation (M) Precast shear panels (H) and precast stiffener beams (OJstabilize structure
Principal advantages and characteristics: This system is best suited to multiunit residential or hotel buildings of 7 to 30 stories with repetitive floor plans. Flocr-heiqht Pratt trusses are placed atop every other column in a staggered pattern, strengthening the structural system while reducing overall weight; precast hollow-core concrete planks serve as the floor without a topping slab, allowing for bays of approximately 60 x 60 ft (twice the truss spacing). A fireresistant membrane, such as drywall, is usually added to each side of a truss to provide protection; these walls also serve to divide individual units. Lower floors in this system can be finished and trimmed while upper-level structural members are still being laid; the structure becomes rigid as soon as the precast exterior wall panels and the outer concrete deck elements have been installed.
ENVELOPE Roof:
Rigid insulation, single-ply roofing and ballast (AI Window assembly (GI. precast concrete Walls: panels Ill, precast stiffener beams (01, and precast shear panels {Hl Basement: Vapor barrier, and waterproofing and protective board (N) Principal advantages and characteristics: Precast concrete wall members act as an envelope system as well as a structural system.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ducts, with diffusers, and sprinkler system (B); separate unit-by-unit HVAC systems can be used Electrical: Conduit fed through vertical chases at outer walls (JI Plumbing.: Pipes fed through vertical interior chases Fire safety: Sprinkler system supply at central corridor (BI
I
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the Pratttype trusses extend from floor to ceiling, with openings for corridors and elevator doors only, horizontal running of pipes. wiring, and ductwork can be difficult. For this reason separate unit-by-unit heating and air conditioning systems are often preferable; also, unitary HVAC systems offer economic and maintenance advantages in multifamily residential construction. Utilities are typically fed upward through chases and risers on outer walls, with -service or supply units placed to either side on each floor; end wall stair enclosures are also used for this purpose. Most sprinkler systems are laid out in this fashion as well.
INTERIOR Ceilings:
Floors: Walls: Lighting:
Underside of concrete planks is either painted or covered with acoustical ceiling tile; corridors may have suspended ceilingtile (B) Joints at floor planks are grouted and tops carpeted (KI or tiled (EI Gypsum wallboard IFI Surface-mounted fixtures or suspended fluorescent fixtures at corridor (8)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The smooth surface of concrete deck planks can provide interior ceiling finishes, if desired.
STAGGERED STEEL TRUSS
SYSTEM SUMMARY Staggered truss construction is most often used for double-loaded residential-type occupancies, including hotels, highrise apartments. nursing homes. and hospitals. Such building types usually have highly repetitive floor plans and can benefit from systems that integrate objectives regarding structure, interior unit separations, fire-compartmentalization, and acoustical privacy. The system is not generally
considered economical for low-rise buildings due to the manufacturing costs of the jigs for the trusses and the forms for the spandrel precasting. The system easily allows for long structural bays, permitting a high degree of tlexibility in unit interiors. The ground floor is free of trusses and interior columns and thus suitable for parking or retail commercial use. The system's light weight reduces foundation size.
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio: Crownsville, Maryland Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
16
Building Systems-lightweight Steel Frame and Brick Veneer
STRUCTURAL Roof:
Metal roof frame (Cvstud brace, C-rafter, Ccchannel. C-joist) IC), with plywood sheathing Metal floor frame (C-joist), steel deck, and concrete topping (l) Slab on grade with concrete foundation IP) C-stud assembly 1M)
Floor, upper: Floor, ground: Walls:
Principal advantages and characteristics: The lightweight cold-formed steel members are load bearing, and beams, columns. channels. headers. and other elements can be built up from standard steel shapes and sections. The frame's rigidity depends on cross bracing, the distance from exterior corner to exterior corner, and the type and tavout of fasteners used. Sheathing both sides of the frame also provides some lateral stability. Steel studs used for masonry backup should be cross braced with steel straps. Horizontal and diagonal bracing increases the frame's riqidity. Welded connections are stronger than self-tappinq screws. The method of attachment can affect costs substantially. The positioning and types of fasteners for affixing both interior and exterior sheathing should be carefully specified, because these factors significantly affect lateral stability, Cold-rolled steel framing is detailed and fastened quite differently than wood framing, and special noncarpentry tools and equipment are required. Advantages of cold-formed steel framing include its light weight. dimensional stability, speed and ease of assembly, resistance to moisture and decay, and, in some cases, readier availability than wood framing members. Also, steel framing members are Irequently made from recycled scrap and can themselves be endlessly recycled,
ENVELOPE Roof: Grade: Walls:
Shingles and roofing felt (8) Dampproofing (0) and vapor barrier under slab Batt insulation (KI. window assembly (HI, and brick veneer (GI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Deflection in light~ weight steel frame construction can be several times greater than deflection in exterior masonry veneer; such differentials must be accommodated in anchoring details or overcome by adding structural rigidity to the wall frame. The masonry ties that anchor the veneer to the steel frame should permit free and independent movement of the two materials. Where the veneer depends on the steel frame for lateral stability, anchors should be flexible and should not resist shear; wire ties that allow independent movement are recommended. The framing design and method of fastening windows and doors should account for the differences in movement. In general, fenestration components should be attached to either the framing or the veneer, but not attached rigidly to both. When filled with batt insulation and fully sheathed, the lightweight steel frame wall is thermally isolated from the single wythe of masonry veneer. This results in greater differential thermal movement in the veneer than would occur with solid double-wythe masonry construction; the interior heat is not transferred as readily to the exterior masonry.
MECHANICAL HVAC: Ducts. with diffusers ID) Electrical: Wiring threaded through C-stud wall assembly 1M) Plumbing:ln partition walls, then through roof Principal advantages and characteristics: Prepunched holes in the studs provide easy routing of plumbing and electrical lines. Most codes require the use of electrical conduit or sheathing of the prepunched stud opening to avoid stripping the insulation as wires are drawn through. Electrolytic action between framing members and nonferrous plumbing pipes must also be considered, and pipes on exterior walls must be adequately insulated.
INTERIOR Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile IE) Ceramic floor tile (J) • resilient floor tile (N), Floors: and carpet (I) Gypsum wallboard IF) Walls: Principal advantages and characteristics: Interior gypsum wallboard, along with exterior sheathing, applied to steel studs provides additional lateral bracing and an interior finish.
LIGHTWEIGHT STEEL FRAME AND BRICK VENEER
SYSTEM SUMMARY Lightweight .steel frame bearing wall construction is often used in low-rise commercial and residential buildings. The long-term performance of lightweight steel framing in structures over three stories is a concern. To date, its use in medium- and high-rise buildings has been mainly for exterior partitions or as nonbearing backup for exterior veneers. Speed of construction, noncombustjbilitv. and relative light weight are key advantages of this system. The space between studs eases insulation and accommodates piping
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio: Crownsville, Maryland Based on Richard 0 Rush, AlA, The Buifding Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986)
BUILDING SYSTEMS
and electrical distribution. Because the framing can be com pleted independent of the masonry veneer, the inte- rior is out of the weather quickly and can be finished while the exterior brick veneer is laid. In nonresidential construction, which is likely to have fewer bracing walls and longer vertical spans and horizontal runs, added cold-formed bridging or bracing of the frame increases lateral stability. This can also be accomplished by decreasing the stud spacing or increasing the stud gauge.
Building Systems-Wood Roof Truss and Wood Floor Truss
17
STRUCTURAL Roof:
Wood roof truss and plywood sheathing IBI Wood floor truss and plywood subfloor IGI
Floor, upper: Floor. ground:
Slab on grade, concrete masonry foundation wall, and concrete
footing IK) Wood frame and sheathing IFI
Walls:
Principal advantages and characteristics: In this example. a standard wood framing system is employed with prefabricated roof and floor trusses and exterior sheathing. The trusses are built at the factory to engineering specifications. The exterior panels act in concert with wall studs as a structural skin and weathering surface. The wood frame system unifies envelope and structure when this external skin acts as a diaphragm over the studs, joists, and rafters. Often built of 2 x 4 elements, the floor trusses also provide a nailing edge nominally 4 in. wide along the top and bottom chords for subflooring and decking, an improvement over the thinner edges presented by dimension lumber. Because trusses are made up from commonly available dimension lumber, there is little chance that supply shortages will delay projects. Assuming proper factory quality control. the variations often seen In dimension lumber from different mill lots should not be a problem. Also, the smaller wood components are more readily available from sustainable forest reserves, as opposed to large dimension lumber sections, which are available only from older growth forests.
Bridging between floor trusses may be eliminated, depending on the depth of the truss and the application and rigidity of subflooring and ceiling finishes. If needed, bridging may be accomplished by running continuous 2 x 4s perpendicular to the truss chords within the open web and nailing them to truss struts. When such bridging is used, it should not block possible transverse duct runs. Most floor truss systems allow for a continuous-edge ribbon at the truss ends in lieu of a header. Before truss units are lifted into place, it is wise to inspect them for uniformity of depth and camber and for general tightness. If substantial field-work is contemplated, it may be desirable to use plywood l-trusses, which can be cut to length and drilled to allow threading of pipes and wires.
ENVELOPE Roof: Grade: Walls'
Shingles, roofing felt. with metal flashing (AI Vapor barrier under slab, with dampproofinq at foundation Batt insulation (E), window assembly (J), and lapped wood siding III
I
Principal advantages and characteristics: Wood compo-nents treated with fire retardants can now be used in many applications for which untreated wood is unsuitable. Some fire-retarding treatments may discolor wood, accelerate corrosion of metal fasteners, or alter the structural properties of the wood. For example, plywood can become delaminated, a particularly difficult problem when the plywood sheathing itself acts as the exterior finish surface.
MECHANICAL HVAC: Electrical: Plumbing:
Ducts and diffusers IHI. with below-slab perimeter ducts 1M) Wiring threaded through holes drilled through wood studs Pipes set in partition walls, then through roof
Principal advantages and characteristics: Open web trusses allow threading of wiring, piping, and ductwork without onsite drilling or cutting, thus greatly speeding and easing the installation of heating, plumbing, and electrical systems.
INTERIOR Ceilings: Acoustical tile (C) Floors: Carpet ILl Walls: Gypsum wallboard IDI Principal advantages and characteristics: The open web wood trusses permit longer clear spans than conventional timber framing, leaving greater flexibility for the location of interior partition walls that need not be load bearing
WOOD ROOF TRUSS AND WOOD FLOOR TRUSS
SYSTEM SUMMARY Prefabricated roof and floor trusses eliminate much field labor, thus speeding on-site construction; help ensure dimensional stability; and may eliminate the need for intermediate load bearing partitions. Longer clear spans are possible with floor trusses than with generally available dimension lumber, and recent advances in manufacturing techniques make it possible to specify many special tea-
tures. Open web trusses are lighter in weight than dimension lumber and can be lifted easily in gangs by a small crane or lift. Trusses are available in standard configurations between 12 and 24 in. deep and allow threading of mechanical systems without cutting the members, speeding installation. The smaller wood components used in these trusses are more readily available from sustainable forests, as opposed to the older growth trees harvested for larger standard lumber sections.
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986).
BUILDING SYSTEMS
18
Building Systems-Flat Plate Concrete
STRUCTURAL Columns:
Cast-in-place concrete (K)
Roof: Floors, upper'
Cast-in-place concrete flat plate (E)
Cast-in-place concrete flat plate (El
Floors, basement
Slab on grade and concrete pile foundation (Nl
Core:
Central service core of cast-in-place concrete
Principal advantages and characteristics: Combines cast-inplace concrete columns with two-way concrete slab plates of uniform thickness. Two-way flat plate concrete floors are among the simplest concrete structures for reinforcing, formwork, and detailing. Exterior precast concrete panels can be attached on lower floors, even with flat plate shoring still in place, while concrete is being poured for upper-floor columns and plates. When crane hoists are used to lift concrete buckets or large equipment, a hole is generally left in a section of each plate to allow for passage of the hoist; this hole is filled later, when large components have been moved and concrete pouring is complete. Elevator shafts are not used for this purpose, as elevators are usually installed before construction work is complete. In this system, precast concrete or composite spandrel units are welded in place to a series of angle clips fastened into the concrete flat plates at their edges.
Flat plate concrete construction permits more stories to be fitted into a given building height than any other system. This is because its floor structure has minimum thickness, especially when post-tensioned. In addition, in many building types the underside of the floor plate can serve as the finish ceiling.
ENVELOPE Roof:
Rigid insulation and ballast IC), on protected roof membrane (B)
Walls:
Window assembly (0) and precast concrete spandrel panels 1M), batt insulation II) Basement: Waterproofing and protective board at foundation, with vapor barrier under slab (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Exterior precast concrete panels can be attached on lower floors, even with flat plate shoring still in place, while concrete is being poured for upper-floor columns and plates. Window-fram+ ing elements and glazing are installed after the spandrels have been set. Tolerances within the system grow progressively tighter: the concrete structure requires the least attention; placement of steel angles for welding to the spandrels requires greater exactitude; and positioning the spandrels to accommodate framing and glass requires greatest care.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ducts, with diffusers, suspended from structure in ceiling plenum (Gl
Electrical and telecommunications:
Power and communication poles
(HI Plumbing:
Most plumbing functions in core area for efficiency in vertical circulation of systems Fire safety: Sprinkler system suspended from structure in ceiling plenum Conveying system' Elevator equipment in penthouse (A)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Centralized core permits relatively uniform, short horizontal runs for power, plumbing, lighting, and other systems.
INTERIOR Ceilings: Floors: Walls: Lighting'
Suspended acoustical tile (F) Carpeting III Gypsum wallboard, metal stud assembly IJ)
Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling and natura/light (01
Principal advantages and characteristics: Workstations in unpartitioned interior offices can be serviced unobtrusively by ceiling height power and communications poles, in furred-out areas around columns, and in corridor partition walls. Office workstations require daylight exposure and views. Because the central core is farthest from perimeter zones, usable floor area in the perimeter can be maximized. On constrained urban sites, the central core may be moved against an unfenestrated waH and still retain this advantage
FLAT PLATE CONCRETE
SYSTEM SUMMARY This example combines cast-in-place columns and two-way concrete flat plates of uniform thickness, with precast concrete spandrel panels. The system usually has a central core for vertical circulation and services, and it is typically employed for low- to medium-rise construction because of the costs and difficulties associated with placement of materials and labor in higher buildings. The central core also permits consolidation of vertical service risers, increasing
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Based on Richard 0, Rush, AlA, The BUilding Systems Integration Handbook {John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
fire protection by reducing or eliminating through-floor pe etrations in office areas. Flat plate concrete construction is especially applicable apartments, hotels, and dormitories, in which no su pended ceiling is required. Story height can be minimized these applications by using the undersides of the slabs finish ceiling.
Building Systems-Post- Tensioned Concrete
19
STRUCTURAL Frame:
Rigid concrete (J)
Roof: Rigid concrete slab Concrete slab IB) Floors, upper: Floor, basement- Slab on grade and concrete foundation (l) Principal advantages and characteristics: Post-tensioning is a highly sensitive integration of the compressive strength of concrete with the tensile strength of steel. Plasticsheared. high-strength steel tendons are cast in the slab and. after curing. are placed in the tubes, anchored. and jacked into tension from one end. After stresses are applied, the tendon channels may be grouted to bond the tendons to the slab. For lengths greater than 100 tt, stresses must be applied simultaneously from two ends. Integration of mechanical services is influenced greatly by the positioning of tendons, which controls the locations of through-slab penetrations. Post-tensioning permits the use of shallower beams and slabs, reducing overall building height and permitting longer spans with thinner structural members; structure is quite rigid and less subject to movement and creep, allowing use of masonry" infill envelope. Alterations and demolition can be difficult due to potential forces latent in post-tensioned tendons.
ENVELOPE Roof: Walls:
Built-up roofing or single-ply membrane on rigid insulation (Al Window assembly (II. and brick and concrete masonry with rigid insulation (K)
Basement: Waterproofing and protective board at foundation (Nl. vapor barrier under slab Principal advantages and characteristics: Envelope rests on the concrete frame by means of steel shelf angles attached to spandrel beams.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ducts, with diffusers, suspended from structure in ceiling plenum (C)
Electrical and telecommunications: Wires and cables placed in wall assemblies Most plumbing functions placed in Plumbing: centralized locations, avoiding tendons Fire safety:" Sprinkler system suspended from structure in ceiling plenum
/
Principal advantages and characteristics: Mechanical systems hidden in ceiling plenums can be accessed through removable panels. This system is optimal for additions to hospitals and other medical facilities, which often require floor-to-floor heights that match those of the existing structure. Although contemporary standards for servicing and mechanical equipment require deeper interstitial spaces than are found in older medical buildings, the shallower slabs and beams of post-tensioned concrete construction can conserve such space.
INTERIOR Ceilings: Floors: Walls: Lighting:
Suspended acoustical tile ceilings (E) Resilient flooring IF) Metal stud and drywall assembly (H) Fluorescent light fixture in ceiling (D) and natural light III Specialties: Operable partitions (GI Principal advantages and characteristics: Suspended ceiling provides space 'for distribution of internal services but tends to be used only for overhead lighting and ductwork.
SYSTEM SUMMARY Post-tensioned concrete construction is virtually identical to the flat plate concrete construction described on the preceding page. The major difference lies in the thickness of the concrete slab, which is slightly reduced in this type of construction. Post-tensioning is a method of reinforcing concrete by stretching steel reinforcing tendons after placement and curing of the concrete structure. This prestressing reduces
POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE or eliminates tensile stresses on the concrete under use loading and strengthens the slab without increasing its thickness or adding the dead loads introduced by additional steel reinforcing rods. Post-tensioning is useful when the thickness is important to economical or functional design
aspects or when concentrated live loads are high and the building height must be kept to a minimum. It is also effective when project conditions require minimal floor-to-floor heights but maximum ceiling heights with generous space above the ceilings.
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The BuildIng Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
20
Building Systems-Precast Concrete Frame
STRUCTURAL Frame
Prestressed precast concrete columns
Roof:
and spandrel beams. IDI Prestressed precast concrete double T (81
Floors. upper"
Prestressed precast concrete
Floors, basement"
double T (81 Slab on grade. with cast-in-place concrete piles (F)
Core'
Cast-in-place concrete vertical circulation {El
Principal advantages and characteristics: This system rs most commonly used for parking garages. Double-T joists are generally 8 or 12 ft wide, at a depth of 18 to 36 in., depending on the spanning requirements; spans of 60 ft are considered maximum. due to the constraints of shipping and lifting the pieces. but longer spans and deeper sections are possible. It is advantageous to use as many similar elements as possible; that is, floors, inverted T girders, and columns should all be of the same length and design. Off-site precasting can conserve time and materials for concrete forming, and on-site erection time is considerably faster than for cast-in-place construction. Cast-in-place core provides lateral stability to frame. Adding final finishes and installation hardware to prestressed components before erection helps reduce on-site construction time Temporary shoring and bracing may be required during construction, particularly (if the structure is composite) until the toppings have cured to service strength. Lifting loops are generally embedded in the precast pieces and then covered with the topping or cut off after installation.
ENVELOPE Roof: Walls:
Concrete topping slab (AI Spandrel beams act as finish walls (0); no glazing in openings
Principal advantages and characteristics: For parking garages, the most common application of precast concrete frame, a weather-tight condition is not needed; therefore, structural components can be directly exposed to the elements. Some aesthetic treatments can be cast in or applied to surfaces but are not needed for moisture protection.
MECHANICAL Electrical:
Conduit, exposed at underside of concrete structure Plumbing: Pipes from roof and floor drains, exposed to view throughout structure Conveying system: Elevator equipment for hydraulic elevator IGI Fire safety: Sprinkler heads dropped from supply lines set into channels at upper face of precast floor Ts Principal advantages and characteristics: In parking structures the requirements for through-floor penetrations are minimal. However, holes or sleeves can be cast in the stems and flanges of the Ts, to allow for passage of conduit and piping. These holes and openings can be as great as one-third of the stem's total depth but must avoid the reinforcing tendons; openings toward the top of the stem in midspan and toward the bottom at the ends are most common. Preplanning of aU openings is essential to minimize sitework and to realize the inherent economies of the system. Ts may be notched at the ends to permit passage of conduit along girders or beari,ng walls. Also, channels can be formed by chamfering mated edges of adjacent Ts at the upper surface, setting the conduit, then pouring a concrete topping slab.
INTERIOR Floors: Walls:
Concrete topping acts as floor finish (A) Concrete structure surface acts as wall finish (DI
Lighting:
Fluorescent light fixtures attached to structure (C). and natural light between spandrel beams Curbs, handrails, and signage
Specialties:
Principal advantages and characteristics: Most typical interior elements are not needed because of the open air nature of the building type; however, all elements provided are attached directly to the exposed structure. In parking garages, the depth of the structural Ts and concerns for minimizing floor-to-ceifinq height present special challenges for the integration of lighting and signs.
PRECAST CONCRETE FRAME
SYSTEM SUMMARY Precast concrete components are usually pretensioned. Pretensioning is a method of prestressing concrete in which steel tendons are stretched prior to placement of concrete and maintained in tension until the concrete is cured. The external tension on the tendons is then released to compress the concrete. This example employs prestressed columns, inverted T girders, ledger girders, and double-T joists, all of the same length and design. Once the
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Based on Richard 0 Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986).
BUILDING SYSTEMS
floor and roof Ts are set. the surface is covered with a th concrete topping that provides the finished, weettu exposed surface and a horizontal structural diaphragm. Tt precast components are fabricated off site and lifted in: place by crane. A variety of finished surfaces is possibr. and the unity of materials presents an opportunity for nat ral visible integration of elements. Thin brick or tile can at-. be used as a surface material.
Building Systems-Flying Form
21
STRUCTURAL Rigid concrete
Frame:
«»
Floors. upper: Flat plate (K) Foundation:
Slab on grade and concrete (M)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Flying form construction requires almost total regularity in structural bay widths. Flying forms can be used to construct flat slabs, pan-joist slabs. waffle slabs. and various types of beams-inslab. They are also used to form spandrels of varying configuration. Flat plate or flat slab construction is preferred. as this eases movement of the flying form "table" and mini~ mizes special additional forming. For flying forms to be economical. the building structural layout must be uniform and the beams and spandrels should be very shallow. There are three principal types of flying forms: adjustable post shoring, manufactured truss forms, and column-supported forms. Adjustable post shoring uses scaffolding that rests on a wood sill and blocking and is raised by jacks. The forms are moved horizontally, usually by means of rollers, and are generally suitable for pours of up toAD ft in length. Manufactured truss forms, ranging up to 50 x 100 ft in side dimensions, use 4 to 6 ft deep trusses and are raised by a series of uniformly distributed jacks. The forms are moved by crane from one floor to the next, often in a staggered or stepped sequence. Greater widths in truss forms are made possible by the use of additional longitudinal trusses. Column-supported forms employ adjustable brackets that "climb" columns and are shored after initial positioning. This type is better suited to applications involving relatively close c~lumn spacing. Usually the same work crew sets and strips the flying forms; half of the crew works below the deck level that has been cast. while the other half works above the previously cast area, setting the forms that have been removed. Conventional temporary shoring, separated frpm the surface forms, is set in place after removal of the flying forms. To speed the process of curing and to enable quicker removal of the forms, early high strength concrete is frequently used.
ENVELOPE Roof:
Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B): concrete masonry parapet backup {A}
Walls:
Window assembly (G) and precast concrete spandrel panels (Ll
Basement: Vapor barrier (N) Principles and characteristics: As in the case of conventionally cast-in-place flat plate concrete construction, the structural and mechanical systems are concealed from view, with the precast concrete envelope spandrel and glazing units connected to the structural frame. Flying form construction. which requires relatively uniform bay widths, can have an effect on visible integration because it produces regularity in the rhythm of structural elements.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ducts and diffusers (D)
Electrical and telecommunications: Under-carpet flat cable (J) Principal advantages and characteristics: In office applications. the high quality of the slab's finished surface lends itself readily to the use of flat wiring for power, lighting, electronics, and communications. Because they are flat, these wiring systems increase the flexibility of open office planning; they are attached to the slab with steel tape prior to the installation of carpet tiles, with direction changes accomplished by folding the flat cable. Extra fire protection measures are unnecessary, as there are no through-slab penetrations to be sealed.
FLYING FORM
INTERIOR Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (E) Floors:
Carpet tile (I)
Walls:
Metal stud and drywall assembly (H)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixture and natural light (F) Principal advantages and characteristics: Flying form construction permits great flexibility in interior layouts and furniture arrangements. The use of flat wiring frees the electrical system from restraints imposed by the structure, permitting the furniture layout .and power needs to remain variable until very late in the construction process.
SYSTEM SUMMARY Speed of construction. the economies realized through reuses of the forms, and the high quality of finished surfaces are among the most attractive features of this construction method. The systems employed with flying form construction do not differ substantially from those found in other types of reinforced concrete construction; the difference lies in the method of forming slabs and spandrels and in the sequencing of pours. A disadvantage of the flat plate construction system is the relative difficulty of punching through the slab or plate. An important consideration with the use of flying forms is the regularity of bay spacing and the absence of deep beams or spandrels.
During construction the forms are placed and removed in a sequence of related operations, with temporary shoring used after form removal under the slabs until they have cured. The repetitive use of the forms can lead to conservation of both time and, of course, the materials used in forming. Mechanical and interior systems are meshed in the suspended ceiling assembly. The use of flat wiring atop the floor slabs for internal distribution of power, lighting, electronics, and communications dictates the use of removable carpet tiles and yields a set of requirements for interfaces with furnishings and equipment.
Based on Richard D. Rush. AlA. The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons. 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
22
Building Systems-Tilt-up Wall
STRUCTURAL Frame:
Precast concrete panels (H}
Roof:
Steel deck and open web steel Joists ICI
Floor:
Slab on grade and concrete footing (JI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Load--bearing tiltup wall panels provide a unified vertical envelope. structure, and interior. The panels are precast on-site. generally using the floor slab or grade as the casting surface, and tilted or lifted into position. The floor slab used as a form must be level. smoothly finished. and treated with a bond-breaking agent to permit easy separation of the cast pieces. The wall panels, usually 6 in. in nominal thickness. may extend from one to several stories in height, and must be designed to withstand the bending loads involved in tilting and lifting, as well as loads that will be encountered once in place. They may be plain, reinforced, or prestressed and are often provided with temporary timber or steel "strongbacks" for tilting, particularly when there are large window openings.
The panels must be braced during construction until all wall and roof structural members are in place. Columns are usually cast in place following installation of the panels. In loadbearing tilt-up wall systems the roof and floor members are bolted or welded to plates and angles cast into a continuous ledge beam. Roofing systems may be steel open-web joists, precast concrete T's. or hollow-core planks. Flashing reglets and other roofing connection details can be cast with the panels. Regular inspection of casting and lifting operations is essential.
ENVELOPE Roof:
Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (B); skylights (AI
Walls:
Precast concrete panels (H); window assembly (GI; dampproofing and protective board (E)
Floor:
Concrete slab (FI
Principal advantages and characteristics: Joints between panels should be designed to be concealed; this is easily accomplished where cast-in-place columns are designed to lap the panel edges, or where the panels insert at their edges into a precast column channel. Connections between panels should not be rigid, so caulks and sealants are important. Foundation and slab detailing are key to preventing water infiltration at the panel bases. It is good 'practice to design the system so that the slab level is slightly above the bottom edge of the vertical tilt-up panel.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ductwork in open-web bar joists IG); radiant heat panels in suspended ceiling lEI
Electrical:
Fluorescent light fixtures (F)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the slab on which the panels are cast must be smooth, utility raceways. pipes, and conduits that will penetrate the slabs must be stubbed below the finish slab level, covered during wall panel casting. and then uncovered for final connections. The location and installation of angles. channels, weld plates, conduits, connectors, and other hardware should be carefully planned and detailed, with regular and careful inspections before placing the concrete. Lifting forces and special complications related to openings require exacting structural analysis and special erection hardware. The suspended ceiling panels incorporate radiant heat panels. Ductwork for cooling and ventilation air is threaded through the open-web bar joists. In the open area. gas-fired heating units are suspended from columns and the structure is left exposed.
INTERIOR Ceilings:
Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (K)
Floors:
Resilient tile flooring (I)
Walls:
Precast concrete panels (H)
Lighting:
Skylights (AI and fluorescent light fixtures (FI
Principal advantages and characteristics: The site-east panels are the load--bearing elements for the roof members and provide both interior and exterior finish. The building shell can be erected quickly, permitting interior work to proceed along with final joining and sealing of the envelope panels. The clear spans produced by the bar joist roof structure and option for hung ceiling allow interior partitions to be intro-
TILT-UP WALL duced virtually anywhere, with meshed interior and mechanical systems provided by a ceitinq-rnounted radiant heat panel.
SYSTEM SUMMARY Tilt-up walls have been used routinely in a variety of building types and heights, especially for single-story buildinqs with large, uncomplicated exteriors. The system is also increasingly used for multistory lowrise projects. Significant savings in time and formwork costs can be achieved. and long lead times required for precast or structural steel com-
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Bui/ding Systems Integration Handbook IJohn Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
ponents are often averted. Because most of the forming and erection work is done within the floor slab area, tilt-up systems work well in confined construction sites. Conservation of time and forming material is realized when there is uniformity in panel design and when the floor surface can be used for forming. Careful planning of the forming, storage, and lifting sequence is essential, and early consultation with manufacturers and contractors is advisable. Regular inspection of casting and lifting operations is essential.
Building Systems-Laminated Wood Post and Beam
23
STRUCTURAL Frame:
Heavy glued laminated wood beams (Hl; exposed wood frame and plywood sheathing (J)
Roof:
Plywood sheathing and wood roof, tongue-andgroove wood decking (C)
Floors'
Slab on grade and concrete foundation (N)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Heavy glued and laminated beams and columns, which define the interior of the building, make up the frame in this example. The roof structure is laminated tongue-and-groove decking, nominally 214in. thick. laid over the beams. Considerable flexibility is available in selecting structural modules and bay sizes in heavy timber construction by varying the depth of beams and increasing the thickness of decking to span between beams. Columns are frequently overdesigned to give an appropriate appearance; if sized only to carry the loads transferred from above, they may appear too spindly in proportion to other framing elements. Glued laminated beams, columns, aod decking are generally preferred over dimensioned sawcut lumber. Appearance is easier to specify and ensure; a variety of custom shapes, sizes, and presawn joints can be obtained in glued laminated pieces; and they are drier and more resistant to twisting, checking, and shrinkage. All pieces should remain factory-wrapped until in place and out of the weather, as rain and snow will stain them. If mill-cut lumber is used, it should be cut and dried well in advance and should be specified free of heart centers. Although well suited to pier foundation systems, post and beam framing is often more easily erected atop a perimeter masonry foundation. Outside air infiltration is increased at endwall joints in tongue--and--groove timber decking and must be controlled through appropriate detailing. When components have been carefully ordered and weather conditions are favorable, erection of the structural system can proceed quickly.
ENVELOPE Roof:
Standing seam roof, roofing felt. and rigid insulation (B)
Walls;
Wood siding (G); window assembly (F)
Floor;
Vapor barrier under slab (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Lower portions of perimeter walls are framed conventionally with wood studs between -rnain timber columns; a vapor barrier is placed toward the occupied side, and the voids are filled with batt or rigid insulation. Drywall covers interior walls; the exterior is sheathed in plywood and finished with diagonal wood siding. The roof deck is covered with a moisture barrier and insulated on top with rigid insulation board between sleepers. A standing seam metal roof is applied over the sleepers, which also provide diagonal bracing.
I
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ducts, supply and return system (D)
Electrical:
Rigid conduits run through decking (A)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Space heating and cooling is provided by. air supply-and-return ducts. Kitchens. lavatories, and other areas requiring both odor removal equipment and greater amounts of fresh air are separated by walls and covered by suspended or furred ceilings.
As in any system with exposed components, cleanliness of details. finishing, and dimensional coordination are very important. If .ductwork cannot be fed through voids in the floor structure into interior and exterior wall voids, layout, finishing, and suspension hardware must be skillfully designed and executed for compatibility, as must interior fire sprinkling systems. Overhead electrical service can be located in rigid conduits that run through the decking. During the application of roofing materials, puncturing these hidden conduits must be avoided.
LAMINATED WOOD POST AND BEAM
SYSTEM SUMMARY INTERIOR Floors:
Carpeting (I) and clay tile flooring (M)
Walls:
Drywall (L1
Lighting'
Incandescent light fixtures (E) and natural light
Principal advantages and characteristics: The underside of the laminated tongue-and-groove decking is exposed to interior view and should be specified for appearance grade. Drywall covers interior walls.
Although used historically for larger buildings, post and beam construction is now generally confined to buildings of three stories or fewer. Its main advantages are simplicity of elements and details, combined with the potential for visual integration and bold structural and architectural forms.
and appearance of hardware used for joinery of the wood members. Certain parts of the mechanical system can be meshed within interior partitions and exterior walls, leaving them concealed. The sizing of structural members and joinery details may be influenced more by considerations of visual proportion and appearance than strictly by the loading and stress conditions involved.
Structure and interior are unified in post and beam construction. Because the structural elements in this system are exposed to view in the finished builcings, as are portions of the mechanical system, care is required in the visual integration of these components and in the design
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
24
Building Systems-Lightweight Mobile Modular
STRUCTURAL Frame"
Wood frame and sheathing (J)
Roof:
Glued laminated beams and wood deck (C)
Floors:
Plywood subfloor on lateral steel beams IN)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Modules are tied together through the concealment of joints and mating lines. accomplished by holding the cladding material back from the mating line, and spanning between two units with field-installed components to cover the' area left unclad They are then bolted at the steel frame, in addition to being anchored to the foundation. Stud framing, floor joists, and roof rafters are supported on steel l-bearn frames until the unit is placed on its foundation.
ENVELOPE Roof:
Sheet metal roofing and metal cap flashing (8)
Walls:
Aluminum siding (I) and batt Insulation ID)
Floor:
Vapor barrier (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Openings in the envelope for doors and windows may present difficulty in mating units, due to differential movement of the units, which are normally placed on separate and tess-than-permanent foundations. Entrance doors, for example, should not span between unit mating lines, even when the installation is not considered temporary. Exterior siding can be held back from the mating lines between units and then field-instal'ed to span the joint lines. This technique improves visual integration and also helps tie units together structurally. At the roof, special curb caps are available or may be field-fabricated to span across low parapets on mated units. If a complex must mate some units at all four sides, mechanical system plants may be root-mounted. Modular units are normally tied down by cable and earthembedded anchors. Skirting at the base of the units is often necessary for appearance and security, with field-set steps required at entrances. Plans for roof drainage and water carryoff should be resolved with the manufacturer.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Rooftop unit (A) and Insulated ducts lEI
Electrical:
Electric baseboard heaters III
Plumbing:
Factory installed. hooked up on site (I)
Fire safety: Fire sprinklers and fire/security systems may be factory installed Principal advantages and characteristics: Wiring and plumbing, installed at the factory, are easily hooked up at the destination site. Nearly all system components are installed at the factory, including heating, cooling, and ventilation equipment. Site grading, foundation work, connection of utilities and services, landscaping, and interconnection of the modular units are the only on-site activities required. Mechanical systems are meshed within voids in the structure and envelope assembly and are basically self-contained within each unit; even when plans call for the linking together of units to form a complex, mechanical and electrical systems for the individual units remain independent. For occupancies that require substantial interior partitioning, HVAC supply and return registers should be planned for high wallor ceiling locations.
INTERIOR Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (F)
Walls:
Drywall (K); window assembly (H)
Floors:
Resilient flooring (M)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures in ceiling (Gl and natural light Principal advantages and characteristics: An interesting aspect of these low-cost buildings is that except for baseboard-mounted electric heat panels, there are no exposed structural or mechanical elements. The result is maximum interior flexibility. Ordinarily floor plans are based on the relatively narrow dimension of the module and require great care In planning for interior layouts, although it is possible to obtain large clear-spanned floor areas. Claddings, exterior and interior wall finishes, door and window types, floor finishes, and envelope thermal insulation levels can be specified to order.
LIGHTWEIGHT MOBILE MODULAR
SYSTEM SUMMARY Lightweight mobile modular buildings consist of factory fabricated wooden structures. Although both smaller and larger dimensions are available, the most common size is 12 ft x 60 ft. Speeds of construction and low initial cost are the main advantages of mobile modules. On-site labor requirements are minimal. Where weather, labor, or site problems affect other options, or for emergency or temporary use, mobile modulars are often the appropriate solution. Mobile modular use has increased significantly in areas of rapid growth and development, especially in areas with large influxes of temporary population. Modules can be easily moved, even when assembled as a complex.
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 1986)
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Modular units can almost always be combined. Door open ings should not be placed at the mating lines between mod ules; such placement requires field installation of the doorand may result later in binding of the door due to differentia movements between the mated modules. When plannm; the complex, the manufacturer should be apprised of the location of utilities and services on the site: any local build ing code requirements that differ from major codes: anc handicapped access needs. Distance of the site from the manufacturing plant is a major cost factor, and any cornph cations in shipping should be investigated
Building Systems-Space Frames
25
STRUCTURAL Frame:
Metal space frame (B)
Roof:
Metal deck IBI
Floor:
Slab on grade and concrete foundation (I)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Space frames serve as both structural and interior systems, while providing a structure for envelope connections and space for meshing of mechanical distribution elements. A metal deck and built-up roof cover the space frame shown, Space frames may appear in horizontal, vertical, domed. vaulted, stepped, sloped, or tower configurations, In this example, the edges of the space frame are glazed to permit perimeter clerestory lighting of interior areas. Tubular highstrength extruded aluminum struts are joined by means of solid aluminum hubs, also designed to accommodate the hardware for fastening of clerestory glazing. The frame can also be cantilevered beyond the continuous perimeter masonry wall, which allows for effective plate structural action. Space frames are increasingly common as atrium covers and have also been used as structures for entire building envelopes. In perimeter-supported applications, truss depth-to-span ratios of up to 1/30 are practical. Besides, their light weight and economy of materials, space frames have the quality control advantages of factory production. Recent developments in strut and hub technology make space frames highly durable and well engineered. The lightweight frame components are easily shipped, quickly assembled on site, and then lifted into place. Sometimes the frames are factory assembled and shipped whole or in subsections to the site. Careful coordination and assembly instructions are important to keep pieces in sequence for field assembly. Field bolting is almost always preferred to field welding of frame components, because welding space frames is expensive, and quality control can pose problems. Where a continuous perimeter wall will not support the space frame, the design of supporting points is crucial. Certain spanning and rigidity advantages are gained by the design of supports that extend the pattern of the space frame above or below the plane of the main truss.
ENVELOPE Roof:
Built-up roofing and rigid insulation (A)
Walls:
Brick veneer and rigid insulation (G)
Floor:
Vapor barrier (J)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Structure and envelope are connected in this example, with the exposed nature of the space frame requiring a high degree of visible integration between the frame's structural components and parts of the mechanical system. The space frame permits very long column-free spans with minimal amounts of structural material. The visual properties can be destroyed if the frame is coated for fire protection and in many cases coating can be forgone if the frame is placed 20 ft or more above floor level.
I
.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ducts suspended from hubs of the frame IC)
Electrical:
Electrical conduits (C)
Fire safety: Sprinkler piping IC) Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the space frame is a highly regular structure and is exposed to view in most applications, the coordination of service systems with patterns in the frame is essential for visible integration. Piping can be suspended from the hubs of the frame, but should correspond to the patterns of the frame. Utility runs generally follow the orthogonal grid, while the sprinkling apparatus and electrical conduits may be run diagonally. Fireproofing of space frames generally destroys their appearance, so sprinkling is usually a consideration unless the exposed frame is 20 ft or more above floor level.
INTERIOR Ceilings:
Metal deck (8)
frame serve to join the struts and can also accommodate mountings for the envelope system and various types of interior equipment.
Floors:
Wood flooring IH)
Walls:
Glass block panel (E) and concrete masonry bearing wall (F)
Lighting:
Incandescent light fixtures 10)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The ceiling unifies interior and structural systems, and meshes them with unified mechanical and interior systems. The solid hubs in the
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA, The BuildIng Systems
SPACE FRAME
Integra~on
SYSTEM SUMMARY The triangulated space frame network is one of the strongest and most efficient structural configurations, permitting long column-free spans with lightweight, highly repetitive elements. Slender structural members make space frames advantageous in cases where high light permeability is sought, yet significant live structural loading may occur.
Typical applications include spans above entries, sports arenas, and convention centers. The selection of a space frame module is governed by the integration of cladding systems, the spanning characteristics of deckings, and the mullion spacing for glazings. A space frame may be enclosed with metal decking, glass, acrylic, membrane, or insulated paneling. Space frames must usually be engineered and fabricated by a specialty engineer and/or fabricator, although strut sections and hubs generally do not need to be specially designed for each application
Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
26
Building Systems-Metal Building Systems
STRUCTURAL Frame"
Rigid steel frame (C)
Roof:
Standing seam metal roof (8); batt insulation (0)
Floors:
Slab on grade and concrete
foun~atjon (l)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Pre-engineered primary frames and claddings are dominant in warehouse. agricultural. and light industrial buildings. and are increasinglyused for office and retail facilities. Their use is generally confined to one-story construction. but there is growing experience with multistory buildings. Metal frame and skin building systems take advantage of factory assembly techniques and quality control. The structural integration of frame components with the building skin, for strength and rigidity, permits major economies in the size and number of steel framing components. Primary and secondary framing members, fasteners, and panels interact to produce a light stable building shell. All framing and cladding components are designed, engineered, and fabricated in a plant, then shipped to the site for erection. The same company often designs, engineers, and. builds the system. Metal structural components are generally sized and deployed according to exact requirements of an application, permitting economies in materials and speed of construction.
ENVELOPE Roof:
Standing seam metal roof IB)
Walls:
Window assembly IH); insulated metal wall panels
Floor:
Dampproofing 1M) and vapor barrier IN)
(I)
Principal advantages and characteristics: The pre-engineered metal building integrates lightweight structural and envelope components, each of which adds strength and rigidity to the overall form. The floor slab, often left uncovered in warehouse and industrial applications, unifies the envelope, structure, and interior systems, and is normally the only major site preparation required for erecting the building. The light weight of the envelope system, which is valuable for shipping, is especially vulnerable to wind uplift and requires great care in design and layout of fastenings. For applications in which privacy or sound isolation is an issue, the thin sheet steel presents an acoustical problem. The standing seam metal roof system requires less maintenance than other alternatives, and its long-term performance record is excellent. Most standing seam metal roofs provide a free-floating monolithic membrane, connected by a series of slotted clips that allow movement. This method freely accommodates expansion/contraction cycles caused by thermal changes. In addition, a variety of details, colors, and finishes is available.
MECHANICAL HVAC:
Ducts and diHusers IE); heat pump IJ); ridge vent IA)
Plumbing: Stacks in roofing panels and seams Principal advantages and characteristics: Although the structural and envelope systems of metal buildings are usually highly integrated, manufacturers rarely consider the mechanical and interior systems in any detail. When insulating metal sandwich panels are used for interior and exterior finishes, special care is required in detailing the power and signal wiring, and in providing for its protection once in place. The mechanical plant shown in this drawing is located on the ground adjacent to the building, but it could just as easily be roof mounted. The standing seam metal roof presents several items of concern to architects: the modularity of roof panels and seams, important for locating plumbing stacks, skylights, and other roof apertures; proper expansion details at intersections with flashing, especially upper-roof ridge; and the critical importance of crickets, parapet caps, and other details to avoid buildup of standing water.
INTERIOR Ceilings: Suspended acoustical tile ceiling (G)
Floors:
Carpet IK)
Walls:
Insulated metal wall panels II)
Lighting: Fluorescent light fixtures (F) and natural light Principal advantages and characteristics: This construction approach is particularly advantageous for applications requiring large interior clear-spans, the support of heavy overhead cranes, or substantial expanses of roof. More
METAL BUILDING SYSTEMS
often associated with ..standard." buildings components and even "standard" buildings, the metal buildings systems industry is able to respond to highly specialized needs, while still employing standardized structural components and factory fabrication.
SYSTEM SUMMARY A variety of exterior cladding alternatives is available, ranging from lightweight corrugated metal skins to fully insulated sandwich panels that provide both interior and exterior finishes. Manufacturers also otter door, window, and skylight components that work as integral elements of the envelope and interior systems. Centralization of responsibility for engineering, fabrication, and construction permits close cost control and early assessment of building costs. Architects working with pre-engineered building systems can rely on technical support from the manufacturer,
Based on Richard D Rush, AlA, The Building Systems Integration Handbook IJohn Wiley & Sons, 1986).
BUILDING SYSTEMS
induding the preparation of fabrication and subsystem eng nearing documents. The pre-engineered, cold-formed steel componentry is ver flexible and can be used for a wide variety of buildin. shapes and sizes. Such buildings can be rapidly dismantle and moved. The rectilinear nature of such systems usuall results in buildings that are easily expanded in the longe dimension. Mechanical and interior systems are meshed I the ceilings, but the mechanical plant (here shown on the ground adjacent to the building, but just as easily roof mounted) is normally kept on the exterior, sometimes pre senting difficulty with visible integration. Metal systems are very lightweight. In areas subject to winds, special care should be taken for wind bracing structural frame and for fastening and design of exteric cladding details. Building corners and edges are particular!subject to wind-induced uplifting and suction.
Building Systems-Tension Fabric Structures
27
STRUCTURAL Frame:
Steel cables in fabric sleeves (A); steel masts (e)
Floors:
Slab on grade (E)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Structural, envelope. and interior systems are unified in tension-fabric structures. A fabric membrane, usually configured to follow an
optimal structural shape. is anchored by steel cables attached to the fabric and is suspended from steel or aluminum masts to form "aroof or total enclosure. Fabrics for temporary use are typically composed of a polyester substrate with a polyvinyl-chloride-eoated outer layer. A more expensive but longer-lasting fabric is either Tefloncoated or silicone-coated fiberglass. Cables are clamped to the fabric. which is cut and sewn according to patterns for the structural shape employed. The rules of structural geometry that govern the design of tension structures impart a unique and particular form, which does not easily permit deviations. Working with an engineer, the architect often begins the design process with model studies and a computer analysis to verify load expectations and to guide pattern-making for the fabric.
ENVELOPE Walls and roof: Noncombustible fabric membrane (8) Floor:
Vapor barrier (G)
Principal advantages and characteristics: In general the skin and cables of these structures are in tension, while columns and arches are subject to compression. Under dynamic loading conditions, an efficient tensile structure will adjust and allow slight deformation. Unique aerodynamic properties assist open tension structures in overcoming the difficulties of wind-driven rain; wind conditions subject most of the fabric to negative pressure, "lifting" rain away from the skin. The use of vegetation or architectural barriers at ground-level openings also reduces wind and rain effects under the canopy.
MECHANICAL Electrical:
Lighting fixtures, receptacles, and sound system mounted on columns and masts (0)
Fire safety:
Noncombustible or fire-retardant fabric membrane (B)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Because the fabric transmits light while blocking direct rays of the sun, it also assumes some functions normal to mechanical systems. Electrical lighting and other equipment are difficult to integrate because of the thinness of the structural envelope membrane, and are nearly always attached to the structural masts or placed on independent, freestanding structures. Acoustical, thermal, and fire-safety considerations are difficult to accommodate in tension structures, although their light weight and dynamic properties under wind loading make them very safe from a structural point of view. If areas of fabric are placed close to the ground or in other easily accessible locations, vandalism becomes a concern, as most materials suitable for tensile structures are easily cut. Fabric-covered structures for the performing arts are generally equipped with electrical systems designed for safety in wet conditions. Sealing of the holes at the peaks of tensile structures where masts protrude is not usually necessary. Several of the major building codes now contain provisions governing tensile structures, but it is advisable to consult local code officials early in the design process. The treatment of electrical wiring within or affixed to rigid columns and masts, which must be designed to permit some movement. may be a concern. Some fabrics are classified as noncombustible, and some are only fire retardant. so it is important to determine early on which fabrics are acceptable in a specific situation
INTERIOR Ceilings and walls'
Noncombustible fabric membrane (B)
Floors:
Pivoted mast base and concrete footing (F)
Lighting'
Incandescent light fixtures (0)
Principal advantages and characteristics: Color is an integral element of fabrics and will have an effect on the quality of natural illumination beneath the canopy. Because the fabric provides both interior and exterior finished surfaces for the envelope, the columns and masts are typically the only
TENSION FABRIC structural members used for mounting such items as lighting fixtures and power receptacles. Gantries hung from columns or masts provide additional service areas
SYSTEM SUMMARY Several features give tension structures an advantage over low-cost wood, metal, and concrete shelters. Fabrics can range in service life from a few years to several decades. If a lifetime of around 15 years is acceptable for the facility, a PVC-coated tension structure will suffice at a low initial cost. The usual solution for greater permanence is Teflon coated fiberglass. Clear spans of up to 100 ft are easily obtained with lightweight fabric structures.
Designers can consult with specialists on engineering and shop drawings. Oesignlbuild firms will produce complete shop drawings and often fabricate all components or erect the structure on the site. Careful detailing of steel and cable elements, joints, and attachments is critical to overall appearance, as most will be exposed to view. Steel and wire rope manufacturers can assist with detailing
Based on Richard D. Rush, AlA. The Building Systems Integration Handbook (John Wiley & Sons, 19861.
BUILDING SYSTEMS
28
Floor Structure Assemblies
FLOOR STRUCTURE ASSEMBLIES FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONSULT MANUFACTURERS' LITERATURE AND TRADE ASSOCIATIONS "
._ .
c
_J~L __ .
JOiST
WOOD TRUSS
..
o-
_,..
PLYWOOD SU8FLOOR
~_~CEILING
!
OR
JOIST
(IN.)
(IN.)
7-13
Nominal joist
DEAD LOAD
I
ABLE
OF , STRUCTURE! (PSF)
,GE
5-8
1-40
Up to 18
Deflection
6-12
)-40
12-30
Deflection
6-16
)-40
10-22
-
2x 6, 8,10,
JOIST
F P L Y W O O D SUBFLOOR PLYWOOD JOIST (OR WOOD TRUSS)
PLYWOOD
STANDARD MEMBER SIZES
DEPTH OF
~WOOO
WOOD
SYSTEM
I
LOAD )
SPAN RANGE
(FT)
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY AFFECTED BY
and 12
13-21
Plywood joists
12,14,16,18, and 20
-----------~CEtLING
WOOD
WOOD
PLANK
WOOD
BEAM
1022
SEAM
Nominal plank
2,3, and 4
AND PLANK
~---
LAMINATED WOOD
~WOODPLANK
BEAM AND PLANK
--
STEEL JOIST -
-
I ~ -- --
~
_
0-40
8-34
-
:-::~O~AI~~:-LOOR
931
Steel joists
820
0-40
16-40
Deflection
STEEL
30-110
)-100
16-60
Deflection
-8-30
JOIST
SLAB
ST E E L CENTERING STEEL
11 75
Steel joists
8-72
(up to 130)
JOIST
~CEILrNG
PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
--.
_-1
FRAME
6-20
-....-CEILING
~
LIGHTWEIGHT STEEL
Nominal plank 2,3, and 4
GLUE LAMINATED WOOD BEAM
<.•.:.::.._..•. ,.•.. ~:._·,..-;_.4_::.-:o/;:;..ot-CONCRETE STEEL JOIST
8-22
-
----
~LIGI-lTWEIGI-lT STEEL .L. FRAME
Consult manufacturers' literature
6-20
0-60
10-22
-
35--60
0-100
16-35
Deflection
40-75
0-150
Up to 50 Generally below 35
Deflection and creep
40-75
0-150
Up to 60 Generally below 35
Deflection and creep
50-120
0-150
~CEIUNG
9 15
lC .J:----
STEEL FRAME
7-12
1i.C--STEEL CENTERING
STEEL BEAM --lC...:...-CEILING
-----
8-16 STEEL FRAME
Concrete plank
16-48 W 4-12 D
PRECAST CONCRETE
~~,··.······~~~~ARSETT~;~~:~~~ .,-;
PLANK
;0..'
CONCRETE
6-12
16-48 W 4-12 D
BEAM
4-10
ONE -WAY CONCRETE SLAB
Concrete plank
-
4-10
-
50-120
0-250
TWO-WAY SLAB
8-22
ONE-WAY
RIBBED
Standard
40-90
0-150
10-30
-
20 and 30 W 6-20 D
SLAB
8-22
TWO-WAY
RIBBED
CONCRETE
Standard dome forms
75-105
0-200
I .I
,...--- CONCRETE
SLAB
CONCRETE FLAT SLAB
4S;R~F ~:~~T~ANEL
PRECAST
- - - - - - - - - - -....-CONCRETE .n~·i···':·" ..-;, -r: ~<.":'-.:;;,:-,# TOPPING
6-16
<:':
'.I'
20-40
50-80
0-150
20-50
Creep
16-36 D
50-90
:0-150
25-65
Creep
4-6
35-70
,0-200
Up to 35
Deflection
5-14
60-175
,0-200
18-35
Creep
TEE
18-38
Creep
Up to 70 with prestressing
PRECAST SINGLE TEE
•
>__".
,0-250
4',5',6',8', and 10' W 6-16 D
8-18
~~.-:;::,~;-:;:::.,;:;_-:-..-C ONCRETE TOPPING
Creep
75--170
PRECAST
DOUBLE
25-60
Min. slab thickness 5 without) Drop 4 with panel
COLUMN
DOUBLE TEE
Creep
More with prestressing
19 x 19, 30x 30 6-20 D
SLAB
15--50 More with prestressing
pan forms
CONCRETE
COMPOSITE
-
More with prestressing
CONCRETE
PRECAST TEE
10-20 More with prestressing
s-CONCRETE
SLAB
~:;t;: ~WELDED STUD
{SHEAR CONNECTOR}
____
CONCRETE FLAT
STEEL
BEAM
PLATE
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA and Mehmet T. Ergene, Architect; Roger K. LeWIS, FAIA & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
More with prestressing
Floor Structure Assemblies REQUIRES FINISHED
REQUIRES FINISHED
CHARAC-
FLOOR
CEILING
TERISTICS
SURFACE
SU~FACE
BAY SIZE
Yes
-
-
Yes
Optional
COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE
1
_.--------!.2...~UND~A":l~~ISSl~ ____
IMPACT
I
FIRE RESISTIVE RATING PER CODE AND UNDERWRITERS
UNPRO-
TECTED AIRBORNE
Fair
HOURS
MAXIMUM
PROTECTED HOURS
2
-
CONSTRue· TlON TYPE CLASSIFI·
CATION
481AI 3C 181
Visual or fire protection purposes
Between Joists -one way
Poor
Visual or fire
Between trusses and joists -two ways
Poor
Fair
-
2 (combustible)
48 (AI 3C (81
Under structure -one way
Poor
F'Hr
-
2
3A 6" x 10" frame min. 4" planks min.
protection purposes Maximum beam
\
SERVICE PLENUM
No
spacing 8'·0"
(combustible)
I
I
REMARKS
Economical, light, easy
to construct. Limited to lowrise construction
Close dimensional tolerances; cutting holes through web permissible Most efficient with planks continuous over more than one span
Optional
No
Under structure -one way
Poor
Fair
-
2
3A 6" x 10" frame min. 4" planks min.
-
Light joists 16" to 30" o.c. Heavy joists 4'-12' o.c.
Yes
Visual or fire protection purposes
Between joists -two ways
Poor
Poor
-
1
3C (8)
-
Light joists 16" to 30" o.c. Heavy joists 4'-12' o,c.
No
Visual or fire protection purposes
Between joists -two ways
Poor
Fair
-
1-3
1, 2 and 3
-
r.es
Visual or fire protection purposes
Under structure
Poor
Poor
-
1
3C (81
-
-
No
Visual or fire protection purposes
Under structure
Poor
Fair
1-3
1-4
l,2,and3
-
-
Optional
Visual or fire protection purposes
Under structure
Fair
Fair
-
1-4
1,2,and3
-
-
Optional
No
Under structure
Fair
Fair
2-4
3-4
1 and 2
-
No
No
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Restricted to short spans because of excessive dead load
-
U~er
structure
Economical system, selective partition placement required. Cantilevers difficult
-
No
No
Under structure
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Suitable for concentrated loads, easy partition placement
No
No
Between ribs -one way
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Economy through reuse of forms, shear at supports controlling factor
L:S 1.33 W
No
No
Under structure
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
For heavy loads, columns should be equidistant. Not good for cantilevers
L$.1.33W
No
No
Under structure
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Drop panels against shear required for spans above 12 ft
-
Optional
Visual purposes; differential camber
Between ribs -one way
Fair
Good
2-3
3-4
1 and 2
Most widely used prestressed concrete product in the medium span range
-
Optional
Visual purposes; differential camber
Between ribs -one way
Fair
GOOd
2-3
3-4
1 and 2
Easy construction, lack continuity, poor earthquake resistance
-
No
Visual or fire protection purposes
Under structure
Good
Good
-
1-4
1,2, and 3
No
No
Under structure
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
L S 1.33 W
-
L -& 1.33 W
-
Uniform slab thickness, economical to form, easy to cantilever
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FA1A, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
29
30 ROOF"
RoofStructure Assemblies STRUCTURE
ASSEMBLIES
STANDARD
EPLYWOOO SHEATHING WOOD JOiST
]
WOOD
RAFTER --
WOOD BEAM AND PLANK
------
-
MEMBER SiZES
IOEAO LOAD OF STRUCTURE
SUITABLE
SYSTEM (IN.)
(IN.)
(PSF)
(PSF'
DEPTH OF
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONSULT MANUFACTURER'S LITERATuRE AND TRADE ASSOCIATIONS
4-8
10-50
Up to 22
8-22
~ominal planks ~,3, and 4
5-12
10-50
8-34
WOOD BEAM lOR LAMINATED BEAM I
DIMENSIONAL
STABILITY AFFECTED BY
Deflection
Maximum beam
8'·0" 10-50
8-32
4'·0" modules
Varies
5-15
10-50
30-50
1525
1060
100 200
10-28
1050
(1'-12')
TRUSS
STEEL DECK
f'ot
STEEL TRUSS
PURLIN
STEEL '".
- ........
-----
ST E E L
_____
---.....,..-
E§
DECK
_ __ ~
~
ST E E L DEC K
Steel joists
Up to 96
8-72
Deflection
Deflection
Light joists 16"-30" o.c.
Deflection
Heavy joists
4'-12' o.c. 10-32
WOOD NAILER STEEL ..JOIST CEILING
INSULATION
___
11 75
CENTERING STEEL ..JOIST CEILING
P LY W O O D
STEEL .JOIST
Varies
2'-8' between trusses
TRUSS
CONCRETE
~
Steel joists 8-30
820
10-50
Up to 96
Light joists 16"-30" o.c.
Deflection
Heavy joists
4'-12' o.c. 11 75
Steel joists
6-24
10-50
Up to 96
Deflection
40-75
30-70
20-60 Generally below 35
Deflection and creep
40-75
30-70
20-60 Generally below 35
8-72
STEEL .JOIST _ __ ~ C E I L I N G
STEEL FRAME
PRECAST CONCRETE
4-12 plus beam depth
Concrete plank
4-12 plus beam depth
Concrete plank 16-48W 4-12 D
16-48 W 4-12 D
50-120
4-10 slab
ONE-WAY CONCRETE SLAB
TWO-WAY CONCRETE SLAB
BAY SIZE CHARACTERISTICS
spacing
3-6
WOOD
STEEL .JOIST
RANGE (FT'
Nominal rafters 2 x 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12
PLYWOOD PANEL
STEEL ..JOIST
SPAN
RANGE
5-13
CEILING
~ W O O D PLANK
LIVE LOAD
Up to 100
beam depth
~-. . ~~/~.::.'.'~-' ~.-~ CONCRETE ~BEAM
50-120
4-10 slab plus beam depth
8-22
ONE-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE SLAB
Up to 100
Standard
40-90
Up to 100
Standard
75-105
Up to 100
Creep
15-50
25-60
L:S 1.33W
Creep
More with prestressing
dome forms
19 x 19, 30 x 30 6-20 D 16-36
L S 1.33 W
More with prestressing
20 and 30 W 6-20 D 8-24
10-30 More with prestressing
pan forms
TWO'-WAY RIBBED CONCRETE SLAB
10-25 More with prestressing
plus
,,=====~r-~ CONCRETE SLAB
Deflection and creep
16-36 deep
65-85
20-80
30-100
Creep
4',5',6',8', and 10' wide 6"-16" deep
35-55
25-60
20-75
Creep
50-160
Up to 100
PRECAST TEE
6-16
pRECAST DOUBLE TEE
4-14
CONCRETE FLAT SLAB
~~~_~~,..CONCRETE ~:~~~;~_~
5 16
SLAB DROP PANEL CAPITAL COLUMN
Min. slab
50-200
W/O}
5 4 wi
Drop panel 5-20
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
Up to 100
thickness
3-6
GYPSUM DECK
Up to 35
L S 1.33 W
Creep
Creep
More with prestressing
CONCRETE FLAT PLATE
Up to 50
Up to 40
L<1.33W
More with prestressing
Equal column spacing required
Up to 10
Up to 8'
Deflection
between subpurlins
and creep
RoofStructure Assemblies SUITABLE
FOR INCLINED ROOFS
Yes
REQUIRES FINISHED CEILING
SURFACE
For visual
Between
or fire
rafters -one way
protection purposes
Yes
Yes
RELATIVE SERVICE PLENUM
CAPACITY
AIRBORNE
IMPACT
MAXIMUM
TECTED
PROTECTED
HOURS
HOURS
CONSTRUC-
TION TYPE CLASSIFI-
CATION
REMARKS
Poor
Fair
-
2 (combustible)
46 (A) 3C (6)
Medium
Poor
Fair
-
2
3A 6" x 10" frame min. 4" plank min.
low
Poor
Fair
-
2
461A) 3C (6)
Between trusses
low
Poor
Fair
-
2 (combustible)
46 (A) 3C (6)
Truss depth to span ratio 1 : 5 to 1 : 10
Between trusses
low
Fair
Fair
-
1-4
l,2,and3
Truss depth to span ratio 1 : 5 to 1 : 15
Between
Medium
Fair
fair
-
1-4
1,2, and 3
Under structure
purposes
-one way
No
UNPRO-
low
protection
For fire
FIRE RESISTIVE RATING PER CODE AND UNDERWRITERS
COMPARATIVE RESISTANCE TO SOUND TRANSMISSION
THERMAL
Under
structure only
Yes
For visual or fire
protection
purposes Yes Pitched trusses usually used for short spans
No
For visual or fire protection purposes For visual or fire protection purposes
joists
Yes
For visual or fire protection purposes
Between joists
low
Poor
Fair
-
1
1,2, and 3
Yes
For visual or fire protection purposes
Between joists
High
Excellent
Good
-
2
1,2, and 3
Yes
For visual or fire protection purposes
Fair
Fair
-
1-4
l,2,and3
Yes
No
Under
High
Under
Easy to design; quick erection
structure
High
Fair
2-4
Fair
3-4
1 and 2
structure
Provides finished flush ceiling. May be used with any framing system
No
No
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
High
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Between ribs -one way
High
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Under
High
Good
Good
1-4
3-4
1 and 2
Fair
Good
2-3
3-4
1 and 2
Under
;figh
structure
No
No
Under structure
No
For visual purposes
No
No
structure
Yes
Yes
No
Economy in forming; suitable for two-way cantilevering
Generally used for
For visual or fire protection purposes
Between ribs -one way
High
For visual or fire protection purposes
Between ribs -one way
High
Under
High
Good
Good
, -4
3-4
1 and 2
Uniform slab thickness; easy to form; suitable for vertical expansion of building
3-4
1 and 2
Suitable for heavy roof loads
2
l,2,and3
Provides resistance to wind and seismic loads
No
long spans
2-3
Good
Fair
3-4
1 and 2
Most widely used prestressed concrete element.
structure
No
No
Under structure
High
Good
Good
1-4
No
For visual or fire protection' purposes
Under structure
High
Good
Good
-
I
I
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet 1. Ergene, Architect; Roger K. Lewis, FAIA. & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
31
32
Exterior Wall Assemblies
EXTERIOR
WALL
,..:
WALL
ASSEMBLIES
VERTICAL SPAN RANGE /UNSUP.
THiCKNESS
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONSULT MANUFACTURERS LITERATURE AND TRADE ASSOCIATIONS .
~C.M.U.
8
{GRAVEL AGGREGATE)
C.M. U.
(NOMINAL) {IN.}
12
WEIGHT (PSF)
55 85
PORTED HEIGHT) (FT)
Up to 13 Up to 20
c!!!
z'" - llJ :t' 0::
RACKING RESISTANCE
HEAT TRANS_ MISSiON COEFFI_ CIENT IU,FACTORJ (BTUtHR 'SQ FT .0FI
SERVICE PLENUM SPACE
Good
None
0.56 0.49
Good
Through insulation
0.21 0.20
Good
Through insulation
;:'"
------+--------------------t-------+------!-------12 C.M,U. I I NSULATED I
8+ 12 +
60 90
Up to 13 Up to 20
'§ s: -o
fii
0.19
4+4+
75
4+8+
100
4+2+4 4+2+8
75 100
Up to 9 Up to 13
Fair
None
0.12 0.11
8+
67
Up to 13
Good
Through interior insulation
0.16
4 6
12 16
Up to 14 Up to 20 (LId';; 50)
Poor to fair
Between studs
0.06 0.04
4+4
52
Up to 14
Poor to fair
8etween studs
0.07
METAL STUD
4 5
14 18
Up to 13 Up to 17
Poor
Between
0.06 0.04
BRiCK
4+4
54
Up to 15
Good
Between studs
Fair to good
None
Up to 13 (w/rein!. 17) Up to 20 (w/rein!. 25)
Excellent
None
97
Up to 13 (w/rein!.17)
Excellent
Through insulation
0.13
112
Up to 13 (w/rein!. 17)
Excellent
Through insulation
0.13
C. M. U
.
AND BRICK
VENEER I INSULATED)
BRICK. C,M.U
VENEER
~ii!!I!!!\lii!!\liili!!1i~~ . .INSULATION ~ ~ INT. WALL FIN. REPELLENT I
CAVITY
C.M,U. AND STUCCO (INSULATED J
OE ~
WOOD
ST UC C O C.M. U. INSULATION INT.
WALL
E X T.
WALL
FIN.
F"IN.
~~~:T.r~NG WITH MOISTURE
~ ~ ~~~AT~~~O WITH BARRIER
STUD
0.18
INT. WALL
VAPOR
FIN
BRICK
VENEER
VENEER
CONCRETE
6
5
INSULATED SANDWICH PANEL
~.....~
.......
,.~.
~: ..
.......- CONGRETE
:.~:·_.~·.:-;··~'o.-::.. ",~
CONCRETE I fNSULATED I
8
92
12
138
8+
studs
0.07
0.05 See manufacturers' literature 0.68 0.55
CONCRETE
4+8+
AND
BRICK VENEER (INSULATED I
.-".~" ...• , •..-.,
PRECAST
CONCRETE
(
!
CONCRETE IREINFORCEpJ ,INSULATiON
..........-
INT.
WALL
PRECAST CONCRETE SANDWICH
2+ 4+
23 46
Up to 6 Up to 12
Fair to good
Through insulation
0.99 0.85
5
45
Up to 14
Fair to good
None
0.14
FINISH
SIZE RANGE GLASS
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE G ASS AREA
SEE INDEX UNDER "GLASS"
'I_ SINGLE GLAZING
1/4"
3.2
GLASS
DOUBLE GLAZING
z:r : : :
GLASS CAVITY
TRIPLE GLAZING
W:~::··
GLASS CAVITY
'1_
6.4
1'1_
9.6
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene, Architect Roger K. Lewis. FA1A, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
WIND
LOAD
SHADING COEFFI· CIENT S.C.
Four side supported 110 SF @ 10 PSF 20SF@60PSF 40 SF @ 10 PSF 17 SF @60 PSF
Clear 0.94
Two side supported
Tinted 0.70
Four side supported 55 SF @30 PSF 28 SF @60 PSF Heat strengthened 70 SF @80 PSF 30 SF @ 200 PSF
Reflective 0.44
I Clearltinted
1.1 Reflective 0.8-1.1
Clearltinted 0.5-0.6 Reflective 0.3-0.6
Clear/tinted 0.3-0.4 Reflective 0.2-0.4
Exterior Wall Assemblies
I
FIRE RESISTIVE
RATING PER CODE AND UNDERWRITERS (HRSI
RESIST ANCE TO
EXTERIOR-AIRBORNE
HAZARD
SOUND TRANSMISSION
CLASSIFICATION (FIRE)
Fair to good
Classification provides data in regard to (1) flame spread, (2) fuel contributed, and (3) smoke devetoped during fire exposure of mate-
Fair to good
rials in comparison to asbestoscement boards as zero and untreated red oak lumber as 100 when exposed to fire under similar conditions
Excellent
FUEL CONTRIBUTED
FLAME
SMOKE DEVELOPED
~ Paint on CMU 0-5 5-25 Excellent
CONSTRUCTION
SUBCONTRACTORS REQUIRED
TYPE CLASSIFICATION
FOR ERECTION lPLUS FINISHESl
2-4 4
1,2, and 3
2-4 4
1,2, and 3
Carpentry
3-4 4
l,2,and3
4
l,2,and3
15
Poor to fair
0-10
75
Poor to fair
190
Treated wood particle board with untreated wood face veneer 25-180
10-160
1 (combustible)
1-2 (combustible)
4
3B,C
10-20
1-2
0
Glass fiber batts and blankets (basic) 20 15 20 (foil kraft faced) 25 0
0
Poor to good;
see manufacturers' literature
Treated lumber
Good-
(Hemlock) 10-15
Good
Excellent
(Douglas fir) 15
Fair
Poor
5-1s1
0
5-30
NFPA CLASSIFICATION: CLASS
B C
Washing, repointing joints,
Masonry
Washing, paint-
Masonry
Washing, repointing joints, sand blasting
1
Carpentry Drywall (Lath and plaster)
1 (nonbearingl 2 and 3
1-2
Washing, painting, and replacing exterior finish
(nonbearing)
Masonry Carpentry Drywall
0-25 26-75 76-200
For lesser classifications, permitted in residential construction only, refer to regulating agency guidelines
-
Washing, painting, and replacing exterior finish
The assembly is reversed for optimum energy conservation
Exterior wall finishes: • wood, plywood,
• aluminum siding • stucco
Exterior wall finishes: • wood, plywood, • aluminum siding • stucco
Washing, repointing joints, sand blasting
Curtain walls -erection
Washing, steam cleaning, painting, replacing joint sealers
Temperature change critical Minimize metal through connections
l,2,and3
Concrete work
Washing, sand blasting
Concrete walls have very high heat storage capacity
4 4
l,2,and3
Concrete work
Washing, sand blasting
4
l,2,and3
See
See
manufacturers' literature
manufacturers literature
4 4
Drywall (Carpentry)
SMOKE DEVELOPED
0-450 0-450 0-450
Cavity increases heat storage capacity and resistance to rain penetration
sand blasting
Carpentry Drywall (Lath and plaster)
0-5
Laminated plastic Ifr) 0-15 20-30
--A Poor to fair
10
FLAME SPREAD
are drastically reduced
Washing, repointing joints, sand blasting
Masonry Drywall (Carpentry)
Carpentry Drywall
2 and 3
Good to excellent
Properties of non-engineered masonry
Washing, repointing joints. painting, sand blasting
ing, and reDrywall Lath and plaste r stuccoing (Carpentry)
10-250
Vermiculite acoustical plaster 10-20
1,2, and 3
2-4
15-45
Untreated wood particle board 180
Good to excellent
0
Gypsum board surfaeed on both sides with paper, vinyl faced 25-35
Masonry Carpentry Drywall
sides with paper
Good
Masonry Drywall
REMARKS
REQUIREMENTS
Washing, repointing joints, painting, sand blasting
0-10
Gypsum board surfaced on both 15
Masonry
EXTERIOR MAINTENANCE
33
Concrete work Masonry Drywall (Carpentry)
lA
(nonbearing)
1-3
1-3
Curtain walls -erection
Washing, sand blasting, replacing joint sealers
Large size economical (fewer joints) units available with various finishes
Curtain walls -erection
Washing, sand blasting, replacing joint sealers
8' x 20' max. size for concrete sandwich panels Plant quality control is very essential
Curtain walls -erection
Washing, replacing joint sealers, gaskets
Anchorage to building is critical Anchors must isolate wall to Iimi t building movement transmitted to
Washing, replacing joint sealers. gaskets
Wall design must limit wall movement transmitted to glass Mullions should accommodate movement throuqh gaskets, sliding connections, etc.
1B, 2, and 3
Drywall (Carpentry)
lA (ncnbearinq) lB, 2, and 3
-
Washing, repointing joints, sand blasting
(Glazing)
glass
Fair
-
-
Curtain walls -erection (Glazing)
Good
-
-
Cu rtain walls -r-erection (Glazing)
Washing, replacing joint sealers, gaskets
Roger K. Lewis, FAIA, and Mehmet T. Ergene. Architect; Roger K. Lewis. FAIA, & Associates; Washington, D.C
BUILDING SYSTEMS
34
Selected Floor loads
MINIMUM UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LIVE LOADS LIVE OCCUPANCY OR USE
Armories and drill rooms
Assembly halls and other places of assembly' Fixed seats Movable seats Platforms lassembly)
LOAD (PSF)
150 50
ioo
roo
Attics Nonstorage
Storage Bakeries
10 30' 150
IMPACT LOADS
Residential Multifamily houses Private apartments Public rooms Corridors Dwellings First floor Second floor and habitable attics Inhabitable attics Hotels Guest rooms Public rooms Corridors serving public rooms
40 100 100
Rest rooms and toilet rooms
40
Schools Classrooms Corridors
40 80
40 30 20
Balconies Exterior Interior (fixed seats) Interior (movable seats)
Sidewalks. vehicular driveways, and yards subject to trucking
250
ioo
Bowling Alleys. poolrooms, and similar recreational areas
Skating rinks
100
75
Stairs and exit-ways
100
Broadcasting studios
roo
Catwalks
25
Storage warehouses Light
Cold storage rooms Floor Roof Corridors First floor Other floors. same as occupancy served except as indicated
60 50
150 250
ioo too
Dormitories Nonpartitioned Partitioned
80 40
File rooms Card Letter High-density storage
125' 80' 150'
Fire escapes on multifamily or single family res-
roo
idential buildings only
125
H~vy
~O
Hay or grain
300
Retail First floor, rooms Upper floors Wholesale
75 75 100
Stores
ioo
Dining rooms and restaurants
Dance halls and ballrooms
The live loads shall be assumed to include adequate altov, ance for ordinary impact conditions. Provision shall be made in structural design for uses and loads that involve unusual vibration and impact forces.
40 100 80
Telephone exchange rooms
150 2
Theaters Aisles, corridors, and lobbies Orchestra floors Balconies Stage floors Dressing rooms Grid iron floor or fly gallery grating Projection room
100 50 50 150 40 75 100
Transformer rooms
200 2
Vaults, in offices
250
Yards and terraces, pedestrians
1
100
600'
Foundries
Fuel rooms, framed
400'
Garages (passenger cars only). For trucks and buses use AASH03lane load
50
Grandstands Greenhouses
roo-
Gymnasiums, main floor and balconies
ioo
Hospitals Operating rooms and laboratories Private rooms Wards Corridors, above first floor
60 40 40 80
150
Kitchens, other than domestic
150 2
Laboratories, scientific
roo
Laundries
150'
Manufacturing Light Heavy Ice
1. Increase when occupancy exceeds this amount. 2. Use weight of actual equipment when greater. 3. American Association of State Highway Officials 4. Paper storage 50 Ib/ft of clear story height. 5. Verify with design criteria. 6. Additional loads-120 Ib~inear It vertical. 24 Iblft parallel lateral, and 10 Ib/ft perpendicular to seat and footboards.
MINIMUM ROOF LOADS 1. FLAT, PITCHED, OR CURVED ROOFS: Ordinary roofs flat. pitched, or curved - shall be designed for the live loads or the snow load, whichever produces the greater stress. 2. PONDING: For roofs, care shall be taken to provide drainage or the load shall be increased to represent all likely accumulations of water. Deflection of roof members will permit pondinq of water accompanied by increased deflection and additional ponding. 3. SPECIAL PURPOSE ROOFS: When used for promenade purposes, roofs shall be designed for a maximum live load of 60 psf; 100 pst when designed for roof garden or assembly uses. Roofs used for other special purposes shall be designed for appropriate loads, as directed or approved by the building official.
LIVE LOAD
Hotels (see residential)
Libraries Reading rooms Stack rooms (books and shelving at 65 pef) but not less than indicated Corridors, above first floor
NOTES
ELEVATORS: All elevator loads shall be increased 100'Ye for impact, and the structural supports shall be designed within limits of deflection prescribed by American National Standard Safety Code for elevators and escalators, All.1 ~ 1981, and American National Standard Practice for the Inspection of Elevators, Escalators, and Movinq Walks (Inspector's Manuall A17.2 - 1979. 2. MACHINERY: For the purpose of design, the weight of machinery and moving loads shall be increased as fol lows to allow for impact: a Elevator machinery, 100%. b. Light machinery, shaft or motor driven, 20%. c. Reciprocating machinery or power driven units, 50% d. Hangers for floors or balconies, 33%. All percentages to be increased if so recommended by the manufacturer. 3. CRANEWAYS: All craneways, except those using only manually powered cranes, shall have their design loads increased for impact as follows: a. A vertical force equal to 25% of the maximum wheel load. b. A lateral force equal to 20% of the weight of trolley and lifted load only, applied one - half at the top of each rail. c. A longitudinal force of 10% of the maximum wheel loads of the crane applied at top of rail. 4. PARKING GARAGE GUARDRAILS: Guardrails and walls acting as impact rails in parking structures shall be designed for a minimum horizontal ultimate load of 10,000 Ib applied 18 in. above the floor at any point of the guardrail.
60 150 80
Live load is the weight superimposed by the use and occupancy of the building or other structure, not including the wind, snow, earthquake, or dead load. The live loads to be assumed in the design of buildings and other structures shall be the greatest loads that probably will be produced by the intended use or occupancy, but in no case less than the minimum uniformly distributed unit load.
LIVE LOAD REDUCTION In general, design live loads should not be in excess of 100 psf on any member, supporting an area of 150 sq ft or more, except for places of public assembly, repair garages. parking structures, and roofs. The reduction shall not exceed the value of R from the following formulas:
Stairway and balcony railing, both exterior and interior. shall be designed to resist a vertical and a horizontal thrust of 50 Ibllinear ft applied at the top of the railing. For one- and twofamily dwellings, a thrust of 20 Ib~inear It may be used instead of 50.
R ~.081A-1 501 R = 2311+D/U R =reduction (%) =dead load per square foot of area supported by the member L =live load per square foot of area supported by the member A =area supported by the member In no case should the reduction exceed 60% for vertical members, nor 40 to 60% for horizontal members.
CONCENTRATED LOADS
For live loads in excess of 100 pst, some codes allow a live load reduction of 20% for columns only.
where 75 125 300
Marquees
75
Morgues
125
Office buildings Office Business machine equipment Lobbies Corridors, above first floor File and computer rooms require heavier loads based on anticipated occupancy Penal Institutions Cell blocks Corridors
50
THRUSTS AND HANDRAILS
ioo-
roo 80
40
ioo
Printing plants Composing rooms Linotype rooms Paper storage rooms Pressrooms
150'
Public rooms
roo
ioo ioo
Floors shall be designed to support safely the uniformly distributed live load or the concentrated load in pounds given, whichever produces the greater stresses. Unless otherwise specified. the indicated concentration shall be assumed to occupy an area of 2 1/ 2 sq ft (6.26 ft 2 ) and shall be located so as to produce the maximum stress conditions in the structural members.
PARTIAL LOADING The full intensity of the appropriately reduced live loads applied only to a portion of the length of a structure or member shall be considered if it produces a more unfavorable effect than the same intensity applied over the full length of the structure or member
Charles W. Vanderlinden, PE; Hansen Lind Meyer, Inc.; Orlando, Florida
BUILDING SYSTEMS
o
CODES AND STANDARDS The applicable building code should be referred to for specific uniformly distributed live loads, movable partition load, special and concentrated load requirements. In addition to specific code requirements, the designer must consider the effects of special loading conditions, such as moving loads, construction loads, roof top planting loads and concentrated loads from supported or hanging equipment (radiology, computer. heavy filing, or mechanical equipment) The live loads given in this table are obtained by reference to ASCE, UBC, BOCA, and SBCCI.
Long Span and Tensile Structures LONG SPAN SYSTEMS
GENERAL When selectinqa long span roof system. it is appropriate to consider life safety of equal concern to cost. Egress must be carefully evaluated by simulating the most adverse conditions rather than simply complying with building codes. Fire safety begins by limiting the fire load, as codes rarely require fire protection or sprinkler systems. Auxiliary uses having any fire risk (e.q., food handling) should be carefully fire separated from the rest of the structure.
f-
W W
W
>-
«
~
DESIGN CONSIDERATION FACTORS
SYSTEM
Examples of long span structures shown in the table are rated for their ability to address the following design factor conditions.
MATERIAL (OR SHAPE)
Joist
Steel
Truss
Steel
NATURAL CONDITIONS
a. Uneven or excessive snow and ice loads: Geometry, equipment, or exterior structure may contribute to snow drifting or ice buildup. b. Ponding: Provide positive drainage to remove water from the structure when roof drains clog. c. Wind: Evaluate potential of wind induced destructive vibration in members or connections. d. Thermal: Diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles can cause significant changes in structural shape and member stresses and may lead to fatigue failure. e. Freeze/thaw cycles or corrosive atmosphere: Evaluate long-term effects on structural performance, particularly for exposed concrete structures.
Wood
Space frame
Steel
Stressed skin
Steel
Beam
Steel
Wood Prestressed concrete
PRIMARY STRESSES
Rigid frame
f. Two or more load paths lor all loads should be provided wherever possible. The greater the area a single member supports, the greater should be its safety factor. g. Compression failure: Resistance to lateral buckling of long members is crucial. Use members that assure initial and verifiable alignment. h. Tension failure: Dynamic stability under wind or other vibration loading should be carefully verified.
Steel
Wood Prestressed concrete
W
Z
0
··
>-
«
~ 0 ~
f-
· · · · · · · · · · ·
u «u, a: ;)
Z «
z
a.
..J
..J
0
III
W
f-
U f-
-c
..J u,
W
«
a. 0
W
U « u, a:
z
> a:
> a:
a:
;)
;)
U
U
SPAN RANGE (FT)
0
If)
0
0
0 0
- - '"
0
If)
0 0
0 'Z_ 0
«f0.« lila:
20 - 24
Folded plate
Steel
Wood
Cylindric shell
Concrete
Vault
Concrete
Arch
Steel
Wood Concrete Dome
n. Erection alignment: True member length and spatial position are crucial for proper alignment and load flow. o. Creep: Length changes over time will influence both primary and secondary stresses. p. Supports and foundations: Supports must accept movements due to deflections from primary and secondary stresses and differential foundation settlement. QUALITY CONTROL
q. Engineering design must not be compromised by time, scheduling, design changes, or building codes. Computerized design must be carefully verified to resolve all primary and secondary stresses. r. Construction methods should be selected carefully to safely locate the structural components accurately in space. s. Site observation: Only when the structure is properly established in space should it be accepted. Changes in construction should be carefully checked. 1. Structural building maintenance: Conditions and alignment of various members, especially crucial nonredundant members, should be verified on a regular schedule. Consider using equipment to detect excessive deflection. u. Nonstructural building maintenance: Condition of building components should not adversely affect the structure (e.g., keep roof drains open, prevent excessive equipment vibration, and maintain expansion joints).
Radial steel Geodesic dome
TOLERANCES
Radial
wood Lamella
wood Concrete
Pneumatics
Steel
Cabke
Parallel Radial Hyperbolic Tent
Hyperbolic
a.b.t
16 - 20
-- -I-'-
-
Concrete
· · · · · · · ·
· · · · · ·
--
--
·
· · · · · · · · ·
f-lIl UZ «W "-lIl a.b.f.q
m
a.b.t.q
9-12 9 - 12
b.f
16 - 20
I
a.b.i.jm.n.
14-18
I
a,b,i,j,m,n, p.q.s.u
18-22
a.q
--
· ·· · ·
-- r--
· · ·
· · · · · · ··
b.t.t
16 -20
b.f.t
22 -26
b.f.t
20-24
· · · · ·
~t
p.q.s.u
·
· · ·
lIl>
a.b.f.q.rn.t
a.b
I
18- 22
I
24-28
I i,p
Concrete
I
p.q.s
16 - 22
· · · · ·
W
lIl« a:t:l OZ f-O Ua: «f"-lIl
W
0
W
f-
0
a.
III
0
«
J:
f-
;)
J:
· · ·
III
Cabke stayed
SECONDARY STRESSES
i. Deflection: Changes in orientation of members at joints from loads can increase stresses destructively. Member interaction: Load flows through structures in such a way as to minimize strength. Check all possible load paths of complex geometric structures. k. Nonstructural connections: Assemblies attached to a structure will influence structural load flow and even become part of the load flow if the attachment changes the dellected shape. Scale: Most systems have a span beyond which self weight becomes a severe limit. m.Stress concentration: Check stresses at changes of cross sections, holes, and connections. High-strength materials are particularly sensitive.
35
c.e.h.q.t
18- 22
b
a.f.rn
12 - 16
b
a.f.m
10-14
b
a.f.l.rn
10- 14
b
a,l,m,o
6- 10
b
c.o
4-8
b
a.d.t.q a.d.f.q
3-7
b
3-7
b
a,d,l,g
4-8
b,c
a.d.f.q
2-5
a.b.c.f.q d.n.r
3-6
b,c
a.d.t.q
3-6
a,b,c,l,g
d.n.r
5-8
b,c,l,g
a.d.l,o
4-7
d
a.b.c.e
8-16
d
a.b.c.f
6- 12
d
a.b.c.f
4-8
b.d.f
a,c
3-6
b.f
a.c
3-6
I
a.dj.o
NOTES
1. Steel is A-36; wood is laminated, sometimes heavy timber; concrete is reinforced with steel; prestressed concrete is prestressed with steel. 2. Cable-stayed system can give auxiliary support to trusses, beams, or frames, greatly reducing span and member sizes, but providing additional tensional strength. 3. Lamella arches provide two--way arch structures and improve redundancy.
4. Domes may also be constructed of aluminum. 5. Pneumatics are fabric roofs, pressurized, and stabilized with steel cables. 6. For each system the following notation applies: • is the typical configuration - is occasionally used
William C. Bauman, Jr.: University of Oklahoma; Norman, Oklahoma
BUILDING SYSTEMS
36
Composite Structural Elements EMBOSSMENTS PROVIDE KEYING EFFECT FOR COMPOSITE ACTION
SHEAR STUDS WELDED TO STEEL BEAM TRANSFER SHEAR BETWEEN CONCRETE AND STEEL BEAM
BOTTO~
PLATE FORMS
CELLS FOR WIRING
CROSS WIRES WELDED TO DECK (OPTIONAL KEY DETAIL) ----------
CONCRETE TOPPED STEEL DECK
STEEL BEAM WITH STUD IN CONCRETE SLAB STEEL TUBE
CONCRETE FILL BONDS TO STEEL TUBE __ __
UNDERLAYMENT CONCRETE ENCASEMENT BONDS TO STRUCTURAL STEEL FOR COMPOSITE ACTiON
--~
STEEL-ENCASED CONCRETE
WEB MEMBERS
CONCRETE ENCASED STEEL COLUMNS
WOOD AND STEEL JOISTS
<, WOOD TOP CHORD HOLES WOOD POST
CUT FOR UTILITY LINES LIMITED BY MFR. SPECS. _ _+ _ ~
STEEL BOTTOM CHORD
STRESS RATED
WOOD TOP AND BOTTOM CHORD (BUILT-UP OR SOLiD WOOD)
WOOD AND PLYWOOD COMPOSITE JOISTS
STRUCTURALCONCRETE.~... .
TOP AND BOTTOM FLANGE PLATES YIELD STRESS
SLAB ACTS AS COMPRESSION FLANGE OF COMPOSITE MEMBER
50,000 PSI OR GREATER
.
...... -.
. <: '. :~ V "··v··
.'
I"
TOP CHORD CUT FROM STEEL BEAM YIELD STRESS 36,000 PSI-----'"
WEB YIELD
STRESS
WELD
36,000 PSI
WELD TO TRANSFER SHEAR FORCES BETWEEN TEES HEAVY TEE YIELD STRESS SAME AS TOP TEE OR GREATER
BOTTOM CHORD CUT FROM DIFFERENT WEIGH1 STEEL BEAM: YEIL[ STRESS SAMEAS OR GREATER THAN TOP CHORD
HYBRID STEEL GIRDERS USING STEELS OF DIFFERING STRENGTH STEEL STUDS WELDED TO STEEL GIRDER (OR DOWELS FROM PRECAST GIRDER) DEVELOP COMPOSITE ACTION
STRUCTURAL
NOTES
Individual elements of the composite unit must be securely fastened to prevent slippage, especially at points where load is transferred from one element of the composite member to another.
WOOD JOIST MEMBERS
TYPES OF COMPOSITE ELEMENTS 1 2. 3. 4.
Concrete topped composite steel decks. Steel beams acting compositely with concrete slabs. Steel columns encased by or filled with concrete. Open web joists of wood and steel or joists with ply wood webs and wood chords. 5.Trusses combining wood and steel. 6 Hybrid girders utilizing steels of different strengths. 7. Cast-in-place concrete slab on precast concrete joists or beams.
STEEL PLATE SANDWICHED BETWEEN WOOD JOISTS
FLITCH BEAMS
REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB AND PRECAST JOIST
Composite construction combines different materials, or different grades of a material, to form a structural member that utilizes the most desirable properties of each. Perhaps the earliest composite structural unit was the mud brick
reinforced with straw. More recently fiberglass-reinforced plastics, wire-reinforced safety glass, and glued laminated plywood and wood beams have been used.
Richard J. Vitullo, AlA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland
BUILDING SYSTEMS
COMPARATIVE DESIGN A 30 ft beam with a 2.25 kip/ft uniform load carrying 2 1/ 2 in concrete fill on a 2 in. metal deck slab uses a W24x55 in a noncomposite design and only a Wl8x40 with 38 steel studs of 3/4 in. diameter in a composite design.
Introduction to Seismic Design GENERAL
SEISMIC CODES
According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth's crust is divided into constantly moving plates. Earthquakes occur when, as a result of slowly accumulating pressure. the ground slips abruptly along a geological fault plane on or near a plate boundary. The resulting waves of vibration within the earth create ground motions at the surface. which, in turn. induce movement within buildings. The fre~ quency, magnitude. and duration of the ground motion. physical characteristics of the building, and geology of a site determine how these forces affect a building.
The seismic requirements in the Uniform Building Code have historically been based on Recommended Lateral Force Requirements, generally referred to as "The Blue Book," an earthquake design manual developed by the Structural Engineers Association of California. The seismic requirements in the National Building Code and the Standard Building Code are based on FEMA 222, the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings. Since the Blue Book and the NEHRP provisions incorporate the expertise of many of the same engineers, and since the anticipated International Building Code will encourage convergence of the requirements, the seismic code development community intends to make the two codes similar.
DESIGN JUDGMENT In an earthquake, buildings designed to the minimum levels required by model codes often sustain damage. Early discussions with an owner should explore the need to limit property loss in an earthquake and the desirability of attempting to ensure continued building operation immediately afterward. To achieve these results, it may be necessary to make design decisions more carefully tuned to the seismic conditions of a site than code requires.
The following information is based on the requirements expected to appear in the 1997 NEHRP provisions and in subsequent issues of all model codes. Detached one- and two-family dwellings will be exempt from seismic regulations in areas other than those with high seismicity. Seismic codes are constantly evolving, and architects should always consult the relevant code before beginning a project. -
~
37
A recent. significant change in the seismic codes is the elimination of seismic zones as a basis for establishing design acceleration. Seismic maps have been redrawn (completely for the first time since 1976) to show building response periods as a percentage of gravity. The map below, based on a building response period of 02 second, gives accelerations to be used for low buildings. A similar map based on a building response of 1.0 second is proposed for taller buildings. Before determining what level of ground shaking applies to a project, an architect must find out what type of earth the building will be built on. The maps are based on buildings built on soft rock, but ground motion increases as the soil becomes softer.
TERMS The seismic community has an extensive set of terms with which to describe common conditions in the field. Following is a short list of these terms and their definitions: BASE SHEAR (static analysis): calculated total shear force acting at the base of a structure, used in codes as a static representation of lateral earthquake forces; also referred to as "equivalent lateral force."
- --- =-
==~ ----
GROUND RUPTURE
DIFFERENTIAL SUBSIDENCE
GROUND SHAKING
-
LIQUEFACTION
¢ ¢
MAIN CAUSES OF FOUNDATION FAILURE
¢ ¢ (FREQUENCY
Mw-t 0.10
0.50
r-a
4
PERIOD OF BUILDING MOTION
NOTE The relationship between the period of ground motion and the period of building motion is of great importance. Fundamental periods of motion in structures range from 0.1 second for a one-story building to 4.0 seconds or more for a high-rise building. Ground generally vibrates for a period of between 0.5 and 1.0 second. If the period of ground motion and the natural period of motion in a building coincide, the
I
DRIFT
BASE SHEAR
BASE SHEAR AND DRIFT
MAGNITU::J
DESIGN EARTHQUAKE: earthquake ground motion for which a building is designed.
SEISMIC GROUND MOTION
DRIFT: lateral deflection of a building or structure. Story drift is the relative movement between adjacent floors.
building may resonate and the loads will be increased. Theoretically, one part of the seismic design problem is to "tune" the building so that its own period of motion falls outside the estimated range of ground motion frequency. In practice, this tuning is very seldom carried out. Rather, architects rely on increased load effects required by the applicable code to take care of the problem.
FUNDAMENTAL PERIODS
ODD ODD ODD
DUCTILITY: the ability of a structural frame to bend but not break. Its ductility is a major factor in establishing the ability of a building to withstand large earthquakes. Ductile materials (steel in particular) fail only after permanent deformation has taken place. Good ductility requires special detailing of the joints. DYNAMIC ANALYSIS: a structural analvsis based on the vibration motion of a buildinq. Dynamic analysis is time-consuming and normally reserved for complex projects. FORCES, IN-PLANE: forces exerted parallel to a wall or frame. FORCES, OUT-OF PLANE: forces exerted perpendicular to a wall or frame.
OUT-OF-PLANE
FORCE DIAGRAMS MAXIMUM CONSIDERED EARTHQUAKE: the greatest ground shaking expected to occur during an earthquake at a site. These values are somewhat higher than those of the design earthquake. particularly in areas where seismic events are very infrequent. The code maps are based on earthquakes of this magnitude.
SEISMIC ACCELERATION FOR LOW BUILDINGS EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE OF GRAVITY
RE-ENTRANT CORNER: The inside building corner of an L-, H-, X-, or T-shaped plan.
William W. Stewart, FAIA: Stewart-Schaberg Architects: Clayton, Missouri Map courtesv of the U.S. Geological Survey. National Seismic Hazard Mapping Project (June 1996)
SEISMIC DESIGN
38
Site Design for Seismic Areas
GENERAL
-- PROVIDE 25' MIN. SETBACK
~'~'"" ",ecOcec """ IDENTI.FIED FAULT TRACE
Each building and site lies within a broader context of repiona! seismicity. localized geology, community. vulnerabillty. and adjacent structures and land uses. Siting decisions, therefore. can have a significant impact on the overall seismic performance of a structure. This page focuses on the following criteria for siting a building: 1" Avoid unstable sites. 2. Avoid nonengineered fill. 3. Avoid or design for sites that can subside or liquefy. 4. Avoid building over surface faulting. 5. Avoid adjacent hazardous buildings. 6. Prevent battering from adjacent buildings. 7. Create safe areas of refuge when redeveloping older buildings. Decisions on appropriate land uses for a specific site, separation from active ground faulting, site stability, and separation from adjacent buildings are critical to performance. Although many of these factors have traditionally been considered city planning issues, the designer must also incorporate them into the architectural development of a seismically resistant building.
-t-
Low
SiTE ELEVATION PROVIDE OPEN SPACE SEPARATION
SITE SECTION FAULT ZONE (200 YAROS ON EACH SIDE OF SUSPECTED ACTIVE FAULT, THOSE THAT HAVE MOVED WITHIN PAST 1 1,000 YEARS) SURFACE FAULT TRACE
EXISTING COLLAPSE HAZARD BUILDING
LAND USE
ADO BUTTRESS TO PREVENT COLLAPSE
High-density commercial/retail
Essential services (fire stations, hospitals, emergency operations centers. etc.) Hazardous industrial processes
Medium- and low-density residential Low-rise commercial/retail Industrial uses
High
DOD SiTE ELEVATiON
High occupancy and assembly
Medium
BUILDING SITE
I
SEISMIC ZONATION TO REDUCE RISK RELATIVE RISK OF SITE
MODE OF
COLLAPSE
Very low-density residential
SITE PLAN NOTE
NEW STRUCTURE
Within a fault zone, trench to determine the exact location of the fault trace. Development within a fault zone should be restricted to low-density land uses, open space, and other low-occupancy activities
SURFACE FAULTING SATURATED SAND LAYER CAN LIQUEFY AND SPREAD LATERALLY AND CREATE SAND BOILS ON SURFACE
SITE ELEVATiON
ADJACENT HAZARDOUS BUILDINGS
Nonhazardous industrial B U IL D IN G DRIFT DURING EARTHQUAKE
Recreation (
Public open space
r----D-.,Tr/--=f_~_~_PV_=i""~_1!,~"""'O"
Public rights-of-way NOTE Land uses should reflect the relative risk of the location.
DD
DO
AVOID BUILDING AT TOES OR DOWN SLOPE OF ACTIVE LANDSLIDES
BATTERING FROM ADJACENT BUILDINGS SITE SECTION (BEFORE LIQUEFACTION)
EXISTING UNREINFORCED MASONRY BUILDINGS (URM)
BUILDING
SAND SPREADS LATERALLY AND EJECTS VERTICALLY
-----~ AVOID BUILDING ABOVE ACTIVE LANDSLIDES
STREET AND PARCEL MAP-URM BLOCK
CREATE SAFE ZONE AND MULTIPLE EGRESS ROUTES SiTE SECTION
NOTE
SiTE SECTION (AFTER EARTHQUAKE AND LIQUEFACTION)
On sloping sites, earthquakes can trigger landslides Also, alluvium and unconsolidated soils can increase the violence and duration of ground shaking. In areas of young soil deposits, design for greater ground shaking. For example, during the 1989 Lorna Prieta earthquake, ground shaking in San Francisco's marina district. on nonengineered fill, was more than twice as violent and lasted more than twice as long as ground shaking on adjacent bedrock sites.
Avoid sites subject to liquefaction (water saturated sandy soils), design foundation systems to withstand ground failure, drain water from the site, and change the composition of the soil and compact the site.
UNSTABLE SITES
SUBSIDENCE OR LIQUEFACTION
NOTE
Richard Eisner, FAIA; Governor's Office of Emergency Services; Oakland, California
SEISMIC DESIGN
REVITALIZED URM BLOCK
SAFE AREAS OF REFUGE IN OLDER BUILDINGS
Building Configuration for Seismic Areas The seismic-resistant framing system selected for a structure must meet both architectural and seismic design requirements. Although most buildings can be made seismic resistant, some architectural configurations interrupt the load path or otherwise interfere with the seismic design process. Inappropriate design choices increase construction cost and make the seismic restraint system less effective. The examples on this page contrast configurations that probably would cause problems in areas with high levels of seismicity with variations that should avoid these problems.
LOAD PATHS A load path is the path seismic forces take from the roof to the foundation of a structure. Typically the load travels from the diaphragms through connections to the vertical lateral force-resisting elements and on to the foundation by way of additional connections. This path should be direct and uninterrupted. Seismic design begins with, and codes require, the establishment of a continuous load path.
SYMMETRICAL
~ RESiSTANCE
~
39
n
UNBALANCED RESISTANCE BUILDING TWIST
I 1I: I r~J U FORCE
FORCE
PREFERRED
DiSCOURAGED
NOTE
The lateral force resisting system for a symmetrical building is much easier to design than that for an asymmetrical buildinq. Because the source of an earthquake cannot be known, symmetry in both directions should be considered.
LOWER FLOOR STRENGTH MUST BE AT LEAST 80% OF FLOOR ABOVE
TORSION IN PLAN
L
PREFERRED
DISCOURAGED
PREFERRED
PREFERRED
This is a variation of the symmetry issue. When the notch gets too big, the bulding tends to tear at the inside corner.
NOTE
NOTE
The base should not be too much larger than the tower above.
While it is best to have uniform stiffness. some variation is acceptable.
RE-ENTRANT CORNERS
c:=J c:=J c:=J c:=J
VERTICAL GEOMETRY IRREGULARITY TOTAL OPEN AREA LESS THAN ONE HALF OF PLAN AREA
ROOF NOT CONSIDERED -
V
c=J c=J
50% GREATER MASS THAN THAT OF
~E6~~'§N~
H-'" II
PREFERRED
[
DiSCOURAGED
NOTE
While all floors do not have to be the same. it is important that no floor has too much more mass than those adjacent.
I
MASS IRREGULARITY
c=J
c=J
c=J
PREFERRED
DiSCOURAGED
.>
NOTE
Horizontal diaphragms (floors and roofs) can more readily transfer earthquake loads to the vertical force resisting
c::=J c::=J c::=J
c=J
n
system when the size and number of holes in the diaphragm are limited.
DIAPHRAGM DJSCONTINUITIES
l7-~~~~~NED
PREFERRED
DISCOURAGED
NOTE SHEAR WALLS LINE UP
SHEAR WALLS OFFSET
When a taller (inherently weaker) first floor is desired, anticipate using much heavier first floor framing to equalize the stiffness with that of the floors above.
SOFT STORY
o
o o o PREFERRED
SHEAR
WALL
WINDOW
DISCOURAGED
NOTE PREFERRED
DISCOURAGED
OUT-OF-PLANE VERTICAL OFFSETS
Although both drawings illustrate shear walls in the same plane, one arrangement is discouraged because the load path is not direct enough.
IN-PLANE DISCONTINUITY
William W. Stewart, FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
40
Seismic Design-General
ESTABLISHING SEISMIC FORCES
ANCHORAGE
--- GLASS
The equivalent lateral force procedure is the most common method at establishing seismic design forces. In it. the seismic load, V (base shear), is determined by multiplying
___ - DIAPHRAGM
the weight of the building by a factor Cs N=CsWl. The
value of C$ depends on the size of the design earthquake. the type of soil. and the response modification factor (a variable corresponding to the type of lateral force resisting system used). This force is applied at the base of the structure then distributed throughout the building according to the mass and strength of the structure.
DESIGN FOR RESISTING SEISMIC FORCES Shear walls are load-bearing or non load-bearing walls that resist seismic forces acting in the plane of the wall. Shear wall design is simpler and more cost-effective than other lateral force resisting systems; however, the architectural design must be able to accommodate the locations of these walls and the small number of openings they permit.
SHEAR WALLS AND DIAPHRAGMS
Diaphragms are horizontal or nearly horizontal structural elements (usually a floor or roof) designed to transmit lateral forces to the vertical elements of a seismic resisting system. Diaphragms must be rigid enough and the connections strong enough to transfer the entire load to the lateral force resisting system.
j
I
Tall, narrow structures tend to tip over before they slide, while short structures slide rather than tip Earthquake waves rock buildings, increasing overturning loads, and can act in any direction. Thus, resistance to overturning is best achieved at a building's perimeter rather than at its core. Building foundations must be designed to resist the lateral forces transmitted through the earth and the forces transmitted from the lateral load resisting system to the earth. In
general. softer soils amplify the effects of an earthquake.
Anchors are either cast-in-place or drilled in after placern of the concrete. When anchors can be precisely locatbefore the concrete is poured, cast-in-place anchors typically used. Post-installed anchors are usually emplovwhen anchor locations cannot be predetermined with au racy. Spacing between anchors, the distance to the edqe the concrete, embedment depth, stiffness characteristic and the type of loading (e.g., dead, live, dynamic, seisn all must be considered. For structural elements that requi seismic design, only anchors tested under dynamic load t should be used. The preferred anchor types for seismic Pi' forma nee include cast-in-place bolts and inserts. Acce» able post-installated anchors are undercut anchors, hea, duty sleeve (torque-controlled expansion) anchors, chemical anchors. .f-bolts and L-bolts cannot be counter: to resist much uplift.
TOOL UNDERCUT
CONCRETE BEFORE BOLT IS PLACED
/
UNDERCUT POST-INSTALLED ANCHOR
OVERTURNING
THREADED CAST-iN-PLACE ANCHOR
SLIDING THREADED ROD
OVERTURNING AND SLIDING BUILDING FRAMES Braced frames depend on diagonal braces to resist lateral forces. Although cost-effective, most braces limit the number of openings possible in a wall, Eccentric bracing is a configuration that allows for more openings than are normally achievable. K-bracing used to be a common variation of X-bracing, but it was discovered that the forces at the intersection are very great, making the connection difficult. A moment frame is one in which members and joints are able to resist lateral forces along the axis of the members as well as by bending. It is an alternative to solid shear walls that allows for openness and design flexibility.
WASHER (OPTIONAL) ~
TRADITIONAL (PREFERRED)
BRACED CONFIGURATIONS
-r-e--r-r-
K BRACE (DISCOURAGED)
ECCENTRIC BRACE
WELD
DDD
WELD
TYPICAL SHEAR ONLY CONNECTiON
TYPICAL MOMENT CONNECTION
~DDD~ PERIMETER CLOSURE
FLOATING STRUCTURAL FLOOR SLAB
CONNECTIONS
A recent variation of base isolation is offered by a family () devices that absorb or dissipate energy and change the response of a structure to seismic activity. These svsternr appear most useful for improving existing structures with out the need for an entirely new structural system.
REFERENCES
in Panel Ceilings. 5700 Old Orchard Ad.. Skokie. IL 60077 National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRpl Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for Nev.
LEAD PLUG --i"",,~'1
'.- . .. -
DOWEL HOLES THROUGH OUTER SHIM
i;j
Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association Recommendations for Direct-Hung Acoustical Tile and Lay
OUTER STEEL SHIMS--t-_
{
DETAIL
BASE ISOLATION
William W. Stewart, FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
When using base isolation, it is important to ensure that th, isolators are the only place where the building touches th, surrounding earth. This is normally accomplished by pos tioning the building in a large scooped out area and can necting it to the surrounding ground with flexible "bridges The base isolators are usually located in a sub-basemen dedicated to their use.
AIA/ACSA Council on Architectural Research. Buildings Risk: Seismic Design Basics for Practicing Architects
WOOD CONNECTIONS Connections are an important element of the lateral force resisting framing system. Wood connections come in a variety of types, many of which are not appropriate for seismic or wind loading conditions. End grain nailing performs poorly and should be avoided, and toe nailing as the sole means of attachment is inadequate. Positive connections using appropriate fasteners are necessary to establish a continuous load path. Shear walls must be fastened securely to the foundation. Diaphragms should be properly attached to the lateral force resisting system. Connector design and detailing should include proper use of connectors to achieve required load capacity and code compliance. Adequate size and placing of nails is necessary to minimize splitting and optimize the load carrying ability of the frame. (See AGS pages on wood seismic design and structural wood fasteners for details.)
BASE ISOLATION Base isolation is a major seismic design innovation. Anerc gous to the suspension of an automobile, isolators separate the building from ground motion. Base isolation is mot cost-effective for buildings in areas of high seismicity, bulle ings that must have an irregular shape, large histor. buildings, and buildings that must remain in operatro immediately after an earthquake.
DDD
COLUMN
~BOLT
\
HEADED CAST-iN-PLACE ANCHORS
(BEAM
BOLT
HEADED BOLT
ANCHORAGE
BRACED FRAMES
~
_~NUT
"
.
.
.
BASEPLATE WITH DOWELS . MORTAR LEVELING PAD ON FOUNDATION
Buildings. t994 ed. Part 1. "Provisions" IFEMA-222A); part 2. "Cornrnentarv" IFEMA-223A). - - . Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of Existinc
Buildings IFEMA-178) and Handbook of Techniques for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings (FEMA-172l.
- - . Non-Technical Explanation of the 1994 NEHAP Rec ommended Provisions IFEMA-99J.
Architectural and Mechanical Components for Seismic Design ADJUSTABLE LENGTH VERTICAL COMPRESSION STRUT TO PREVENT VERTICAL MOVEMENT
GENERAL When detailing architectural and mechanical elements for seismic resistance, the architect's primary concerns are to minimize falling hazards and to maintain a normal egress route. Features such as masonry chimneys, parapets, light fixtures, suspended mechanical equipment, large ductwork, and heavy pipes are potential falling hazards. Cabinets and bookcases can block exits if they fall. An additional concern for architects designing for earthquake-prone areas is the need for a building to remain in operation after an earthquake.
41
12-GAUGE WIRES AT EACH CORNER OR AT LEAST AT DIAGONALLY OPPOSITE CORNERS; ANCHOR WIRE TO STRUCTURE ABOVE (MINIMUM 3 TIGHT TURNS IN 1 1/2" AT EACH END OF WIRE)
Many resources that offer detailed solutions for seismic design only address areas with high seismic activity. However, no ::>ingle detail is appropriate for all areas. This page is meant to guide architects through the philosophy of seismic design. Readers should use the references listed to develop the right solution for a particular site.
To determine seismic forces on architectural components, an importance factor (I) is introduced into the force equation. I is either 1.0 or 1.5. If the component is essential or might create a hazardous condition when falling or breaking, there is a 50% increase in the design load. The lateral force == 1.6 SaS IW. W is the weight of the part. SaS is the spectral acceleration. In reality the force decreases as the location (height) of the component within the building is lowered. A more complicated formula is available if it is necessary to reduce the loads.
NOTE
Provide 4-way diagonal bracing and compression struts approximately every 12 ft each way. . STIFF SPACER. OR OTHER SUITABLE SYSTEM TO KEEP PERIMETER COMPONENTS FROM SPREADING APART WALL CHANNEL CEILING GRID <,
SEISMIC DESIGN CATEGORY FOR STRUCTURES
gr
SEISMIC USE GROUP
VALUE OF SaS
I
II
III
5 aS s 0.167 9 0.167 9 ~ 5 aS < 0.33 9 0.33 9 s 5 aS < 0.50 9 0.50 9 ~ 5 aS <1.0 9 1.0g,;5a5
A B C D E
A B C D E
A C
l
7
/8 " FOR LOW TO MODERATE SEISMIC (2" FOR HIGH SEISMIC)
WALL ATTACHMENT DETAIL
F
NOTE
For ceiling grids, pull-out capacity at the joints is a key to good seismic performance. Vertical (compression) struts prevent failure from wave-like or galloping motion. Solutions for all levels of seismic activity are addressed in the Ceilings and Interior Systems Construction Association standards. .
NOTES
.
3 /8 " FOR LOW TO MODERATE SEISMIC (3 / 4" FOR HIGH SEISMIC)
D D
1. g-weight of object being analyzed; 5. s- spect ral response acceleration 2. Seismic use group classification is assigned to each building depending on the importance of maintaining function or protecting occupant safety. Buildings in setsmic use group 111 are those that are required to function for post earthquake recovery. Seismic use group II buildings are buildings with relatively large occupant loads. Any remaining buildings fall into group l. The level of seismic -detailing is expressed by letters A through F and is based on the relationship between the seismic use group and the level of design ground motion. This level of detailing is known as the seismic design category.
METAL CHANNEL, FASTENED TO STRUCTURE ABOVE, PERMITS PARTITION TO SUDE AT TOP BUT RESTRAINS IT FROM LATERAL MOVEMENT SEALANT REQUIRED FOR ACOUSTIC ISOLATiON
FASTEN BASE TO STRUCTURE
NOTE
This detail must be checked for acceptability when the partition is fire-rated. Partitions that extend to the structure above usually perform well if consideration has been given to potential building racking (i.e.. being forced out of plumb).
~~~r\JION DETAIL FOR SEISMIC
"
" "" Ii
4
FLEXIBLE GAS CONNECTION
LIGHT FIXTURES
I
.
There are two ways to handle light fixtures that could shake free from the ceiling grid and create a falling hazard. One is to suspend the light fixture from the structure above with two to four wires (if two wires, they should be in opposite corners). The second method (not used in areas with high seismicity) is to brace the ceiling and clip the light fixtures to the grid. Pendant-mounted fixtures should be designed so they cannot swing and hit other building components.
H
:i; DISTANCE FROM WALL
CEILING DETAILS FOR SEISMIC AREAS
3 / " X 24-GAUGE 4
PLUMBER'S TAPE
NOTE
Fill space between water heater and wall with 2x blocking with cushioned face.
WATER HEATER SEISMIC REINFORCING
EXTERIOR CLADDING
SHELVING AND CABINETS
Exterior cladding must be secured to the building to prevent it from falling. Heavier veneers require more anchorage, When cladding is anchored to the structural frame, consideration must be given to how movement of the frame will affect movement in the cladding. A major concern is the difference in movement between floors and/or floor and roof (story drift). which is addressed with connections that permit the cladding to move independently of the structural frame. Commonly used are push-pull connections, caulked joints, slip joints, and covers that collapse.
Shelves and racks can overturn during seismic activity, injuring building occupants or blocking exits. The hazard increases with the occupancy density and the height of the equipment. Fixtures should be bolted onto heavy-gauge studs above their center of gravity.
_-.LL~!\~---.l-.L':::::----METAL OR WOOD STUD
LIGHTING FIXTURE DETAIL FOR SEISMIC AREAS
SPRINKLER SYSTEMS To brace sprinkler systems, architects must address three main problems: the falling hazard of heavy mains, separation of the mains at the joints (property loss is critical here), and breaking of the pipes where the heads pass through the ceiling. The la.tter problem is solved by enlarging the hole (with up to 1 In. clearance) and covering it with a large escutcheon plate. An alternative is to detail a swing joint in the sprinkler drop that will provide 1 in. movement in all directions. Another solution is to detail the grid and sprinkler drops as one integral unit. (See NFPA 13 for information on sprinkler bracing,)
WATER HEATERS When a water heater overturns, a gas line can rupture. Depending on the level of seismicity, the common solution for residential water heaters is to use a flexible gas connection and/or a simple steel strap wrapped around the tank and securely anchored to a stud or solid wall.
ELEVATORS Traction elevators cause the most concern in regard to seismic activity. The main problem is that the counterweights may come loose and strike the cab. Current elevator standards address this problem, but older elevators may need to be upgraded.
HVAC, ELECTRICAL, AND PLUMBING COMPONENTS HVAC equipment is often heavy, with large inertial forces; securely attaching such equipment greatly reduces damage. Piping systems generally perform well during seismic activity but are vulnerable at equipment connections. Heavy electrical equipment such as switchgear, transformers, and batteries are the parts of the electrical system most vulnerable to seismic activity. Emergency systems depend on electrical power for fuel or control and so may fail even though the equipment remains functional. Plumbing distribution systems are relatively flexible and can withstand a fair amount of shaking. Piping and equipment should be anchored so it will move with the structure, limiting differential movement at the joints.
William W. Stewart. FAIA; Stewart-Schaberg Architects; Clayton, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
42
Seismic Rehabilitation of BUildings
GENERAL
REHABILITATION STRATEGIES
CODES AND REGULATIONS
The greatest hazard In major earthquakes stems from older buildings that were designed under early seismic codes or before such codes were introduced. Seismic rehabilitation (or seismic retrofit) refers to design and construction intended to improve the seismic performance of an existing building.
Although the unique characteristics of each building must be considered when devising a rehabilitation strategy, some fundamental concepts have been developed from experrence:
At present a general code for seismic rehabilitation of b. ings does not exist. For URM buildings, the City of- I Angeles Section 88 Code may be appropriate; for cert. types of historic URM buildings. the Uniform Code Building Conservation may be used. Following Northridge earthquake. Los Angeles developed criteria rehabilitating tilt-up buildings and nonductile reinforced c. crete frame buildings.
Some cities have established seismic rehabilitation programs to reduce the risk caused by unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings, which are particularly hazardous in earthquakes. The City of Los Angeles, for example, passed an URM ordinance in 1981 that required all of the 8000 URM buildings in the city to be strengthened or demolished. San Francisco has a similar ordinance. Many buildings also have been voluntarily rehabilitated
REHABILITATION PROCESS The first steps in rehabilitation are to identify the seismic deficiencies and determine a method of rehabilitation. Other steps involve bUdgeting, preparing contract documents, and selecting a contractor. EVALUATION PROCEDURES
Two procedures exist for evaluating buildings for seismic rehabilitation. The first, called rapid visual screening (RVS), is used to assess the rehabilitation needs of a number of buildings: a whole city, a few city blocks, a college campus, etc. RVS involves surveying the exterior of a building and recording its major features in a way that allows it to be rated for possible seismic risk. The evaluation takes about 30 minutes per building. The intent is not to provide a definitive seismic rating but rather to indicate which buildings should undergo a more detailed evaluation. This procedure is described in Federal Emergency Management Agency IFEMAI Publication 154.
The second. more detailed seismic evaluation process is described in FEMA Publication 178. The evaluation begins with collecting information about a structure and classifying it according to one of fifteen model building types. This qualitative investigation determines whether the building exhibits any of the defined life-threatening performance characteristics that similar structures have demonstrated in previous earthquakes. If such characteristics are identified, a detailed evaluation is recommended and permissible capacity/demand ratios are suggested. Although the detailed procedure generally takes several days to complete, it provides an evaluation of the building's threat to life and a list of the particular structural and nonstructural features that must be addressed. Another aspect of the evaluation is establishing the benefitcost ratio for seismic rehabilitation. FEMA Publication 227 describes such a procedure and provides computer software to perform the evaluation. HAZARDOUS BUILDING TYPES
Any building may be hazardous in an earthquake if it is not designed according to seismic codes and. perhaps more significant, the designer does not understand or have experience with seismic design. Many old buildings, designed before seismic codes existed. are well designed seismically and have stood the test of time. Other, newer buildings are unsafe because they were designed according to an obsolete code and without an understanding of seismic design issues.
1 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Add strength. Alter building stiffness. Create structural continuity Add structural containment Rationalize existing capacity Isolate the building from the ground. Add energy-dissipating details
In addition to purely structural issues, architectural concerns influence rehabilitation design. For historic buildings, rehabilitation measures must be devised that respect the original architecture, and the addition of external strengthening components is not an option. For other buildings this may not be a concern, and affordable cost, safety, and preservation of building function may be the paramount objectives. FEMA publication 172 provides conceptual design guidance on methods of rehabilitating all 1'5 model building types described in FEMA 178.
The Building Seismic Safety Council/National Earthqua Hazard Reduction Program is developing the first cornp: hensive criteria (available about 1998) for the rehabilitatn of all building types in any geographic region.
D~D D~D II
I
::
I
ADD REINFORCED INFILL WALLS TO INCREASE STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS
Dl8JD Dl8JD UNREINFORCEO MASONRY BEARING WALL
DDDDD DDDDD DDDDD
ADD BRACING TO INCREASE STIFFNESS
ADO BUTTRESSES FOR CONTAINMENT
NON DUCTILE CONCRETE FRAME
A number of typical building types have been identified as hazardous because of their generally poor performance in earthquakes: 1. URMs: bearing wall buildings with unreinforced masonry walls. usually brick. 2. Nonductile concrete frame: typical of buildings constructed in the United States before about 1975, when new codes came into effect that recognized the problems caused by underreintorced concrete frame structures subject to brittle failure. (Ductility refers to the ability of structures. usually steel structures, to deform greatly under load without collapsinq.l 3. Concrete or steel frame with unreinforced masonry walls (often hollow tile): popular for buildings constructed from the early 20th century until World War II. 4. Precast concrete tilt-up construction: common industrial building type that relies on the exterior concrete walls to act as shear walls against earthquake forces. Unless correctly detailed, the roofs are likely to pull away from the walls and collapse during earthquakes.
ADO ENERGY DISSIPATING BRACES TO REDUCE DRIFT AND INCREASE DAMPING
CONCRETE FRAME WITH UNREINFORCEO MASONRY INFILL
PRECAST CONCRETE TILT-UP
BASE ISOLATION TO REDUCE RESPONSE AND AID DAMAGE CONTROL
HAZARDOUS STRUCTURAL TYPES
REHABILITATING A CONCRETE FRAME
Christopher Arnold, FAIA, RI8A, Building Systems Development, lnc.: Palo Alto, California
SEISMIC DESIGN
Seismic-Resistant Design-Masonry lower seismic exposure areas and walls not part of the lateral resisting system (even when other walls are engineered). Buildings that are in higher exposure areas or have walls that are part of the lateral resistance system require engineering design that conforms to local codes.
GENERAL Empirical rules and formulas for the design of masonry structures resulted from the long history of masonry use and thus predate engineering and analysis. Empirical design is a method of sizing and proportioning masonry ~I.ements that depends on centering gravity loads over beanng walls, neglecting the effect of steel reinforcing.
.4
There are specific limits on masonry as to height wind or other horizontal loads. and seismic loads. In many cases, design for wind and industry recommendations for crack control due to shrinkage or expansion may govern building reinforcement in areas with lower seismic activity.
For most masonry work, empirical design is conservative. It is generally appropriate for smaller buildings with i.nterior masonry partitions and stiff floors, as well as buildinqs in
EXPANSION BOLT TO CONCRETE (WELD TO STEEL) 3" X 3" X 15 1 " STEEL ANGL~, CONTINUOUS OR CLIP ANGLE
BONO BEAM AT DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION
SEALANT, OPTIONAL
eMU WALL BONO BEAM NOTCHED TO ALLOW FOR PASSAGE OF #4 BAR
43
NOTE
This detail allows transfer of out-of-plane forces but isolates in-plane forces from the structure.
#4 STEEL REBAR AT BONO BEAM (DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION), CONTINUOUS THROUGH CONTROL JOINTS
#4 STEEL REBAR AT CORNER (OR IN FIRST VOID FROM CORNER, FILLED SOLID WITH GROUT)
MAX. 16" FROM
~9~~6~(OR
CONCRETE (OR STEEL) STRUCTURE
. . (.
.
'" ----'~:!irn~1IIIIIqJ~=~:=S:I:Z'EALLOWS
FOR DEFLECTION OR CREEP
CONTROL JOINT) FLEXIBLE SEALANT WITH BACKER ROO
W1_7 STEEL WALL REINFORCING AT 16" O.C., VERTICAL
COMPRESSIBLE FILLER
BOND BEAM LQCATEDTO ALLOW FOR CAVITY GROUTING ACCESSIBILITY
16" D.C.
NONBEARING WALL ISOLATION DETAILS REBARS SET INTO FOUNDATION
SHEAR WALL SPACING RATIO-EMPIRICAL DESIGN
I
Bearing walls
Solid units Fully grouted Others
Nonbearing walls
Exterior Interior
NOTE
Standard construction practice tor masonry crack control requires Wl.7 at 16 in. o.c., which would cover seismic
requirements as well. W1. 7 steel reinforcement at 8 in. o.c. should be used in parapet locations.
WALL REINFORCING FOR MASONRY WALL (EMPIRICAL DESIGN FOR MODERATE SEISMIC AREAS)
I/t < 20 I/t < 20 I/t < 18 I/t < 18 I/t < 36
I-wall length; t-wall thickness
METAL SCREEN OR MESH TO RESTRICT GROUT FLOW
PRIMARY CMU WALL
EMBED BENT ENOS IN GROUTED CELLS
30" MIN
_ - - - - SECONDARY eMU WALL
NOTE
Preformed, hot-dipped galvanized tees (Wl.7 wire at 8 in. o.c., vertical for bearing; 16 in. o.c. tor nonbearing) are used for reinforcing intersecting walls.
INTERSECTING WALL DETAIL
INTERSECTING WALL REINFORCING
Edgar Glock, Masonry Institute of St. Louis; St. Louis. Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
44
Seismic-Resistant Design-Masonry WOOD TRUSS AT 24" O.C
GROUT CELL AT ANCHOR ONLY 1/2" HEADED BOLT AT MAX. 6'·0" D.C
G ROUT CELL AT
DOWEL ONLY 1" X 12" STEEL STRAP, EACH TRUSS
#13 DOWEL AT 16" o.c. (TURN DOWN 16" INTO
PRESSURETREATED WOOD PLATE
II
c!.L!?
BONO BEAM)
'/2" DiAMETER HEADED BOLT AT 6'-0" O.C
FLOOR JOIST PARALLEL TO WALL 16" D.C ~
CONTINUOUS BOND BEAM. GROUT SOUD
Ll
---------
CONTINUOUS BOND BEAM WITH #4 REBAR5
CMU WALL
CONCRETE ON METAL DECK
_ - - - - eMU WALL WOOD TRUSS AT 24" O.C
THROUGH WALL REINFORCING
(Wl.7.16"O.C .. VERTICAL)
NOTE
Anchors should also be placed at cross-bracing for joists.
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR WOOD JOIST/RAFTER PARALLEL TO WALL GROUT CELL AT
o
4" X 4" X 15/ 16" CONTINUOUS STEEL ANGLE (ANCHOR WITH EXPANSION BOLT)
3" X 3" X 3/ 16" STEEL ANGLE AT48 O.C M
CONTINUOUS BOND BEAM (GROUT SOLID)
PRESSURE TREATED WOOD PLATE
ANCHOR ONLY
1/2" HEADED BOLT AT MAX. 6'-0" o.c. (OR l,Z" THREADED
1/ 2" DIAMETER HEADED BOLT AT 6'-0" o.c
CMU WALL
ROO HOOKED TO
BAR)
METAL JOIST
HANGER
THROUGH WALL REINFORCING (W1.7, 16" O.C .. VERTICAL)
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR STEEL JOISTS PARALLEL TO WALL
CONTINUOUS BOND BEAM. ,GROUT SOLID
NOTE CMU WALL
For moderate seismic areas
ROOF TIE DETAILS FOR MODERATE SEISMIC AREAS
FLOOR JOIST OR
RAFTER PERPENDICULAR TO WALL 16" D.C.
3" LEDGER CONTINUOUS BONO BEAM WITH #4 ROO
AS ALTERNATE TO BRACE, USE #4 STEEL REBAR AT 48" O.C: CAVITIES FILLED WITH GROUT
CONCRETE ON METAL DECK C]
l*==q~-----THROUGH WALL REINFORCING (WT.7, 16" a.c .. VERTICAL)
:' I" I II
~USEBRACE
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR WOOD JOIST/RAFTER PERPENDICULAR TO WALL
IF HfT > 3
-, -, -.(
H
-, "
ROOF STRUCTURE
"
-,
GROUT CELL AT
-,
ANCHOR ONLY I "I II
-,
-,
-,
..:L__ jJ~Et:l;;3;:EI1~~ '1 "' I
~f::=~:f============
BEARING PLATE WITH #13 HOOK TO BAR
JOIST/RAFTER PARALLEL OR PERPENDICULAR TO WALL
"
CONTINUOUS BONO BEAM (GROUT SOLID)
1/2" DIAMETER THREADED ROO, HOOKED TO BOND
BEAM REBAR CONTINUOUS BONO BEAM THROUGH WALL REINFORCING (W1.7, 16" D.C. VERTICAL)
ALTERNATE DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR WOOD JOIST/ RAFTER
Edgar Glock. Masonry Institute of St. Louis; St. Louis, Missouri
SEISMIC DESIGN
STEEL JOIST
NOTE
THROUGH WALL REINFORCING (WI.7, 16" O.C., VERTICAL)
Empirical design for masonry parapets should be used only in areas with low seismicity, Engineering analysis is required when the heiqht-to-thickness ratio of three-to--one is exceeded and in areas of higher seismicity,
DIAPHRAGM CONNECTION FOR STEEL JOISTS PERPENDICULAR TO WALL
MASONRY PARAPET DETAIL FOR SEISMIC AREAS
Seismic-Resistant Design-Wood Framing GENERAL
ROOF DIAPHRAGM
Wood frame structures with a variety of solid wood and engineered wood products can be designed to resist seismic forces using many of the same principles used to resist
CEILING DIAPHRAGM
wind forces. Wind-resistant design involves resolving loads assumed to be applied to the structure in one direction for a short time (monotonic loads). Wind load can induce shear that is both perpendicular and parallel with the structure. resulting in an overturning motion as well as uplift on the structure. Seismic loads, on the other hand. are cyclical. moving in different directions over a short period.
- - - - - ROOF-TO-WALL ANCHORAGE
WALL DIAPHRAGM
Seismic loading conditions on conventional construction are referenced in four main sources, which also provide information about the capacity of various materials: American Society of Civil Engineers 7-95, Section A9.9.10; the Building Code, Section 2326; the Standard Building Code, Sections 2308.2.2 and 2310; and the National Building Code, Section 2305.8. In general, these provisions are limited to buildings with bearing walls not exceeding 10ft in height and gravity dead loads not exceeding 15 psf for floors and exterior walls and 10 psf for floors and partitions. Sheathing for braced walls must be at least 48 in. wide over studs spaced not more than 24 in. o.c
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
WALL-TO-FLOORTO-WALL ANCHORAGE
Wood construction standards for all seismic areas include the following: wall anchorage must use a minimum of t o.c., maximum. Walls must be capped with double top plates, Uniform with end joints offset by at least 4 ft. Bottom plates must be 11 /.} in. thick (2 in. nominal) and at least the width of the studs.
WALL DIAPHRAGM
Forces must be transferred from the roof and tloorts) to braced walls and from the braced walls in upper stories to the braced walls in the story below, then into the foundation . Transfer must be accomplished with toe nails using three 8d nails per joist or rafter where not more than 2 ft o.c. or with metal framing devices capable of transmitting the lateral force. Roof to wall connections must be made at the exterior walls when the building is 50 ft or less in length. A combination of exterior and interior bearing walls is necessary when the building length exceeds 50 ft.
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM
FLOOR-TOFOUNDATION ANCHORAGE
NOTES
1. Diaphragms (the roof, tloorts}. and shear panels in walls) must be designed to resist forces created by the dead load mass of the structure and applied seismic loads. In wood frame construction, a diaphragm is typically a structural "panel" made of a skin (sheathing) stretched over and fastened to ribs (wood members such as 2x4s) The resulting construction is stiff and strong enough to transmit forces to resisting systems such as the foundation. Connections must be designed to transfer lateral forces and restrain overturning motion. Lateral forces can be either perpendicular or parallel to the structure. The load from each part of a building that is created as the buildinq shifts from the movement of the earth must be transferred to adjoining elements (roof sheathing to rafters to top plates to wall sheathing and studs to bottom plates to floor sheathing and framing and so on, until the lowest level of floor framing, from which the load moves to the foundation; in slab-on-grade construction, the load moves finally from the wall sheathing and studs to the bottom platesl. 2. The roof diaphragm comprises roof sheathing, roof framing (rafters, top chord of truss, etc.), and blocking. 3. The ceiling diaphragm comprises ceiling finish material (for example, gypsum wallboard) and ceiling framing ijoists, lower chord of trusses, etc). 4. Roof-to-wall anchorage consists of hold-down anchors to resist uplift forces and nailing to resist shear forces 5. The wall diaphragm comprises wall sheathing, wall framing, and sheathing fasteners. 6. The floor diaphragm comprises floor sheathing, floor framing (joists, trusses, etc.), blocking, etc. 7. Wall-to-floor-to-wall anchorage consists of hold-down anchors and shear connectors (for example, nails). 8. Hoor-to-toundaticn anchorage consists of hold-down anchors to resist overturning forces and anchor bolts (1/2 in. diameter at 6 ft o.c.) to resist shear forces.
TYPICAL WALL SECTION FOR CONVENTIONAL WOOD FRAMING
Connections designed for both lateral and vertical (uplift or overturning) loads must be used in conventional wood frame structures designed for seismic areas, Traditional nailing schedules are often adequate to handle lateral forces. Vertical forces can be addressed by lapping structural sheathing and/or strapping the roof, walls, and floors together at appropriate intervals. In addition, the overturning loads in walls must be restrained by anchoring the ends of the shear panels (whether traditional or perforated) to the structural wall below. Nontraditional materials such as LVL, I joists, and structural composite lumber can be used in seismic design; the capacities and applicable connection types of these products are available from the manufacturers.
45
I
SPACING FOR BLOCKED DIAPHRAGM*
BRACED WALL SPACING
BOUNDARY PANELS (IN.)
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY
OTHER PANELS (IN.)
CAPACITIES (LB/FT)
6 4
6 6
320 425
2'/,
4
640
2
3
730
* 15/ 32-in. panel sheathing; 10d nails into 2X framing (Douglas fir, larch, southern pine).
DISTANCE BETWEEN BRACED WALLS
MAXIMUM NUMBER OF STORIES
A
35 ft
3
B
35 ft
3
C
25ft
2
0
25ft
l'
"Two stories for detached one- and two-family dwellings
BOUNDARY PANELS, TYP
NOTE NOTES
Each diaphragm in a building must resist the seismic effects in both directions of all the mass above it as well as of its own mass. The seismic loads caused by the roof mass must be transferred to the wall, and the wall must be designed to resist both the effect of the mass of the roof and the mass of the wall. These combined loads must then be transferred to the floor below, which must be designed to resist the effect of both its mass and the load applied by the wall above. In turn, walls below must resist these loads, until the force reaches the foundation, which must be able to resist the combined loads from the rest of the building.
1. Use 15/ 32 in. sheathing for the outside of shear panels, with 10d nails in 2x framing. 2. Capacities are based on structural I panels of Douglas fir, larch, or southern pine. For additional thicknesses or alternative wood species, consult the American Plywood Association. 3. The aspect ratio (the ratio of the longer dimension to the shorter) of a floor or roof diaphragm is limited to LiL 1 ::;; 4. Openings in the diaphragm are limited to either 12 ft or half the length of the diaphragm, whichever is smaller.
The bracing element is typically a shear panel that is anchored against both shear and overturning
SEISMIC LOAD TRANSFER
FLOOR AND ROOF DIAPHRAGM
BRACED WALL SPACING
NOTE
David S. Collins, FAIA; American Forest & Paper Association; Cincinnati, Ohio
SEISMIC DESIGN
46
Seismic-Resistant Design-Wood Framing
4'-0" TOP PLATE JOINT OFFSET,
TYP
i H
{)C,,"
~
PANEL
TYP
~HOLD-DOWNS
LOCATION OF HOLD-DOWNS (AT EACH END OF SHEAR PANELS, TYP.)
AT END OF WALL
NOTES
1. In traditional shear wall design, parts of the wall that are sheathed from top to bottom without openings are considered individually as shear panels. Hold-down anchors are required at both ends of each of these panels. Each segment must be restrained against the overturning motion and the shear to which it will be exposed. 2. The capacity of a traditional shear wall is the sum of the capacities of the individual shear waH segments, which are determined by multiplying the length of each segment by the capacity of the sheathing (IMin. ft). Example: Use 15/ 32 in. sheathing for the outside of the shear panel, with 10d nails spaced 6 in. o.c. for 280 IMin. ft. The capacity of this shear wall would be equal to 280 x (A + B + C); 280 x H = uplift (hold-down capacity).
1. For perforated shear walls, the whole wall is considered as a single shear panel without regard to wall openings. Hold-down anchors are required only at the ends of the wall. To determine the capacity of the wall, the lengths of the full-height sheathed areas are added together and the sum multiplied by the capacity of the sheathing. 2. Perforated shear walls may require higher capacity sheathing than traditional shear walls to compensate for the lack of intermediate hold-down anchors. 3. The sheathed walls above and below the openings in a perforated shear wall increase the capacity of the wall The capacity of the shear wall must be adjusted by a factor derived from two variables: the maximum opening height and the percentage of full-height sheathing on the shear panel. In the following example, a factor of 0.49 is applied. The Wood Frame Construction Manual gives more examples. Example: Use 15132 in. sheathing for the outside of the shear panel, with 10d nails spaced 6 in O.C. for 280 Ibmn. ft. Shear = 280 x (A + B + C) x 0.49; 280 x 8 = 2240 Ib uplift (hold-down capacity).
TRADITIONAL SHEAR WALLS
PERFORATED SHEAR WALLS
~f>?£,,,SJ.~~ MAX.
4' X S' MIN. SHEAR PANEL
~it1:'c~t~'E,A6~~g,t~NT~L,
STUDS BOTH SIDES
NOTES 1. Shear panels that consist of framing members and sheathing panel(s) or diagonal sheathing members provide the principal lateral resistance to shear loads. Sheathing panels are made of plywood and aSB (for structural panels), gypsum sheathing, or fiberboard. Diagonal wood sheathing boards or strapping can also be used. The shear capacity of the material depends on the quality of the framing and sheathing materials and on the connections. Building codes require a minimum aspect ratio of H/L,; 2 or 3'1, for the panel. Sheathing both sides with the same material doubles the capacity of the shear panel. Tests have shown that sheathing each side with a different material adds capacity, although this concept is not accepted by all codes. 2. Use 10d nails at all edges and in field (center area) as follows: for edge nailing, 6 in. o.c. for 280 1!Jllin. ft; 4 in. o.c. for 430 Ibn,n. ft; 3 m o.c for 550 Ibnin. ft; 2 in. o.c. for 730 lbllin. tt: and 12 in. o.c. for field nailing. 3. This drawing is based on use of structural I panels of Douglas fir, larch, or southern pine. For additional thicknesses or alternative wood species, consult the American Plywood Association.
WOOD WALL SHEAR PANEL
NOTES
MINIMUM LENGTH OF BRACED WALL STORY
SHEATHING TYPE*
LOW RISK
Top or only
G-P
8'-0'
Story below top
SW G-P
4'-0' 12'-0' 8'-0'
Bottom of 3 stories
SW G-P
16'-0'
SW
8'-0'
HIGH RISK 12'-0' 8'-0'
16'-0' 8'-0'
16'-0' 8'-0'
20'-0'
20'-0' 12'-0'
12'-0'
29'-0'
Not permitted as conventional
• G-P---gypsum; SW-structural wood
LUMBER DESIGN VALUES FOR SEISMIC CONDITIONS ADJUSTMENT FACTORS DESIGN VALUE* Fb
F.
2x8
SIZE
REPETITIVE MEMBER 1.15
LOAD 1.6
Douglas fir-larch no. 2; 875 psi SPF no. l/no. 2; 875 psi Southern pine no. 2; 1200 psi
1.2 Fb-l050
1210 1210 1380
1930 1930
1930 1930
2210
2210 150
Douglas fir-larch no. 2; 95 psi
1.2 Fb-l050
-
-
SPF no. 1/no.2; 70 psi F"
Southern pine no. 2; 90 psi Douglas fir-larch no. 2: 625 psi
Fell
SPF no. l/no. 2; 425 psi Southern pine no. 2; 565 psi Douglas fir-larch no. 2; 1300 psi SPF no. l/no. 2; 1100 psi Southern pine no. 2; 1550 psi
* Additional design values for other species and grades of lumber can be obtained from the Supplement to the AF&PA National Design Specification. NOTE Design values for traditional solid wood products and connections are available in the American Forest and Paper
1.05 F,,=1560 1.05 F,,,-1320
-
Association's National Desiqn Specification. The values published for wood products must be adjusted by various factors, including size (except for southern pine), to determine the appropriate design values for a particular application. Repetitive members, consisting of three members spaced not more than 2 ft o.c. and sharing a load, must be increased by a factor of 1.15, while the adjustment for
David S. Collins. FAIA; American Forest & Paper Association; Cincinnati, Ohio
SEISMIC DESIGN
-
150 110
ADJUSTED DESIGN VALUE (PSI)
110
145
145
-
625 425 565
2185 1850 2480
2185 1850 2480
seismic and Wind conditions IS a factor of 1.6. These factors are applicable only to solid wood products and glued laminated timbers. Connections have similar adjustment factors.
Lighting Design GENERAL
47
LIGHT SOURCE SELECTION GUIDE
I
Lighting design involves selecting lighting fixtures (luminaires) and determining their locations and control devices to realize the desired effects. Basic lighting designs are fairly generic and require but a modest level of effort to achieve a workable result. Attractive and/or complex lighting designs, on the other hand, can require significantly more design work and detail in specifying products and locations. Typical steps in the process are these:
<2500 2700-3000
1. Establish project criteria: Determine the quantity and quality of illumination, color of light, and luminairs type (style, appearance) wanted. Check applicable codes and standards, and find out the cost and power limits. 2. Create design concepts: Select the types of luminaires to be used, outline desired controls, and propose locations. Test cost and power budgets. 3. Refine the design: Make calculations and adjustments, sketch details, draft specifications, and coordinate mechanical and structural work. 4. Prepare working drawings: Draw lighting plans, make fixture schedules, and plan layout and circuit controls. . Determine emergency, life safety, and egress lighting.
APPLICATIONS
Bulk industrial and security (HPSllighting Low light levels in most spaces «10 FC); general residential lighting; hotels, tine dining and family restaurants, theme parks
2950--3200
Display lighting for retail and galleries; feature lighting
350Q--4100
General lighting in offices, schools, stores, industry, medicine; display lighting; sports lighting
4100--5000
Special application lighting when color discrimination is very important; not commonly used for general lighting
5000-7500
Special application lighting when color discrimination is critical; uncommon for general lighting
MINIMUM LAMP CRI' <50
Noncritical industrial. storage, and security lighting
50-70
Industrial and general illumination when color is not important
70--79
Most office, retail, school. medical, and other work and recreational spaces
80-89
Retail, work, and residential spaces when color quality is important
90-100
Retail and work spaces when color rendering is critical
CCT-correlated color temperature 2 CRI-eolor rendering index 1
As with all creative processes, it is not unusual to repeat steps until an acceptable result is achieved. With increasing enforcement of energy codes, traditional designs (especially those using incandescent lighting) will not meet energy code requirements. Reiterations involving different light sources or luminaires will often be necessary.
PRECISE WORKING AREA (CATEGORY "E": 50 TO 100 FC)
READING AREA (CATEGORY"C" 10 TO 20 Fe)
SETTING DESIGN CRITERIA Lighting design requires the definition of the following criteria for each application: quantity of illumination, quality of illumination, color of light. and suitable luminaire styles.
I
QUANTITY OF ILLUMINATION
I
Standards for illumination are set by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America IIESNA). Illumination is generally measured in the horizontal plane 30 in. above the floor. The units of illumination are footcandles (lumens per square foot) and lux (lumens per square meter). IESNA-recommended levels are summarized on the following page (Lighting and Lighting Systemsl-more detailed and specific information is given in the IESNA Lighting Handbook and in other IESNA publications. Specific lighting levels may be set by codes, such as life safety codes and health codes. For instance, NFPA 101 (National Fire Protection Association Life Safety Standard) recommends an average illumination of 1 footcandle (10 lux) along a.path of emergency egress with an emergency power source. Some owners establish their own lighting level requirements for specific areas. Choosing lighting levels involves thoughtful application of IESNA recommendations to meet the goals of the project. Too much light will lead to excessive energy use and failure to meet energy code limits. Use of high lighting levels (more than 200 footcandlesl is rare and usually is associated with special purpose lighting systems like surgical lights. The IESNA recommends exterior lighting levels for specific applications such as street lighting, sports lighting, and parking lot lighting. Although the IESNA makes some recommendations for exterior lighting applications that are more artistic, such as building facades or statuary, most of these are left to the designer's discretion. The uniformity of lighting levels is also subject to IESNA recommendations. For interior lighting, IESNA generally recommends the following ratios of illumination for comfort: 1. Task proper: 100%. 2. Immediate surround: 33-100%. 3. Distant surround: 10-100%. When light is designed to maintain these relationships, the human eye continually adapts to the light level and responds quickly to visual stimulus. However, visual interest is caused by contrast in which ratios between task and surround might be 100: 1 or even greater. This is one of the greatest paradoxes of lighting design: The most appealing visual scenes are often uncomfortable.
---l
I
[OJ
I
D
I
I
I
L
I I
D
I I I I
I I I I I I
WAITING AREA
D
_ J
GENERAL OFFICE FUNCTION AREA (CATEGORY "8": 5 TO 10 FC> ----
I
L:-----------H
I
GENERAL OFFICE WORKING AREA (CATEGORY "0" 20 TO 50 Fe)
LOBBY
NOTE
In this example, choosing the proper amount of light in each area not only meets visual needs but consumes only the minimum necessary energy. Use the high end of the
light level ranges for older people, where finishes are especially dark, or where the work is particularly important or requires great speed.
1,IGHTING LEVELS FOR TYPICAL OFFICE RECEPTION AREA QUALITY OF ILLUMINATION
SUITABLE LUMINAIRE STYLES
Quality of illumination remains largely an aesthetic issue. However, a number of specific quality issues can be addressed objectively:
Many design problems have reasonably obvious solutions determined by a combination of budget, energy code, and industry standards. For instance, most office lighting designs utilize recessed troffers because they are costeffective and energy-efficient and they meet the standard expectations of owners and tenants. Choices among troffers require further consideration, although at that point style is a lesser issue.
1. Eliminate flicker: Light sources should minimize or eliminate flicker caused by AC power or other influences. 2. Eliminate or minimize glare: Shield lamps from view. Minimize very bright and very dark surfaces. Illuminate walls and ceilings. 3. Use light sources with good color rendering: Halogen, high CRI (color rendering index) full size and compact fluorescent, and high CRI metal halide and white HPS lamps should be used whenever possible. COLOR OF LIGHT
Both the correlated color temperature (CCT) and color rendering index (CRO for light sources should be used in choosing light sources. In general, try to match CCT when mixing sources, such as halogen and fluorescent.
Some situations call for uncommon or creative designs. In these cases, the distribution of the luminaire and its physical appearance become critical. In particular, luminaires that enhance the architecture are desired for residences, hotels, restaurants, and other nonwork spaces. Decorative styles range from contemporary to very traditional; lamp options may permit a choice between incandescent and more energy-efficient light sources, such as compact fluorescent or low watt high-intensity discharge (HID) luminaires. In fact. energy-efficient decorative lighting fixtures, both interior and exterior, are one of the fastest growing parts of the lighting fixture industry as the market for attractive luminaires that comply with energy codes grows.
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
48
lighting and lighting Systems ILLUMINANCE VALUES FOR
GENERAL Most b~ildings are equipped with electric .49htj~g syste~s for interior uses. Early In the history of Ilghtln!":1. l!h.~mJnatlon systems were desiqned for minimum use of mtenor space at night. Today, however, electric illumination systems generally are designed to be used in place of natural light
VARIOUS INDOOR ACTIVITIES RANGES OF ILLUMINANCE
ILLUMINANCE CATEGORY
TYPES OF ACTIVITY
FOOTCANDLES
LUX
Public spaces with dark surroundings
A
20-30-50
2-3-5
Simple orientation for short, temporary visits
B
5075-100
5-7.5-10
FUNCTIONS OF LIGHTING
Working spaces used only occasionally for visual tasks
C
100-150-200
101520
Light is one of many tools available to help in space design, In the beginning of any project, it is wise to recall the functions of lighting and to be certain each has been examined:
Performance of visual tasks of high contrast or large size
0
200-300-500
20-30-50
Performance of visual tasks of medium contrast or small size
E
500 750-1000
50-75-100
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast or small size
F
t 000- 1500-2000
100-150-200
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast and very small size over a prolonged period
G
2000-3000-5000
200-300-500
Performance of very prolonged and exacting visual tasks
H
5000-7500-10000
50G-750-1000
Performance of very special visual tasks of extremely low contrast and small size
I
10000-15000-20000
1000-1500-2000
Performance of tasks: Lighting to perform work, whether it is reading, assembling parts, or seeing a blackboard, is referred to as task lighting. Visual work is a primary reason for providing lighting. Enhancement of space and structure: It is only through the- presence of light that spatial volume, planes, ornament, and color are revealed. For centuries, structural systems evolved partly in response to aesthetic as well as functional desires for light of a certain quality. The progress from bearing wall to curtain wall was driven by the push of newly discovered technologies (both in materials and in technique), by evolving cultural desires for certain spatial characteristics, and by a desire to admit light of a particular quality. These developments are reflected in the Gothic church window, the baroque oculus, and the Bauhaus wall of glass. With the advent of electric lighting systems, this connection of structure to light was no longer entirely necessary, but most architects continue to pay homage to this historical tie. 3. Focusing attention: The quality of light in a space profoundly affects people's perception of that space. The timing and the direction of an individual's gaze are often a function of the varying quality and distribution of light through the space. Lighting draws attention to points of interest and helps guide the user of a space.
4. Provision of security: Lighting can enhance visibility and thereby engender a sense of security. Lighting can also be used to illuminate hazards, such as a changing floor plane or moving objects.
PORTABLE LUMINAIRE (LAMP): a luminalre equipped with a cord and plug and designed to be moved from space to space. LIGHTING FIXTURE: a luminaire that is permanently attached ("hard wired") to a building LIGHTING SYSTEM: the lighting fixtures in a building, sometimes including portable lights, subdivided into smaller systems (e.g., the lighting system in a room or aU luminaires of a particular type In a room or building). ILLUMINANCE: the measure of light striking a surface, in footcandles (lumens per square meter). Illuminance can be measured and predicted using calculations; also illumination.
~O" <,
General lighting throughout spaces
Illuminance on task
-
Illuminance on task, provided by a comb ination of general and local (supplementaryl lighting
NOTE Standards for lighting and illurrunation in North America are established by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. IESNA recommendations are summarized in the
IESNA Lighting Handbook, 8th edition, from which this table is taken.
LAMP: the electric bulb or tube within a luminaire.
its lumens downward will have a higher CU (room cavity ratio and reflectance values being equal) than one that distributes light in any other direction. A higher CU is not necessarily a virtue; it only ranks fixtures according to their ability to provide horizontal illuminance.
PHOTOMETRY: the measure respect to a luminaire.
of light, especially with
PHOTOMETRIC REPORT: a written report that describes the manner in which light is emitted from a lurninaire, presented in an industry standard format. ENERGY EFFICIENCY, the measure of how a lighting system compares to standards, in the context of building size and function.
BASIC LIGHTING TERMS LUMINAIRE: a structure that holds an electric lamp and its socket, wiring, and auxiliaries, such as ballasts.
REFERENCE WORK PLANE
LUMEN METHOD Lighting design involves determining how many luminaires are needed for a particular application and where to locate them. The most accurate means of determining illumination performance is by computer; a number of point-by-point lighting programs are available with DXF and DWG file interfaces and other features. (See the annual computer issue of Lighting Design and Application, an IESNA publication. for a current list of commercially available proprarns.I It is also possible to estimate illumination results from a proposed lighting design using the lumen method and photometric reportts) from candidate luminaires. The lumen method, also known as the zonal cavity system, is a calculation method that can be used to determine the horizontal illuminance that will result from a proposed lighting fixture selection and layout or the number of fixtures required by a proposed fixture selection and its horizontal illuminance value.
The lumen method/zonal cavity system is limited by the following: 1. It is based on a single number, average value. 2. It assumes a uniform array of lighting fixtures. 3. It assumes all room surfaces have a matte (lambertian) finish. 4. It assumes the room is devoid of obstruction, at least down to the level of the work plane. The light loss factor (LLF) is used to calculate the Hlumi nance of a lighting system at a specific point in time under given conditions. It incorporates variations from test condi tions in temperature and voltage, dirt accumulation on lighting fixtures and room surfaces, lamp lumen output depreciation, maintenance procedures (mainly frequency of cleaning), and atmospheric conditions. The LLF is also known as the maintenance factor. Tc use a CU table, assumptions must first be made about the reflectance of major room surfaces. Then the room cavitv ratio (RCR) can be determined according to one of the following formulas: For rectangular rooms: RCR which H is the cavity height
~
15 x H(L + Will (L x WI.
For odd-shaped rooms: RCR = 2.5 wall arealfloor area
The lumen method is based on the definition of average footcandles over an area. The method modifies the fundamental equation of 1 fc = 1 lumen/sq ft to account for room size and proportion; reflectance from walls, ceiling, and floors; fixture efficiency; and reduction in output over time due to dirt accumulation, deterioration of reflecting surfaces, and reduction of lumen output.
~ JiUGHT
FIXTURE
j
~
The lumen method requires the following information:
H
/
\
I
\ O'
35"
NOTE Fixture manufacturers have developed luminaires (mostly fluorescent) that produce a light distribution that tends to reduce direct glare and veiling reflections if used in large, uniform arrays and typical open office geometries. This distribution pattern is called batwing. LUMINAIRE LIGHT DISTRIBUTION PATTERN
1. Room dimensions (to compute wall area and floor area) 2. Height of fixtures above work plane 3. Reflectance levels of major surfaces (ceiling, walls, floor) 4. An estimate of the light loss factor (LLF) 5. Initial lamp lumens 6. A target illuminance level The coefficient of utilization (CU) is the percentage of total lamp lumens that reaches the work plane. As such, it has nothing to do with the intensity of the fixture but rather with the efficiency of the fixture (lumens emitted from the fixture divided by lamp lumens and the direction of the lamp output-this direction of output is graphically represented by the candlepower distribution curve). For purposes of this procedure, the plane of interest is invariably a horizontal plane (typically either the floor or desk level). therefore a fixture that throws the greatest percentage of
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado Robert Prouse, IALD, IES; H.M. Brandston & Partners, Inc., New York, New York
LIGHTING DESIGN
H
H jPOTENTIAL
H
WORK PLANES OF INTEREST
NOTE Anyone of these dimensions may be the cavity height (Hl. which is the distance from the light fixture to the work plane of interest. CAVITY HEIGHT DIAGRAM
Energy Efficiency in Lighting Design
49
GENERAL
COMPLIANCE STRATEGY
TRADEOFFS
Lighting can be desiqned both ~o use minimum energy and to realize environmental benefits such as reduced air and groundwater pollution. Electric light sources more efficacious than traditional incandescent lamps have been developed to. meet most lighting needs. The key to achiavinq efficient design is knowing how and when to choose efficient sources, luminaires, and controls.
To realize design compliance with local energy codes without significant redesign, observe the followinq process:
Energy codes do not regulate lighting design or the amount of lighting in a particular space. For instance, a designer could slightly reduce the lighting loads throughout an office building by using efficient lighting equipment. With the energy saved, an important space like the main lobby could be illuminated in a less efficient manner, such as with incandescent chandeliers, and the project would stilt comply with the energy code.
1. Choose a general lighting system that uses one of these sources: fluorescent T-8 with electronic ballasts, highwattage compact fluorescent with electronic ballast. or metal halide or HPS (high-pressure sodium). 2. Make certain the lurninaire and room are reasonably efficient. Use direct lighting for tasks whenever possible, and make room finishes light. especially ceilings. 3. Design to just barely meet IESNA recommendations for each space. 4. For downlighting, wall washing" and other traditional incandescent applications, use compact fluorescent or HID (high-intensity discharge) sources. 5. Minimize the amount of track lighting by using recessed fixtures or rnonoooints when 'possible. 6. Use incandescent and halogen sources sparingly, confining them to necessary decorative lighting. 7. Add advanced controls such as motion sensors and daylighting dimming. These allow the reduction of actual lighting watts and can help bring a design into compliance with energy efficiency requirements.
CODES The U.S. Energy Policy Act 01 1992 requires states to develop codes that require efficiency in lighting design. Each code must meet or exceed the requirements of ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989. In 1996, although in many states compliance was mandatory and enforced. some states had yet to adopt such a code, while others had not yet begun enforcement. For federal government buildings. a version of 90.1 with more stringent values was in force. Progress toward regulating energy efficiency in Canada was similar. All codes presently calculate allowed watts based on building type and area. Codes generally determine allowed interior lighting watts in one of three wavs-s-roorn by room, by area (groups of rooms), or for the entire building:
1. Room by room: Determine the specific use of each room and its net area. Multiply the area 01 each room by the allowed power density (watts/sq It) adjusted lor the room cavity ratio (RCRI. Add the wattage lor all rooms together. 2. Area: Determine the use of major portions of a building or renovation and the gross lighted area of each. Multiply the gross lighted area by the allowed power density (watts!sq It) lor each group 01 rooms by type. Add the figures for all areas together. 3. Whole building: Determine the building type and the gross lighted area for the entire building. Multiply the gross lighted area by the allowed power density (watts! sq It I lor the entire building by type.
Exterior lighting is governed less than interior lighting, and under some codes it may not be governed at all. As welt. energy codes in general do not regulate lighting watts in dwelling units
CREDIT*
Time clock (with manual override readily accessible)
Turns lights on and off at scheduled times
0-10%
Dimmer
Reduces lighting power by manual adjustment
Daylighting controls
LINEAR SLIDE CONTROL
ROTARY OR PUSH ON/OFF CONTROL
TOUCH·PLATE CONTROL
DIMMING CONTROL DEVICES
I
TYPICAL
OPERATION
Turns lights on and use Reduces interior lighting power based on amount of daylight in space
0%
15% (>250sq Itl to 30% «250 sq It I 20% (stepped( to
30% (continuous dimming)
Scene preset dimming
Reduces average power by dimming combinations of lighting systems
10-20%
Tuning
Reduces lighting power by hidden adjustment
10-15%
Lumen maintenance
Reduces interior lighting power based on age of lamps and cleanliness of space
10-15%
Combined systems
Combinations of the above are not directly additive
Up to 45%
"The credit offered varies from code to code and may not be available.everywhere.
ADDITiONAL CODE REQUIREMENTS
NUM8ER OF LUMINAIRES
AVERAGE FOOTCANDLES
POWER DENSITY rw!sq It)
footcandles desired x room area CU x LLF x lampslluminaire x lumensllamp lumensllamp x lampslluminaire x CU x LLF area 01 room (sq It) design watts (including ballast) area of room
where: CU = coefficient of utilization (percentage of light that actually reaches task) LLF = light loss factor (time-dependent depreciation lactors) NOTE See manufacturer's photometric tables or the Lighting Handbook 01 the Illuminating Engineering Society lor tables of values for CU. LLF, lurnens/lamps, etc
LIGHTING CONTROLS IN ENERGYEFFICIENT APPLICATIONS While most energy codes require switching for all spaces, some switch types control energy use better through automatic switching and/or dimming. "Control credits" are often offered by codes that permit the designer to reduce the watts of all lights connected to certain automatic devices; this arrangement allows the design to employ more lighting watts and still comply with the energy code.
DEVICE OR METHOD
011 based on space
In addition to limiting lighting power in a building, lighting energy codes also have other requirements. These vary by state but may include the following: 1. Mandatory use of readily accessible switching in all enclosed spaces. (Exceptions are allowed for spaces in which this would be unsafe.) 2. Use of multilamp or electronic fluorescent ballasts whenever possible. 3. Separate switching lor daylighted and nondaylighted spaces in building interiors. 4. Ability through switching or dimming to adjust lighting levels in a space exceeding 100 sq ft and 100 watts. 5. Automatic shutoff controls for lights in spaces in larger bUildings (usually larger than 5000 sq ft). 6. Automatic shutoff controls for exterior lights.
ENERGY-EFFICIENT LIGHTING CONTROLS
Motion sensor
To find the total allowed watts for the interior of a building, start with the total wattage as determined by one 01 the three methods above. Then subtract "credit" watts for lighting controlled by advanced automatic devices such as daylighting or motion sensing and add other allowed watts. if any. An allowed lighting load can also be determined by using a building energy simulation program like DOE-2. However, because the program's algorithm is based on the same power density assumptions as the allowed amount given above, it is unlikely the value for lighting determined in this manner will be significantly different.
Tradeoffs are allowed among interior spaces in the same building, but they are not allowed between interior and exterior lighting. In addition, tradeoffs are not allowed between buildings, even if they are owned by the same company and stand on the same site.
NUMBER OF FIXTURES
POWER DENSITY rw!sq It)
50 x 25 x 40 0.67 x 0.7 x 4 x 2850 9 x 111 25 x 40
or
10 x 111 25x40
= 9.35 luminaires (use 9 or 10)
0.999 W!sq It (9 luminairesl or = 1.111 W!sq It (10 luminaires)
TYPICAL EXAMPLES Room size 25 x 40 It; ceiling height 9 It; illumination level 50 lootcandles (IESNA category 101; 2 x 4 ft. recessed trollers with lour 32-watt T8 lamps 12850 im) each.
CU = 0.67 (plastic lens) Electronic ballast input watts LLF = .70
= 111
FORMULAS FOR AVERAGE LIGHTING CALCULATIONS James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacilic Lightworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
50
Workstation Lighting and Lighting Controls
DETERMINING THE EFFECT OF PARTITIONS ON LIGHTING LEVELS The illumination that reaches a desk tQP in q"direct lighting system is a combination of light arriving directly from the lighting fixture and indirectly via reflectance from various room surfaces. A partition not only interferes with this indirect component of light but can drastically reduce the potential direct component. Consider the example shown in the accompanying diagrams: In diagram "A", the workstation is contained within 42 inch high panels. Extending "sightlines" (as if the desk top could "see" the ceiling) from the center of the station out to the ceilmq over the top of the panels, it can be seen that in a 10 by 10ft workstation, a ceilingarea of 4,225 sq ft (65 x 65 ft) has the potential for contributinq light to the workstation. If the lighting fixtures are installed 8 ft apart. there would be an average of 66 fixtures 14,225 sq ft ~ 18 x 8 ftll that could contribute light directly to the desk top. If the same lOx j O tt workstation had partitions 60 in. tall, the projected lines would enclose a ceiling area of 676 sq ft (26 x 26 ttl This area would include only ten or eleven fixtures [676 sq'tt ~ (8 x 8 ftll. This 80% decrease in the number of lighting fixtures that could possibly contribute light directly to the desk top does not translate into an 80% drop in light levels at the desk top. However, it will cause a significant decrease, the amount of which is influenced by factors such as the distribution pattern of the lighting fixtures and the finishes of the partitions.
··············<········~r····/·············· A·
42~
PANELS
/ / /
_ _li6~II_
"S"
60" PANELS
PANEL HEIGHT COMPARISON
Clearly, task lighting is important to consider when partitions are more than 42 in. high.
LIGHTING CONTROL CHOICES
LIGHTING CALCULATIONS FOR SPACES WITH PARTITIONS
A rough approximation of the magnitude of the effect of partition height on lighting levels can be calculated using the foHowing technique. (However, do not use this technique for totally direct lighting systems unless severalluminaires directly contribute light to the cublcle.) 1. Use the coefficient of utilization (CU) table for the fixture to calculate the average illuminance at the top of the partitions. Use the distance from the luminaires to the top of the partitions as the cavity height. and use actual reflectance values except for the floor; use "0" for the floor cavity reflectance. 2. Determine the transfer coefficient of a virtual ceiling luminaire: Use the distance from the top of the partition to the desk top as the cavity height Use the cubicle's partition reflectance as the wall reflectance, and use the effective ceiling cavity reflectance of the actual ceiling cavity above the top of the partitions. Use the table below to find the transfer coefficient. 3. Multiply the illuminance from the first step (at the top of the partitions) by the transfer coefficient to find the approximate average illuminance at the desk top.
Energy codes require readily accessible switching for all electric lights. The National Electric Code requires switching at specific locations in houses. Traditional switches meet these requirements. Other lighting controls choices are discussed here: SWITCHING
Standard toggle switches are the most commonly used lighting switches. Three-way and four-way switches permit control from several locations. Choices include standard toggle switches and the more modern "decora" or paddle switches. Electronic touch switches are also becoming more common. DIMMING
Manual dimming is popular in homes and many other spaces. To dim fluorescent lighting, use modern high frequency electronic dimming ballast systems. An energy credit may be available for using manual dimming under some conditions.
Lumen-maintenance controls allow lighting to be dimmed automatically when it is new and, through photoelectnc sensing, to be increased gradually as lamps age and lurni naires get dirty. The equipment for these controls is sirnila. to that for daylighting, and most systems do both. Adaptation compensation controls (the opposite Clf daylight· ing) increase interior light as exterior light incrases. Tunnels are classic applications for adaptation cOf'1ll)ensation, but the same principles carl be used to save energy in supermarkets. DEMAND MANAGEMENT
Lighting can be dimmed 10-20% with little efhet on productivity but a profound impact on overall buildiilg load. By sensing incoming electric service for peaks, lightng can be dimmed when other building systems are pea.Jti3g in load The result is a ."flattening" of the energy use c~e, which lowers electric energy cost.
SCENE DIMMING
Scene dimming or multichannel preset dimming systems are increasingly being used for spaces with four or more independent dimming channels, such as restaurants, custom-built houses, and boardrooms. Scene dimming systems are like modern theatrical dimming in that there is a cross-fade between scenes, which are combinations of preset dim light levels
APPLICATIONS FOR LIGHTING CONTROLS Office buildings, schools
Time scheduling svsterre. for open office areas, corridars, halls, and lobbies
TIME SCHEDULING
80
CEILING WALLS
50
30
50 10
50
30
OCCUPANCY SENSING
0
1.19
1.19
119
1.11
1.11
1.11
1
1.03
098
0.94
096
093
0.89
Combined systems (e.g;.. motion and daylightingl wherever logical
2
0.89
081
075
0.83
0.78
0.73
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.73
0.66
0.60
4
0.68
0.59
0.52
0.64
0.57
0.51
5
0.61
051
0.45
0.58
0.50
0.44
6
0.55
0.45
039
0.52
0.44
0.38
7
0.49
0.40
0.34
0.47
0.39
034
8
0.45
036
0.30
0.43
0.35
0.30
DAYLIGHTING AND RELATED CONTROLS
Daylighting systems use dimming or switching to reduce interior lighting when adequate daylight is present. In buildings with windows near the work area, savrnqs can be significant, and most codes permit a substantial controls credit for daylighting.
9
0.41
0.33
0.27
0.39
0.32
0.27
10
0.38
0.30
0.25
0.36
0.29
0.24
Retail
Motion sensors can be used to control lights according to space occupancy. Passive infrared sensors are the most commonly used; ultrasonic sensors are also popular and work better in spaces with partitions. Sensors have sensitivity and timeout adjustments. Choose wallbox sensors with internal switches or dimmers for small rooms, ceilingmounted sensors with remote relays for larger rooms. Multiple sensors can be used in the same room to ensure coverage.
3
Energy credits for using motion sensor systems are fairly substantial, as these systems save quite a bit of energy in most applications.
James Robert Benva. PE, F1ES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Dayljghting in areas adj;mmt to windows or skylights
to
RCR*
""RCR-room cavity ratio
Motion sensors in toilet lIJoms and storage
Lighting controls that use clocks to switch lights on and off on predictable schedules are the most commonly used form of automatic lighting controls. Some energy codes require automatic controls of this type as a minimum standard. Controls may vary from individual "time clock" switches to programmable timers and large-scale energy management systems.
TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS
Motion sensors in privateoffices, classrooms, and conference rooms
Time scheduling for steDl!' windows, general and alilplay lighting Motion sensing for stortilJe and dressing rooms Daylighting and lumen maintenance near skyli9ts Adaptation cornpensatree for general lighting
Industrial, institutional
Time scheduling in rnosnareas Daylighting near windows and skylights Motion sensing in restrecms. little used storage area&.
Outdoor
Choices include photodK:tric switches, motion sensees, time switches, and manual switches
Luminaire Design GENERAL
LUMINAIRE STYLES
A luminaire IS any device that Includes a lamphoJder, a means of electrification, and a support. Lighting fixtures are luminaires that are permanently attached to a building. Luminaires are characterized by the manner in which light is distributed. Luminaire types are identified in the chart below.
Downlights and troffers are discussed below; commercial fluorescent fixtures, indirect and direct/indirect lighting sys~ terns, architectural lighting fixtures, and decorative lighting are discussed on the following page.
LUMINAIRE TYPES
Downlights are often called 'cans' or 'tophats.' They are principally used for general illumination in a wide range of residential and commercial applications, especially in lobbies, halls, corridors, stores, and other finished spaces Downlights can be equipped with incandescent, halogen, low-voltage, compact fluorescent, or HID (high-intensity discharge) lamps. There are several major types, which accommodate varying source types, ceiling heights, ptenum heights, room types, and beamspreads. These include the follovvinq:
TYPE
Direct
LIGHT DISTRIBUTION
Emits light downward. Most recessed lighting types, including downlights and troffers, are direct luminaires
OPEN BAFFLE: ridged baffles shield the lamp and minimize glare.
Emits light upward. so it bounces from a ceiling into the space below. Many styles of suspended luminaires, sconces, and some portable lamps provide indirect lighting.
OPEN ELLIPSOIDAL: an elliptical reflector allows a small aperture of1ly; this beamspread is highly efficient. LENSED (prismatic or fresnel): generally used outdoors or in wet locations, the lens protects and seals the lamp compartment of this type of downlight.
DIFFUSER: a diffuser distributes light broadly. which is especially useful in closets and showers. Diffuse
Emits light in all directions uniformly. This type includes most bare lamps, globes, and chandeliers and some table and floor lamps.
ADJUSTABLE: adjustable downlights can be used as a downlight or as an accent light. PULLDOWN: this feature allows the light to be used as a downlight or an accent light and permits a wide aim.
Asymmetric
Adjustable
Emits light upward and downward but not to the side. Many types of suspended luminaires, and some table and floor lamps, offer this type of lighting. These luminaires can offer mostly direct or mostly indirect lighting.
For special applications. For instance, asymmetric uplights are indirect luminaires with a stronger distribution in one direction, such as away from a wall. Wall~ washers are a form of direct luminaire with stronger distribution to one side to light a wall. Usually, direct luminaires that can be adjusted to throw light in directions other than down. Examples are track lights. floodlights. and accent lights.
THERMALLY PROTECTED IT) downlights are suitable for all applications except direct concrete pour. INSULATION-PROTECTED liP) downlights are used when the fixture may come in contact with insulation. They are designed to prevent fixture overheating. INSULATED CEILING IIC) fixtures are used when the fixture is intended to be in contact with insulation.
I
PARABOLIC troffers have parabolically shaped aluminum or plastic louvers that shield the lamp to improve visual comfort. These troffers offer sharp cutoff, which makes some of them suitable for use in computer work spaces. "Parabelies" generally refer to deep-cell louvers 6 in. or larger across; "paracubes" are shallower troffers with smaller cells. Larger cells are more efficient. but smaller cells make it easier to hide the lamps. Fixtures meeting IESNA recommendations for computer work spaces are generally identified. Most troffers are recessed and designed to be laid into acoustic tile ceilings, with the fixture face matching the size of the tile. The most common troffer sizes are 2 x 4 ft. although 2 x 2 ft and 1 x 4 ft are also readily available. Other sizes exist, often to match a specific ceiling (such as 20'x 60 in. fixtures for a 5-ft ceiling grid system). Different mounting types are made, including the following identified by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association: NEMA "G": for fixtures in a standard exposed inverted T grid. NEMA "F": for fixtures furnished with a flange and designed to be installed in an opening in plaster or wallboard. NEMA "55·: for fixtures in a screw-slot inverted T grid.
NEMA "NFSG": for fixtures in a narrow face slot T grid. NEMA ·Z": for fixtures in a concealed Z spline ceiling. NEMA "Mr: for fixtures in a metal pan ceiling system.
DOWNLIGHT RATINGS
Choice of a downlight depends on the applications for which it is listed. The primary rating types are these: Direct/indirect
LENSED troffers use a plastic lens to refract light and distribute it in the desired area. The lens cuts off light distribution to minimize glare and protects lamps from breaking in food preparation and service areas. Lenses ca~ contain internal RFI shields for use in hospital operating and laboratory rooms. Lens troffers equipped with highly polished internal reflectors offer very high efficiency.
DOWNLIGHTS
OPEN CONE: the cone of this type of down light shields the lamp and develops a beam pattern. Indirect
51
AIRTIGHT INSULATED CEILING (AIC) down lights are for applications in which the fixture is in contact with insulation and air leaks in the ceiling must be prevented. DAMP LOCATION fixtures can be exposed to moist air but not to direct water spray or rain. WET LOCATION fixtures can be exposed to direct water spray or rain. SPA OR SHOWER fixtures are designed to be used in a shower stall or over a spa.
CONCRETE-POUR fixtures are designed to be installed in direct contact with concrete. EMERGENCY fixtures are equipped with a backup battery to produce light for at least 90 minutes during a power outage (generally available only for compact fluorescent luminaires).
Some recessed troffers are also designed to interface with the building HVAC system: "Heat extraction' troffers have vents in the top of the fixture to allow return air to be pulled into the troffer, past the lamps, and into the ceiling plenum. "Air-handling fixtures" have slots around the lens or louvers to supply air to a room (by means of a special boot that can transfer air to the supply air system) or to remove it (by connection to a return duct). Troffers can also be equipped with emergency battery packs to power some or all of the lamps during a power outage or emergency condition. TROFFER RATINGS
Most troffers are rated for standard dry indoor applications and must not touch insulation. Some special types include 1. Gasketed: can be damp or even wet rated. 2. Fire-rated: can maintain up to one hour ceiling rating in certain rated ceilings. 3. Vandal-resistant: equipped with vandal-resistant lens. 4. RFI: lens troffers that are shielded from radio frequencies. 5. Specially gasketed: rated for clean room applications. Troffers can be equipped with most fluorescent technologies, including dimming, magnetic or electronic ballasts, and T-12 or T-8Iamps. Special troffers are made for ceiling systems like the linear metal slat system (4 in. wide). Recessed troffer depth varies from 3 1/ 2 to more than 7 in., so troffers must be coordinated with other elements above the ceiling.
TROFFERS
CHOOSING LUMINAIRES DIRECT luminaires tend to be more efficient because they distribute light directly onto the task area. They generally create dark ceilings and upper walls, which can be dramatic but can create discomfort from the high contrast.
Troffers are widely used in offices, stores, schools, and other commercial and institutional facilities for general lighting in work and sales areas. They 'are the most common type of fluorescent lurninaire.
PARABOLIC LOUVERED
INDIRECT luminaires generally create comfortable low-contrast soft light, which psychologically enlarges space. They tend to be less efficient for task lighting. DIFFUSE luminaires create broad general light that often is considered glaring due to the lack of side shielding. They are generally chosen for ornamental reasons or for utilitarian applications.
DIRECT/INDIRECT luminaires are often a good compromise between the efficiency of direct lighting and the comfort of indirect lighting.
OPEN CONE
OPEN
ELLIPSOIDAL
t~j ' - - - ACRYLIC LENS
BAFFLE LENSED
DOWN LIGHTS
TROFFERS
James Robert Benya, PE. FIES. IALD, Pacific Lightworks: Portland. Oregon Robert Sardinskv. Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
52
Luminaire Design
LUMINAIRE STYLES
INDUSTRIAL RATINGS
Downlights and troffers are discussed on the previous page. where the subject of lighting equipment is introduced.
Most industnal fixtures are listed for dry locations. Some have finishes such as glass or porcelain that resist corrosion caused by airborne gases or particles; others are made of aluminum or plastic. Certain fixtures are specifically designed for demanding environmental applications ranging from wet or saltwater marine luminaires to explosionproof products for use in petrochemical plants, grain storage, and other unusual locations.
COMMERCIAL FLUORESCENT FIXTURES
Several types of fluorescent direct luminaires appropriate for general and utility lighting are employed as commercial fixtures. Most utilize wraparound lenses or diffusers in which the lamp is surrounded by the lens; either way, the lamp is hidden from direct view while radiating light downward and to the sides. Commercial luminaires are among the lowest cost lighting fixtures and are typically used for general and utility lighting in modest projects. COMMERCIAL RATINGS
Most commercial fixtures are rated for dry locations. Some have damp labels. Most can be equipped with a battery pack for emergency power. INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING FIXTURES
These fixtures generally have a utilitarian or functional appearance. Fluorescent industrials have strip lights and open fixtures with simple reflectors that are designed to be surface-mounted or hung by chains or rods. HID (high-intensity discharge) industrials include high bay down lights and low bay downlights. Industrial fixtures are generally used in factories and warehouses and increasingly in schools and retail stores where a less-finished appearance is desired.
~
mr
~
-.
WRAPAROUND
STRIP
INDUSTRIAL FLUORESCENT
INDIRECT AND DIRECTIINDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEM RATINGS
Almost all indirect and direct/indirect luminaires an intended for dry, relatively clean indoor locations. Many 01 these systems are designed to meet IESNA recommendations for lighting computer workspaces and are rated as
complying with either IESNA fANSI RP-1-1993 or IESNfI RP-24-1989. These ratings are based on ceiling brightness and uniformity criteria ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING FIXTURES
INDIRECT AND DIRECTIINDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
Most indirect and direct-indirect lighting systems are designed to illuminate offices and similar finished spaces In almost all cases, the ceiling should be finished in white paint or white acoustical tile, as the reflectance of the ceiling plane is critical Indirect lighting systems only produce uplight. Generally they should be mounted at least 15-18 in. below the ceiling; longer suspension lengths can improve uniformity but potentially will decrease efficiency. To maintain adequate clearance, ceilings should be at least 9 ft high Direct/indirect lighting systems are intended to produce some indirect lighting for its comfort and balance and some direct lighting for efficient production of task lighting. Similar suspension length and ceiling height considerations apply. The percentage of upliqht to downlight varies; generally the higher the ceiling, the greater the downlight percentage should be.
Like downlights, architectural lighting fixtures are functional and inconspicuous rather than decorative. They are used to illuminate architectural shapes and forms.
WALLWASHERS come rn several types Eyelid wallwasters essentially are downlights with an eyelid-shaped shie!o on the room side. Recessed lens wallwashers resemble downlights but use an angled lens to throw light more to one side. Surface and semi-recessed lens and open wallwashers, which throw light onto an adjacent wall, generally work best; they can also be mounted to track. Downlight wallwashers are designed to illuminate rather than scallop an adjacent wall, although the light they provide is not good enough for display purposes.
WALL GRAZING FIXTURES. sometimes called ·wall slots." are used to illuminate walls in lobbies, corridors, and core areas. They are especially suited for textured or polished surfaces.
ACCENT FIXTURESfocus light on art and building surfaces Recessed accent lights appear as downlights but internally
wmnt:[
INDIRECT
6" TO 8"
permit rotalion and elevation of the light beam. Eyeballs and pulldown accents resemble down lights that cannot be adjusted. Track lighting systems are specifically designed for accent lighting of art and retail displays, with easy relocation of lampholders along the track. COVE LIGHTS provide uplighting from coves or other architectural elements more efficiently than strip lights and without socket shadows
TYP SLOT CEILING INDIRECT/DIRECT
DECORATIVE LIGHTING
Lighting is the "jewelry of architecture" and, in many building types, plays a significant role in building style, period, or motif.
14" MIN. FROM TOP OF LAMP TO CEILING
HIGH BAY HID LAMP
TASK LIGHTS are specifically designed to illuminate a desk area while minimizing veiling reflections.
CHANDELIERS are ornate luminaires that generally com-
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL FIXTURES DIRECT COVE SUSPENDED
INDIRECT, DIRECT/INDIRECT, AND DIRECT LUMINAIRES ROUND 4" TO 9" DIAMETER (UP, DOWN. OR UP/OOWN)
prise many small incandescent lamps to simulate the effect of candle flames. Chandeliers are hung from the ceiling and are used for general illumination in dining rooms, foyers. and other formal spaces. PENDANTS are also ceiling-hung decorative fixtures. In general, the term is used for luminaires that are less formal than chandeliers, such as those used in offices or restaurants. Most pendant luminaires also use incandescent lamps, although modern variations are available with HID and fluorescent sources.
CLOSE-TO-CEILING luminaires are similar to pendants but are mounted close to the ceiling to allow use in rooms with conventional ceiling heights. CHANDELIER
PENDANT
~
~
OVOID (UP, DOWN. OR UP/DOWN)
ELONGATED OCTAGON (UP, DOWN, OR UP/DOWN)
TRADITIONAL SCONCE
CONTEMPORARY SCONCE
(~m_ oj
RACETRACK OVAL (UP, DOWN. OR UP/OOWN)
SCONCES are ornate or decorative wall-mounted luminaires. Often they match an adjacent chandelier; in other cases, they are the sole decorative lighting element Sconces generally exhibit the widest range of styles, from crystal sconces with flame-tip lamps to modern designs. LAMPS are traditional portable luminaires generally used for table or floor mounting. Torcheres are floor lamps designed for uplighting. Most portable lighting uses incandescent or halogen sources, although compact fluorescent options should be considered for commercial and hospitality applications. LANTERNS are outdoor luminaires mounted to ceilings, walls posts, or poles DECORATIVE LIGHTING RATINGS
··V'· OR WEDGE
(UP ONLY)
OPTIMAL FOR USE WITH VIDEO DISPLAY TERMINAL (UP/DOWN) TRADITIONAL LANTERN
CONTEMPORARY CLOSE-TO·CEILING
DECORATIVE FIXTURES
SUSPENDED LIGHTING SHAPES
James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Lanterns are generally rated with wet labels. Most other decorative fixtures are rated for dry indoor use, although a few sconces also have damp or wet labels.
Lighting for Office Spaces
53
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA
DESIGN CONSIDERATiONS
LIGHTING CRITERIA FOR OFFICES
The lighting levels given are average figures:
LENSED SYSTEMS provide good basic light at the lowest cost, are the easiest to install, and tend to be the most efficient. Most are not suitable for computer work in large open rooms.
OFFICE TYPE
CCT 1
CRI'
Most office space
3500 or 4100K
>70 CRI
1. Typical offices: 40-60 tc (400-600 lux) in an empty room 2. Offices, mostly computer work: 20-40 fe (200-400 luxl in an empty room with task lighting as needed. Offices, traditional paper tasks: 40-60 fc (40o-BOO luxl in an empty room with task lighting at work locations to provide 60-120 fc 1600-1200 lux) for specific tasks. 4. Conference and meeting rooms: 30-50 fe (300-500 lux) in an empty room. 5. Lobbies and hallways: 10-20 fe 11 00-200 lux) in an empty room. OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA
VISUAL COMFORT PROBABILITY (VCP): This figure IS only useful for comparing direct (troffer) lighting systems. A minimum of 70 is recommended. (Note that high VCP does not guarantee visual corntort.) CCT and CRI: Correlated color temperatures (CCT) and the color rendering index (eRI) suitable for common office uses are shown in the accompanying table.
Executive office -
3000 or 3500K
>70 CRI
Medical/dental office
3500 or 41 OOK
>80 CRI
5000K
>90 CRI
PARABOLIC LOUVERED SYSTEMS are more attractive and better for larger rooms where computer work is undertaken. Walls should not be too dark.
Art/graphiCS, dental operatorv
INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS, which provide a comfortable light, must be properly spaced to avoid light stripes on the ceiling. They require ceilings taller than 8 ft and generally require the use of task and/or accent lighting.
General office space
0.8 1.2 watts/so ft
Executive office
1.1-1.4 watts/sq ft
LIGHTING POWER DENSITY
Medical/dental office
1.0-1.8 watts/so ft
Drafting/accounting space
1.4 2.0 watts/sq ft
DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS must be properly spaced as well, but they offer a good balance between comfort and efficiency. They require ceilings taller than 8 ft and tend to be more complex and costly than other lighting systems.
Meeting rooms
1.0-1.6 watts/sq It
Lobbies and hallways
0.4-0.8 watts/sq ft
Choose luminaires carefully, taking manufacturer's recommendations into account.
lCCT-correlated color temperature 2CRI-color rendering index
~
LIGHTING POWER DENSITY: Approximate design targets using T8 lamps and electronic high frequency ballasts (not including task lights) are shown in the accompanying table.
10'-0" OR
----
GREA~
SUSPENDED INDIRECT (OR DIRECT/INDIRECT) LIGHTING SYSTEM USED FOR GENERAL OFFiCE WORK WITH MODERATE COMPUTER WORK
I
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2'-0" TO 3'-0"
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REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
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In this 10 x 10 ft office, two fixtures produce 50-60 fe on the work area at 1.18 watts/sq ft.
SMALL OFFICE LIGHTING LAYOUT 2'-0" TO 3'-0" l. l.
1
'-;1
-,
L
'- AREA STANDARD 2' X 4' CEILING GRID
--'>-
INDIRECT OR DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING FIXTURES REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
I
NOTE ing between rows can be made wider. At 12 tt. the design delivers around 2Q-40 fc. Suspension length is critical
Using two lamps in every fixture, this layout produces 3050 fc in 'an empty room at 1.22 watts/sq ft. Using one lamp, the design produces 15--30 fc at 0.6 watts/so ft. The spac-
SUSPENDED INDIRECT AND DIRECT/INDIRECT SYSTEMS s'~o" RECESSED (OR SURFACE MOUNTED) DIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEM USED FOR MOST GENERAL OFFICE WORK, ESPECIALLY PAPERWORK
1
I
I
I s'-o"
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REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE In this 14 x 16 ft room, four two-lamp fixtures produce 2535 fc uniformly at 1.0B watts/so ft. If higher lighting levels are needed, as in a mailroom, use three-lamp fixtures. In meeting rooms, consider adding task lights such as downlights or wall-wash luminaires.
' 'I
1"--"- OPEN OFFICE
NOTE
In small offices, maximize comfort and efficiency by having fixtures straddle the work area. Avoid placing a single overhead fixture. Partial symmetry is better than checkerboard or other asymmetrical layouts. Maintain approximately 2-3 ft from fixtures to side walls. Lensed fixtures and indirect lighting systems work best in small rooms.
"
[',
I OPEN OFFiCE AREA STANDARD 2' X 4' CEILING GRID DIRECT LIGHTING FIXTURE, TYP
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE
In larger offices and work rooms, arrange fixtures as symmetrically as possible. Vary the spacing if necessary, for example, from the standard 8 x 8 ft to 6 x 8 or lOx 8 ft. Keep the long sides of fixtures within 2-3 ft of the wall.
This layout produces 30-50 fc in an empty room using two F32T8 lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 0.92 watts/sq ft. With three lamps, it produces 50-75 fc at 1.38
LARGE OFFICE LIGHTING LAYOUT
GENERAL DIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
to
watts/so ft. Increasing horizontal spacing to tt with three lamps produces 40-60 fc at 1.22 watts/so ft. Also consider 2 x 2 fixtures with two F32T8/U or four F17T8.
James Robert Berwe. PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Liqhtworks: Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
54
Lighting for Office Spaces
CORRIDOR LIGHTING In office buildings. corridors require reasonably uniform illumination with minimum glare. Using ordinary troffers is tempting but generally creates too much light beneath the fixtures and not enough evenly distributed ligtlt
Downlighting is easy but tends to create deep shadows and cavehke spaces. Mixing downlights and other lighting sources, such as sconces or walfwashers. creates a more attractive design with a better balance of brightness among walls, ceiling, and floor.
Wall lighting is an alternative to downlights and sconces for use in corridors. It enhances art and graphics and can reveal wall textures, such as those of stone and brick. Grazing lights can highlight polished or shiny surfaces such as granite or wood
1
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/DOWNLIGHT
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NOTE
In this arrangement, sconce quantity can be minimized by maintaining a nominal 8-ft either-or spacing. Sconces and
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larnps. Designs produce 10-20 footcandles (tc) at 06-0 7 watts/sq It.
/SCONCE
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In this scheme, each round downlight uses 26 watts of compact fluorescent light (either two 13-watt lamps or one 28-watt lamp). Square down lights use two 16-18-watt
WALLWASHER
o
DOWNUGHTS
I
downlights each have two 13-watt lamps or one 26~watt lamp. Designs produce 10-15 fc at 0_6--D.7 watts/sq ft.
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NOTE
Although asymmetric, lighting one wall of a hall or corridor can both provide effective light and be an attractive element. potentially highlighting art or graphics. A wall slot (shown at left) is best for textured or polished surfaces and
PLAN
creates a floating ceiling; wallwashers (right) are better for lighting art or graphics. While footcandles are about the same as in the two schemes above, power use increases to 1.2-1.5 watts/so ft to illuminate vertical surfaces.
NOTE
Fluorescent pendants and sconces produce general light. Compact fluorescent downlights and wallwashers and halogen art accent fixtures provide more specialized lighting that showcases the architecture and artwork and creates an atmosphere.
REFLECTED CEILING PLANS FOR !==ORRIDOR LIGHTING WALLWASHER
NOTES
MAIN AND ELEVATOR LOBBIES
LOBBY LIGHTING
E -=:5
Lobbies offer a primary opportunity for use of creative or decorative lighting. Pendants, ceiling fixtures, and sconces are the primary lighting systems, supplemented by downlights, wallwashers, and other architectural light sources. To most easily meet energy code requirements, use fluorescent, compact fluorescent and/or low wattage HID (high-intensity discharge) lamps instead of incandescent.
o
Main lobbies are a most important venue for ornamental and decorative lighting design. Wall lighting is especially useful for providing a sense of spaciousness and cheerfulness. Art objects such as paintings or sculpture may require accent lighting.
o
CON FERENCE (
TABLE
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Architectural and decorative lighting sources are generally used in combination in lobbies. Incandescent and halogen lamps are often preferred for specific luminaire types, such as art display lights. However, whenever possible, use of more efficacious fighting sources such as fluorescent or HID fixtures is recommended.
o
~
{-D~GHT
LIGHTING FOR CONFERENCE AND MEETING ROOMS
1. The lighting load total in this plan 01 2_75watts/sq ft 15_25 watts/sq ft for halogen lamps) is not often reached because, in most cases, not all fixtures are used simultaneously. 2. Wallwashers produce vertical illumination at 30 tootcendies (Ie) on one short wall, using about .5 watts/sq It with fluorescent lamps and 1.5 watts/sq ft with halogen lamps. 3_Downlights produce direct light at 10-15 Ie that IS concentrated downward, usually onto the table surface in a conference room, Compact fluorescent fixtures require 0.5 watts/sq ft, while halogen fixtures require about 1.25 watts/so ft. The ability to the dim lights is a requirement for most conference rooms. 4. Sconces produce indirect light at appoximately 1Q....15 footcandles. Compact fluorescent lamps require 1 watt/ sq ft to light a room, while halogen lamps require 2.5 watts/sq ft. 5. Incandescent and halogen light sources are often used In board and other meeting rooms. When a building houses a number of conference rooms, it is best to use fluorescent sources to avoid overspending in the overall building energy budget
SCONCE
A combination of lighting systems works best in meeting rooms. Uplights from sconces or pendants produce general, ambient light. Downlights illuminate the table. Wallwashers light presentation or art walls. Although the potential combined lighting power is high, preset control systems minimize simultaneous use.
AVERAGE CONFERENCE ROOM LIGHTING PLAN James Robert Benva. PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinskv, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Ughting for Office and Commercial Spaces
55
Lighting power density: Listed below are approximate design targets for whole stores, including back of house. These targets are based on HID (high-int.ensity discharge) systems of TB/compact fluorescent lamps and electronic high-frequency ballasts. including display lights.
SPECIAL LIGHTING ISSUES FOR OFFICES
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA FOR COMMERCIAL SPACES
Lighting for computer use. task lighting. and wall lighting are among the specialized lighting issues in office design.
The lighting levels given are average figures for these commercial spaces:
COMPUTER LIGHTING
1 Grocery store, general light: 70-90 footcandles (fcl, or 700-900 lux, in an empty room, which will result in average center-of-aisle illumination of 50 fe. 2. Wholesale merchandise: 30-50 fc (300-5oo lux) in an empty room with display lighting added as needed. For spaces with warehouse-style shelving, use 30-50 fc in aisles but take shelving into account. 3. General merchandise: 40-60 fc (400-600 luxl in an empty room with display lighting added at key locations to provide 70-100 tc (700-1000 lux) for secondary merchandise displays and 150-300 fc (1500-3000 lux) for primary displays. 4. Boutique and specialty retail stores: 20-30 Ie (200-300 lux) in an empty room for general lighting. Display lighting is added throughout to provide 70-100 fc for most merchandise and 150-300 Ie (1500-3000 lux) for primary displays. 5. Beck-of-house storage and stock areas: 10-20 fc (100200 lux) in an empty room.
Grocery Wholesale General merchandise Department store Specialty retail Jewelry, china
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA
PARABOLIC LOUVERED SYSTEMS appear more expensive and suggest higher quality merchandise. They should be used in conjunction with valances and/or other perimeter and display lighting.
Lighting for computer workspaces is becoming increasingly specialized. There are four distinct approaches to thiS' sort of design: 1. Parabolic troffers optimized for computer spaces: By meeting specific cutoff and distribution specifications. some parabolic and small-cell louvered direct lighting fixtures provide lighting acceptable for concentrated computer workspace applications. These lighting systems are generally fairly efficient but tend to create spaces with dark upper walls and ceilings. 2. Indirect suspended lighting: Indirect lighting systems that illuminate ceilings uniformly are also considered good for computer workspaces. General indirect lighting tends to be comfortable but bland. Supplemental task lighting is usually necessary. 3. Direct/indirect lighting: Some direct/indirect lighting systems have been optimized for illuminating computer workspaces, providing the advantages of the two lighting systems just described. The greatest disadvantage of these direct/indirect systems is cost.
The correlated color temperature (CeT) and color rendering index (CRII measurements for light can be used to help specify lighting fixtures:
4. Intensive CADD workspaces: CADD workspaces are the most demanding of all computer workspaces. Neither parabolic nor indirect lighting, even if optimized for computer workspaces, is acceptable. Task-only lighting systems or very low levels of general light are needed. The unusual requirements of these spaces are often resolved by creating a cavelike space and letting employees manipulate lighting levels and types with switches and dimmers. TASK LIGHTING
STRIP LIGHTING ~ SHELVING ......,
For use under cabinets or shelves, continuous fluorescent task lights are generally the best choice. Good task lights offer the ability to dim or alter the distribution of light to minimize veiling reflections. Table lamps and task lights produce localized task illumination using a portable luminaire. The area of influence is small but proper location can achieve a successful result. Use compact fluorescent lamps whenever possible.
-
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-
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FLUORESCENT STRIP LIGHTS AND LENS TROFFERS provide basic light for the lowest cost and are the easiest to install. They tend to be the most efficient, as well, but appear budget-minded. HID INDUSTRIAL-STYLE FIXTURES also provide goqd basic light at low cost but appear budqet-conscious. They can be used to create a warehouse motif in a retail outlet.
TROFFER LIGHTING
12'-0"
-- -
DESIGN OPTIONS FOR GENERAL COMMERCIAL LIGHTING
SUSPENDED DIRECT. DIRECT/INDIRECT. AND INDIRECT SYSTEMS require ceilings taller than 8 ft. These lighting types playa major role in the appearance and style of a space and are generally chosen to reinforce a specific marketing motif.
3500 or 4100K> 70 CRI 3000 or 3500K > 80 CRI 3500 or 4100K> 70 CRI 3000 or 5000K> 90 CRI
Wholesale and grocery Boutique/specialty General merchandise Jewelry. art
, .4-2.0 watts/sq It 1.0-1.4 watts/so It , .2-' .8 watts/sq It 2.0-3.0 watts/so ft 1.8-3.5 watts/so ft 2.5-4.5 watts/sq It
-
-
WALL LIGHTING
Office spaces generally require supplemental wall lighting to compensate for the lack of wall lighting provided by most general liqhtinq systems. Wall grazing and wallwashing are two methods used to accomplish this lighting task.
I
-- --
-
-
-- --
-
-
--
- -- --
I
FINAL TOUCHES
Many offices are furnished with partition-style systems furniture. In this case, best results are obtained by coordinating lighting and furniture plans. Try to use fluorescent lamps of consistent color.
-
-
-- -- -
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-
-
-
-f -
-
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GENERAL SALES AREA. 2 X 4 GRID CEILING, 12'-0" OR MORE HIGH GENERAL SALES AREA: 2' X 4' GRID CEILING, 12'·0" OR MORE HIGH
STRIP LIGHTS/STRIP TROUGH LIGHTS INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING I
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TROFFER LIGHTING
NOTES
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0 WALL SLOT LIGHTING
0
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WALLWASHER LIGHTING
II
NOTE
A grazing light such as a wall slot is appropriate for illuminating interior core walls in open office spaces. but wallwashers or sconces can be used as well. Wall slot lighting accentuates the wall texture and enhances polished surfaces. Wallwashers accentuate wall pigment and work best for ordinary wall finishes with artwork hanging on them.
<;
GENERAL SALES AREA. 2 X 4 GRID CEILING, 14'-0" OR MORE HIGH
INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING
1. Strip lights and strip trough lights are common in large retail grocery stores and many mass merchandise stores. The layout illustrated (above left) produces 60-60 fc in an empty room using two F96T8 lamps in a strip light or open trough in continuous rows at 1.15 watts/so ft. Lights usually run perpendicular to shelving to allow rearrangement. but parallel lighting is preferable when shelves are fixed. 2. Industrial-style lights are commonly used for lighting warehouse-style discount stores. The layout shown at left produces 30-40 tc in an empty room using one 100watt metal halide lamp in an industrial-style luminaire at 0.85 watts/so It. Using a , 50-watt metal halide lamp. the lighting level is about 40-60 tc at 1.27 wattsrsq ft. 3. Trofters in lay-in ceilings are common in the discount retail industry and serve as general purpose lighting for hardware and general merchandise. The layout above produces 60--70 fc in an empty room using four F32T8 lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 1.15 watts/sq ft. With high light level ballasts. this arrangement produces 80-100 fc at 1.58 watts/so ft.
WALL LIGHTING James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
56
lighting for Commercial Spaces
DESIGN OPTIONS FOR DISPLAY LIGHTING
IE;---~---:---;------;---~-------:v
TRACK LIGHTING,s the most popular and commonly used display lighting system. Use halogen, fluorescent, or highintensity discharge (HID} display luminaires.
I<----k-------i'----7I<::-----+----"7k-------i'---7f---OII I I
RECESSED DISPLAY LIGHTS are not as flexible as track lights but can be concealed better. This category includes adjustable accent lights and wallwashers. Sources include halogen, low-wattage HID, and compact fluorescent DISPLAY MONOPOINT LIGHTS are adjustable installed at fixed locations.
I I I
VALANCE LIGHTING rs used for clothing and other displays in which a niche is created. Full-sized fluorescent lamps work best for the application.
LOCATIONS OF MONOPOINTS OR TRACK UGHING HEADS
I I I
Among these options, track lighting offers the greatest versatility and the lowest installed cost. However, most energy codes count track light wattage by the foot rather than by the fixture. This makes it advisable to use other display lighting methods whenever possible so track lights can be used where really needed.
TRACK LAYOUT LINE (IF TRACK IS USED)
I I I I
TRACK OR MONQPOINT WALL SHELVING
DOWNLIGHTS AT POINT'OF-SALE
I I
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WALL DISPLA Y WITH SHELVES
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DISPLAY CASE LIGHTING is similar to valance lighting except the light is built into the display cases to illuminate the task. Fluorescent, compact fluorescent, or low voltage incandescent or tungsten halogen lamps are used. Fiberoptic lighting systems may be useful in certain situations.
I I I I
VALANCE LIGHTING WHERE NECESSARY
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FLOOR DISPLAY, TY?
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CEILING (GENERAL LIGHTING FOR CEILING NOT SHOWN)
\\ / /\vf-FLOOR / Vi
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WALL DISPLAY WITH NICHES
DISPLAY
STORE ENTRY
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
LAYOUT OF DISPLAY LIGHTING NOTE 0
The maximum angle of elevation for lighting is 45 except when walls are being lighted. VALANCE LIGHTING ~
DRESSING ROOMS Good lighting helps sell clothing. For higher quality stores, provide attractive light with diffuse illumination of the customer; avoid downlights and track lighting. In lower cost and trendy stores, place the emphasis on fixture style and survivability. STORE WINDOWS Use high-wattage track lighting and/or low-voltage accent lighting. Run track vertically along the window sides, across
/ /
/ I / /
I
WALL DISPLAY WITH NICHES
LIGHTING
OTHER SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS Use high color rendering or special purpose fluorescent lamps for meat cases, fabrics, and similar demanding merchandise. For fine jewelry, consider high color rendering index, high color temperature fluorescent lamps and/or blue-filtered halogen lamps to achieve 41 00-5000K.
DISPLAY LIGHTING FOR STORES LIGHT SOURCE
DISPLA Y CASE
the top of the window, and possibly along the bottom of the window as well. Provide outlets for portable lighting inside the window.
~
DISADVANTAGES
Low cost. ready availability, excellent color, excellent beam control, dimmability, availability in wide range of sizes/wattages
Not enerqv-etticient. short lamp life
Recessed accent lights, track and monopoints. waHwashers of all types, portable lighting, low voltage lighting, showcase lighting, downlrghts
Full-size fluorescent lamps (primarily T81
Low cost. ready availability, very good color, dimmabilitv, energy efficiency, long lamp life
Very poor beam control. care required when used in cold environments
Valance lights, showcase lights, some types of wallwashers
Compact fluorescent (including high power T·5 twin tube)
Low cost. ready availability, very good color, dimmabilitv. energy efficiency, long lamp life
Poor beam control, care required when used in cold environments
Wallwashers of all types, some types of floodliqhts. downlights
Compact hid (low-wattage metal halide and white high-pressure sodium are main choices)
Energy efficiency, very good beam control, long lamp life, good to very good color
High cost. not dimmable, limited range of sizes and wattages
Recessed accent lights. track and rnonopoints. wall washers of all types, portable lighting, downlights
o
TYPICAL DISPLAY LIGHTING James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pac.fic Lightworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES
Tungsten halogen (for greatest energy efficiency use halogen infrared reflecting IHIRllampsl
Lighting for Schools ILLUMINATION CRITERIA The lighting levels given are average figures: 1. Classrooms with traditional paper tasks: 40-60 footcandies 140G-B00lux) in an empty room. 2. Classrooms with mostly computer work: an average of 2D-40 footcandles 120D-400 lux) In an empty room with task lighting as needed. 3. Art, music, industrial. mechanics, and laboratory classrooms: 50-70 footcandles 1500-700 lux) in an empty room, with task lighting as needed. 4. Lecture halls: 20-40 footcandles (fe) task illumination dimmable to 5 fc with cutoff for video/film presentation. 5. Hallways. commons (not including work spaces): 10-20 footcandles 1100-200 lux) in an empty room. 6. Libraries: in active stacks, 20 footcandles minimum vertical illumination; for reading rooms, card files. and catalogs, 50-70 fc in an empty room; computer files and computer study/carrell areas, 20-40 fc in an empty room. 7. Gymnasiums: general illumination of 50 footcandles (500 lux) throughout; significantly higher levels may be required for high school or college sports that will be televised. 8. Typical administrative offices: 4G-B0 footcandles 1400600 lux) in an empty room.
Lighting power density: Listed are approximate design targets using T8 lamps and electronic high-frequency ballasts or hiqh-intensitv discharge (HID) systems (not including task lights):
TROFFER SYSTEMS, lensed or parabolic, provide good, acceptable light at low cost and are commonly used in schools. Recessed lighting minimizes vandalism and is efficient.
Classrooms Lecture halls Arts and industrial education Gymnasiums (pnmarv-secondary) Commons and hallways
SUSPENDED DIRECT/INDIRECT and INDIRECT SYSTEMS are favored for better lighting comfort and are suited for spaces with ceilings higher than 9 ft.
DESIGN OPTIONS
Choose luminaires carefully, considering manufacturer's recommendations.
IX
LIGHT ABOVE CHALKBOARD
SUSPENDED INDIRECT/DIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEM USED FOR GENERAL STUDIES WITH LIMITED COMPUTER WORK
/ Il
Il
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I
The correlated color temperature ICCTI and color rendering index ICRI) measurements for light can be used to help specify lighting fixtures: CRI CRI CRI CRI
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70 70 80 80
ft ft ft ft ft
More information about these lighting systems is available in the section on lighting for offices.
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA
3500 or4100K > 3000 or 3500K > 3500 or 41OOK> 4100-5000K>
0.8-1.2 W/sq 1.2-2.0 W/sq 1.2-1.8 W/sq 1.2-1.6 W/sq 0.4-0.8 W/sq
INDUSTRIAL-STYLE LIGHTING SYSTEMS are often used in industrial education, arts, gymnasium, and other spaces requiring plentiful, inexpensive, durable lighting. If using HID sources, provide quartz auxiliary lamps on some fixtures or an independent instant-on lighting system.
Visual comfort probability (VCP) is useful only for comparing direct (troffer) lighting systems. A minimum of 70 is recommended. INote that a high VCP does not guarantee visual comfort.)
Most classrooms Commons, lunchrooms Medical/dental classes Art/graphics classes
57
TYPICAL DESK LOCATION
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- 'WINDOW WALL
16'-0" TO 22'-0"
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REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE A layout with four F32T8 lamps and an electronic ballast in each suspended classroom fixture produces 40-50 fc in the seating area and 20-30 vertical fc on the chalkboard at 0.97
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SUSPENDED DIRECT/INDIRECT LIGHTING SYSTEMS
I I
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watts/sq ft. The direct/indirect fixtures are designed for traditional classrooms. An indirect lighting system might be used in a computer classroom.
TYPICAL DESK LOCATION
I H - - - + - - - - + - - - . j - - - - - f - - - - f - - - + - - - - + - L DIRECT
LIGHTING FIXTURE (TROFFER)
J
WINDOW WALL REFLECTED CEILING PLAN REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE
NOTE
In a 10,000 sq ft gymnasium, average lighting would be 4050 footcandles at 0.95 watts/sq ft provided by 400-watt metal halide fixtures.
This layout. suitable for traditional classrooms, produces 50-60 fc in an empty room using three F32T8 lamps in a lensed or parabolic luminaire at 1.29 watts/sq ft. With a low
GYMNASIUM LIGHTING
CLASSROOM WITH TROFFERS
light level ballast, it can also produce 40-50 fc at 1.09 watts/sq ft. For computer classrooms, use computer-optimized parabolics and dimming.
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
58
lighting for Industrial Spaces
DESIGN OPTIONS INDUSTRIAL HID DOWNLIGHT SYSTEMS provide good acceptable light at low cost and thus are frequently used in industrial spaces. High-bav downlights are specifically suited for mounting heights greater than 20 ft. Low-bay downlights generally have lower wattage and are best for mounting heights less than 20 ft. Aluminum reflectors and prismatic glass or acrylic reflectors direct most light downward, although some light is directed upward in certain luminaires. Special aisle-Iiqhters and other types are available.
FLUORESCENT SYSTEMS are useful for mounting heights up to about 20 ft. They require more fixtures than HID systems but provide more uniform Irght with softer shadows; use electronic ballasts to eliminate stroboscopy. Fluorescent systems make good task lights for work stations. SPECIAL APPLICATION LUMINAIRES come in hundreds of different types, each optimized for a specific job, work station, environment, or hazard. Examples include explosionproof, vapor-tight, and paint booth luminaires. Choose luminaires for specific applications carefully, taking into account manufacturer recommendations.
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ILLUMINATION CRITERIA The lighting levels given are average figures:
J
HID LUMINAIRE-O
SAFETY: Backup quartz auxiliary lamps are needed for high intensity discharge (HID) systems. Where rotating machin ery is used, take precautions to prevent strobosopic prob lems by using fluorescent lighting systems or rotating phases of power. CCT and CRI: Correlated color temperatures ICCT) and the color rendering index (CRI) suitable for industrial uses are listed here:
NEITHER SPACING X NOR Y SHOULD EXCEED ABOUT 1.8
TIMES THE MOUNTING HEIGHT
OTHER RECOMMENDED CRtTERIA
ATMOSPHEREiENVIRONMENT: The amount and type dirt and other airborne particles present in an application can affect luminaire selection. For spaces where hazardous. corrosive, or explosive vapors or dust are present, specia' lighting equipment is generally required.
1. Industrial manufacturing-general: 3D-50 footcandles 1300-500 lux) in an empty room with task lighting as needed. 2. Industrial manufacturing-assembly and rough inspection: 50-70 footcandles 1500-700 luxl in an empty room. 3. Industrial manufacturing-fine assembly and moderate inspection: 50-70 footcandles 1500-7CO lux) in an empty room with task lighting as needed to achieve 100-200 footcandles (fc) depending on type of work.
4. Industrial manufacturing-specialized: refer to the IESNA Lighting Handbook. 5. Lunchrooms and break areas: 20-30 fc 1200-300 luxl in an empty room. 6. Hallways and circulation areas (excluding work spaces): 10-20 footcandles 1100-200 lux) in an empty room. 7. Warehouses: with high stacks, 20 footcandles minimum vertical illumination on stacks; for general use, 2G-40 fc in an empty room. 8. Storage areas: general illumination of 5-10 footcandles 150to 100 luxl.
Heavy industry, storage Most industrial Most warehouse Precise assembly
2100 3000 2100 4100
to to to to
5000K 5000K 5000K 5000K
>20 >50 >20 > 70
CRI CRI CRI CRI
LIGHTING POWER DENSITY: Listed are approximate design targets using HID systems or T8 lamps and elec tronic high-frequency ballasts (not including task lightsl: Warehouse Light industrial Precision industrial and inspection areas Storage areas Lunchrooms and hallways
0.2--D.5 W/sq 0.8-1.2 W/sq 1.2-1.8 W/sq 0.1--D.3 W/sq 0.8-1.0 W/sq
ft ft ft ft It
SUSPENSION CABLE~
FLUORESCENT LAMP
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE
TANDEM 8'-0" LAMPS (THREE 16'-0" LONG FIXTURES)
A low-bay layout using HID lighting requires the fewest luminaires. HPS offers the longest lamp life and lowest maintenance costs. Metal halide lighting is preferred for visibility and color rendering.
18'-0" HIGH sHELVING UNITS
HID LOW-BAY LAYOUT
ROWS SHOULD BE SPACED (X) UP TO ABOUT 1.5 TIMES THE MOUNTING HEIGHT WITH GAPS UP TO ABOUT 1.0 TIMES MOUNTING HEIGHT
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FLUORESCENT DOWNLIGHTING
BALLAST HOUSING
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DOWNLIGHTS REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
REFLECTOR
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LAMP
REFLECTED CEILING PLAN
NOTE NOTE
Fluorescent luminaires offer superior color and flicker-free operation with electronic ballasts. No warmup time, instant restriking, and long lamp life are other advantages of this lighting type.
FLUORESCENT LOW-BAY LAYOUT
In the left aisle shown. two 250-watt HPS aisle lighter down lights illuminate the shelving units at 0.6 W/sq ft. In the right aisle. the task is performed by fluorescent F96T8/ HO lamps at 0.5 W/sq ft. The fixture mounting height is about 18 ft above finished floor.
ACTIVE AISLE LIGHTING FOR WAREHOUSES
James Robert Benya. PE. FIES. IALD. Pacific Lightworks; Portland. Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
CLEAR GLASS LENS
HID DOWNLIGHTING
Outdoor Lighting Systems SHARP CUTOFF FLOODLIGHTS resemble shoebox parking lot luminaires with characteristics of Type IV distribution. These luminaires are designed to be elevated slightly in front to throw light farther. Sharp cutoff floods are especially good for car lots and sports lighting near residential districts where light trespass must be avoided.
GENERAL Outdoor lighting systems include a wide variety of lighting
types used to illuminate buildings, parking areas, roads, landscapes, signs, and other outdoor areas. STREET AND ROADWAY L1GHTING
LIGHT TRESPASS AND POLLUTION
Four significantly different lighting systems are used to ifiuminate roads and streets (and often large parking lots). All employ high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps:
LIGHT TRESPASS occurs when outdoor night lighting encroaches onto adjacent properties. Trespassing light is often annoying and can be quite offensive. Some cities have ordinances designed to prevent light trespass, although few of these are competently written.
Standard roadway lights, called cobraheads, are usually mounted to a mast arm and suspended over the roadway at mounting heights of 25-40 ft. 2, Sharp cutoff roadway lights, called shoeboxes. are specifically designed to minimize light pollution and trespass. They are typically mounted between 20 and 40 ft. 3. Traditionally shaped post lights often have a particular theme or design. They are usually less than 25 ft high. 4. High mast lights consist of multiple high-wattage lamps atop poles 60-120 It high.
~ mm
LIGHT POLLUTION occurs when light is emitted upwards into the night sky. It both wastes energy and causes light pollution, a condition in which the upward light strikes dirt and airborne pollution and obscures the view of the night sky. Some municipalities and counties with important observatories have developed lighting ordinances that regulate light sources, cutoff, and hours of operation in an attempt to make astronomy more possible.
Both light trespass and light pollution can be minimized or prevented by using sharp cutoff equipment and careful design practices. For street and roadway lighting, this means using shoebox luminaires, including decorative luminaires that employ shoebox-style optics. For floodlighting, this means using sharp cutoff floodlights and special sports lights equipped with louvers and visors to prevent upward light. These high-performance lights require careful layout to meet design criteria.
LUMINAIRE FOR FREEWAY INTERSECTIONS AND VERY LARGE PARKING LOTS
I
U M IN A IR E FOR MOST ROADS AND PARKING LOTS
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DECORATIVE LUMINAIRE ON POLE
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STREET AND ROADWAY LIGHTING
Q
LAYOUT OF STREET AND PARKING LOT LIGHTING. Most luminaires for street and parking lighting are categorized according to the lighting patterns they create on the ground. Types I-V are described in the accompanying chart.
Computer point-by-point calculations are recommended. However, it is possible to layout roadway and parking lot lighting using isolux curves (similar to those illustrated), making sure the overlapping footcandle lines achieve at least 25% of the intended average footcandle level.
Tvpe IV
Q
AREA FLOODLIGHTING
Floodlighting is used to illuminate exterior fields, lots, yards. docks, and other similar areas. Special care is often needed to minimize light trespass and light pollution. Floodlights are described by their light distribution. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) developed a system in which floodlight beams are measured in degrees of vertical and horizontal distribution, then rated from 1 (very narrow field anglel to 7 (very wide field angle!. GENERAL PURPOSE FLOODLIGHTS are usually made in rectangular boxes and typically have wide distributions (5V x 6H or 6V x 7Hl. Applications include work yards, general security and sports lighting. and building floodlighting. Lamps are usually HID from very low wattage (35 W) to 1.000 watts, but some floodlights use compact fluorescent and halogen lamps. SPORTS LIGHTS are designed to throw narrow to medium wide beams (NEMA 2H x 2V to NEMA 4H x 4V). Most sports lights are round with standard 4QO..1500 watt HID lamps mounted in an axial position to create a round beam. Some advanced designs use special double-ended metal halide lamps (150Q..2000 watts) for more precise optical control with less trespass. '
Roads and streets where the luminaire is mounted in the median or suspended over the road center. Spacing is 6-7
MHO
in
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Additional information on new and evolving lighting tschnologies is available from Advanced Lighting Guidelines, a publication of the U.S. Department of Energy from Battelle Pacific Northwest National Labs, and from Specifier Reports, published by the Lighting Research Center at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. Additional information on design and applications can be found in a number of textbooks on the SUbject of architectural lighting design, landscape lighting, and related topics. Popular lighting industry publications offering current projects and industry news include Lighting Design and Application, Architectural Lighting, Lighting Dimensions, and Architectural Record Lighting Supplement.
COMMON EXTERIOR LIGHTING TYPES TYPE
USE
Bollards
Walkway and pathway lighting. A typical bollard is 42-48 in. high and uses a lamp ranging from about 35-watt to 1On-watt HID (high-intensity discharge!.
Step lights
Walkway and stairway lighting from adjacent retaining walls. The light is mounted at or below the rail height
Well lights, direct burial lights
Illumination of trees and structures from below. These are concealed uplights.
Landscape lights
Includes a wide variety of low-level lights, such as path, planter bed, and wallwash lights and uplights in several styles. For residential landscapes, most lighting systems are low voltage (12V typically) for ease of wiring and safety.
Parking garage lights
Parking garages. These are a unique type of HID luminaire designed specifically for the low concrete ceilings of garages. They typically are 100- to 175-watt fixtures.
Sign lights
Illumination of signs. These are designed to be mounted below and in front of a sign and to illuminate upwards evenly.
USE
Type I
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LIGHTING INFORMATION SOURCES
The best general purpose reference document for Iightmg information is the IESNA Lighting Handbook, published by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America in New York. IESNA Recommended Practices provide indepth information on specific applications, for example. office lighting, roadway lighting, and residential lighting
LUMINAIRES FOR STREET AND PARKING LIGHTING
LUMINAIRE FOR MALLS, BUILDING ENTRIES, AND FORMAL STREET LIGHTING
Type V
Roads and streets where the turninaire is mounted above the road but to the side. Spacing is 5-6 MH."
Roads and streets where the luminaire is to the side and not above the road; also used for parking lots. Spacing is 4-5
MH.' Parking lots and service areas requiring a forward throw distribution.
Parking lots. Spacing is 3-4
G)
MHO
"MH-multiples of mounting height. OTHER COMMON TYPES OF EXTERIOR LtGHTING
Exterior luminaires are designed specifically for many outdoor lighting applications. Some of the more common types are described in the accompanying chart.
59
Choose outdoor lighting with consideration for the elements and for the threat of vandalism or other damage. Some luminaires are composed of plastics or cornposite materials to resist damage and corrosion. Also keep in mind temperature extremes and the minimum starting temperatures of the lamp and ballast.
James Robert Benya, PE, FIES, IALD, Pacific Lightworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinskv, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt. Colorado Mark Rea, ed., IESNA Lighting Handbook (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, 19931
LIGHTING DESIGN
60
Site Lighting
ILLUMINATION CRITERIA Thelighting levels given here are average figures Parking lots with pedestrian cross-traffic: from 0.8 fe in places with low activity to 3.6 fc in places with a high level of activity; uniformity of 4:1 Parking lots with minimum pedestrian cross-traffic: from 0.5 fc and uniformity of 4;1 in places of low activity to 2.0 fe with uniformity of 3:1 in places of h"lgh activity. Sidewalks and bikeways: from 0.2 fc with 10:1 uniformity in residential areas to 1.0 fe with 4:1 uniformity in commercial areas. 4 Building entrances: from 1.0 fc near inactive entrances to 5.0 fe at active entrances Outdoor industrial areas: 0.2 fe for storage and dump areas; 2.0 to 5.0 fe for active loading, unloading, and rough work areas; 10 to 20 fc for work areas such as passenger loading, gas pumps, and railroad hump areas. 6. Outdoor sports: from 5 fc for recreational sport areas to 150 fc for major league baseball. ReIer to the IESNA Lighting Handbook for more information OTHER RECOMMENDED CRITERIA
COLOR OF LIGHT: White light sources like metal halide, fluorescent. and compact fluorescent luminaires are recommended for sports, most applications involving pedestrians, and situations that require color discrimination. Light sources that provide poor color, such as high-pressure sodium fixtures, may be better suited for security lighting, Tungsten sources, including halogen fixtures, offer excellent color rendition but poor energy efficiency and short life. SURVIVABILITY: Choose fixtures that are physically strong and resistant to vandals and the weather and environment.
LIGHT POLLUTION: Minimize light pollution by preventing stray upward light. Use cutoff luminaires.
Short 'pedestrian" poles: similar to parking lot luminaires these poles are 8~ 15 ft high and use lower wattage: lamps. Spacing is 4-6 times the mounting height. Low level 'bollards": these are typically 42-48 in. high Spacing is about 4 times the height of the bollards. Step lights recessed into retaining walls 4. Building-mounted wall brackets (wallpacks}. Keep in mind the overhang of adjacent buildings Canopies and soffits can serve as locations for recessed lighting to illuminate walks near the building foundation
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR PARKING AREAS
MINIMUM STARTING TEMPERATURES
Poles between 12 it and 40 ft high are most commonly used for parking areas because they provide good acceptable light at low cost. Pole spacing is generally about 4 times the mounting height; optimum pole heights are 1520 It lor spacing along every aisle and 30-40 It lor spacing along every other aisle.
COMMON LIGHT SOURCES
STARTING AND OPERATING TEMPERATURE: Fixtures should be able to start and operate at the lowest expected temperature on a site. Minimum starting temperatures for common sources are shown in the accompanying table. LIGHT TRESPASS: Minimize the light shining onto adjacent properties by uSing sharp cutoff lighting. Maximum mounting height for a fixture is a function of the cutoff angle.
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE
Nolimit
Tungsten (incandescent, halogen)
High mast poles higher than 40 ft (up to 100 ftl can be used to light large parking areas economically. Poles must be equipped with lowering devices for servicing luminaires.
MH, MV HID Lamps
-20°F
HPS lamps
-40°F
Fluorescent HO
-20°F
Fluorescent T12fTB
O"F' _10°F'
Compact fluorescent amalgam 126-32-42 wi
Floodligh~s mounted onto buildings are often a low-cost alternative to mounting poles. To minimize light trespass, the farthest distance from the building to the edge of the lot or Illuminated area is about 5 times the mounting height.
32°F
Standard compact fluorescent
"These temperatures are with specific low temperature ballast; with standard ballast, the temperature may be as high as 50°F.
DESIGN FOR WALKWAYS Walkways away Irom a building are usually illuminated by the parking lot lighting system. But near the building (or in areas like a park when there is no parking lot nearby) other lighting should be added. Consider these options:
NOTE
In a parking area, typical spacing of 17-ft fixtures is about 68 It across by 60-70 It across. Sides of buildings are good places to mount lights to illuminate side drives. Bollards are used near visitor parking to "dress up" the entry.
PERIMETER OF PARKING LOT, USE POLEMOUNTED LUMINAIRE WITH ONE 250 WATT FIXTURE (ON TYPICAL 17'-0" HIGH POLE)
/
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4TIMES· HEIGHT / OF POLE
/' _
4 TIMES HEIGHT OF POLE MIDDLE OF PARKING LOT, USE POLEMOUNTED LUMINAIRE WITH TWO 250 WATT FIXTURES (ON TYPICAL 17'-0" HIGH POLE)
STEP LIGHTS (RECESSED)
"PEDESTRIAN* UGHT POLES SIMILAR TO PARKING LOT LUMINAIRES (USE LOWER WATTAGE LAMPS)
12' TO 40' HIGH
BUILDING·MOUNTED LIGHTS SIMILAR TO PARKING LOT LUMINAIRES: ILLUMINATES DRIVES AND SIDEWALK
4 TO 6 TIMES HEIGHT OF POLE
INACTIVE BUILDING ENTRANCE TO HAVE 1.0 FC, AVERAGE, LIGHTING ACTIVE BUILDING ENTRANCE TO HAVE 5.0 FC, AVERAGE. LIGHTING LIGHTS IN SOLLARDS ILLUMINATE WALKS NEAR ENTRY AND HELP SIGNIFY ~ENTRANCE"
DRIVES AND PARKING AREAS NEAR A BUILDING James Robert Benya, PE, F1ES, IALD, Pacific Liqhtworks; Portland, Oregon Robert Sardinsky, Rising Sun Enterprises; Basalt, Colorado
LIGHTING DESIGN
Daylighting GENERAL
SOURCE
Ample daylight is available throughout most of North America for lighting interior spaces during a large portion of the working day. Daylight is often used for ambient lighting but may be used for critical visual tasks as well, in each case supplemented with electric light as needed. Daylight is thought by most to be psychologically desirable. and there is growing evidence that it is biologically beneficial and can contribute to enhanced task performance. The variability of the intensity and color of daylight over time stimulates the visual senses, and the view and visual connection with the outdoors that accompanies many daylighting designs is almost universally desired. Proper use of daylight can help reduce unnecessary energy use for electric lighting and cooling, if the electric lighting system is controlled with onoff switching or dimming.
The origin of all daylight is the sun but the light may reach a work space via a nun:ber of paths. Direct sunjqht is intense and vanes substantially as the sun's position changes throughout the day (up to 10,000 tootcanoles (fell. Daylight from a clear sky can be 10 to 25% of the intensity of direct sunlight 11000-2500 fc). Daylight under partly cloudy conditions can be highly variable; daylight under full overcast conditions can be 5 to 10% of sun conditions 1500-1000fcl. Data on daylight availability for various cities and building orientations can be found in several references. Daylight availability at locations in the United States is influenced by latitude and weather patterns. Traditionally overcast climates such as Seattle may have sunshine only 40% of the year while regions like Palm Springs, California, have sunny conditions for 90% of the year.
Daylight has always been an important element of architectural design, and in the era before cheap electric light it was often a major determinant of a building's form. In buildings today daylighting strategies are used in a variety of contexts, both as a strategy to define the quality of experience in an architectural space as well as in a more utilitarian role to reduce unneeded use of electric lighting. Daylighting usually supplements or complements an electric lighting design, so it is essential that the two be fully integrated. For a given building program and climate, it may be feasible and desirable to create spaces in which the primary light source is daylight. In others, electric lighting will be the primary source, supplemented by daylight. The decision to make daylight the primary source will directly influence other design decisions such as the size of the floor plan, the arrangement of spaces within the floor plan, and the overall massing and configuration of the building. Designs intended to maximize daylight use will either provide perimeter access to each space or utilize low-rise designs that allow skylights to provide daylight. Atriums and light courts can provide some useful daylight in low-rise buildings of two to five stories. The best strategy for daylighting in high-rise buildings is to ensure that no spaces on the floor plan are more than 30 It from a daylighting source.
Orientation has a major impact on available daylight and influences the degree of difficulty in controlling sunlight on a facade. North orientations in most North American locations receive direct sunlight only in the early morning or late evening in summer. South facades have the longest exposure to direct sun. Given the high altitude angle of the sun in summer, sun control on the south facade is readily addressed with properly sized overhangs. In winter low altitude sun must be controlled by shades, blinds, or other means. Low altitude direct sun on east and west orientations causes glare and cooling problems and is the most difficult to control. Exterior vertical fins or interior vertical blinds provide control but allow some view.
DESIGN PROCESS To be successful, daylighting requires the integration of all major building systems. Daylighting issues should be well defined in the programmatic or schematic phases of design and monitored through construction to occupancy. Early planning is essential, since it may be difficult and costly to add features later in design development. Many architects and lighting designers are skilled in resolving daylighting design issues and trade-offs. However, in designs that push the state of the art, present unusual conditions, or have quantitative performance expectations that must be met, it may be appropriate to use a daylighting consultant with expertise in many of the computer-based tools now available (see discussion below, Design and Analysis Tools).
LIGHT SHELF
Exterior conditions (ground, trees, water, adjacent buildings) can all influence interior daylight levels. In some cases the architect can control these conditions to enhance daylight levels. Nearby trees will filter daylight and adjacent buildings may obstruct the view of the sky and block direct sun. In built-up urban environments, windows on lower floors of buildings adjacent to multistory buildinqs will receive little useful daylight. The south facade of a light colored building that is struck by direct sunlight can become a very bright light source for the north facing windows of an adjacent building.
DESIGN STRATEGIES
I
Not only does the intensity of daylight and sunlight vary but the color or appearance varies as well. The characteristic yellow-white of direct sunlight becomes' redder as the sun moves lower in the sky and travels through more air mass. The north sky on a clear day can be deep blue, a result of scattering processes in the atmosphere. Cloudy 'and hazy skies typically have a uniform white appearance. Daylight is a full-spectrum source that, notwithstanding its variability, will faithfully render the color of most materials, something that not all electric lamps can do. The sun and sky are powerful sources of ultraviolet light that can damage pigments in paintings and turnishinqs. Design in light sensitive applications such as museums must pay particular attention not only to the UV characteristics of daylight but also to the visible light portions, which are responsible for some fading. Certain glazing options will reduce these negative effects of light to acceptable levels.
H = HEIGHT
1~ IH
'-----------'-'---' -t 3H
REDIRECTED DAYLIGHT PENETRATION INTO A SPACE A window of a given size will provide the most daylight deep in a space when it is located as high as possible on the wall. Light-eolored walls and ceilings maximize the daylight levels in the rear of a space. Deeper spaces need larger windows to provide more light but larger windows have other drawbacks. The uniformity ratio between the daylight level in the front and back of a room becomes larger as the room becomes deeper and should not exceed a ratio of 10:1. A splayed window reveal will reduce glare and ease the transition from bright exterior to darker interior. Sloped ceiling surtaces may improve daylight utilization but their biggest benefit is typically the greater ceiling height at the perimeter. Interior walls and partitions will reduce daylight levels. Use of light colors or glazed interior partition walts will help mitigate this undesired impact. Distribution of daylight in a space can be greatly improved if it is introduced from multiple apertures-for example, windows on two sides of a space, or windows and clerestories, or windows and skylights. In low-rise buildinqs, diffusing skylights are an effective way to daylight a space. The skylights are diffusing and their spacing is optimized based on ceiling height. More elaborate toplighting systems can utilize a variety of roof monitors or clerestories.
FULL HEIGHT WINDOW
,
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Building envelope and room design details can be thought of as the light fixture that controls the distribution of daylight in a space. Envelope decisions include the size, shape, and location of the fenestration and the type of glazing and shading system. Room geometry, size, and surface properties also influence achievable daylight levels.
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There are practical limits to room size beyond which conventional window systems are ineffective. The depth limitation of a daylighted zone with windows becomes a fundamental constraint and design determinant. for designs that use diffuse daylight from the sky, clouds, or surrounding environment, it is difficult to provide adequate daylight when the depth of the space is more than 1.5 or 2 times the height of the head of the window. (Designs that redirect daylight and sunlight to the ceiling using light shelves or light redirecting glazings might be able to extend this to 3 times the ceiling height.)
H = HEIGHT
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OF LIGHT LEVEL
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LIGHT PATHS TO A WqRK SPACE
LlGHT·COLORED ROOM SURFACE
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ENVELOPE AND ROOM DESIGN Although critical design decisions related to plan and section will be determined early, many seemingly small decisions are made in the final stages of design and bid preparation that can influence the success of a daylighted space. These include issues such as interior finishes, furniture specifications, and installation details for controls. After construction is complete, most daylighting systems involving controls and operable systems should be calibrated and commissioned. The final step in the process is to ensure that facility managers and occupants understand the operation of the complete system.
61
DIFFUSE DAYLIGHT PENETRATION INTO A SPACE
IH
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DEEP OVERHANG
RELATIVE INDICATOR OF LIGHT LEVELS WITH VARIOUS DESIGNS
Stephen Selkowitz; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, California
LIGHTING DESIGN
62
Daylighfing New types of light redirecting systems such as prismatic glazings provide shading at a task location by redirecting the sunlight to the ceiling. Light shelves can also provide shadIng as well as some control of daylight levels and light distribution. Simple, flat light shelves with white, diffuse surfaces will provide some shading near the window and brighten the ceiling near the window but will not redirect light deep into a room, The size, shape, location, and surface properties of light shelves will have a significant influence on their ability to redistribute light in a space.
H '" HEIGHT
5 "" SPACING
S < 1.5 H
LIGHT LEVELS WITH SKYLIGHTS
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--'~SOUTH
jo~i:'M EXTERNAL BLINDS
BLINDS BETWEEN GLASS
INTERNAL BLINDS
INTERNAL SHADES
SHADING DEVICES NEAR GLAZING SURFACE TOPLIGHTING SYSTEM TYPES
GLAZING AND SHADING DESIGN Selection of a glazing system can have a tremendous impact on the performance of a daylighting system. The glazing controls the amount of light admitted, its intensity, and its directionality as it enters a space. The challenge is to admit adequate light to achieve illumination objectives without creating glare or causing overheating or large cooling loads. Numerous glazing systems are available to control solar gain and the transmittance, distribution, and color of light.Conventional clear and tinted gJazings are still offered but low-E coated glass or plastic and spectrally selective low-E glazings are becoming more popular. These glazings reduce winter heat loss and reduce cooling load in summer with little additional loss of daylight. They are excellent for admitting daylight but glare control must be provided with shading systems. In an insulating glass unit, both low-E and tinted glazings can be used to optimize performance. Highly reflective glass with very low transmittance has a role in highly glazed facades with limited sun control options, but occupants complain about poor views through these glazings on overcast days or at night. Glazings with a frit layer provide some sun and glare control. Some new options available to designers promise greater optical control capability. Prismatic glazings can redirect light, and between-glass elements can provide varying degrees of light control and solar control. Adequate control of sun and glare is often difficult to provide with glazing selection alone. Architectural shading solutions are typically part of the exterior facade. Other shading devices can be positioned outside the glazing, between glazings, or at the interior surface. Shading svsterns can be static or operable, controlled either by occupants or with motorized, automated controls. Shading systems that are intended to block sunlight alone can be dark, but light-eolored systems should be used if the intent is to provide diffuse daylight. Overhangs, fins, shade screens, venetian blinds, vertical blinds, miniature louvers, and roller shades are commonly used systems. Operable systems are often preferred because they can take advantage of the variability of sunlight and daylight. In open plan offices it may be desirable to use motorized, automated shading controls; in sif1gle-person offices it is likely that the occupant will use the shading controls as needed.
ttr 111
OVERHANG
LOUVERED OVERHANG
LIGHT SHELF
AWNING
SKYLIGHTS AND SLOPED GLAZING Light distribution from skylights is intrinsically more uniform than that from windows. Skylight solutions range from simple vacuum-formed plastic domes to sophisticated, multilayer glazing products. Skylights in work areas with office tasks should provide diffuse light so that its distribution is relatively uniform. Nondiffusing glazings will result in visual hot spots and glare. Light diffusion can be achieved by using diffusing plastic bubble skylights, high transmission glazing with a diffusion screen below, some of the fritted glasses or laminates with diffusing layers, or exterior shading systems. Light wells provide a transition from the roof plane to the lower ceiling plane or the space below. The geometry and surface properties of the wells determine the total light loss. Light wells can reduce the amount of light entering a space from as little as 10% to as much as 85%. Splayed wells with high reflectance finishes are the best performers. Adequate daylight in most climates is provided with skylight areas of about 4 to 8% 'with relatively high transmittance glazing. Larger areas with proportionally lower transmittance will work as well. A completely glazed roof or sloped glazing may be used but the transmittance of the glazing should be about 5%. The importance of controlling heat gain depends in part on the occupancy of the space and the climate. In most skylight and sloped glazing designs, safety codes require laminated glass or alternative safety solutions; consult code authorities or manufacturers. CLEAR TINTED
~
DIFFUSING
/ /
I /
/
DAYLIGHT DISTRIBUTION WITH SKYLIGHT TYPES
OVERHANG WITH LOUVERS
VERTICAL LOUVERS
WINDOW SHADING DEVICES
INEFFICIENT LIGHT WELL
LIGHT WELL DESIGN
ELECTRIC LIGHTING INTEGRATION AND CONTROLS Because people respond to the overall luminous environment, it is important that electric lighting and daylighting be designed and specified as a well-integrated system. The
Stephen Selkowitz; Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory; Berkeley, California
LIGHTING DESIGN
EFFICiENT LIGHT WELL
overall lighting concept includes the controls used to man age the electric lighting system. Many designers behevr that an indirect lighting system that illuminates the ceihr.: and wall surface is a better complement to a daylighteu space than a direct lighting system. Such an indirect ambient system might be used with task lights to produce higher illuminance levels where needed. Electric lightin~; sources may be chosen for their compatibility with colo' temperature in a daylighted space, their ability to dim, anc the ability to quickly restart if switched off A well-daylighted space will only save energy if lighting can trois are used to turn off or dim electric lighting. For most systems the control options are on-off switching, multilevel switching, or dimming. Dimming is the preferred strategy because it changes light levels smoothly, often mak.n. changes in electric light levels unnoticeable in the space Oaylighting controls may also be combined with othe forms of lighting control to achieve even greater energy savings. To guarantee energy and cost savings, automatic controls are preferable to manual controls, although occu pants should be able to override any automatic system Switching or dimming systems must be designed with care to capture daylighting savings. The layout of circuits for fix tures must be coordinated with the pattern of available day light. These zoning issues are more important in open plan spaces than in perimeter single offices. Photocell sensors in automatic control systems must be properly located in the space, and the entire control system must be calibrated after installation. A users' manual for occupants is recom mended.
TOTAL BUILDING ENERGY CONSUMPTION Final daylighting design decisions must account for the interaction of other systems, such as heating and cooling impacts of the glazing and the cooling impacts of electric lighting use. Although the specifics vary with climate and other building design and operation details, the general trend of the lighting-HVAC trade-off is well known. It is useful to estimate the energy savings as a function of ..ettec tive aperture" (EAl. defined as the fraction of the wall that is glazed (window-to-wall ratios, or WVVR) times the visible transmittance (Tv) of the glazing system. An EA of .35 or greater is adequate to provide large daylighting savings; higher levels increase cooling loads with only minimal additional lighting energy savings. Optimal EA values for skylights are even smaller; an EA of .05 provides substantial energy savings.
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS TOOLS Since many critical architectural decisions that affect daylighting solutions occur early in the design process, it is essential that the design consequences of those decisions be predictable. It is also important that the design intent of a daylighting solution be communicated to all members of the design team so that decisions made later in the process will support and reinforce the original intent. Relatively simple changes late in the process, ranging from a change in paint color to improper sensor position, can have a significant impact on the success of a daylighting plan. However, a number of tools are available to help predict the performance of a daylighting system. Physical Scale Models: Since lighting scales perfectly, day lighting levels in a small-scale model placed outdoors will be the same as the full-size building space (assuming the model faithfully reproduces all of the parameters that influence light levels, such as geometry and surface reflectances), It is important to account for the effects of partitions and furnishings, which can significantly influence light levels. The continuous variability of the outdoor sky also must be accounted for when trying to compare results of successive measurements. One alternative is to use simultaneous measurements in side-by-side models. In all model measurements, care must be exercised in construction details, and accurate light measurement equipment must be used. Software: Computer-based tools are increasingly used to estimate daylight levels and their impacts. Some calculate lighting and daylighting quantities only; others calculate daylighting as part of a complete building systems energy analysis. The most sophisticated lighting tools are linked to CAD software. They use either radiositv or raytracing techniques to produce photorealistic images that are not only quantitatively accurate but also assist the designer in understanding the qualitative aspects of daylighting design under a variety of sun and sky conditions. Some whole building energy simulation tools also model daylighting impacts Those that can account for the hourly operational characteristics of light sensors and shading device operation can assist with understanding the lighting and thermal tradeoffs involved in developing efficient building designs
Principles of Sound
63
GENERAL Sound is energy produced by a vibrating object or surface and transmitted as a wave through an elastic medium. Such a medium may be air (airborne sound) or anv solid common building material, such as steel. concrete, wood, piping, gypsum board. etc. (structure-borne sound). A sound wave has amplitude and frequency.
y))
The amplitude of sound waves is measured in decibels (dB). The decibel scale is a logarithmic scale based on the logarithm of the ratio of a sound pressure to a reference sound pressure (the threshold of audibility). The values of a logarithmic scale, such as the decibel levels of two noise sources, cannot be added directly. Instead, use the simplified method described in the table immediately below: Difference between sound levels (in dBI
CH
2-3
4-9
>10
Add this number to higher sound level
3
2
1
0
SOUND SOURCE
FREQUENCY
SOUND AND FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
For example, 90 dB + 20 dB
= 90 dB; 60 dB + 60 dB = 63 dB.
RANGE OF OCTAVE (Hz)
The frequency of sound waves is measured in Hertz (Hz, also known as cycles per second) and grouped into octaves (an octave band is labeled by its geometric center frequency). An octave band covers the range from one frequency (Hz) to twice that frequency (f to 2f). The range of human hearing covers the frequencies from 20 to 16,000 Hz. Human hearing is most acute in the 1000 to 4000 Hz octave bands
22-44
The human ear discriminates against low frequencies in a manner matched by the A·weighting filter of a sound level meter, measured in dBA, or A-weighted decibels. This is the most universally accepted single number rating for human response to sound.
SUBJECTIVE REACTIONS TO CHANGE IN SOUND LEVEL
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (HZ)
CHANGE IN SOUND LEVEL*
31.5
44-88
63
88-175
125
1 to 2
175-350
250
350--700
500
CHANGE IN APPARENT LOUDNESS Imperceptible Barely perceptible
700--1400
1000
1400--2800
2000
2800--5600
4000
5600--11,200
8000
5 or 6
Clearly noticeable
10
Significant change-twice as loud (or hall as loud)
20
Dramatic Change-four times as loud (or a quarter as loud)
*Measured In decibels (plus or minus)
FREQUENCY OF COMMON SOUNDS TYPE OF SOUND
FREQUENCY OR PITCH (HZ) LOW FREQUENCY
I 16 Low pedal stop on organ
31.5
63
125
l
250
HIGH FREQUENCY
MIDFREQUENCY
I OCTAVE"I 500
'j
I
1000
2000
••
8000
16000
.-
Highest note on piano Range of human speech Area of most speech intelligibility Ballast hum from fluorescents and harmonics
4000
.-
I
.1
•
Desktop computers with disk drive Office equipment (printers, typewriters, telephones) Trucks, buses Human hearing ·Octave-a frequency ratio of 2:1
TYPICAL SOUND LEVELS SOUND LEVEL (dBAI
ENVIRONMENT
SUBJECTIVE EVALUATIONS
OUTDOOR
INDOOR
140
Deafening
Near jet engine and artillery fire
130
Threshold 01 pain Threshold 01 leeling
Jet aircraft departure (within 500 ttl Elevated train
-
120
Jet Ilyover at 1000 It
Inside propeller plane
Power mower, motorcycle at 25 ft, auto horn at 10ft
Crowd noise in arena
110 100
Very loud
90
Hard-rock band
Propeller plane flyover at 1000 ft, noisy urban street
Full symphony or band, food blender, noisy factory Inside auto at high speed, garbage disposal. dishwasher
80
Moderately loud
Diesel truck at 40 mph at 50 It
70
Loud Moderate
Heavy urban traffic
Face-to-face conversation, vacuum cleaner, electric typewriter
Air-conditioning condenser at 15 ft, near freeway auto traffic
General office
50 40
Quiet
Large transformer at 100 ft
Large public lobby, atrium
Bird calls
Private office, soft radio music in apartment
30
Very quiet
60
20 10 0
Just audible
Quiet residential neighborhood
Bedroom, average residence without stereo
Rustling leaves
Quiet theater, whisper
Still night in rural area
Recording studio
Threshold of hearing
Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
31500
64
Sound Absorption Properties of Materials
GENERAL
NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT
All materials and surfaces absorb some sound greater than 0% and less than 100%. The percentage of incident sound energy that is absorbed by a material, divided by 100, equals the coefficient of absorption, designated a. which ranges from 0 to .99. The coefficient varies as a function of frequency, Hz.
The noise reduction coefficient (NRC) is the arttbmet« average of the absorption coefficients, a, at four designated trequencres: 250 Hz, 500 Hz, 1,000 Hz, and 2,000 Hz. These frequencies have been selected because they represent the middle range of most representative sound sources pertinent to architectural applications. Because the NRC value is meant to be only a general indication of a material's efficiency at absorbing sound, it is rounded off to the nearest .05 value and often represented as a .10 range (for example, 50 to .60). NRC ratings can never be less than 0 or greater than 1.00. The following formula can be used to compute the NRC for a particular application:
Any material can be tested in a proper laboratory to determine its ex values, as per ASTM C423. Some tests give values greater than 1.0. but this is an anomaly caused by the testing procedure; such values should be corrected to be not more than 1.0, since no material can absorb more than 100% of the incident energy that strikes its surface.
SOUND ENERGY ABSORPTION MECHANISMS There are three mechanisms by which sound energy is absorbed or dissipated as it strikes a surface. In all cases, sound energy is converted to heat. although never enough heat to be felt.
NRC
= (a250
+ a500 + a1000 + a2000)/4
GJ.ss FIBER
z o
.80
·37 V
o,
'o" III
W
-c
V
IL
o Z
/
NRC=
l----
z o
V
;: ll.
'o" o" W
1/
IL
TYPE E MOUNTING
I- 0.5
/ /
Z
W
iL IL
W
"
"
../
V
/
r'--CARPET
~
o
125
250
500
"
V
" o
/
l/
8
2~
U
/'
-r
U
W
ACOUSTICAL TILE
1000 2000 4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN HZ)
PANEL ABSORPTION involves installation of thin lightweight panels like gypsum board, glass, and plywood. Sound waves cause panels to vibrate. Sound absorption for a panel is greatest at that resonant frequency.
TYPICAL VALUES FOR PANEL ABSORPTION 10
TYPE D MOUNTING
75
.32
37 30
o
V
/
III
/'
-
-
4
I
IL
/
~:::::
MOUNTING DEPTH
W
I--""
-TEST ROar-.'
? .-
.65 + 72 + .80 + .83
iJ
~
~
TYPE A MOUNTING
MOUNTING FRAME OR FIXTURE
iL
10
SOUNDABSORBIN(, MATERIAL
-.
1.0
I- 0.5
TYPICAL VALUES FOR POROUS ABSORPTION
.
SAMPLE DERIVATION OF NRC
;:
POROUS ABSORPTION entails the use of soft, porous, ..fuzzy" materials like glass fiber, mineral wool, and carpet. The pressure fluctuations of a sound wave in air cause the fibers of such materials to move, and the friction of the fibers dissipates the sound energy.
~ ~~~~I M EN
WAWNNL
125
TYPICAL MOUNTING TYPES
V
ACOUSTICAL PERFORMANCE PER MOUNTING ASSEMBLY
/" NRC-
25 + .30 + _87 + .32
4
250
500
- .30
1.0
SAME MATERIAL TYPE E MOUNTING
z
1000 2000 4000
o
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz)
SOUND-ABSORBING COEFFICIENTS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS The sound-absorbinq coefficients for a given material may vary depending on the thickness of the material. how it is supported or mounted, the depth of the air space behind the material, and the facing in front of the. material. In general. thicker porous materials absorb more sound; the air space behind a material will increase the absorption efficiency, especially at low frequencies; and thin facings degrade high frequency absorption. MOUNTING ASSEMBLIES For consistency in comparing test results, there are set standards for the mounting assembly used in testing absorbent materials. These mounting conditions should be reported along with any and all test data so that the data accurately reflect field conditions. Mounting types A, D, and E are typical for standard sound-absorbing materials. A numerical suffix is used to specify the mounting depth in millimeters; for example, E-400 indicates mounting type E with a 400 mm airspace (a typical 16 in. plenum). Mounting types are specified by ASTM E795.
'o" m o"
"..
III
/
IL
t- 0.5
Z
/
w U
-"--------
-- /
ii:
,................ ;'"
r-, -,
PERFO~~ FACING
A
iL IL
. "
W
o
I-- TYPICAL ACOUSTICAL
U
MATERIAL: TYPE A MO,NTINi
o
125
250
500
1000
2000 4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz)
NOTE Acoustical performance varies with mounting assembly and facing.
SOUND-ABSORBING COEFFICIENTS FOR VARIOUS MATERIALS
z o
TYPICAL DATA/MATERIAL
n,
Marble
;:
'o" m "o
in.
t25 Hz
250 Hz
500 Hz
1000 Hz
2000 HZ
4000 HZ
NRC
.01
.01
01
.01
.02
02
.00
29
.10
.05
.04
.07
.09
.05
III
Gypsum board,
IL
Wood, 1 in. thick, with air space behind
.19
.14
.09
.06
06
.05
.10
Heavy carpet on concrete
.02
.06
.14
.37
.60
.65
.30
Acoustical tile, surface-mounted
.34
.28
.45
66
.74
.77
.55
Acoustical tile, suspended
.43
.38
.53
.77
.87
.77
.65
/ ' THIN GLASS
I- 0.5
Z
W
U
I
.>: ~ V I \ "r-... ~ -, J I--J
iL IL
W
o
LIGHTWEIGHT WOOD PANELS
u
" o
125
--
250
500
1/ 2
Acoustical tile, painted (sst.)
.35
.35
.45
50
.50
.45
.45
Audience area, empty, hard seats
.15
.19
.22
.39
.38
.30
.30
Audience area, occupied, upholstered seats
39
.57
.80
.94
.92
.87
80
Glass fiber, 1 in
.04
.21
.73
.99
.99
.90
.75
---j
1000 2000 4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (IN Hz)
CAVITY ABSORPTION entails the movement of air pressure fluctuations across the narrow neck of an enclosed air cavity, such as a space behind a perforated panel or a slotted concrete masonry unit. also called a Helmholtz resonator. The natural frequency at which the resonator most efficiently absorbs sound is related to the volume of the cavity, the size of the neck opening, and the presence of any insulation in the cavity.
Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Glass fiber, 4 in.
.77
.99
.99
.99
.99
.99
.95
Thin fabric, stretched tight to wall
03
.04
.11
.17
.24
.35
.15
Thick fabric, bunched 4 in. from wall
.14-
.35
55
.72
.70
65
.60
NOTE This table gives representative absorption coefficients at various frequencies for some typical materials. To determine values not provided here, refer to manufacturer's data
or extrapolate from similar constructions. All materials have some absorption values that can be determined from proper test reports.
Room Acoustics GENERAL
65
UJ
a
U
SOUND ABSORPTION
UJ
83>3 2>8 1
Z
The total sound absorbing units (a) provided by a given material are a function of the absorptive properties (0;) and surface area (S) of that material as defined by the formula
-' W m
UJUJ
11l u, -'
= S"
>
Ql
\
in which a = sabins (units of sound absorption), S = surface area (measured in sq m or sq ttl. and a = the coefficient of absorption.
8o
The total sabins in a room can be determined by adding together the sabins of all the surfaces. which vary as a function of frequency. Since most materials absorb more high~ frequency sound waves than low-frequency ones, it is typical to find more sabins in a room at high frequencies than at low frequencies.
...i w > w -'
--"'0
~
U
-,
UJw
W 0::-'
~
·6 ·12
o
a
...i w
a,
>
'j
az
-, (
20
40
~
w
0::
80
SOURCE STOPS
DISTANCE
Outdoors, sound drops off 6 dB each time the distance from a source is doubled (Inverse Square Law). Indoors, the reflecting sound energy in a room reaches a constant level as a function of the sound absorbing units (saoins) in the room. The noise level in a room can be reduced by adding more absorption, as shown in this formula:
a
Noise reduction (NR) = 1 log
TIME, IN SECONDS
SOUND OVER TIME
SOUND OVEij: DISTANCE
The sound properties distance and time are described here:
3
OUTDOORS
0= DISTANCE FROM SOURCE
PROPERTIES OF SOUND
az
" ' - SHORTER REVERBERATION 8 TIME
a11l g!
a3
OUTDOORS
o
\
o
Z :J
~
11l
In general, sound energy that is not absorbed will be reflected, thus surfaces with low coefficients of absorption can be used to encourage sound reflection when appropriate.
a,
~
~ j1-
NOISE REDUCTION
W
o
INDOORS)
-
~6~~gl~~SORPTION ~
Z :J
SOUI"JO ABSORPTION 8 3 >8 2 >a 1
11l
CCJ
NOTE
NOTE
The more sound absorption (sabins) inside a room, the lower the noise levels {approaching the drop-off with distance outdoors)
The more sound absorption (sabins) inside a room, the shorter the reverberation time.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND The reverberation time for the sample room with an acoustical tile ceiling is calculated as follows:
AVERAGE COEFFICIENT OF ABSORPTION
a2/a1
One measure of the quality of sound in a room is the average coefficient of absorption (or average noise reduction coefficient-NRC) for all surfaces combined, as determined by this formula:
TIME
Outdoors, sound ceases when the source stops. Indoors, sound energy lingers and this decay is called reverberation. The reverberation time (Rn is defined as the length of time, in seconds, it takes for sound to decay by 60 dB. Reverberation time is directly proportional to the volume of a space and inversely proportional to the units of absorption (sabins) in it. as expressed in this formula
a
=
alS
RT
= .049V/a = .049 x 9000 cu ft/699 = .63 sec
The average coefficient of absorption (a.) in the sample room changes significantly from sample 1 to sample 2. The room with a gypsum board ceiling is rather live and noisy, while the room with an acoustical tile ceiling is comfortable, with wen-controlled noise. The calculations that show this follow:
in which ft. = the average coefficient (at a given frequency or average NRC), a = the total sabins (sound absorbing units), and S = the total surlace area in the room (metric or English units; be consistent).
Belore: Aher:
a = alS = 243/2700 = .09 = a/S = 699/2700 = .26
ii
RT = KV/a As determined by using the average coefficient of absorption, the quality of sound in a room can be evaluated as .1, .2, or .3. A room with an average coefficent of .1 is rather "live,." loud, and uncomfortably noisy; one with an average coefficient of .2 is comfortable, with well-eontrolled noise; and one with .3 is rather ..dead," suitable for spaces in which the emphasis will be on amplified sound, electronic playback, or a live microphone for teleconferencing.
in which RT = reverberation time in seconds, K = .161 (if volume is in m 3) or .049 (if volume is in cu ttl. V = volume in m 3 or cu ft. and a = total absorption in sabins (metric or English units). Shorter reverberation times greatly enhance speech intelligibility and are imperative in listening environments for people with hearing impairments and for rooms with live microphones for teleconferencing.
I
SOUND ABSORPTION
CALCULATION OF AVERAGE COEFFICIENT OF ABSORPTION
(Sample at 1000 Hz)
Sound-absorptive- materials (such as acoustic tile, glass fiber, wall panels, carpet, curtains, etc.) can be added to a room in order to control or reduce noise levels or shorte-n reverberation time. Noise control is especially helpful when the noise sources are distributed around a room, as in a gymnasium, classroom, or cafeteria. While sound-absorptive materials can be added to any surface in a room, the greatest area available for coverage is usually the ceiling. Because many soft porous materials are fragile, they should not be located on surfaces that are susceptible to abuse. For these reasons, sound-absorptive materials are often installed on ceilings.
SAMPLE
ROOM~
i OUTDOORS
>o0t / / / l , "" ><>"
2~~~
See the accompanying chart for guidelines on the use of sound absorption treatments.
~
The volume of this sample room is 9000 cu ft (l x w x h).
GUIDELINES FOR USE OF SOUND ABSORPTION ROOM TYPE
TREATMENT
Classrooms, corridors and lobbies, patient rooms, laboratories, shops, factories, libraries, private and open plan offices, restaurants
Ceiling or equivalent area; add additional wall treatment if room is quite high
Boardrooms, teleconferencing rooms, gymnasiums, arenas, recreational spaces, meeting and conference rooms
Ceiling or equivalent area; add wall treatments for further noise reduction and reverberation control and eliminate flutter or echo
Auditoriums, churches, etc. (list)
Special considerations and complex applications
SAMPLE CALCULATION 1 SURFACE
MATERIAL
Floor
Carpet
AREA (50 FT)
600 sq ft
c
a
.37 222
Ceiling
Gypsum board
600 sq It
.01
6
All 4 walls
Gypsum board
1500 sq It
.01
15
2700 sq h
-
Total
243
The reverberation time for the sample room with a gypsum board ceiling is calculated as follows: RT
= .049V/a = .049 x 9000
cu 1t/243
= 1.8 sec
SAMPLE CALCULATION 2 SURFACE
MATERIAL
AREA (50 FT)
INDOORS
o.
a
Floor
Carpet
600 sq h
.37 222
Ceiling
Acoustical tile
600 sq tt
.77 462
All 4 walls
Gypsum board
Total
-
1500 sq ft
.01
2700 sq tt
-
15 699
NOTE
Outdoors, sound waves expand spherically, becoming more dispersed li.e., quieter) over distance and time. Indoors, sound waves reflect off surrounding surfaces, building up energy so sound drops off less quickly over distance or time.
SOUND PATTERNS
Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
66
Transmission Loss Properties of Materials
GENERAL The property of a material or construction system that blocks the transter of sound energy from one side to another is transmission loss (TL), which is measured in decibels (dB). Specifically, TL is the attenuation of airborne sound transmission through a construction during laboratory testing according to ASTM EgO. Transmission less values range from 0 to 70 or 80 (or higher). A high TL value indicates a better ability to block sound; that is, more sound energy is "lost" as the sound wave travels through the material Sound transmission class (STC) is a single number rating system designed to combine TL values from many frequencies. STC values for site-built construction range from 10 (practically no isolation, e.g., an open doorway) to 65 or 70 (such high performance is only achieved with special construction techniques). Average construction might provide noise reduction in the range of STC 30 to 60. It is very difficult to measure the STC performance of a single wall or door in the field because of the number of flanking paths and nonstandard conditions. Field performance is measured with noise isolation class (NIC) ratings, which cover effects from all sound transfer paths between rooms. DERIVATION AND USE OF THE STC CURVE
To determine the STC rating for a particular construction, the STC curve shown in the accompanying figure is applied over the transmission loss (Tl) curve for a laboratory test of the construction. The STC curve is then manipulated in accordance with prescribed rules to obtain the highest possible rating. The procedure states that the TL curve cannot be more than 8 dB less than the STC curve in anyone-third octave band, nor can the TL curve be more than a total of 32 dB less than the STC curve (average of 2 dB for each of 16 one-third octave band frequencies). Any values from the TL curve that are above the STC curve are of no benefit in the rating. The object is to move the STC curve up as high as possible and to read the STC rating number from the point where the STC curve at 500 Hz crosses the TL curve The STC curve has three segments: the first segment from 125 to 400 Hz, rises at the rate of 9 dB per octave (3 dB per one-third octave); the second segment, from 400 to 1250 Hz, rises at the rate of 2 dB per octave (1 dB per one-third octave); and the third segment, from 1250 to 4000 Hz, flat.
Design of construction and materials for high transmission loss builds on three principles: MASS: Lightweight materials do not block sound. Sound transmission through walls, floors, and ceilings varies with the frequency of sound, the weight (or mass) and stiffness of the construction, and the cavity absorption. Theoretically, the transmission loss increases at the rate of 6 dB per doubling of the surface weight of the construction. A single solid panel behaves less well than the mass law would predict since the mass law assumes a homogeneous, infinitely resilient material/wall. SEPARATION: Improved TL performance without an undue increase in mass can be achieved by separation of materials. A true double wall with separate unconnected elements performs better than the mass law predicts for a single wall of
Noise reduction also depends on the relative siZ!eof a room If the noise source is in a small room next to a ilJrge receiv ing room {like an office next to a cvrnnasrumn. the nois. reduction will be greater than the TL oertorrnsnceot the we alone because the sound radiating from the ccrJJnmon wa between office and gym is dissipated in such a tlirge space On the other hand, if the noise source is in a largJeroom next to a small one (as from a gym to an office ne»l door). the noise reduction will be far less than the TL of thte wall alone because the common wall, which radiates sourna is such a large part of the surface of the smaller room. AnlarJjustment for this ratio, plus the contribution of the absorptive finishes in the receiving room, enters into the catculatioa of act; noise reduction between adjacent spaces.
ABSORPTION: Use of soft, resilient absorptive materials in the cavity between wvthes. particularly for lightweight staggered or double stud con~truction, increases transmission loss slgn!flcantly. Viscoelastic (somewhat resilient but not fully elastic) materials. such as certain insulation boards, dampen or restrict the vibration of rigid panels such as gypsum board and plywood, increasing transmission loss somewhat. Follow manufacturer-recommended installation details. NOISE REDUCTiON
Noise reduction (NR} depends on the properties of a room and is the actual difference in sound pressure level between
-. <.
GRAPHIC TECHNIQUE TO DETERMINE COMPOSITE TRANSMISSION LOSS (COMBINING TWO DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTION ELEMENTS)
tg !:
2
G z Z w
a.
o 0:
4
~ c
5
8 9 10
o
z 3'
7
o o o
u,
o t::
..J
20
:J
~ o ..J t:: u,
I~
"""
<;
30
<,
~ 50%
<,
<,
6
..J
TRANSMISSION LOSS
two spaces. It is the amount of sound blocked by all inter vening sound paths between rooms, including ttfIe cammal wall but also the floor, ceiling, outside path, dOOJl'5. etc
the same weight The transmission loss tends to increase about 5 dB for each doubling of the airspace between wythes (minimum effective space is approximately 2 in.). Resilient attachment of surface skins to studs or structural surfaces provides a similar benefit, as do separate wvthes
PERCENT OF TOTAL AREA OCCUPIE[ BY DOOR, WINDOW OPENING
,'' ' <, <,
............20
------- ----
"-
<,
r-,
<, r-,
<, <,
r--
r-, <,
r-, ~
~
i'- r-, l'--I'I-r- r-- r-, ~ t----
--
I---
~ ~ ~
-
r- r--r-- r-
r- t-r-- -f::::: f:: f::::: r---
40
~
t--
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
w
301-----+--+--+-----1'----+----1
[CD
AIRSPACE, IN IN
:i''''
~~
~~
STC RATING VALUE
6··
/
201----+---+--+--1----+--:>--"'1
3··
X
o0:
1/
a. a.
-c 125
250
500
1000
2000
V
....... i.--
.......
/
V
4000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (Hz)
NOTE
If two layers of dense material are separated by an airspace (rather than being continuous), they create two independent walls. The improvement in transmission loss depends on the size of the airspace and the frequency of sound., Avoid rigid ties between layers in all double waH construction. The graph above indicates the approximate improvement in TL when a wall of a given weight is split into two separate walls
Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
~~
F-
30
40
<,
50
60
combining the TL (or STC) values of the corneonents or the wall alone, in accordance with the chart attJlve. 2. Note that small gaps and cracks such as the pm:imeter of an ungasketed door can dramatically degrade, ale perfor mance of a high TL construction.
NOTES
1. When a wail or surface of a room is made up of two or more different structures (e.q., a window in an outside wall or a door in an office). the TL performance (or STC) of the composite construction should be evaluated by
z>w >
s-.
dB TO BE SUBTRACTED FROM TL OF WALL TO OBTAIN TL OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
SOUND TRANSMISSION CLASS (STC) RATING CURVE
:i'
~
20
BENEFIT OF AIRSPACE IN IMPROVING TRANSMISSION LOSS (TL)
o
-
~ '-~
r----:::::::::
50 60 1
~~
~
~
0 00
8~
~
~
2_ N8
~ N
2~ 8~ 8~ g~ 8m
Q
0 ~
00 N -
8~ 80 N
0 0
~ N
8N 80 ~
~
ONE-THIRD OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (HZ)
Q
0 ~
8~ 80 m 00
Sound Isolation and Noise Reduction SOUND ISOLATION CRITERIA
GENERAL RECEIVER ROOM ADJACENT
SOURCE ROOM OCCUPANCY
SOUND ISOLATiON REQUIREMENT (MIN.) FOR ALL PATHS BETWEEN SOURCE AND RECEIVER
Executive areas, doctors' suites. personnel offices, large conference rooms; confidential privacy requirements
Adjacent offices and related spaces
STC 50-55
Normal offices, regular conference rooms for group meetings; normal privacy requirements
Adjacent offices and similar activities
STC 45-50
Large general business offices, drafting areas, banking floors
Corridors. lobbies. data processing; similar activi-
STC 40-45
Privacy index
Shop and laboratory offices in manufacturing labo- Adjacent offices; test ratory or test areas; normal privacy areas, corridors Any spaces Neighbors (separate occupancy) Bedrooms Bathrooms Kitchens Living rooms Corridors Living Rooms Bathrooms Kitchens
School buildings Classrooms
STC 40-45 STC 50-60+ 1
Mechanical equipment rooms Multifamily dwellings
Living Rooms
STC 48-55 2 STC 52-58 2 STC 52-58 2 STC 52-57 2 STC 52-58 2 STC 48-55 2 STC 50-57 2
Large music or drama area
STC 60 3 STC 55 3
Interior occupied spaces
Exterior of building
STC 35-60"
Any and all adjacent
Use qualified acoustical consultants to assist in the design of construction details for these critical occupancies
Use acoustical consultants when designing mechanical equipment rooms to house equipment other than that used for air handling (e.g., chillers, pumps, and compressors) and heavy manufacturing areas that house equipment that generates noise at or above OSHA allowable levels or generates high vibration levels. 2 Ratings depend on nighttime, exterior background levels and other factors directly related to the location of a building. Grades I, II, and III are discussed in "Guide to Airborne, Impact, and Structureborne Noise Control in Multifamily Dwellings:' HUD TS-24 (1974l. 3 The STC ratings shown are guidelines only. These spaces typically- require double layer construction with resilient 1~
connections between layers or, preferably, structurally independent" room-within-a-room" construction. The level of continuous background noise, such as that provided by the HVAC system or an electronic masking system, has a significant impact on the quality of construction selected and must be coordinated with the other design parameters. 4 Ratings depend on the nature of the exterior background noise-its Ievet, spectrum shape. and constancy-as well as the client's budget and thermal considerations. Use qualified acoustical consultants for analysis of high noise outdoor environments such as airports, highways (especially those with heavy truck traffic), and industrial facilities.
I
MIN.
++
BATT INSULATION. THiCK MIN,
++
GYPSUM WALLBOARD
xlJ:-'::""'9tt- FURRING XL-JC-=""'=tT- CMU WALL
~v'\;X7\;;ti::::;;:::::;!+-CHANNEL R ESILIENT
3~
STUD WALL WITH INSULATION
2 LAYERS GYPSUM WALLBOARD DOUBLE STUD WALL
Testing for IIC ratings is a complex procedure using a standard tapping machine. Because the machine is portable, it cannot simulate the weight of a person walking across a floor. Therefore, the creak or boom footsteps cause in a timber floor cannot be reflected in the single-figure impact rating produced from the tapping machine. The correlation between tapping machine tests in the laboratory and field performance of floors under typical conditions may vary greatly, depending on the construction of the floor and the nature of the impact. Often the greatest annoyance caused by footfall noise is the low-frequency sound energy it generates, which is beyond the frequency range of standardized tests. Sometimes this sound energy is near or at the resonant frequency of the building structure. Whenever possible. to stifle unwanted sounds use carpet with padding on floors in residential buildings and resilient, suspended ceilings with cavity insulation. For especially critical situations, such as pedestrian bridges or tunnels, hire an acoustical consultant. Slamming doors or cabinet drawers are other sources of impact noise. If possible. bureaus should not be placed directly against a wall. Door closers or stops can be added to cushion the impact of energy from a door so it is not imparted directly into the structure. Common sense arrangements can help minimize problems in multifamily dwellings. For example, kitchen cabinets should not be placed on the other side of a common wall from a neighbor's bedroom. CONSTRUCTION NOTES
ISOLATION BOARD ~ FINISH FLOOR
PLYWOOD
C
~~~~!j~~i .----~~P:;D SUBFLOOR
~~L.------~~°ci~~~EF~::~NG
- - - - - - WOOD FRAMING
ISOLATOR
4.
Floors are subject to impact or structure-borne sound transmission noises such as footfalls. dropped objects, and scraping furniture. Parallel to development of laboratory sound transmission class (STC) ratings for partition constructions is the development of an impact insulation class (lie). This is a single-number rating system used to evaluate the effectiveness of floor construction in preventing impact sound transmission to spaces beneath the floor. The current lie rating method is similar to the STC rating.
DOUBLE WALL--CMU AND STUD
>4---------- CMU WALL
-,
Normal privacy, in which you are aware of a neighbor's activity but not overly distracted by it, can usually be achieved with a privacy index of 68 or higher. Confidential privacy, in which you are aware of the neighbor, usually requires a privacy index of 75 or higher.
1" MIN.
SEPARATE WOOD OR METAL STUD WALLS ON SEPARATE FLOOR PLATES OR TRACKS AVOID BACK·TO· BACK WALL OUTLETS
noise reduction + background noise
IMPACT NOISE DESIGN CRITERIA
STC 50 STC 50 STC45
Theaters. concert halls. lecture halls. radio and 1V studios
1
:=
A quiet environment with little or no natural.background sound (from HVAC systems) between neighbors requires a higher degree of sound separation construction to achieve the same privacy as that in a noisier environment with louder background sound.
STC 48-50'
Adjacent classrooms Laboratories Corridors Adjacent music or drama area Music practice rooms
Music practice rooms
One of the most common goals in the design of sound isolation construction is achievement of acoustical privacy from a neighbor. This privacy is a function of whether the signal from the neighbor is audible and intelligible above the ordinary background noise level in the environment.
Noise reduction is measured as a field performance where it is evaluated and given an STC value. Background sound levels from steadv mechanical heating and ventilating systems. a constant part of our environment, are measured in accordance with ASH RAE standards by a set of uniform curves called noise criteria (NC) ratings. These NC curves are constantly refined, so check the latest ASH RAE quides.
ties
Bedrooms
67
BATT
~ STRUCTURAL
INSULATION
FLOOR
WOOD FURRING
RESILIENT HANGER FRAMING CHANNELS
1. Edge attachment and junction of walls. partitions, floors, and ceiling can cause large differences in transmission loss (Tl) performance. The transverse waves set up in continuous, stiff, lightweight walls or floors can carry sound a long distance from the source to other parts of the structure with little attenuation. Curtain walls, thin concrete floors on bar joists, and wood framed structures are particularly SUbject to this weakness. 2. Properly designed discontinuities such. as interrupted floor slab/toppings are helpful in reducing structural flanking. 3. A resilient (airtight) joint between exterior wall and partition or partition and floor can appreciably improve TL 4. Continuous pipes, conduits. or ducts can act as transmission paths from room to room. Care must be taken to isolate such services from the structure.
\ { " - , . . - - - . INSULATION 2 LAYERS GYPSUM WALLBOARD FLOOR/CEILING CONSTRUCTION--CONCRETE
FLOOR/CEILING CONSTRUCTION-WOOD
TYPICAL HIGH SOUND ISOLATION CONSTRUCTION
Carl Rosenberg, AlA; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
.68
Mechanical System Noise and Vibration Control
GENERAL Mechanical system noise, as a major component of acoustics in modern buildings, must be addressed in developinq mechanical design and acoustical goals.
RECOMMENDED BACKGROUND NOISE CRITERIA FOR TYPICAL OCCUPANCIES USES
NC RATING RANGE
A-WEIGHTED DECIBELS
Sensitive listening spaces
Broadcast and recording studios, concert halls
TYPE OF SPACE
Background sound levels from mechanical systems are measured and evaluated by means of noise criteria (NC) ratings as well as by actual A-weighted decibel levels The noise criteria curves provide a convenient way of defining the ambient noise level in terms of octave band sound pressure levels. The NC curves consist of a family of curves that relate the spectrum of a noise to the environment being specified. Higher noise levels are permitted at lower frequencies since the ear is less sensitive to noise at these levels. The complete octave band frequency of an acceptable ambient noise level can be specified with one NC number.
NC-15 to NC-20
25 dBA
Performance spaces
Theaters, churches (no amplification), video and teleconferencing (live microphone)
NC-20 to NC-25
30 dBA
General presentation spaces
Large conference rooms, small auditoriurns. orchestral rehearsal rooms, movie theaters, courtrooms, meeting and banquet rooms, executive offices
NC-25 to NC-30
35 dBA
NC-30 to NC-35
40 dBA
Mechanical equipment creates noise and vibration from the rotation of the equipment motor. Four aspects of the noise and vibration to be addressed are described here:
Offices, small conference rooms, classrooms, private residences, hospitats. hotels, libraries
Public spaces
Restaurants, lobbies, open plan offices and clinics
NC-35 to NC-40
45dBA
Service and support spaces
Computer equipment rooms, public circulation areas. arenas, convention floors
NC-40 to NC-45
50 dBA
MACHINE NOISE: Sound isolation requirements for the walls and floors of a mechanical equipment room depend on the type of equipment to be housed and the sensitivity of adjacent spaces. Chillers can be extremely loud, requiring double walls and extra thick floor slabs. Air-handling units may only require regular wall construction, perhaps STC 50 systems. Major secondary sound paths are duct penetrations, open curbs under rooftop units, and doors; all potential sound paths must be controlled. FAN NOISE: Rotation of the fan motor and the fan itself generates noise, which is transmitted along the duct path (both supply and return) to the listening space. Typical fan noise control elements include package silencers (inserted into a straight run of duct, often at the wall of the mechanical equipment room) and internal acoustical duct lining (glass fibers adhered to the duct walls). The degree of fan noise attenuation can be determined by calculations based on the size and sound power levels of the fan, the length and configuration of duct runs, the attenuation of the duct systems, the number and type of diffusers, and the room finishes in the listening space. AIR NOISE: Movement of air through a duct generates turbulence, which creates noise. For sensitive spaces and quiet noise levels, the airflow must be at low velocity (hence the need for large ducts) with smooth inlet and outflow conditions. For extremely quiet noise levels, air velocities at diffusers or terminal devices may need to be below 400 fpm. Volume dampers to control flow for such spaces are critical; keep dampers 10ft from diffusers, and avoid opposed blade dampers at diffusers. A simple duct layout that provides even distribution of air to all diffusers in a room can eliminate many problems (see preferred duct layout below). VIBRATION ISOLATION: Rotating equipment generates vibration, which can travel through a structure and be radiated as noise in a distant location. Vibration isolation may entail use of neoprene pads, spring isolators, or inertia bases, depending on the size and power of the rotating equipment, the proximity of sensitive spaces, and the stiffness of the supporting structure. Piping attached to rotating equipment, especially chilled water piping, must also be isolated from the structure to prevent transmission of sound energy. The effectiveness of a vibration isolator depends on the static deflection of the isolator under load; lower frequency mechanical equipment rotation requires greater static deflection isolation to be effective. /
DIFFUSER. TYP
Quiet areas
NOISE CRITERIA SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL TABLE* SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (DB)
NC 63 Hz
125 HZ
250 HZ
500 Hz
1000 Hz
2000 HZ
4000 HZ
NC-70
83
79
75
72
71
70
69
68
NC-65 NC-60
80
75
71
68
64
63
77
71 67
67 62
63 58
66 61
58
64 60 57
58 54 50 45
54
59 54 49
62 57
40
36
41
36
31
31
27
26
22 17
CURVE
NC-55 NC-50
74 71 67
NC-45 NC-40 NC-35
64
NC-30
57
NC-25
54
60
52 48
49 45
37 44 41 33 50 47 36 29 "For convenience In uSing norse criteria data, the table lists the
NC-20 NC-15
56 51 46 41
53 48
8000 Hz
52 47 42 37
44 39 34
43 38 33
32
29 24
28
27
22
21
19 17 16 22 14 12 11 sound pressure level (SPU In decibels for each NC curve.
NOISE CRITERIA CURVES 20 75
75 150
150
300
300 600
600 1200
1200 2400
2400 4800
4800 9600
90
80
SUBJECTIVE
iL
='0
EVALUATIONS
70
OJ
W
~
-'
W
> W -'
VERY NOISY
60
w
::J /
/
DUCT, TYP.
Ul Ul W
50
NOISY
CL
0 Z
::J
0
Ul
-----r:OOERATELY
40
JNOISY
0 Z
" > "
W
IU
QUIET
30
0
20
VERY QUIET
FAN NOTE
All diffusers are equidistant from the fan. The system is selfbalancing. The duct layout does not need volume dampers.
PREFERRED DUCT LAYOUT
Doug Sturz; Acentech, Inc.; Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
10 31.5
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCIES (HZ)
4000
8000
Performance Spaces area of absorption can be calculated to predict RT. The bigqest design factor aHecting RT is ceiling height. The relationship between the volume of a hall and the number of seats is often a good approximation of sound quality in the room.
GENERAL Performance spaces are rooms in which good hearing conditions are particularly critical to the use of the space and exchange of aural information. Such spaces include classrooms, lecture halls, recital halls. theaters. cinemas. concert halls, churches and synagogues. Critical design of a performance space may require assistance from an acoustical consultant. but the primary tools at the architect's direction are outlined here:
In wide halls with high ceilings,seats in the center of the orchestra often suffer from lack of early reflections. Reflecting canopies or arrays over the front rows can bring reflected sound to these seating areas, which otherwise may suffer from poor articulation. Often. seating at the rear of the balcony does not experience this problem, and these seats have excellent acoustics.
LOUDNESS
Audience and performers should be in the same space, and any sound generated by a speaker or musician should be projected efficiently to the audience and captured within the space. The "sending end" of the room (i.e., the stage) should be acoustically hard. Walls near the performer should be angled or splayed to enhance projection and prevent "flutter echoes" at the stage. Walls and ceilings where the audience sits should be hard so they can reflect sound, unless absorptive treatment is needed to eliminate problematic reflections or focusing or to reduce reverberation time
VOLUME/SEAT
(RT)for particular program needs.
M
Less than 200
Less than 6
Quite dead, suitable for speech and cinema
300 to 350
8to 10
Good for music
ORCHESTRA PIT
Greater than 500 Greater than Good for organ music only, too reverberant for speech 14
QUIET
Good hearing environments should maximize the signal-tonoise ratio; in other words, in addition to the desired signal being well projected (see loudness), unwanted noise should be eliminated. To accomplish this requires very low back-
ARTICULATION
Much of the clarity of sound that audiences need for speech intelligibility and clear musical attacks comes from the sound reflected off hard suriaces that reaches listeners within 50 to 80 milliseconds of the direct sound (which always reaches the listener first). To enhance articulation of acoustics in a hall, the design must ensure there are enough surfaces to reduce the time gap between the initial (direct) sound and these early reflections; the initial time delay gap should be
ground sound levels INC-20 perhaps) from mechanical equipment. Sound lock vestibules eliminate intrusive noise from a lobby and allow latecomers to enter without acoustical interference to the show, and carpeted aisles help reduce footfall noise. Noise from exterior environmental sources should also be considered. Avoid lightweight roofs, which will transmit rain noise.
less than 50 milliseconds. Sound travels 1120 fVsecond lin SI units. 333 m/secondl. so the initial time delay gap for prime seating locations should not exceed 50 ft (13 mJ.
SPACIOUSNESS
Because of the lateral configuration of our ears, sound sig-
nals that are slightly different in each ear allow the listener to hear an acoustical quality called spaciousness, which is usually highly desired, especially for classical music. This sense of spaciousness can be enhanced if the distribution of sound
speakers are added around the hall as needed. The sound control location must be well placed within the audience area covered by the loudspeakers. Additional transmitters using infrared signals or FM radio signals can be used to meet ADA requirements.
FOCUSING
Focusing concentrates sound waves in one area. causing "hot spots" where the sound is louder or unnatural in quality. Concave surfaces either in plan or section can present major focusing problems if they are not identified and treated.
REVERBERATION TIME (RT)
Refer to the accompanying charts on optimum reverberation times and preferred volume/seat ratios. Room volume and
SOUND SYSTEM
Electronic sound systems may be used for amplification (making the source louder for a big hall), for playback or recorded material, or for both. Depending on the source, the amplification) or on the left and right sides (for musical stereo playback or amplification of the orchestra pit). Additional loudspeakers may be needed under a balcony or at the rear of the hall to cover the upper balconies. Special effects loud-
Following are several other features to be considered when designing performance spaces.
reflections from many facets of the side and rear walls. This diffusion can be enhanced by protrusions and angled surfaces on the side walls.
The surface over the orchestra pit should be angled to project sound out to the audience but diffuse so that some energy is reflected back to the performers on stage. The front wall of the orchestra pit should be a hard surface so the front rows of the audience do not hear direct sound and so that more energy is reflected back to the performers on stage. Also. both the front and back walls may need to be treated with movable curtains to vary and control the degree of sound reflected off these surfaces.
loudspeakers used to distribute the sound should be located at the center slightly in front of the speaker (for speech
OTHER FACTORS
through a large hall is diffused. and the ear literally hears
the empty hall RT more dead than it would be when fully occupied.
Balconies bring additional persons into a given volume and create more intimacy between audience and performer However, seating under a balcony can be cut off from the main volume of sound if the balcony overhang is too great. A reasonable rule of thumb is that the overhang depth should not exceed the height of the opening (greater ratios are acceptable where live music is not part of the program).
SOUND QUALITY OF SPACE
3
SEATS
The largest area of sound-absorbinq surface in a performanee hall is the seating. If the seats are made of a soundreflecting material (wood, vinyl. plastic. etc.), their absorptive properties will change dramatically when they are occupied. since a person introduces about 5 sabins for each seat which significantly affects reverberation time. Use of uphOI~ stered seats or pew cushions makes the RT similar whether the seats are empty or fully occupied and will never make
BALCONIES
PREFERRED VOLUME/SEAT RATIOS CU FT
69
OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIMES AT MIDFREQUENCIES (500-1000 Hz) FOR PERFORMANCE SPACES
/
• INCREASED BLENDING
INCREASED ARTICULATION AND INTELLIGIBILITY
MUSIC
l.iturgical-orchestra. chorus, or organ * Classical symphony Secular choral works Opera Contemporary orchestral works. recital. and chamber music "Semiclassical" concerts and choral groups with sound systems Musicals and operettas Rock concerts SPEECH AND MUSIC
Churches* General purpose auditoriums High school auditoriums Small theaters Movie theaters SPEECH
Lecture and conference rooms Playhouse (intimate drama productions) Elementary classrooms Recording and broadcast studio (speech only)
~
0.4
0.6
0.8
10
1.2
'.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
26
2.8
3.0
3.2
REVERBERATION TIME (RT)
*May go up to 8 seconds in reverberation time
NOTE
The breadth of RT range for each room type is a function of the room volume: the larger the room volume. the closer to the longer end of the range and vice versa.
Carl Rosenberg. AlA; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
3.4
3.6
70
Open Plan Office Acoustics MAXIMUM SPACING OF OFFICE WORKERS -/----.
GENERAL Open plan offices can provide great flexibility in office arrangements and work flow. However. because .workstations or cubicles do not have full-height partitions. noise can be a major problem in such offices. The extent to which speech is distracting depends on the degree to which it is intelligible. An overheard conversation can be annoying or distracting, while an inaudible murmur is not. When desig.ning open plan offices. the need for communication between workstations should be evaluated in light of work functions and practical separation. Speech intelligibility and acoustics in an open plan office can be rated in terms of an articulation index (All. which is a measure of the ratio between a signa! (a neighbor's voice or intrusive noise) and steady background noise (ambient noise from mechanical equipment, traffic, or electronic sound masking). AI values range from near 0 (very low signal and relatively high noise; no intelligibility or good speech privacy) to 1.0 (very high signal and low noise; excellent communication or no speech privacy). When communication is desired (e.g., in classrooms or teleconference rooms), it is preferable to have a high AI so people can hear well. In an office, however, it is preferable tv have a low AI so people can be freed from distraction and will be better able to concentrate. Average noise requirements for various office functions are shown in the accompanying chart.
ARTICULATION INDEX (AI) FOR OPEN PLAN OFFICES AI VALUE
NOiSE REQUIREMENTS
>.65
Necessary when communication Good communication is desirable (conference rooms, classrooms, auditoriums, etc.)
.35
Freedom from Reasonable work conditions not distraction requiring heavy concentration or speech privacy; hear and understand neighboring conversations Normal Occasional intelligibility from a speech neighbor's conversation; work privacy patterns not interrrupted
.20
<.05
Confidential Aware of neighbor's conversespeech privacy tion but it is not intelligible
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Low AI ratings for open plan office spaces can be achieved in three primary ways: by blocking sound, by covering (masking) sound, and by absorbing sound. BLOCKING SOUND
Partial-height barriers or partitions are necessary to block direct sound transmission between workstations. The barriers must be high enough and wide enough to interrupt the line of sight between a source and a receiver; hence, the first 4 ft or so of barrier height do not help speech privacy at all. Barrier heights of 5 ft are a minimum requirement for acoustical separation, and heights of 6 ft are typical for normal privacy. The barrier should be able to block sound at least as well as the path for sound traveling over the barrier, which means a minimum laboratory sound transmission class value of 24. Barriers or screens should extend to the floor or leave only an inch or so open at the bottom. There should be no open gaps between adjacent panels. Barriers may need to have sound-absorbing facings to reduce reflections to the next workstation.
I
-
CLOSE ENOS OF BARRIER
oJ i
7~ -tI I I
SOUND ABSORBING CEILING
I
I I I OFFICE WORKER. TYP
I
I I I
PARTIAL HEIGHT BARRIER
TREAT REFLECTING PATHS
PLAN
SECTION
ARCHITECTURAL SOLUTIONS FOR SOUND CONTROL IN OPEN OFFICES The sound should be evenly distributed throughout the office so no areas are louder than others. In addition, the sound should not vary in the open plan area by more than 3 decibels in any octave band. Masking sound should be neither too loud nor too quiet, perhaps between 45 and 50 dBA. It should be loud enough to cover intrusive noises but never loud enough to be distracting in itself. Conference rooms and private offices, which require lower levels of background noise, should have plenum treatments so they are shielded from direct exposure to the masking sound. Normal air conditioning and ventilation could generate enough background noise to mask sound between offices, but this sound source is not well designed for this purpose. Most office buildings use variable volume air distribution, so noise from the HVAC system may be erratic and uneven in distribution and change over time and season. The preferred solution is to install an electronic sound masking system Sound masking systems comprise a noise generator, an equalizer to shape the sound spectrum properly. amplifiers, and loudspeakers hidden above an accessible acoustical tile ceiling. Such systems generate a broadband, pleasant sounding, evenly distributed masking noise. The sound in the plenum filters down through the ceiling and provides an even blanket of sound that will mask the intrusive sound from a neighbor. Avoid untreated sound leaks if! the ceiling such as openings for return air; these become noticeable "hot spots" and draw unwanted attention to the sound from the ceiling. Masking sound from two channels can improve spatial uniformity. Ceiling height and plenum conditions (fireproofing, beams, ducts, etc.) will determine loudspeaker spacing and location. Electronic sound masking should be professionally designed and installed.
may be necessary on some barriers or reflecting surfaces (e.g., walls, file cabinets). Carpet helps reduce footfall and impact noise and is a great benefit in open offices. Finally, voice levels should be kept to a minimum; even the best acoustical treatments cannot prevent disturbances caused by loud voices. All the factors outlined in the paragraphs above are interrelated. For example, doubling the distance between adjacent workstations will reduce a nearby conversation by 5 dBA while raising the height of a 5-ft barrier to 6 ft may reduce the sound path over the top by 3 dBA. Changing from a minerai-fiber acoustical ceiling tile to a glass-fiber ceiling tile may reduce reflected noise by 5 dBA. Adding sound masking may change the ambient level by 10-20 dBA. An acoustics consultant can evaluate proposed layouts and materials as part of the design process. The acoustical outcome of a design should be analyzed before construction. As a rough initial guideline, offices in which freedom from distraction is the only criterion will require highly efficient sound-absorbing ceilings and an electronic background masking sound at levels between 45 and 50 dBA. For normal speech privacy, these conditions should be augmented by keeping workstations 8-10 ft apart and adding partial-height barriers at least 5 ft high, with increased attention to office layout and reflecting sound paths. Confidential privacy requires higher partitions and more attention to related details and is extremely difficult to achieve in an open plan.
ABSORBING SOUND
The ceiling in an open plan office is the most important surface to treat with highly efficient sound-absorbing material. Glass-fiber ceiling panels often have NRC values of .85 or higher and are the preferred material for open plan spaces. Regular mineral-fiber acoustical panels have typical NRC values of about .55-.65. Hard sound-reflective materials such as exposed structure or gypsum board will dramatically reduce privacy and raise annoying sound levels in an office. Most ceiling tile manufacturers provide extensive NRC data for their products and have special products with high absorptive performance for use in open plan spaces. Materials must also be selected for their ability to reflect light.
POOR LAYOUT
COVERING SOUND
The character and level of background sound is perhaps the most important acoustical design consideration for an open plan office. A modest level of background or ambient sound will cover, or mask, annoying, intrusive sounds. The masking sound must be pleasant and neutral with an even tonal spectrum (like the sound of a comfortable ventilation system) that drops off at the high end of the frequency range. There should be no pure tones or annoying characteristics (like the hum of a fluorescent light bellast). BACKGROUND SOUND LEVEL FOR OPEN PLAN OFFICES 50 r----r-..,-.=:-r-,--,---,--, ..J
W
>
W
..J
40
W
0: :0
OTHER FACTORS
Ul"
wo.
0:'"
20
ON
ZW
:00:
om Ul~
FAIR LAYOUT
SAC= l:10·06a250+ 0.15a"oo+ 0.24aHXlO + 0.32u2000 + 0.23ct.woo1
30
Ul~
0.0
Most sound-absorbinq materials are measured in a reverberation chamber in accordance with ASTM C 423 to determine their random incidence sound-absorption coefficients (a) and from these data, manufacturers tYPically report the noise reduction coefficient (NRCI. The NRC value is a good first approximation of the ability of a material to absorb sound from the human speech range. For office acoustics, however, a more useful value is the ability of a material to absorb sound at an incident angle of 40-60 0 from a flat ceiling and at frequencies weighted to reflect the relative contribution to speech intelligibility. Therefore, a more effective tool for evaluating the effectiveness of ceiling materials for sound absorption is the speech absorption coefficient (SAC), which can be calculated from standard sound absorption coefficients as follows:
10
31.5 125 63 250 1000 4000 OCTAVE BAND CENTER FREQUENCY (Hz)
Christopher Savereid; Acentech, lnc.: Cambridge, Massachusetts
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
Arrange offices so that entrances are offset. and eliminate direct line of sight or an open view through doorways from one workstation to another. Workstations should be 8-10 ft apart so voice levels are adequately reduced over distance. Higher ceilings can help reduce noise transfer. Light fixtures in the ceiling plane should not have hard lenses or be placed directly above a partition because the fixture can then act as a mirror for sound across the barrier. Absorptive material
PREFERRED LAYOUT
OPEN OFFICE CONFIGURATIONS
Electronic Sound System Design GENERAL
1---11 IMICROPHONES II
Sound systems are used primarily to provide better listening conditions through sound amplification that increases the loudness of a sound source. Secondary uses of sound systems include recording and playback of audio signals, distribution of audio signals to remote locations. and satisfaction of ADA requirements for provision of assistive listening systems for hearinq-impaired individuals.
I I I I I I I L
Sound systems are recommended in all places of assembly, including auditoriums. churches, classrooms. and lecture halls with more than 60 seats; large conference rooms; courtrooms; legislative chambers; and sports arenas. particularly if these facilities will be used by inexperienced speakers. Sound amplification systems should not be used as a substitute for good room acoustical design. The sound system equipment chosen, its location in a space, and the reproduction quality it provides depend on the acoustical properties of that space.
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Sound amplification systems should be used when one or more of the following conditions occur: (1) the room volume exceeds 50,000 cu ft; (2) the distance between source and farthest receiver exceeds 50 ft indoors and 25 ft outdoors; (3) the receiver is located beyond 70 0 horizontally from the source; (4) the room reverberation time exceeds 1.5 sec; and (5) the ambient noise levels are greater than NC-40 indoors or 55 dBA outdoors.
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SIGNAL PROCESSING EQUIPMENT
AMPLIFIERS
OUTPUT DEVICES
BASIC SOUND AMPLIFICATION SYSTEM
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TYPES OF SOUND SYSTEMS Sound systems are designed to serve a wide variety of functions, program types, and spaces. The primary functions are voice and music reinforcement, assistive listening, paging and emergency announcements, sound masking, and audio recording/playback.
ELEVATION
Voice and music reinforcement systems amplify the spoken word or a music program. Voice reinforcement systems are used in virtually all places of public assembly, but use of music reinforcement systems is usually restricted to auditoriums, amphitheaters, arenas, and churches. Loudspeaker locations are dictated by ceiling height and stage layout. Spaces with ceiling heights greater than 25 It normally have a large "central cluster" loudspeaker system located above and forward of the stage. Low-eeiling spaces, such as classrooms or under balconies in a theater, normally have small (4- or 8-in. diameter) ceiJing-mounted loudspeakers in a "distributed" speaker layout. Music reinforcement typically uses large loudspeakers located on either side of the stage, either set on the floor or hung from the building structure. ASSISTIVE LISTENING
Assistive listening systems provide localized sound reinforcement. to listeners who have difficulty hearing the program. These systems are used to comply with ADA requirements. An electrical output from the sound system is routed to a transmitter, either FM or infrared. which radiates a modulated audio signal that is picked up by a receiver carried by the listener. A small in-the-ear headset is connected to the receiver. PAGING AND EMERGENCY ANNOUNCEMENTS
Paging and emergency announcement systems distribute voice or alarm signals. Codes may require that emergency announcement systems be dedicated. use equipment certified by Underwriters Laboratories (ULl, or be capable of operating from emergency power sources. The audio program is transmitted via a distributed ceiling loudspeaker system in a 70.7-volt configuration. SOUND MASKING
Sound masking systems radiate pink noise, the frequency content of which is adjusted to make speech less intelligible, thus increasing speech privacy. These systems are commonly used in open office environments, where partialheight workstations may make speech privacy difficult to achieve. Loudspeakers in a 70.7-volt configuration are located in the ceiling plenum, and the sound radiates through the ceiling tile into the space below. Precision adjustment and tuning of sound masking systems is crucial to their acceptance by employees. AUDIO RECORDING/PLAYBACK
Audio media recording/playback systems provide for amplification of sources such as audiotape or compact disc (CD). These systems can function as an element of a larger sound system or they can stand alone. Recording systems use electrical output from the sound system to record the program content to cassette tape or digital audiotape (OAT). Reproducing systems amplify sound from signal storage media, such as cassette tape, OAT, CD, digital video disc (DVO), tape carts. message repeaters, or from a distant origin. such as radio or 1V transmissions.
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LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM TYPES
LOUDSPEAKER INSTALLATIONS
SPLIT CENTRAL CLUSTER LOUDSPEAKER
To provide good sound coverage, loudspeakers must be properly integrated into the architectural design of a space. Most spaces have an optimum loudspeaker configuration that should be examined before exploring other options. Loudspeakers can be recessed behind architectural elements. assuming a suitably large opening with acoustically transparent grille cloth is provided.
The split central cluster loudspeaker system is similar in design and operational concepts to the central cluster system, but separate loudspeaker clusters are located at stage right and stage left locations, as might occur in a church with a separate pulpit and lectern or in a music reinforcement system. Each loudspeaker cluster is designed to cover the entire listener seating area. When the talker is at the stage right location, only that loudspeaker operates, likewise for the stage left location. This system provides greater source localization than the central cluster system since it uses the ability of the ear to localize sound in the horizontal plane.
The major loudspeaker installations include central cluster, split cluster, and distributed ceiling types. CENTRAL CLUSTER LOUDSPEAKER
The central cluster loudspeaker system is located just forward of center stage and elevated a minimum of 20 ft above floor level. Separate low frequency and midjhigh frequency loudspeaker components, either individual horn systems or multiway loudspeakers, are used. Listeners must have lineof-sight relationships to loudspeakers in order to receive good sound coverage. Central cluster systems are not recommended for spaces with ceiling heights less than 20 ft due to sound level differences between the front and rear of the space. Advantages include low cost and naturalness of reproduction because of the inability of the ear to localize sound in the vertical plane.
DISTRIBUTED CEILING LOUDSPEAKER
Distributed ceiling loudspeaker systems use 4-, 8-, or 12-in. diameter, full-fange, transformer-eoupled cone loudspeakers, typically in a 70.7-volt configuration installed in the ceiling plane. These systems are normally used in spaces with a ceiling height less than 20 ft. The size of the loudspeaker depends on the ceiling height and whether the system will be used for voice or music reproduction. In spaces where the unamplified source to receiver distance exceeds 30 tt. it is often necessary to electrically delay the signal to the loudspeaker so the listener hears the unamplified sound first, followed in several milliseconds by the sound from the amplified ceiling loudspeaker. The signal processing technique of this system type helps to preserve source localization.
Neil Thompson Shade; Acoustical Design Collaborative, Ltd., Falls Church, Virginia
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
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Electronic Sound System Design
SOUND SYSTEM ELEMENTS Sound systems comprise input signal sources, signal processing equipment to alter the properties, of the signal, amplifiers to increase weak signal levels, and loudspeakers to convert electrical signals to acoustical signals. MICROPHONES
A microphone is a transducer that converts sound waves into electrical AC voltage corresponding to the acoustical characteristics of the source. Microphones can be classified by type, transducer element, or polar pattern. The major microphone types are thin profile lectern, performer's handheld, boundary layer, and lavaliere,
routed from these enclosures to audio wall plates that connect to input and output devices. Normally, metal conduit is used to minimize signal interference and to protect cables
ELECTRICAL POWER REQUIREMENTS Sound systems should have dedicated power circuits separate from other building electrical services. The major electrical power load comes from the amplifiers, which can easily exceed the power requirements of all other sound system components by a factor of 100. When computer-controlled sound systems are used, provide electrical power surge protection and a source of uninterruptible power.
LINE LEVEL SOURCES
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Line level signal sources include audio formats such as magnetic tape, audio and optical discs, video, telephonic devices, and radio. These sources are classified as recorded audio (magnetic tape. audio discs, and optical discs) or real-time audio (videoconferencing, telephone, and radio), SOUND MIXERS
Sound mixers combine the electrical output of microphone and line level sources into a composite output Signal for distribution to other components of the sound system. Sound mixers are classified as manually operated or automatic hands-off types. Manually operated mixers require placement in the same sound field the audience experiences so the operator can properly adjust the sound system. Automatic microphone mixers control turning on/off of microphones, adjusting gain. and routing of signals.
AUDIO EQUIPMENT ROOMS Equipment rack enclosures are often housed in a dedicated audio equipment room. In this case, clearance should be left around the enclosures to permit maintenance work. When power amplifiers create a large sensible heat load, audio equipment rooms may require fOlced air cooling Locate audio equrpment rooms as close as possible to the microphones and loudspeakers to minimize cable length Often a separate equipment room is required so the power amplifiers can be located close to the loudspeakers.
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Signal processing equipment provides the means for altering the frequency. magnitude. delay time, and distribution of audio signals received from the mixer. Signal processing equipment includes frequency equalizers, crossovers, signal delay lines, and distribution amplifiers. These items can be discrete components, or computer-eontrolled digital signal processing (DSP) can be used to execute their functions.
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Amplifiers increase the voltage of the audio signals received from the signal processing devices and distribute the stronger signal to the loudspeakers. Amplifiers are configured as either low impedance output for driving 4,8, or 16 ohm loudspeakers or as 25, 70.7. or 100 constant voltage output driving transformer-eoupled loudspeakers.
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Loudspeakers convert electrical AC voltage into sound waves. Sound reinforcement loudspeakers have either fullrange cone drivers, commonly used for ceiling distributed systems, or multiway loudspeaker systems with separate low frequency and midlhigh frequency drivers. Typically, midjhigh frequency systems use compression drivers connected to a horn system to provide controlled directional sound coverage output.
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Sound system equipment is normally installed in standard 19-in. wide equipment rack enclosures. Signal cables are
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Neil Thompson Shade; Acoustical Design Collaborative, Ltd., Falls Church, Virginia
ACOUSTICAL DESIGN
MULTIWAY LOUDSPEAKER
Crime Prevention through Environmental Design GENERAL
WELL-LIT ENTRY WITH CLEARLY MARKED UNIT NUMBER DEFINES PRIVATE REALM OF UNIT
LOCKABLE WINDOWS FROM DWELLING SURVEY DEFINED COMMON AREAS
Crimes such as vandalism, terrorism, burglary, shopliftinq, employee theft, assault, and espionage endanger lives and threaten the built environment. Despite this, security as a design consideration has often been inadequately addressed and poorly funded. Now. however, in many jurisdictions police authorities require security plan reviews as
73
part of the building permit process in the same way they review life safety and fire prevention plans. LOW LEVEL PLANTING BUFFERS UNIT FROM SIDEWALK
Security design is more than bars on windows, a security guard booth, a camera. or a wall. Security involves the systematic integration of design, technology, and operation for the protection of three critical assets-people. information. and property. Protection of these assets is a concern in all building types and should be considered throughout the design and construction process, from programming, schematic design. design development, preparation of construction documents, and bidding, through construction.
RECESSED ALCOVE AND LEVEL CHANGE HELP DEFINE UNIT BOUNDARY
The most efficient, least expensive way to provide security is during the design process. Architects called on to address security and crime concerns must be able to determine security requirements, know security technology, and understand the architectural implications of security needs.
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Designing without security in mind can lead to expensive retrofitting, which may require more security personnel than security equipment designed in from the start. As well, installation of retrofit security equipment can distort key building design elements and inhibit building function. Most important, planning without security can lead to suecessful claims against owners, architects, and building managers.
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The process of designing security into architecture is known as crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED). It involves designing the built environment to reduce the opportunity tor and tear of stranger-to-stranger predatory crime. This approach to security design recognizes the intended use of space in a building and is different from traditional crime prevention practice. which focuses on denying access to a crime target with barrier techniques such as locks, alarms. fences. and gates. CPTED takes advantage of opportunities for natural access control. surveillance, and territorial reinforcement. It is possible for natural and normal uses of the environment to meet the same security goals as physical and technical protection methods.
CHANGE IN TEXTURE AND ESTABLISHMENT OF SETBACK CREATE TRANSITION FROM PUBLIC TO SEMIPUBLIC AREA BELONGING TO RESIDENTIAL CLUSTER
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A design concept intended to make intruders easily observable, natural surveillance is promoted by features that maximize visibility of people, parking areas, and building entrances. Examples are doors and windows that look onto streets and parking areas, pedestrian-friendly sidewalks and streets, front porches, and adequate nighttime lighting. TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
Physical design can create or extend a sphere of influence. In this setting, users develop a sense of territorial control, while potential offenders perceive this control and are discouraged from their criminal intentions. Territorial reinforcement is promoted by features that define property lines and distinguish private spaces from public spaces such as landscape plantings, pavement design, gateway treatments, and fences. MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE
CPTED STRATEGIES
Operational and management concepts that maintain buildings and facilities in good working order and that maintain a standard of care consistent with national and local standards contribute to the security effort. Equipment and materials used in a facility should be designed or selected with safety and security in mind. LEGITIMATE ACTIVITY SUPPORT
CPTED CONCEPTS Concepts involved in crime prevention through environmental design are described below. DEFENSIBLE SPACE
Oscar Newman coined the expression "defensible space" as a term for a range of mechanisms. real and symbolic barriers. strongly defined areas of influence, and improved opportunities for surveillance that combine to bring the environment under the control of its residents. NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
Natural access control involves decreasing opportunities for crime by denying access to crime targets and creating a perception of risk in offenders. It is accomplished by designing streets. sidewalks. building entrances. and neighborhood gateways to mark public.routes and by using structural elements to discourage access to private areas.
' - PLANTS BUFFER AND LOW WALL DEFINES COLLECTIVE SEMIPRIVATE AREA
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SETBACK CREATES SEMIPUBLIC AREA
SECURITY LAYERING OF SPACES NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
CPTED strategies are implemented by 1. ELECTRONIC METHODS: mechanical security products. target-hardening techniques, locks, alarms, CCTV, gadgets 2. ARCHITECTURAL METHODS: architectural design and layout site planning and landscaping. signage, circulation control 3. ORGANIZATIONAL METHODS: manpower, police, security guards, receptionists. doormen, and business block watches
COLUMN DEFINE ENTRY PORTAL
DESIGN CURB TO DETER INAPPROPRIATE TRAFFIC
Legitimate activity for a space or building is encouraged through use of natural surveillance and lighting and architectural design that clearly defines the purpose of the structure or space. Crime prevention and design strategies can discourage illegal activity and protect a property from chronic problem activity.
ADA AND BUILDING SECURITY
2. Door hardware, such as handles, pulls, latches, locks, and other operating devices, must be shaped so they are easy to grasp with one hand. Lever, push-type, and Ushaped mechanisms are acceptable, knobs are not. 3. Elevators must have visual signals to indicate when each call is registered and answered. Elevator doors must remain open for at least 3 seconds. 4. Regulations require counters to be 28 to 34 in. off the floor. 5. Alarm systems for evacuation must provide warnings for the blind, deaf, and nonambulatory staff of the building. Announcements must be louder than 15 dB but not exceed 120 dB for 30 seconds. Visual alarms must flash and be tied into the emergency power circuit. Fire alarms should also incorporate visual strobes to alert individuals who are hearing impaired. 6. ATM controls must be at least 15 to 54 in. high and have operating instructions in braille. Night deposit mechanisms must not require a tight grasp (no knobs). 7. Security vestibules must be accessible to individuals in wheelchairs. A maneuvering clearance of at least 4 ft must be provided. Areas affected by ADA requirements for building security include vaults. safety deposit box rooms. front desk counters, security desk and information counters, control rooms, life safety equipment safe-refuge areas, turnstiles and security screening checkpoints, all door and locking hardware, and access control devices. ACCESS CONTROL
ELEVATOR CONTROLS
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The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) affects architecture, life safety design, and building security technology dramatically. Sample regulations are listed below. For specifics. please see the act itself.
Instructions for access control card readers must be provided in braille for the visually disabled.
FLOOR LEVEL
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Randall I. Atlas, Ph.D., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
74
Crime Prevention through Environmental Design
PROJECT-RELATED SECURITY EVALUATION Security needs for an architectural project should be determined early, preferably as part of the programming and needs definition stage. Surveys of similar existing operations and interviews with personnel at these sites can help .~identify security concerns. Once a client, owner, or security consultant has identified the security objectives of a project, the architect must ensure the design supports these objectives. Basic decisions about circulation, access, building materials, fenestration, and other design features can support or thwart overall security aims. The architect's role is to incorporate the basic security requirements and programmatic objectives into the project
PROJECT DESCRIPTION The first step in determining site-related security requirements is to identify the location. building type, style of operation, and economic aspects of the project. Security levels (high-low) can be defined by determining which areas, items of equipment, buildings, and activities and personnel are most sensitive or vulnerable,
3. Determine the threats to the project. a Consider threats from sabotage, espionage, terrorrsm, street crime, disgruntled employees, workplace violence. among others. b. Consider the value of the assets to be protected, the objectives of potential aggressors, the perceived deterrence of security measures, and the risk level at the site. 4 Determine what modes of attack may threaten the project. Among those to be considered are these: a _Covert entry b. Insider alone c. Insider with others Bombing e. Surveillance f. Demonstrations g. Aerial attack h. Standoff attack i. Theft. burglary, robbery
j. Destruction k. Contamination
I. Unauthorized entry 5. Determine the severity of the potential attacks. Which of the following would the perpetrators be most likely to
SITE SELECTION AND EVALUATION FOR THREATS AND VULNERABILITY Security objectives should be considered when choosing a site. For example. crowded sites can make it difficult to provide an adequate buffer around the perimeter or to control and check on-site circulation Once a site has been selected, the crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) and security analysis process can identify measures to overcome any security deficiencies. The architect should consider conditions on and off the site. including topography; vegetation; adjacent land uses; circulation patterns; sightlines; potential areas for refuge or concealment; existing lighting conditions; and the types and locations of utilities, including -their vulnerability to tampering or sabotage. Steps for determining the threats to and vulnerability of a project and site are outlined here: 1. Identify a mission statement for the project. a. Identify the assets to be protected.
b. Determine what is to be protected according to the categories of people. property, and information c. Determine the replacement value of the information and property to be protected. 2. Determine how critical security is to the design of the project. a. Analyze the mission of the project. b. Determine present posture/operation positions. c. Determine the ease with which the property and information to be protected could be replaced. d. Analyze the value of what is to be protected.
use? a. Tools b. Weapons c. Explosives 6. Determine the vulnerability of the site. considering the state of the following security measures at the site: a. Security force capabilities b. Penetration delay c. Detection capabilities d. Assessment capabilities e. Access controls f. Procedural controls g. Mission requirements 7. Identify the constraints that will affect what security measures are implemented: a. Financial b. Operational 8. Determine the protection required for the project: a. Where is security critical? 11At the outer perimeter? 2) At the inner perimeter? 3) At the asset? b. What security measures will be implemented? 1) Barrier/delay 2) Detection 3) Assessment 4} Access control 5) Command and control 61Manpower 7) Security procedures
SECURITY LAYERING Once the risks, threats. and vulnerabilities of a project have been assessed, analyze the security measures that could be used for the project. The choices fall into three classifi-
cations: organizational (people strategies). electronic (tech nology and hardware), and architectural (design ami circulation patterns). These classifications should be comic ered for eacl: level of defense or security layer: , First level--outer perimeter and site 2. Second level-c-buildinq exterior
3. Third level-s-interior control and point security In defensible space, these security layers are defined as public. semipublic. semiprivate. and private spaces.
LIGHTING FOR SECURITY Security lighting does not prevent or stop crime, but it car help owners protect people and property. Good pedestriar lighting offers the natural surveiHance people need to fee'i comfortable walking ahead or across a parking lot to their cars. Lighting can prevent surprises from jump-out criminals or g'lve pedestrians the opportunity to request assis tance, to turn and go another way. or to retreat. Security lighting goals should be to achieve a uniform, can sistent level of light on both pedestrian and vehicular paths of travel. Lighting is critical for the illumination of street anc building names and numbers for effective response by police. fire, and emergency personnel. Design lighting to avoid light intrusion into residential settings. The quality of lighting may be an important security feature True-color, full spectrum light rendition can help with identi fication of vehicles and persons. Car lots and gas stations are examples of building types where metal halide luminaires are used for tul! spectrum light rendition. NOTES 1. Proper beam control saves a system from glare. loss of light energy. and light intrusion. 2. Fixtures should be installed to cast a light pattern over a broad horizontal area rather than a tall vertical area. 3. Light surfaces reflect light more efficiently than dark surfaces. 4. Keep in mind the line of sight between the location of a light fixture and objects that may cast a shadow. Careful placement will avoid dark. corners behind doors, trashcans, and other features.
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SECURITY LIGHTING FOR COMMERCIAL PROPERTY
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.: Miami. Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
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Security Systems Design TYPES OF SENSORS AND CONDITIONS OF USE
A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SECURITY
ULTRASONIC MOTION DETECTORS are used when air turbulence is low and when there are external noise sources that could affect a motion detector that radiated energy outside of the protected area. Use low frequency detectors if audible noise is not objectionable.
An interdependent arrangement of security barriers, technology systems, and security response capabilities yields a responsive and complete security delivery system.
The physical security process primarily consists of fences, building walls. inner walls and doors, and safes and vaults.
MICHOWAVE MOTION DETECTORS are used when air turbulence is present in the protected room and when there are no potential false alarm sources outside of the room and in the field of the detector.
The proliferation of electronic security devices and systems. coupled with rapid and substantial advances in the capabilities of these systems, has resulted in a wide array of choices in security technology. To choose effectively among these. architects must gain a basic understanding of the principles and applications of crime prevention through environmental design (ePTED). security design, and operational security.
PASSIVE INFRARED DETECTORS are used when air turbulence is present in an area or point to be protected. Temperature changes do not affect this type of device, but abrupt changes in light level may cause false alarms. DETECTORS FOR ROOM BOUNDARIES are used when detectors are needed to give the earliest possible warning of an intrusion. They are used only in conjunction with space detectors for the interior of a room; vibration detectors, acoustic detectors, break beams, and breakwires are suggested.
Use of alarmed surveillance systems can greatly reduce property loss. Reports have shown that even when actual breaking and entering incidents have increased, the amount of property stolen has decreased. This is due in part to the use of alarms, perimeter protection, and intrusion detection systems. However, Integrated systems-those that employ the proper procedures, equipment, and people in combination-are the most effective.
MULTIPLE SPACE DETECTORS are used jointly when detectors are not affected in the same measure by external noise sources and when false alarm rates can be reduced drastically while still maintaining a reasonable probability of detection.
In general. the security response capabilities at a particular facility depend on the efforts of the on-site security team. However, architects must design buildings that permit security staff to respond efficiently to incidents requiring their action.
Multiple space detectors are used singly when one type of detector can protect one part of a room and another detector can protect another part of a room because external noise sources are specifically located.
SENSOR SECURITY SYSTEMS
VIBRATION DETECTORS are used when air turbulence, acoustical noises, and motion outside the room are, present. These devices are best suited to protect room boundaries from penetration by drilling or hammering.
Sensor security systems are commonly designed to protect perimeters or to monitor interior space.
PERIMETER SENSOR SYSTEMS may include the following features: continuous line of detection, in-depth protection, complementary sensors, alarm combination, priority schemes, clear zone, site specific system, sensor confiquration, tamper protection, self-test compatibility, suitability for physical and environmental conditions, integration with video system, and integration with barrier delay.
ACOUSTIC DETECTORS are used when light air turbulence, vibration, and motion are present outside the room. These devices are most effective in protecting room boundaries from penetration by drilling or hammering.
Physical and environmental conditions that affect exterior sensors include topography, vegetation, wildlife, background noise, climate and weather, and soil and pavement.
THERMAL DETECTORS are used to detect temperature rises in small enclosures such as vaults when an intruder uses a torch or burning bar to gain entrance. This device would normally be used in a system that includes other types of intrusion detectors.
The conceptual design stage of a perimeter sensor system involves identifying targets, defining threats, establishing security requirements, and developing basic security features. The final design stage requires defining the clear zone surface, determining sensor locations. completing system engineering and specifications, locating perimeter fencing, and designing power and signal distribution. Tasks in the construction stage include procuring materials, performing surveys, installing conduit and wiring, applying surface material, and installing outer fences and sensors. Operation tasks are maintenance, testing, training, and documentation.
INTERIOR DETECTION SYSTEMS offer in-depth protection, detect intruders in time for adequate response, detect tampering, and are able to self-test. As well. they must be properly installed (no loose mountings, wiring in conduits, sensors in proper location for detection). ENTRY VESTIBULE
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON SENSORS
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Environmental conditions that affect interior sensors include the electromagnetic energy, nuclear radiation, acoustic energy, thermal energy, optical effects, seismic phenomena, and meteorological conditions.
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INFRARED CARDS depend on encoding information with varying density patterns that are read by infrared detectors The patterns are optically detected and not visible to the human eye. MAGNETIC SLUG CARDS have magnetic slugs or metal pieces embedded or layered in them; they are read by magnetic sensing devices. Also known as shim cards, they are generally limited to a single code, making them most suitable for parking operations. MAGNETIC STRIPE CARDS have stripes or layers of a magnetic material embedded between layers or on a card's surface in vertical columns or horizontal rows. Areas or patterns on this magnetic material can be magnetized in coded patterns and read by magnetic sensing devices. OPTICAL MEMORY CARDS depend on varied transparency densities arranged in rows, columns, or spots. These patterns are read by a system of light sources and photodetectors. PROXIMITY CARDS incorporate embedded or laminated RF circuits that utilize electrically tuned circuits that resonate when activated by a transmitfer sweeping through the RF range. A receiver picks up the resonating frequency and activates the code deciphering system. Unlike other access cards, the proximity card can be worn or carried and detected at various ranges depending on the design capabilities of the system. SMART CARDS contain an onboard computer chip and a power supply, normally a lithium battery capable of storing up to six pages of text. WATERMARK MAGNETIC CARDS contain small oxide particles physically oriented into zones of varying widths. The particles are set while the iron oxide slurry is still fluid: the binary structure spacing of this computer-generated pattern is then oven-eured to create an unalterable 10- or 12-digit code number but leaving another layer of the magnetic stripe available for encoding soft conventional data. WIEGAND CARDS utilize magnetically embedded unstable ferromagnetic wires formed in a permanently tensioned helical twist. The wiegand card reader uses a magnetic coil that picks up the flux reversal characteristics of the wires and converts them to binary pulses. VIDEO SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS
The major components of a video system are the camera, lens, and mount; lighting system; transmission system; synchronization system; video switching equipment; video recorder; video monitor; and video controller. TRANSMISSION MEANS (COAXIAL OPTICAL. 2-WIREl
ACCESS CONTROL SYSTEMS The following statements describe features of a good access control system:
1 They cannot be bypassed. 2. They allow observation by a protective force guard. 3. They protect the guard. 4. They block passage until access and material control procedures have been performed. 5. They provide secondary inspection of those who cannot pass the automated inspection. 6. They accommodate peak loads. 7. They accommodate vehicles and people. 8. They perform access and material control. 9. They are under surveillance by a central alarm station. 10. They are designed for both entry and exit.
VIDEO MONITOR
PRINTER
VIDEOCASSETTE RECORDER
CARD TECHNOLOGIES
BAR CODE cards have a series of vertical or horizontal stripes and spaces printed in a manner that represents coded data. The spaces between the stripes are read optically by a photodetector cell.
EMBOSSED CARDS exhibit pattern codes that are raised or indented in the card's surface and read by their relative position in the card reader.
LOCATION OF SENSORS
HOLLERITH CARDS have a pattern of small holes punched into the card that presents specific data to the card reader. This card can be read optically or mechanically. The optical reader depends on the light patterns passing through the holes, while the mechanical reader uses electric reed, brush, or switch contacts to read the coded patterns.
SAMPLE LAYOUT OF INTERIOR SENSORS .
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A VIDEO SECURITY SYSTEM
Randall L Atlas, PhD., AlA. CPP; Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.: Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
76
Security Design Strategies
GENERAL Basic security design strategies for building perimeters, interiors, lobbies, stairwells. loading docks. and roofs are outlined here. Also given are specific strategies for practicing crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) and for addressing the need for bomb resistance.
BUILDING PERIMETER 1. Reduce the number of stairwells that exit to the outside. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6
Make the exit through the lobby whenever possible. Entries should funnel people toward the control point. Don't place any entries behind the control point. Define public vs. private areas. Project the image of a secure building.
INTERNAL AREAS 1. Place occupant services within protected floor space. 2. Control access to critical operation areas. 3 Provide buffer/reception zones In executive areas
4. Provide multiple paths of entry/exit for executives. 5. Consider creating safe havens in senior executive offices.
10. Limit the number of facility exit doors based on operational necessity and fire loading regulations. 11 Clearly mark site entrances with signs that indicate visitor and vendor processing points 12. Establish physical control over loading docks, equipment sheds, boiler rooms, and trashbins 13. Provide adequate lighting and surveillance of employee and visitor parking lots. 14. If possible, separate employee and visitor parking. 15. Provide tenants with the means to control their own office areas. 16. Provide reception personnel with a means of covertly signaling duress situations. 17. Establish a uniform means of identification and access for multitenant sites. 18. Utilize primary and secondary authentication methods for access to highly sensitive areas. 19. Clearly delineate employee, visitor, vendor, and contractor status on badges along with the locations and times they are allowed access. 20. Design floor layout plans with security in mind
STRATEGIES FOR BOMB RESISTANCE Key defensive architectural design considerations for bomb resistance are listed here:
BUILDING LOBBY 1. Position the control point between the entry and access to other floors. 2. Move flow past control point. 3. Place restroorns in public areas. 4. Make it possible to secure the lobby level
COMMON STAIRWELLS 1. Designate stairways for emergency use only whenever possible. 2. Prevent access to floors from the garage and public areas. 3. Place stairs so they exit into the lobby. 4. Use internal stairwells for floor-to-floor transit.
1. Establish a secured perimeter around the building as far from the building as possible. 2. Use poured-in-place reinforced concrete for all framing, including slabs, walls, columns, and roofs. 3. Roof and base slabs should be at least 8 in. thick, exterior walls 12 in. thick, and columns spaced no more than 30 It apart. 4. Use seismic detaili.ng at connection points. 5. Reinforce floor slabs and roofs using a two-way reinforcing scheme. 6. Design windows that comprise no more than 15% of the wall area between supporting columns. 7. Reduce the flying glass hazard by using a plastic mylar coating on the inside face of the windows. 8. Install specially designed blast curtains inside the windows to catch pieces of glass, while permitting the airblast pressure to pass through the curtain.
LOADING DOCKS 1. Restrict access to authorized personnel. 2. Control access from the dock into the building. 3. Provide comfort area for drivers on the dock. 4. Make it possible to close off the dock 5. Place dumpsters within controlled dock area 6. Give vehicle staging a separate area
ROOFS 1. Minimize entry points onto the roof 2. Minimize entry via skylights by using multiple mullions Solid or fixed diffusers in the light weI! can also prevent access. 3. Protect roof equipment, such as HVAC cooling towers, from vandalism with roof enclosures with lockable louvered doors spaced far enough from the equipment to allow proper ventilation. 4. Restrict the height of parapets to allow for surveillance from the gro.und.
SPECIFY HIGHER SECURITY FEATURES FOR WINDOWS ADJACENT TO CANOPY
9. Design artistically pleasing concrete barriers as planters or works of art and position them near curbs at a dis tance from the building 10. Design buildings in a simple geometric rectangular lay out to minimize the defraction effect when blast waves bounce off If-shaped or L-shaped buildings and cause additional damage. 11 Drastically reduce or eliminate ornamentation on build ings that could easily break away and endanger building occupants or pedestrians at street level. All external cladding should be of lightweight materials to minimize damage if they become flying objects after an explo sian.
PARKING GARAGES NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Garages should be attended or monitored openly with cameras and sound monitors marked with signs. 2. Place all pedestrian entrances adjacent to vehicle entrances. 3. Stairwells should be visible, without solid walls. 4. Place elevators close to the main entrance so the entire interior of the elevator is in view when the doors are open.
5. Elevators must not have permanent stop buttons. 6. Design the ground floor to provide a view of the garage use wire mesh or stretch cable.
7. Limit access to no more than two designated, monitored entrances. NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. All elevators should be monitored by cameras and sound or clear materials should be used for the entire car. 2. Replace retaining walls with stretch cable railings for maximum visibility.
3. Parking areas and driving lanes should be well lighted MANAGEMENT
1. Prohibit free access to adjacent buildings without direct monitoring. 2. Designate public and private parking spaces. 3. Operate during hours similar to those of local businesses. 4. Secure the garage when it is closed.
ELEVATOR MONITORED BY VIDEO CAMERA WITH SOUND PICK·UP ~e,",u,)
BUILDING SIGNAGE (CLEAR VIEW, AT LEAST 6" HIGH)
ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY STRATEGIES 1. Establish a physical boundary separating public from private property. 2. Design vehicular and pedestrian traffic patterns to maximize natural surveillance of arrivals and departures. 3. Clearly indicate primary and secondary entrances for employees, as well as a primary entrance for visitors. 4. Ensure that visitors will be processed at the main reception area before they proceed to secondary areas of the facility. 5. Erect physical barriers to separate public reception from private office areas. 6. Establish physical and electronic control over exterior and interior access points. 7. Compartmentalize and electronically control access to critical areas such as computer rooms, executive areas, power and telephone closets, and other restricted areas. 8. Physically separate shipping and receiving areas. 9. Restrict access to inventory storage areas
DESIGN COLUMN TO PROHIBIT CLIMBING BY AVOIDING DECORATIVE FEATURES SUCH AS WROUGHT IRON AND RUSTICATED MASONRY
ROOF AND CANOPY DESIGN
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA. CPP: Atlas Safety & Security Design, lnc.; Miami, Flonda
BUILDING SECURITY
SHAFT WALLS AND WALLS OF ELEVATOR CABS SPECIFIED WITH TRANSPARENT MATERIALS FOR VISIBILITY TO ADJACENT PUBLIC SPACE
ELEVATORS
Commercial, Office, and Industrial Security Strategies EXTERIOR OF BUILDING SHOULD BE WELL LIT
WINDOWS SHOULD FACE REAR PARKING AREA FOR SURVEILLANCE
BUILDING SIGNAGE
77
AWNING WITH LIGHT
BUILDING SIGNAGE
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COMMERCIAL BUSINESS
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PARKING AREA
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NOTE
Clear visibility should be maintained from store to sidewalk, street, parking areas, and passing vehicles. Window signs should cover no more than 15% of any window area.
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE FOR COMMERCIAL PROPERTY
7. Windows and doors should have views into hallwaysincluding peepholes and vision panels. 8. Assign parking spaces to each employee and visitor. 9. Parking areas should be visible from the windows; side parking areas should be visible from the street
COMMERCIAL SECURITY
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
Designing safe stores and malls is critical to ensuring strong business draw and retention. Commercial security measures and design must protect the patrons. property, and business information of a business.
, . Make restroom doors visible from main pedestrian areas and keep them away from outside exits. 2. Parking areas should be well lighted. Use high-intensity lighting in parking garages to minimize hiding places. In addition, all levels of the parking garage should be visible from the street or ground floor.
10. Keep shrubbery below 3 ft and tree branches at least 10 ft above the ground for good visibility.
3. Loading areas should not create dead-end alleys or blind spots.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
COMMERCIAL STOREFRONTS NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Locate cash registers in the front of the store near the main entrance. 2. Clearly mark public paths. 3. Signs should direct patrons to parking and entrances. 4. There should be no easy access to the roof. 5. Shops with rear parking lots should have rear entrances.
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Define property perimeters with landscaping, post-andpillar fencing, and gates. 2. Keep the number of entrances as low as possible and make them obvious and celebrated. MANAGEMENT
NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Plan for good visibility: Windows should face rear parking lots. Signs in windows should cover no more than 15% of the window area. Interior shelving and displays should be no higher than five feet. Unobstructed views should be available from the store to the street. sidewalk, parking areas, and passing vehicles. 2. The building exterior should be well-lighted. 3. Loading areas should not create hiding places. 4. Drainage retention areas should be visual amenities, a landscaped pond or smaller waterway rather than a fenced area, but to be secure they should be visible from nearby buildings ano streets. 5. All entrances should be under visual surveillance or monitored electronically. TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Where possible. mark property boundaries with hedges, low fences, or gates.
2. Distinguish private areas from public spaces. 3. Identify shops with wall signs for those parking in the rear. 4. Specify awnings over rear doors and windows.
COMMERCIAL SHOPPING MALL NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Use signs to mark public entrances clearly 2. Clearly mark sidewalks and public areas with special paving and/or landscaping. 3. Separate loading zones from public parking zones; designate limited delivery hours. 4. The parking garage should provide no exterior access to adjacent rooftops.
1. Define the perimeter with landscaping or fencing. 2. Design fences to permit visibility from the street. 3. Make exerior private areas easily distinguishable from public areas. 4. Position a security and/or a reception area to screen all entrances.
1. Assign close-in parking for nighttime employees. 2. Help business associations work together to promote shopper and business safety.
I
COMMERCIAL DRIVE-THROUGHS NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Locate ATMs in front of banks facing main roads or as a drive-through in the drive-in teller lanes. 2. Place the ordering station for a restaurant within sight of the restaurant interior.
OFFICE BUILDINGS Office building security focuses on the safety and security of people, goods, and services. Office building security can assume a high or low profile based on the type and number of building users. NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Clearly define public entrances with walkways and signs. 2. Accentuate building, entrances with architectural elements, lighting, and landscaping and/or paving stones. NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Place restrooms where they can be observed from nearby offices. 2. All exterior doors and hallways should be well-lighted, as well as all parking areas and walkways. 3. Dumpsters should not create blind spots or hiding places. 4. Windows and exterior doors should be visible from the street or to neighbors. 5. All four facades should have windows. 6. Do not obstruct windows with signs.
INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS Industrial enterprises need to protect the assets in their facilities. Special security consideration must be given to receiving and outgoing areas to reduce theft. Individual building tenants should have security technology availability for continuous monitoring and supervision of their space. NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Avoid creating dead-end spaces. 2. Make site entrances easy to secure. 3. Control entrances to parking areas with fences, gates, or an attendant's booth. 4. Parking should be assigned by shifts and planned so late workers have the close-in spaces. 5. Restrict access to railroad tracks. 6. Plan storage yards for vehicular access by patrol car. 7. Avoid access to roofs via dumpster, loading docks. poles, stacked items, etc. 8. Delivery entrances should be separate, well-marked, and monitored. 9. Place employee entrances close to employee parking and work areas. 10. Separate nighttime parking areas from service entrances. 11. Avoid providing access from one part of the building into other areas. NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. All entrances should be well-lighted, well-defined, and visible to public and patrol vehicles. 2. Parking areas should be visible to patrol cars, pedestrians, parking attendants, and/or building personnel. 3. Position the parking attendant for maximum visibility of the property. 4. Give reception areas a view of parking areas 5. Use walls only when necessary. 6. Blind alleys, storage yards, and other out-ot-the-vvav places should not offer hiding places.
Randall I. Atlas, Ph.D., AlA, CPP; Alias Safety & Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
78
Residential Site Security Strategies
GENERAL Designing CPTED (crime prevention through environmental design) and security features into residential buildings and neighborhoods can reduce opportunities for and vulnerability to criminal behavior and help create a sense of community. The goal in residential design is to create safe dwelling places through limited access to properties, good surveillance. and a sense of ownership and responsibility.
_ - SIDEWALK SCALE LIGHTING
PORCHES. SIDEWALKS. ETC ENCOURAGE INTERACTION BETWEEN NEIGHBORS
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STREET DESiGNED TO DISCOURAGE CUT-THROUGH TRAFFIC
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LIGHTING (PROVIDE ADEQUATE DISTANCE FROM TREES)
NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL AND SURVEILLANCE
, Use walkways and landscaping to direct visitors to the proper entrance and away from private areas 2. All doorways that open to the outside as well as side-
walks and all areas of the yard should be well-lighted. 3. Make the front door at least partially visible from the street and clearly visible from the driveway.
OPEN GREEN SPACE OBSERVABLE FROM NEARBY HOUSES
FENCE TO BACKYARD
PAVING TREATMENTS. ARCHITECTURAL TREATMENTS. ETC. DEFINE PUBLIC FROM PRIVATE ZONES
4. Windows on all sides of the house should provide full views of the propertvThe driveway should be visible flam the front or back door and from at least one window. 5. Properly maintained landscaping should provide good views to and from the house. HOUSE
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Front porches or stoops create between the street and the house
a transitional area
2. Define property lines and private areas with plantings, pavement treatments, or fences.
3. The street address should be clearly visible from the street with numbers a minimum of 5 in. high and made of nonreflective material.
SUBDIVISIONS NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
··PAVING TREATMENTS DEFINE SUBDIVISION AND TRAFFIC CALMING
LOW LANDSCAPING DEFINES PROPERTY LINES WITHOUT CREATING BLIND SPOTS OR HIDING PLACES
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN FEATURES DEFINE SUBDIVISION (PROVIDE ADEQUATE LIGHTING)
1. Limit access to the subdivision without completely disconnecting it from neighboring areas. However, try to design streets to discourage cut-through traffic 2. Paving treatments, plantings and architectural design features such as columned gateways can guide visitors away from private areas. 3. Locate walkways where they can direct pedestrian traffic and remain unobscured. NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Landscaping should not create blind spots or hiding places. 2. Locate open green spaces and recreational areas so they can be observed from nearby houses. 3. Use pedestrian-scale street lighting in areas with high pedestrian traffic.
CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN-PLANNING FOR SUBDIVISIONS BUILDING SIGNAGE 5" HIGH (MIN.) WITH 70% CONTRAST FROM BACKGROUND
PRIVATE ZONE
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ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES, LIGHTING, ETC. ACCENTUATE BUILDING ENTRANCE
PUBLIC ZON..=E
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TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Design lots, streets, and houses to encourage interaction between neighbors. 2. Accent entrances with changes in street elevation, differ~ ent paving materials, and other design features. 3. Clearly identifv residences with street address numbers that are a minimum of 5 in. high and well-lighted at night.
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4. Property lines should be defined with post-end-pillar fencing. gates, and plantings to direct pedestrian traffic.
5. All parking should be assigned.
3'-0"
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MAX.
MULTIFAMILY DWELLINGS NATURAL ACCESS CONTROL
1. Balcony railings should never be made of a solid, opaque material or be more than 42 in. high. 2. Define parking lot entrances with curbs, landscaping, and/or architectural design or a guard booth; block deadend areas with a fence or gate. 3. Hallways should be well-lighted, and elevators and stairs should be centrally located. 4. Common building entrances should have locks that automatically lock when the door closes. 5. Limit access to the building to no more than two points No more than four units should share the same entrance. NATURAL SURVEILLANCE
1. Make exterior doors visible to the street or neighbors, and ensure they are wetl-lighted. 2. All four building facades should have windows. Site buildings so the windows and doors of one unit are visible from those of other units.
PROPERTY LINES DEFINED AND REINFORCED BY FENCING AND LANDSCAPING
SIDEWALK
lSTREET
CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN-PLANNING FOR RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY 3. Assign parking spaces to each unit and locate them next to the unit. Designate special parking spaces for visitors. 4. Parking areas and walkways should be well-lighted. 5. Recreation areas should be visible from a multitude of windows and doors. 6. Dumpsters should not create blind spots or hiding places. 7. Elevators and stairwells should be clearly visible from windows and doors. In addition, they should be welllighted and open to view-not hidden behind solid walls. 8. Shrubbery should be no more than 3 ft high for clear visibility and tree canopies not lower than 8 ft 6 in
Randall I. Atlas, PhD., AlA, CPP; Atlas Safety & Secunty Design, Inc, Miami, Florida
BUILDING SECURITY
a-o" (PREFERRED)
TERRITORIAL REINFORCEMENT
1. Define property lines with landscaping or post-and-pillar fencing, but keep shrubbery and fences low to allow vis! bility from the street. 2 _Accent building entrances with architectural elements and lighting and/or landscape features. 3. Doorknobs should be 40 in. from window panes. 4. Clearly identify all buildings and residential units witf well-liqhted address numbers a minimum of 5 in. high 5. Common doorways should have windows and be key controlled by residents. 6. Locate mailboxes next to the appropriate residences.
Site Security Planning for Terrorism SITE SECURITY PLANNING AND DESIGN CRITERIA The safety and security of a building, its site. and its users should be an important design criteria, similar.to such health and safety issues as structural integrity, accessibility, and fire safetv Increased threats to people and property from acts of terrorism, workplace violence. and street crime make it important to identify security issues and establish a plan to manage the risks.
SECURITY ASSESSMENT An assessment of the security requirements should be made as early as possible. preferably as part of the programming phase and certainly before the design phase. Determining the security requirements is mainly a matter of managing the perceived risks. Although the assessment is the owner's responsibility, the architect should ensure that the security requirements have been identified before the design begins. Failure to identify security issues will surely result in design changes, delays, and cost increases for both the owner and the architect.
DISTANCE SHOULD BE GREAT ENOUGH SO THAT COLLAPSE OF THE TOWER DOES NOT AFFECT THE OTHER FACILITIES
TOWER FACILITY CENTRAL FACILITY
POTENTIAL
THRE~.T
SECURE.
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The security assessment will answer four questions: 1. What are the assets-persons, places, information, property-that require security protection?
2. What are the criminal or other threats-street crime, workplace violence, terrorism, sabotage-against which the assets must be protected? 3. How vulnerable are the assets to the threats (e.g., if workplace violence is identified as a threat. can unauthorized persons enter private work spaces unchallenged)? 4. What countermeasures are required to mitigate the threat (e.g., is the circulation pattern designed to channel visitors through controlled site-access portals)? The cost of achieving the correct level of site-based protecnon may be very high, depending on the nature of the protected assets and the perceived threatto them. After the recommended countermeasures have been identified, organize them according to their priority and ask the owner to select those that are prudent and cost-effective for the project. In the case of federal projects (and many state and local government projects as well), the assessment results in the assignment of a defined level of protection (LOP). with specific countermeasures attached to each level. See the discussion below of the GSA Security Standards. Risk assessment and security design are especially relevant in schools, hospitals, airports, office buildings, and multifamily apartment buildings. In recent years, terrorists have targeted such buildings because of their: "architectural vul~erability," ~o it is clearly important to address security Issues in their design.
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they should be implemented for various levels of security. For example, a level-one facility might not require an entry control system whereas a level-four -facility would require electronic controls with CClY assessment. Several state and local governments also have reviewed the standards and applied them to new construction. Consult local and state authorities for specific requirements. The standards take a balanced approach to security, considenng cost-effectiveness, acknowledging acceptance of some risk, and recognizing that federal buildings should not be bunker- or fortress-like. but open. accessible, and attractive. Prudent, rather than excessive, security measures are appropriate in facilities owned by and serving the public. The architecture and engineering team should address the following issues for renovations or new construction on any federal building (and often for state and local buildinqs): SECURITY PLANNING
1. Security risks and needs of building tenants 2. Mylar film on exterior windows 3. Blast standards for current projects and new construction 4. Design standard for blast resistance and street setback for new construction
The security standards also address the functional requirements and ~esired application of security glazing, bombresistant design a0d construction, landscaping and planting designs, site lighting, natural and mechanical surveillance opportunities (e.q.. good sight lines. no blind spots, window placement. and proper applications of CelY). The recommendations are further subdivided according to whether
FACILITY
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SECURITY LAYERING
In response to bombings of federal office buildings. the federal government has developed security standards for all of its facilities, and an interagency security committee has recommended their adoption as government-wide standards. These standards, known as the GSA Security Standards. encouraqe a defensible space/crime prevention through en~lronmental design (ePTED) approach that clearly defines and- screens the flow of people and vehicles through various layers of public and private space. Edges and boundaries of a property should clearly define the desired circulation patterns and movements. Various screening techniques can be used to separate legitimate u~~rs of a building from those who are looking for opporturunes to commit crime, workplace violence, or acts of terrorism.
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One way to think about security requirements IS as a layering process The first layer, the site perimeter of the property, is the first. not the last. line of defense. The U.S. Department of State seeks setbacks of at least 100 feet for new buitdinqs. ~nd even at that distance securing the perimeter IS difficult in most urban settings. The building skin of the structure is the next layer. Sensitive areas within ~ building are deeper layers requiring protection, and. finally. at the center of all the layers. are the particular persons. information, or property that may require point protection. .
GSA RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SECURITY STANDARDS
79
PERIMETER AND EXTERIOR SECURITY
1. Parking area and parking controls 2. CCTV monitoring 3. Lighting. including emergency backup 4. Physical barriers ENTRY SECURITY
1. Intrusion detection system 2. Upgrade to current life safety standards 3. Screen persons as well as mail and packages 4. Entry control with CCTV and electric door strikes 5. High-security locks INTERIOR SECURITy
1. Employee 10, visitor control 2. Access to utilities 3. Emergency power for critical systems 4. Location of day care centers APPLtCATION OF GSA SECURITY STANDARDS TO ALL BUILDING TYPES
Many of the issues addressed in the GSA standards apply to all building types. Among the important security design issues are establishment of (1) hierarchies of public and private spaces; (2) traffic patterns of the site and the building; and (3) opportunities for natural observation of surroundings. Hierarchies of space should proceed from open, pub-
lic areas, to semipublic. to semiprivate, to private spaces. Areas unassigned- in the hierarchy become a sort of ..no man's land," left unmonitored and unprotected. Traffic patterns of pedestrians and vehicles onto the site and into buildings should be carefully thought-out and controlled. And. finally. all buildings should be designed so that users have a good, unobstructed view of their surroundings. The following design and planning considerations address both low- and high-threat situations. If neither a high nor a low threat is specificed, then the design consideration applies to both situations. PLANNING
1. Vehicular control • Low threat: not required • High threat: install barriers to stop a vehicle of a specified size 2. Perimeter vehicle inspection • Low threat: not required • High threat: install sally port with vehicle arrest device 3. Site lighting 4. Signage to control site circulation 5. Landscaping • Avoid dense landscaping in both low and high threat. 6. Minimize the number of entrances to a building. • Secure entrances when building is not in use. • Clearly identify the function of each entrance (e.g., employees only, deliveries. etc). 7. Install barriers on vulnerable openings such as ground floor windows, exterior fire stairs, roof openings, and skylights. Fence off problem areas to prevent unauthorized access and funnel movement along desired paths. 8. Control access for servicing and deliveries. 9. Use graffiti-resistant exterior finishes and/or landscape with creeping vines. PARKING
1. Inside the building • Low threat: government vehicles, building employees. • High threat: government employees who need security 2. On-site controlled • Low threat: no restriction • High threat: 100-ft standoff 3. Parking on adjacent streets • Low threat: government and key employees only • High threat: use structural features to prevent parking 4. Parking on adjacent properties • Low threat: 5-ft standoff • High threat: 10o-ft standoff Site Security Planning for Terrorism continues on the next page.
Randall I. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D., CPP; Atlas Safety and Security Design, Inc., Miami, Florida Anth~ny DjGr~gano: Applied Research Associates: Washington, D.C. Amencan Societv for Industrial Security; Alexandria, Virginia
BUILDING SECURITY
80
Site Security Planning for Terrorism
Site Securitv Planning for Terrorism is continued from the
2. Design concrete barriers as flower planters; positior them at curbs, spaced less than 4 ft apart. 3. Build new buildings in a simple, geometric, rectanqul. layout to minimize the "detraction effect" when bias' waves bounce off U-shaped or L-shaped buildings caus ing additional damage. 4. Reduce or eliminate ornamentation on buildings, an use lightweight materials for exterior cladding. During " bomb blast (or even a hurricane). such ornamentation I~ likely to break away from the building and may iniur« building occupants or pedestrians at street level. 5. Eliminate potential hiding places near the facility. 6. Provide unobstueted views around the facility. 7. Site the building within view of other occupied facilities 8. Locate assets stored on site but outside of the buildinc within view of occupied rooms of the facility. ~ 9. Minimize signage that indicates what assets are on the property. 10. Eliminate lines of approach perpendicular to the build ing. 11. Minimize the number of vehicle access points. '2. Eliminate or strictly control parking below Luildings.
FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING
previous page.
1. Secured water supply 2. Dual fire pumps (electric and diesel) • Not required in low- or high-threat projects 3. Secured standpipe connection
PARKING (CONTINUED)
5. Parking facility security systems 6 Minimize the number of entrances to a building • Functions of the entrances should be clearly identified (e.g., employees only, deliveries, visitors) • Secure entrances when the building is not in use 7. Install barriers on vulnerable openings such as ground floor windows, exterior fire stairs, roof openings, and skylights. Fence off problem areas to prevent unauthorized access and funnel movement along desired paths. 8. Control access for servicing and deliveries. 9. Use graffiti-res~stant exterior finishes and/or landscape with creeping vines.
ELECTRONIC SECURITY
1. Operational control center, fire command center, and security control center located together • Low threat: not required 2. Backup control center • Low threat: not required • High threat: locate in manager's or engineer's office 3. Electrical utility closets, mechanical rooms, and telephone closets • Low threat: entry with key should be maintained, with some method of noting times of entry and departure, such as marked by a watchman's clock system • High threat: access to mechanical, electrical, and telecommunication rooms should be authorized, programmeG, and monitored at the security control center through preidentification of maintenance personnel
SITE
1. Generous wiring and backup power 2. Intrusion detection devices 3. Boundary penetration sensors and motion detection systems 4. Access control systems 5. Contraband, weapons, and explosives detectors 6. Credential readers and positive personnel identification systems 7. Security control and information display systems
13. Locate parking as far from the building as practica: (while still addressing ADA spaces and proximity), and place parking within view of occupied rooms or facili ties. 14. Illuminate the building exterior and other areas where assets are located. 15. Secure access to power and heating plants, gas mains water supplies, and electrical and phone service.
4. Elevator recall 5. Door lock • Low-threat: key-locked security keying system • High-threat: high-security keying system with electronic locks 6. Intrusion detection • Low threat: magnetic reed switches with optional sensor to detect breaking glass • High-threat: same as for low threat, with balanced magnetic contact switch set and sensor to detect breaking glass 7. Monitoring • Low threat: commercial central station • High threat: on-site, proprietary security control center; review roof intrusion detection B. CClY • Low threat: not required 9. Duress alarms • Low threat: install in key public contact areas, executive offices, and garages as needed • High threat: same as low threat
EXTERIOR ENTRANCE
1. Lobby • Protection from forced entry 2. Employee entrances • Same as lobby 3. Garage and service entrances • Vehicle arrest devices ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Except for lighting (#5) and vehicle access control (#61. none of the following is necessary in low-threat projects. 1. Exterior connector for emergency power 2. Exterior surveillance 3. Emergency generator 4. Protected utilities and feeders 5. Adequate lighting (including site lighting) 6. Vehicle access control (parking) 7. Emergency communications (parking) 8. CClY (parking)
CONCLUSION The design of a building can significantly affect how secure it .is from acts of terrorism, workplace violence. and other cnmes. The goal for architects is to use architectural design features and elements in a manner that enhances a building's security without compromising its aesthetics and functionality. While there are instances in which a fortresslike structure is the only solution to various security issues, in many cases a simple, well thouqht-out plan will yield the best results.
MORE INFORMATION 1. GSA security standards: www.gsa.gov/pbs 2. American Society for Industrial Security; \'V\'VW.asison line.com 3. CPTED: www.cpted-secunty.com 4. National Criminal Justice Reference Service: www ncjrs.org 5. Illumination Engineering Society of North America (secu rity lighting): W\NW.iesna.org
SUMMARY OF KEY DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURAL SITE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR BOMB RESISTANCE
1. Establish a secured perimeter around the building that is as far from the building as possible. Setbacks of 100 It are desired.
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Source. BaSIlJ. Steele, Amencan Society for Industnal Securitv. Alexandna. Virginia Randall I. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D.. CPP; Atlas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida Anthony DiGreggario; Applied Research Associates; Washi"'gton, D.C.
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Commercial Site Development
81
DESIGN GUIDELINES
GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS
MAXIMUM BUILDING HEIGHT
Each commercial development project will have its own set of requirements. This outline is intended as an overview of the subjects the architect, engineer, and owner should consider when planning a small to medium commercial development.
A geotechnical engineer should be retained at the inception of a project to provide a thorough subsurface investigation of the property. The key information provided by such a survey includes the following:
The maximum height buildings on a particular site can reach is usually defined in terms of both stories and feet above the finished grade. These criteria are set by local ordinance and building code.
Soil quality/type: Soils are described, ranging from their composition to drainage. 2. Bearing capacity: A variety of field and/or laboratory testing, considered in conjunction with anticipated structural dead loads, goes into analyzing how a planned building wilt react to the soil conditions on a site. Settlement is one issue to be considered here. 3. Foundation recommendations: The geotechnical engineer uses analytical data about the soil quality/type and the bearing capacity of the soil to make recommendations regarding the most efficient/cost-effective foundation system.
LOCAL PLANNING REGULATIONS
As with all new projects. the designer should research the laws. codes, and ordinances that govern development in the jurisdiction. This may include municipal, township. county, state. and federal regulations as they pertain to land and building development. ZONING
Confirm that the zoning classification of the property permits the intended use. For example, to build a warehouse the tract of land would have to be zoned for industrial use. The zoning classification also determines what level of development is allowed on a particular tract of land.
The architect should find out what relevant codes/laws require in regard to life safety, welfare, and accessibility. These requirements should provide minimum criteria by which to measure the design and construction of a project. The intended use and type of construction will dictate allowable heights and areas.
BUILDING ENTRANCE
Public exposure, topography, orientation, and parking should Q€ considered in designing and siting the main entrance. To maximize a building's presence on the site and help orient users, the main entrance should be obvious and easily visible. Site topography and the intended use of the bUilding will determine orientation of the entrance, with consideration of sun angles and views. The main entrance should be readily recognizable from the main parking area. TRAFFIC SURVEY
Codes vary around the country, so architects must consult the local government for all applicable codes/laws and local amendments. Pertinent laws include the BOCA, UBC, SBCC, NFPA, ASHRAE, ANSI. and the ADA universal accessibility law.
PROPERTY SURVEY
Property surveys verify the property boundaries, street lines, contours, pertinent landmarks, rights-of-way, and easements (construction restrictions) of a piece of property.
ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS
DRAINAGE EASEMENT
Environmental issues such as wetlands preservation, potential groundwater contamination, and preservation of native flora and fauna should be considered. Local groups can provide information regarding local environmental issues.
When properties share a common storm water basin, local authorities can hold easements to allow for storm water drainage across multiple properties. Drainage easements are not required when individual property owners are responsible for storm water management.
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UTILITIES
The architect must determine which utilities are required, which are available, how site access will be designed, and where the utility lines will enter the building. Utilities include water, sewer, gas, electric, and telephone.
LOT COVERAGE
Zoning laws regulate the amount of physical construction that can occur on a given piece of land. Physical construction covers buildings and paved, impervious surfaces (e.g., sidewalks, blacktop). Another measure affecting the allowable building footprint is building setback, the distance that must exist between a structure and the property line. Building setbacks are typically described in terms of front, rear, and side yards; rights-of-way; and property easements. Local municipal ordinances describe required setbacks, which vary based on location and intended use.
BUILDING CODES
DRAINAGE EASEMENT
PARKING REQUIREMENTS
Parking requirements typically are a function of intended use and building size le.g., one space per 250 sq It of building areal. In suburban office park planning, this is commonly the governing factor when maximizing buildable area on small and constricted sites.
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A typical traffic survey analyzes traffic patterns, densities, generators, and peak periods. This information is used to determine the guidelines/procedures required to provide safe and effective flows of vehicular and pedestrian traffic. Local governing agencies determine the scope and extent of survey required. SERVICE ACCESS
Architects must consider vehicular service access to both the site and the building. Site design and building orientation must allow for maneuverability of service, delivery, and sanitary vehicles.
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GEOTECHNICAL ANALYSIS WATER MAIN TRAFFIC SURVEY
SITE DEVELOPMENT DIAGRAM
Greenfield Architects, Ltd.; Lancaster, Pennsylvania
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBAN PLANNING
82
The Town Planning Process
INTRODUCTION The following pages provide the essential elements of town design. Included are an abstract, a set of diagrams, and criteria for town and community design.
Site planning for development projects should be a sequential process that begins with information gathering and ends with detailed design drawings. The process involves three stages: analysis. design. and implementation. The chart below indicates a planning process; however, this can vary to accommodate the specifics of a particular project. Physical site characteristics, urban or suburban location, and community criteria modify the process. The site planning process includes both architect and landscape architect and. in some cases, biologists, civil engineers, and others. An integrated approach to site development and architecture helps create a quality environment. The text on this page is presented as a checklist for structuring a project.
CLIENT CONTACT AND INPUT The first step is contact between the client and the site planner. The client may have some development objectives based on financial capabilities and market feasibility. It is important for the site planner to obtain all client data relative to planning the site.
LITERATURE REVIEW Site planning covers a variety of situations from rural and suburban to high~ntensity urban.
There is substantial literature on planning sites and design· ing neighborhoods of all densities. Recent publications demonstrate a return to the basic town planning principles that have produced orderly community design throughout history.
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT Early in the planning process, contact community groups with an interest in the proposed project. Such efforts yield useful information for community design and are particularly important when a proposed project is adjacent to existing development. Compatibility issues are typically resolved with community participation. One method of involving the community is the "eharrette." a participatory planning process with a limited time frame, usually one day to a week, in which residents, municipal staff, elected leaders, and others participate in the physical design of a project. The planner receives local information useful for the design, and individuals and groups bring their interests to bear at the beginning of the design process, thereby expediting final approvals.
the pedestrian are typical of today's public works regula tions. Such standards should be modified to allow cohere-. neighborhood design, PUBLIC SERVICES AND UTILITIES
Other information that may require additional researc' includes 1. Availability of potable water, including local and state reg ulations on wells 2. Availability of public sewer service, access to trunk lines, and available increases in flow. If sewage lines are not immediately available, determine projected phasing of these services, as well as alternatives to sewage collection and treatment, including septic tanks. 3. Access to public roads, existing and projected carrying capacities, and levels of services of the roads. (State am local road departments can provide this inforrnation.) 4. Availability and capacities of schools and other public facilities, such as parks and libraries
SITE ANALYSIS REGIONAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL PLANNING Some areas of the country have established regional agencies for intercommunity issues, such as water management, transportation, population studies, and pollution control. Some communities have adopted regional planning guidelines. State and/or federal criteria can also affect projects.. State plans may address broad issues applicable to large sites or impose constraints on sites involving issues of statewide concern. Also, some states require environmental impact statements for large-scale projects. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for environmental review of proposed dredge and fill operations in navigable waters and wetlands. The Federal Flood Insurance Program establishes minimum elevations for potential flood areas. Other state, regional, and local authorities also may oversee the protection of air and water quality and other environmental issues.
LOCAL PLANNING INFORMATION The planner must collect local planning information. Personal contact with planning and zoning agencies is important in order to comprehend local criteria. Following is a list of information to review. PLANNING DOCUMENTS
Many communities have adopted comprehensive plans that indicate the particular land use and intensity of the site. In addition, information on the availability and/or phasing of public services and utilities, environmental criteria, traffic planning, and population trends can be found in most comprehensive plans. Some communities require that rezoning meet the criteria provided in their cOmprehensive plans. In addition to the comprehensive plan, communities may also adopt neighborhood or area plans that refine the comprehensive plan as it relates to a particular locale. Many of these studies stipulate specific zoning categories for individual parcels of land. URBAN DESIGN PLANS
Some communities have adopted urban design plans for creating a harmonious physical environment. These documents may range from conceptual to those that incorporate specific requirements. Some provide bonuses in land use intensities for incorporating urban amenities such as plazas and squares. There may also be criteria for retrofitting existing areas, a critical need in American cities where a substantial amount of urban area is deteriorated or developed incoherently. ZONING
Land zoning prescribes the intensity and type of land use allowed. A zoning change is required if the planned project differs. Regulations often need to be modified to allow good community design. Common examples of regulations discouraging good urban form include excessive setbacks and restricted mixed-use development. PUBLIC WORKS STANDARDS
Local public works criteria significantly affect the design of large sites. Roadway layout, cross sections, and drainage are typical requirements. Excessive roadway standards designed for automobile convenience, with little regard for
TOWN PLANNING PROCESS
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin, Iskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida
SITE, COMMUNIN, AND URBAN PLANNING
Site analysis is one of the planner's major responsibilities All the on- and off-site design determinants must be evaluated before design begins. For details, see the following pages on environmental site analysis.
PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT At the program development stage, background research, citizen input, and site analysis are combined with client input and synthesized into a set of program strategies Basic elements for program development include market and financial criteria; federal. state, regional. and local planning information; local political climate development costs; the client's objectives; and site opportunities and constraints as developed in the synthesis of environmental site determinants. Balancing the various determinants will lead to an appropriate approach to site development. Consider dwelling unit type, density, marketing, time phasing, and similar criteria, as well as graphic studies of the site, to finalize the program. Develop clear graphic representations of design concepts to present to the client and others who may have input to the process. If the project cannot be accomplished under the existing zoning or public works requirements, requesting a regulatory change becomes a part of the program.
ALTERNATIVE PLAN PREPARATION Once the program has been accepted by the client, develop several design solutions to meet the program objectives When an alternative has been accepted, develop it into the preliminary plan. This plan should be relatively detailed, showing all spatial relationships, infrastructure, landscaping, and other relevant information.
PUBLIC REVIEW A zoning change requires public review. Some communities require substantial data, such as impact statements and other narrative and graphic exhibits, while others may require only an application for the zoning change. Local requirements for changes can be complex, and it is imperative that the planner and the client's attorney are familiar with local criteria.
FINAL DESIGN PLANS At this stage, the preliminary plans are refined into final site development plans that include fully dimensioned drawing'S, landscape plans, and site details. Final development plans also include drawings prepared by the engineer or surveyor, such as legal plats and utilities, street, and drainage plans. Upon approval, final design plans are recorded in the public records in the form of plats. Homeowner association agreements, deed restrictions, and similar legal documents must also be recorded, and they become binding on all owners and successive owners, unless changed legally. Bonding may be required for infrastructure and other public facilities. In some instances, the planner may develop specific design standards for the total buildout of the project
Environmental Site Analysis
83
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
EXISTING SINGLE-FAMILY RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT
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Air movement: Prevailing breezes characteristic of-a region may be greatly modified by urban high-rise structures. Predominant air movement patterns in 'a city may be along roadways and between buildings. The placement, shape, and height of existing buildings can create air turbulence caused by micro air movement patterns. These patterns may influence the location of building elements such as outdoor areas and balconies. Also, a building's design and placement can mitigate or increase local wind turbulence. Sun and shadow patterns: The sun and shadow patterns of existing structures should be studied to determine how they would affect the proposed building. This is particularly important for outdoor terraces and balconies where sunlight may be desirable. Sun and shadow patterns also should be considered as sources of internal heat gain or loss. Building orientation, window sizes, and shading devices can modify internal heat gain or loss. Studies should include daily and seasonal patterns and the shadows the proposed building would cast on existing buildings and open spaces. 3. Reflections: Reflections from adjacent structures such as glass-clad buildings may be a problem. The new building should be designed to compensate for such glare or. if possible, oriented away from it. URBAN CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS
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TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
SURVEY DATA The first step in any site analysis is the gathering of physical site data. An aerial photograph and an accurate survey showing the following information are basic to any site analysis process: 1. Scale. north arrow, benchmark. and date of survey 2. Tract boundary lines 3. Easements: location. width, and purpose 4. Names and locations of existing road rights-of-way on or adjacent to the tract. including bridges, curbs. gutters. and culverts 5. Position of buildings and other structures such as foundations, walls. fences. steps. and paved areas 6. Utilities on or adjacent to the tract-location of gas lines, fire hydrants, electric and telephone poles, and street lights; and direction, distance to, and size of nearest water mains and sewers and invert elevation of sewers 7. Location of swamps. springs, streams, bodies of water, drainage ditches, _watershed areas, flood plains, and other physical features 8. Outline of wooded areas with names and condition of plant material 9. Contour intervals of 2 to 5 ft, depending on slope gradients, and spot elevations at breaks in grade, along drainage channels or swales, and at selected points as needed Considerable additional information may be needed, depending 'on design considerations and site complexities such as soil information and studies of the geological structure of the site. Federal regulations for wetland mapping and conservation may also be relevant.
SUBURBAN SITE ANALYSIS The site analysis is a major responsibility of the site planner. The physical analysis of the site is developed primarily from field inspections. Using the survey, the aerial photograph, and. where warranted, infrared aerial photographs, the site designer, working in the field and in the office, verifies the survey and notes site design determinants. These should include. but not be limited to, the following:
I
1. Areas of steep and moderate slopes 2. Macro- and microclimatic conditions, including sun angles during different seasons; prevailing breezes; wind shadows; frost pockets; and sectors where high or low points give protection from sun and wind 3. Solar energy considerations. If solar energy appears feasible, a detailed climatic analysis must be undertaken considering factors such as detailed sun charts; daily averages of sunlight and cloud cover; daily rain averages; areas exposed to the sun at different seasons; solar radiation patterns; and temperature patterns 4. Potential flood zones and routes of surface water runoff 5. Possible road access to the site, including potential conflicts with existing road systems and carrying capacities of adjacent roadways (usually available from local or state road departments) 6. Natural areas that from an ecological and aesthetic standpoint should be saved; all tree masses with name and condition of tree species and understory planting 7. Significant wildlife habitats that would be affected by site modification 8. Soil conditions relative to supporting plant material, areas suitable for construction, erosion potential, and septic tanks, if relevant 9. Geological considerations relative to supporting structures 10. Exceptional views; objectionable views (use on-site photographs) 11. Adjacent existing and proposed land uses with notations on compatibility and incompatibility 12. Potential noise sources, particularly noise generated from traffic that can be mitigated by using plants, berming. and walls and by extending the distance between the source and the receiver
1. Building typology and hierarchy: An analysis of the particular building type (residential, commercial, public) relative to the hierarchy of the various building types in the city is useful in deciding the general design approach of a new building. For example, public buildinqs may be dominant in placement and design. while residential buildings are subdominant. It is important to maintain any existing hierarchy that reinforces visual order in the city. Any predominant architectural solutions and details characteristic of a building type incorporated in the new building's design can help maintain a recognizable building type. 2. Regional character: An analysis of the city's regional architectural characteristics is appropriate in developing a design solution that responds to unique regional characteristics. Regional characteristics may be revealed through unique architectural types, through vernacular building resulting from local climatic and cultural characteristics, and from historically significant architecture. Historic structures should be saved by modifying them for the proposed new use or by incorporating parts of the existing structure(s) into the proposed design. 3. City form: The delineation of City form created by road layout. location of major open spaces, and architecturecreated forms should be analyzed. Elements that delineate city form should be reinforced by architectural development solutions for a particular place within the city. For example, a building proposed for a corner site should be designed to reinforce the corner through building form, entrance, and design details. A building proposed for midblock may be a visually unifying element providing connection and continuity with adjacent buildings. Sites at the ends of important vistas or adjacent to major city squares probably should be reserved for important public buildings. 4. Building scale and fenestration: It is important to analyze building scale and fenestration of nearby structures Reflecting, although not necessarily reproducing, such detailing in the proposed building can provide visual unity and continuity in the architectural character of the city. One example is the use and placement of cornice lines to define the bLiilding's lower floors in relation to adjacent buildings. Cornice lines also can define the building's relationship to pedestrians in terms of scale and use. 5. Building transition: Sometimes it may be appropriate to use arcades and porches to provide transition between the building's private interior and the public sidewalk. Including them may be especially worthy if adjacent buildings have these elements. 6. Views: Important city views of plazas, squares. monuments, and natural features such as waterfronts and parks should be considered. It is important to design the proposed structure to enhance and preserve such views for the public and for inhabitants of nearby buildings, as well as incorporating them as views from the proposed buildinq.
URBAN SITE ANALYSIS Although much of the information presented for suburban sites may apply equally to urban sites, additional site design criteria may be necessary. The urban environment has numerous design determinants in the form of existing structures, city patterns, and microclimatic conditions.
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin, Iskandar Shafie, Rafael Diaz; Miami, Florida
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBAN PLANNING
84
Environmental Site Analysis
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ENVIRONMENTAL SITE ANALYSIS PROCESS If a site has numerous environmental design determinants, ~he. ~ite pla.nner may analyze each environmental system individually In order to comprehend the environmental charact.af of the ~ite more clearly. This can be a complex process, and a Site planner/landscape architect with expertise in environmental analysis should be retained to coordinate such an effort. By preparing each analysis on transparencies, the site planner can use the overlay approach. Values are assigned to each sheet based on impact. ranging from areas of the site where change would have minimal effect to areas where change would result in severe disruption of the site. In essence, the separate sheets become abstractions with values assigned by the site planner and associated professionals. As each sheet is superimposed, a composite develops that. when completed, constitutes the synthesis of the environmental design determinants. Lighter tones indicate areas where modification would have minimal influence darker tones indicate areas more sensitive to change. Th~ sketches shown simulate the overlay process. The site planner may give greater or lesser weight to certain parameters depending on the particular situation. In assigning values that help determine the site design process, the site planner should consider such factors as the value of maintaining the functioning of the individual site systems, the uniqueness of the specific site features, and the cost of modifying the site plan
COMPOSITE
1. SLOPE: The slope analysis is developed on the contour map; consideration should include the percentage of slope and orientation of slope relative to the infrastructure and land uses. 2. SOIL PATIERNS: Consideration may include the analysis of soils by erosion potential, compressibility and plasticity, capability of supporting plant growth, drainage capabilities, possible sources of pollution or toxic wastes, septic tank location (if relevant), and the pro- posed land uses and their infrastructure. 3. VEGETATION: Consideration of indigenous species (vatues of each in terms of the environmental system) includes size and condition, the succession of growth toward climax conditions, uniqueness, the ability of certain species to tolerate construction activities, aesthetic values, and density of undergrowth. 4. WILDLIFE: Consideration of indigenous species includes their movement patterns, the degree of change each species can tolerate, and feeding and breeding areas. 5. GEOLOGY: Consideration of underlying rock masses studies the depth of different rock layers and the suitability of different geological formations in terms of potential infrastructure and building. 6. SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE WATER: Consideration of natural drainage patterns covers aquifer recharge areas, erosion potential, and flood plains. 7. CLIMATE: Consideration of rrucrocfimatic conditions includes prevailing breezes (at different times of the year), wind shadows, frost pockets, and air drainage patterns.
Following is a Jrstof the environmental design determinants that, depending on the particular site, may be considered and included in an overlay format:
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharm, Iskandar Shafie, Rafael Diaz: Miami, Florida
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBAN PLANNING
COMPUTER APPLICATION
The above process is labor intensive when developed by hand on individual sheets of mylar; however, this particular method of environmental analysis is easily adaptable to the CAD (computer-aided drafting) system. Commercial drafting programs suitable for the overlay approach are readily available. Simplified, the method is as follows:
1. A map, such as a soil map, is positioned on the digitizer and the information is transferred to the processor through the use of the stylus. One major advantage to the use of a computer is that the scale of the map being recorded will be transferred to the selected scale by the processor. A hatched pattern is selected, with a less dense pattern for soil types that would have minimal influence and more dense patterns for soil types more sensitive to change. Once this information is programmed into the computer, it is stored. 2.The same process is repeated for development of the next overlay; for example, vegetation. Once again any scale map may be used. This process is repeated until all overlays have been stored. At any time one or all overlays can be produced on the screen. 3.The individual overlays or any combination of overlays can be drawn on mylar with a plotter. If appropriate for the particular analysis, the plotter will draw in color. The resulting overlay sheets take considerably less time than by hand and may be more accurate. Other benefits are that the site can be studied directly on the computer screen and any part of the overlay can be enlarged for greater detail. 4.The overlay process can be recorded by videotape or by slides from the screen for use in presentations.
RurolVillogeDesign SITE
MAP
ANALYSIS
Locate natural, cultural, and scenic features first. These include manv buildable areas, such as farm fields. pastures, meadows. and mature w@dland: special teatures, such as stone walls, springhouses, cellar holes and views into and out o{ the site: and unbuildable areas, such as steep slopes. wetlands, springs, streams, and ice ponds.
MEADOW
LAYOUT OR
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Sketch an unimaginative but legally correct conventlonal lavout to demonstrate the density that could realistically be a;hieved on the site and, by comparison, to show local officials and abutters how ditferent a rural village approach is The sketch here shows how, under 1 .s-acre zoning, a 520acre site would ordinarily be checkerboarded into 300 lots, each with a required minimum area of 60,000 sq ft, leaving no open space whats@ver.
VILLAGE
85
HILGIDE PASTURE
/
PLAN
Desagningthe developmenl as a traditional village,with lots ranoinq from 5000 sq h to 1 acre, achreves slightly greater aen-siti on less than one{ua.ter of the land and presefres nearlv 4OO acres. This layout is based closely on the site analysis map, with the village located to avoid disturbing the woodlands that provide the only natural habitat in this larqelv aqricultural community. Ihe most specral site fea' turEs are protected by designrng around them. Nine "con' seryancy lots." varying in area from 20 to 60 acres, are limited to one principal dwelling plus tvvo accessory units. This assures significant open space around the perimeter of this 3oGlot village. Permanent conseryation easements protect these lands from Iunher subdivision and preserye the 1 50 acres of undivided open space and its trail system, which connects the old springhouse to the lakeshore and leads back to the schoolYard. This open space could be owned by the village government, a local land trust, or a homeown€rs' association (with automatic membership and authoritv to place liens on properties of members who lail to pay their dues). Rural views outward from three village streets have also been preseryed, with open countryside terminating their vistas. Terminated vistas are also provided by three large public or semipublic buildings (churches, libraries. etc.) positioned at the ends of several str€ets.
SITE ANALYSIS
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RURAL VILLAGE OESIGN FandallArendt,MRTPI;NaturalLandsTrust:Media,Pennsylvania KamalZaharin,lskandarShafie;Miami, Florida Gary Greenan,Andres Duany,ElizabethPlatetrZyberk,
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PLANNING AND URBAN COMMUNIry, SITE,
I
86
Elementsof Urbonism
THE NEIGHBORHOOD. DISTRICT, AND THE
THE CORRIDOR
The tundamental elements 01 urbanism are the neighbol hood, the district, and the corridor. Neighborhood"s iie urbanized areas with a fuil and balanced iange of human activity. Districts are urbanrzed areas organizled around a predominant activity. Neighborhoods and distrjcts are connected and isolated by corridors of t.ansportation or open space. Neighborhoods, districts, and corridors are comotex urban elements Suburbra. In co4trast, rs the result oi srmplistrc zoning concepts that separate activities into residential sub_ divisions, shopping centers, o{fice parks, and open space. THE NEIGHBORHOOD Cites.and towns are made up of multip'e neighborhoods_A neighborhood isolated in the landscape is a village. The nomenclature may vary, but there is general agree ment regardrng rhe physical composition of a neighbor hood. The neighborhood unit of the 1929 New-york Regional Plan, the quartiet identified. by Leon Krier, traditiona' nerghbo'hood desrgn {TNDt. and transttorienled development (TODI share sjmrlar attr butes. The population, conliguration, and scale may vary, but all of these models propose the following: 1. The neighborhood has a center and an edge. This combi_ nataon of a focus and a limit contributea to the social identity of the community. The center is a necessity, the edge less so. The center is always a public space_a squa.e, a green. or an important street intersection_ l@ated near the center of the urbanized area, unless compelled by geography to be elsewhere. Eccentric loca_ tpns are justified by a shoreline, a transponation corridor, or a promontory with a compelling view. The center is the locus of the neighborhood,s public buildrngs. Shops and worlplaces are usualty here, espe_ crally In a vtllage. In lhe aggregalrons of neighborhoods InaI create towns and cities, relail butldings and work_ places _areoften at the edge, where they Can combine wtth others to draw cuStomers The edges of a nerghborhood vary In character. In vil lages, the edge rs usually defined by tand designated tor cultivation or conservation of its natural statel ln urban areas, the edge is often defined by rail lines and boulevards, which best remain outside the neighborhood.
2. The neighborhood has a balanced mrx of activ[ies: shops, work, school, recreation, and dwellinos of all lvpes Thrs 's oa.lrcularty use{ut t6r ygga9. old lro tow income populations who, in an automobile based eovironment, depend on others for mobility. The neighborhood provides housing for residents with a variety of incomes. Affordable housing types include oacKyaro apartments, apartments above shoos. and apa.lmenl buildtngs adiacent lo workplaces. 3. The optimal size of a neighborhood isrL mile from center to edge, a distance equal to a tive-minute walk at an easy pace. lts ljmited area gathers the oooulation within walkIng drstance o{ many of its daily needs. The locatron of a transit stop within walking distance of most homes increases the likeiihood of rts use. Transit_ onented neighborhoods create a regional network of vtf lages. towns, and cities accessible to a oopulation unable 10 rely on cars. Such a system can provtde the mator cul. lural and social institutions, varrety of shopprng, and broad Job base lhat can onlv be suppo(ed by itrJiarger populatron ot an aggregation of nerghbo'hOOOs 4. The neighborhood consists of blocks on a network of small thoroughfares_Streets are laid out to c.eate blocks ot appropriate building sites and to shorten pedestrian routes. An interconnecting street pattern provides multi_ ple routes, drffusing traffic. This pattern keeps locat lral. trc otl regtonal roads and through tralfrc ofl local srreels Neighborhood streets ot varying types are detailed to provrde equitably for pedestrian comiort and automobile movement. Siowing the automobile and increasing peoestfian actrvtty encourage lhe casual meetings lhat rorm lne bonc,s ot communitv. 5. The neighborhood gives priority to pubtrc space and to appropriate location of civic buiidrngs. public spaces and public buildings enhance community identity and toster civic pride. The neighborhood plan creates a hierarchy ot useful publc spaces: a formal square, an informal pirk, ano many ptaygrounds. THE
The strJcture ot.the distnct parallels lhat ot the nerghb, hood An rdenti{iable locus encourages o.ientat,oi o identity. Clear boundaries facilitate thelormation of spec taxrng or management organrzations. As in the neighbo hood,_the character of the public spaces creates a comm.. nrly ot users. even if they reside elsewhere Interconnectp circulation encourages pedestrians, supports transit viab rty. and ensures security. Districts benefil from transit sv: tems and should be located within the regional network THE CORRIDOR The corridor is the connector and the separator of neighbor hoods and districts. Corridors include natural and lec-hnica components ranging from wildlife trails to rail lines The between ts not the haphazardly residual space remainrn(l outsrde subdivisions and shopping centers in suburbia. lt i a crvrc etement characterized by its visible continuity an.j bounded by neighborhoods and districts, to which ii pro vides entry. The transponation corridor's trajectory is determined by its anlensity. Heaq/ rail cotridors should remain tanoeni t. towns and enter only the industrial drstricts of citiei. Lio, rarl and trolley corr,dors may occur as boulevards at ih. edges of neighborhoods. As such, they are detailed fo pedestnan use and to accommodate building sites. Bus cor ndors may pass into neighborhood centers on conventional streets. The corridor may also be a continuous parkway, providing long.distance walkrng and bicycling trails and nitural hab tat. Parkway coiridors can be formed by the systemal,. accretion of recreational open spaces, such as parks schoolyards, and golt courses. These continuous sDace5 can be part of a larger network, connecting urban oper space wth rural surroundings.
DISTRICT
The district is an urbanized area that is functionally specjal_ ized. Although disrricts preclude the fuil range of aciivities of .a reighblrhood, they are not the sjngle-aclivity zones of suburbia. Rather, multiple activities support its primary identity. Typically complex examples are thearer disrricts, caprtal areas, and college campuses. Other districts accom_ modate large-s€le transportation or manufacturing uses, sucn as arrpons, container terminals, and refineries
AREA: PREFERABLE I60ACRES TO HOUSE ENOUGH PEOPLE TO
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NEIGHBORHOOD
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SITE, COMMUNIry,AND URBANPLANNING
A RURAL NEIGHBORHOOD
(A VILLAGE)
RegionolTypes
87
GENERAL ln its short hrstory as a discipline, regional planning has generated a substantial number of models, usually presented as dragrams. Redrawrng thp main lYpes 'n a standard graphic form reduces options to a few fundamental models. Most regional plans are hYbrtds of these few. Most cities expand through incremental decisrons, not by following clear regional plans. But even when lollowed closely, such ptans tend to be implemented in distoned form, due to pressures from natural and man-made condts tions. The diagrams of each planning model to the right are accompanied by examples of their application to actual praces.
GARDEN
CITY/NEIGH
BORHOODS,
TOWNS AND VILLAGES This is the ancient natural pattern. A cleady defined core city, composed of neighborhoods, is surrounded by towns and villages that are separated by open landscape. ldeally, each element is relatively sell-sufficient. This historical pattern has been oveMhelmed as mechanical transponation has permitted the city to absorb the surrcJnding landscape and to erase its neighborhood structure. A rationalization of this pattern, designating fixed greenbelts and creating independent new towns (garden cities), was proposed by Howard, and restructurtng the core ctty was proposed by neighborhoods into selfrontained Saarinen and Perry.
MADISON
TO\^/NS AND VILLAGES
I993
The garden city has been the underlying concept for suburban growth, although its current form is unrecognizably degenerated. With the late arrival o{ the office park into the residential/retail suburb, the functional elements of the city are now available in the suburb, and the core city has lost its importance. As @nceptualized by Fishman and Garreau, this regional pattern is no longer centroidal. The automobale is able to move equally in all directions. although it tends to reinforce maior intersections. These intensified points support commercial developmenl, around which residential areas ousrer. by This automobile model can be made pedestrian{riented traditional neighborh@d development (TND), which reconfigures the activities of the shopping center, office park, and housing subdivision into the form of towns and villages. Of the three models described, this is the one most in{luenced by market conditions.
LINEAR
AND
CITY/CORRIDORS
WEDGES The linear city evolved wrth the advent of lhe streetcar. Moving along defined axes, the streetcar extended the boundaries of the centroidal city, creating corridors whose width was limited by the walking distance to the tracks. The arrival ol the automobile. with its ability to go anywhere, destroyed the disciplined edges of the corradors, creating undif{erentiated sprawl. The remedial model (corridors and wedges) was conceptualized by Olmsted and MacKaye. Through legislation. the urban tabric is channeled along the lransportation axes while wedges of open landscape are preserued between these corridors- The wedges are ideally continuous, formed by an irregular agglomeration of valuable natural features. This is the model m-st influenced by ecological concerns.
TRANSIT-ORIENTED
t
,
BALTIMORE
LINEAR CITY
I95O
DESIGN
This pattern emerged naturally with the advent of the railrmd. Moving along a single axis like the streetcar, but unable to stop as frequently, the railroad creates nodal Doints ot commercial develooment with residential settlement around them. The advent of the automobile permitted the expansion of these settlements beyond any limit, consuming the landscape. This model was rationalized and modernized bv Calthoroe and Kelbaugh as transit{riented design (T.O.D.). The T.O.D. creates nodes at interyals most etficient for rail transportation. These mixed-use areas, limited in size by walking distance, are usually surrounded by a residential hinterland connected to the rail syst€m by feeder bus. The commercial uses aod other businesses at the nodes mav not oller all the seruices that would make the area self-sufficient (i.e., a town). However, together, several areas linked by rail may b€ self-sutticient. This is the model most influenced bv the requirements oJ transportation.
PORTLAND
TRANSIT.ORIENTED
2O2O
DESIGN
Garv Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabeth Platerzyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie. Rafael Diaz: Miami, Florida The Cintas Foundation
PLANNING SITE, COMMUNry,ANDURBAN
fl
88
PlonTypes
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ADVA NTAG E S
AOVA NTAG ES
1. Excellent directional orientation 2, Lot shape controllable
A DVANTAG
1. Street hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic 2. Even dispersal oI traffic through the grid
3. Street hierarchy with end blocks tor through traffic 4. Even dispersal of traffic through the grid 5. Srraight lines enhance rollng terrain
3. Diagonals respond to the terrain 4. Diagonals interrupt monotony of the grid
6. Efficient doubleloading of alleys and utjlities
D ISAOVANTAG
DI SA OVANTAG ES '| Monotonous unless penodically interrupted 2. Does not accommodate environmental intetruptions 3. Unresponsive to steep terrain
ORTHOGONAL
GRID
ES
1 . Street hierarchy with diagonals for through traffic 2. Even dispersal of traffic through the network
ES
3. Diagonals respond to terrain 4. Intrinsically interesting by geometric variety 5. Controllable shape oI blocks and lots
1. Uncontrollable variety ot blocks and tots 2. High number ol awkward lot shapes
6. Efficient double-loading of alleys for urilities 7. Diagonal intersections spatially well defined
3. Diagonal intersections spatially ill defined
OISADVANTAGES I Tends to be disorienting
GRID WITH
DIAGONALS
DIAGONAL
NETWORK
ADVA NTAG E S
ADVANTAG
1. Street hie.archy wtrh long routes for through traffic 2. Even dispersal of traffic through nerwork
1. Intrinsicallyinteresting by deflecting vistas 2. Easily accommodates environmental interruptions
3. Intrinsicallyinteresting by geometrrc vaflery 4. Responsive to terrain
3. Highly responsive to terrain 4. Even dispersal of traflic through the network
4. Haghlyresponsive to p terrain
O I SADVA N TAG ES
DISADVANTAGES
1. Little directional orientation
1. Concentration of traffic by absence of network
5. Easily accommodates environmental interruptions 6. Short streets. terminated vistas O I SADVANTAG
ES
1. None
ORGANIC
NETWORK
ES
A OVA NTAG ES
2. Uncontrollable variety of lots 3. No natural hierarchy of streets
CURVILINEAR
NET\/VORK
Gary^Greenan,Andres Duany, Ehzabeth plaler.Zybert Kamal Zaharin. lskandar Shafie, Rafael Diazj Miami. Florida The Crntas Founrain
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1. Street hierarchy with collectors for through traffic 2. Controllable variety of blocks and lots 3. Easily accommodates environmental interruptions
1
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBANPLANNING
DISCONTINUOUS
NET\^/ORK
BlockTypes
89
GENERAL The urban plan must be assembled of blocks betore building frontage and landscape types are assigned. The disposition of blocks has distinct socioeconomic implications.
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THE SQUARE BLOCK in Thistypewas an earlymodellor plannedsettlements America. panicularly in Spanish colonies. lt was sometimes ass@iated with agricultural communities, providing four large lots per block, each lot with a house at ats center. When the growth ot the community produced additional subdivision, replatting created irregular lots (Fig. 1). While this may provide a useful variety, it is more often regarded as a nuisance bv a societv accustomed to stdndardized products. A lurther disadvantage is that dtscontln-uous rear iot lines make alleys and rearaccess utilities impractical. Despite these shortcomings, the square block is usetul as a specialized type. When platted only at its perimeter, with the center left open, it can accommodate the high parking requirements of certain buildings. The open center, well insulated from tratfic, may also be used as a common gard e e o r a p l a y g r o u n d( F i g . 2 ) .
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This typ€ is characterizedby its irregularity;its variationsare unlimited.The originalorganicblock was the subdivisionof residualland between well-worn paths (Fig.3). lt was later rationalizedby Olmsted and Unwin to achievea controllable, picturesque effecl and to negotiate sloping terrain gracefully.The naturalisticblock, despite its variety,gener ates certain recurringconditionsthat must be resolvedby sophisti€ted platting.At shallow curyes, it is desirableto have the facades follow the frontage smoothly. This is achievedby keepingthe side lot lines perpendicularto the frontageline (Fig.4-1).At the same time it is important{or the rear lot line to be wide enough to permit vehicular access(Fig.4-2).At sharpercurves,it is desirableto have the axis of a single lot bisect the acute angle (Fig.4-3). In the event of excessiveblock depth, it is possibleto colonizethe interiorof the bl@k by meansof a close (Fig.4-4).
t T 3. ORGANIC
THE ELONGATED
4. ORGANIC
BLOCK
BLOCK
BLOCK
The elongated bl@k overcomes some of the drawbacks of the square block. More efficient and more standardized, elongated bl@ks provide economi€l double-l@ded alleys, with short utility runs, to eliminate the uncontrollable variable ot lot depth and maintain the option ot altering lot width. By adiusting the block length, it is possible to reduce cross streets toward rural edges or to add them at urban centers. This adiustrent alters the pedeslrian permeability of the grid and controls the ratio of street parking to building capacity. The elongated bl6k can "bend" somewhat along its length, giving it a limited ability to shape space and negotiate slopes {Fig. 6). Unlike the square block, the elongated block provides two distinct types of frontage. Residential buildings are placed on the.quieter sides of the block (Fig. 5-l). Commercial buildings can be set on the short end of the block, platted to face the busy street: the amount ot parking behind these properties is controlled by the variable depth {Frg.t2).
5. ELONGATED
BLOCK
6. ELONGATED
BLOCK
Gary Greenan,Andres Duany,ElizabethPlaterzyberk,Kamal zaharin. lskandar Shafie: Miami, Florida The Cintas Foundation
A -1
COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING SITE,
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90
Open Spoce Types
GENERAL Public open space provides ofientatton, hierarchy, and com munal structure to a neighborhood. The specialtzed open spaces shown he'e are denved tron the elonoated biock types. They cdn atso be adtusted to frr borh iquare and organic block types.
LANE Children otten make lanes behind houses into informal olav grounds. The paved surface in front of garages is conve, nrent for ball games Lanes are particularlysuccessful when they are designed ro eliminate lhrough traffic (right). Garage apartments provtde superyision.
PLAYGROUND Playgrounds can be easily extracted from any block by assrgnrng ane or several lots to this use. There should be a playground within 500 ft of every residence. The plavground should provide both sunny and shaded play areas, as well as an open shelter with benches tor parents. plav grounds must be fenced, lockable, and lit. if thev are not to become a nuisance at ntght.
NURSERY A nursery can be inserted in the middle of a block. awav from major lhoroughtares. It requires a |mrted amount of parkrng but substantial vehicular drop{ff space. The attached playground should be securely fenced and have both sunny and shaded areas. Children's games may be noisy, so it is advisable to locate nurseries where adjabent houses are buffered by outbuildings.
CLOSE A close is a space shared by buildings inside the block. lt may be pedestrian, or it may have a roadway loop around a green area. lts minimum width must coincide with emergency vehicle turning standards. The close is a superior allernative lo the cul{e-sac, as the locus is a green rather than pavement. lt is especially recommended for communal subgroups such as cohousing or assisted-living cottages. the close provides additional frontage for deep square and organic blocks.
ATTACHED SQUARES Squares are greenspacesthat providesettingsfor civic
buildings and monuments, which are located at the center or edge o.f the square. Buildings play a part, but the space is largely deliaed bV iormal tree ptantrng. Squares should be marntained to a higher standard than playgrounds and oarks
DETACHED
SQUARES
Squares detached on all sides by roads are particularlv for mal. Srnce adjacent buildings provrde much of the popu,atron that uses a public space. detached squares are less likely to be used than other types. This separation atso limrts the mount of natural security provided by adjacent win, dows. The delached square remains approp.ate as a means to symbolically enhance important places or jnstitu_ !ons.
OPEN SPACE TYPES-DETACHED
OPEN SPACE TYPES
SQUARES
Gary^Greenan,Andres Duany, Elizabeth PlatetrZyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shatie; Mjami, Florida The Cintas Foundation
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SITE, COMMUNry,ANDURBAN PLANNING
OpenSPoceTYPes MARKET
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PLAZ-A
Plazas are public spaces that are prrmarily paved rather lhan green. They can sustain very intense use by crowds and even by vehicles. Parking lots should be designed as plazas that happen to have cars on them, rather than as single purpose areas. A smaller shoppang center can be transtormed into a town center if it has been designed so at can be seamlessly attached to the block system and detailed as a praza.
CIVIC
PLAZA
Civic buildings are often no larger than the private ones that surround them. and their legibility as more important buil+ ings cannot depend solely on architectural expression Their setting within the block system must communicate their elevated status. Sites on squares or at the terminations of avenues are ideal but not always available. Thus the most dependable technique is to organize and detail the parking areas ol civic buildings as plazas.
GREEN The green is an urban. naturalistic open space. Lke the square, it is small. civic, and surrounded by buildings. Unlike th€ square, it is in{ormally planted and may have an irregular topography. Greens are usually landscaped with trees at the edges and sunny lawns at the center. Greens should contain no structures other than benches, pavilions, and memorials; paths are optaonal.
MARKET
CIVIC PLAZA
PLAZA
PARK Parks are naturalisticopen spaces, like greens, but larger and tess tended. They are most successlulwhen qeated from virginw@dland. Parkshave grassYareasonly periodi€llv. A knoll or a pond can be used as an imponantorganrzing featlre. Parks exist within the urban {abric of large cities, but their inherentsizeusuallyputs them at the edges of towns and villages,Parksmay be edged by publicdrives or by houses on very large lots, as long as connectionsto publicpaths occur at every block. BUFFER The buffer has the basic elements of a green, with the added purpose of buffering the impact o{ traftic from a highway or boulevard.Shown is a small lot development fronting a green. On the opposite side are larger lots on which houses are placed further back from the roadway edgo as anotherbufter technique.
/ GREEN
z-'. O
O
BUFFER
PARK
Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizaberh Plater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida The Cintas Foundation
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PLANNING COMMUNW,ANDURBAN SITE,
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BuildingTypes
GENERAL The traditlonal increment for platting lots in Norlh America has been the 50Jt. width This subdivision dtmension was ef{icient for many years, creating 2s-ft rowhouse and shoptront lots. as well as 50-, 75, and 100Jt lots suitable for houses. Howevei, the advent of the automobile added a set of dimensional constraints that requ;red new platting standards. The 50 ft width is wastelul. sinc€ the basic increment of efficient parking is the double row at 64 ft. The 64Jt increment, when divided by four, provides the absolute minimum rowhouse lot of 16 ft, which allows one car to be parked with additional room for pedestrian Dassage. The minimum side yard lot is 32 ft. The minjmum perameter yard lot is 48 ft. The 64-ft lot elficiantlv grovides for the high parking requrrement of shopfronts, apartments, and oft'ce buiidJngs The platting module of 16 1t corresponds to the traditional measure of the rod. Plaiting in rods, without knowing what building types will occupy the lots, maintains flexibility and ensures maxlmum denstty through parking efficiency. Four building types acaommodale the common residential, retarl, and workplace uses of urban life. Some buildinos_ however, cannor be categonzed lyoologically. Buildi;gs dedicated to manufacturing and transportation mav be dis_ torled by large-scale mechanrcal traiectories. Civic burldIngs. which must express the aspirations of the institutions they embody, should also be exempt from the discipline o{ tvoe-
COURTYARD
D
4 RODS
COURTYARD
3 RODS
2 ROOS
BUILDING
BUILDING
This type of buildingoccupiesall or most of the edges of its lot and definesone or more privatespacesinternally.This is the most urbanof types as it is abteto completeiyshield the privaterealmfrom the publicrealm.lt is commonin hot clrmates,but its attributesare usefuleverywhere. Because ol its ability to accommodateIncompatrble activttiesin close proximity,it is recommendedlor workshops,hotels, and_schools. The high securitythe boundaryprovidesis usetul for recolonizingcrime-proneurbancores. SIDE YARD BUTLDING This type ol buildingoccupiesone side of the lot. with the primaryopen spaceon the other side. The view of the side yard on the street front makes this buildingtype appear freestanding,so it may be interspersedwith perimeteryard buildingsin less urbantocations.lf the adiacentbuildingis alsoa side yardtype with a blankpartywall. the open sp;ce can be quite private.This type permitssystematiccli;atic onentation. with the longsideyardelevationfacing the sun or the breeze.
B 3 RODS
3 RODS
c 2 RODS
o 2 ROOS
SIDE YARD BUILDING
REAR YARD BUILDING Thistype of buildingoccupiesthe front of its lot, full width, leavingthe rearportionas a privatespace.This is a relatively urbantype appropriatefor neighborhood and town centers.The buildingfacadedefinesthe edgeof the pubtic space.while the rearelevationmay reflectdifferentfunclonal purposes.In its residentialform, this type is repre sentedby the rowhousewith a reargardenandoutbuilding. In its commercialform, the depth of the rear vard can conparkrngfor retailandotltceuses. tainsubstanttal PERIMETER
YARD
B 2 RODS
4 ROOS
BUILDING
This buildingstandsfree on its lot. with substantiallront andrearyardsandsmallersideyards.lt is the leasturbanof the types, so it rs usuallyassrgnedto areasaway from nerghbo.hood and town centers.Thisbuildingtype is usu_ ally residential, but when parkingis containedwithin the rear yard atlends itself to limited oflice and boardinguses. The rear yard can be secured for privacyby lenceJ and a well-placedoutbuilding.The front yard is intendedto be semipublic and visuallycontinuouswith the yardsof neighbors.The illusionof continuityis usuallydegradedwhin garagetrontsare alignedwith the facades,as carsseldom pullin beyondthe d.iveway.To avoida tandscape of parked cars,garagesshouldbe set backa minimumof one car,s length from the facade or entered srdeways through a walled forecourt
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PERIMETER Gary Greenan, Andres Duany, Elzabeth plaleczyberk The Cintas Foundaton
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YARD BUILDING
KamalZaharin,IskandarShafie;Miami,Florida
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SITE, COMMUNlry,AND URBANPLANNING
3 RODS
D 1 ROD
SpotiolDefinition
93
GENERAL Building delineates public space in an urban setting Suc' cessfufsoatial delinition is achieved when bounding buildinos are alioned in a drscrp|ned manner and the defined spice doesiot etceed a certarn herght-to-wdth ratro Alrgnment occurs when burldrng lacades coopelate lo deiineate thb oublic space, as walls form a room Uiban buildrna aniculalron lakes place prrmarily in lhe venical olane o-rfacade. lf appendages such as porches, balconres, bay windows, and loggias do not obliterate the primary sutr face of the facade, they do not destroy alrgnment The herght-towidth ratio of the space generales spatral enclosure, which is related to the physiology o{ the human eve. lf the width of a public space is such that the cone ol vision encompasses less street wall than sky opening, the degr€e of spatial enclosure is slight. The ratio of 1 increment of height to 6 of width is the absolute minimum, with 1 to 3 being an effective minimum if a sense oJ spatial enclosure is to result- As a general rule, the tighter the ratlo, the stronger the sense of place and, often, the higher the real estate value. Spatial enclosure is particularly tmportant for shopping streets that must compete with'shopping malls, which provide very eflective spatial definition. In the absence of spatial definition by lacades, disciplined tree planting is an alternative. Trees aligned for spatial enclosure are necessary on thoroughfares that have substantial lront yards.
PROPORTIONS
OF BUILDTNG HEIGHT TO PUBLIC SPACE
NOMENCLATURE THE
FRONTAGE
LINE
The lot boundary that coincides with a pubiic thoroughfare or public space. The trontage line may be designed indep€ndently of th€ thoroughfare, to create a specific sense of place. FACADE The vertical surface oI a building set along a lrontage line. The elevation is the vertical sudace set along any other boundary line- Facades are subiect to control by building height, setback lines, recess lines, and transition lines. Elevations are only subiect to building height and setback Iines. SETBACK
BUILOING
HEIGHT
The detined limit to the venical extent of a building The buildrng herght should be stated as a numbel of stotres, rather ihan iprescribed dimensron. Thrs prevents the compression of internal ceiling heights. Height may be determined by density and view and not by the requirements of soatial definit;on, which are addressed bY the recess lrne RECESS
BY RECESS LINE
BY FACADE
The mandatory distance between a frontage line and a facade or a lot line and an elevation
,l J
LINE
A line prescribed tor the lull width ol the tacade, above which the facade is set back. The recess line effectively delines the enclosure of public space. lts location as deterratio of that space, mined bv the desired heighctcwidth compatibility with the average height of existing buildings, or provision for daylighting at the street level. TRANSITION
LINE
TECHNIQUES
OF DELINEATING
PUBLIC SPACE
A tine prescribed for ihe full width ot the facade, expressed bv a variation ol material or by a limited proiection such as a cornice or a bal@ny. The transition line divides the lacade, permitting shopfronts and signage to varY over time without destroying the overall composition.
CURB LINE
SECTION DEFINITIONS
AndresDuany Elizabeth Plater-Zvberk, Kamal Zaharin. lskanda. Shafie; Miami, Florida GaryGreenan, The Cintas Foundation
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PLANNING COMMUNW,ANDURBAN SITE,
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FrontogeTypes
GENERAL Buildrng type is independent of frontage type For example. a c o u r l y a r d b u r l d t n g m a y h a v e a n a , c d d e . a S n o p l r O n t .a sloop. of a porch as rts frontage lype Irontaqes can be ranked trom most urban to most rural.
ARCADE The facade overlaps the sidewalk, whtle the storefront remains set back. This type is excellent for retail use, but only when the sidewalk is fully absorbed so the pedestri€n cannot bypass the arcade. An easement for public use of private property is required.
SHOPFRONT The facade is aligned directly on the frontage line, with the entrance at grade. This type is conventional for sidewalk retail lt is often equipped wjth an awning or a porch. A transition line should separate the signage from the facade above. The absence of a setback and elevation from the srdewalk prevents residentjal use on the ground floor, although it is appropriate above.
STOOP
ARCADE
%
SHOPFRONT
The facade rs al,gned drrectly on the trontage Lne, with the lfsl lloor elevated to achieve some ptivacv for the win_ dows. I his type is suitable for resrdenlial usei such as row_ nouses and apartment buildings. An easement may be necessary to accommodate the encroaching stoop. This type may be interspersed with the shopfront.
FORECOURT The facade is set back and replaced by a low wall at the trontage line. The forecourt thus created is suitable for oardens, vehrcular drop{ffs, and workshop loading and siorage. jt should be used sparingly ano in conju;ction with lhe shopfront and sloop types, as a contrnuous bltnd wall is boring and unsafe tor pedestrians Tree canopres within the lo.ecourt should overhang the sidewatk
STOOP
DOORYARD The facade is set back from the frontage line. with an elevated garden or terrace between. This type can effectively buffer residential quarters from the side;alk, while remoJ_ rng the yard from public use. The terrace, when roofed. is suitable for restaurants and cafes, as the eye level of ihe srtter is level with that ot passersbv.
PORCH AND FENCE
FORECOURT
With an encroaching habitable porch, the facade is set back substantially from the frontage line. The porch should be wrthrn a conversational distance of the sidewalk. A fence at the frontage line marks the boundary of the yard.
FRONT LAWN The lacade is set back substantially from the frontage line. l ne ront tawn thts creates should be unlenced and vrsually continuous with adjacent yards. The ideal is to simulate buildings sitting in a rural landscape. A front porch is usuallv not appropriate, since no social interaction with the street i; pol.ible at slch a distance.The large setback can provide a butler trom heaw traffic, so thrs type ts sometimes founcl on boulevards.
DOORYARD
PORCH
FRONT
AND FENCE
LAWN
Gary^Greenan, AndresDuany,ElizabethptatetrZyberk, KamalZaharin.lskandarShalie;Miami,Florida The CinlasFoundarion
4
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SITE, COMMUNIry,AND URBANPLANNING
LondscopeTyPes
95
GENERAL The urban landscape is a set of rnterdependent elements that creates a controlled sense of place. lt includes thor oughfare 1ype, building type, frontage type, and the form and disgosition of landscape. Public landscaping plays many roles above and beyond that of ornamentation: 1. To correct inadequacies of spatial definition caused by buildrng trontages. Planttng steady rows of trees at the edges usually reduces the herght-to-wrdth ratio of the street space. Grids of trees are used to fill gaps left by unbuilt lots and surface parking. 2. To adiust the microclimate by providing the appropriate level of shade or sun for buildings and sidewalks. For thoroughfares running east-west. this may involve the use of asymmetrical Planting. 3. To suppon the intended urban or rural character of the public space. Selecting approprrate speqes and varyrng the species planted, as well as the regularity of their disposition, can alter the landscape significantly. 4. To create a pleasing visual composition, being careful to mask the aesthetic failure of certain buildings as well as to reveal the successes. Consider seasonal changes ot each species. 5. To create a harmonious whole of specific character by coordinating public and private plantings. Selection should vary, to ensure resrstance to pests, but not resuit in an incoherent collection o{ specimens. Native species should Dredominale to reduce maintenance, with an emphasis on species that support wildlite compatible with human senlement.
RURAL ROAD
RESIDENTIAL
ROAD
COMMERCIAL
STREET
RURAL ROAD This type is appfopriate for buildings at the edges of the neighborhood and along parks and greenbelts. There is no public planting line. The tree species should be episodic, but in coherent clusters. There are no curbs; the drainage is by open swale. Bicycle paths may be paved in asphalt.
ROAD RESIDENTIAL This type is appropriatefor housesoutside of neighborh@d centers. Since the frontage usually includes a substantial setback. the tree canopy may be quite wide. The rural aspect may be supported bY planting several species in imperfect alignment.Roadsare detailedwith open swales' and, where possible,drainageis through percolation. STREET RESIDENTIAL at neighbotr / for residentral buildings Thistype is appropflate ' h@d and town centers I rees ale in continuousplanlrng strips, since the sidewalkdoes not require unusualwidth. Planta singlespeciesof tree in steadyalignment.A thin. venical canopy is necessary to avoid nearby building with interchangeable facades.This type is dimensionally the commercialstreet tYpeand may alternatein corresponwith are detailed dence to the building facade. Streets raisedcurbs and closedstorm drainage.
RESIDENTIAL
STREET
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STREET COMMERCIAL This type is appropriatelor commercialbuildingsat neighborh@d and town centers.Trees are confinedby individual plantingar€s, creatinga sidewalkof mximum width with areas accommodatingstreet furniture. Plant a single species of tree in steadyalignment.CIeartrunks and high canopies ar6 necessary to avoid interference with shoplront signageand amings. Streetsare detailedwith raisedcurbs with closed storm drainage.
tl
AVENUE This type is appropriatefor approachesto civic buildings. The general principle is a thoroughfareof limited length, with a substantialplantedmedian.At town cente.s,the median may be wide enoughto hold monumentsand even areas,the medianmay be planted buildings.In residential naturalisticallyto becomea parkwayor green. BOULEVARD This type is appropriatefor hightapacity thoroughlaresat
[email protected] detailingis similarto that of a commercial street. The effect of the mediansis to segregate the slower traffic and parking activity, al the edges, from through traffic,at the center.
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BOULEVARD
AVENUE
Gary Greenan. Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk,Kamal Zaharin, lskandar Shafie; Miami, Florida The Cintas Foundation
A
SITE, COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
I
ThoroughforeNomenclqture
96
GENERAL
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Thoroughlares are endowed with two attribules: caoacrtv and chardcler Capacrty refers lo the number ot vehtcles that can move safely through a segment within a given time. lt is physically manifested by the number of lanes and their width and by the centerline radius, the curb radius, and the super elevation of the pavement Character relers to a thoroughfare's suitability for pedestrian activatiesand a variety of building types. Character is physically manifested by the thoroughfare's associated building. trontage, and landscape types and sidewalk width. Convenlional traftic engineering practice uses terms such 'arterial," as "collector" and whjch denote only capacity. This is too simplistic and tends to create an environment inhospitable lor pedestrians The following nomenclatu.e more adequately describes the combination of caOacitvand character necessary to create true urbanism_
NK
NOMENCLATURE HIGHWAY:A Iong{islance,mediumspeedvehicular corridor that traversesopen country.A highway shouldbe relatively free ol intersections,drivewavs, and adiacent buildings;otherwisert becomesa stilp, which tnterferes with trafficflow. (Relatedtermsincludeexpressway, a high speed highwaywith intersectionsreplacedby grade sepiration,and patkway.a hrghwaydesignedwrth narura'istrc landscaping, partiallyaccommodatedwtthin a wtde and varyingmedian. BOULEVARD:A longdistance.medium speed vehicular corridorthat traversesan urbanizedarea. lt is usuallvlined by parallelparking,wide srdewalks,or side medianspianted wth trees.Euildingsuniformlylinethe edges. AVENUE;A shoniistance, medium speed connectorthat trav€rsesan urbanarea.Unlikea boulevard, its axisis terminatedby a civicbuildingor monument.An avenuemay be concervedas an extremely elongated square. {A related term is all6e, a rural avenue spatially defined by trees alignedon either side but devoidof buildingsexcept at the Iermrnus., DRIVE:An edgebetweenan urbanand a naturalcondition, usuallyalonga waterfront,park.or promontory.One side of tho drive has the urbancharacterof a boulevard,with sidewalk and buildings,while the other h6 the aualitiesof a parkway,with naturalisticplantingand ruraldetailing STREET:A small-sele, low speed local connector.Streets provide frontagefor high-densitybuildingssuch as offices, shops, apartment buildings, and rowhouses. A street is urbanin character,with raisedcurbs. closeddrainage,wide sidewalks,parallel parking,treesin indjvidual plantingareas, and buildingsalignedon shortsetbacks. ROAD:A small-scale,low speed connector.Roadsprovide lrontagefor lowiensity buildingssuch as houses.A road tends to be rural in character with open curbs, ootional parking,continuousplantrng.narrowsidewalts, and butldings set well back.The ruralroadhas no curbsand is lined by pathways,irregulartree planting,and uncoordinated buildingsetbacks.
ffi ROADS,
LANES,
ALLEY:A narrowaccessroute servicingthe rearof buildings on a street- Alleys have no sidewalks,landscaping,or buildingsetbacks.All€ys are used by trucks and;ust accommodatedumpsters, They are usuallypaved to their edges. with center drainagevia an jnvened crown. LANE: A narrow access route behind houses on a road. Lanesare ruralin character,with a narrow strip of pavingat lhe center or no paving.While lanes may not be necesslry with front-loadedgarages,they are stjll usetul for accommodating utility runs, enhancingthe privacy of rear yards, and providingplay areasfor children. PASS,AGE: A very narrow, pedestrian{nlv connector cutting between burldrngs.Passages provrde shortcuts through long blocks or connect rear parkrngareaswrth street frontages.Passagesmay be rooled ovei and linedbv shoofronts. PATH:A very narrow pedestrianand bicycleconnectortraversinga park or the open country.Pathsshouldemerge from the sidewalk network. Bicycle paths are necessa-.y along haghwaysbut are not requiredto supplementboulevards, streets, and roads,where slower traffic allows sharing ol the vehicularlanes.
PATHS
MORE RURAL
Gary,Greenan, Andres Duany, Elizabethplater?yberk, KamalZaharin, lskandar Shafie: Miami. Florida The CintasFoundation
4
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SITE, COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
STREETS,
ALLEYS,
MORE URBAN
PASSAGES
97
ThoroughforeTYPes GENERAL Caoacrtv and character are combined and adJusted to achieve a complete series of useful thoroughfare types-. The series rs best regarded In pairs: keeping the trghtof-way wdth (B O.W) constant. each oair illustrates one type surl able in two wavs, one for a relativelY rural condition and another suitable for a more urban condition.
HIGHWAY
BOULEVARD
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130
130 R.O.W
24'
20'MlN
R O.W
H IG HWAY
AOULEVARD
AVENUE
MAIN STREET
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20'
80'MlN. R.O.W. AVENUE
MAIN STREET
STREET
+_+__++ 40'
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lo
t4'
60'R.O.W
14' 5' 22' 60'R.O.W.
ROAD
STREET RURAL
MINOR STREET
ROAD
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2 LANES
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50' R O.W. RURAL ROAO
MINOR STREET
+3;;-
PASSAGE
PASSAGE
PATH
MORE URBAN
MORE RURAL
ChesterChellman,P.E.:Ossipee,New Hampshire KamalZaharin,lskandarShafie:Miami, Florida Gary Greenan.Andres Duany,ElizabethPlatetrZyberk, The Cintas Foundation
4
PLANNING AND URBAN SITE, COMMUNIry,
|l
98
TrodilionolNeighborhoodDesign
INTRODUCTION The traditional neighborhood development (TND) ordinance produces compact, mixed-use, pedestrian t{endly commu nities. lt can be incorporated in municipal zoning ordjnances as an overlay or aS a separate districl. lt is intended to ensure the following conventrons Traditional neighborhoods tics:
i'if.Tll tEl ffi %
share the following characteris-
COMMERCIAL
1. The neighborhood's area is limited to what can be traversed in a 1o-minute walk-
HIGH
2. Residences, shops, workplaces, and civic buildings are located in close oroximitv 3. A hierarchy of streets serves the pedestrian and the automobile equitablv.
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4. Physicallydefined squares and pa.ks provide places for formal social activity and recreation.
ffi
LOW
RESIDENTIAL
RESIDENTIAL
5. P.ivate buildings torm a clear edge, delineating the street space_ 6. Civic buildings reinforce the identity of the neighborhood, providing places of assembly {or social, culturat. and religrous aclrvfles. Traditional neighborhoods pursue certain social oblectives: 1. To provide the elderly and the young with independence of movement by locating most daily activities within walking distance 2. To minimize traffic congestion and limit road construction by reducing the number and length of automobile trips 3. To make public transit a viable alternative to the automobile by organizing appropriate building densities 4. To help citizens come to know each other and to watch over their collective security by providing public spaces such as streets and squares 5. To integrate age and economic classes and form the bonds of an authentic community by providing a full range of housing types and workplaces 6. To encourage communal initiatives and suppon the baf anced evolution of society by providing suitable civic buildings
SPECIAL
DEFINITIONS
Terms used in a TND ordinance may differ in meaning from their use in conventional zoning ordinances: ARTISANAL USE: Premises used for the manufacture and sale of items that are made employing only handwork and/ or table-mounted electrical tools and creating no adverse impact beyond its lor. BLOCK: The aggregate of lots and alleys circumscribed bv public use tracts, generally streets. EUILDING HEIGHT: The height measured in stories. Attics and raised basements do not count against building height limitations. CITIZENS'ASSOCIATION: The organization o{ owners of lots and buildings associated under articles. The articles shall reference an approved master planj set standards lor building location, construction, and majntenance; orovide for maintenance on public trdcts: and provide for the con. struction of new civic buildings by an ongoing special assessment. FACADE: The building wall parallel to a frontage line. FRONTAGE LINE: The lot line that coincides with a street tract. GREEN EDGE: A continuous open neighborhood proper. The area shall turty as a natural area, golf course, fields, or it shall be subdivided into than 20 acres each.
area surrounding the be preserved in perpeor growing or playing house lots no smaller
LIMITED LODGING: Residentiat premises providing no more than eight rooms for short-term etting and food servrces before noon only. LIMITED OFFICE: Residential premises used for business or professional services, employing no more than four fulf trme employees, one of whom must be the owner. LOT: A separately platted portion of land held privatelv.
TND
LANO
ALLOCATION
MEETING HALL: A building designed for pubtic assembly, containing at least one room with an area equjvalent to 10 sq ft per dwelling, or 1300 sq ft, whichever is greater. NEIGHBORHOOD PROPEE: The built-uo area of a TND including blocks, streets, and squares but excluding green edges. OUTBUILDING: A separate building, additional to a principal building, contiguous with the rear lot line, having at most two stones and a maximum habitable area of 450 sq ft Outbuildings may be residential retail units. Outbuildings are exempt from building cover restrictions or unit counts PARK: A public tract naturalistically Iandscaped, not more than 10% paved, and surrounded by lots on no more than 50% of its perimeter. PROHIBITED USES: Uses not oermitted in rhe standard zoning ordinance, as well as automatic food, drink. and newspaper vending machines and any commercial use that encourages patrons to remain in their automobiles while receiving goods or services (except service stations).
SHAREDPARKING:A parkingplace where daylnightor weekday/holidayschedulesallow the use of parkingspaces by more than one user, resultingin a 25yo reductionof the reouiredsoaces. SOUARE:A publictract, spatiallydefinedby surrounding buildings,with frontage on streets on at least two sides Commercialuses shallbe permitted on all surroundinglots STORY:A habitablelev€lwithin a buildinqno more than 14 ft in height from lloor to ceiling. STREETLAMPS:A light standardbetween10 and 16 tt in heightequippedwith an incandescent or metalhalidelighl source. TREE:A decrduoustree that resrstsroot pressure STREET and is of provenviability,in the regionwith no lessthan 4 in. caliperand 8-ft cleartrunkat the time of planting. STREET VISTA:The view, framedby buildings, at the termr, nationof the axis of a thoroughfare. TRACT:A separatelyplatted portion of land held in com mon, suchas a thoroughfare, a square,or a park.
Gary Greenan,Andres Duany, ElizabethPlater-Zyberk, Kamal Zaharin, lskandar ShaIie: Miami, Florida The Cintas Foundation
A
tUl
SITE, COMMUNW, AND URBANPLANNING
TrqditionolNeighborhoodDesign GUTDELINES
FOR
TRADITIONAL
AND USE A1.GENERAL: (a) The TND shall be available as an overlay option for Iand developmenl rn all land use and Toning categories except industrial. (b) A TND requires a minimum parcel of 40 contiguous acres and a maximum of 200 acres. Larger parcels shall be developed as multiple neighborhoods withpach Individually subject to the provisions of
NEIGHBORHOOD
DESIGN LOTS AND
LAN D ALLOCATION
BUILDINGS
Bl.GENERAL: la) Similar land use categorres face across streets; dissimrlar categories abul al reailot hnes (b) Th€ average perim' eter of all blocks within the neighborhood does not exceed 1300 ft. For block faces longer than 500 ft, an alley or pedestrlan path provides through access.
Cl.GENEBAL: (a) All lots share a f rontage line wth a street or square- (b) The main entrances ot all buildings except outbuildings are on a street or square. (c) Stoops, open colonnades, and open porches may encroach into the front setback. (d) The sides of buildrngs at corner lots are similar to their tronts.
B2.PUBLIC: {a) A minimum o{ 57o of the neighborhood area or 3 acres (whichever is greater) is permanently allocated to public use. (b) Each neighborhood contains at leasl one square, not less than one acre in size. close to the center. (c) No portaon ot the neighborhood is more than 2000 lt from the square. (d) At least half the perimeter of squares, parks, and waterfronts {ace streets. (e) At least a quarter of the perimeter of waterfronts, goll courses, greenbelts, and other natural amenities face
C2.PUBLIC: (al Balconiesandopen colonnades are permitted to encroach up to 5 ft into thorough{ares and other tracts. Such encroachments shall be orotected bv easemenls.
the TND.
42.PUBLIC: (a) Includes streets. squares. parks, playgrounds. andthe like. (b) Civic use lots may be placed within tracts designated lor public use. (c) Largescale recreational uses such as golf courses. schoolyards, and multiple game fields are located only at the edge of the neighborhood.
vv
STREETS
AND
PARKING
GENERAL: (a) All streets termrnate at other streets. (b) Streetlights are provided along all thoroughfares at 35- lo 50 ft intervals. (c) On street parking is allowed on all local streets ld) Parking lots are located behind or beside building facades. (e) Parking lots and garages are not adracent to street intersections, crvlc use lots, or squares and do not occupy lots that terminate a vista. {f) Shared parking re duces local parking requirements.
D2.PUBLIC:{a) Parkingsharedbetween public and privateuses is encouraged.
Streets. A3.ClVlC: (al Contains community buildings such as meeting halls, libraries, post offices, schools, child care centers, clubhouses, religious buildings, recreational facilities, museums. cultural societies, visual and performance arts buildings, municipal buildings. and the like.
83.ClVlC: (a) A minimum of 27o ol the neighborhood area is reserved for civic use. (b) Civic lots are within or adjacent to squares and parks or on a lot terminating a street vista. (c) Each neighborhood has a minr mum of one meeting hall and one child care lacilitv.
haveno heightor set- D3.ClvlC: (a)The majority(75yo)of the off-street C3.ClVlC:{a)Civicbuildings parkingtor civic structuresis behindthe buildbacklimitations. ings.
(a)A minimumof 27oand C4.COMMERCIAL: (a) Buildings are built out to a A4.COMMERCIAL:(a) Containsbuildings B4.COMMERCIAL: minimum of 807o of their frontage at the fronta maximum ol 309o ol the neighborhood Drimarilvfor businessuses, such as reage line. (b) Buildings have no required setback areais designatedtor comrercial use. (b) tail, entertainment,restaurant,club, offrom the side lot lines. (c) Buildings do not exCommerciallots havea maximumfrontage fice, residential, lodging, antsanal, ceed four stories in height and are no less than ot 32 ft. (c)A maximumof lour lots may be medical, etc. (b) At least 25yo of the two stories in herght When fronting a square, building. consolidatedto constructa single buildingarea is designatedfor residenbuildings are no less than three storles In tialuse. height. (d) Building coverage does not exceed 709o of the lot area.
(a)Containsbuild- 85 HIGH RESIDFNTIAL: (a) A minimum ot A5.HIGHAESIDENTIAL: 2O9o and a rrCximum ot 607o of the neighings tor residentialuse, limited office borhood area is designated for high resiuse, cafes, retail, lodging,and artisanal dential use. (b) High residential lots have a uses. {b) All of the buildingarea above marrmum f rontage of 16 ft. (c) A maximum lor resi ground flooris designated the of eight lots may be consolidated for the dentialuse. (c)Outbuildingsare permitpurpose of constructing a single building ted. containing one or more residential units.
D4.COMMERCIAL:(a)Lots front streets no more than four laneswide; parallelparkingand sidewalks minimum 15 ft wide. (b) Rear lot lines coincidewith an allev. {c} Streets have curbs with a radiusat intersectionsof 5 to 15 ft. (d) Street trees are alignedon both sides of the street at 35- to 5Gft interyals;when open colonnadesare provided,no street trees are necessary.{e)The majority(75yo)of the off-street parkingis behindthe buildings.
(a)Lots frontstreetsno (a)Buildingsare builtout D5.H|GHRESIDENTIAL: Cs.HlGHRESIDENTIAL: more than three laneswide, with parallelparkat a conto a minimumof 70% oI theirfrontage, 15 ft wide. (b) minimum ing and sidewalks tinuousalignmentno furtherthan 10 ft from the Street trees are alignedboth sides ol streets lrontageline. (b) Buildingshave no requrred at 35- to 50-ft inteNals. (c) Rearlot linescoando not setbackfrom sidelot lines.(c)Buildings cide with an alley. (d) All off-street parkingis exceedfour storiesin heightand,when fronting rn behindthe buildings. less than three stofles are no a square, height. (d) Buildingcoveragedoes not exceed 50% of the lot area.
(a) Lots front roadsno (a)Containsbuild- 86.LOW RESIDENTIAL:(a) A maximum of C6.LOWRESIDENIIAL:(a)Buildingsare builtout D6.LOWRESIDENTIAL: 46.LOW RESIDENTIAL: more than two laneswide with optionalparalto a minimum of 40% of their frontageat a con60% of the neighborhoodarea is designatings lor residentialuses, includangart parking minimum 6 ft wide. lel and sidewalks ft Iurther 30 from the (b) no than alignment tinuous Lots havs a ed tor low residentialuse. studios,limited offices, limited lodging, {b) Street trees ar€ installedon both sides ol frontagelin€. (b)Sidesetbacksare no less than maximum frontage of 64 ft. (c) A maxiand the like. (b)All of the buildingarea 'I the street at no more than 50-ft intervals. (c) 0 ft in aqgregat€and may be allocatedto one mum of two lots mav be consolidatedfor abovethe groundfloor is designatedfor Rearlot lines mav coincidewith an alley. (d) side. Buildingsare set back no less than 20 ft the purposeo{ constructinga single buildresidential use. (c) Outbuildingsare All ofl-street parking is to the side or reat ot from th€ rear lot line. Outbuildingshave no repermatted. ing. the building. Where access is through the quired setback. (c) Buildingsdo not exceed frontage, garages or carpons are located a three storiesin height. (dl Buildingcoverage minimum of 20 ft behindthe facade. d@s not exceed 50% ol the lol area.
(a)Contains tor buildings AT.WORKPLACE: uses such as corporateollice, light industry,artisanal.warehousing,automo tive.and the like.
(a)A minimumof 27oanda CT.WORKPLACE: {a) Euildings are built out to a BT.WORKPLACE: minimum of 707o ol their fronlage at a continu maximum of 30% of the neighborhood ous alignment no {urther than 10 ft from the for workplaceuse. (b) areais designated g (c) line. (b) Buildings have no setbacks lrontage ft. Lots havea maximumfrontageof from side or rear lot lines. (c) Buildings do not A maximumof four lots may be consolidatexceed three stories in height. {d) Building coved for the purposeof constructinga single erage does not exceed 70yo ot the lot area. (e) building.
DT.WORKPLACE: (a) Lots front streets as wide as necessary to accommodate truck traffic. (b) Street trees are aligned on both sides ol the street at 35. to 5Gtt intervals. (c) Rear lol lines coincide with an allev. (d) All oll-streel parking is to the side or rear of the building.
Lots are separated from other use tYpes al the side and rear lor lines by a wall of between 3 and I ft high.
KamalZaharin'lskandarShafie;Miami,Florida Platerzyberk, GaryGreenan,AndresDuany,Elizabeth The CintasFoundation
PLANNING ANDURBAN COMMUNW, SITE,
4 U
PUBLIC
-
STREET
\ _\
--
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FIRE
APPARATUS
'll
ACCESS
RESTRIcTEo
L] '
L]
REMOVE FOR F|REappaRATUs
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ACCESS
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WITH MIRRORS
ACCESS
Fire apparatus (i.e., pumpers, ladder vucks, tankers) should have unobstructed access to buildings. Check with local tire department for apparatus turning radius (R), length (L), and other operating characteristics. Support systems embedded in lawn areas adjacent to the building are acceptable.
I
l -' -w-
\-{f
PAVED SURFACE DESIGNED TO SUPPORT LOAD OF FIRE APPARATUS
n
OBSTRUCTIONS
Bollards used lor traffic control should allow suffrcient open road frre apparatus. Bollards and gates dard fire department keyed locks having iu.isdicrion).
DRIVE\^/AY and Jences tor securitv width tn4 for access bv can be secured by stan(check with department
LAYOUTS
Long dead ends (grealer than 150 ft) can cause time con suming. hazardous backup maneuvers. Use t-turns, culsde sac. and curved driveway layouts to allow unimpeded access to buildinos.
AREAs
Buildings constructed near clilfs or steeo slooes should not reslr'ct access by tire apparatus to only one side of the building. Grades greater than 10% make operation of fire apparatus difficult and dangerous. Avoid parking decks abutted to buildings. Consider pedestrian bridge overs Insteao. FIRE OEPARTMENT FACTOR
RESPONSE
TIME
Site plannrng factors that determrne response trme are sireet accessibility {curbs, radii, bollards, T-turns. culsdesac, street and site slopes, street furniture and architectural obstructions. driveway widths), accessibility for fir€fighting (fire hydrant and standpipe connection layouts, outdoor lighting. identi{ying signs), and tocation (city, town, village, farm). Check with local codes, fire codes, and fire deo;rtment for area regulations.
STREET FURNITURE AND ARCHITECTURAL OBSTRUCTTONS
ORIVEWAY
Utilitypoles can obstructuse oI aerialladdersfor rescue and fire suppression operations. Kiosks,outdoorsculoture, lountains,newspaperboxes,andthe lke canalsoselously imp€de fire fightingoperations.Wide podium basescan prevent ladder access to the upper stories of buildings. Canopi€sand other nonstructuralbuildingcomponentsc;n also preventfire apparatusoperationsclose to buildings.
For full extension of a€rial ladders at a safe climbing angle (e). sufficient driveway width (W) is required. Estimate the required width in feet by: W = (H-6) cote + 4, where preter.ed climbing angles are 60 to 80". Check with local fire department for aeri3l apparatus operating requirements. including widrh of aerial device with stabilizing outriggers extended.
WIDTHS
HIGHLIGHT REFLECTANCE COLOR FOR MAX. VISIBILITY
ZONE OF MAX. LIGHT INTENSITY
BONNET "STEAM€R" CONNECTION FACING STREET PAVEMENT RING FUNGE
OUTDOOR
LIGHTING
FIRE HYDRANT CONNECTION
Streets that are properly lighted enable fire tighters to locate hydrants quickly and to position apparatus at night. Avoid layouts that place hydrants and standpipe connections in shadows. In some situations, lighting firtures can be integrated into exterior of buildings. Alt buildings should have a str@t address number on or near the main entrance. SUFFICIENT SEPARATION DISTANCE FROM EXPOSING FIRES
ESSURE I AD ---.1
ACCESS
F|NING
/ GUTTERAT 6' BELow roP \
GRAVITY TANK
\=-*-
-
. SUPPLY OUTLET
(..
IRCUUTING
TANK
Gravity tanks can p.ovide a reliable source of pressure to building standpipe or sprinkler systems. Available pressure head increased by 0.434 psilft increase ol water above tank discharge outlet. Tank capacity in gallons depends on fire hazard, water supply, and other factors. Tanks require oeriodrc maintenance and protection agalnst freezing during cold weather. Locations subject to seismic forces or high wtnds requrre specjal consideration Gravitv tanks also can be integrated within building design.
ON-SITE
1
SITE, COMMUNITY, AND URBANPLANNING
NUMERAL
NUMERAL
WHITE BACKGROUND AND LINE LINE
Man-made and natural on-site lakes are used for orivate fire lighting in suburbs. on farms, and at resorts A prped suppiy system to a dry hydrant is preferred for its quantity, flexibility, better maintenance, and accessibilitv. Man-made lakes with roservoir liners can be berm-supoorted or sunk in the ground. Lakes and ponds are natural water supplies dependent on the environment. See local codes, fire codes. and fire departments tor on-site lake regulations.
A
REACTIVITY (IN YELLOW)
SPECIFIC HAZARD SYMBOL (E.G . DO NOT USE WATER)
LAKES
D. L. Collins and M. David Egan, P. E., College of Architecture, Clemson University; Clemson. South Carolina Nicholas A. Phillips, AIA; Lockwood Greene; New york. New york
PLACEMENT
FUMMABILITY (IN NUMERAL
HEALTH
TRENCH AROUND AOTTOM PERIMETER FOR POROUS DRAINPIPE
HYDRANT
Fire hose connections should be at least 1 5 in. above grade Do not bury hydrants or locate them behind shrubs or other vrsual barriers- Avoid locations where runoff water and snow can accumulate. Bollards and fences used to protect hydranls from vehicular traffic musl not obstruct fire fight ers access to hose connections. "steamer" connection should usually face the side of arriving fire apparatus.
(IN BLUE
zl I t.5 L
OF
RISER CONTAINING PIPING
GRAVITY
FIRE
KEY VALVE LOCATION IN CURB AOX
TANK (UKE)
ASSEMBLY
ELEVATION DISCHARGE OUTLET
BUILOING
AND STANDPIPE LAYOUT
Locate tire hydrants at street intersections and at intermediate points along roads so that spacing between hydrants does not exceed capability of local fire jurisdiction. Hydrants should be placed 2 to 10 ft from curb lines. Siamese con, nections lor standpipes should be visible, marked consorcuously, and be adtacent to the pnnctpal vehicle access point to allow rapid connection by lire fighters to the pumping engrne.
SIGN
OR
PLACARD
WHITE NUMBERS ON COLOR SUBOIVIDER, BACKGROUND ALSO ACCEPTABLE NFPA
7O4
DIAMOND
SYMBOLS
Standard diamond symbols provide information fire fighters need to avoid injury from hazardous building contents. zero {0) is the lowest degree of hazard,4 is highest. Locate sym, bols near building entrances. Correct spatial arrangement for two kinds of diamond symbols are shown. Consider integrating symbols with overall graphics design ol building (Refer to "ldentification of the Fire Hazards of Materiats." NFPA No. 704, available from the National Fire Protection Association.)
ControlofFloodDqmoge FLASH FLOOD: a local flood of great volume and short duration. Flash floods di{{er from fiverine floods in extent and duration. Flash tloods gene.ally result from a totrentjal rain or "cloudburst" covering a relatively small drainage area. Flash tloods may also result from the failure ot a dam or sudden breakup of an ice jamb.
FLOOD DAMAGE MANAGEMENT Flood hazards are caused by building in flood-prone areas. Fl@ds cannot be prevented, but the damage they wreak on man-made Droperties can be managed, either by altering the flood potential of an area or by avoiding construction in lo€tions subiect to flooding. Historically, flood damage management in the United States has locused on the former management lechnique, attempting to diven floods with structural flood controls-dams, levees, and channel modilications. However, such flood control measures have proved unsatisfactory over time.
FLOOD
Structural flood control proiects have tended to encourage development in high hazard areas. often without appropriate land use planning. When a storm exceeds or violates the design parameters of a tlood control structure, the damage that results from a flood can exceed what would have @curred if the structure had not been built. For example, tl@dplain invasion often occurs where lwees have been built with the intention ol reducing damage to agriculture. Although in some regions levees have reduced the number of high-frequency floods, in general they cause conditions tavorable for their own failure by altering erosion patterns and increasing stages.
STANDABD PROJECTED FLOOD (SPF): a flood that may b€ expected from the most severe combination of meteorological and hydrological conditions characteristic of the geographic area in which the drainage basin is located, excluding extremely rare combanations. SPFs are used in designing dams and other facilities with high damage potentaal.
Recognition of the cost of development in high{isk areas. the uneven distribution of flood hazards on lhe landscape, and the natural and beneficial values of floodplains have led to more common adoption of nonstructural flood hazard managemenl techniques. In particular, land use management and modified building practices are finding widespread acceptance.
FLOOD {PMF): the most severe PROBABLE MMIMUM flood that may be expected lrom a combination of the most hydrological condations reasonmeteorological and critical ably possible in a drainage basin. (This term is not a statisti cal concept.) PMFS are used in designing high-risk flood protection works and in siting structures and facilities thal must be subject to almost no risk of flooding.
Information on flood damage management and floodplain and wetland conseryation is available from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Natural Hazards Research Applications and Information Center, the U.S- Army Corps o{ Engineers, the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Park Service, and state and local ag€ncres.
FLOOD
LAND UsE IN FLOOD ZONES Land use management is the most effective method of managing flood damage. State control of land use in hazardclause of the ous areas, authorized by tha policepowers U.S. Constitution, is usually delegated to local planning and zoning boards. L@al, state, and federal governments also regulate ecosystems essential for flood damage managemenl. such as wetlands, coastal dunes, and mangrove stands. Land use management often includes setback regulations, which attempt to limit flood-related erosion damthe regulations imposed by Regardless of age. government, developers should evaluate building sites for their intrinsic suitability for the intended use.
HAZARDS
Most flood damage is caused by weather conditions such as hurricanes, fronts associated with midlatitude cyclones, thunderstorms, and melting snow packs. These conditions interact wtih surface leatures such as tloodplains, coasts, wetlands, and alluvial lans. resulting in floods, mudslides. and erosion. Geologic phenomena such as eanhquakes may also trigger floods. Weather and climate in{ormation is available from the National Climate Data Center. regional climate research centers, ?nd state climatology oftices. Geologic and hydro logic information is available from the U.S. Geological Sur vey and state geological and geographical surveys. FLOOD.PRONE
AREAS
FLOODPLAIN: The relatively flat area within which a river moves and upon which it legularly overflows.
RISKS
Flood risk is usuallv exoressed as the estimated annual frequency with which a flood equals or exceeds a specified magnitude. The llood risk for a future period of time is the ioint probabiljty of the occurrence of the annual flood risk. For example, il a hous€ is situated at the "100-year Jlood" elevation (1 yo annual exceedance frequency). then its tlood risk for a 3o-year period is 26% or approximately a one in four chance it will be llooded to the specified depth or greater.
7 3
The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) requires that participating local governments adopt minimum lloodplain management plans based on data provided by the federal insurance administrator. The NFIP does not require local governrents to adopt land use or transponataon plans that require prelerential development of hazar*tree areas or prohibit development of land in high hazard areas. New construction in coastal zones is required to be located land
WETLANDS: areas characterized by lrequent flooding or soil saturation, hydrophytic vegetation {vegetation adapted to suryival in saturated areas), and hydric soils (soil whose chemical comDosition re{lects saturation). Wetlands are oiten found in flmdplains but are more restrictively detined. FLOOD
RIVERINE FLOOD: great overflows of water from a river channel onto a floodplain caused by precipitation over Iarge areas, melting snow, or both. Over-bank flow is a normal geophysical event that @curs on average every two years for most rivers.
FLOOOWAYS Floodwavs include the channel of a watercourse and those portions of the adjoining tloodplain required to permit the passage of a llood of specified magnitude at no more than a specified level above natural conditions. The NFIP requires lloodways to be large enough to accommodate floods with a 17o annual exceedance frequency (100-year flood) without causing an increase in water levels of more than a soecified amount (1 ft in most areas). Some localities obiec.t to the acceptability of increased flood levels this NFIP requirement implies. lnstead, they define the floodwav as the area inundated bv floods with a 4yo annual exceedance frequency (25-year lloodi. Uses oermitted in a floodwav are those with low llood damage potential thal do not obstruct flood {lows or require structures, fill, or storage of materials or equipment. Fill is prohibited, and most structures are strongly discouraged. The following uses are generally permitted: FUNCTIONALLY DEPENDENT USES: facilities and structures that must be located close to water in order to function, such as docking and port facilities and shipbuilding and repair lacilities. Water supply and sanitary sewage treatment plants must be floodproofed il they must be leated adjacent to bodies ol water. AGRICULTURAL USES: general farming, pasture, outdoor plant nurseries, horticulture. viticulture, truck farming, forestry, sod farming, and wild crop harvesting. RECREATIONAL USES: golf courses, tennis courts. driving ranges, archery ranges, picnic grounds, boat launching ramps, swimming areas, parks. wildlife and nature preseryes. game farms, fish hatcheries. shooting preserves, target.ranges, trap and skeet rang€s, hunting and fishing areas, and hiking and horseback riding trails. INCIDENTAL INDUSTRIAL-COMMERCIAL USES: loading areas, parking areas, and airport landing strips (except in flash flood areas). INCIDENTAL RESIDENTIAL USES: lawns, gardens, parking areas. ano play areasFLOODWAY
FRINGES
Floodway fringes are the portion of the regulatory floodplain outside ol the floodway. Floodway fringes are treated as slorage area {or flood waters. Where permitted, prop€rty owners on each side of the floodplain may obstruct llood tlows equally. INTERFLUVE
BASE FLOOD ELEVATION
\
RIVER SEDIMENTS
/
) MEAN
ACCRffION ZONE
TYPES
Floods may be classified by their l@ations or physical charactenstrcs.
ward of the reach of the mean high ttde. Local land use and development or floodplain management plans that are more stringent than NFIP requirements supersede NFIP requirements. The NFIP divides riverine floodplains into flmdway and floodway fringes for land use management. Coastal floodplains are divided into coastal high-hazard areas and coastal fringes. Land uses in these areas should always be verifred with local agencies.
FLOODPUIN
Rivers typically meander over their floodplains, eroding the cutbank and redepositing sediments in accretion zones such as point bars, meander belts, and natural levees. Channel shifting may be extreme in alluvial fans. Coastal tl@dplains, which include barrier islands, shores, and wetlands. hav€ the same relationshio to the sea that riverine tloodplains have to rivers.
l0l
INVERTED
SEA
(NGVD I 929)
RIVER VALLEY
INTERFLUVE
INTERFLUVE
FLOODPUIN
SPECIAL
FLOOD
HAZARD
AREA
HEADWATER FLOOD: a riverine llood that results from precipitation directly in a basin BACKWATER FLOOD: a riverine flood caused by high stages on downstream outlets, which prevent drainage from tributary basins or even reverse the flow.
---.:F=--RIVER SEDIMENTS -./ FILL
COASTAL FLOOD: overflows onto coastal lands bordering an @ean, estuary, or lake. Coastal lloods are caused by tsunamis (seismic sea waves). hutri€nes, and northeasters.
DIRECTION
OF
MEANDER
EROSION
V.SHAPED
ZONE
RIVER VALLEY
Mattie Fincher Coxe: Eaton Rouge, Louasiana
A
FLOODDAMAGECONTROL
1l
102
ControlofFloodDqmoge
Uses permitted in floodway fringes include those permitted in floodways and elevated or otherwise flood-proofed structures. Prohtbited or strongly discouraged uses include facilts ties for storing materials that are toxic or flammable or explosrve In water, vital lacilities such as hosDitals and civil defense or rescue facilities, and facilities that are difficult to evacuate, such as nursing homes and prisons.
FLOOD INSURANCE
RATE ZONES
The NFIP is a program intended to reduce federal expenditures for flood disaster relief. lt provides flood damage Insurance as an incentive Io. communities to adopt flood, plain management regulations, especially those governing floodplain obstructions and building practices in floodplains. NFIP minimum standards require a low level of flood dam age management based on historic conditions. States and localities may establish standards higher than NFlPas, in which case these supersede NFIP standards. For example, other governments may control land use in hazardous areas, regulate runof{, have freeboard requirements, or base regulatory flood elevations on historic floods that exceeded the base flood or on the oroiected effects ot future development. The NFIP Community Ratang System provides insurance rate reductions as an incentive to adopt higher standards.
tral basements are permitted only in communjties that meet special NFIP flood criteria and adopt special local standards tor their design and construction. Commercial struc tures must be elevated or otherwise floodDrooted to the BFE.
out grade beams should be used only in areas not subiecl to potential scour Freestanding pole struclures are unsafe large rotations develop at moment connections, causrn.i deflection of pilings under sustained lateral loads that can lead to collaose.
B ZONES
Destruction of coastal dunes and wetlands dramaticaltv Increases the Inland reach of storm surge and waves and increases the severity of tlood damage. Buildings mav be destroyed it dunes and wetlands are inadequatelv oro tected, even it they contorm to legal building requirements
B zones indicate areas subject to inundation by floods with an annual exceedance frequency greater than the base tlood with less than a 0.2% annual exceedance frequencv {500-year flood). B-zone designations are not used on recent FIBMS because of the lack of statistical valadityof mosl estimates of 500-year {loods and the false perception that they are generally safe. On some maps I zones are shown as shaded X zones-
E AND M ZONES
c zoNEs C zones, including all areas that are not in zones A. B, or V, are not necessarily flood tree. They may include low{isk interfluvial regions (areas of a watershed above the natural floodplain), moderate-risk floodplain between the interfluve and the regulatory floodplain, areas with localized nonriverine flooding. high{isk areas with small contributing drainage areas, and floodplains with structural flood protection that may be sub,ect to low frequency catastrophic floods.
SOURCES CoastalConstructionManual IFEMA-55).Dames & Moore and Eliss& Nvitrav.lnc.. 1986. Elevated Residential Structures (FEMA)-s4).Washinoton. D C AmeflcanInstituteot Archilects,1984
D ZONES The NFIP bases Flood Insurance Rate Zones on the frequency of flooding and the presence of storm surge and waves. Local governments are typically required to regulate building practices in A and V zones as a condition of eligibility for flood insurance. The most important requirement in A and V zones is that the tirst floor of new buildings be buill equal to or higher than the base flood level, which has a 1 yo chance of beino equaled or exceeded in any grven year ( l 0Gyear flood). Thi base flood is the still water height for riverine floods. For the Atlantic Coast and the Gull of Mexico, the base flood includes storm surge plus wave crest height because of northeasters and hutricanes. The base flood for the Pacific Coast includes astronomical rides plus wave run-up caused by tropical cyclones and tsunamis. For maior lakes, the base flood includes seiche (sloshing be€use of wind, seismic activity, and storm surge). The base flood elevation {BFE} is the height of the base flood in reference to mean sea level as defined by the National Geodetic Vertical Datum ol 1929 {NGVD 1929). Local communities may adopt regulatory flood datums (RFD) in place ot base llood elevations. RFDS are the base flood plus a lreeboard. a factor of safety expressed in feet and used to compensate for uncenainties that could contribute to greater flood height than that computed for a base flood. Freeboard allows for hazards excluded from consideration in tiguring the base llood and uncertainties in analysis, design. and construction. Severe structural subsidence, increases in floods because of obstructions in the floodplain, urban runoff, or normal climatic variability, as well as long-term increases in sea level and storms, are olten excluded from consideration in determining base flood levels. Urban conditions. low accuracy base maps, and unplanned development are other common sources of uncertainty that justif y f reeboard. Some qommunities require up to a 3-ft lreeboard to compensate for inaccurate flood insurance rate maps (FlRMs). The margin of error of base maps may be estimated as plus or minus one-halt of the contour interual. Most FIRMs are developed from maps with a contour interyal of 5 ft, and a margin of error ol -2 12 lt. Field survey maps with a contour interval of 2 ft or less are used in some communities; the smaller interyal reduces the uncertaintv of the risk and the need for freeboard.
D zones are areas of possible blt undetermined flood hazard.
Elevating to the Wave Crest Level: A Benefit: Cost Analysis (Fl46),Shaelfer& Roland,Inc..1980.
x zoNEs
Federal Emergency Management Agency. Answers lo Questions About the National Flood lnsurarce Program (FlA-2)., Washington,D.C.:FEMA.
X zones includeall areas not in zonesA or V, combiningB and C zonesfound on older maps. On some maps.X zones that wer€ tormerly B zones and X zones within levee systems are shaded.
FederalEmergencyManagementAgency. The Fl@dway:A Guide tor Cffimunity Pemit Officials. Community AssistanceSeriesNo.4. Washington,D.C.:FEMA.
v zoNEs (v, vE, vt-v3o, vo) VelocityzonesV and VE (formerlyV1-V30)are coastalhigh hazardareasidentified as susceptibleto inundationby the base flood, includingstorm surgeswith high velocitywaves greater than 3 ft. Generally,zone V indicates the inland extent of a 3-ft breakingwave, where the still-waterdepth during the loGyear flood decreasesto less than 4 ft. VO zones are proposed alluvial fan zones with high velocity shallowflow (1 to 3 ftl and unpredictableflow paths.
FloodLoss ReductionAssociates.Fl@dplain Management
[email protected] ResourcesCouncil.1981. Fbodpr@fing Nonresidential Structures {FEMA)-102).
[email protected].,1986. Hayes, W. W., ed. Facing Geologic and Hydrolagb Hazards: Eafth-Sciene Considentions. Washington, D.C.l U.S.Geological Suruey,198 1.
Elevation and structuralrequrrements are most stringentin coastalhigh hazardareas.Fillbelowbuitdingsis p.ohibited. lf construction is permitted by the local government.the lowest horizontalstructuralmember of the lowest habitable floor must be built above the base flood elevation.Rioid framesor semirigidtrameswith gradebeamscanresisrihe impact of storm surge and waves. Semrrigidframes with-
GENERI\L
(E, M}
E zones are areas adjoining the shore of a lake or other body of water that are likely to suffer flood-related erosion M zones are areas with land surfaces and slopes of uncori soirdated material in which the history, geology. and climate indicate a potential for mudflow. Setbacks and special buitd ing requirements are used in E and M zones.
LIMITS
OF
Pemit Olticials' Handbook tor the National Fl@d lnsurance Prognm. 3rd ed. Baton Rouge LouisianaDepartment of Transponationand Developm€nt,1993.
FLOODPROOFING
METHOD
WARNING
REQUIREMENTS
Advance warnang
of floodgatesin openings hr
installationof closures tme
to higher ground evacuatron trme requrred NOTE Information presented is general and warrants caution. Time availabl€ for warning may be severely limited by a llood's rate of rise
The NFIP classifies land either as special flood hazard areas (SFHA)--*righJrequency f lood, {l@d-related erosion, and mudslide zones{r low-risk and undetermined flood hazard zones. Zone names that include actuarial risk factors, such as A1-A30 and V'l-V30, are being replaced by AE and VE designations with flood depths. COASTAL
a zoNEs
PRIMARY
Zones A and AE (formerly A1-A30) are highjisk riverine areas susceptible to inundation bv the still-water base flood. AO zones are areas of shallow flooding (1 to 3 ft) without detined channels, usually sheet flow on sloping terrain. AH zones indicate shallow flooding, usually with water ponding. AR zones are areas in which structural flood protection is deficient. A99 zones are areas in which structural fl@d protection syslems are near compteron. The finished floor of the lowest habitable level of residences, usually including basements, must be elevated to the base flood elevation in zone A. Flood-resistant residen-
COASTAL
Mattie Ann Fincher: Baton Rouge, Louisiana
A
I
COASTAL HIGH HAZARD
FRINGE
(A, AE, At -A3O, .AO, AH, AR, A99)
FLOODDAMAGE CONTROL
DUNES AND BEACHES
DUNES
OCEAN
PROHT gtTED
VehicleDimensions 103 GENERAL , l
ln setting design paramelers. the designer assumes that all vehicles present are "design vehicles." Design vehicbs are selected to represent approximately the 85th percentile vehicle in a range from smallest to largest. In the recent past, small or comoact ca. stalls were often separated from large or standard stalls in parking designs. However, a deciine in smaller car sales and the increasing use ol light trucks, vans, and utility vehicles (LTVUS) for personal transportation have made small{aronly stalls ineffective as a design l@1. There fore, while smll car and large car design vehicles-as well as a composite encompassing both small and large-have been given here for relerence, parking design must be based on a composite passenger vehicle that includes not only cars but light trucks, €ns, and sporvutility vehicles.
lf-t
' ACCESSIBLE
ll LIff-\
\
\
l" To 3'-o ;F_i-
ACCESSIBLE Llff
-t
_ A-_-,---J
3 -s ro 4 - r o" -J-\_L_W_L
LIFT VAN
vt/HEELCHAIR
BOAT TRAILER
a"To 14'
CAR
PASSENGER
TRAILER
RV-CONVENTIONAL
LIGHT TRUCK
WHEEL
RV_FIFTH
/
STRETCH
SPORT/UTILITY DESIGN
VEHICLE
RV_FOLDING
(PICKUP-BASE)
SLIDE-IN
TRAILER
CAMPER
SHUTTLE VAN
LIMOUSINE
DIMENSIONS LENGTH (L)
WIDTH
HEIGHT (H)
WH EELBASE (wB)
OV€RHANG FRONT (oF)
OVERHANG (oR)
(FT-rN.) tt0
5-7
4€
8€
24
Composite passenger
| 6,9
64
Gl0
9-5
3-O
Light truck
| 7-9
6€
64
11{
e3
G10
Sporvutilityvehicle
r6{
64
6-2
Wheelchair lift van (oersonal use)
l7€
6€
8{
Boat trailer
204
8{
6-O
See detail See detail
214
7-O
9,0
34{
8-6
t24
RV*folding trailer
r6{
7S
5-O
prckupcamper
18-1
10{
7-3
limousine
24-6
6-0
5-O
van (11 passengersl
2M
6-6
&10
lrarler
lsmall
car classes 5 through 7 per Parking Consultants Council (PCC).
GROSS
\NEIGHT
(LB)
Small carl
RV-fifth wheel (pickup-based)
REA.R
4S
2850
4-0
8600
10{
2-9 2,9
4-0
4600
g
3{
3-8
6000
2-6
3-8
6000
3-0
8{
4000
8{
6000
3-0
124
5000
224
12-2
3500
8€
1-6
1500
2900 1ffi
44
5-0
9000
3{
5-6
I 1,000
2 A composite passenger vehicle is a design vehicle that encompasses passenger cars, light trucks, vans, and sporv
utility vehicles. lt is the vehicle for which a parking {acility should be designed.
lnc.;Indianapolis. lndiana Mary S. Smith.P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS, AND PARKING
fl
r04
VehicleDimensions
']
CLASS
A
M()TOR
HOME
INTERCITY/CHARTER
BUS
CLASS B MOTOR HOME
CLASS
C MOTOR
PARATRANS
DESIGN
ARTICULATED
ITIS H UTTLE BUS
AMBULANCE
PARAMEDIC
HOME
scHooL
VAN
FTRE TRUCK_AERIAL
UNIT
VEHICLE
BUS
FIRE TRUCK_PUMPER DIMENSIONS LENGTH (L)
VEH ICLE
WIDTH
(w)
HEIGHT (H)
WH EELBASE
(wa)
OVERHANG FRONT (o F )
OVERHANG (oR)
( F T - tN . ) 30-0
80
ClassB motor home {vanconversion)
204
6-8
8-6
Class C motor home (van cutaway)
r9{
7-6
9{
ParatransiVshuttle bus {20 passengers)
25!
6-10
8-9
lntercitv/charter bus
404
86
GROSS WEIGHT (LB)
m m
| 7.000
5€
11 . 0 0 0
9-0
lo€
41,OOO
8{
47.000 41,O@
204
44
t{
2-6 2-6 30
2G6
REAR
9000 11.000
Citybus*
40{
8€
11,2
25-O
74
Articulated bus'
60{
8-6
1G4
See detail
8-6
School bus
40{
8{
10{
22-O
8,0
t0{
19-10
G8
9S
2-A
s
22.$
7-8
96
132
2-A
74
r1.500
van Paramedic unit
31-0
8-O
9-8
18-8
5-0
7-5
35.000
lruck-aerial
45-9
8{
10-2
20-3
6-2
19-4
52,000
Mary S. Smith. P.E; Walke. Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis. Indiana
II
9400
truck--pumpel
*Generally in conformance with standards of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (MSHTO)
4
50.000
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS, AND PARKING
r05
Rqdii VehicleTurning
( lt
I
f-t
i{/
Il ||l irl
COMPOSITE
GARBAGE
BUS
INTERCITY
CAR
TRUCK
(-_\
',L'/
/
BOAT
AMBULANCE
TRAILER
FIRE TRUCK-PUMPER
VAN
MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS FOR DESIGN VEHICLES (FT-IN.) EHICLE
TYPE
MIN. TURNING RADIUS (RT)
OUTSIDE FRONT RADTUS (Ro)
Composite private vehicle
24-o
2ffi
Wheelchair lift van
24-9
2GA
Eoat trailel
244
24-11
INSIDE REAR RADIUS (R,)
STRAIGHT LANE wtDTH (Ws)
1ffi
o{ 0{
&5
tratler
23-10
254
5-7
Motor home
39-7
42+
27$
limousine
32-7
34-10
23-8
van
24-10
ParatransiUshuttle bus
2+2
bus
35-3
145
23-5
TANGENT LENGTH (T)
13€
12$
24-7
125
14-0
244
{ {
1 6 11
-o -o
19{
234
41-2
14-6
2G2
34t
13-6
13-4
29-7
13€ '17-10
13-4
294
18-7
60{
t1{
-o
26-1I
INSIDE CURB RADIUS (R)
CURVED LANE (\|r'r) wrDTH
4
1&4
G10
60-9
4-l
424
466
244
274
214
60{
38{
43{
14{
{
22-O
1t{
624
Schoolbus
41-9
436
297
-0
t7-8
2+3
564
Garbagetruck
31-O
334
20€
38-0
24-9
27-2
t4€ r3-5
18€
Ambulancevan
24 -o
13-5
294
unrl
28-5
3G.10
18€
156
33-0
41-O
27-7
244
444
ty bus bus
truck-pumper
Jb-t
I
Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (MSHTO).
124
"o -o
N OTES 1. Minimumturn radiiat lessthan 10 mph. 2. Obstructions {columns,walls,light poles,etc.)shouldbe
| 6-4
held a minimum of 6 in. (2 ft preferred) from the edge of the lane given above. See details on the AGS page on driveways and roadways.
Indiana Inc.;lndianapolis, Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers,
u A
AND PARKING AUTOMOBILES, ROADS,
VehiculqrDesignpolometers
106 GENERAL
neers can be u\ed as a toot for adaplrng desrgns to the specrlrc needs ol use's Level ol servrce (LOS) A whrch rs rhe most comiortable, allows vehrcle movement with little or no constrarni. As the level of service decreases, from A to D, the comfort level decreases. LOS D is the minimum dimension for safe maneuvering of a vehicle at low speed.
Public skeets and highways are designed to accommodate a vanety ot vehicles, up to and including SemitrAler trucks. When private driveways and roadways will only serve passenger vehicles, it may be appropriate to use smaller dimen, srons In some instances. Nonetheless, be certain Drivate roads are wade enough to allow passage o{ fire and emergency vehicles. The
'level
of seryice"
approach employed
COMPARISON
LT
/
I
The level ot serv(ce selected for a particular application should rellect lhe needs oi the users and ol the owner ot a property. Make adiustments according to the local vehicle sazeand mix and any concerns pa(icular to the location.
by traffic engi,
OF LEVELS OF SERVICE
LEVEL OF SERVICE
LOS D
LOS A
Typeof users
Familiar.young adults
Unfamiliar, elderly Short term
Length of stay
Long-term
Turnover
Lessthan2 per day
More than 5 per dav
Type of generator
lndustrial
Retail
Location
Urban
.Fural
lmage
Spec office
Corporate headquarters
smail cars
High
Low
light tfucks, vans, and uttlrty vehrcles
Low
High
RECOMMENDED
CONCAVE
TRANSITION
SLOPES
DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR VEHICULAR CIRCULATIONI DRAWING LOS C
LOS B
LOS A
Lane width, straight One lane2
10'{'
Multiple lanes
9'{'
Clearanceto obstructions
c
Radius,turning(outsidefront wheel)
R1
9'S'
11 ' - 0 '
lt{
10'-0'
r0'€'
36'{',
42'4'
ONE-WAY
24'o',
30',0'
r2'-0'
12'4'
Lane width, turning4,b One lane
tJ t
Each additional lane Circular helix4.6 Single-threadedT Outside diameter
Do
60'4'
74'-O'
88'-0'
Inside diametef
Dr
24',4'
36'{'
48',-0'
102'4' 60'{'
NONCONCENTRIC
TWO.WAY
Double-threadede Outside diameter
Do
80'{'
95' 0'
11 0 ' { '
lnside diameter9
Dr
M\0'
57'-0'
70'{'
s
16Vo
14yo
l2v.
t-
10'-0'
| 1'-0'
t2'-0'
ramp slope ansrtronlength
r25'-0' 83'{'
LANE WIDTH
(TURNING}
1jvo
Gated/controlled widthlo 8'-9' 9{' 9',3' Source:Mary S Smith, Parkng Structures:Planning,Design,Maintenance and Repair, 2d ed. (Chapman and Hall, 1996). 1 The design parameters recommended 5 For all levels of are for design service, use a 20Jt lane to allow room to speedsrangingfrom 10 mph (LOSD) to 2b mph {LOSA). pass a brokendown vehicle. per AASHTO '1990 figure Additionaldimensionsfor parkingaccessaislesand lurn1 1 1_23. ing bays are providedon the AGS page on parkingdesign 6 The diameters given measure from outside face to outparameters. side face of the walls (6-in. walls assumed). 2 For all levelsof service,use a 1 s-ft laneto make room lor 7 Turning radii/iane width ,ncreased 3 ft because of multiple passtnga brokeniown vehicle_ Turns. 3 The clearancegiven is from the edge of a lane to a wall, 8 Decrease 3 lt 6 in. to provide 2o-tt lane in order to leave column, parkedvehicle, or other obstruction,as cited in room to pass broken-down vehicles. American Associationof State Highway and Transporta9 Ramp slope, minjmum lane width. and clearance to walls tion Officials,A Policyon Geometiic Designof Higiways control dimensions for double-threaded helix. and sr/eers (r gg0l IASHTo 19901,figure 11 t,25. l0 a The dimensionsgiven for The dimensions given assume a straight approach to lane; LOS D are {rom AASHTO'1990 check turns into lanes with temolate. figure 111-23, exceptthe clearancecited in that figure has beenreducedto 2 ft, per tigure111-25.
ADDED 3'.O' FOR MULIIPLE TURNS (TO OUTSIDE)
FULL
ROADWAY
AND
RAMP
WIDTHS
Mary S. Smith,
P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, Inc.j Indianapolis, lndiana
fl
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS,AND PARKING
HELIX
CIRCULAR
HELIX
(TURNING)
Drivewqysqnd Roqdwqys dure for developing any drive configuration, given the design vehicle and its turning radii (R). The tangent (TG)dimension is an approximate minimum required for transition from one turn direction to another.
GENERAL Veh,cledimensaons are shown on the AGSpageon design a procevehicles.The U-shaDed driveshownhereillustrates UNLOADING
107
NOTE tor Rr Br, Ro, Wq, Wr, and Tc, see lhe AGS page on vehl cle tuinrng ridrr. Fbr L. OB. and W. see lhe AGS page on design vehicles.
L
AREA -
BUS WILL NOT BE AT STOP STRAIGHT UNLESS TANGENT {TC) IS OIMENSION BETWEEN PROVIOED RADII
I o'-o" RADIUS
I O',-O" RADIUS
LP+
CENTERLINE
r---
OF STREfl
PRIVATE ROADS INTERSECTING PUBLIC ROADS
U-SHAPED DRIVE
INTERSECTIONS
AND
DRIVES
+-r + I
CENTER ON DOOR
l/'\
i" \.1
/
FORWARD
R"/t
CUL-DE-SAC
DIMENSIONS
SPACE REQUIREMENTS FOR DRTVEWAY LAYOUTS (FT-rN.) 90'
STRAIGHT
NOTE Use this three-maneuver entrance for single car garages only when space limitations demand it. The drawing is based on dimensions tor a large car.
PRIVATE
DRIVE\iVAYS :TO RESIDENTIAL
OUT (ICAR}
IN_BACK
8-9
9{
r0{
11{
124
25-D
24$
234
23-O
224
IN_BACK
OUT
9{
10{
124
r6{
26{
254
23€
24.o
24
3-0
34 144
GARAGES
14-5
14€
204
NOTE The R values for vehicles intended to use these culsde-sac should not exceed Rb.
CULS-DE-SAC
Indiana lnc.;Indianapolis, Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers.
A
ROADS,AND PARKING AUTOMOBILES,
I
108
PorkingDesignPorometers r3s .O'
+301O"
+2O-o
tr
+lO'-O
TWO TURNS AT 360" TO TOP
TURNS
ON E.WAY
IN PATH OF TRAVEL
FLOOR
TO
sc
+ --
+:
FLOOR
I
f
+ t+
ooD L|NES
5
i
I
I
\,,
LLjlll_uilfl|i||tI
if-tilfnT ttilTiflTtlf . ' z \
|
|
=
NOTE lf the bay run is greater than the "small car" dimension, pre vide a short circuit to help traffic flow.
CLEARANCES FOR VEHICLES
SHORT CIRCUIT IN LONG BAY
RECOMMENDED DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR WAYFINDING AND USER-FRIENDLINESS IN PARKING FACILITIES LEVEL OF SERVICE DESIGN
STANDARD
FOR
Maximum walking distance Within parking lacilities Surtace lot Structure From parking to destination Climaterontrolled Outdoors, covered Outdoors. uncovered
Height from floo.to-floorI Longspan,posttensioned Longspan,precast
D
c
(LOS) B
r400'{' 1200'{'
1050'{' 900'-0'
700',0' 600'{'
350 -0' 300'-0'
5200',0' 2000 -0' r600 -0'
3800'{' 1500 -0' 1200'-0'
2400'4', 1000'-0' 800'{'
1000'4' 500 -0' 400'-0'
9',S' 10'-6'
r0'€' l1-6'
116'
300/o
60v"
1 3€ '
Percentage of parking spaces on flat lloors
ovo
Parkingramp slope
6.57.
6qo
5.57.
Number of 360" turns to top
7
5.5
4
90% 5vo 2.5
Short circuit in long run {SC)
400'-0'
350!0'
300'{'
250',4'
Travel distance to
750'-0'
600'{'
450 -O'
300{'
800 500
400 250
Number of spacessearchedor compartment Angled Perpendicular
BAYS
KEY TO DRAYI/INGS 1600 1000
1200 750
Radius,turning(R
24'-O'
26'-0'
Turning bays, clear (T)5 One lane Two lanes, concentric6 Two lanes, nonconcentric
26'S', 29'{'
24',4'
28',4'
30 -0'
17-0'
18',3' 31 -0'
34'{'
Source: Mary S. Smith, Parkng Structures: Planning. Design. Maintenance, and Repair,2d ed. (Chapman & Hall. 1996) lMinimum venical 4 Due to lower clearance for van accessibility is 8 ft design speeds, the turning radius in parking 2 in.. which .equires minimum fl@rtefloor heights per areas is less than that required for throughrirculation eleLOS C. ments. 2 A short 5 Clear between face circuit in a long run is used to shorten the exit path. of columns, curbs, or obstructions: 3 In check clearance at back of parking stalls with turning temone-way designs. it is necessary to continue on the prare. inbound travel path before conneclion to the outbound 6 lf flow is largely in path. one direction, the turning bay for a twc lane, concentric design can be reduced by 3 ft.
Mary S Smith, P.E.; Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana
u
TURNING
A
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS,AND PARKING
r09
PorkingSpoce Dimensions pARKING spAcE ALL
LEVELS
ANGLE
DlMENsloNs
t rrt--tru.)
OV
"f i1
OF SERVICE VEH ICLE PROJECTION
OF PARK
OF CURB WALL
OFFSET
OVERHANG
STRIPE OFFSET
1G3 13-8 SP
1--" 75 90 LEVEL OF SERVICE A STALL PROJECTION
ANGLE OF PARK
0 0
8,9 8,9
45
24
50
I l-c
MODULE
AISLE
0-o
424
25-0'
0{
49{
14-10 15-7
0-8
51-9
60
0-1
53-4
65
9€
&6
174
70
9-4
55-9
18-5
75
9-'l
57-O
l9l 0
90
8-9
61-O
260
ANGLE
OF SERVICE
2S 22 110
0{
OF PARK
STALL PROJECTION
MODULE
AISLE
INTERLOCK
8$
30{
13{r
0{ 0{
86
40{
234r
t2-o
48{
13-10
50
I t-l
49€
55
10-5
5G9
0
KEY e = angle of park A = aisle width i = interlock reduction OV = overhang M = module SL = srall length
B
0
)
2-10
50€
55
LEVEL
INTERLOCK
14-Oz
BASIC LAYOUT
SO = stripe oflset SP = stripe projection SW = stallwidth VP = vehicleprojection WO = wall offset WP = srall projection DIMENSIONS
3{
2-9 2-5
60
9-10
524
15€
2-2
65
95
53€
1il
1 - 10
70
9-1
54-9
17-5
1-5
75
8-10
56{
1810
90
8€
6r
254
04
MOOULE
AISLE
INTERLOCK
28€
124',
0{
21-03
0,0
12-10
2-11
LEVEL OF SERVICE C ANGLE
OF PARK
STALL PROJECTION
8-3
0 0
8-3
45
11 - 8
474
50
10-9
48€ 4$9
13-7
96
51-4
146
65
9-1
52$
154
70
8-9
53-9
rG5
75
8€
5il
l7-10
90
8-3
59{
24.o
24 1-9
0{
LEVEL OF SERVICE D STALL PROJECTION
MO DU LE
AISLE
INTERLOCK
0
8{
274
t1{'
0{
0
8{
35-O
r 9{r
04
45
I 1-4
4m
50
tG5
47-6
2-2
2-7
55
9-9
48-9
-7
24
60
93
5G4
3€
24
65
8-r0
516
70
8$
52-9
t5
75
8-3
54{
6-10
90
8-O
58{
ANGLE
OF PARK
' All dimensrons are rounded to the nearesl rnch. 2 These are minimum aisle widths for one-wav traffic at each levelof seryice 3 Figures given are widths for twcway traffic.
to provide the
SHORT SPAN CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
23
60
55
NOTE Stalls adjacent to columns must be wider same level of service of turn.
10
2-10
1€
234
14 l{
0{
NOTES 1. Parkingstallsfor a design vehicle6 ft 4 in. wide and 16 ft I in. long shouldhave a stripe prcjectionof 16 ft 3 in. and parallel stalllengthof 20 ft 9 in. Smalkar€nly stalls (7 ft 5 in. wide by 15 ft long) should only be used at constrained lGtions or in remnants of space. The number of these stalls should not exceed parking 10% of total capacity at a site. Angles between 76 and 89" are not recommended for one-way design because these angles permit drivers of smaller cars to back out and exit the wong way. for use with twe Angled parking is not recomrend€d wav aisles as drivers often attemot to make a U-turn into stalls on the other side of the aisle. Add 1 ft to the module for surface parking bays without curbs or other parking guides (freqrent poles or columns or walls) in areas with frequent heaw snowfall. To maintain the same level of seruice (LOS), reduce the module (M) by 3 in. for each additional inch in stall width (SW) while maintaining minimum aisle width (see toot' notes 2 and 3 to accompanying chan), For example, I ft I in. @ 90'on 61-ft module = LOS A 9 ft 0 in @ 90'on 60-ft 3-in. module = LOS A Columns and light poles may protrude into a parking mod ule a combined maximum of 2 ft as long as they do not affect more than 25yo ot the stalls in that bay For example, a 2-ft encroachment by a column on one side of the aisle or 1 ft each from columns on both sides is permissiote.
Mary S. Smith. P.E.j Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana
4
AND PARKING AUTOMOBILES, ROADS,
1
PorkingLofEntryqnd ExitDesign
I l0 GENERAL
ADAAG (Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guide lines for Buildings and Facilities,36 CFR 1 191. July 26, 1991 I requires all cashier booths in new construction (and in alterations that result in the removal of existing islands) to be accessible "to and through" the door This mandate is found under the requirements for employee work areas or stations. A booth can meet this requirement if it is recessed in the pavement so the interior floor is at the same elevation as the driving lane. An accessible cashier booth can also have a curb ramp and appropriate latch side clearance for the rear swinging d@r.
gorurc.
i o ii!
I b
ADMG recommends-but d@s not require-that at least one booth be a fully accessible workstation {have a s-ft drameter wheelchair turning space, adjustable counter, ac cessible controls, etc-). A booth can meet this requirement with accessible doors on both sides, which allows T turning movemenls.
DffECTOR LOOP, TYP,-\ I
I
:
KEY TO DRAWINGS TERM
o
ABBREVIATION
Autogate
AG
Ticket dispenser
TD
@
SYMBOL
.-
|
E ENTRANCE
CR
Card reader
\^/ITH TICKET
DISPENSER
LFS
T----1 L___J
Bollard
10'x
o
CARD
RAMP (USE HANDRAIL IN LiEU OF FURES TO KEEP ISGND WIDTH TO A MINIMUM)
tcl
6" DIAMffER GALVANIZED STEEL PIPE FILLED WITH CONCRETE
{ roop
I
#tul
-I t - l t___l "Lot full" sign
316"
NTRAN C E O R E X I T W I T H E A D E R ONLY
I ol tul lal tol l
I'tl 0- a ll z | =l I ll
10" x 5/s"
WIH FOUR 3ADIAMETER EXPANSION (ALL ANCHORS GALVANIZED)
1 PUTFORM AT BOOTH FLOOR HEIGHT
elfNt
SEAUNT ALL AROUND
RECESS BOOTH IN ISUND SO FLOOR IS LEVEL WITH TOP OF ISUND AT DOOR
lz -[-
l=l lt sgl l
NOTE
o
I
"l:l ' l=l lil lt ln l
%- NEOPRENE PAD
:
? BOLURD. TYP. 6L
Place bollards so they are plumb N
PIPE BOLLARD
EXIT WITH ACCESSIBLE CASHIER BOOTH AND CARD READER
h
/////////,/ P
\N lt tl-N\ -+
ta
tI ,+
J---rj--rr t
PI.AN WITH INAOEQUATE TURNS
RECOMMENOED
+t 5ECTION
AT
BOOTH
EXIT WITH ACCESSIBLE BOOTH
RECOMMENDED
LOT ENTRY CONFIGURATIONS
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, Inc.;Indianapolis, Indiana
A tUl
PUN
CASHIER PARKING
-
+ +-
I --tl
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS, AND PARKING
PorkingLotDesign sw*r'-o"-\,
I
io.o
l
/
tvP+t-o
,/-i-wHEELCHAIR I RAMP
- LIGHT POLE
RADIUSI
A
:
1
I STALL
PEDESTRIAN LIGHT TRAVEL
RADiUS
OV
1l ii
o o
'
5', O" RADiUS
,l)
lu
SIDEWALK - to-o" RADI6
PEDESTRIAN TRAVEL
PEDESTRIAN
NN 3','6
URGER OFT
*
b+
FACE OF c
l'' I
ill
UJ
o
SMALL LOT WITH ONE.WAY TRAVEL
LOT DESIGNS
WITH
MULTIBAY LOT WITH TWO-WAY ENO AISLE
ISLANDS 20010"
._::":':'
l+
t-) tl +
r)*
LJ : l+
ANGLED PARKING
,l+ I]
: -=>
rT----\
l, ltl l:
J
j+ :+
1I
PARKING
NOTES
N OTES
1. GPA = 200 ft x 56.33 ft x 2 = 22,532 sqlr 2. Capacity = 80 vehicles
1. GPA = 200 ft x 60.5 It x 2 = 24.200 sq lt 2. Capacity = 80 vehicles 3. Etliciency = 24,200 sq ftl80 vehicles = 302.5 sq ruspace
3. Efficiency = 22,532 sq fV80 vehicles = 281.7 sq fvspace
SMALL
LOT DESIGNS 0'.6- RADIUS, TYP. -\ ISUND TYPE I\
-# TYPICAL
ISUNO TYPE II
ii
PARKING
KEY TO DRAWINGS
CONCRETE BUMPERS CREATE TIPPING HAZARD AND ARE NOT RECOMMENDED
BAY,WITH
ISLAND
TYPES
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, Inc.:lndianapolis, lndiana
A
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS, AND PARKING
)
I
112
PorkingLotDesignGuidelines CONSIOER DEEPER ASPHALT OR REINFORCED CONCRETE PAVING AT AREA WHERE ( F I RE TRUCKS HEAVY VEHICLES BUSES, FTC ) ARE COMMON
VEHICUUR TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNS. CAUTION STRIPES, SPEED HUMPS OR
BUILOING
ENTRY
PASSENGER/LOADING
ZONE
SPEED AUMPS
AVOIOING CURBS AND WHEEL STOPS ALLOWS EASY SNOW REMOVAL AND REDUCES PEDESTRIAN IRIPS AND SLIPS
SPECIAL UNOSCAPE AND PAVING DESIGN EMPHASIS AT MAJOR ENTRANCE
ACCESSIBLE PARKING AREA AND RAMP CLOSE TO ENTRY
LANE
/
*^;t;;;==INTERMEDIATE ISUND. TYP
PARKING AISLE ORIENTED TOWARO DESTINATION {BUILDING ENTRY)
NOTE TRAFFIC
Confirmrequirements for fire lanesadiacentto buildings. Consultlocalcodes GOMMERCIAL
NOTES
PARKING
ON OESIGN
ARRANGEM
FLOW
ENT
GUIOELINES
1. Determine an e{Iicienl means of laying out the parking lot {see vehicle and parking space dimension data on other AGS pages on parking). A smaller paved area costs less to build and maintain, of{ers a shorter walking distance from car to building, lessens water runoff problems, and leaves more space for site landscaping. 2. Provide safe and coherent site circulation routes. 3. Provide access tor tire rescue and mass transit vehicles. Consult local requirements. 4. Parking lots should offer direct and easv access for peo ple walking between their vehicles and the building entrances. Pedestrians usually walk in th6 aisles behind parked vehicles; aisles perpendicular to the building face allow pedestrians to walk to and from the building withparked cars. Walking areas out squeezing between should be graded to prevent standing water. 5. Accessible design is now mandatory. requiring designated parking spaces and curb ramps near building entrances. See AGS page on accessible curb ramps and passenger loading.
of landscaping, consider the screening capabilities of plants. Low branching, densely foliated vees and shrubs can soften the visual impact of large parking areas. High branching canopy trees do not creale a visual screen at eye level but do provide shade. When possible, create islands large enough to accommodate a mixture of cancpy trees, fiowering trees, evergreen trees, shrubs, and flowers. Consider using evergreens, and avoid plants that drop fruit or sap.
AT SIOEWALKS SPEED BUMP 6'.0' MIN, FOR TREE PUNTING (CAN BE REDUCED IF SHRUBS
LANDSCAPING
AND GROUND COVER ONLY)
Plants in parking areas can help relieve the visually overwhelming scale of large parking lots. To maximize the ef{ect F|RE UNE: (CHECK
27:O" TO 30 -O"
LOCAL
COOES)
5!O
Y''
,iv1' CONSlOER SBADE.TOLERANI GROUND COVER, STONE. OR HARD SURFACE
SPEED HUMP N OTE Use of a speed hump eliminates the need for an accessible curb ramp.
FIRE LANE
SPEED CONTROL
Mary S. Smith, P.E.; Walker Parking Consultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana
4
U
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS,AND PARKING
DEVICES
AT PUNTING AREAS AND BERMS *See the AGS pages on design vehicle dimensions for per pendicular dimension of overhang; adjust for angled parking
AUTOMOBILE OVERHANG REQUIREMENTS
il3 +35 -O', +3O'-O"
NOTES
+25 .O"
1. Floorto flry crrculation In a parkrng structure is typrcally provrded either by parkrng ramps or express ramps ithose without parking) or a combination of both. 2. Almost all ramp systems are based on helical patterns, whether a lully circular express helix or a combination of strarght runs and turning bays at the end. 3. The two fundamental helical panerns a,e the srnole_ threaded helix, which rises one fuil floor rn each 360; of revolutaon, and the double-threaded helix, which rises two floors with each complete revotutron. 4. Express helices can be either single threaded or double threaded. Parking ramps can also be configured in singleand double-threaded patterns.
+20'-O"
SINGLE.THREADED
HELIX
+3O-O"
+3O'-O
5. On a site that can accommodate two parking modules in width but is short (less than 200 ft), a single-threaded helix can be used only with tweway traffic flow and 90" parl(ng.
+2O -O
+ I O'-O"
6. Application of a twebay single-threaded helix arranoe, ment may be limited by the desirable number of turis, spaces passed, etc. of the selected level of service and/ or by flow capacity considerations.
+ | O'-O"
o
o DOUBLE.THREADED
HELIX.SHAPED
HELIX
PI\RKING
BAYS
DOUBLE.THREADED
TWO-WAY
TWO.BAY
SINGLE-THREADED
CIRCULAR
HELIX
FLOW
HELIX
/
NOTES 1. The twobay double-threaded helix can be taller and accommodate more spaces than the two-bav sinolethreaded model: however, it requires a longer srte (tfpically more than 200 ft in length). Because thrs desrgn may offer less desirable wayfinding and user-friendlineis to unfamiliar users, it is most often used for predominantly employee parking. 2. A two-bay double-threaded helix may have either oneway or tweway traffic flow. The former has one up and one down route, while the latter provides two up routes and two down ones.
TWO.WAY
TV\/O-BAY DOUBLE.THREADED
FLOW
HELIX NOTES '1. The split-level design threaded helix in which spe€d ramps are used level parking structures way traffic flow.
is a modification of the singtethe parking bays are flattened and to accomplish a vertical rise. splitmay have either two-wav or one-
2. Although they provide a level lacade, split-level parking structures have a number of disadvantaqes. The main ones are loss ot stalls (compared to a typrcal twebay sin gle-threaded helix), difficult design for turns and speed ramp. and poor efficiency (the square footage of parking area per stall is roo high).
SPLIT
LEVEL
Mary S. Smith,P.E,, WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, lnc.; Indianapolis. lndiana WilliamT. Mahan,AtA; SantaBarbaia,California
4
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS,AND PARKING
I
I l4
PorkingStructureDesign NOTES
,-J,
-
/t'-
1. On wider sites, a combination ol sloped parking bays a!rc flat bays in single-threaded patterns can provlde leve facades with superior wayfinding and user-lriendliness These facilities may be limited primarily by height (too much height yields an excessive number of turns) or flon capacity {the number of spaces passed on the path ol travel). 2. On longer sites. single-threaded helices can be combined in a camelback helix to provide one-way traffic llow. This one way llow offers better wayJinding tor unfamiliar users than a double-threaded helix. However, because there are more turning bays, the efficiency (sq fvparking space) of the garage will be affected.
FOUR.BAY SIDE.BY.SIOE
THREE-BAY SIDE-BY-SIDE
CAMELBACK
ENO.TO.END
SINGLE.THREADED
HELIX COMBINATIONS NOTES 1. Traffic can be routed in either a single-threaded or double threaded pattern on the same configuration of tlat and sloped parking bays. 2. The three-bay double-threaded helix option provides quicker vertical circulation and better flow capacity. How' ever, because the flow is different on every other floor, making ir confusing for unfamiliar users, this design works besl for employee parking. 3. The interlocked helix offers better wayfinding (because t has the same flow pattern on every floor) but reduced flow capacity. The flow capacity is especially low during periods of high turnover because inbound and outbound traffic must merge at every floor
THREE-BAY DOUBLE.THREAOED
HELIX
THREE-BAY
SINGLE-THREADED
INTERLOCKEO
COMBINATION
SLOPED
AND
FLAT
HELIX
BAYS NOTES 1. As a parking structure footprint becomes wider, it is gen erally preferable to add llat parking bays and keep the Iloor-to-floor circulation at the far end of the structure Similarly, when a parking structure is longer than needed Ior floor-to-floor circulation, keep the ramps at one end and add tlat areas close to the ultimate destination of those using the facility. 2. Totally flat floor parking combined with express ramps yields the best combination of wayfinding, user-friendli' ness, and security. Express ramps may be designed to require tralfic to circulate through the floors or to allow vehicles to oass directlv trom floor to floor. The latter arrangement provides the greatest flow capacity and ease ol access in very large structures (those with more than 2000 parking spaces).
FOUR-BAY SIDE-BY.SIDE HELIX WITH END FUT BAYS FOUR-BAY SIOE-BY-SIDE WITH SIOE FUT BAYS
--2,--l
{-=->
SINGLE-THREADED
FLAT FLOOR
EXTERIOR
EXPRESS
RAMPS
\
-_7-,-_\'\
$Y\';=:: ->--\ i
FLAT
FLOOR
WITH
PARKING
Mary S. Smith,P.E.;WalkerParkingConsultants/Engineers, Inc.; Indianapolis, Indiana
4 tUl
AUTOMOBILES, ROADS, AND PARKING
EXPRESS
--''
RAMP
Truckqnd TroilerSizes DESIGN
VEHICLE
VEHICLE TYPE
unrttruck'
WIDTH
HEIGHT (H)
7',-11
1 0{ '
13'-2'
see table oerow
13 t23',tA'16',t426 t4 10'no't10'tla'
30'{' 50'-o' 60 -o'
WB-50truck'
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE LENGTH (FT-IN.)
DIMENSIONS
LE N GTH (L)
OVERHANG FRONT (OF)
WHEELBASE (wB)
20
8'6' 8',€'
il5
OVER HANG REAR (OR)
WEIGHT
4 -O',
6',0' 60'
20.000tb
3',{)'
2o',
80.000tb
2',4'
5 -O"
SEMITRAILER
AND TRACTOR
*Generally in conformance with AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Stteets l'19901
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE
HEIGHT AND WIDTH
(FT.IN.)
VEHICLE HEIGHT
VEHICLE
TOTAL HEIGHT
TOTAL
WIDTH
WIDTH
8-6 14{
ao AK.CA,HI, ID, KS,MT. NM, NV.ND,OR,UT
14-6
NB
NOTE Width is B ft 0 in. or B ft 6 in.accordingto stateregulations MINIMUM
VEH ICLE TYPE
TURNING
RADIUS
MIN. TURNING RADIUS ( Rr)
OUTSIDE FRO NT RADIUS ( Ro)
FOR
below
8{
DC, GA, IL, KY,LA. MI, MD, MO, NC, PA,\^^/
9-{)
HI
CT, FL. MA, NV
Length and area restrictions vary by state and locale..Verify exact dimensions and restrictions
DESIGN
INSIDE REAR RAOIUS (Rr)
M D , M S , M T . N B ,N H , N J ,I N ,I A , OH, OK, PA,SC,SD,WA
(FT-IN.)
VEHICLES
STRAIG H T LANE WIDTH (Ws)
C U RVED LAN E WIOTH
INSIDE CURB RADI US (Rc)
(wr)
TANGENT LENGTH (T)
truck
31-0
JJ-
124
14
184
38{
Singleunittruck
424
M4
244
124
20{
25-o
4G10
WB{o truck
40-o
41€
l9{
124
254
16{
WB-50truck
4il
46{
194
24
30{
16{
I tod
WBSo truck
4H
4ffi
224
124
274
19{
65{
I
DOUBLE
1. Minimum turn radii at less than 10 mph. 2. Obstructions {columns, walls. light poles, etc.) should be
AND TRACTOR STATE
held a minimum of 6 in. (2 ft preferred) from the edge of the lane given above. See details on the AGS page on drivewavs and roadwavs.
NOTES
SEMITRAILER
59{ 60{ 61-0 65{ AR, IL N B ,N M , N Y
N D .I D OF TRACTOR
AND
AK. OR
SEMITRAILER
MA, NH, NJ
AZ, IN. IA, KS,MT, NV,OH. RI
wB oF SINGLE.UNIT TRUCK
oR STRAIGHT
PATH OF LEfr FRONT WHEEL
PATH OF LEil
zF
FRoNrWHEELTa.44
1'' \1
/) I,
/, 42',-O',MtN TURNING RADIUS
i / rI , ' 4 s ' - o ' M r N /TURNING
nnotusL/ | 7
0 I
PArH oF RIGHT
REAR
*HEELT
ffT]
SEMITRAILER
AND
TRACTOR'
tI
-/
N
so'ESTGN ffiffi-- *" SEMTTRAILER r"A | |
OF
TRIPLE
": I
24 .3' MIN. PATH
||
!
- -
>*--
46 -3"
BODY TRUCKS
Az, CO. OH. MT, IN, SD
coMBrNATroN
tl
tl m0
IntII WB.5O SEMITRAILER DESIGN VEHICLE
TURNING
SINGLE.UNIT TRUCK OESIGN VEHICLE
RADIUS
I Two axles-35 lt; three axles---4oft 'Maximum allowable length not permitted. except in those stateslisted.
Mary S. Smith,P.E., WalkerParkingConsultanls/Engineers, Inc.;Indianapolis, Indiana WilliamT. Mahan.AIA: SantaBarbara. California
A
TRUCKS, TRAINS, AND BOATS
tl U
I l6
TruckDocks NOTES 1. Allow for off,street driver parking.
employee
and
2. Entrances and exits should be of reintorced concrete when excessive twisting and turning of vehicles are expected. 3. Average gate (swing or slide) 30 fr O in. wide for two-way tratfic. People gate 5 ft 0 in. wide with concrete walkway 4 ft 0 in. to 6 fr O in. wide. 4. For yard security use a 6 It 0 in. high chain link lence with barbed ware on top. 5. On-site fueling facilities are desirable for road units. 6. Provide general yard lighting from lixtures mounted on building ot o^ 24 tl 0 in. high minimum poles at fence line. Mercury vapor or high pressure sodium preferred.
n
CArcPY
ryERHEAD
CONCRETE
OPTIONAL
TYPICAL PLAN OF CLOSEO OOU€ILE Dc'c)R I PREFERREO } 22,-o. X 14'.6I' il'-o'wroE
HIGH. x
SING|LE t4'-6"
DOC)R HlGH
L + ro -o
L
TO NEAREST OBSTRUCTK)N
PROVIDE EXHAUST
+
DOCK WIDE
t OPTIONAL
UNDING
RAMP
TYPICAL
PLAN
STNGLE OOC)R HIGH. DOUBLE ro'-o' x HrGH
)
7. Tractor parkirig requires l2 ft O in. wide x 2O ft 0 in. long slot mrnimum. Provide motor heater outlets for diesel engines in cold climates. 8. Trailer parking requi.es l0 ft 0 in. wide slot minimum. Provide 10 ft 0 in. wide concrete pad for landing gear. Score concrete at 12 ft 0 in. o.c. to aid in correct spotting of trailer. 9. 4 tt 0 in. wide minimum concrete ramp from dock ro grade. Slopes ot 3 to 1 5% { 10% average}, score surlace for traction. 1O. Vehicles should circulate in a counterclockwise direction, making le{t hand tu.ns, permitting dfiver to see rear oI unit when backing inro dock. 1 1. Double trailers are backed into dock separately.
OF
OPEN
OOCK
I pREFERRED ) €|.-Or. W|OE I OPTIONAL Oc)c)R ) 2O'-O'
tO'X WI DE
On
L+5-O'
5-O MEANS FUMES
TO
FERRED
LONGEST EXECTTD
VEHICLE AS SET
CUSHION SHELTER OEFLECT RAIN
gY
STATE
OR OR
CANOPY SNOW
LAW
5 -O
o I
SLOPE FLOOR TO TRENCH DRAIN OO NOT IO'l. EXCEED GRADE. I'/. AO 2'/. PREFERRED ROTECTTVE SLOPE
TYPICAL
AECTION
OF
GRADE
CLOSEO
POST AWAY
FRC)M
USE LOAO FOR LEVELERS IN TRAILER OIFFERENCES FL@R HEIGHTS
ro -o LNDING
DOOR HEIGHT ABOVE 6' Tc,P
SLOPE \./. ao IN 3'l. EXCEED
IDHI c)F
MUST TRAILER
CLEAR
SUILOING
DOCK
TYPICAL
SECTION
OF
OPEN
PAO wrDE coNcRETE TRAILER GEAR OF
FOR
FROM MCK AWAY GROUND 2./. tN coNcRETE_ 2"/. TO NOT BLACKTOP OO IO'l. GRAOE
OOCK
AVERAGE VEHICLE DIMENSIONS
4'-O" to 4'-6" 4'.O" ro 4'-2" 3'.8" to 4'-2" 2'-O" to2'-8" NoIE: Refer NOTE: Reler to other pagesfor truck and trailer sizes.
AVERAGE WIDTHS OF DOCKS TYPE OF OPERATION
Dock width (A) Work aisle(B)
RobertH. Lorenz,AIA; PrestonTruckingCompany,lnc.;preston,Maryland The Operations Council,AmericanTruckingAssociation; Washington, D.C.
A
U
TRUCKS, TRAINS, AND BOATS
TWO-WHEEL HANO TRUCK
FOUR.WHEEL HAND TRUCK
AUTO SPUR DRACLINE
to 14010" 15'-0"
1010" to 1510"
1010"to 1510"
tl7
Rqilroods o'
t-/
NOTES l. Given clearances are the .ecommended minimums ol the American Railway Engineering Association. Ac' tual reouirements varv from state lo state. 2. Clearances shown are for the tangent track and new construclion. Clearances for reconstruclion work or for alteration a.e dependent on existing physical conditions and, where reasonably possible, should be im' proved for new to meet the requi.ements conslrucllon. 3. On curved track, the lateral clearances each sade of track center line shall be increased 1'/, i^. pet deg.ee of curvalure. 4. Common state requiremenl lor laleral clearance of p o l e s i s I t t 6 i n . ( v a r i e st r o m 8 t o l 2 t t ) . 5. Standard American railroad gauge ol 4 fr 8% in. is measured between the inner faces of the rails.
\ RACK
SINGLE
R= 6 -O' I
0 tr F L
o o
-o o'- o" 3
dl
eRtDGts/
,\
-J-ryl19 CENTERS
ro6,g5 TRACK
FOR PLATFORMS
LOW
BUILOING OOORS
PLATFORMS TRACKS ONLY PLATFORMS
PASSENGER PLATFORMS 8
MAX.
IRECOMMENDED HEIGHT FOR AVERAGE CAR .. sTANoaRo HETGHT FoR passENGER cAR
5l (l il il
NOTE 'fhe 6 tt 4 in. dimension will accommodate cars with either flush sliding d@rs or plug doors. Cars with hinged double doors reouire lull clearance oI I fi. Where 6 lt 4 in. plattorm is used, full clearance should be provided on opposite side, except inside buildings. (Several states allow a platfofm height of 4 ft 6 in. for refrigerator cars only, if the tull lateral clearance of 8 ft is provided.)
o
RAILWAY
REFRIGERATOR
HIGH SIDE
Ramp travels laterally on rail mounted to edge of dak tor positioningto rail car opening.lt adiustsabde and below dck lsel and lmks to the rail wtren in the lowered position. Self-storesin vertical oosition when not in us. Availablein varyinglengthsand widths.
CLEARANCES
RAIL TENSION
OOCK
RAMPS
EARS SHOCK FREE
____'-.T
/ 2r2" ao *Q
------Trlnqlfg ---Ar{ll ,uoo
FLAT VERTICAL SURFACE
7 12'
I45 LB STEEL WELOMENT ATTACHED WITH BOLTfJ OR LAG SCREWS
OF
TRACK
TYPE I ELEVATION
TYPICAL
BUMPING
TYPE 2 ELEVATION
POSTS
L:44-3" H : 14 - 9' w:rO.9
AOXCAR
PIOCYEIACK
gTOCK
CAR
L :55 H : l5 w:lO
R€FRIGERATOR
|
- 4' - l -8'
CAR
: q a . F
-io
w:,o
t
o
o-tOO
c)-
EEC)oooil
tw.,^,-^.,
- l
e}=g)E LOG
CAR
TRILEVEL
AUTO
CARRIER
TANK
CAR-
2O.OOO GAL
L :70- B -O" H:8
L :5r'
PASSENGER
CAR
B' a"
L:59 H:15
w: lo CABOOSE
TYPICAL
GONOOLA
RAILROAD
CAR
TYPES
CAR
ANO
SIZES
OPEN I ACTUAL
CAR
SIZES
HOPPER VARY
CAR GREATLY
COVEREO EVEN
AMONG
LIKE
HOPPER CAR
-3' -r"
CAR
TYPES
)
Ed Hesner.Rasmussen& llobbs Architects;Tacoma,Washington N. ClaibornePorterJr., AIA; Anchorage,Alaska
A
TRUCKS, TRAINS,AND BOATS
I
I l8
Conoeing,Koyoking,Rowing,Surfing,ond WindSurfing
AOJUSTABLf, SEAT AND BACKREST
PAOOLE
RUDDER
AND' LINES
T IEDOWNS
FORWARO HATCH
CARGO
SEA
KAYAK
Kayaksare specializedboats developedin North America and Greenland by variousIndiantribes.Today.insteadof a framecoveredwith animalhide,the frameis covered with synthetic tabric, or lhe kavak is builr of wood or, more commonly,fiberglass.The two types are sea kayaks. longer and heavier,and river (white waterl kayaks, sm8lle.,lighter,and moremaneuversble. Seakayaksrange in length from 10 ft. 6 ins. ro 23 ft. Their beam varies lrom 33 ins. to 17% ins. White waterkayaksare shorter and narrowerto be moreresponsive in riverrapids.
KAYAK
OAR
LOCK
WATER
OINGHIES SELF-ADJUST ING BLOCKS
Dinghiesare smallboats used as auxiliariesto largercralt. They alsocan be sailedand racedon their own. They vary in lengthirom 6 ft. to 16 ft., andthey are 2 ft. 10 ins.to 5 ft.6 ins. in beam.Th€y are constructedof wood or fiberglass,and they can be riggedfor sail, rowing, or motoring.
2X4 PRESSURE \ TREATED LUMBER
FASTENINGS 5 3ze cauvaNrzEo BOLTS COUNTERK
FOR ALL MEMBERS
RO\^/ING
eiHELL
€|TORAGE
RACI<
Storagefor rowing shellsrequires:two racks8 teet apart for singleand double;three racksI feet apan for eightosfed. Shellsused daily should not be storedhigherthan 6 fr. Storageracks can be adaptedeasilyro hold kayaks or canoesby adjustingthe spacingbetwe€nracksand the height betweenho.izontalm€mbers. CANOE Canes haveshallowdraft, and they rangein length from '12 ft. to 35 ft. They can be psddled,sailed,or motored, and they can b€ loaded with equipment.They are consirucredof wood, fiberglas, o. aluminum.
Racingshells,built primarilyof carbonfiber or plaslic, are narrow and uostablein the water. Thereare two rowing styles: sweeprowing, where oarsmenwork one oar with both hands;and sculling,where eachoarsmanworks two oars, one in each hand. Sweepsare 12 ft. to 13 ft. long; scullingoars are 9 ft. 6 ins. to 10 ft. long.
SCULLING
CONCRETE FOOTI NG
TYPICAL
VAN IZED POST ANCHOR
BAY
Q.
OAR
DINGHY
STORAGE
RACI<
Dinghy racks store the small boats year round, and should be weather-treated. The rack m€mbers are fastened with coontersunk bohs to avoid damaging dinghies. Racks must be able to support the weight of the boats and anyone climbing on the racks.
RO\^/ING
SHELL
Timothy B. McDonald; Washington. D C
A
I
TRUCKS, TRAINS, AND BOATS
Sqilboqls
il9
CATBOAT RIG Traditionallv puts a lot ol sail area on one short masl, as shown here, which is stepped far forward an the boat. SLOOP Design with two basic sails, mainsail and headsail; the latter, called a "l.actional rig," is set either to the masthead or some distance below the masthead.
SHROUDS ON EOTH (ONE SIDES OELETED FOR CLARITY )
CUTTER HEAOSTAY
Like the sloop, a cutter rig has one mast carryrng lwo headsails instead of one. The inner sail as the fore. stav sail and the outer sail is the jib.
Unlike the sloop or cutter. the yawl is a two masled rg consisling of a mainmast and a mizzen masr that is stepped abaft (behindl the rudder post. The mizzen sail rs much s m a l l e rt h a n t h e m a i n s a i l . KETCH RUOOER
Like the yawl, the ketch as also a two masred rig; however, the mizzen mast is stepped forward o{ the.udder post and is larger than the vawl's mizzen. This placemeor dictates a saller mainsail. SCHOONER
FULL
DEFINITIONS '1. greatest len$h excluding Length overall-LOA*boat's bowsorils rudder or other extensions. 2. Length of water line-LwL-boar's greatest length at the wate. level excluding extensions such as rudders. Beam-boat's maximum 3. breadth.
KEEL
4. Draft-distance lrom the waterline tothe boilomof the boai's keel determining the least depth of water the boat can oDerate in: i.e., the amount it draws. 5. Displacement-weight Dlaces.
FIN
A combination of mast and rigging placement (where the mast as steppedl, along with size, type and number of sails, make up the main differences in sailboat rigs. Today the most common is the marconi.ig distinguished by a triangular mainsail, but it is not unusual for boats to be rigged with a lraditional gaff. which is a foursided sail that hangs from a spar called a gart. ln some insrances marconi and gaff rigs are used together as shown on the schooner below.
LATEEN
Headsails are triangular sails set ahead of the mast. Basic headsails are the iib, working iib, staysail, and 9enoa. The working iib, unlike other jibs, does not overlap the mast and is often aitached to a boom tor easier control. Jibs and genoas do overlap the mast and mainsail. The forestavsail is combined with the iib to create a double-head sail and is used prima.ily on cutters and schooners.
Ancestor of the tore and aft rigs shown here. lt dates back thousands ot years and is strll used In many parts of the world.
Spinnakers, usually the largest sail set before the mast, come in several different shapes and sizes according lo use.
NOTES
}
of the water rhal the boat dis-
Usually two-masted bul can be three-masted. Commonly the foremast is the shorter of the two, and may be gaff or marconi rigged or at times a combination of both.
FOR
BASIC
RIGS
/ EXAMPLES AEAM FIN KEEL/CENTER
CENTER
EOARD
25'-10" 45',-3'
F I N K E E LA O A T S Tanan 28 O'Day 35
35',-0"
FIN/CENTERBOARO CapeDory 12701 Tartan 37
BOARO
MONOHULL BASIC UNOTRWATER
FULL KEEL BOATS Folkboat CapeDory 45
HULL
SHAPES
ORAFT
191tO" -O
13',-O-
23'.3" 28'-9"
9',-10" 1 1',,3-
JJ
27',-3" 37'-3"
20'-9" 2a'-6"
Suniish Laser €l Toro
l 3 ' .r o " r3 ' - 1 0 " 8'-O"
t 3 ' -1 0 " t2'-6"
MULTIHULLS Hobie16
16'-7"
tt-Y
CENTERBOARD
3'-11" 6'-3"
5'-7"
UP 3',-0" 4',-2'
oowN 7',O" 1',-9"
UP
DOWN 2'.8'
4'-Vr' 4',-6' 3',-10"
z',-a1',-lo-
MULTIHULL
CUTTER EIASIC
BOAT
RIGS
Timothy B. McDonald: Washington, D.C
A
TRAINS, AND BOATS TRUCKS,
I
r20
Dock ond MorineDevelopment
STEPS AS NECESSARY TO FINGER MAIN
WALKWAY
t OPEN JOINTEO (r/4" MAXIMUM
FINGER PIER. TYP \
WALKWAY
WOOD DECK GAP BETWEEN
SUPPORT
BoARDS)
JOISTS
WOOD LEDGER, TO WOOD PILE
FASTENED
OPEN JOINTED WOOO DECK ( r / d ' M A X ! M U MG A P BETWEEN PROTECTION CAP ON WOOO PILE
i.'o,'
TOP OF OECK -----=rXu WOOD LEDGER FOR FINGER PIER SUPPORT, FASTENED TO WOOD PILE
PRESSURE-TREATED WMO
PILE
TWO 2X WOOD BEAMS
TYPICAL
FIXED DOCK
NOTES
>i
\ \
6'' MIN REINFORCED CONCRETE ON 6'' COMPACTED SUBGRAOE
SUB
NOTE S l - Launchingrampsare for shelteredwaters only. 2. A finger pier or courtesy pier may be providedalongside BOAT LAUNCHING
the ramp. In tidal waters, these piers should be o{ floating construction.
RAMP
AISLE
HEADER PIER 5 -O' MtN.
WIDTH l.5TO r.75X
roNcesr sure
L MOORING FOR LARGg VESSEL TEE PIER 5 -O" MrN
I
1.Wood marine constructionmust be pressuretreated with a preseryative. Wood preservatives for use in marineappliGtionsfall into two generalcategories{reosote and waterborne.To select a specificpreseruative, the wood-attackingagents in localwaters must be identts lied. A preservativemay then be chosen based on the standardsol the American Wood Preseryer'sAssociation.In some saltwaterlocations, wood construction may not be a viableoption. 2. Waterborneoreseryatives are recommendedJor decks becausecreosotestainsshoes and bare teet- Optional deckmateflalsincludeuntreatedwood materialssuchas cedarand recycledplasticproducts. 3. The preservativeselected should be approved by the Environmental Protection Agencv. 4. Optionalmaterialsfor piles includesteel,concrete,and fiberglass.Wood, steel, concrete,alumrnum,and vinyl may be used for bulkheads. 5. Deck height above water is determinedby averagedeck levelsand probablewater level.Maintaina 12 in. mini mum dimension between water and deck. Floatinq d@ks may be requrredin tidalwaters.Consultmanufac-turers for construclioninformation. 6. Cross-bracingshould be minimized to avoid entanglement ol swimmers. DIMENSIONS AND FINGER
I
loouarr sLrPS I I
,- y,?35')9^.
I STNGLE
8',O'
DOCKING
PLAN
StephenB. Soul6;Souleand Associates,P.C.;Salisbury, Maryland
fl
TRUCKS, TRAINS, AND BOATS
MrN
FOR SLIPS PIERS (FT)
FlootingDocks
121
FINGER PIER,TYP
3'.O..WIDE
RAMP.
A,,RIAAED
TREAD PUTE WITH ROLLER
TYP DECKING
FLOATING DOCK
FLOTATION
2 X A PRESSURE-TRE FENDER
ROLLER PILE GUIDE
FLOATING NOTES
DOCK-DETAIL
TYPICAL FLOATING ARRANGEMENTS
1. Floatingdocks must be engineeredtor the specific site and loadingconditions.Dockscan be designedto accommodate b@ts in a wide rangeof sizesas well as all utiliIres_ 2. Docks can be anchoredby pilings or by mooringchains and anchors. Piling material can be steel, concrele, or treatedtimber. Guide pilesmust be designedso that the top of all piles is above the 1oo-yearflood elevation.Spe36" TREAD PLATE
cial considerationshould be given to breakwaterslor wave attenuatton. 3. Flotationshould b€ designedto provide minimum freeboard at {ull loading.Flcts @n be of made of concrete, steel,aluminum,andplastic. 4. Docksmay be constructedol steel, aluminum,concrete, or timber materials.Joints must be desioned to withstand all appliedforces.
DOCK
5. Deckingmaterialcan be timber, concrete, steel, plastic, or fib€rglass. 6. All componentsshould be dosignedin a mannerthat will minimizeor eliminatecorrosion. 7. Utility syst€ms with accessibleutility chases should be designedinto the dock structure.
FIXED OOCK PIPE
HANDRAIL
r/4" x 6" cuRB RAIL BoLTED To '' HANDRAIL I ABOVE DECK, EACH SIOE
60".66"
OR 72"
It q-;
ROLLER
GANGWAY
FLOTATION AT ENO OF GANGWAY
FLOATING
DOCK
FLOTATION
GANGWAY-DETAIL
StephenB, Soul6:Soul6andAssociates. P.C.;Salisbury, Maryland
A
TRUCKS, TRAINS, AND BOATS
I
122
AIA Documents
INTROOUCTION More than 75 AIA contract and administratrve forms aTe in print today. The ancestor of all of these was the Uniform Contract, an owner{ontractor agreement first published in I888. This was tollowed, in 191 't, by the AIA'S first standardized Gene.al Condttions for constructron. The 1997 edition of AIA Document 4201 is the fifteenth edition of those General Conditions. Many practjces common in the construction industry todav became estabfished through their inclusion In the AIA General Conditions lor Construction and other AIA standardized d@uments. Arbitration, the one-year correction period, and the architect's role in decidrng disputes are iust three of lhese. Whrle the ArA documents have had d piolourJ rniluence on the rndustry, the influence also flows the other way. The AIA regularly revis€s its documents to take into account recent developments in the constructjon industry and the law. New standardized documents for design/build and for different types o,f constructron management were pub|shed in the late 1990s, and documents for interna I'onal praclrce are under constderatron Because lhe AIA documents are trequentty upoaled. use s should consult an AIA component chapter or obtain a cur 'AlA rent copy of th€ contract Documents price List' to determine which are the current editions The relationship of the documents to the industry-influencing at,and in turn being influenced bV it-is paralleled bv the relationship of the documents lo the law AIA documents are intended for nationwide use and are not drafted to conform to the law of any one state. With that caveat, AIA contract documents provide a solid basis of contract provisions that are enforceable under the law existino at the time of publicatron. Case law on contracts for desion and construction has for the past century been based larjely on the language of AIA standardized documents and contracts derived from them. These court cases are listed in fhe American lnstitute of Architects legal Otator. in which recent cases are summarized with all cases keved to the specific provisions In the AIA documents to wh,ch they retale. The AIA documents are organized in two ways: in a letter series and in cross-series families: The document letter series is a system of classification that cuts across the various families and identifies the specific purpose of each document. The letter desiqnations indrcate the following: A Series{wner{ontractor
documents
B Series
documents C Series-architect-consultant documents D Series-rchitect-industry G Series-architect's
documents
oflice and project forms
Documents grouped in a family are coordinated to tie together the various legal and working relationships for the same project types. Documents within the same family may be in different series but are linked bv common terminology and procedures. Documents in a tamily may adopt one another by reference_ For example, the relevani terms of 4201 are adopted by reference in 4101. A1jj. 4401. 8141,8151.andC141. The preceding 'standardized
paragraphs contain several references to d&uments,'a term that covers most AIA d@uments. AIA standardized dcuments are intended to be used in their original, printed torm. Much of the efficiency these documents bring to a transaction depends on this use. When people with experience in the construction rndustry see a standardized document, thev are familiar with it and can quickly evaluate the proposed ttansaclion based on the modifications made to it-if those moditications stand out. lf modifications are blended into retvoed or scanned d@ument text, this advantage as lost. Modifications used with AIA documents may themselves be derived from another type of document publ,shed bv the AlA. I hese are model documents, the language of whrch rs intended to be reproduced and adapted by users. One such repository of model text ts A51 1, whi(h rs rntended for use In developing supplementary condrtions, an rmportant com ponent of the contract {or construction. 851 1 serves a simi lar purpose with respect to owner-architect agreements. AIA documents are currently available in both printed and electronic form. The software package Al,A Contract Docurents: Electronic Format for Windowsru enables users to access and print out the AIA documents. Modifications are clearly shown: deleted language appears with strike, throughs, and added Ianguage is underscored.
DOCUMENT SYNOPSES Thesesynopsesare meantto be usedas a qurckreference lor determiningthe appropriate uses for each of the contractdocumentsand administrative formspublishedbv the AmerrcanInsttluteof Architects.Ihat pu.posenalurallvpre. judgmenton the reader'soart,as well sumesindependent as advrceof counsel. A SERIES The documentsin the A Seriesof AIA documentsrelateto varioustorms of agreementbetweenan ownerand a con, IracIor. A 1 0 1 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B TETWEEN OWNER AND CONIRACTOR-STTPULATED SUM, is a standardform of agreementbetweenowne.andcontractor for use when the basis of paymentis a stipulatedsum (fixedprice).The A101documentadoDtsbv referenceand is designedfor usewith AIA DocumentA201,GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Construction, thus providingan integratedpair of legaldocuments.When used together, 4101 and 4201 are appropriatefor most projects.For projects of limited scope, however, use of AIA Document A107 mightbe considered. A101/CMa, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEENOWNER ANO CONTRACTOR-STIPULATED SUM-CONSTRUCTIONMANAGER-ADVISER EDITION. is a standardtorm of agreemenlbetweenowner and con. tractor for use on projectswhen the basisof pavment is a stipulatedsum (fixedprice)and when, in additionto the contractorand the architect.a constructionmanagerassists the owner in an advisorycapacityduring design and construction. The document has been preoaredfor use with AIA Document MollCMa, GeneralConditionsof the Contract for Construction-ConstructionManager-AdviserEdition. This integrated set of documents is appropriatefor use on projectswhen the constructionmanagerserues only in the capacityof an adviserto the owner, rather than as constructor{the latter relationshiois reoresentedin AIA documentsA121lCMcand 4131/CMc).A101/CMais suitable for prqects when the cost of constructionhas been predetermined,either by biddingor by negotiation. A105, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN OWNERAND CONTRACTOR FOR A SMALL PROJECT, and 4205, GENERALCONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A SMALL PROJECT,are intended to be used in conjunctionwith one another.The two documents are only sold as a set, and thev share a common lnstructionsheet.Theyhavebeen dev€lopedtor use when payment to the contractorjs based on a stioulated sum (fixed price) and when the proiect is modest in size and brief in duration.4105 and 4205 are two of the three documentsthat comprisethe SmallProjectsfamilyof documents. They have been developedfor use with AIA DocumentB'155,StandardForm of AgreementBetween Owner and Architectfor a Small Proiect.Thesedocuments are specrtically coordinated for use as a set. Caution:AlthoughA105, 4205, and B't55 may sharesome similaritieswith other AIA documents, the Small proiects documents should not be used in tandem with other AIA document familieswithout carefulside-bv-sidecomoarison of contents. 4205 is consideredthe keystone document oI the Small Projectsfamily, since it is specificallyadoptedby separate referenceinto both A't05 and 8155. 4205 is a viratd@ument, in that it is used to allocateproper legalresponsibilities among the parties, while providing both a common ground and a means of coordination withjn the Small Projectsfamily. ln order to maintainthe condensednature of this document. arbitrationand other alternatedisoute resolution(ADR)provisionshave been omitted. ADR orovisionsmay be includedin Al05 underArticle6. A107, ABBREVIATED STANDARD FORMOFAGREEMENT BETWEEN OWNERAND CONTRACTOR FORCONSTRUC. TION PROJECTSOF LIMITED SCOPE-STIPULATED SUM. As an abbreviated form of agreement between owner and cont.actor, this document is intended for use when the basisof paymentis a stipulated sum {Jixedprice). It is appropriatefor constructionprojects of limited scope nol requiringlhe complexityand lenglhot the combinatron of AIA DocumentsA101and A2Ol. A107containsabbrevts ated GeneralConditions.lt may be used when the owner and contractorhavealreadyestablished a workingrelationshrp (e.9.,a previousproiectof like or similarnature)or when a project is relativelysimple in detailor short in dura, tion. A , I 1 1 .S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B T€TWEEN OWNERAND CONTRACIOR_{OSTPLUSA FEEWITHA NEGOTIATED GUARANTEED MAXIMUMpRrCE.Thissrandard torm of agreementbetween owner and contractoris appropraate for use on most projectsrequiringa negotiated guaranteedmaximum price, when the basisof payment to
Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Instjtute of Architects. Washington, D.C
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the contractor is the cost of the work plus a fee. 41.ll adopts by reference and is intended for use with AIA Docr. ment 4201, General Conditions of the Contract for Con structron, thus together the two documents offer a.r integrated pair of legal documents. A121lCMc (AGC 565). STANDAD FOBM OF AGBEEMEN. BETWEEN OWNEB AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEF WHERE THE CONSIRUCTION MANAGER IS ALSO THE CONSTRUCTOR: This d@ument represents the collabora tive efforts of the American Institule of Architects and the Associated General Contractors of America. The AIA desio nates lhls document A121lCMc, white AGC cails rl ACi Document 565. A1 21lCMc is intended {or use on oroiects for whrch a construction manager, In addrlron to serving a advrser to the owner, assumes financial resoonsrbilrtv l. colSlrJclron. Ihe conslruclton manager provrdeS lr. owner wrth a guaranteed maximum plce proposal, whrch the owner may accept, (eject, or negotiate_ Upon the owner's acceptance of the proposal by execution of an amendment, the construction manager is contractuallv bound to provide labor aod materials for the proiect. A1 21lCMc divides the construction manager's services int. two phases: the preconstruction phase and the construc tron phase, ponions of which may proceed concurrently in order to fast track the process. 4121lCMc is coordinated tor use with AIA Document 4201, General Conditions oi the Contract for Construction and 8141, Standard Form ot Agreement Between Owner and Architect. Check Article 5 of 851 1 for guidance in this regard. Caution: Io avoid confusion and ambigujty, do not use thrs constructton management document with any othe. AIA or AGC construction management document. A131/CMC (AGC 566), STANDARD FORM OF AGREE MENT BETWEEN OWNER AND CONSTRUCTION MAN AGER WHERE THE CONSTRUCTION MANAGER IS ALSO IHE CONSTRUCTOR-COST PLUS A FEE, NO GUABAN TEE OF COST: Similar to 412tlCMc, this CM{onstructor agreement is also intended for use when the owner seeks a constructor who will take responsibility for providing the means and methods of construction. However, the method of determining cost of the work diverges sharply in the two documents: A121lCMc allows for a ouaranteed maximum pflce (GMP). while A13l/CMc useJ a conlrot esrimate 413l/CMc employs the cost-plus-a-fee method, which allows the owner to monitor cost through periodic review of the control estimate, which is revised as the proiect pro ceeds. It rs rmportant to note that, while the CM{onstructor is assuming varied responsibilities, there are still iust three pnmary players on the prcject-the owner, the architecl, and the CMc. The 4201 General Conditions continue to apply, although they are modified (in part) by the A1 31/CMc agreement_ Caution: Io avoid contusion and ambiguity, do not use thrs construction management document with anV other AIA o{ AGC construction management document. A171, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN OWNER AND CCNTRACTOR-STIPULATED SUM-FOF F U R N I T U R E , F U R N I S H I N G S ,A N D E O U T P M E N T ,i s u s e d tor acquisition of furniture. furnishings, and equipmenl {FF&E) when the basis of payment is a stipulated sum (fixed price). 417l adopts bV reference and is intended for use with AIA D@ument 4271, General Conditions of the Contract tor Furntture, Furnishings, and Fqurpment. lt ma! re used rn any arranqerent belween the owner and the contractor in which the cost of FF&E has been determined an advance, either through bidding or negotiation. 4177, ABBREVIATED OWNER-CONTRACTOR AGREE MENT FORM-STIPULATED SUM-FOR FURNITURE, FURNISHINGS, AND EQUIPMENT, is an abbreviated docu, ment that philosophically derives much of its content lrom a combination of the more complex and lengthy A171 and A271 documents. lts abbreviated lerms and conditions mav be used when a conlractor for furniture, furnrshrngs, and equipment (FF&E) has a prior working relationship with the owner or when a project is relatively simple in detail or short in durationCaution.Ittis document is not intended f or use with maior conslruction work that may Involve lile satety systems o structurat components. A 19 1 . O W N E R - D E S I G N / B U I L D E R A G R E E M E N T S .c o n t a i n s two agreements tO be Used in sequence by an owner contractrng with one entity serving as a single point of respon sibility for both design and construction services. Design/ build entities may be architects, contractors, or even buslnesspersons, as long as they comply with governing Iaws,
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AIADocuments 1 2 3 Document Svnopses, A Series, contnued frcm ptevious pa9e especially those pertaining to licensing and public procurement regulations. The first agreement covers prelimjnary design and budgeting services, while the second deals with final design and construction. Although it is anticipated that an owner and a design/builder entering into the first agreement will later enter into the second. the parties are not obligated to do so and may conclude their relationshipafter the terms of the first agreement have been fulfilled. 4201, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONIRACT FOR CONSTRUCTION: The Generai Conditions are an integral part of the contract for constructron in that they set {orth the rights. responsibilities. and relationships of the owner, contractor, and architect. While not a party to the contract for construction between owner and contractor, the architect d@s panicipate in the preparation ot the contract documents and performs certain duties and responsibilities described in detail in the General Conditions. Because 4201 is typically adopted by reference into certarn other AIA doc umen-ts {e.9., owner-architect agreements. ownertontractor agreements, and contractoLsubcontractor agreements), it is often called the'keystone' document. Since conditions vary by locality and by project, supplementary conditions are usually added to amend or supplement portions of the General Conditions as required by a particular projecl. Review the model language provided in A51 1 as a guide when creating supplementary conditions for A201. A201lCMa. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT FOR MANAGERCONSTRUCTION-CONSTRUCTION ADVISER EDITION, is an adaptation of AIA Documenr A201 with a developed for construction management proj*ts founh player-a construction manager-added to the team of owner, architect. and contracto.. Under A2ollCMa, the construction manager has the role of independent advis€r to the owner- thus the document carries the CMa suffix. A major difference between 4201 and A201lCMa occurs in Article 2, Administration of the Contract. which deals with the duties and responsibilities ol both the architect and the construction manager-adviser. Another major difference implicit in A201lCMa is lhe use of multiple construction contracts directly with trade contractors. Caution: ll is vital that A201lCMa not be used in combination with documents that assume the construction manager will take on the role of constructor, give the owner a guaranteed maximum price, or contract directly with those who supply labor and malerials lor the project. A2O1lSC, FEOERAL SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS OF lHE CONTRACT rOR CONSIRUCTION, rs Intended for use on cenain federally assisted constructron prolects. For / such protects, A201/SC adapts A2Ol by provrdrng(1) necessary modifications of the General Conditions. (2) additional conditions, and (3) insurance requirements for federally assisted construction projects. 4271, GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE CONTRACT FOR FURNITURE, FURNISHINGS, AND EOUIPMENT: When the scope ol a contract is limited to turniture, furnishings, and equipment (FF&E),4271 is intended to be used in a manner similar to that in which 4201 is used tor construction projects. The document was jointly developed by the AIA and the Ameri€n Sciety of Interior Designers (ASlDl. Because the Unitorm Commercial Code (UCC) has b€en adopted in virtually every jurisdiction, A271 has been drafted to recognize-the commercial standards set forth in Article 2 ot the UCC and uses cenain standard UCC terminology. Except for minor works, A271 should not be used for construction involung life safety systems or structural components. 4305, CONTRACTOR'S OUALIFICATION STATEMENT: An owner preparing to request bids or to award a @ntract for a construction proiect often requires a means of verifying the background, history. references, and financial stability of any contractor being considered. The time trame for construction and the contractor's performance history. previous experience, and financial stability are imponant factors for an owner to investigate. This form provides a sworn, notarized statement with appropriate attachments to elaborate on imponant aspects of the contractor's qualifications. 4310, BID BOND: This simple one-page form was drafted with input lrom the maior surety companies to ensure its legality and acceptability. A bid bond establishes the maximum penal amount that may b€ due the owner it the selected bidder lails to execute the contract and provide any required performance and payment bonds. 4312. PERFORMANCE BOND AND PAYMENT BONO: This form incorporates two bonds, one covering the contractor's performance and one covering the contractor's obligations to pav subcontractors and others for material and labor. In
addition, 4312 oblrgates the surety to act responsively to the owner's requests for discussions aimed at anticipating or preventrng a contractor'S detaUlt. 4401, STANDARD FOBM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN CONTRACTOR AND SUBCONTRACTOR is intended for use in establishrng the contractual relationship between the contractor and subcont.actor lt spells out the responsrbili ties ot both parties and lists their respective obligations, which are written to parallel AIA Document A20l, General Conditions of the Contract for Construction. Blank spaces are provided in which the panies can supplement the details of their agreement. 4401 may be moditied for use as a subcontractor-sub-subcontractoragreement. A491. DESIGN/BUILDER-CONTRACTOR AGREEMENTS: This document contains lwo agreements to be used in sequence by a design/burlder and a construction contractor The first agreement covers management consulting services to be provided during the preliminary design and budgeting phase ot the project. The second agreement covers construction. lt is presumed that the design/builder has contracted with an owner to provide design and construction services under the agreements contained in AIA Document A191. Although it is anticipated that a design/builder and a contractor entering into the first agreement will Iater enter into the second, the parties are not obligated to do so and may conclude their relationship after the terms ot the first agreement have been fulfilled. Panies also may lorgo entering into the first agreement and pr@eed directly to the second. 4 5 0 1 , R E C O M M E N D E D G U I D E F O R C O M P E T I T I V EB I D . DING PROCEDURES AND CONTRACT AWARDS FOR BUILDING CONSIBUCTION: This guide outlines appropriate procedures in the bidding and award of contracts when competitive lump sum bids are requested an connection with building and related construction. The guide is a joint publication of the AIA and the Associated General Contractors of America {AGC). A 5 1 1 , G U I D E F O R S U P P L E M E N T A R YC O N D I T I O N S i s a guide for modifying and supplementing 4201, the General Conditions of the Contract tor Construction. Although A201 is considered the keystone in the legal framework of the construction contract. it is a standard document and thus cannot cover all the paniculars of a specilic proiect. A51 1 provides model language with explanatory not€s to help users adapt A201 by developing supplementary condrtions that address local circumstances. This document is printed with a column containing the model text and an adjacent column of explanatory notes. The AIA Dermits excerotion of the model text under a limited license for reproduction granted for drafting supple, mentary conditions for a particular project. A511/CMa. GUIDE FOR SUPPLEMENTARY CONDI' TIONS-CONSTRUCTION MANAGER.ADVISER EDITION: Similar to A511, the A51 1/CMa document is a guide ro model provisions for supplementing 4201lCMa, the General Conditions of the Contract for Construction. Construction Manager-Adviser Edition. A51l/CMa should only be proiects for which employed-as sholld A201/CMa{n the construction manager is serving in the capacity of adviser to the owner (as represented by the CMa document designation) and not in situations in which the construction manager is also the constructor (CMc documentbased relationships). Like A51 1, this document contains suggested language for supplementary conditions, along with notes on appropriate usage. In addition, many important distinctions are made to ensure consistency with other construction manageradviser documents. Caution: CMc docum€nts are based on utilization of the 4201 document, which in turn should be modified usinq A511asaguide. A52,I, UNIFOBM LOCATION OF SUBJECT MATTER, iS A joint publication of the AIA and the Engineers Joint Convact Documents Committee (EJCDC),which is composed of the National Society of Engine€rs. American Consulting Engi neers Council, and American Society of Civil Engineers. By consensus of these organizations, the AIA and EJCDC doc uments follow the tabular guide in A521 with regard to the placement of subject matter among the various contract and bidding documents. 4521 is a tabulation to guide the user an the proper placement and phrasing of information customarily used on a construction project. This document shows the imponance of maintaining uniformity in location and language from document to document with respect to subject matter. Inconsistencies in either area may cause confusion, delay, or unanticipated legal problems. A 5 7 1 , G U I D E F O R I N T E R I O R SS U P P L E M E N T A R YC O N D I TIONS: Similar to A51 1, AIA Document A571 is intended as
preparingsupplementary conditions an aid to practitioners for inleriorsproiects.lt providesinformationto help users project when A27'l, in requirements addresslocalvariations GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Furniture,Furnishings,and Equipment, is used. 4 7 0 1 ,I N S T R U C T I O N TO S B I D D E R Si s, u s e d w h e n c o m petitivebidsare to be solicitedfor construction of a proiect. with A20l and its relateddocuments,4701 Coordinated containsinstructionsfor proceduresto be followed by bid dersin preparing and submittingtheirbids,includingbonding. Specificinstructionsor specialrequirements. such as the amountandtypeof bonding,areto be attachedto A701 as supplementary conditions. A 7 7 1 ,I N S T R U C T I OTNO SI N T E R I O RBSI D D E R SS:i m i l atro A701.A111is used for projectsdealingwith furniture.furnishings,and equipment(FF&E).lt parallelsA701 but con with 4271 and tainsminorchangesto maintainconsistency its relatedFF&Edocuments. B SERIES The documentsin the B Seriesrelateto variousforms of agreementbetween an owner and an architectfor professionalseryices. BETWEEN 8 1 4 1 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N T OWNEBAND ARCHITECT WITH STANDARDFORM OF ARCHITECT'S is a flexiblecontractingpackage SERVICES, that allows architectsto offer a broad range of seNices to clients spanningthe life of a proiect, Irom conceptionto completionand beyond. lt is structured in a multipan format consistingof an agreementform-the StandardForm of Agreement,which containsinitialinformation,terms and conditions,and compensatioHnd a seryices form-the StandardFormot Architect'sServices:Designand Contract Administration.which defines th€ architect's scope of services.The s@pe defined approximatesthe levelof seruices in the prioreditionof 8141.The separation of the scopeof seryices from the rest of the owner-architectagreement allolvs users th€ freedom to ch@se alternativescooes of services.The AIA intends to publish additionalscopes of seryicesthat correlateto the termsandconditionsof 8141. FORMOF AGREEMENT 8151, ABBREVIATED STANDARD BETWEENOWNERAND ARCHITECT, is intendedfor use on constructionprojects of limited scope when the complexityanddetailof AIA Document8141,StandardFormof AgreementBetween Owner and Architect,are not required and when seryicesare based on these five phases:schematic design, design development. construction documents, bidding and negoliation, and construction. This document may be used with a variety ot compensation methods,includingpercentageof constructioncost, multiple of directpersonnelexpense,and stipulatedsum. B151 is intendedfor use in conjunctionwith 4201, GeneralCon ditionsof the Contractfor Construction. 8155, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN OWNERAND ARCHITECTFOR A SMALL PBOJECT.is intendedfor use on a project that is modest in sizeand brief in duration.lt adoptsthe A205 d@ument by referenceas it pertainsto the architect'sresponsibilities in administering the constructioncontractbetween owner and contractor. 8155 is one of three documents that comorise the Small Projectstamily oI documents. lt has been developedfor use with AIA Document 4105, Standard Form of Agreement Between Owner and Contractorfor a Small Proiect. and 4205, GeneralConditionsof the Contractfor Construction of a Small Project. These documents are specifically coordinatedfor use as a set. Caution: Although4105, 4205, and Bl55 may sharesome similarities with other AIA documents.the Small Proiect documentsshouldnot be used in landem wrth other AIA documentfamilieswithout caretul side-by-sidecomparison of contents. 8161, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN OWNERAND ARCHITECT FOR DESIGNATED SERVICES, hasbeenreplacedby AIA DOCUMENT8163. A I A D O C U M E N T8 1 6 2 , S C O P EO F D E S I G N A T ESDE R VICES,hasbeenreplacedby AIA DOCUMENT8163. 8163, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN FOR DESIGNATED OWNERAND ARCHITECT SERVICES, is the most comprehensiveAIA owner-architect agreement. This three-part document contains, among other things. a thorough list of 83 possible seruices divided among nine phas€s. covering preiesign through supplemental services.This detailed classificationallows the architectto estimate more accuratelythe time and personnel costs requiredfor a particularproject. Both owner and architect benefit from the ability to cleady establish the continues
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AIA Documenls
Document Synopses, B Seles, continued frcm prevtous page scope of setvrces requ red tor a projecl. as respons'brlities and compensation issues are negotiated and defined. The archatects compensation may be calculated on a time/cost basis through use of the worksheet provided in the instructionsto 8163. Part One of the document deals with variables tvoical of many ownetrarchttect agreements. such as compensation and scope of seruices. The scope of services is delimited through use of a matrix that allows the parties to desionate their agreed upon servrces and responstbilities. part Two contarns detailed descilptrons of lhe speciIc se'u'""t lornO In the matrix. Part Three contains general descrptions of the parties' duties and responsibilitjes The list of servrces in 8163 has been expanded to include construction management and interiors services. 8171, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENI EETWEEN O W N E R A N D A R C H I T E C TF O R I N T E R I O R D E S I G N S E R VICES, is intended for use when the architect aqrees to pruvide an owner wtth des'gn and admrnrslratrve:servrces for the procurement of interior furniture, furnishings, and equipment (FF&E). Unlike 8141, which is used for buildjng design, this document ancludesprogramming of the interio; spaces ano requrements as part ot the overall package of basic services. The authority to reject goods is left in the hands of the owner rather than the architect. since the oro, curement of goods rs govetned by the Unrtorm Commeicia Code (UCC). which would in turn make the architect,s mis taken rejection or acceptance ot goods binding upon the owner. 8171 is coordinated with and adopts bv reference AIA Document M7l, Generat Cond'lions of the Contract for Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment. When BtTl is used. it is anticipated that 4271 will form part of the con, tract between the owner and the contractor for FF&E. B177, ABBREVIATED FORM OF AGREEMENT FOR INTE, RIOR DESIGN SEBVICES, is simitar to Bt71 but has tess complexity and detail. 8177 may be used when the owner and architect have a continuing relationship from previous work togelher or when the prolect is felatrvelv simple rn detail or short in duration. 818I, STANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN OWNER AND ARCHITECT FOB HOUSTNG SERVICES. has been developed with the assistance of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and other {ederal housing agencies. lt is primarily intended for use in multiunit housing design. 8181 requires the owner, rather than the architect, to furnish cost€stimating seruices. 81g1 is coordinated with and adopts by reference AIA Document A201, General Conditions of the Contract for Construction. 8I88, STANDABD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN OWNER AND ARCHITECT FOR LIMITED ARCHITEC. TURAL SERVICES FOR HOUSTNG PROJECTS. is a unique addition Io the AIA Documents coilect.on Untite,ls drstant cousin 8181. 8188 is intended for use when the architect willprovide limited architectural serujces in connection with a development housing project. lt anticipates that the owner will have extensive control over management of the pro,ect, acting in a capacity similar to that of a developer or speculative builder of a housing proiect. As a result, the owner or separate consuttants retaaned by the owner likelv will provide the engineeflng seryrces, specifv the bran; nares of materials and equipment. and admtnrster oavm€nts to contr&tors. among other project responsibilities. 8188 is not-c@rdinated for use with any other AIA standard form contract8352, DUTIES, RESPONSIBILITIESAND LIMITATIONS OF AUTHORITY OF THE ARCHITECT'S PROJECT REPRESEN. TATIVE: When and i{ the owner wants additional oroiect representalion at the consl.uctton sile on a full- or part trme basis, B'l4l and other AIA owner,architect agreements reference 8352 to establish the duties, responsibilities. and limitations of authority of the proiect representative. The project rep.esentative ts emploved and supervrsed bV tne archttect. In conlrasl, up untrl the early 1950s 8352 predecessor d@uments called the reoresentative .the Clerk of the Works,'because such pe,sons were hired by tne owner but supervised by the archrtecl. The SO||l between hiring and supervision caused numerous prob lems, which have been resolved under 8352 by designating the architect as both employer and superviior. 8152 ii coordinated for use with both 8141 aod 8163. as well as with 4201. 8431, ABCHITECT'S OUALIFICATION STATEMENT. iS A standardized outline of information that a client may wish to rev€w.prior to selecting an architect for a particular project. It may be used as part of a request for proposals (RFp) or as a final check on the credentrals of an architect. Under some qrcumstances, 8431 may be attached to the owner_archi-
tect agreement,for example,to show the team of profes, s onalsand consultantsexpectedto be emplovedon the owner s prolect_ 8 7 2 7 , S T A N D A R DF O R M O F A G R E E M E N B TETWEEN OWNERAND ARCHTTECT FORSpECtALSERV|CES, is rhe most flexibleof the AIA owner-archttect aqreements in that tne oescriptron of servicesis lelt entilelyu-pto lhe Ingenurty ot the parties.Otherwise,manyof the termsandconditions are very similarto those tound in AIA Document8141. 8727 is often used for planning,teasibilitystudies.and otherservtces(suchas construction administratton) that do not follow the completephasingsequenceof seryicesset torth in 8141 and other AIA documents.lf construction administration seryicesare to be Orovided. care must be taken10coordrnate B /27 with the appropflate GeneralCon drlionsof lhe Contracttor Constructron 8801/CMa, SIANDARD FORM OF AGREEMENT BETWEENOWNER AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGER WHERETHECONSTRUCTION MANAGERIS NOTA CONSTRUCTOR. is intendedfor use on proiectsfor which constructronmdnagemenlservicesare assumedbV a single entrtywho rs separateand independent from the architect and the contractorand who actssolelyas an adviser{CMa) to the owner throughoutthe courseof the project. 8801/CMais coordinated lor usewith AIA DocumentB14ll CMa, StandardForm of AgreementBetweenOwner and Architect-{onstruction ManagerAdviserEdition. Both 8801/CMaand 8141/CMaare basedon the oremisethat lnerewrllbe a separate.and possiblymultrple, constructton contractor(s) whose contractswith the owner are iointlv adminrstered by the architectandthe construction manage. under AIA DocumentA201lCMa,GeneralConditionsof the Contract for Constructiorconstruction Manaoer-Adviser Edrtron Caution:g801lCMa is not coordinatedwith and shouldnot be used with documentsin which the construction man, ager acts as the constructor(i.e.,contractor)for the project, suchas AIA DocumentsA121lCMcor A131/CMc 8901, STANDARDFOBM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN DESIGN/BUILDER AND ABCHITECT. containstwo aoreements to be used In sequenceby a design/burldera;d an architect. The first agreement covers preliminarydesign, and the second coversfinal design. lt is presumedthat the design/builderhas previouslycontractedwith an owner to provide design and constructionseNices under the aoreements containedin AIA DocumentA191. Althouohit is ant'cipatedthat a design/builder and an architecte-ntering into the lirst agreementwill later enter into the second,the partresare not obligatedto do so and may concludetheir relationshipafter the terms of the first agreement have beenfulfilled. Design/buildentities may be architects, contractors. or even busrnesspersons, as long as they complywith the governrng laws.especially thosepertaining to licensing and publicprocurementregulations. Priorto proceeding in this fashionor enteringinto eitheragreementcontainedin this document with any other entity, architectsare advisedto contacttheirlegal,insurance, andmanagement advisers. C SERIES The documents in the C Series relate to variousforms of agreem€ntbetween an architect and other orofessionals. including engineers, consultants, and otherarchitects. C141. STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN ARCHITECT AND CONSULTANT, estabtishes the resoectrve responsibilities and mutualrightsof the archrtectand the consultant.C141 is most applicableto engin@rsbut may also be used for consultantsin other disciolines who provideseryicesto architects. Theprovisions of Ct41 are in accordwith thoseof 815'l and4201, GeneralConditions of the Contractfor Construction. C142,ABBREVIATED ARCHITECT-CONSULTANT AGREEMENT,adoptsthe terms of a prime agreementbetween owner and architectby reference. C727, STANDARDFORM OF AGREEMENTBETWEEN ARCHIIECTAND CONSULIANTFORSPECIAL SERVICES, is Intended for use when other C Series documents ar€ Inappropriate. lt is olten used for planning,teasibility stud, ies, post{ccupancy studies,and other servicesthat require specialized descriptions. CBO1, JOINT VENTUREAGREEMENTFOR PROFES, SIONALSERVICES. is meant to be used bV two or more partiesto providefor their mutualrightsand obligations. lt is intendedthat the joint venture,once established, will enter Into a prolect agreement with the owner to provide professional seruices.The partiesmay be all architects, all engineers,a combination of architects and engineers,or another combinationof professionals.The document pro-
vrdes a choice between two methods of joint venture oper 'Division ation The of Compensation' method assunre that servtces provided and the compensation received w be drvided dmong the partres in the proportions ag,eed to a the outset of the projecl. Each party's profitabitity ther depends on individual performance of preassigned taskr and is not directly tied to that of the other panies. The.Dr! sion of Profit and Loss'method is based on each party per forming worl and bill;ng the ioint venture at cost plus nomrnal amount for overhead The ultimate Orofit or loss o. the joint venture is thus divided at completion of the projecl between the partjes based on their respective interests. D SERIES The documents in the D Series, known as the Architec. lnduslry documents. are applicable to a broad range , prolects. D1 01, METHODS OF CALCULATING THE AREA AND VOL UME OF BUILDINGS, estabtishes definitions for and describes methods of calculating the architectural area anc volume of buildings. D101 also covers interstitial soacF olfice, retarl, and res,denltal areas. D200, PROJECT CHECKLIST, is a convenient lisr of tasks a practitioner may perform on a given project. This checklisl wall help fhe architect recognize required tasks and locate the data necessary to fulfill assigned responsibilities. Bv providing space for notes on actions taken, assignment of tasks. and time frames for completion, D200 may also sefve as a permanent record of the owner's, contractor's and architect's actions and decisions. F SERIES The F Series offered accounting forms for architects. With the exception of F5002, INVOICE FOR ARCHTTECTURAL SERVICES, separate editions of F Series forms have been discontinued due to the preponderance of commerciallv available computer software on this subiect. F1 001 throuah F3002 are lncluded rn the book StandardEed Accountinq f"o, Arch,fecrs bv Boben F Mattox. FAIA. G SERIES The documents in the G Series relate to office administra tion, securing of goods and services, and administering and closing out ot proiect agreements. G601, REOUEST FOR PROPOSAL-LAND SURVEy, ailows owners to request proposals from a number of surueyors based on information deemed necessary bv the owner and architect. G601 also allows owners to fine-tune a request for proposat (RFPI by checking appropriate boxes and tiillnq rn project specifics to avoid costs associated with reouest ing unnecessary intormation. The document may also torm the agreement between owner and land survevor once an understanding is reached. G602, REOUEST FOR PROPOSAL-GEOTECHNICAL SER VICES: Similar in both structure and format to AIA Docu ment G60'1, G602 is an RFP that can evolve to form a. agreement between owner and geotechnical engineer G602 allom the owner to tailor th1 proposal reqr_iest to address the specific needs of a oroiect. In consultation with the architect, the owner establishes the Darameters of ser vice required and evaluates submissions based on criteria such as trme, cost, and overall responsiveness to the terms set forth in the RFP. When an acceptable submission is selected, the owner signs the document in triplicate, returnrng one copy to the engineer and one to the architect thus establishing an agreemenl between owner and geo, technical engineer. G604, PROFESSIONAL SERVICES SUPPLEMENT, i5 intended to formalize procedures for authorizing supple mental professional actions. such as expanding the scope of basic services, incutring relmbursable expenies, or proceeding with certain additional seryices. The document should only be used in conjunction with an earlier agree ment for professional setuices and is meant to p.ovide a wfltten record of such authorizations, with Darticulars of actrvrtres,ttme spans, and comDensatron involved G 6 1 2 , O W N E R ' S I N S T R U C T I O N SR E G A R D I N GI H E C O N STRUCTION CONTRACT, INSURANCE AND BONDS, AND BIDDING PBOCEDURI-S, rs formarted as a questronnaire In three parts Part A relates to the contracts, Part B covers insurance and bonds, and Part C deals with biddinq oroce dures. The sectrons tollow a prolect s normal chron'oiogrcat sequence to provide information when it will be needed. Eecause many of the items relating to the contract will have some bearing on the development of construction documents, it is important to olace Pan A in the owner's hands at the earliest possible phase of the project. The owner's responses to Part A wall lead to selection of the
continues Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Insljtute of Architects, Washington, D.C
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CONSTRUCTION INFORMATION SYSTEMS
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AIADocuments 125 Document pa9e
Svnooses, G Series, contnued
G7O6A, CONTRACTOR'S AFFIDAVIT OF RELEASE OF LIENS, supports AIA Document G706 in the event the owner requires a sworn statemenl of the contractor statlng that all releases or waivers of liens have been received. In such event, it is normal for the contractor to submit G706 and G706.4, along with attached releases or waivers of liens for the contractor. all subcontractors, and others who may have lien rights against the owner's property. The contractor is required to list any exceptions to the sworn statement provided in G706A and may be required to furnish the owner with a lien bond or indemnitv bond to protect lhe owner with respect to such exceptrons.
frcm previous
appropriate delivery method and contract torms, including the general conditions. Part B naturally {ollows afte/'1he selection of the general conditions, because Insu.ance and bonding information depends on the type of general condts tions chosen. Answers to Part C will follow as the contract documents are further developed. G701. CHANGE ORDER, may be used as written documentation of changes in the work, contract sum, or contract time that are mutually agreed to by the owner and contractor. G701 provides space tor the signatures of the owner. architect, and contractor and for a complete description of the change.
G707, CONSENT OF SURETY TO FINAL PAYMENT: By obtaining the approval of the surety for final payment to the contractor and the agreement cf the surety that final payment will not relieve the surety of any of its obligations. the owner may preserve its rights under the bonds.
MANG701/CMa. CHANGE ORDER-CONSTRUCTION AGER'ADVISER EDITION: The purpose ot thas document is essentially the same as that of G701. The majo. difference is that the signature ol the construction manager-adviser is required along with those of the owner, architect, and contractor to validate the change order.
G7O7A, CONSENT OF SURETY TO REDUCTION IN OR PARTIAL RELEASE OF RETAINAGE. is a standard form tor use when a surety company is involved and the ownertontractor agreement contains a clause whereby retainage is reduced during the course of lhe construction project. When duly executed, G707A assures the owner that such reduction or partial release of retainage does not relieve the surety of its obligations.
G702, APPLICATION AND CERTIFICATE FOR PAYMENT, and G703, CONTINUATION SHEET: These documents pre vide convenient and complete forms on which the contractor can apply for payment and the architect can cenity that oavment rs oue.
G709, PROPOSAL REOUEST, is used to obtain price quotations required in the negotiation of change orders. G709 is not a change o.der or a direction to proceed with the work; it is simply a request to the contractor for information related to a proposed change in the construction contract.
The forms require the contractor to show the status of the contract sum to date, including the total dollar amount of the work comoleted and stored to date. the amount of retainage (if any), the total of previous payments, a summary of change orders, and the amount of current payment requested. G703, Continuation Sheet, breaks the contract sum into mrtions of the work in accordance with a schedule of values required by the general conditions.
G710, ARCHITECT'S SUPPLEMENTAL INSTRUCTIONS, iS used by the architect to issue additional instructions or intepretations or to order minor changes in the work. The form is intended to assist the architect in perlorming obligations as interpreter of the contract document requirements in accordance with the owner-architect agreement and the general conditions. This torm should not be used to change the contract sum or contract time. lf the contractor believes that a change in the contract sum or contract time is involved, other G Series documents must be used.
The to.m serves as both the contractor's application and the architect's cenification. lts use can expedite payment and reduce the possibility of error- lf the application is protr erly completed and acceptable to the architect, the architect's signature certifies to the owner that a payment in the amount indicated is due to the contractor. The lorm also allows the architect to certify an amount different than the amount applied for, with explanation provided by the archiled. G7O2lCMa. APPLICATION AND CERTIFICATE FOR PAYMANAGER-ADVISER EDITION, MENI-CONSTRUCTION and G703, CONTINUATION SHEET: Though the use and purpose of GTO2|CMa is substantially similar to that ot G702. the construction manager-adviser edition expands responsibility for certitication of payment to include both architect and construction manager. Similarly, both architect and construction manager may certify a different amount than that applied for. with each initialing the figures that have been changed and providing written explanation{s) accordingly. The standard G703, Continuation Sheet, is appropriate for use with G702lCMa. G704, CERTIFICATEOF SUBSTANTIAL COMPLETION, iS A standard form tor recording the date of substantial comple tion of a work or a designated portion thereof. The contractor prepares a list of items to be completed or corrected, and the architect verilies and amends this lis1. lf the archi' tect linds that the work is substantially complete. the form is prepared for acceptance by the contractor and the owner. Aooended to the form is a list of items to be completed or corrected. The form provides lor agreem€nt as to the time allowed for completion or correction of the items, the date when the owner will @cupv the work or designated portion thereof, and a description of responsibilities lor maintenance, heat, utilities, and insurance. c705, CERTIFICATE OF INSURANCE, has been replaced by AIA Document G71 5. G706, CONTRACTOR'S AFFIDAVIT OF PAYMENT OF DEBTS AND CLAIMS: The contractor submits this affidavit with the final request for payment, stating that all payrolls, bills for materials and equipment, and other indebtedness connected with the work for which the owner might be resoonsible have been oaid or otheNise satisfied. G706 requires the contractor to list any indebtedness or known claims in connection with the construction contract that have not been paid or otheNise satisfied. The contractot mav also be required to furnish a lien bond or indemnrty bond to protect the owner with respect to each exception.
G71 1, ARCHIIECT'S FIELD REPORT. is a standard lorm lor the architect's project representative to use in maintaining a concise record o{ site visits or, in the case oI a full-timb project represen'tative. a daily log of construction qctivities.
, ta
G7l 2, SHOP DRAWING AND SAMPLE RECORD, is a standard form by which the architect can schedule and monitor shop drawings and samples. Since this process tends to be complex. the schedule provided in G712 shows the progress of a submittal, which in turn contributes to the orderly processing of worl G7l2 can also serve as a permanent record of the chronology of the submittal process. G714, CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, .eplaces former AIA Document G71 3, Construction Change Authorization. G714 was developed as a directive lor changes in the work that, if not expeditiously implemented, might delay rhe project. ln contrast to a Change Order (AlA Document G701). G714 is to be used when the owner and contractor, for whatever reason, have not reached agreement on proposed changes in the contract sum or contract time. Upon receipt of a completed G714, the contractor must promptly proceed with the change in the work described therein. G714lCMa, CONSTRUCTION CHANGE DIRECTIVE, CONSTRUCTION MANAGER-ADVISER EDITION, is designed to eftect the same type of substantive changes in the work described in the svnopsis of G714, above. The difference between the two lies not in purpose but in execution: Whereas the owner and architect must both sign the G71 4 in order for the directive to become a valid contractual instrument. G714lCMa requires execution by owner. architect. and constructton manager-advrser. G722lCMa. PROJECT APPLICATION AND PBOJECT CERTIFICATE FOR PAYMENT, and G723lCMa, PROJECT APPLICATION SUMMARY: These documents are similar in purpose to the combination of G702 and G703 but are for use on construction management projects on which a construction manager seryes as an adviser to the owner.
REFERENCES Information on the AIA documents mav be oblarned fronl the oublications listed below. Information on the documenis is also available on the AIA website at www\aiaonl,ne.com. 'AlA
Conlract Documents Price List.'This publication is available lree from AIA distributors or by calling (800) 3652724. lr lists the current edition of each AIA document American fnstitute of Architects. The Architect's Handbook 'l2th ed. Washrngton, D C.: The of Prcfessional Practice, AIA Press, 1994. The Handbook has been the architecture profession's premier manual of p.actice since it was first published in 1917. lt contains sample copies of most oi the AIA documents. The Documents Supplement Service. This is a subscription seryice through which users of the Handbook can receave sample copies of new AIA documents as they are pubfished. Subscribers also receive the Supplement, a newsletter of articles and comment on the AIA documents. Subscriptions may be obtained by calling IB0AI 365 2124 'Promises,
Promises: Forging Healthy Proiect Relatronships.'This as a series oI continuing educatron manuals, each of which may be used either for seminar presentation or {or self-study: Advanced Conttact Concepts. This manual covers the essentials of contract law: the elements of a contract. the fundamental principles of agency and negligence law, and the use of standard contract documents. lt also includes an overyiew of the recent, maior changes to two AIA standard contract documents: A201, General Conditions of the Contract for Construction, and 81 41, Standard Form of Agreement Between Owner and Architect. Design Serulce. This manual addresses the general responsibilities of the architect and the owner in 8141, Standard Form of Agreement between Owner and Architect. Specifically, these responsibilities include establishing a program and budget, setting basic poject parameters, and agreeing on the architect's scooe of seryices. The manual also includes an overyiew of the Standard Form of Architect's Seryices: Design and Contract Administration, the first scooe of seryices oublished with 8141. Conttact Conditions. Design and Contract Administation: Contract conditions {orm the framework within which the owner and architect carry out their responsibilities to one another. This manual addresses the contract conditions that generally apply over the course of the owner-architect relationship, including compensation and billing, project timing and duration, responsibilities of the owner. and ownership and use of documents. Contract Administration SeNices. This manual covers roles and responsibilities of owner, architect and contractor as a project moves anto construction. This manual addresses Contract Administration-4ffice. contract administration from the architect's oersoective when'back in the office'and not in the field visiting the owner's site. lt covers project initiation, submittals, changes. timing issues, suspension and termination. and special provisions, such as propeny insurance. Administration Conditions-Field. Construction Contract This manual addresses construction contract administration conditions relevant to the architect's services on the iob site, administering the contract, and evaluatjng the work as it progresses, as well as subcontractor relations. contractor's payments, claims, corrections to the work. and proiect closeoutSweet, Justin. Sw@t on Construction lndustry Contrccts: Majo( AIA Documents. Vol. 1 of Construction Law Library. New York John Wiley & Sons. 1996. Sabo, Werner. Legal Guide to AIA Documents, 3rd ed New '1992. York: John Wiley & Sons, Stein, Steven G. M., ed. The American lnstitute of Architects Legal Citator. New York: Matthew Bender. 1997 'You
Each contractor submits separate G702lCMa and G703/ CMa documents to the construction manager-adviser, who collects and compiles them to complete G723lCMa. G7231 CMa then seryes as a summary of the contractors' applications, with proiect totals being transferred lo a G722lCMa. The construction manager-adviser can then sign the form. have it notarized, and submit it along with the G723lCMa (which has all oI the separate contractors' G702lCMa forms attached) to the architect for review and app.opriate action.
and Your Architect.'This booklet, available free to AIA members, reviews issues to be conside.ed by an owner preparing to retain an architect.
Dale Ellickson, FAIA; The American Institute of Architects, Washington, D.C
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INFORMATION SYSTEMS CONSTRUCTION
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CSIUniFormot
INTRODUCTION It asuseful to have different ways of organizrngconstructton -intormation so the varyrng rnterests of those who view, use, and manipulale it can be accommodated. UniFormat and MasterFormat offer two commonly acCepted ways of organizing information about construction projects and building operations. MasterFormat emphasizes a vrew of construction focused on products, offering the perspective of product manufacturers, suppliers, speci{iers, and contractors. MasterFormat names components (buildtng materaals,products, and activities) that have specifiable characteristics. UniFormat locuses on performance requirements and coincides with the way users, owners, and designers vLew con struction. UniFormat names systems and assemblies that have a determinable function.
Level 1 UniFormat titles cover the major categories of con struction information according to function. These letters and titles are fixed and should not be changed in application:
MasterFormat, with its list of products and activities, looks at construction an the way the parls are specified, pur, chased. and inslalled. The term products here means materials, components. and equipment that a contractor incorporates into the work of a proiect. MasterFormat arranges information for project manuals into six ma,or groups (introductory information, bidding requirements, contracting requirements, tacilities and spaces, systems and assemblies. and construction prod, ucts and activities). For details, see the AGS pages on MasterFormat. Archit€cts use MasterFormat in the tollowing ways: 1. To arrange information in proiect manuals 2. To catalog product information with the numbers and titles used to specify those products and activities in construction documeots 3. To arrange cost information and build a cost model for construction activities and associated products according to how thev are speciiied in construction documents 4. To prepare keynotes for drawings that assciate items with specifications in construction documents 5. To arrange facility management and construction market information in the way products and activities are specified in construction d@uments UNIFORMAT UniFormat is a meth6d oI arranging construction information td a range of building types based on the physical sys tems and assemblies that make up a facility. Construction is viewed according to the way in which elements are used, thus systems and assemblies are characterized by their function with no identification of the oroducts thev com, prise. Nine level 1 UnrFormat categories and therr associated classes and subclasses define the basic oarts of a building, each characterrled by irs funct,on. Titles in UniFormat levels 1 through 3 can be applied to most project descriptions and preljminary cost estimates. Levels 4 and 5 are available for use on detailed, complex projects. Levels 4 and 5 titles and detailed lists provide a checklist to ensure comprehensive and complete application of UniFormat. UniFormat is int€nded to help architects achieve consistency in economic evaluation of projects; enhance design program idormation reponing; and promote consistency in filing intormation for facility management, drawing details, and construction market data. More specificallv, it is used to organize design descriptions, cost summaries, and perlormance specilications of systems and assemblies (e.g., HVAC systems and exterior wall assemblies). fuchitects use UniFormat for these tasks: l.Performing economic analysis of construction alternatives, particularly in early design stages 2. Building an evolving construction cost model arranged by the tunctional parts of a facility 3. Arranging descriptions of the functional parts of a project so they communicate how a design is intended to accomplish an owner's construction program 4. Arranging project manuals for applications when designbuild delivery is employed 5. Filing drawing details 6. Filing lacility management and constructaon market information
OVERVIEW
On thisand the followingAGSpageon UniFormat are basic st.ategiesfor numberingand titling informationabout sys tems and assemblies for usesotherthanconstruction doc
USING UNIFORMAT Below and at the beginning of the next AGS page are expla nations of several uses for UniFormat.
PROJECI DESCRIPTION
ARRANGING
The list of elements or systems in UniFormat can be usec as ihe basis of a system tor organizing cost informatior which may be reported in varying degrees of detail. Al design decisions are made, information about costs can b.: refined. This arrangement makes possible a comparison ol cost information for various building elements, which may be particularly uselul during early design phases.
B-SHE LL C-INTERIORS D-SERVICES F-SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION G-BUILDING
SITEWORK
Z_GENERAL The category Project Description is a collection of basic intormataon that introduces a project and includes bidding, proposal, and contract requirements. lt can be used as a stand alone contracting structure for construction projects and is especially suitable for design{uild applications. The Project Description level does not have a letter designation, allowing it to appear first in the list of titles. Like the Project Description, Category Z-General does not represent a building system or assembly. lt is designated by the last letter ol the alphab€t to keep this category last if the system is expanded beyond building construction for a prolecr. Level 1 ca'tegories are divided into classes of information to make level 2 categories. These €rry the letter ot their parent category plus a twodigit number. Alphanumeric designations and titles of level 2 classes are fixed and should not be changed in application. Levels 3 and 4 are created by funher subdividing level 2 classes. These subclasses carry the alphanumeric designation of their parent category and class plus a twoiigit number. Level 3 designations should not be changed in application. Alphanumeric designations for level 4 are unassigned within a group of level 3 subclasses and number extension are assigned by the user. The user-assigned number should carry the alphanumeric designation of the parent level 3 subclass plus a twodigit number or the corre sponding MasterFormat number. Titles presented below level 4 are level 5 subclasses, developed by presenting specialized design solutions of the level 4 parent subclasses. Particular materials may be identified to differentiate one specialized solution from another. Titles at level 5 are examples of information included in their level 4 subclass. No alphanumeric designation is assigned. Users may assign extensions. Level 5 and some level 4 titles correspond to MasterFormat numbers and titles. The UniFormat numbering system can expand to allow for additional numbers and titles at any level. Userdefined numbers and titles that fit within the established framework of UniFormat can be added.
SELECTING NUMBERS
UNIFORMAT AND TITLES
Not all UniFormat titles will b€ used for every proiect. UniFormat is an expandabl€ structure that can accommodate additional titles to meet specific requirements. However, designated numbers and tilles should not be changed in order to maintain a consistent arrangement. UniFormat titles are generic. descriptive titles independent o{ any design solution. They are the starting point for describing systems and assemblies. Be sure to incorporate these parent titles when creating a userdefined level 3, 4, or 5 title, so systems and assemblies titles are complete, clear, and descriptive. Users can add further systems and assemblies numbers and titles for proiects that include items other than building construction, such as heaw civil engineering construction or preess facilities.
COST
INFORMATION
A UniFormat cost model can be used in tandem with a cosl modeLorganized according to MasterFormat. The two mod els render a different view of a project and provide detai: appropriate for differenl requirements. For example, a cosl model organized according to UniFormat can provide inlor mation about the cost ot a concrete structure as comoared to the cost of a steel structure. A cost model organized according to MasterFormat can provide information aboul the cost of all the concrete and steel on a project regardless of the structural system chosenValue analysis requires a consistent naming scheme carried throughout a project. UniFormat is particularly useful lor this type of analysis, which requires attaching a cost to a particular use or facility function rather than to particular products and activities. Using MasterFormat numbers as suf{ixes to element designations helps the value analyst evaluate change proposals. ARRANGING PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTIONS
PROJECT
Preliminary project descriptions are described in the CSI 'Preliminary Manual of Practice in chapter FFl180, Project Descriptions and Oulline Specifications." A preliminary prcject description helps an owner understand the various components and systems proposed by an A,/E for a project. It also serues a requirement normally included in a design seryices agreement for which the A,/E must submit a report after completing the schematic design but before proceed ing to design development. These descriptions may serve as th€ basis for an €stimate of orobable construction costs UniFormat provides a logical sequence of systems and assemblies tor describing a construction project before al materials and methods have been determined. UniFormat is used to organize, and serves as a checklist for preparing preliminary project descriptions at various levels of detai As a design progresses, both descriptions and estimates of probable construction costs can be refined. ARRANGING
PROJECT
MANUALS
Arranging project manuals, or portions of them, according to UniFormat is appropriate when performance specification is the method employed for all or some of the proiect. Performance specification can be used at many levels, from a single product to maior subsystems or entire projects. 11 allows the owner to access a range of options, from exist ing technology to innovative systems and developing tech nologies. As well, performance specification encourages full bidding competition based on nonrestrictive require ments. Design-build projects make use of performance specification in its broadest application. Whether an entire building or only a portion of it is specified using performance specifications, UniFormat can be used to organize this type of specification for elements crossing MasterFormat section and division boundaries. For conventional proiects with project manuals organized according to MasterFormat, specifiers can include systems and assem blies before Division 1-General Requirements. According to UniFormat, systems and assemblies can be numbered and sequenced in this part of the project manual with the appropriate assignment of UniFormat numbers and titles CSI Manual of Practice chapters FFl120. "Methods of Specifying," and SP/090, "Performance Specitying." pro. vide detailed discussions about this aoolication. ARRANGING CONSTRUCTION INFORMATION
MARKET
Some users may want to add MasterFormat materials and methods information to a document organized accord ng to UniFormat. MasterFormat numb€rs may be added throughout the design process as materials and methods are determrned.
Market inlormation reporting agencies can use UniFormat to describe the lacility being reported. UniFormat can also be used to assemble, store, and report information about elements separate from and in addition to reports on prod
The transition from a document organized according to Unf
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The Construction Specifications Institute;Alexandria, Vrrginia
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Format to one organized according to MasterFormat ma\ be easrer if MasterFormat extensions are used. lf thes. fiveiigit number extensions have been added, a documel organized according to UniFormat can be searched or soned according to a MasterFormat five-digit extension 1. regroup intormation according to MasterFormat.
A-SUBSTRUCTURE
E-EOUIPMENT AND FURNISHINGS
MASTERFORMAT
APPLICATION
umenls. The methods described are not rigid; rather, they are meant to help UniFormat users develop ao understand ing of the system that will allow them to apply it consis tently. lnformation is included about using UniFormat to organize cost information and preliminary prolect descrip trons, arrange project manuals, and organize facility management and construction market information.
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CSIUniFormot 127 continued from the previous page ucts and actisties This helps show trends for major eleproducts activities crossing and ments containing MasterFormat section and division boundarres. ORGANIZING
DRA\^/INGS
UniFormat numbers and titles can be used as a file-naming convention tor library files of standard details and schedules. The Uniform Drawing System (UDS) provides a detailed description for this appli€tion. Library files are named difterently from proiect files b€cause the classification and indexing requirements are different. Library file naming should be group€d by building systems, assemblies, or use because that ls the most natural way to search for them. Project detail files must also be organized to make it easy to produce proiect contract documents, record documents, and facility management documents from several liles. Naming a detail file for a project requires the sheet identification. coordinates on the sheet, and a detail identitier. UDS recommends an 8{haracter designalor for naming library schedule files. A numbering system based on UniFormat can be used for preliminary phases of a project. UniFormat numbers can be used during the construction documents phase for schedules made up of assemblies of materials that might otheMise have separate MasterFotr mat numbers. FACILITIES ARRANGING INFORMATION
MANAGEMENT
UniFormat is used for preliminary prcject descriptions to systems and assemblies concepts to a buildcommuni€te ing owner. Once preliminary project descriptions have been refined, UniFormat can be used to communicate a building's functional systems and assemblies for real eslate reports and to organize maintenance and dueiiligence operation programs and data. UniFormat sn be used to document how systems and assemblies function; therefore, it is an organizational concept well-suited to describing systems design intsnt during facility commissioning. Proiect descriptions can be refined throughout the design pr@ess, makng it easaer to carry out testing and authority's pertorrunce the commissioning acceptance program. Facility personnel can then use the proiect descriptions to store information about systems maintenance and operations. INFORMATION ARRANGING BUILD APPLICATIONS
FOR DESIGN-
Design-build proiect delivery has created a need for an organizational structure that allows owners and deslgn- ,/ burld entrties to communicate functional performane' requirements. UniFormat provides this organizational structure.
UNIFORMAT
USED
UniFormat and MasterFormat can be used in all appli€tions that have traditionally been the domain of MasterFormat. The 1998 edition of UniFormat includes crossreferences to MasterFormat to help users apply both organizational principles. These applications include organizing proiect manuals; asslgning specification numbers and titles; and organizing and filing cost information, drawing details, and facility management and construction market information. Both systems can be characterized as "single," "parallel":
2O-PROPOSAL,EIDDING,AND CONTRACTING 2010DeliveryMethod 2020OualificationsRequirements Requirements 2030 Proposal 2040 8id Requirements 2050 ContractingRequiremenls 3O-COSTSUMMARY 3010 ElementalCostEstimate 3020Assumpt'onsandOualifrcatrons 3030Allowances 3040 Alternates 3050 Unit Prices CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS AND ASSEMBLIES
"serial." or
1. Single applications use only UniFormat or MasterFormat exclusively throughout the application. 2. In s€rial applications, such as a project manual, a number and title are aoolied to each item based on either UniFormat or MasterFormat. Both organizational principles can be used in the same aoolication. 3. Parallel applications are those in which each item is named with numbers and titles from UniFormat and MasterFormat. This is a powerful method in many applications, such as organizing cost information, in which line item can be information about a cost€stimate tracked to a product and to a system or assembly.
LEVELS I THROUGH B NUMBERS AND TITLES PROJECT DESCRIPTION 1O-PROJECTDESCRIPTION 1010ProiectSummary
D50 Electrical Serviceand Distribution D5010Electrical D5020Lighlingand BranchWiring and Security D5030Communications D5090Orher ElectricalSystems D60 BasicMaterialsand Methods A N DF U R N I S H I N G S E L E M E NE T-EOUIPMENT E'10Equipment Equipment E1010Commercial Equipment E l 020 lnstitutional Equipment E'1030 Vehicular E1090OtherEquipment
ELEMENTF-SPECIAL CONSIRUCTIONAND DEMOLI TION F10 SpecialConstruction F1010 SpecialStructures F1020 IntegratedConstruction F1030 SpecialConstructionSystems F1M0 SpecialFacilities F1o5oSp€ciaiControlsand Instrumentation
420 BasementConstruction A2010 BasementExcavation A2020 BasementWalls ELEMENTB-SHELL B1OSup€rstructure B l 010 FloorConstruction 81020 RooI Construction
F20 SelectiveDemolition F2010 BuildingElementsDemolition F2020HazardJusComponentsAbatement
820 ExteriorEnclosure 82010ExteriorWalls 82020 ExteriorWindows 82030 ExteriorDoors
ELEMENTG-BUILDINGSITEWORK G10 SitePreparation G1010SiteClearing G1020SiteDemolitionand Relocations G1030SiteEarthwork G1040 HazardousWaste Remediation
830 Roofing 83010RoofCoverings 83020RoofOpenings
G20 Site lmprovements G2010Roadways G2020ParkingLots G2030PedestrianPaving G2040Site Development G2050Landscaping
ELEMENTC-INTERIORS C10 lnteriorConstruc'tion C1010Partitions C1020InteriorDoors C1030Fittings
C30 InteriorFinishes C30'10Wall Finishes C3020FloorFinishes C3030CeilingFinishes
D40 Fire Protection D4010 Sprinklers D4020 Standplpes D4030 FireProtectionSpecialties D4090 Other Fire ProtectionSystems
E20 Furnishings E2010FixedFurnishings E2020MovableFurnishings
ELEMENTA-SUBSTRUCTURE A10 Foundations A1010 StandardFoundations A1020SpecialFoundations A1030SlabOn Grade
C20 Stairs C2010StairConstruction C2020StairFinishes
AND
MASTERFORMAT TOGETHER
1020ProjectProgram 1030 ExistingConditions 1040OwneasWork 1050 Funding
.
ELEM€NTD-SERVICES D10 Conveying and Lifts D1010Elevators D1020Escalators and MovingWalks D1090 Other ConveyingSystems D20 Plumbing D2010PlumbingFixtures D2020 DomesticWater Distribution D2030 SanitaryWaste D2040BainWater Drainage D2090Other PlumbingSystems (HVAC) D3OHeating,Ventilating, andAir Conditioning D30'10EnergySupply D3020HeatGeneration D3030Refrigeration D3040 HVACDisrribution D3050Terminaland PackagedUnits D3060 HVACInstrumentationand Controls D3070lesting,AdJusting, and Balancrng D3090Other SpecialHVACSystemsand Equipment
Utilities G30 Site Civiutvlechanical G3010WaterSupply G3020SanitarySewer G3030Storm Sewer G3040HeatingDistribution G305OCoolingDistribution G3060 FuelDistribution G3090Other Site MechanicalUtilities G40 Site ElectricalUtilities Distribution G4010 Electrical G4020Site Lighting G4030Site Communicationsand S€curity G4090Other Site Electri€l Utilities G90 Other Site Construction G9010 ServiceTunnels G9090Orher Site Systems ELEMENTZ-GENERAL Z1OGene.alRequirements 21010Administration 21020OualityRequirements 21030TemporaryFacilities 21040 P@jectCloseout and Bonds 21050Permits,Insurance, 21060Fee 220 Contingencies 22010 DesignContingency Contingency 22020Escalation 22030 ConstructionContingency
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CSIMqsterFormot
INTRODUCTION MasterFormat is a master list of numbers and titles for or gantztng information aboul constructton requirements, products, and activities into a standard sequence. Many dif_ ferent delivery methods, products, ana instattation tirpis are used on construction projecls Successful compleiion ot projects requires elJective communication amonq the people involved. lnformation retrieval is nearty impoJsiOie wrthout a standard ftltng system famrliar lo each user. Mas_ lerFormat offers a standard filing and retrievdl scheme applicable throughout the constfuctron industry. ll rs a uni_ torm system used for organizing information In proiect manuals, organizing cost data, filing product informaiion and other technical data. identitying d;awing objects, and presentng construction market data MdsterFormat rs prod_dcedlorntly by the Conslructron Spec fr€ttons Instttute (CSIJ and Construction Specrfrcations Canada (CSC). ll rs updated periodicaily: the iniormatron on the pages in AGS comes trom the I 99S editron.
TITLES MasterFormat arranges related construclion products and activities into l6 level one titles, called divisions The num bers and titles of the divisions are as follows: Division 1-General Divisron 2-Site
Requirements
Construction
Division 3-Concrete Division 4-Masonry Division 5-Metals Division 6-Wood
And Plastrcs
And Moisture protection Division 8*Doors And Windows Division g-Finishes Division 7-Thermal
Division 1O-Specialties Division 11-Equioment Division 12-Furnishings Division 13-Special Construction Division 14-Conveying Systems
HISTORY Since it was introduced in 1963, the i 6-division CSI format has been widely accepted for slandard practice In the Unrted States and Canada. Frrst pubIshed as part of the CSI Format Jor Constructron Speciticatro.s, tt was later used as tne basrs^lor the Uniform System for Constructron Specrti_ cations, Data Frling and Cost Accou.trng_litle One Build_ ings, published in 1966. The Unifolm System was developed and endorsed by the American Institute of Archi_ tects, Americ_anSociety of Landscape Archrtects, Associ_ areo benerat Uontractors of America, Counctl of MechaniGl Specialty Contractin-g Industries (now the Associated Spe_ cialty Contractors), Producers, Council, National Society-of Professional Engineers, and Construction Speciircatilm lnslitute. In t966 a similar effort in Canada pioduced thi Building Constructron Index {BCl), which was based on lhe rb{rvrslon rormat that had been Introduced by the Specifi_ cataon Writers Association of Canada (renamed Construc_ tion Specifications Canada in 1974). In]-972 the U.S. and Canadian formats were merged and published as the Unitorm Construction tnAex tUCtt. ine UCt was a comprehensive framework for organizing information contained in project manuals, as well ai a bas-e of informa_ lon lor tiltng data and classifying prolect costs. ln 1978 Constructron Specifications Canada joined wrth the Uonstruction Sp€crfications lnstitute to produce the first editim ot MasterFormar, introduced by CSI as Mp-2,1 and by CSC as Document OO4E. This document tncorpoiateJ i comptete organizational format for project manuais, including bidding requirements, contract forms, and conditions of the.conkact in addition to the loiivision tist of numbeis and titles primarily used for speci{ications. The-first revised edilion of MasterFormat, published in I 983, retained the basrc pnnciples of organiiation from the prevtous edrtton but added rnformatron to respond to the needs ot lhe engineering disciphnes. tte tbgg eOir,;n, based on input from MasterFormat users, Incorporated revi_ srons€nd.additions recognizing new products and develoF ments In the Construclion industrv The 1995 edition. the tittes of which are pubtished in the tenth edition ot Architectual Graphic Siandards, is iii result of an extensive public review and coordination with Industry users. lt incorporates many minor revrsions in numbers and titl€s and several changes in style and presen_ tation. Some significant rearrangements oi numbers and lltles, paillcutarty in divisrons 1. 2. 13, 15, and 16, have Deen made.
BASIC ORGANIZATION Thenumbers andtitlesin MasterFormat aregrouped under
Division 15-Mechanical Division 16-Electrical The level two-tittes (formerly cailed broadscope trtles) iden Iry clusters ot products and activities that have an idenl,fy_ Ing characteristtc in common. Usually, the tltles are a loorcil categorization of the division title. Sometimes, panrcjarty in,divisio.s 2, 13. 1 5, and 16, they are arbitrary bieakdowni ot tne drvrston to reduce it to a more manageable size. Level two titles are the highest level generally uaed in titl,no and arranging units ol construction information. ln Masreri Format,. level_two titles are presented as all uppercase ietters and boldface tvoe. M6sterForrut shows both numbers and titles at level three. Level.three titles are presented as frrst letter uppei_ case and boldface type. Level three numbers are presented as the last three digits of the five-digit designatidn in 6qhrace rype. MasterFormat suggests titles at level tour but does not indicate numbers. Users should create numbers by interpolat_ Ing between assigned numbers when using level fourtitles or creattng new tifles. Level tour titles are pr€sented alphabetically in r€gular (nonbold) type A key word index of requirements, products, and activities rs Includad in MasterFormat to help find appropriate num_ bers and titles for construction subjects. Alpnabetized entries may refer to €ither level two or level three numbers.
RELATIONSHIP TO UNIFORMAT CSIand CSCalsopublishUniFormat, which providesnum_ bers and tilles for the functional elements that make uo constructionproductsystemsand assemblies.UniFormat can be used to organizeprojectdescnptionsand preltmi_ naryspecifrcations. lt is padicularly surtedto organrzing cost estimatesfor vaiue analysisbecauseits organization by tuncton corresponds to valueanalysistechnlques. Master formar ano unr.Formatare complementary for appftcations In wnrch reierenceto both productsand {uncttonalele. ments may be usetul (e.9., proiect manualsand cost esti_ malrngl. The 'l995 editionof MasterFormatestablishesa locationfor these systems and assembliesbut does not includethe as_ sociated numbers and titles, deferring to UniFormat for these.In MastetFormat systemsand as-semblies fallrmme. diatelyb€fore the list of construclionproductsand activities lDivisions 1-16) (see the list of level two MasterFormat titles on th€ accompanyingAGS page).
these general headingsi
APPLICATION
INTRODUCIORY INFORMATION {00001 to 00099) BIDDING REOUTREMENTS(OOlOOto 00499)
The followingbrief discussionis an overuiewof how to use MasterFormatnumbers and titles for variousapplications_ Referto the CSIApplication Guidefor mo.e detailedanaly, srs_
CONTRACTING BEQUIREMENTs (oO5Ooto oo999j FACILITIESAND SPACES (no numbering) SYSTEMS AND ASSEMBLTES (no numbering) CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS AND ACT|VtTIES {Divisions 1-16) I.he flst grouping, Introductory Inlormalron, ts used tor in. o*ng. the^second and third groupings, Bidding Requrre_ m€nts and {,ontracting Requirements, are for deitning rela_ tonshrps, responsibilrties, and prOcesses lor constrrction. lhe tast thtee groupings, Facrirties and Spaces, Systems ano Assembhes, and Construction products and Acttuties, are used to describe the physical aspects of construction.
OVERVIE\^/
PROJECT MANUALS MasterFormat is the fundamental standardfor titlinganda.ranging.projectmanuals containing bidding requi;ments, contractrngrequtrements,and specifications_ INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION: Indexjngdocumentsincluded.inthis groupingare found at the beginningof prol.ect manuals.They are not actual contract documenis but may fre Incorporatedin a contractdocument by reference.
B I D D t N G R E O U T R E M E N T Sa n d C O N T R A C I N G R -OVis,oi, EOUTRE MENTS: Often referred to as Series (rather ttin Zero documents, th€se documents are not specifrcatton:, but def'nilions of the relatronShips,processes. and resoon srb,Jrlrestor projects. The Bidding Requirements dbcu melts do not become a part o{ the construclron contracl _rne Lontracltng Hequtremenls documentS are conlrd(r torms and conditions of the contract. In these two groups, level two and level three MasterFor mat n_umbers have been assigned to provide a consistenl ldentrtrcalron,bul it iS not necessary to renumber or retrtle p(nted forms and standard documents published by vari ous professional societies. FACILIIIES AND SPACES and SYSTEMS AND ASSEM BLIEST MasterFormat indicates a location but does no1 include standard numbers and titles for these groupings Facility- and space titles are often project speciti6, anO riel ther CSI nor CSC has a master list of numbers and titles for these groupings. Refer to UniFormat for svstem and assembly numbers and titles. CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS AND ACTIVtTIES: The hearr of MasterFormat remains the 16 divisions aefined by ihe Ievel one specification titles. Divisions 1 through l6 rmain a complete method of numbering and titljng sections of specificatrons, both for arranging master guide specifica lrons or lor arranglng a proiect specrfrcatron. PROOUCT
DATA
ldentifying product data with MasterFormat numbers and titles is practical because of the relationship between prod ucts and specitications. particular uses in this application anclude arranging publications in a technical library; filing in_ formation on products, methods, suppliers, and subcont-rac, tors; and inventorying construction products. COST
ESTIMATING
MasterFormat is useful for identitying unit prices and cost report items for products and activities, arranging a data_ base ol product and activity unit costs, arrangirig ind tabu ralrng a prolecl budget according to a product and activity breakdown, and relating cost items to specifications and drawings. MasterFormat is not panicularly useful for value anarysts, whtch requrres assigntng cost to panicular functronat etements, rather than to particular products and actrv rIres. ORAWING
ELEMENTS
Masterlormat is used to keynote applications and has b€en lound useful for linking drawing objects to specification sections. lt is also used to identify CAD layer organizations. CONSTRUCTION
MARKET
DATA
Market dala reponing agencies routrnely use MasterFormal to lrsl products for a project being bid. Thrs practice allows users to quickly identify sales potential lor their products and servrces on a partacular project. FACILITY
MANAGEMENT
Facility managers can identify data associated with prod, ucts.used rn the butlding they manage with MasterFormal numDers. they can be used in frltng systems for mainte. nance and op€rating instructions, procurement, mainte, nance work orders, shop drawings, warranties. operating nrsrones, operattng costs, and other data related to the life cycle of a lacility.
LEVEL T\^/O NUMBERS AND TITLES Thelistof subordinate titlesfleveltwo)undereachMasterFormat divisiontitle (levelone) outlines the scooe of each division. INTRODUCTORYINFORMATION 00001 ProjectTattePage 00005Certifications Page 00007SealsPage 00010Tableof Contents OO01 5 List of Drawings 00020Lisrof Schedules B I D O I N GR E Q U I R E M E N T S 00100Bid Soliciration 00200 Instructionsto Bidders 00300 InformationAvailableto Bidders 00400 Bid Formsand Suoolements 00490BiddingAddenda contnues
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CSf MqsterFormof continued from the previous page CONTRACTING REQUIREMENTS oosdo Agreement 00600 Bonds and Certificates 00700GeneralConditions 00800 SupplementaryConditions 00900 Addendaand Modifications FACILITIES SYSTEMS
ANO AND
CONSTRUCTION ACT IV IT I ES
SPACES ASSEMBLIES PROOUCTS
AND
1 - G E N E R A LR E O U I R E M E N T S DIVISION 01 100 Summary 01200 Priceand Payrent Procedures 01300 AdministrativeRequirements 01400 OualityRequirements andControls 01500 TemporaryFacilities 01600ProductRequirements 01700 ExecutionRequirements 01800FacilityOperation 01900 FacilityDecommissioning
11660 ObservatoryEquiPment 11680OfficeEquipment 11700 MedicalEquipment 11780 MortuaryEquipment 'l 1 850 NavigationEquipment Equipment 11870 Agricultural 11900ExhibitEquipment
8-DOORS AND WINDOWS DIVISION 08050 BasicDoor and Window Materialsand Methods 08100 MetalDoorsand Frames 08200 Wood and PlasticDoors 08300 SpecialtyDoors 08400 Entrancesand Storefronts 08500Windows 08600Skylights 08700Hardware 08800Glazing 08900GlazingCurtainWall
DIVISION12-FURNISHINGS 12050Fabrics 12100Art 12300 ManufacturedCasework 12400 Furnishingsand Accessories 12500 Furniture 'l2600 MultipleSeating 12700SystemsFurniture 12800InteriorPlantsand Planters '1 2900 FurnishingsRestorationand Repair
D I V I S I O9 N- F I N I S H E S 09050BasicFinishMaterialsand Methods 09100MetalSupportAssemblies 09200PlasterandGypsumBoard 09300Tile 09400 Terrazzo 09500Ceilings 09600 Flooring 09700Wall Finishes 09800 AcousticalTreatment 09900 Paintsand Coatings
DIVISION2_SITECONSTRUCTION 02050 BasicSite Materialsand Methods 02100Site Remediation 02200 Site Preparation 02300 Eanhwork 02400 Tunneling,Boring,and Jacking Elements 02450 Foundationand Load-Eearing 02500 Utility Seruices 02600 Drainageand Containment 02700 Bases.Ballasts,Pavements,and Appurtenances 02800 Site Improverents and Amenrtres 02900 Planting 02950 Site Restorationand Rehabilitation DIVISION3-{ONCRETE 03050 BasicConcreteMaterialsand Methods 03100 ConcreteForro and Accessories 03200 Conc.eie Reinforcement Concrete 03300 Cast-ln-Place 03400 PrecastConcrete 03500 CemenritiousDecksand Underlayment 03600 Grouts 03700 Mass Concret€ 03900ConcreteResttrationandCleaning DrvrsroN -MA',NRY 04050 Basic MasonryMaterialsand Methods 04200 MasonryUnits 04400 Stone 04500 Refractories Masonry 04600 Corrosion-Resistant 04700 SimulatedMasonry 04800 MasonryAssemblies 04900 MasonryRestotationand Cleaning
07400Roofingand SidingPanels 07500MembraneRoofing and SheetMetal 07600Flashing andAccessories 07700RoofSpecialties 07800 Fire and Smoke Protection 07900 Joint Sealers
/
DIVISION5-METALS 05050 BasicMetal Materialsand Methods 05'100StructuralMetal Framing 05200 Metal Joists ' 05300 Metal Deck 05400 ColdFormedMetal Framing 05500 Metal Fabrications 05600 HydraulicFabri€tions 05650 RailroadTrackand Accessoraes 05700 OrnamentalMetal 05800 ExpansionControl 05900 Metal Restoratimand Cleaning DIVISION6-WOOD AND PLASTICS 06050 BasicWood and PlasticMaterialsand Methods 06100BoughCarpentry 06200 FinishCarpentry 0&00 ArchitecturalWoodwork 0650OStructuralPlastics 06600 PlasticFabrications 06900 Wood and PlasticRestorationand Cleaning PROTECTION DIVISION7-THERMALAND MOISTURE 07050 Easic Thermal and Moisture Protection Materials and Methods 07100 DampproofingandWaterproofang 07200 ThermalProtection 07300 Shingles.RoofTlles,and R@f Coverings
DIVISION1O-SPECIALTIES 10100 VisualDisplayBoards '10150 and Cubicles Compartments '10200 Louversand Vents '10240 Grillesand Screens 10250ServiceWalls 10260Walland CornerGuards 10270Access Flooring 10290 Pest Control 10300 Fireplacesand Stoves 'I 0340 ManufacturedExteriorSpeciallies 10350 Flagpoles Devices 10400 ldentiticatron 10450PedestrianControlDevices '10500 Lockers Specialties 10520FireProtection 10530 ProtectiveCovers 10550 PostalSpecialties 10600 Partitions 10670StorageShelving 10700 ExteriorProtection 10750TelephoneSpecialties 10800Torlet,Eath and LaundryAccessories 10880Scales 10900WardrobeandClosetSpecialties DIVISION1] -EOUIPMEN'I Equipment 11010 Maintenance 11020 SecurityandVaultEquipment 11030Tellerand ServiceEquipment 11040 EcclesiasticalEquipment 11050LibraryEquipment 11060Theaterand StageEquipment Equipment 11070Instrumental Equipment 11080Registration Equipment 11090 Checkroom 11100 MercantileEquipment 11110 CommercialLaundryand Dry CleaningEquipment 11120VendingEquipment Equipment 11130 Audiovisual 11140VehicleServiceEquipment '111 ParkingControlEquipment 50 11160 LoadingDockEquipment 11170SolidWasteHandlingEquipment 11 190 DetentionEquipment 112OOWater Supplyand Treatment Equipment I 1280Hydraulic GatesandValves 11300FluidWasteTreatmentand DisposalEquipment 11400 Food SeruiceEquipment 11450Residential Equipment 11460Unit Kitchens 11470 DarkroomEquipment 11480 Athletic, Recreational,and TherapeuticEquipment 11500Industrial andProcessEquipment 11600 LaboratoryEquipment '1650Planetarium Equipment 1
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DIVISION13-SPECIALCONSTRUCTION 13010 Air-SupportedStructures 13020BuildingModules 13030 SpecialPurposeRooms 'l 3080 Sound,Vibration,and SeismicControl 13090 RadiationProtection 13100 LightningProtection 13110 CathodicProtection Structures 13120 Pre-Engineered 13150SwimmingPools '13160Aquariums 13165 AquaticParkFacilities 13170Tubsand Pools 1 3 1 7 5l c e R i n k s 'I 3185 Kennelsand Animal Shelters 13190Site-ConstructedIncinerators 13200StorageTanks 13220FilterUnderdrainsand Media 13230DigesterCoversand Appurtenances '13240 OxygenationSystems 13260 SludgeConditioningSystems '13280 MaterialRemediation Hazardous 13400 Measurementand Control lnstrumentation 13500 RecordingInstrumentat,on ControlInslrumentation 13550Transportation 13600SolarandWind EnergyEquipment '13700 SecurityAccess and Suryeillance 13800BuildingAutomationand Control 13850 Detectionand Alarm 13900 FireSuppression 14-CONVEYINGSYSTEMS DIVISION 14100Dumbwaiters 14200Elevators 14300Escalatorsand Moving Walks '14400 Lifts 14500MalerialHandling 14600Hoistsand Cranes 14700 Turntables 14800 Scaffolding 14900Transportation 15-MECHANICAL DIVISION '15050 BasicMehanical Materialsand Methods 15100BuildingServicesPiping '15200Pr@essPiping 15300 Fire ProtectionPiping 154OOPlumbingFixturesand Equipment 15500 Heat4eneration Equipment 15600 Refrig€rationEquipment '| 5700 Heating,V€ntilating,and Air ConditioningEquipment 15800 Air Distribution 15900 HVAClnstrumentalionand Controls 15950Testing.Adiusting,and Balancing DIVISION16-ELECTRICAL Materialsand Melhods 16050BasicElectrical 16100WiringMethods 16200ElectricalPower 16300 Transmissionand Distribution 'l 6400 Low-VoltageDistribution 16500 Lightang 16700Communacataons 16800Soundand Video
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ArchitecturolProgromming
GENERAL The steps of the Problem Seeking@ process cover both qualatatrve(establish the goals. uncover and (est concepts. and state the probtem statements) and quanlilalive lcollect and analyze fact and determine needs) information. The informatron index is a framework of key words used to seek inlormation. These words are sDecific enouah to cover the scope ol major tactors and untversal enou-qh to INFORMA.TION
be negotiable for different building types The tndex estab lishes the intetrelationship of informat on regarding goals, tacts, concepts, and needs The Problem Seeking methodology covers four maior categories of information: funclion refers to people. activities, and relationships; form includes site, quality, and social/psyLhologrcal envrronment, economy dddresses operatrng costs and life{ycle costs; and time entails historical aspects, present conditions, and future oroteclrons
PROGRAMMATIC
CONCEPTS
The programmatic concepts illustrated here and on the ner page refer to abstract ideas intended mainlv as functiona solutions to clients' perlormance problems without regard to physical response. These diagrams briefly explain some of the concepts that recur on nearly eve.y project, regard less of building type.
INDEX PROBLEM
FUNCTION
Feople Activities Relationships
Mission Maximum number lndividual identity Interaction/privacy Hierarchy of values Prime activities Security Progression Segregatibn Encounters Transportation/parking Efficiency Priority of relationships
Area parameters Personnel forecast User characteristics Community characteristics Organizationalstructure Value of potential loss Time-motion study Traffic analysis Eehavioral patterns Space adequacy Typelntensity Physicallychallenged guidelines
People grouping Activity grouping Priority Hierarchy Security controls Sequential flow Separated flow Mixed flow Functional relationships Communications
btas on stte elements Environmental response Efficient land use Community relations Community improvements Physical comfort Lite safety Sociafpsychological environmenl Individuality Way-finding Projected image Client expectations
5rteanalysrs Soilanalysis FABandGAC Climateanalysis Codesuruey Surroundings Psychological implications Point of reference/entry Cosvsqft Buildingor layoutefficiency Equipmentcost Areaper unit
Ennancemenls Specialfoundations Density Environmental controls Safety Neighbors Home base/officingconcepts On premise:fixed, free, group aooress Off premise:satellite, telecommut, ang.virtualoffice Orientation Accessibility Character Ouality@ntrol
and rmportant pertormance requtrements that will shape building design
by spacetype oYume by location Parkingrequirements Outdoorspacerequirements Functional alternatives
FORM
Environmenl Ouality
Srtedevelopment costs Environmental influenceson cost Buildingcosvsqft Buildingoveralleff iciencyfactor
ationsthat will affect buildingdesign
ECONOMY
Operating costs Life{ycle costs
Cost€ffectiveness Maximumreturn Returnon investment Minimizing of operatingcosts Maintenanceand op€ratingcosts Reductionof liferycle costs Sustainability preseryaljon Static/dynamic activities Change Growth Occupancy date Availabilityof tunds
o
t
o PRIORITY
Efficientallocation Multlfunction/versatility Merchandising Energyconseruation Costreduction Recycling
Spaceparameters Activities Projections Durations Escalation factors
budget and its intluence on the fabric and geometry of the building
Cashflow analysis Energybudget(if required) Operatingcosts (if required) Greenbuildingrating Life{ycle costs (if required}
lmplications
Tolerance Convertibiiity Expansibility Linear/concurentscheduling Phasing
and groMh on longrange performance
o SERVICE GROUPING
The concept of priority evokes questions regardjng order of rmportance, such as relative position, size, and social value.
n
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The concept of character is based on a goal concerning the image the client wants to project in terms of values anJ the generac nature of a project.
Nh %N
Should seryices be centralized or decentralized? Each distinct service will be one or the other to imolement a soecific goal.
"r"flH"
HIERARCHY
DENSITY
ACTIVITY
The concept of hierarchy is related to a goal about the exer_ cise of authority and is expressed in symbols of authority.
A goal for efftcient use ot land or space or lor high degrees ol rnteraclron may lead to low, medium. or high densrty.
Should activities be integrated or compartmentalized? Progtammatic
Steven A. Parshall, FAIA; HOK Consuttants: Houston, Texas
4
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CONSTRUCTION INFORMATION SYSTEMS
GROUPING
concepts
continue
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ArchilecturqlProgrqmming l3l Prcgzmmatc
concepts continued frcm the ptewous page
Oo^
^ n>
a,G "o"
o
?ffio '*f)v
u"o
/' SAFETY
FLOW
PEOPLE GROUPING
SEPARATEO
Look for concepts derived from the physical, social. and individuals, in small emotional characteristics ot people-s groups, and in large groups.
A goal tor segregation may relate to people (such as prisonera and the public), to automobiles (such as campus traffic and urban tralfic), or to people and automobiles (such as pedestrian traffic and automobile traffic).
HOME
MIXEO FLOW Commonsocialspaces,such as town squareor building lobbies,are designedfor multidirectional,multipurposetraffic. The conceptof mixedflow may be aproposil the goal is to oromotechanceand planned€ncounters.
BASE
easily Home base is related to the idea of territoriality-an defined place where a person can maintain his or her individualitv.
Which maior ideas will implement the goal for life safety? Look to codes and safetv precautions lor {orm-giving ideas.
3Etr CONTROLS
SECURITY
The degree of security control varies depending on the medium, or maxivalue of the potential loss.{inimum, mum. These controls are used to protect propeaty and to control oersonnel movement.
t-t [l I I -t____l ENERGY
FLOW
RELATIONSHIPS
SEAUENTIAL
The correct interrelationof spaces promotes efficiencies and effectivenessof p€ople and their activities.This conceot ol functionalalfinities is the most common prografr matc conceDr.
The progression oI people (as in a museum) and things (as in a factory) must be carefully planned. A flowchart diagram will communicate this concept of sequential flow much more easily than words-
trE
CONSERVATION
There are two general approaches to achieving an energyefficient building: {1) keep the heated area to a minimum by making use ol conditioned but nonheated outside space, such as exterior corridors, and (2) keep heat flow to a minimum with insulation, correct orientation to sun and wind, comoactness, sun controls, wind controls. and reflective surfaces.
{ ENTAL
CONTROLS
COMMUNICATIONS
ORIENTATION
ENVIRONM
A goal to promote the effective exchange of information or ideas in an organization may call for networks or patterns ol communicationr Who communicates with whom?
Provide a bearing, or point of reference, within a building, a campus, or a city. Relating periodically to a place, thing. or structure can prevent a feeling of being lost.
What controls for air temperature, light, and sound will be required to provide lor people's comfort inside and outside the building? Look to the climate and sun angle analysis for answers.
oo
CONVERTIBILITY
EXPANSIBILITY
VERSATILITY
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EXTERIOR CHANGES
|
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INTERIOR CHANGES
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-
MULTIFUNCTION
NEIGHBORS
FLEXIBILITY
PHAS I NG
ls there a goal {or sociality? Will the prciect be completelY independent or is there a mutual desire to b€ interdependent, to cooperate with nsighbors?
Flexibiiity covers the following three concepts: expansibility (accommodating groMh through expansionl, convertibility (allowing for changes in function), and versatility (providing the most lor the money through multifunctional spaces).
Will phasing ol construction be required to complete a project on a time and cost schedule if the project proved infeasible in the initial analys's? Will the urgency for the occupincy dale determine the need for concurrent scheduling or allow for linear scheduling?
4
A C C E S S IB I L I T Y Can Iirst-time visitors{ind shere to enter the proiect?The concept ol accessibilityalso applies to provisions{or persons with disabilitiesbeyond signs and symbols. Do we needsingleor multipleentrances?
'l $l'
CONTROL
TOLERANCE
COST
This concept may well add space to the program. ls a particular space tailored precisely for a static activity or is it prolikely to vided with a l@se fit for a dynamic activity{ne change?
This concept is intended as a search far economy ideas thal will lead to a realistic oreview of costs and a balanced budget to meet the extent of available funds.
Houston,Texas FAIA;HOK Consuitants; StevenA. Parshall,
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SYSTEMS INFORMATION CONSTRUCTION
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AIA MASTERSPEC
INTRODUCTION The MASTERSPEC@master specrficatronsystem is a prod uct ol the American Instrtute of Archrtects and is published by.Archilecturat Computer Servrces, Inc {ARbOM) lt Includes libraries for architeclural/structural/crvrJ. structural/ cNd, mechanical/electrical, interiors construction, interiors FF&E, and landscape architecture and has*malt project, outlrne, short form, and full lenglh versrons. The MAS i ER_ )rEL System ts endorsed ot recommended by major design and construction documentation organizations in t'he UnatedStates. MASITRSPLC@ specrfrcatronsecllons are used to produce prolect specificatrons tor bidding and construction. These specticatrons descflbe materrals and products, assembhes anO systems lor a construction, as well as reeuirements lor submrttals, manufacture, installation, performance. and warranties. Bidding requirements, conrracl requtrements. and project specifications are usually bound together in the project manual. MASTERSPEC@sections are numbered and tiiled according to CSI MasterFormat and include ail 16 of its divisions. Each section includes a broad range of products and options for each subject area. Users edit each section to tai, lor rt to a sp4ifig!!olect When a firm does repetitive types of projects, M,ASTERSPECsections may be edited to pro_ duce ollice masters that contain only those D.oducts and materials lypically specrl,ed by the frrn or by a panrcular cll enl rnese oilrce masters are then ed,led to produce jndi vadualproiect specif ications.
MASTERSPEC SECTION DESCRIPTIONS DtvlstoN
I
01ooHENERAL REOUTREMENTS-This Section includes the Evaluations only. lt contains background infor_ matron on vaflous subjects, including specification formats and contractrng procedures, that apply to all Division I Sec!ons. 01013-SUMMARY OF WORK (FF&E)-This Section sum_ manze: the_Work of the Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment (FF&E) contracts and provides inform;tion to thode who do not have access to the Agreement or biddtng infor_ mation. The Section includes Ihe foilowing: 01o23-ALLOWANCES (FF&E)-This Section specifies provisions for lump-sum and unit-pflce allowances for Furni_ rure, Furnrshrngs, and Equrpment (lf&E). Il defines allow_ ances, describing what is and is noi included, and lists allowance quantities and amounts. O1028-APPLICATIONS FOR PAYMENI (FF&E)-This sec. tion specilies admrnrstrative ano procedural requirements g_ov_erningthe Furn,ture. Furnrshrngs, and Equipment (FF&E) Contractor's Applications for payment. h alsb con_ larnsJequrrements for prepar,ng and submittrng the Schedule of Values 01033-ALTERNATES (FF&E)-This Secrion specifies prG visions lor proposed changes recerved before the Furniture, l-urnrshings, and Equipment (FF&L) Contracl is awarded. Ine seclron descflttes add alternates. deduct allernates. and alternates for the purpose of cost comparison. 01038-MODIFICATtON pROCEDURES (FF&E)_This Seclion specifres procedu.es tor changrng the Furniture, Furnrshrngs,and Equrpmenr (FF&E) Contract Sum or Schedule. 01043--COORDtNAT|ON (FF&E)-This Sectton specities coordin€tion with the Work of construction contraciors and other Furniture, Furnishings, and Equipment (FF&E) contractors. 01 1oo-SUMMARYI his Sect,on provrdes a lramework in wnrch to summanze the Work ol the p.oJect as covered In detail in the Contract Documents. lt also provides general information to individuals who need to know geneil con_ tract provisions. 0112s-SUMMARY OF MULT|PLE CONTRACTS_This Section specifies the contractual responsibjlatiesof each contract and the Poject Coordinator relating to the Work, coordination. and temporary tacalitiesano controts. 0114o-WORK RESTRTCTIONS-ThjS Section specilies restnctrons on the Contractor's use of the oremises and requirements for contrnued Owner occrpancy and Owner occupancy of the Project before Substantial Completion. 01 2 1O-ALLOWANCES-This Section specif ies provisions for cash allowances, including lump-sum, unit-cost, contin_ gency. and lestrng and inspectrng allowances lt also speci. res pfovlstons tor quanlitv allowances 01 230-ALTERNATES-This Section specifies provisions jtt"rnit"s. for change of scope and cost{omparison-typ" It also includes a sample'Schedule of Alte;nates. to help the specifier develop the Section.
0 1 2 s o - C O N T R A C T M O D t F t C A T t O Np R O C E D U R E S _ T h i s Section specifies administrative and procedural reouiren e n l s f o r C h a n g e st O t h e C O n l r a c tS L n a . d t h e C o r l r d r I lrme, and the Contractor's Oreparar,on of Droposal Hequesls lor changes to the Cont,acr 01270-UNIT PRICES-Ihis Section specrfies provisrons for unit p(ces. lt includes a sample list of unit prices and a sample untt pnce schedule to help the specifier develop the 5eclron. 01290-PAYMENT PROCEDURES-Thrs Section speciftes administrative and procedural requirements for the iontractor's Applications for Payment. This Section also contains requtrements for preparing and submitting the Schedule of Values. 01303-SUBMITTALS (FF&E)-This Seclron soecifres adminElratrve and procedural requrremerls for processing Shop Drawings, Product Data, and Samptes Ihe Secrroi rnc,udes the lollowing:
01700-EXECUTION REOUIREMENTS-This Section specifies administrative and procedural requirements fol examination ol conditions, preparation for constructior construclton layout, field engtneering and su.veyrnq. qen erat Installation of products. coordinalion of Ownerrnltafteu products, progress cleaning, starting and adjusting, protec tron of installed constructlon, and correction of thtVvork. 01703-CONTRACT CLOSEOUT (FF&E)-This Section specitaes administrative and procedural contract closeoul provisions. lr is primarily a summarv Sectionj most ot the provis,ons in this Section are the termination of require ments specified in other Sections. Basjc contract closeou: .equirements are in the General and Supplementary Condr tions.
0131o-PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND COORDINA TION-Thjs Section specifies administratjve orocedures required for ProJect management and coordindlron of con_ structron operations and activities, including scheduling and conducting Project meetings.
01731-CUTTING AND PATCHTNG-This Section specifies admrnistratjve and procedural requirements for cutting and patching. lt must be carefuliy coordinated with otheaSec_ tlons to avoid overlapping or conflicting requirements, such as those contained in Divisions I 5 and i 6.
01320-CONSTRUCTION PROGRESS DOCUMENTATION-This Section specifies administrative and procedural requirements for the Contractor's Construction Schedule. various schedules and reports requrreo lor pe,formance of the Work, and construction photographs lt includes both Uantl{hart and critical path method {CpM) schedules
0i 732-5ELECTIVE DEMOLITTON-This Section soecifies the demolition of selected portions ol existing buildings, structures, and site improvements, and the removal. sal vage, and disposal ot demolished matenals
01322-PHOTOGRAPHTC DOCUMENTATTON-This Section specifies requirements for submitting construction pholographs and videotapes The seryrces c;ntarned In this sectron can vary extensively. For many projects, the tew paragraphs in Division 'l Section .Construction progress Documentation'may eliminate the need for this sep-arate )ecton. 01 330-5UBMITTAL PROCEDURES-This Section specifies Action and lnformational Submittals, including Shop Drawings, Product Data, Samples, and other miscellineoui submittals. 014oo-OUALITY REOUIBEMENTS-Th;s Secrion specifies general.quality-assurance and quality{ontrol require_ ments. Specific requirements for individual elements oi the Work are specified in the appropriate Sections in Divisions 2 through 16. The Section Text is prjmarily for field tests and inspections of fabricated in-place consrructron rather than standard product testing. 014o3-OUALITY CONTROL (FF&E-This Section specifies provisions for product or material testing when it is the responsibility of the FF&E Contractor. The Section includes responsibilities for tests, inspections, and sample taking; written test repons; qualitication of testing agencies; anl repair and protection of the Work exposes ro testtnq and sample tat ing 01 420-REFERENCES-This Section specifies general def_ initions for the Specifications and other Coniract Docu ments including the Drawings. Delinitjons in this Section are not Intended to intrude on legal and construction aqreement malters: they supplement lnose defrnitions contarneo in AIA Document 4201. 1997 edition. Most of the Section Text can be considered basic procedural requirements
0177o-CLOSEOUT PROCEDURES-Th|S Secrion speci. lies administrative and procedural contract closeout orovrsions. Most of the provisions in this Section cover the complelion of rgqqjls6gng5 specrfred rn other Sectrons rhrs sectron specities provisions for proiect Record Docu ments, operatton and maintenance manuals, and demon_ stration and training. lf these subjects require more detailed treatment, delete them from this Section and use the aooli, cable MASTERSPEC Supptemental Sections. 01781-PROJECT RECOFD DOCUMENTS-Thjs Section specifies procedures to be followed when developing Prcjecr Record Documents. lt should be used when lpei cific Project requirements are more extensive than reouirements specitied in Division 1 Basic Section .Closeout Procedures.' The Section Text deals primarily with Record Drawings because they are the one type of Froject Remrd Document mst likely to be expanded beyohd require_ ments in the Basic Section. 01782-OPERATION AND MATNTENANCE DATA-This Section specifies requirements for preparing and submit trng emergency, operation, and maintenance manuals. 01 820-DEMONSTRATTON AND TRA|NtNG-This Section specifies administrative and procedural requirements for anstructingOwner's personnel in the operation and maintenance ot systems, subsystems, and equipment. lt should be used when specific Project requirements are more extensive than requirements specified in Division 1 Basic Section'Closeout Procedures.' DIVISION 2 02060-EUlLDlNc DEMOLITTON-This Section soecifies the demolition, removal, and disposal of existing buildings, structures, and site improvements; and the removal, sal vage, and disposal of demolished materials.
01422_REFERENCE SIANDARDS AND DEFINITIONS {FF&f)- This.Section specitres general detinrtronstor Spec rtrcatrons and other FF&E Contract Documents Includrng Drawings. Definitions in this Section are not intended t; intrude on legal matters; they supplement those definrtions contained in AIA Docurent 4271, 1990 edition, and in ASID Document 1D320, 1996 edition. Most of the Section Text can be considered basic procedural requirements.
0208O-UTILITY MATERTALS-Th|s Section soecities matenals and methods for application with utrlity piping Installations outside the building. Piping specialties, joining mateflals,,ornt construction, identification materials an.i devices, and installation requirements common to more than one Division 2 Section are included. This Section sup plements other Division 2 Sections: it must b€ edit€d and used with other Sections for a complete piping system specitication.
01500-TEMPORARY FACILtTIES AND CONTROLS-This Section specifies requirements of a temporary nature, ancluding items not actually incorporated into the Work. lt rncludes temporary utility services, construction and suF port facililies, and security and protection facalities.
02085-INTERCEPTORS-This Section specifies interceotors us€d with sanitary sewerage and storm drainage systems. These interceptors are l@ated outside the buildino dnd include melal and concrete types. 02230*5ITE CLEARING-This Section soecifies sire clearIng. Including tree and vegetation removal and root grubbrng, tree protection, topsoil stripping and stockpiling, cappiog and removal of site utilities, and removal of min6r sIe rmprovements.
01600-PRODUCT REOUTREMENTS-This Secrion specifies general requirements for products, materials, and equrpment_ includrng their delivery, storage, and handling. ano sereclron ot products by lhe Contractor. This Section also specifies administrative and procedural requirements for handling requests for substitutions made after award of the Contract, and general and procedural requirements for warrantres.
02231-TREE PROTECIION AND TRtMMtNG-This Sec tion specifies the protection and trimming oI trees that interfere with, or are affected by, temporary or new Work.
01613-DELIVERY, STORAGE, AND HANDLING (FF&E)This_Section specifies requirements for handIng goods on the Pro,ect Site.
02240-DEWATERING-This Section specifies construction dewatering requiring more extensive treatment than that specrfied rn other Division 2 Sections.
01623-INSTALLATION (FF&E)-This Section sDecifies general requirements for Divrstons 2 through 16 Sections. lt includes requirements tor examining the installation area, handling goods duirng rnstaljalion, and disposing of unused maIeflals.
ARCOM; Salt Lake City, Utah, and Alexandria. Vrrqinia
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01633-5UBSTITUTtONS (FF&E)-This Sectaon specifre: requrrements tor substitutions when specified goods ar. not available. lt includes submrttals required for'propose.. subslrtuttons.
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AIA MASTERSPEC I33 02666-POND AND RESERVOIRLINERS-ThiSSection pond ano resetr specifiesimpervious.flexible-membrane voir linerslor use with neutralaqueoussolutions.Consult membranemanufacturersfor propermembraneselectionif requiredfor lining or covering complex liquid toxic-waste holdrngponds
02260-EXCAVATIONSUPPORTAND PROTECTIONThis Seclion specifiesgeneral proceduresand prlmary requirementsfor excavationsupporl and proteclionsysrems. 023OO-EARTHWORK-ThrsSection specifies excavating, compacting.and gradinginsideand fillingand backfilling, outsidebuildinglimits.ThisSectionalso includesbaseand subbasematerialsfor pavements;granulardrainagecourse under slabs4n€rade; drainage and separationgeotextile fabrics;and trench excawtion and backlillingfor utility and undergroundseryices.
02711-FOUNDATIONDRAINAGESYSTEMS-ThiSSEC. tion specifiesIoundationand underslab,subsoildrainage systems.lt also includesin-planewall drainagematerials that work separatelyor in conjunctionwith other foundation products. drainage 02751-CEMENTCONCRETEPAVEMENT-ThiSSection soecifies cast-in-placeconcrete pavement constructlon concretemix rncludrngrelatedfoamwork,rerntorcement. placement, proportions, and f inishes-
02361-TERMITECONTROL-ThisSectionspecifiesinitial soil treatment by applyingchemicaltermiticidesto the soil under and aroundsusceptiblestructuresduringconstructermates,and iion tor preventivecontrolof subterranean the option of using bait products to supplementsoaltreatment. According to the EPA-RegisteredLabel. one manufacturer's bait product may be specilied without also specilyingsoil treatment,if permitted by authoritieshaving iurisdiction. 02455-DRIVENPILES-ThisSectionspecifiesEvaluations only for the following Sections covering types of driven pnes:
02764-PAVEMENT JOINT SEALANTS-Th|S Section {or conspecifiesiointsealants,includingbackermaterials, crete-to{oncreteand concrete-tGasphaltpavementjolnts. 02768-STAMPED CEMENT CONCRETEPAVEMENTThis Sectionspecifiescement concretepavement,erther integrallyor surface colored, receivinga surfaceimpranted stampedfinish. 02780-UNIT PAVERS-ThiS Section speci{aespaving for exteriorapplcationsusingbrick,concrete,rough-stoneand asphalt-blockpavers installedby severalmethods. Installation methods include ungrouted. mortarless applications; portlandcement monar setting-bedmethods; and bitumr nous setting-bedapplacations.
STEEL PILES_Th|SSCCIiON 02456-CONCRETE.FILLED specifiesconcrete-{illedsteel shell and steel pipe piles. CONCRETEPILES-This Section 02457-PRESTRESSED specifiesprestressed,precastconcretedriven piles. 02458-STEEL H PILES-This Section specifies steel Hsectionpilesand protctive coatings
02791-PLAYGROUNDSURFACESYSTEMS-Th|SSection specifiesboth loose fill and non]oose {ill, impact-attenuating protective surfacing systems for outdoor use at oround-levellocations,made from naturalorganic or inorlanic materialsor syntheticrubber-basedformulations,and designedlor use underand aroundpublicplaygroundequitr ment. Surfacesystems that have and have not been determined to be accessible according to ASTM PS 83, Specification for Determinatiq of Accessibility of Surface Systems undet and around Playground Equipment, ate specified.
02459-TIMBER PILES-This Section specities preseruative-treatedround timber Piles. 02466-DRILLED PIERS-This Section specifies drilled piers with straightor belledshafts and includesexcawtion. casings. slurries. reinforcement,concrete fill. and testing and inspecting. 0251o-WATER DISTRIBUTION-This Section specifies seryiceand tor potable-water water pipingand specialties firerrotdction water seMce outside the building.This Secsystems. for municipal distribution is not intended tion
02813-LAWN SPRINKLERPIPING-This Sectionspecifies piping and valves. sprinklersand irrigationspecialties, and bontrcls and wiring for lawn sprinklerpiping. Compc nents in this Section will be downstream trom the water distributionpiping, valves,backflow preventers'and water meters specifiedin Division2 Sectionl/Vater Distribution.'
0251I-HOT-M|X ASPHALI PAVING-ThiS S€ction specifies hotflix asphaltpavingfor new and existingpaverents and emulsified€sphaltsurfacetreatments. 02525-WATER SUPPLYWELLS-This Section specifies cable-tool,rotary drilled, reverse-rotarydrilled. and driven water wells Wth iel, line-shaftturbine,and submersibleturbine well pumps and accessories. 02530-SANITARY SEWERAGE-ThiS Section specifies sanitarysewerageoutsidethe building. 02s35-PROCESS MATERIALSEWERAGE_ThiSSECIiON soecifies orocess material sewerage outside the building and includes chemical-wastedrainage piping' structures. and neutralizationtanks;double{ontainedpipingand struclorce mains. tures;and chemical-waste 02540-5EPTIC TANKSYSTEMS-This Sectionspecifiesa sewage disposal system for use where a public sanitary seweragesystem is not available. Sectionspeci02551-HYDRONICDISTRIBUTION-ThiS fies piping for hydronic distribution systems outsid€ the insulation, pipes, valves, fittings, includes Piping building. and specialtiesfor the following: 02553-NATURAL GAS DISTRIBUTIOi{-This Seation sp€cifiesnaturalgas distributionpiping and sp€cialtiesoutside the buildingto the point of delivery.The point of delivery is the servic+meter assemblyoutlet. This may be only the seryice-regulatoror seryice-shutoffvalve if there is no meter. 02554-FUEL-OlL DISTRIEUTION-ThisSection specifies tuel distributionpiping and specialtiesand lueloil storage tanks and accessotiesoutside the building. Equipment in this Sectionis suitablelor use with GradesNo. 1 or No. 2 fuel oil. 02555-STEAM DISTRIBUTION-IhiS Section specifies oroinofor lowtressure sleamand condensatedistribution ;vslms outside the buiidrng.Pipingincludespipes, fittings. valves,insulation.and specialtiesfor the following: o2s84-UNDERGROUNDDUCTSAND UTILITYSTRUCTURES-This Section specifies products used in underpower and ground eleclrical dtstribution tor communications,includingducts, duct banks. handholes, and utility structuressuch as vaults and manholes. 02630-5T0RM DRAINAGE-This Section specilies gravitv-Ilow and force-mainstorm drainageoutsidethe building.
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02821-CHAIN-LINKFENCESAND GATES-ThisSection soecifieschain-linkfence fabric,framing,fittings,swing and slide gates, privacy slats, gate operators,and accesscontrol lor residential,commercial,and industrialapplications accordingto ASTM standardsand the ChainLink Fence ManufacturersInstitute's (CLFMI) Product Manual Residentialfenceand gateheightsare limitedto 6 feet (1.8ml with fence line posts at a maximum spacingof 10 {eet (3 m) o.c. Industrialfence and gate heightsa.e limitedto 12 and less with fence line posts at a maxrmum feet (3.66m) '10 feet (3 m) o.c. Galvanized{oated,Zn-s-Alspacing of MM allovtoated Cinc-s percent aluminum-mischmetal alloy),aluminum{oated, and Pvc{oated steel and alumifencingareincluded. num-alloy 02832-SEGMENTALRETAININGWALLS-This Section specilies freestanding retaining walls built from dry-laid concretemasonryunits designedspecificallyfor constructing segmentalretainingwalls. This Section includes both earth-reinforcedretainingwalls and gravity retainingwalls. Alternateprovisionsare includedto leave selectionof the particularretaining wall unit design up to the Contracto(, within some generalappearanceparameters,and to requlre that the Contractorprovide structuraldesign for the walls basedon the unitsselected. 02881-PLAYGROUND EOUIPMENT AND STRUC. TURES-This Seclion specifiespublic playgroundequiF ment suitable for children 2 through 12 years old and locatedin play areasat child{are lacilities.institutions,multiple-familydwelling sites, parks,sch@ls, recreationalfacili andsimilarpublicareas. ties.restaurants, 02900-LANDSCAPING-This Section specifies trees. shrubs. ground covers, plants. and lawns. The Section includespreparationof planting pits and beds, topsoil, soil f enilizers, and mulches. amendments. 02930-LAWNS AND GRASSES-ThiS Section specifies plantingmaterials,includingtopsoil,soil amendments,and fertilizersfor new seeded. sodded, sprigged.and plugged lawns and grassedareas.This Section also includesprovisionsfor hyd.oseedingand reconditioningexistanglawns. 0295s-TREES AND SHRUBS-This Section specilies trees and shrubs and includes preparationof plantingpits and beds, topsoil, soil amendments, lertilizers, and mulches.
02956-GROUND COVER AND PTANTS*ThiSSection specifiesgroundcoversand plantsandincludespreparation and of plantingbeds,topsoil,soil amendments,fertilizers, mutcnes. DtvlsloN 3 CONCRETE-ThisSectionspeci03300-CAST-lN'PLACE and lightweightconcrete normal-weight fies cast-in-place, for generalbuildingconstructionincludingrelatedformmaterials and admixtures, concrete reinlorcement, work. vaoor retarders,concrete mix requirements,placement,asand field qualaty repairs, cast and appliedfinishes,curing, controlCONCRETE(LIMITEDAPPLICA. 03301-CAST.IN-PLACE concretefor TIONS)-This Sectionspecifiescast-in-place proiectsusing small quantitiesof concreteor noncritical projects where the is for simple lt aoolicationsof concrete. Archilect edits the Section Text with minimal or no drrecpermits Text tion trom the structuralengineer.The Section for the Proiectby the settingof minimumqualitystandards referencing ACI 3O1,Specificationfor StructuralConcrete. and significant For projecGrequiringdetailedspecifications control of cast-in-placeconcrete, use Division 3 Section 'Castrn-Place Concrele' CONCRETE03331-CAST]N-PLACEARCHITECTURAL This Section sDecifiescasl-in-place,formed, architectural formmaterials' special concrete requires that concrete work, placement,andfinishes. 03361-SHOTCRETE-ThisSectionspecifies requi.ements for pneumaticallyappliedshotcretework that may be used for repairrngexistingconcretestructuresor fol new construction. Materials.mixes, and applicationprocedureslor both the wet- and dry-mixprocessesare included. 0341o-PLANT-PRECASTSTRUCTURALCONCRETEThis Section specifies plant-precast,conventionallyreinstructuralconcreteunils. forcedand prestressed, CONCRETE' ARCHITECTURAL 03450-PLANT-PRECAST This Section specilies plant-precast,conventionallyreinforced, architecturalconcrele units wilh conventionalfinishes, thin brick facings, or stone facings. Pretensionedor posttensioned, precast. prestressed concrete unils and noncomposite insulated, precast concrete units are also included. 03470-TILT-UP PRECASI CONCRETE-This Section sp€cifies tilt-up concrete wall panels that are site precast andfinished.andtiltedintoplaceon-site.ThisSectionspecifies relatedformwork,Ieinforcement,concretematerials and admixtures,concretemix requirements.placement,ascast and appliedfinishes.bondbreakers.curing,repairs,and field qualitycontrol. O349HLASS-FIBER-REINFORCEDPRECAST CON. glassCRETE-ThisSectionspecifiesplant-manufactured, fiber{einforced precast concrete units stiffened and suP poned by plant-attached{raming panels produced from cold-Iormed steel studs or rolled carbon-steelstructural shapesusedprimarilyto cladbuildrngexteriors. wOOD-FIBERDECK-This Sec03511-CEMENTITIOUS tion specifies cementitious wood-fiber deck consisting of units composed ol long strands of wood fibers combined with either ponland cement or magnesiumoxysulfate hydrauliccement. and bonded under pressure.Monolithac. composite,and insulatedcomposite tile or plank units a.e used to constructrool decks or form decks. ROOFINSULATIONCONCRETE 03520-LIGHTWEIGHT This Section specifieslightweight concrete rool insulation, 50 lb/cu. ft. weight not exceeding unit oveniry with an (800 kgr'cu.m), primarilyused as fill over metal roof deck or structuralconctetesubstrates. 03532-CONCRETEFLOORTOPPING-This Sectionspecifies tactorypackag€d, high-srrength. iron-aggregateand €rery€ggregate cementitiousconcretetloor toppings. 03542-{EMENT-BASED UNDERLAYMENT-This Sec tion specifi€s cement-based,polymer-modilied,self-leveling underlayment lor application below interior finish flooring. 03930*CONCRETE REHABILITATION-This Section specifies concrete patching and repair including the removalof deterioratedconcreteand reinforcement.Patching materialsspecified include job-mixed patchingmortar, packaged{ementitious and polymer-modified patching monars, cast-in-placeconcrete, and preplacedaggregate concrete. This Section also speci{ies lloor joint repair, treatments,polyepoxy crack injection,corrosion-inhibiting mer overlaysand sealers,and structuralreinforcementwith both steel and composites.
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Virginia ARCOM:SaltLakeCitv,Utah,and Alexandria'
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SYSTEMS INFORMATION CONSTRUCTION
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0 r ' 4 1 0 - S I O N E M A S O N R Y V L N F TR t h , s S e c r r o r spec, res slone tatd in mortar and app|ed erther lo conc.eie or maso-nryback-up or to frame construction lt Includes stone nsraileo In rubble, ashlar. and polygonal or mosaic patlerns maoe trom cut stone, split stone, or qough sione as e'tracted fiom ihe quarry or as collected irom stream Danks and similar depostts. lt includes veneers mechantcaily attached to the back up by anchors or ties built into the monar lornts and veneers adhered with mortar similar to the settrng method used for ceramic wall tile. The Section is written primarily for exterior veneers for buildinqs and for concrete retarning walls. but could easily be modified to include interior facings of stone masonry.
starntess steel, Includrng nosrlgs and tread ptale. lhe Sec lon Inctudes mrscellaneous sleel framing,or supporling ove.rheaddoors,.cerIng hung torlel compariments operab16 partrtrons, wood framrng. counteflops. and varrous equrp menl. 05511-METAL STAIRS-Thrs Section specifies straight run, steel,framed stairs with metal-pan, abrasive
04720-CAST STONE-This Section specifies cast stone burldrlg unrts used as archrtecturat featUes. fac,nq tilm oi sire accessofles. Cast stone rs defjned as archneciuiaf o,e_ cast concrete building units intended to simulate natural cur StOne
05521-PIPE AND TUBE RAtLtNGS_thrs Section soeci. tres pipe and rube handrarts and rarlings raorrciteo-i,om steel,_aluminum, and stainless steel While thrs SectDn specifres pflmdnty functtonal, rather than ornamental, ratl_ Ings, I coutd atso be used to specify ornamental ratlings made from pipe and Iube shapes
0481O-UNtT MASONRy ASSEMBLIES_This Section specities clay and concrete masonry for engineered-inl emprrically desrgned applicahons.
05530-GRATINGS-This Section specif;es metal bar qrar ings, expanded merat gratrngs. toimea-metai pfant iiai Ings, and extruded aluminum plank gratings.
04815-GLASS UNIT MASoNRY AsSEMELIES-This Sec tion specilies glass unrt masonry assembles for watt, w]noow, skytrghl, and floor applicatrons. lt Includes extelor and Inreilor apptrcattons and three rnstallation methods. One method requires edges ot glass_block assemb|es to be rerarned by perimeter channel frames or chases A second method allows edges of assemblies to Oe sepiratea ir-orn= pe.rmeter construction but anchored to it by perforated metal strips lcalled panel anchotsl embedded'in horizonial mortar joints of glass-block assemblies and fastened-to penmeter conslruction at ends. A third method uses a metal grid Into whrch the glass block is insened anO adhe_ srvetvsecured with a silicone sealant
0558O-FORMED-METAL FABRTCATTONS_This Section specifies miscellaneous items that are shop fabricated frcm ferrous- and nonferrous melal sheer to custom destqns and that are not specified rn other Sections p,oo"iG mit be included are sheet metal fabrications th"l il;;;;;;; "*ii formed to a custom or semicustom design; Zt aie eiporeO to Mew where appearance is the primary concern: and 3) are not normally furnrshed as part of other work, such as wrnoow tflm made by the window manufacturer ThJs Sec_ uon ncludes onty a limited number of examples of items satisfying the above criteria; other examptes iricfuOe muttion cov6rs, miscellaneous boxes, counters, cabinets, and shelves
04851-DIMENS|ON STONE CLADDING_ThIS Section spectttes dimensron stone, set wtth monar or sedlant ioints. ror exreilor ctadding of buildings. Dimension stone cl;ddino may De.specttred as field set, with or without mortar, an; wrrn Indrvrctuatanchors or a grid-type anchorinq system h m€y atso be specified in the form of prefabricJted assem_ blie-s.Dimension stone.cladding systems may be specified ro oe engtneered by the lnstaller lo comply with oerfor_ mance cntefla or may be fully designed and detailed. 91901_ CLAY MASONRY RESTORATTON AND CLEAN_ -;;liiy ING-This Section srecifies requirements f;, masonry restoration. Some requirements are suitabie for nrslonc restoGtion projects, and some are more suited for orotnary rehablttation and cleaning of nonhisloric structures. Because masonry restoratio; worf en invotve in assortment ot materials and conditions, it is difficuh to qevelop a master section that includes restoration and creantng procedures other than those that are typical. The Intenl is to _provide guidelrnes and information tnit can Ue aoapteo to ttt rndrvrdualcases 04902-STONE RESTORATION AND CLEANTNG_This Section specities requirements for qrarrry slone restora_ Iron. Some requirements are suitable tor hjstoric restoration some for ordrnary rehabrtrtation ana cieaninl ?l"199tjt ?i9 or nonhtstoflc structures. Because stone restoratton wori cm involve an assonment of materials ano conoitons, iiii orrrcu[.to devetop a master section that Includes restora_ other rhan those rhat a,e typi_ 19n,"19 ll:"n,.]n.O,ocedures car. ne Intent ts to provrde guidelines and rnformation .r that can m adapted to tit individual cases.
otvrsroN 5 05120-STRUCTURAL STEEL_This Sectionspecifies tats ficatng
and erecling structural steel for buildr;g construa_ tron, Inctudrng miscellaneous subframing units that may be pa.t of the general framing system. Also Included are exl_mrve opttons tor surface preparation and shop prim€ oalntrno oszr olsfeefJOTSTS-This Sectron specifies open-web K-series steel joists, LH-series long_span steel joists, DLHsefies deep tong-span steel ioists, and steel jorit grrders as defined by the Sleel Joist Inititure 0531.0-STEEL DECK-This Section specifies steel roof and floor deck classified as roof deck, acousticat iooi Oeci, c€llular rool deck, composrte floor deck, cettutarmliat-flooi oeck wrth eleclrical drstfibutron, noncomposrte form deck, ano noncomposrte vented Iorm dec[. 0540O-COLD,FORMED METAL FRAMING_This Section specifie-s coldformed steel, loadbearing, anO curtiin_;i studs; floor aLq rojf joists; rafters and-ceiling joists: inJ root trusses. This Section also includes gypsum sheathing and air-infiltrationba.riers. 0550G-METAL FABRTCATTONS-This Section specifies representatrve products made from steel and iron, includinq shapes,.plates,bars, sheet, tubes, and prF€. lt als; in;il;; serected labflcalrons made from alumtnum, bronze. and
o570o-ORNAMENTAL METAL-This Section specifies products custom fabricated from various metifs ariJ uieJ in building construction for functional, arcnitecturat,-anJ decorative purposes where appearance ts the pflmary con_ cern. Urnamental metal includes both items made entirely from components and those made _custom-fabncated enrtrety or partjally from $andard manufactured products Inal requtre some custom fabricatron,finishing. and assem_ bly. The emphasis in this Section is on cusrom metat that is fabricated, finished. and instailed to exacting slin;a?i requiring highquality materials and skrllful *6,f.manstrip. vvnere prooucts meet these criterra and are not part of other assemblies and systems, such as wtndow walls, ooors and entrances, hardware, or pretabricated specialty rt€ms, they belong in thrs Section. 057,| s-FAgRICATED SptRAL STATRS-Thrs Secrron soec. ifies metal spiral stairs wrth steel pipe or tube ponrng cotumns and radiating treads produced ""nt,"i!uo as standaid manutactured producls. o572o-ORNAMENTAL HANDRAILS AND RAILINGSThis Section specifies ornamental handrails and railings fabricated from aluminum, copper alloys, starnless ste;|, and sreet and rron. tt also includes grass_and plastrc-suDooned railrngs,.andriluminaled ratlings. Thrs Sectjon covers rerlnos assemDted trom standard shapes rather than those co; s,uucted trom custom shapes. Ornamental railings made Trom custom shapes a.e specitred jn Divisron 5 Section -Urnamental Metalwork' 0581.1-ARCHITECTURAL JOTNT SYSTEMS_This Section specftes exterior and interior building joint systems, with and.without fire barriers, that accommmafe movement resulting from one or more causes such as thermal changes, seismic forces, or wind swav_ otvtsroN
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06100-ROUGH CARpENTRy-This Section specifies conventional wood traming for floors, ceilings, roofs, walls. ind panrnons as weil as sheathrng, subfl@ring, and underlav_ menr. Atso trctuded is incidenlal rough carpentry required for suppon or attachment of other construction and not specified in another Section. Exposed ilems of rough car_ pentry Inctuded in this Section are limited, generjlty, ro structural framing members. Timbers incidenial to wood trame construction are included as well as engineered wood products. 06105-MISCELLAN€OUS CARpENTRy_This Section specifies miscellaneous wood framing, incidental rough car pentry required for support or attachment of othei con structron, structuraJ-use panels, underlayment, mrnor rnteflor wood trim, shelving, and clothes rods. ll is intended ror pro,ects that do not require wood framing or extensive use or otner Carpent.y rtems The Section includes pressure?reSeruative-treated and ftre{etardant lreated wood. Mrsceilaneous concealed rough carpentry such as furrng, and naiters can be specrfred us,ng this l'-o-".11n9.,.9_lould", 5ectron. Il the Project requires significant amounts ot wood ramm_g_ _sheathing. of subfl@ring, - use 06t0O_BOUGH CARPENTRY insread
0613O-HEAVYTTMBERCONSTRUCTTON_This Section specifiesconstruction usingrectangular sotiO_rcoO riami^,, 5 inchesnomrnat{t t 4 mm actuailand targer. l1:I9.lt ootnOrmenSrons fttmbers) 06150-WOOD DECKING-IhrsSectronspecrfres lonoue and€roovewood deckrng,bolh sold and lamrnated 06185-STRUCTURALGLUED-LAMINATEDTIMBER This Secrion specifies structural gtuea]iminareJ intr. rncluding beams,purlins,arches,trusaes,and@lumns. 06192-METAL.PLATE-CONNECTED WOOD TRUSSESThis Sectionspecifieswood trussesfactory tiOri"riJ-tri_ drmensionlumber and metal connectorplates. 06200-FlNtSHCARpENTRy-ThisSectionspecifiesnon skucturatcarpentrywork that is exposedto view and is not specifiedin other Sections.Includedare standingand run ning.trim,^statrs and railings,extelor srding,arid inrer,o panerng btdrngIncludeslumber.plywood,and hardboard srdrng panetrngincludesplywood,hardboard,and boa.o panerrng.Standardmanufacturedpanelingrs specifredrr this Section,while customwood panelingis specifiedjn . 06402-INTERtOR ARCHTTECTURAL WOODWORKanci . 06420-PANELWORK.In general, use thrs Secrronro work thal rs not shop fabricdled and for sldinq and oanel Ing types that are rncluded onlv in this Sectron
06401-EXTERIOR ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORKThis Section specifies tabricated wood products for use on the exterior of the building. Architectural woodwork is dLs lrngutshed trom other forms of wood construclron bv berna manufactured in a woodworking plant and bv wrth standards of quality for material and *orimanst "ori.otu,no ip. ti Includes ttems of woodwork permanently attached to the ouilorng and expos€d to view. Architectural woodwork oen erally involves items custom fabricated for an indiviiual project, as opposed to mass-produced motOings or furni_ ture. tt required, woodwork €n be specitred to be shop frn. ished rather than field finished. 06402-INTERtOR ARCHTTECTURAL WOODWORK_rhis Section specifies fabricated w@d oroducts lor use on the inreror oJ the buitding. Architectural *ooO*o,[-i" Oi"iin gurshed trom other forms of wood construction bv beino manufactured in a woodworkrng plant and bv comolvrnd wrth standa.ds of quality for material and worimansi'rip. li rncludes rtems of wmdwork permanently attached to the ourrorng and exposed to view Architectural woodwork qen erally involves items custom labricated for an indivi"duat project,. as.opposed to mass{roduced motdrngs -or or fun. ture..Woodwork can be specified to be shop fietd f in rshed_ 0642o--PANELING-This Section specifies custom-manu factured paneling. Board paneling, flu"t *ooJ p"n"ling lamrnatedad paneling, and sttle and rail paneIng ar"e Included. Paneling tabricated from premanufactured s6ts ot sequence-matched panels and custom-veneered paneling are rncluded 06605-INTERIOR PLASTTC ORNAMENTATION_This Section specifies molded- or extruded-plastjc ornamenta, tion tor rnteflor use, made of polystyrene, polyurethane, o, roergrass{etntorced polyester (tBp), including columns, moldrngs, chair rails, panel moldings, medallioni, rosettes. oomes, dome flms, stair brackets, niches, pilasters, pedl menrs, wtndow and door casings, plinths, wainscots, and cusrom snapes. DrvtstoN
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07131-SELF-ADHERING SHEET WATERPROOFINGThis Section s-pecifies self-adhering. positive-side sheet waterproofing for concealed substrates, both venical and horizontal. oJ plaza decks, below{rade walls, and plante,s. rl atso spectttes olaza deck oavers 07132-ELASTOMERTC SHEET WATERpROOFTNG_This Section sp€cifies EPDM or butyl sheet waterproofing for concealed substrates, both venical and horizontal, ol flaza decks,. below{grade walls, and planters. lt also specifies plaza deck oavers. 07I33-THERMOPLASTIC This Section specifies PVC concealed substrates, both decks,, below€rade rells. plaza deck oavers.
SHEET WATERPROOFINGpositive-side wateroroofino for horizontal and vertrcal, of;laza and planters. It also specifies
07141{OLD FLUTD-AppLtED WATERpROOFTNG_This Section specrlies cold ftuid-appliedpolyurethane and late\ rubber waterproofing for concealed substrales. both vert;cal and ho{tzontal, of plaza decks and below{rade walls. Il arso specftes Dlazadeck oavers
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CONSTRUCTION INFORMATION SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC 1 3 5 07313-METAL SHINGLES-This Section specities metal shingles, in both indivrdualshingles and panel form. In most panels resemble hand-split cedar shakes. cases, shingle
07142-HOT FLUID-APPLIED WATERPROOFING-This Section specifies hot fluid-applied, rubberrzed-asphalt waterproofing for concealed subst.ates. both vertical and horizontal. of plaza decks and below-grade walls lt also specifies plaza deck pavers.
07315-SLATE SHINGLES-This Section specifies naturalslate shingles for steep, sloped, standard-slate roofs including underlayment, flashing, and accessories tor slate roofing.
Section DAMPPROOFING-Thas 07160-8ITUMINOUS specifies bituminous dampprooling for use above and below grade, including hot-applied asphalt and both emulsion- and cut-back- (solvent) type, cold-applied asphalt compounds of {ibrated, semilibrated, or nonfibrated types
07317-WOOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES-This Section specifies wood shingles and shak€s lor both roofing and wall applications. Western red cedar shingles and shakes, southern yellow pine shakes, western red cedar shingle panels, and fancy-butt western red cedar shingles are included.
CEMENT WATERPROOFING-This 07161-MODIFIED Section specities acrylic- and polymer-modified, cementbased waterprooling. lt is usually applied on exteraor, below grade concrete and masonry walls, but may be aoolied on the interior of exterior walls and tloors.
TILES-This Section specifies both hard07320-ROOF fired clay tile and concrete tile lor roofing applications. A variety of shaped and flat tile units, including Spanish'S,' Mission Batrel, Roman, French, and flat units, are included. Provisions for commonly used special shapes at eaves, rakes. ridges, and hips are also included, as well as underlayments. fasteners, and other accessories normally used with root tales.
07162-CRYSTALLINE WATERPROOFING-This Section specif ies cementitious waterproof ing treatment with crystalline-type waterpr@fing. lt is lrequently applied on inteconcrete and masonry walls; may be rior, belowgrade applied on slabs below grade; and may be concealed behind or below applied finishes specified in other Sections This product can also be used fo. waterproofing the exterior of walls below grade.
ROOF PANELS-Th|S SECIiON 07411-MANUFACTURED metal roof panels for field specifies factory-preformed installation without field forming. The Section includes panmetallic{oated steel with and without aluminumand els of applied finishes; and copper, stainless steel, and ternecoated stainless steel, which do not have applied finishes. Insulated roof oanels and metal oanel assemblies that are substantially preformed but require final mechanical seam closure in the field by means of a portable seaming machine are also included.
07163-METAL-OXIDE WATERPROOFING-This Section specifies metal{xide waterproofing, which is an oxidizing iron and cement mixture. lt is usually applied on anteriorsurfaces ol walls and slabs below grade, and maY be concealed behind or below applied finishes specified in other Sections. This product can also be used lor waterproofing the exterior o{ walls below grade. Section WATERPROOFING-This 07170-BENTONITE soecifies oarel and sheet membrane b€ntonite waterproofing systems used underground for types of construction where room to ex€vate beyond the walls is limited, where the walls are to be constructed against piling, or where the excavation must be backfilled over or against concrete before the concrete has had time to cure (such as a tunnel under a streetl.
WALL PANELS-This Section 07412-MANUFACTURED metal wall panels for tield specifies factory-preformed installation without field forming. The Section includes panels ol uncoated stainless steel and oI aluminufr and metallic{oated steel with and without applied finishes, Insulated wall panels. both factory and tield assembled, are also included. Section specifies vinyl, aluminum, 07460-5lDlNG-This and steel siding including commonly used accessories.
Section specifies cold COATINGS-This 071 8o-TRAFFIC liquid-applied. elastomeric, waterproof-barrier coatings with integral wearing surfaces for building areas housing equiP ment or subiect to redestrian and vehicular traffic.
Section ASPHALT ROOFING-This 075'11-BUILT-UP specifies built-up asphalt roofing, including roofing insulation. base flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected membranes, rogf walkways. and auxiliary roofing materials.
Section specifies REPELLENTS-This 071go-WATER clear, liquid-applied, penetrating, and film-lorming water horizontal surfaces of repellents lor vertical and nontraffic brick, concrete unit masonry, concrete, portland cement (stucco), plaster and stoneINSULATION-This Section specifies 0721 o-BUILDING common types of general building insulation that are installed at the Project site as separate elements rather than as components of a prelabriGted or field-assembled svstem soecified in another Section. Exterior insulation and finish systems are examples of such assemblies. AIso included is insulation that could be specified here or in other Sections. Examples of this include insulation used lor masonry, gypsum board assemblies, and veneer plaster that are typically installed at the same time and by the same personnel performing noninsulation work. 07241-EXTERIOR INSULATION AND FINISH SYSTEMS' CLASS PB-This Section specifies Class PB exterior insula tion and finish systems (EIFS) consisting of a decorative protective composite coating, or lamina, and an inner layer of rigid. cellular thermal insulation. Both field-applied systems and prefabricated panels are specified. Systems with molded, expanded pelystyrene board flype l] and glasslibertaced polyisocyanurate insulation are included. Exterior cement-board sheathing is included tor both standard applications and prefabricated panels. Other types of sheathing and metal framing for prefabricated panels are included by reterence to other Sections specifying those materials. An option is included for specifying joint sealants in Division 7 Section "Joint Sealants" or in this Section with reference to the "Joint Sealants" Section. 07242-EXTERIOR INSULAIION AND FINISH SYSTEMSSection srecifies Class PM exterior insuCLASS PM-This lation and finish systems {EIFS) consisting ot a deco.ative protective composite coating, or lamina. and an inner layer of rigid, cellular therml insulation. Only field-applied systems applied with extruded-polystyrene toam insulation (Type lV) are specified. Section specifies SHINGLES-This 07311-ASPHALT asphalt shingles for r@ting applications. Shingles with fiber mats (fabric core) ot either organic {elt or fiberglass are included. A variety of generic shingles are specified in the Text, and other types can easily be added. This Section applies to roofs with a slope lrom 2 inches pe. foot (1:6) to very steep slopes, such as mansard roofs. when manufacturers' recommendations are considered.
Section COAL-TAR ROOFING-This 07512-BUILT-UP specifies built up coal-tar roofing, including roofing insulation, base llashings, aggregate and paver ballast for prc tected membranes, roo{ walkways, and auxiliary roofing maleflals_
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SINGLE-PLY MEMBRANE ROOFING07531-EPDM This Section specifies EPDM single-ply membrane roofing, including roof insulation, base flashings, aggregate and paver ballast, walkways, and auxiliary roofing materials. 07532-CSPE SINGLE PLY MEMBRANE ROOFING-ThiS Section specifies CSPE single-ply membrane roofing, including roof insulation, base flashings, aggregate and paver ballast, walkwavs, and auxiliary roofing materials. MEMBRANE SINGLE-PLY 07533-THERMOPLASTIC ROOFING-This Section specif ies thermoplastic singlef ly membrane roofing, including roof insulation, base tlashings, aggregate and paver ballast, walkways, and auxiliary roofing marenars. POLYURETHANE FOAM ROOFING_ OTs4MOATED Thls Section specifies sprayed polyurethane foam insulation with an elastomeric protective coating for roofing applications. MEMBRANE BITUMINOUS 07551-APP-MODIFIED ROOFING-This Section specifies APP-modified bituminous membrane roofing. including roofing insulation, base flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected membranes, and auxiliary rooting materialsMEMBRANE 07552-SBSMODIFIED BITUMINOUS ROOFING-ThiS Section soecifies SBs-modified bitumi nous membrane roofing, including roofing insulation, base flashings, aggregate and paver ballast for protected membranes, roof walkways, and auxtliaryroofing materials07553-5ELF-ADHERING MODIFIED BITUMINOUS MEM' BRANE ROOFING-ThiS Section specifies self-adhering, cold-applied, rubberized-asphalt composite sheet rooling for protected roof membrane applications. Roof insulation. mortar-faced roof insulation, aggregate ballast, and paver ballast are also included. Section FLUID-APPLIED BOOFING-This 07561-HOT specifies hot fluid applied, rubberized-asphalt roofing for protected roof membrane applications. Roof insulation, mortar-faced roof insulation, aggregate ballast, and paver ballast are also included.
07610-SHEET METAL ROOFING-Thls Section specifies custom-fabricated {shop- or fieldjormed versus factory-rollformed) metal roofing. This Section also includes prefinrshed, field-painted, and uncoated metal roofing. 07620-SHEET METAL FLASHING AND TRIM-This Sec' tion specifies sheet metal flashing and trim work related to or used in coniunction with roofing work and the general waterproof integrity of the building structure. This Section includes shor and field-fabricated sheet metal accessories, trim, and flashing commonly used at the perrmeter or penetrations of rooling or waterproofing work and where not integral with membrane systems. Metal waterproofing, flashing. and cap flashing are usually included in this Section. 0771 0-MANUFACTURED ROOF SPECIALTIES-This Sec' tion speci{ies manufactured roof specialties including coP ings, fasciae. gravel stops, gutters and downspouts, reglets, and counterflashing. This Section covers roof specialties listed in the 1995 edition of CSI'S MasterFormat, exceot roof exoansion assemblies. EXPANSION ASSEMBLIES-ThiS Section 07716-ROOF specifies standard, factory-fabricated, roof expansion ioint cover assemblies, including products designed to resist the effects ot earthquake motions. This Section can be used alone, or provisions can be included in other Division 7 Sections. Section specifies ACCESSOBIES-This 07720-ROOF accessory units installed on or in roofing, including curbs vents in the Jorm of gravity and equipment supports, relief ventilators, ridge vents, roof hatches {also called scuft/es), heat and smoke vents of both collapsible dome (gravity) type and pop-up (hatch) type, and snow guards. 07810-PLASTIC UNIT SKYLIGHTS-This Section specifies prefabricated skylights with formed, monolithic, singleand doublcsheet plastic glazing, and integral curb or curbmounted frame design. FIRE-RESISTIVE MATERIALS-This 07811-SPRAYED materials for prc Section specifies sprayed firHesistive tecting structural steel lor both concealed and exposed cementitious applications. lt includes not only lowiensity and sprayed-fiber products used predominantly lor concealed locations but also a variety of medium- and highiensity products lor exposed locations requiring a more finished appearanco and greater resistance to physical abuse, deterioration lrom weather, air erosion. and high humidity. FIRE PROTECTION-This Section speci' 07821-BOARD fies calcium sili€te and slag-wooffiber boards used lor fire orotection of steel columns, steel beams, metal- and woodframed walls, and solid walls. These materials form the encasing material for various assemblies with fire-resistance ratings. Another use lor mineral-fiber board fireproofing is protection of HVAC ducts. FIRESTOP SYS' 07841-THROUGH-PENETRATION Section specilies through-penetration frrestop TEMS-This systems. Section specities ioint 07920-JOINT SEALANTS-ThiS sealants including elastomeric sealants, solvent-releasecuring sealants, latex sealants, acoustical sealants, and preformed sealants tor a variety of applications. DlvtstoN
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081 1o-STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES-This Section specifies standard steel d@rs and frames labricated to comply with ANSI 4250.8 and established Steel Door Institute standards. STEEL DOORS AND FRAMES-ThiS 081l4-{USTOM hollow-metal doors and Section soecifies commercial lrames custom fabricated from steel, galvanized steel. and stainless-steel sheet to specific design requirements. This Section includes provisions Jor glazing, louvers, sidelights, and transoms ol similar construction. Provisions are also included for fire-. sound-. and thermal-rated assemblies. FRAMES-ThiS Section ALUMINUM 0812s-INTERIOR specifies extruded-aluminum framing members for intertor (usually) wood doors; glass sidelights, bo(owed lights, clerestory glazing, and fixed windows: and gypsum wall board partitions. 08163-5LIDING ALUMINUM-FRAMED GLASS DOORS_ This Section specifies sliding aluminum-tramed glass doors for exterior locations. WOOD DOORS-This Section specifies 08211-FLUSH non-fire-rated and fire-rated architectural flush wood doors. units are covered, including Both solid- and hollow{ore those with face panels of wood veneer, plastic laminate, and hardboard.
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08212-STILE AND BA|L WOOD DOORS-This Section specifies stile and rail doors made from lumber_ wood veneers. and wood compos,les Incluo,ng plywood. paflrcle. Ooard. lrDerboard, and lamrnated-srrand lumber Doors ol special design and construction, which mav include custom made doors, are specifred along witd doors of stock OeSrgn and cOnStruction. Fire{ated doors with wood veneered and €dged mineral{o.e stiles, rails. and oanels are also Included. 08263-5LIDING WOOD,FRAMED GLASs DooRs-This Section specrfres sttdtng glass doors, bare- and primed wood tramed, and wood framed and clad wrth alumrnJm or vrnyt on extetor exposed surfaces, for exterior locations. 08305-ACCESS DOORS-This Secrion sDecilies orime, painled sleel, /inc , oated sleer. and stainless steer access doors rnstalled in acousttcal ceilings and masonry, concrete. gypsum board assembltes, and plasler walls and cerlings. 08314-SLIDING METAL FIRE DOORS_This Section specifies sliding metal fare doors of composite and hollowmetal construction These doors are primarily intended for fire separation doors in industrial and commercial applications 08321-INSULATING SECURtry DOORS-This Section specifies standard insulating security door assemblies, manulaclured as a unit, complete with door, frame and hardware- Although intended primarily for lire and theft pro_ tection of documents in file rooms, they are also used for vault protection ot other valuabies 08331-OVERHEAD COTLINGDOORS-This Secrion specifies flexible metal{urtain type overhead coiling kolling)'seF vrce ooors anct counter doors, including fire,rated assemblies. Overhead coiling doors are fabrjcated from steel. stainless steel, and aluminum. Fire_rateddoors aae fabricated from steel and stainless steel. 08334-OVEBHEAD COtLtNG GRTLLES-This Section specifies galvanized steel, stainless-steel. and aluminum overhead coiling kotling) grilles with straight in_linepattern and with the option of glazed panels. 08343-lCU/CCU ENTRANCE DOORS-This Secrion spec! fies combination swing/slide manuat ICU/CCU entr;nce d@r assemblies. 08346-SOUND CONTROL DOORS-This Section speci_ fies non-fire-rated and fire-rated swinging steel door and frame systems with minimum sound tr;nsmission class (STC)ratings ranging between 43 and 52. 08351-FOLDING DOORS-This Section specifies nonacoustrcal and non-fire-rated accordion and Danel foldino doors with vinyl, wood, and other finishes; and bifold door; of wood, metal, and polyvinyl chloride (pVC) consrruction. I hese doors are intended as visual separalion devices and primarily apply to commercial and institutional installations; however, by appropriate modification, they may accomml_ date light commercial and resrdentialconsiructi;n. 08361-SECTIONAL OVERHEAD DOORS_This Section specifies sectional overhead doors moved by a counterbalance mechanism?nd rollers along a steel track system and IaD(cated lrom ilat steel o. ribbed sreel panel Sections framed with steel members; paneled wood or flush wood panel sections framed with wood members; and aluminum, translucent {fiberglass{ernforced} plastic, and glass or plas_ tc vtsron pdnel sections framed wtth alumrnum members. 0841o-ALUMINUM ENTRANCES AND STOREFRONTSThis Section specifies standard interior and exterior aluml num entrance and storefront systems. Entrance systems Include swinging doors, framing, hardware. vestibule enclosures, lransoms, and sidehghts. Sto.efront systems include Trxedglazrng areas and framtnq. 08450*ALL-GLASS ENTRANCES-This Section specjfies frameless tempered-glass entrances, includino swino doors, sidehghts, transoms, and related accessorie-s. 08460-AUTOMATTC ENTRANCE DOORS-This Secrion specifies only the Evaluations for the following new Sec_ trons covering types of automatic enrrance qoors: 08461-SLIDING AUTOMATIc ENTRANcE DooRs-This Section.specifies slidtng automatic enrrance ooor systems that include not only door operators and controls but also aluminum doors, sidelite and transom frames, and accessofies_ 08462-SWINGING AUTOMATIC ENTRANCE DOORSThis Section specifies swinging automatic entrance door syslems lhat include not only door operators and controls bul also alUminum doors. transom lrames, and accessories. Bifolding operation is also jncluded. 08470-REVOLVING ENTRANCE DOORS-This Section specifies conventional, circular, revolving entance doors consistang of manual and power-assisted door leaves, or wngs,.rolattng about d cenler post wtlh a speed_control unI lo ttmtt rotatton soeed
08510-STEEL WTNDOWS-This Section soecifies readitv dvdi'able stocl and cuslor rypes ot sleel w.ndow units li descnbes wndow types (operataons)and window orades {classrlic€trons) In addrtton to performance,"qu,re"-ents and finishes. and other oDtions 08520-ALUMINUM WTNDOWS-This Section specifies various types of commonly used stock aluminum wndow units. The Section includes normaliy available oDtions tor wrndow type, grade, and performance class ll also includes different glazrng methods, finrshes. and other oplions- The Section is primarily Intended for generrc speci_ rytng ot compettltve wtndow types When spectfrc manu_ raclurers product names are inserled. lhe Texl can be shortened to facilitate proprietary specifying 08550-WOOD WINDOWS-This Section specifres vari ous types of commonly used stock wood window un/ts. The Sectlon includes a variety ot normally availabteoptions tor_window type and performance grade tt also Includes drilerent glazing methods. finisfes and other options. The Sectton is primarily Intended tor geneilc specrfying ot com petrtrve wndow types. When spec;frc manufacturers prod_ ucl names are rnserted. the Text can be considerablv sirortened to lacilttate proprietary specrfying 08610-ROOF WINDOWS-This Section soecifies ventino and. fixed insulating€lass units fo. rnstaltjtron on stopini rooT sunaces. 08630-METAL-FRAMED SKyLtcHTS-This Section specities.alumanum-framed skylights with retaining{ap- or struc_ tural-sealant{lazing systems and glass or plastic glazing. 08631-TRANSLUCENT-INSUTAIING-PANEL SKYLIGHTSThis Section contains only the fvaluations for the foltowrng new S-ectrons that specrty aluminumfiamed skylights gtazel with different types of translucent, insulating paneli: . 08632_POLYCARBONATE-INSULAIING-PANEL SKY. LIGHTS . 08633-FIBERGLASS.SANDWICH-PANEL SKYLIGHTS 08632_POLYCARBONATE.INSULATING-PANEL SKY. LIGHTS-This Section specifies atuminum-f.amed skylights glazed with translucent, cellular-polycarbonate insula-ting pan6ts. 08633_FIBERGLASS-SANDWCH,PANEL SKYLIGHTS_ This Section specifies aluminum-framed skylights incorpo ratrng translucent, insulating, fib€rglassjeinforced_poly_ mer, sndwich panels. 0871 0-DOOR HARDWARE-This Section specifies Evalu_ ations only for the following new Sections covering differ ent specifying methods lor door hardware: 08711-DOOR HARDWARE (SCHLDULID BY NAMING PRODU_CTS)-.This Section specifies hardware apptied to doors, formally called finish hardware, builder's hardware. ot architectural finish hatdware. The Sectton uses manufac_ turers'product names or references to BHMA standards in the Door Hardware Schedule to indicate door hardware requirements. 08712-DOOR HABDWARE (SCHEDULED BY DESCRIBING.pRODUCTS)-This Secrion specifres hardware appl€d to doors, formafly called fin6h hardware, builder's hardware, or architectural finish hardwarc. The Sec|on uses product descriptions in the Door Hardware Schedule to indi_ cate door hardware requirements. 08716-POWEB DOOR OPERATORS-This Section specifies power door operators normally furnished separ;tely from doors and frames. These door operators are adaotable to a variety of door designs and sizes. power door ooerators that aid the physrcally handicapped by aclrng as an aulomatrc d@r operator and that comply with the require ments-ol BHMA Ai 56.19. ADA accessibiiity guidetines, and '17-1 ANSI A'l are also included. 08800-GLAZING-This Section specifies monotithic. tami_ nated, and insulating glass along with the glazrng materia's .equrred tor therr installation. Th's Section setues two Dnmary purposes: 1 ) lt covers glazing work normally subcontraCted to installers of glazing: and 2) it is the Sectaonthat other Sectaons cross-reference to avoid repeating glazing requirements. ln the latter case, edit this Section ifier th6 other Sections are substantially complete. 08801-SECUBITY GLAZTNG-This Section specifies glaz Ing products jntended to resrst abuse. physical atGck, lorced entry. and ballistics. products included are laminated glass, glass/polycarbonate laminates, and laminated and monolithic polycarbonate sheets. 08814-MIRRORED GLASS-This Section. which is new to the Basic Version, specifies unframed and unbacked, fully silvered mirroted glass and pyrolylic mirro,ed glass to; mounttng on walls and ceiltnqs
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08825-DECORATIVE GLASS-This Section specifies glass products for interior applications,incluainqaclJ etched.sandblasted, silkscreened,beveled,pattern;d.anc laminatedglasswith integraldecoration. 08840-PLASIIC GLAZTNG-IhisSectionspecifieslioht transmrftrng plaslicsheetsthat are glazedinto openrnoia subslrtutes for glass.Includedareacrylicglazrng in theiorr of monolithicsheets and double,walled,structuredsheets. and polycarbonate glazingin the form of monolithicsheets anddouble-walled, structuredsheets. 08920-GLAZED ALUMINUM CURTATNWALLS-This Sectionspeciliesstandardand custom glazedaluminum curtainwall systemsinstalledusingstick,unit,andunit,and mulltonsystemmethods. 0892s-STRUCTUBAL-SEALANT.GLAZED CUBTAN WALLS-This Sectionspecifiesstandardand custom,4 sided and 2-sided, structural-sealantglazedcurtain walls incorporating aluminumf ramingsystems. 08960-5tOPED GLAZTNG SYSTEMS-ThisSectionspeci fies standardand custom conventionally glazedand siruc tural€ealant-glazed sloped glazingsystems incorporating arumlnumlramlngsystems. DtvlstoN 9 0921o-GYPSUM PLASTER-ThisSectionspecrfresovo sum lath dnd plaster;metal lath,turring,accessories, lno supportsystems;and plasticaccessories. 0921s-GYPSUM VENEERPLASTER-ThisSectionspeci. fies gypsum-based veneerplasteron gypsum base, unit masonry, or monol,thic concrete. Melal support systems, sound-altenuationinsulation, thermal insulation, and cementitiousbacker units are also specified becausethev are integratedwith veneer plasterconstruction.Veneei plastermater€lsand applications may be cross{eferenced from other Drvisiong Sections,such as 'Gypsum Boatd Shaft-Wall Assembties.' 09220-PORTLAND CEMENT pLASTER-This Section specifresportlandcement plasterincludingmetal framing turflng,lath,and accessories; plasticaccessories; tob_mired ponlandcement frnish;and factorytreparedfini;hessuch as stucco,acrylicbased,and exposedaggregate. 09251-FACTORY-FINISHED GYPSUMBOARD-ThisSectaon specifies vinyl-film-faced,gypsum board panels and associated trim. 09253-GYPSUM SHEATHTNG-This Section soecifies paper-surfaced and glass,matgypsumsheathingattached to steeltramlngon exteriorwallsand air-infiltration barriers installedoverthe sheathing. 0926HYPSUM BOARD ASSEMBLTES-ThiSSecrion specifiesgypsum board assembliesand metal supportsys tems. Sound attenuation insulation and cementitious backerunits for tile are also specifiedbecausethey are often componentsof gypsum boardassemblies. 09265,.€YPSUMBOARD SHAFT.WALLASSEMBLIESThis Section specifies nonloadbearing. steel-framedgyp sum board assemblies that provide fireresistance-rited enclosuresfor verticalshafts and horizontalenclosures_ O92Tl.GLASS.REINFORCED GYPSUMFABRICATIONSThis Section specifies factoryfiolded products fabricated wrth glass-reinforced gypsum (GRG),for interioruse. 09310-CERAMIC TILE-This Section specifies unglazed and glazed ceramic tile, includingceramic mosaic, q:uarry. paver, and wall tile; tile setting and grouting materjals; accessofles; and installationrequirements. 09385-DIMENSTON STONETtLE-This Sectionspecifies naturalstone tile for flooring,wall tacing.and trim for com mercialand residentialinstallations.Dimension stone tite is definedas modularunits less than % inch (19 mm) thick fabricatedfrom naturalstone. Stone thresholdsare also in the SectionText. 09400-IERRAZZO-This Section specifies cementitious. modified{ement-resin, and synthetic-resin lerazzo lol flooring,base, stair treads,landings,and risers.Cementi trousterrazzoincludesstandardand rustic cast,in_place svstems and precast products. Resinous 'thin-set. terrazzo includes cast-in-place,polyacrylate-moditied{ementand epoxy-resrnSystems. 09451-INTERIOR SIONE FACTNG-This Sectionsoecifies drmensionstone used for interior wall facing, trim, mold rngs,base,countenops,and windowstools. 09511-ACOUSTICALPANEL CEtLtNGS-This Section specitaes ceilings consisting ot acoustical panels and exposedsuspensronsystems,includingspecialuse tvpes lor e\teriorlocations,hrgh-temperature and .humrdttv toca Irons.andcteanrooms MASTERSPECcontinues on the next paqe
AIA MASTERSPEC 137 Sectionspeci09512-ACOUSTICALTILECEILINGS-Thas fies ceilingsconsistingof acousticaltiles and concealed suspension svstems.
09772-STRETCHED-FABRIC WALL SYSTEMS-ThisSection specifies concealed-fastener, site-assembled, sitesystemsfor ceilingsandwalls upholstered
09513_ACOUSTICAI SNAP-INMT'IAL PAN CEILINGSThis Secrionspecifiesceilingsconsistingof acoustical\,nap in metal pans and concealedsubpensionsystems.Types of metal pan ceilingunits includeboth perforatedand unperforated snap-insteel, stainlesssteel, or aluminumpans.
09841-ACOUSTICALWALL PANELS-ThisSectionspecipanelsthatarewall mounted fies shop-fabricated acoustical as opposedto freestanding or ceilingbaffles.Both splinemountedand back-mounted unitsare included09900-PAINTING-This Sectionspecifiesgeneralsurface preparation.materials preparation,and applicationprinciplestor interiorandexteriorpainting.
09547-LINEAR METALCEILINGS-This Sectionspecifies strip,decorative, linearmetalceilings.
09920-INTERIORPAINTING-ThisSectionspecifiesgenmaterialspreparation, andapplicaeralsurfacepreparation, for interiorpainting. tionprinciples
09580-SUSPENDED DECORATIVE GRIDS-This Section specifiesopenrell grid, plenum mask ceilingsystems. 09600-STONE PAVINGAND FLOORING-ThiS Section specifiesdimensionstone pavingand flooringinstalledon a thick, mortar setting b€d. lt also includesmetai edging and stone thresholds.
09931-EXTERIORWOOD STAINS-This Sectionspecifies generalsurfacepreparation, materialpreparation. and principles for exteriorwood stains. application
09621-FLUID-APPLIED ATHLETIC FLOORING-ThisSection specifiespolyurethanelloorings. intended for use in athletic-activityareas, that are homogenous or installed over resilientunderlayment.
09945-MULTICOLORED INTERIOR COATINGS-This Sectionspecifiespolychromaticpaint. 099so-WALL COVERINGS-ThisSection specities vinyl, Jiberglass, and.lextile wall coveringsandwallpaper.
09622-RESILIENTATHLETICFLOORING-ThisSection tloor specifiesrubber.vinyl.and thermoplastic-rubberblend coveringsin interlocking-tileor roll form and designed for or supportareas. use in athletic-aclivity
09960-HIGH-PERFORMANCE COATINGS-ThisSection specifies highrerformance coatings tor architecturaland tndustrial aoolications. 09963-ELASTOMERIC COATINGS-This Section specifies a speciallydesignedacrylicpolymer containingelastc meric coatings for use on the exterior of masonry, concrete, and stucco structures. These coatings are dirt resistant,llexible in a rangeof temperatures,and very highbuild materialsthat bridgesmall cracks and protect against deteriorationresulting from moisture penetration of the substrate.
09635-88ICK FLOORING-Th|SSectionspecifiesbrick llooring for interior applicationssubject to pedestrianand light vehiculartraffic. Three setting methods included for the specifier'schoiceare loose-laidbrick flooringwith sandfilled, hand-tight joints; thickset mortared brick fl@ring. with or without groutedjoints; and thirset mortared brick tlooring. also with or without grouted joints. Where the same brick pavers are selected for both {looring (interior appli€tions) and paving (exterior applications)and use either the sme or different setting methods and beds, there can be advantagesto combiningthem into one Section and ch@sing a section number that represents the maiorapplication.Brickflooringcould also be includedwith unit masonryif the bricklayer'smethod is used for installaton.
09967-INTUMESCENT PAINTS-ThiS Section specifies intumescent-type,fire{etardant paint primarilyfor interior combustible and noncombustible substrates. 09975-HIGH.TEMPERATURE-RESISTANT COATINGS_ This Sectionspecifiesgeneralsurface preparation,materials preparation,and applicationprinciplesfor high-temperaturejesistant coatingsused on the interiorand exterior.
09636-CHEMICAL-RESISTANT BRICK FLOORING-This Sectionspecifieschemical-resistant brick tlooring installed with mortars, grouts. and setting b€ds that offer varying degrees ot chemical protection based on specific user requirements.The Section may also include a protective membraneon the subfloor.
o998o-WOOD-VENEER WALL COVERINGS-ThiSSection speciJiesflexiblewood-veneerwall covering. 09981-CEMENTITIOUS COATINGS-ThisSectionspecilies polymerflodified cementitiouscoatingsto us€ above or below grade on the exterioror interiorover masonryand concrete. After curing, these coatings produce a durable, hard,weather{esistant surface.
09640-WOOD FLOORING-ThiSS@tion specifies solidand engineered{ood fl@ring that is either tactory or site finished. 09644-WOOD ATHLETIC-FLOORINGASSEMBLIESThis Sectionspecifieshard maple, finish flooring and sub flooringassembliesdesignedfor use as athletic playingor exercising surfaces. Subflooring systems include those properties. with enhancedshock-absorbing
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1010o-VISUALDISPLAYBOARDS-Th|SSectionspecifies the most commonly used types of standard chalkboards,markerboards,and tackboards.Emphasisis placed on prefabricatedunits.Provisionsare also includedfor traditionalslate chalkboardsand other lield-assembledtvoes.
TILE FLOORING-ThisSectionspeci09651-RESILIENT fies solid vinyl, rubber,and vinyl compositionfloor tile and resilient wall base and accessoriestypi€lly installedwith resilientfl@r tile.
10155-TOILET COMPARTMENTS-ThisSectionspecifies standard metal, plastic-laminate,and solid-plastictoilet companmentsandscreens.
09652-5HEET VINYL FLOORCOV€RINGS-This Section specifiessheet vinyllloor coverings,with and without backings.for commercialprojects.
1018o-STONE TOILETCOMPARTMENTS-ThiS Section specifies marble and granite toilet compartments and screens. companment doors, and associatedfittings and hardware.
09653-RESILIENT WALL SASE AND ACCESSORIESThis Section specities rubber and vinyl wall base, stair treads, and accessoriesfor use with resilient flwing and carpet.
l01gHUBlCLES-This Sectionspecifiescurtainand lV tracks and curtains and accessoriesfor cubicles,dressing areas.tubs.and showe6.
09654-LINOLEUM FLOOR COVERING$-ThiS Section specifieslinoleumtile and shset floor coverings. 09671-RESINOUS FLOORING-This Section specilies decorative.generafure. and highferformancs or specialapplicationresinousflooring systems appli€das self-leveling slurriesor t.oweled or scr@dedmortars. 09677-STATIC-CONTROL RESILIENTFLOOR COVER. INGS-This Sectionspeciliesstatic{issipativevinyl compo' sition,homogenous(solid)vinyl. and rubberfloor tile; staticdissipativerubber sheet floor covering;conductivehomogenous (solid)vinyl and rubberlloor tile; and conductivevinyl and rubbersheet fl@r covering. 0968HARPET-ThiS Section sp€cifies tufted, fusionbonded,and woven carpet,as well as carpet cushion for commercialinstallations09681--{ARPET TILE-]his Section specifies carpet tile f or commercialinstallations. 09771-FABRIC-WRAPPEDPANELS-This Section specif ies custofrfabri@ted. back-mounted,fabric-wrappedpanels for ceilingsand walls, in which the fabric is not adhered to the core material.
10200-LOUVERS AND VENTS-This Section specifies fixed and adjustable metal louvers, a@ustical louvers, blank{ff panels for louvers. and wall vents (brick vents). Louversconnectedto ductwork, and those that are not, are properlyspecifiedin this Section.This Sectionspecitieslouvers made from extruded aluminum, formed galvanized steel, and formed stainlesssteel. Fixed-bladelouversspecified includethose with horizontaland verticalblades,drainable and nondrainableblades, and sightproof blades. Adiustablelouvers soecified include those with drainable and nondrainableblades,both tixed and adjustableblades combinedin a singleframeandsingle-blade units,and insulatedunits10265-IMPACT.RESISTANT WALL PROTECTION-This Sectionspecitiesva.ioustypes of impact-resistantwall pre tection systems, includingwall guards. handrails.and corner guards, as well as door and door frame protection svstems. lt also includesrelatedimoact-resistantwall covering products.The Sectioncan be expandedto includeany complete protectionsystem or streamlinedto specificwall and corner€uardapplicationsonly.
10270-ACCESSFLOORING-ThisSectionspecifiesstandard accessflooringsystems,includingaccessories. Not onlydoesit includesystemssuitablefor datacenters,com, puter rooms,cleanrooms,and otherapphcations, but also thoseintendedprimarilyfor generaloflice uses. 10350-FLAGPOLES-ThisSection specifies metal and fiberglassflagpoles,includingground-set,wall'mounted, and roof-mountedflagpoles.Metals include aluminum, steel.stainlesssteel,and bronze. 10405-BANNERS-This Section specifies banners of for interiorand extewoven,nonwoven,and knit materials, rioruse. '10416-DIRECTORIES AND BULLETINBOARDS-Th|S Sectionspecifiesdirectoriesand bulletinboardsfabricated lrom standardcomDonentscommon to severalmanutacturers. The Sectioncan be used for specityingcustomized for materialsand unitsby insertingadditionalrequirements labrication. 10425-SIGNS-ThisSectionspeciliespanelsigns,dimen' sional letters and numbers,and cast metal plaques.lt includestypicalmaterialsandprocesses commonlyusedby a wide numberol signmanufacturers. 10436-POSTAND PANELSIGNS-ThisSectionspecifies post exterior,lreestanding,illuminatedand nonilluminated and panelsigns.lt coverstypicalmaterialsand processes The variety of sign manutacturers. most comused by a varietyto illumi monlyused panels,from the single-sheet nated hollow-box-lypeunits. are specified.Graphicimage pr@essesare alsoincluded. 10437-PYLON SIGNS-This Section srecifies treestandpylon signs.lt covers ing, illuminatedand nonilluminated typical materialsand processes used by a variety of sign manufacturers.The most commonly used signs. from the upright-slabtype to the tall, slender,squarepylon-typeunit, are sp€cified.Graphicimage processesare also included. 10505-METAL LOCKERS-Th|sSection soecifiesstandard, factory-fabricatedwardrobe and athletic metal lockers. Commonlyspecifiedaccessoriesand optionalfeatures, such as locker-roombenches,are also included. 10520-FIRE-PROTECTION SPECIALTIES-ThisSection sp€cifiesportablefire extinguishers;their mounting brackets; and cabinets for fire extinguishers,hose valves, and rackand hoseassemblies. 10550-POSTAL SPECIALTIES-ThisSection soecifies standardmail chutes, receivingand collection boxes, horizontal-and vertical-typemailboxes,neighborhooddelivery and collectionbox units, and parcellockers. 10605-WIRE MESH PARTITIONS-This Sectionspecifies standard-and heavyduty wire mesh partitions,exterio, (galvanized)partitions, wire mesh window guards, stairway partilions,and insert panelsfor railingsystems. 10615-DEMOUNTABLE PARTITIONS-This Section for the followingSections includesonly the Evaluations specityingdemountablepartitions: .10616-5ITE-ASSEMBLED DEMOUNTABLE PABTITIONS .10620-DEMOUNTABLE UNITIZED-PANELPARTITIONS 10616-SITE.ASSEMBLED DEMOUNTABLE PARTI. TIONS-This Section specifiesreusabl€.demountablepartition systems consistingof gypsum board panelsor metalfaced gypsum board panels supportedby concealedframing. This new Sectionreplaces . 10617-DEMOUNTABLE GYPSUMPANELPARTIIIONS and . 10618-DEMOUNTABLEMETAL PANELPARTITIONS, bothdated11192. 10620-DEMOUNTAELE UNITIZED-PANEL PARTI. patr IIONS-This Sectionspecifiesreusable, demountable, tition systems consisting of tactory-assembledunitized panels. 10651-OPERABLEPANEL PARTITIONS-ThisSection specifiesacousticallyrated. manuallyand eleclricallyopetr ated,Ilat-panelpartitionssupportedfrom an overheadtrack. 10653*FIRE.RATED OPERABLEPANEL PARTITIONSThis Section specifies acousticallyrated, manually opeL ated. Ilat-panelpartitions.lire rated one hour or one and one-halfhours,suoportedfrom an overheadtrack. 10655-ACCORDIONFOLDINGPARTITIONS-Th|S Sec' tion specifies acousticallyrated, manually and electrically operated,accordionfolding panirionssupportedfrom a single overheadtrack.
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10671-METALSTORAGE SHELVING-ThisSectionspeci ties post andsheltstorageunils. 10680-MOBILESTORAGEUNITS ThisSectionspecifies manuallyand electrically operatedstorageunitsconsisting of carriagesthat glide on rails to open an aisle where accessis required. 1o75o-TELEPHONESPECIALTIES-IhiSSectionspe* fies prefabricated telephone specialties, including tele, phonebooths and other enclosures,telephonehousings, telephone€nclosure entrances for built-in telephone booths, and directory storage units. The Text is based on standard products of several manufacturersbut can be adapted to specify similar standardand customdesigned units. 10753_WALL-MOUNTED TELEPHONEENCLOSURES* This Sectionspecifiesprefabricated, wall-mounted. shelftype telephoneenclosuresand wal-mounted,panel,type telephone housings.The Text is based on standardproducts of s€veralmanufacturersbut can be adaptedto specity similarstandardandcustomiesignedunits. 10801-TOILET AND BAIH ACCESSORIES-ThiS Section specilies standardtoilet and bath accessoriesand mirror unrtscommonlyused in commercialand institutional applicataons. DlvlstoN I I
. 12347-METALLAEORATORY CASEWORK or . 12348-WOOD LABORATORY CASEWORK 1169s-MAILROOM EOUIPMENT-ThisSectionspecifies equrpmentused to processincomingand outgoingmail. lt r e p l a c e sS e c t i o n1 1 9 1 o - M A I L R O O M E O U I P M E NATN D FURNITURE. dated10/88,that is beingwithdrawnfrom the Inte.iorsLibraryConstruction Version. DtvtstoN t 2 12050-FABRICS-ThisSectionevaluatesfibers,textiles, and leatherfor use as wall coverings,verticalhangings, floorcoverings, andfurnitureupholslery. '121oG*ART-This Sectionevaluates the integration of art, both as a form of culturalexpressionand as decoratrve enhancement,rnto commercialinteriorsproiects.Project with work of othercontractsand wrth a team coordination is discussed. of consultants 12311-METAL FILE CABINETS-ThisSecrionspecifies v€rticalandlateralmetallile cabinets. 1232o-RESTAURANIAND CAFETERIACASEWORKThis Sectionspecifiescashiercounter,wait stationsand other caseworkfor food servicefacilities. This sectioncan be modified to include more extensive custom disolav equipmentby inclusionof additional detailedrequirements.
11o54-LIBRARYSTACKSYSTEMS-ThisSectionsoecifaes stationarysingle-tierand multitier shelving for library malenats.
12347-M ETALLABORATORY CASEWORK-ThisSection specifiesstandardmanufacturedmetal laboratorycasework and commonaccessories, includingcabinets,countertops, sinks,andservice{ixtures.
11062-FOLDINGAND PORTABLE STAGES-ThisSection specifiestoldingand portablestage platforms,seatingflatform risers,standingchoral risers,and acousticalshell systems that might be used indoorsrn schools.churches, banquetfacilities, and multipurpose auditoriums.
12348-WOOD TABORATORY CASEWORK-ThisSection specifiesstandardmanufacturedwood laboratorycasework and common accessories,includingcabinets,countertops, sinks, and seryice fixtures. The Text includes both woodfaced cabinetsand plasticlaminate-faced cabinets.
I 1063-STAGE CURTAINS-ThiS Section smcifies examples of stagecunarnfabrrcsand draw-travel curtainrigging commonly used in small- to medium-sizedtheater/auditG rium installations withoutflv soaces.
12353-DISPLAY CASEWORK-This Section soecifies manutactured cabinetsand displaycasesfor retarlslorage and merchandising.
11132-PROJECTIONSCREENS-ThisSectionspecifies standardrear-and front-proiectionscreens.lt includesboth manually and elsctricallyoperated, rolltp front-poection screenswith almost any Screensurfaceand rear-proiection scre€nSmadeof glassor acrylicplastic
12356-KITCHEN CASEWORK-This Section specifies stock-manufactured kitchon and vanitycabinetsmade trom wood and wood products faced with wood, plastic laminate. vinyl, or a combinationof these materials.Counter tops made of plastic-laminateand solid-surfacingmaterial are includedso all componentsare in a singleSection.
1115o-PARKINGCONIROL EOUIPMENT-ThiSSection specifiesbasicparkingcontrol equipmentfor publicand private installationsincludinggate operatorsand controlsand €shjer's or parkingattendanl'sbooths. 11160-LOADING DOCK EOUIPMENT-This Secrion specifiesdock bumpers,dock levelers,truck levelers.truck restraints,dock lifts, dock seals,dock shelters,and transparentstrip door curtains.Dock bumpersincludelaminatedtread. molded- and extrudediubber, and steel-facetvoes. Both mechanicaland hydraulicdock levelersare covered, includingthose permanentlyinstalledin pits and those attached at the edge of the dock. Truck restraintsinclude both wall- and driveway-mountedtypes. Hydraulicdock lifts ot the single-scissorstype for permanentinstallationin pits are the only dock lift included.Dock shelters include rigid trame,flexibleframe,and inflatable woes. 11172-WASTE COMPACIORS-ThiS Section sDecifies general-purpose, commercial,wet- or dry-wastecgmpactor unils for processingsolid, nonhazardous, building{ener ated waste. 113o7-PACKAGEDSEWAGE PUMP STATTONS-ThiS Section specifies small, and medium,size,factorv€ssembled, sewage pump stations. 114oO-FOOD SERVICEEOUIPMENT-ThisSectionsoecities food service equipment for use in commercial,industrial,and institutional projects. 1 l 451-RESIDENTIALAPPLIANCES-ThiS Sectionsoecifies major residentialappliances.lt includes freestanding and built-inkitchenand laundryappliances, and both gaa andelectricequipmentfor residential andincidental nonresidentialapplications. Appliancesrncludedare restrictedto units that may be purchased as standard manufactured items. 11460-UNIT KITCHENS-ThisSectionspecifiesstandard. factoryJabricated and -assembledunit kitchensincludino cabrnetry, appliances, stnls, laucets,aid accessones. 1161o-LABORATOBY FUME HOODS-This Section specifiesstandardlaboratorytume hoods used for educa, tional laboratoriesand researchfacilities. lt includ€s conventional hmds, bypass hoods, and restricted bvpass hoods;with or withoutardoildesrgn.auxrliary air,and vafiable air volume (VAV) control. lt also tncludeswalkrn hoods, perchloricacid hoods, and radioisotopehoods. lt includes hood stands and specifies casework supponing bench-typehoodsby relerencing
12359-METAL MEDICAL CASEWORK-This Secrron specifies standardmanufacturedmetal medical casework and common accessories.includingstainless-steelcountertops, sinks, and shelving.lt includescaseworktypically used in operating rooms, emergencyrooms, x-ray rooms, central sterile supply,and similarspacesfor the storageof instrumentsand supplies,lt does not includelabofatory casework,which is specifiedin Division12 Section'Metal Laboratory Casework,' or plasticlaminate countertops, which are specifiedin Division6 Section'lnterior ArchitecturalWoodwork.' 12361-MAILBOOM CASEWORK-ThisSectionspecifies manufacturedcasework used in document distributlon workroomsand to processincomingandoutgoingmail. 12483-{USTOM RUGS*This Sectionspecifiescustomdesigned,100percentwool, hand-tufted arearugsinstalled overfinishflooring. 12493-CURTAINSAND DRAPES-ThisSectionspecilies statronaryand movable curtains and drapes, and window treatmenthardwarefor commercialinstallations. 12496-WINDOW TREATMENTHARDWARE-This Section specifies hardware tor manuallyoperatedand motor, oOerateddraperiesand curtains. 12510-OFFICE FURNITURE-This Section soecifies desks,tables,and credenzasfor officeand comouter-suoport applications. 1251'1-HORIZONTALLOUVER BLINDS-This Section specifies manually operated and motor{perated venetian blinds. 12512-VERTICALLOUVERBLINDS-ThisSectionspecifies manually operated and motor€perated vertical vane blinds.
1252s-PLEATEDSHADES-ThisSectionsoecifies2 basc typesof pleatedshadesiaccordionpleatedshadeswith 1 labric thickness and shades with multipleJabricthicl nessesformingair spaces(sometimesreferredto as cellu lar shades). 12551-TRADINGDESKS-ThisSectionspecifiesmodular desk units and equipmentsupportlor tradingrooms for banks, insurancecompanies,and other financialinstitu tions; tradingsupport;data processing;reseryationcenters 911 emergencyfacilities; andvideoproductionfaciljties. 12562--CLASSROOM FURNITURE-ThisSection spec fies lecterns,chairs,chair desks, desks, and tablet-arn preschools. gradesK through12, and co chairslor use in reges. 12563-DORMITORYFURNITURE-ThisSection speo fies dressers, desks, chairs, nightstands.wardrobes tables,beds, and other furnitureitems for residenceha toomsanotoungeareas. 12567-LIBRARY FURNITURE-This Section specifies libraryseatingand furniturefor the display,storage,review and checkoutof librarymaterials. 12571-AUDIO-VISUAL SUPPORTFURNITURE-This Sec tion specifies lecterns. presentationequipment carts, anc cabrnels. 12574-OUTDOOR FURNITURE-ThisSection soecifies movable,w@d or metal tablesand chairsdesignedto with, standtemperatureextremes and limited weathering. 1261o--FIXEDAUDIENCESEATING-ThiSSectionspec. fies upholstered and nonupholstered interior assembly spaceseating.Althoughexteriorseatingis not included,the Section Text could be modified to soecifv exterior lixed seatingin stadiums. 12630-RESTAUBANTFURNITURE-ThisSectionspecr {iestablesand seatingfor dining. 12634-CUSTOM FURNITURE-This Section specifies speciallydesignedtables,desks,credenzas,etc. 12635-PATIENTROOMFURNITURE-This Sectionspecl fies bedsidecabinets,wardrobeunits,desks,vanities,and chestsof draw€rs designedspecificallyfor healthcareappll catrons. 12638-GUESTROOM FURNITURE-ThiS Sectionspeci fies guest r@m furniture sets includingarmoires (perhaps with a bar unit or other built-ins),credenzas,nightstandsor bedsidetables, writing desks, lounge chairs,and head boards.Also speciliedin this Sectionare mattressesanc box springs,and guest bedroomseating. 12639-BANOUETTES-ThisSection soecifies built-in upholstered, customseating. 12651-INTERLOCKING CHAIRS-This Sectionspecifies multiple seatingsystems {gangedor tandem)with optiona modulartabletopsfor waiting, reception,and loungeareas. 12677-0RIENTALRUGS-ThisSectionspecifiesantique, semaantique,and new, handmade imported rugs and rug paqs. 12680-FOOT GRILLES-This Section specifies fool grilles,which are generallyrigid sectionsot treadsdesigned to remove loot traffic debris set in a recessedframe in the floor. 12690-FLOOR MATS AND FRAMES-This Sectionspeci. fies commonly used types of recessed and surface installedfloor mats for buildingsother than slngle-lamily residentialwork. 12700-SYSTEMS FURNITURE-ThisSection specrfies panel-hungromponent systems, Ireestandingromponent systems, desk systems supportingwork-surface-mounted screensand other components,and beam systems.
12520*5HADES-This Sectionspecitiesmanuatlyoperatedandmotor operatedrollshades,including blackoutand mesh shades.
12760-TELESCOPING STANDS-This Sectionspecifies telescoping stands for interior applicationsconsisting of multiple-tiered tolding benchesor chairson interconnected, platforms.These systems are constructed of steel, wood and steel, or polyethyleneplasticand steel, and can be operatedmanuallyor automatically.
12521-CUSTOMUPHOLSTERED SEATING-ThisSection speci{iesspeciallydesigned,wood trame, upholstered seating.
12815-INTERIOR PLANTS-Th|5 Section specifies requirementsfor selecting. laying out, and placing plants providedby an interiorlandscapecontractor.
12522-OFflCE SEATING-ThisSectionspecitiesseating for office and computer-supportapplications
12830-INTERIOR PLANTERS-This Section specifies movable,decorativeplanterswith or withoutintegralsubif rigationsystems.
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12523-HEALTHCARESEATING-This Sectronspecifie: patientand guest seatingin hospitalsand extended-car. facilities.Sleeperchairsfor guestsand reclinersand roc, ers tor patientsare alsoincluded.
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AIA MASTERSPEC r 3 9 13921-ELECTRIC,DRIVE, HORIZONTALFIRE PUMPSThis Sectionspecifieselectricdrive,horizontalfire pumps for buildingfire-suppression systemsand includesthe lollowrng:
DtvtstoN | 3 13041-MODULARVAULTS-ThisSectionspecifiesmodularvaultpanelsand doorsthat are prefabricated and site assembled.
13922-DIESEL-DRlVE. HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS-This Section specifiesdieseldrive,horizontalfire pumps for buildingfire-suppression systemsand includesthe tollowing:
13o52-SAUNAS-ThiS Section specities panel{uilt, or modular.saunasand custom{ut, or precut, saunas.-tutr nishedas completeunits includingheating,lighting.controls, and accessories.
13926*ELECTRIC.DRIVE.VERTICAL.TURBINEFIRE PUMPS-This Section specifies electricdrive, venicalturbine fire pumps for buildinglire-suppressionsystems and includesthe lollowing:
13090-RADIATION PBOTECTION-ThisSectionspecities materialsand methods for typical radiationprotection systems used in medical x-ray rooms and radiationtherapy rooms. lt includeslead sheet, lead glass, and lead glazing plastic;lead-linedfinish materials:and other lead-linedproducts. such as doors, frames, view windows, modular shieldingpartitions,and film transfercabinets.The Section also specifies lead bricks, borated polyethylene,and neutron shieldingd@rs and frames for radiationtherapyapplications.Signsindicatingthe thicknessof the lead shielding providedare also included.
13927-DIESEL-DRIVE, VERTICAL-TURBINE FIRE PUMPS*This Section specifies dieseldrive. venical-turbine fire pumps for buildingfire-suppression systemsand includesthe following: 13956-FIRE-EXTINGUISHING FOAM PIPING-This Section specilies fixed. low€xpansion, aqueous film-forming loam, fire€xlinguishing systems for hydrocarbon-liquid fires. Foamsystemsare normallyused on, but nol limated to, ClassI (flammable-liquid) fires.
131oq-LIGHTNINGPROTECTION-ThisSection speci fies lightningprotectionfor buildings,buildingelements. andbuildingsite components.
13966-HALOGEN AGENT EXTINGUISHING PIPINGThis SectionspecifiesHalon1301 halogenagent,fire€xtinguashing systems.
1311o-CATHODICPROTECTION-This Sectionspecifies passivecathodic protection systems that use magnesium protect steel and iron pipingand or zincsacrificialanodesto tanks. Modify the SectionText to include aluminumpiping and tanks; include electricalconduit protection by adding 'steelconduit'to'piping.'
I 3967-{LEAN-AGENTEXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS-This Sectionspeciliesclean-agentextinguishingsystems.These systems use alternativeagents that are substitutes for fixed,Halon1301extinguishing systems.Specifiedagents and relatedcomponentsin this Sectionare limited to lhose that are FactoryMutual approvedand UndeMriters Laboratories listed. Other agents are includedin NFPA 2001, Clean Agent Firc Extinguishing Systems. See the Evaluationsfor furtherdiscussion.
13'|25-METALBUILDINGSYSTEMS-ThisSectionsoecifies metal buildingsystems,complete with structuralframing, rofing and siding panels,personneldoors, windows, ano accessones. 13720-INTRUSION DETECTION-This Section specifies local intrusiondetection eouigment- lt includes the detection devices and the central control and processingand equipment necessarytor control. The Text of this Section sp€cifiesa system readyto be monitored by a remote station if requiredby a project.Varioustypes of remote signaling systems are ac@mmodated,but Specificationsare not includedtor those externalsystems.The Sectionmay also be edited to secify intrusiondetection that €n interface with an integratedbuilding managementsystem specified io anothorSection. 1381HLOCK CONTROL-Th|S Section specifies svstems for displayingautomaticallyadjustedtime throughoul a {acility,for initiatingtimescheduled audibleand visualsignalsto announceevents,and tor initiatingscheduledequipment operationvia relays.The components specitied use hard-wiredor carriercurrent distribution of time and prc gram signalsfrom a master unit. Equipmentincludesmaster clock- aird program{ontrol units, and various types of indicatingclocks and audibleand visual signal equipment, such as bells, horns, lights, and mechanicalequipment. This Sectioncovers a combinationmaster clock- and orq gram{ontrol system. However,it can be modifiedto cover an independentmaster clmkrontrol system or an independent prograreontrol system. 13845-LIGHTING CONTROLS-This Strtion soecifies wired, programmable,lighting control systems using lowvoltage control circuits. Manual. low-voltage lighting controls are alsospecified. 13851-FIRE ALARN,I-ThiS Section sp€cifies local fire alarm and detection systems for buildings.lt includesthe panels necessaryto control the syst€ms and the various peripheraldevicesasseciatedwith detectingfires. initiating alarms, and indicatingalams with audible and visible signals.The Sectionalso includesesuioment tor communicating alarm. superyisory,and trouble signals to a remole alarmreceivingstation. 13915-FIRE-SUPPRESSION PIPING-ThisSectionspecifies combined systems of standpipes and sprinklers for buildingsand includesthe following: 13916-FIRE-SUPPRESSION SPRINKLERS-ThisSection specifieswet- and dryfipe, fire-suppressionsprinklersfor buildingsand includ€spiping,sprinklers,specialties, and accessories.Use Division13 Section'Fire-Suppression Piping' for preactionand delugepiping, sprinklers,specialties, and accessories;and combined (standpipeand sprinkler) svstems. 13920-FIRE PUMPS-This Sectionincludesonly the Evaluationsand DrawingC@rdinationand SpecificationsCoordinationchtrklists for the lollowing Sectionscoveringfire pumps for buildingtire-suppressionsystems: . 13921-ELECTRIC-DRlVE, HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS . 13922-DIESEL-DRlVE. HORIZONTAL FIREPUMPS . 13926-ELECTRIC-DRIVE, VERTICAL.TURBINE FIRE PUMPS .13927-DIESEL-DRlVE. VERTICAL-TURBINEFIRE PUMPS
1397s-STANDPIPESAND HOSES-Ihis Sectionspecifies standpipesfor buildingsand includesthe following: DlvtstoN
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14100-DUMBWAITERS-This Section specifies preengineeredelectricdumbwaiterunits,commonly used for fl@r tGfloor transter ot small-sizedmaterials such as books, parts, f@d, etc.. in a low- to medium{ise application.Car size is limited by the Codeto 9 sq. ft. (0.84 sq. m) oI platform and a heightof 4 feet (1219mm). 14210-ELECTRIC TRACTIONELEVATORS-ThisSection specifiespreengineeredelectrictractionelevatorsfor either passengeror freight use. Substantialgeneric descriptions are included, however, to enabl€ manufacturers to bid either custom or preengineeredequipment. This Section can be modilied to specify custom electric traction elevators.
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14240-HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS-ThisSection specilies preengineeredhydraulicelevators,including holeless and roped hydraulictypes, for either passengeror freight use. Substantialgeneric descriptionsare included,however. to enable manufacturersto bid either custom or preengr. neereoeouroment_ 143,|o-ESCALATORS-ThiS Section specifies standard preengineered,heaW.duly,and exteriorescalators. 14320-MOVING WALKS-This Section specifies moving walks as defined by ASME 417.1, which includespowerdriven, continuoustreadway units used for conveyingpassengers along either a horizontalsurface or an inclined ramp. lt is intendedlor specifyingpreengineeredunits lor normalinstallations,travelingeither horizontallyor between floors, rising one story at a time. The SectionText can be amplifiedro cover custom€ngineeredunits and units with specialrequirementssuch as exceptionallylong or curved runs or rises.custom profiles,or the use of custom materials in balustradeconstruction. 14420-WHEELCHAIRLIFTS-This Section soecifiessoecial-purposelifts used to transpon nonambulatoryand semiambulatorypersons from one level of a building to another.lt includesvedcal wheelchairlifts. inclinedwheelchair lifts, and inclinedstairway chair lifts. lt also includes requirementstor standard runway enclosures offered by manufacturersof venicalwheelchairlifts. 14512*TRACKVEHICLESYSTEMS-ThisSectionspecifies self-propelledcontainersystems that travel on electrified tracks. 14559-5ELECTIVEVERTICALCONVEYORS-ThisSection specifiesvenical transportsystems operatedby a single motor that continuously moves a chain in a single direction,much like a ferris wheel. Containershook into the chainas it passestheir receivingstationand are transported to other verticallocations. 14560-CHUTES-This Section specifies gravity-type, metal chutes used to conveywaste and linen.
DtvrstoN | 5 15050-BASIC MECHANICALMATERIALSAND METH. ODS-This Sectionspecifiesmaterialsand methods for applicationwith mechanicalequipment and piping system installations insidethe building.Pjpingspecialties,,oining materials,joint construction,identificationmaterialsand devices.and installationreouirementscommon to more than one Division15 Sectionare included.This Sectionsupplementsother Division15 Sections.lt must be edited and used with other Sectionsfor a complete system specification. 15060*HANGERSAND SUPPORTS-ThisSectionsoecF fies hangers and supports for mechanicalsystem piping and equioment. 15075-MECHANICAL IDENTIFICATION-ThisSection specifiesidentification materialsand devices,and installation requirements.Use this Section for complex pojects requiring comprehensive specifications for labeling and identifyingmechanicalinstallations. Use the Specifications in Division15 Section '8asic MechanicalMaterialsand Methods' for simple projects. 15081-DUCT INSULATION-ThisSectionspecifiesrigid and flexibleduct, plenum, and breechinginsulationand field-applied jackets {or HVAC systems. This Section includesapplications lor indoorandoutdoorducts. I 5082-EOUIPMENTINSULATION*This Sectionspecities blanket,board,andblockinsulation andfield-applied iackets for HVACequipment.This Sectionincludesapplications for indoorand outdoorequipment. 15083-PIPE INSULATION-ThisSection specifiespre lormed pipe insulationand tield-appliedjackets for plumbing and HVACpiping systems and for diesel€nginecooling pipingand exhaustpipes.This Sectionincludesapplications for ind@r and outdoor piping. 151oo-VALVES-ThiS Section specifies general duty valvescommon to most mechanicalpipingsystems.Valves specifiedin this Section includegate, globe, ball, butterfly, plug. and check valves. 15121-PIPE EXPANSIONFITTINGSAND LOOPS-This Sectionspecifiespipe expansionfittings and loops for steel and copper piping for mechanicalsystems, and the tollowtng: 15122-METERS AND GAUGES-ThisSectionspecifies melers and gauges for mechanicalpiping syslems; thetr mometers, pressuregauges, and test plugs: Ilow-measur' ing systems; floweters and tlow indicators; thermalenergytlowmeters; and water meters. 1517o-MOTORS-This Section soecilies small and mediumelectricmotorslor useon ac power systemsup to 600 V. accordingto NEMA standards.The Sectionincludes the common requirements for referencing by other Sections where motors are integralcomponents of the specified equipment.ThisSection does not include dc motors, synchronous motors, woundrotor motors, and motors rated more than 600 V. Specialmotor types and features are also not included;these items may be covered in the individualequipmentSectionsor addedto this Section.Previous Edition:Same Section number and title. dated 3/91. RelatedSections:Reter to the SpecificationsCoordination checklistat the end of this Section.Summaryol Changes: The tollowingchangeswere made in this edition: . Sl (metric)units were added. . 'Submittals'Articlewas addedto the Text. . UL standardin 'Oualiv Assurance'Anicle was deleted trom the Text. . Servicefactor was based on NEMA MG 1 reouirements. . List of unusuals€ruiceconditionswas addedto'Basic Motor Requirements'Aniclein the Text. . Specificationfor en€rgy€tficient motors was updated. . Teminology was changedto match NEMA MG 1. . Specificationtor temperature rise and insulation class was added. . Bearingspecificationand specificationtor motors applied on variable-frequency controllerswere improved. Option for requiringthermal protectionon motors above a cenain size was added. . "Source Ouality Control" Paragraph was added to "PolyphaseMotors" Article in the Text. . Installationrequirementswere uDdated. . "Commissioning"Article was deletedfrom the Text. '1518'l-HYDRONIC PIPING-ThisSectionspecifiespiping systems fdr hot-water heating. chilled-watercooling, and condenserwater. This Sectionincludespipes. fittings. specialduty valves,and hydronicspecialties.
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15182-STEAN4 AND CONDENSATE PtPtNG-ThisSecrion specifiessteamand condensatepipingand specialties for systemsup to I 25 psig {860kPa).insidelhe building 15185-HYDRONICPUMPS-This Secrionspecitjesthe followingcategoriesof hydronicpumps for hydronicsystemsi 15186-STEAM CONDENSATEPUMPS-This Section speci{jessteam condensatepumps for low-pressuresteam systems. 1518g-HVAC WATERTREATMENT-ThiS SectionsoecF fies automaticand manual wate.-trealmentsvstems tor hot-walerheating,sleam and condensateprping.chrlledwater, and condenserwater systems;and water-treatment cnemrcals. 15191 FUELOIL PIPING-ThisSectionsoecifiesfuet oil and dreseltuel prping,specraltres, and accessoileswith n the building.Equipmentin this Sectionis suitablefor No.2 and lighterfueloil anddieselfuel. 15194-FUEL GAS PIPING-ThisSectionspecifies natural and fiquefredpetroleumgas piprng,speciallres. and acces sorieswilhinthe building. 15212-LABORATORY AIB AND VACUUMPIPtNG-This Section specilies laboratory compresseo-alrano vacuum piping,designatedas'laboratoryair' and'laboratoryvacuum'j laboralory gasalarmsystems;andrelaledspecraltres. 15221-CHEMICAL-WASTE PIPING-ThiSSecttonsoecifies chemical-waste and ventpiping,andspecialties foi Iaboratorysystems. 15241-MECHANICAL VIBRATION CONIROLSAND SEIS. MIC RESTRAINTS-ThisSection specifies vibration isolators, vibrationisolationbases,vibrationisolationroof curbs. and sersmicrestrarnts and snubbers. 1s2s2-LABORATORYAIR EOUIPMENT-ThiSSection specifies compressed€ir equipment and accessoriesfor laboratory applrcatons. Typicatequipmentapplicable to th's 5ectronIncludes a,rcompressors, receiverS, dryers,airpuoflcation systems,and air-filterassemblies. 15253-LABORATORYVACUUM EQUIPMENT-This Section specities vacuum equipment for laboratory applications. Typicalequipm€ntapplicabl€to this Sectionincludes vacuumpumps and recetvers. 15411-WATER DISTRIBUTIONPtPtNG-This Section specifieswaterdistribution-piping insrdethe building.Most prprngspecrlted rs suttabtetor potabtewater,but some non_ potable-waterpipingis included. 15420-DRAINAGEAND VENT PtPtNc-lhis Section specifies soil, waste, and vent piping and storm drainage pipinginsjdethe building. 15430*PLUMBINGSPECIALTIES-Thjs Sectionspecifies plumbing specialtiesfor water distributionsystems; soil, waste, and vent systems; and storm drainagesystems. 15440-PLUMBING FIXTURES-ThisSection soecifies plumbingfixturesand relatedcomponents,includingthe following: 15441-\i/ATER DISTRIBUTIONPUMps-This Section specifiespumps for buildingpotable-watersystems. 15444-PACKAGED BOOSTER PUMPS-This Section sp€cilies packagedbooster pumps to maintainpressurein the buildingwater distributionpiping:compact,packaged booster pumps; constant-speeftrive, packaged booster pumps; and variable-speeddrive, packagedb@sler pumps. 15445-5EWAGE PUMPS-This Secrionsrecifies sewaoe pumpsfor the buildrngsanitarydrainagesystems,and w;! prt-mounted.verticalsewage pumps; quickdisconnecl,system, submersibiesewage pumps; stationary,submersible sewage pumps; sewage-pump,reverse,flowattachment; subrersible, grinder sewage pumps; submersible,cutter sewage pumps; sewage pump basins;packaged,sewage pump unrts;andpackaged, wastewaterpumpunits. 15446-5UMP PUMPS-This Secrion specifies sumo pumps for buildrngstorm drainagesystems,and wet-pri mounled.veflrcalsump pumps;submersible sump pumps; compact,submerstblesump pumps;sump pump basins; sump pumpprts:andpackaged, drainagepumpunits. 1545o-POTABLE-WATER STORAGETANKS-This Section specifiespotablewater storagetanksfor indoorinstal, lations-This Sectionmay also be used lor nonpotable-water appilcatlons. 15465-COMPRESSED-AtR EOUTPMENT-ThisSecrion specifiesequipmentand accessoriesfor buildingcompressed-atrsystems operatingat 200 psig (1380 kpa) and less.
15466-MEDICALAIR EOUIPMENT-ThisSectionspecifies medicaland dentalair equipmentand accessories for healthcarefacilitres.Typicaiequipmenlapplicableto this Sectionincludesair compressors,dryers,air purification systems,andtilterassemblies.
1552o-FEEDWAIER EOUIPMENT-IhiS Secrionspec tres feedwaterequipmentused to returncondensateanr makeupwater to both high-and low-pressuresteam bo ers. Feedwaterunils specifiedin this Sectionincludeva(. uum unitsand thosewith cast-ironor steelreceivers.
15467-MEDICAL VACUUM EOUTPMENT-ThiS Section specifiesmedicaland dentalvacuumequiomentandaccessoriestor healthcare facilitiesTypicalequipmentapplicable to this Section includes vacuum pumos and vacuum exhausters(oralevacuationl.
15530-REFRIGERANTPIPING*This Section speciie. refrigerantpiping used for air{onditioningapplicatron: Includrngpipes, tubing, fittings, specialties,specral,dut,. valves,and refrigerants.
15469-WATER SOFTENERS-ThisSection specifies water softenersand accessoriesfor watetrsupplysystems. 1548G-DOIVESTICWATER HEATERS-ThiS Section specifiesonly the Evaluationsfor the following water heaterSectionsfor domesticwatersystems: 15481-COMPRESSED-AIR PtPING-ThisSectionspecjfies pipingand pipingspecialties ior buildingcompressedair systemsoperatingat 200 psig(1380 kPa)and less. 15482-MEDICAL GAS PIPtNG-This Section specifjes medicalgas pipingand specialties tor healthcare facilities. Typicalmedicalgas systemsapplicable to this Sectionare oxygen,arr,vacuum,nrtrousoxrde,nitrogen,carbondioxrde, waste anestheticgas evacuation, and dentalvacuum (oralevacuation). Is48s-ELECTRIC,DOMEST]CWATER HEATERS-ThiS Sectionspecilieselectric water heatersand accessoriesfor domesttcwater systems_ 15486-FUEL-FIRED, DOMESTIC WATERHEATERS-ThiS Section specifiesfuel-firedwater heatersand accessories for domestic water systems. 15487-DOMESTICWATER HEAT EXCHANGERS-This Sectionspecifiesheat exchangersand accessoriesfor generating hot water for domestic water systems.and the lof rowng: 15501-HEATING BOILERSAND ACCESSORTES-ThiS SectionincludesEvaluations, DrawingCoordination. and SpecificationsCoordinationonly Ior the following Sections covering fuelfired and electric boilers used for building heatingsyslems: . 15512-CAST-IRONBOILERS:Gas-fired.oit-fired.or combination gas/oil-firedboilers for hot water or lowpressuresteam. . 15513-CONDENSINGBOILERS:cas,firedboiterslor hot water. 15514-FINNEDWATEB-TUBE BOiLERS: Gasjiredboiters lor hot water. . 1551S-STEELWATER-TUBE BOILERS:Gas-fired.oilfired, or combinationgas/oil-fired,heatingor power boilers for low-temperatureand high-temperaturehot water or low-pressure and high€ressuresteam. . 15518-FIRE-TUBEBOILERS:Gas-fired.oit-fired.or combination gas/oilfired boilers; Scotch or Scotch marineboilersfor low-temperatureand high-temperature hot water or low-pressureand high,pressuresteam; and fireboxboilerslor hot water or low-pressuresteam. . 15519-ELECTRICBOILERS:Etectric-resistance boilers fof hot water or steam. 15511-RADIANTHEATINGPIPING-ThisSecrionspecifies radiantheatingpiping,includingpipes and tubes for embedded heat-transterheating loops, manifolds,fittings, specialiuty valves,and pipingspecialties. 15512-CASTIRONBOILERS-ThisSectionsoecifiesqasfired,oilJired,or combrnatron gas/orl.fired boitersfor h;aL ing hot watef or low-pressuresteam 15513-{ONDENSINGBOILERS-ThisSectionsDecities gas-firedboilersfor heatinghor water. 15514-FINNED WATER-TUBEBOTLERS-ThiSSection specifiesgas-firedboilersfor heatinghot waler. 1551s-STEEL WAIER-TUBE EOtLERS-This Section specifies gas-fired, oil-fired, or combination gas/oiffired heatingor power boilersfor low- and high-temperature heatinghot water or low- and high-pressuresteam. 15518-FIRE'TUBEBOILERS-ThisSectionspecifiesaas lired,orl-frred, or combrnatron gas/orlJrred boilers;Scotci o' Scotchmarineboilersfor low tempe.atureand high,tem peratureheatinghot water or lowpressureand high-pres sure steam; and firebox boilersfor heatinqhot water or low-pressuresteam. 15519-ELECTRICBOILERS-ThisSectionspecitiesetec tric-resistanc€boilersfor heatinghot warer or steam.
1ssS0-BREECHINGS,CHIMNEYS,AND STACKS-ThS Sectionspecifiesbreechings, chimneys,andstacksfor fuel burning equipment, including double-wall metal vents refraclory-linedmetal breechingsand stacks,and fabrjcated oreecnrngs. 15560-FUEL-FIREDH&V UNITS-This Secrioninctude onlythe Evaluations for the followingnew Sectionsspecijy ing fuel-firedH&V units includingdirect-and indirecttirec unitsanddestratification H&Vunits. . 15561-DIRECT,FIRED. MAKEUPAIR UNITS . 15562-INDIRECT.FIRED, PACKAGED H&V UNITS . 15563-DESTRATIFICATION H&V UNITS 15561-DIRECT-FIRED, MAKEUPAIR UNITS-This Sec tion specifies direct-fired, makeup air units that do nol employ heat exchangers.Gas is burnedin the airstream. and products of combustion are introduced to the sDace Theseunitsincludeonly thosethat are nalural{asand p. pane€asfired and that are suitablefor indoorand outdoo, aoolications. 15562-INDIRECT-FIRED, PACKAGEDH&V UNITS Th]:: Sectionspecifiesindirect-fired,packagedH&V units factory assembled from standard components. Custom compo nents and accessoriescan be added.Units typicallyinclude duct turnaces in parallelor series airtlow, depending on heatingrequirements,with attachedplenums housingfans mixing sectlons, and other accessories.Units are suitable for indoorand outdoorapplications. 15563*DESTRATIFICATION H&V UNITS-This Section specifiesdestratificationH&V units that are large,fuel-fired unitsconsistingof a fan, casing,and an industrial, fire-tube heat exchanger.These units are used to heat largeareasof industrialbuildingsand warehouses.They are centrallv placedin the spac€and circulatelargevolumes of air to dis tribute the heat throughoutthe spaceand ro limit stratifica, tion. Accessori€sare limit6d. 15585-DEAERATORS-This Section specifies deaerators used to heat feedwater to steam boilers and to remove oxygenand other gases. 1561o-FURNACES-ThiSSectionspecifiesgas- and oil fired lurnaces used in residentialand light{ommercial con struction.lt also specifiesauxiliaryequipmentused with furnaces,includingcontrols,filters.air cleaners,and humid ifiers. 15620-FUEL-FIREDHEATERS-This Section specifies gas- and oil-fired unit heaters and duct furnaces and qas trred,tube-type,infraredheaters.The unit heatersspecileo includethe types normallymounted overheadindoors.The ducl turnacesincludeboth indoorand outdoor tvoes. Tube type intraredheaterscovered includetorceddraft and vac uum-vented-typeunits and multiple,burner,vacuumvented systems. 1562I-INDIRECT-FIRED ABSORPTIONWATER CHILL ERS-This Section specifies indirect-fired.hot-water and steam absorptionchillers. One- and twestage absorption chillers are specified. Single-stageabsorption chillers are availablefrom about 10G.to 1ToGrons {350- to 6000 kW) cooling capacity.Two-stageabsorptionchillers start at 350 tons (1230 kW, with lhe largestunits providing1500-tons (527skw) chilling capacity.They are used with aircondi tioning systems applicableto public,institutional,commer cial, and industrialbuildings.The Sectiondoes not appiy to chillers used for process chilling or other industrial pur poses,no. does it applyto direct-firedabsorptionmachines 15622-DIRECT'FIRED. ABSORPTIONCHILLEBS-This Sectionspecifiesdirect-fired,two-stageabsorptionchillers Theyrangefrom 3G to 1'loGtons(10O,to 3B7O-kW) chiilina capacity D'rectfired, twcstage absorptronchillers are used with air{onditioning systems applicable to public, instrtutaonal, commercial,and industrialbuildings.Absorp tion chillersare not commonlyused for processchillingor otherindustrial whereloadsare more volatile. OUrDoses 15625-CENIRIFUGALWATERCHILLERS-ThisSection specifieselectrically drivencentrifugal waterchillers. 15628-RECIPROCATING WATER CHILLERS-ThisSec tron specifiesreciprocatingwater chillers, includingwater cooled,condenserless,and outdoorair{ooled types.
MASTERSPECcontinues on the nerc oaae ARCOM;SaltLakeCity,Utah,and Alexandria, Virginia
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CONSTRUCTION INFORMATION SYSTEMS
AIA MASTERSPEC t4l 15782-ROOFfOP UNITS-This Sectionspecitiesrooflop coolingunitsused lor air{onditioningsystemsin commer and institutional cial,industrial. buildings.Units containairwith heatingoptions refrigeration cooled,direct€xpansion suchas gasfired,hot water,andsteam.
15640-PACKAGEDCOOLING TOWERS-ThiS Section updatedspeciliesfactoryJabricated,mechanical{raf1cooling towers. 15661_FLUtD COOLERS-ThisSectionspecifies factoryfabri€ted, packaged.closed{ircuit. mechanical-drattfluid coorers.
UNITS15783-COI'lPUTEB,ROOM AIR-CONDITIONING ThisSectionspecifiesfloor-andceilingmountedunitaryairintendedspecifi' conditioningunits,and their accessories. callyfor computer-roomapplications.
15663-EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS-This Section packagedevaporativecondensspeci{iestactory-fabricated.
15784-PACKAGED TERMINAL AIR-COND]TIONING UNITS-This Sectionspecifiespackaged,lreestandingor through-the-wall,terminal airconditioning and heat-pump andcontrols. units,includingtheiraccessories
UNITS-This Sectionspecifiesair 15671-CONDENSING and water{ooled condensingunits usually coupled to coils in air{onditioning sysrelrigerant direct€xpansion tems withinbuildangs.
15812-FIBROUS-GLASSDUCTS-ThisSectionspecifies rectangular and roundfibrous{lassductsfor heating,ventisystems. lating,andair{onditioning
Sectionspeci CONDENSERS-This 15672-4lR-COOLED fies air{ooled condensers used lor air{onditioning sys tems.
15815-METAL DUCTS-This Section specifies rectangular, round, and flat{val metal ducls; and duct fittings, suppons, and liners for HVAC airiistribution systems. Applicationsinclude supply-, return, outside-air,and exhaust ducts. Leakagetesting. duct constructlon statlcpressureclasses,and leakageclassesare specifiedin this Section.
CHILLERS-ThisSectionspeci' 15684-ROTARY-SCREW fies rotary-screwchillers.Both single-and twin'screw compressorsare included,along with air- or water{ooled condensers.This equipment Specificationis based on capacitiesrangingfrom 20 to 1300 tons (70 to 4570 kw). 15710-HEAT EXCHANGERS-ThisSection specifies hydronicand steam heat exchangersfor HVACapplications. heat exchangersand plate heat exchangers Shell-and-tube are alsoincluded.
15816-HVAC CASINGS*This Section soecifies field' erectedsheet metal casingsused as equipmentenclosures and plenums. HVAC casings can be field or {actory labricated;this Sectionallows for either method to be specified.
UNITS(15 AIR.CONDITIONING 15736-5ELF-CONTAINED TONS AND SMALLER)-ThiS Section specifies packaged airconditioning units containing a refrigerant compressor and controls.with either integralwatert@led condensing or integralor remote ait{@led @ndensing.Theseunits a.e designed for indoor installations,usually in the finished space,lor €pacities through 15 tons (50 kW.
Sectionspecifiesduct 15820-DUCTACCESSORIES*This accessories,includingdampers, actuators,duct silencers. turningvanes.duct-mountedaccessdoorsand panels,flexible ducts, flexible connectors, and duct accessoryhardware. 15834-AlR CURTAINS-ThisSectionspecifiesair cunains for insect and thermalprotectionot entranceways.Optional teatures for air curtains soecilied an this Section include heating coils and indirect-liredgas heaters, filters, intake louvers.and adjustabledischargenozzles.
15737-5ELF{ONTAINED AIR.CONTAINING UNITS (LARGERTHAN 15 TONSFThis Section specifies packaged airsnditioning units containing a refrigerant compressor and @ntrols, with ehher integral watercooled condensingor remote airtmled condensiog.These units are designed for indoor installationsfor @pacities larger than 15 tons (50 k\M.
15845-AlR TERMINALS*ThiS Section specities ducted airtontrol and distributiondevices used in comrercial airdistributionsystems that control air volume and air temperature.
UNITS-This 15738-5PLIT-SYSTEMAIR-CONDITIONING Section specifies airconditioning units consisting of two factoryflade assemblieswith a direct€xpansionrefrigeration system. The separatecomponentsincludean evaporator coil and a fan, and a compressorand condenser.Units may be conliguredto operateas heat pumps. l574s-WATER-SOURCE HEAT PUMPS-This Section specifieswater-sourceheat pumps used for airconditioning systems in residential,commercial,industrial,and institutional buildings.The types specified in this Section are rooftop units to 25 tons (88 kW); vertical stack units to 2 tons (7 kW: concealedhorizontaland vertical units to 25 tons (88 kW; exposed,floor-mountedconsole units to 1 14 tons (1.8kW; andunitventilatorunitsto 4 tons ('14kW). 15752-HUMIDIFIERS-This Section specilies steam' injection. selt{ontained, heated-pan,and heat€xchanger humidifie.slor applicationon ducted HVAC systems; and steamjniectionand self{ontained humidifiersfor discharging vapordirectlyinto conditionedspace. 15761*AlR cOILS-This Sectionspecifiesair coils using steam, hot water, electric resistance,chilled water, and refrigerantsnot integralto equipment. 15763-FAN€OlL UNITS-This Sectionspecitieshydronic or direct€xpansiont@ling fan{oil units with or without supplementalhydronic,steam, and electric heat, including units for conceaiedinstallationwith external duct connections and units with finished cabinets for surface and recessedmountingin ceilingsor walls. 15764-RADIATORS-ThiS Section specifies baseboard radiators,conveclors,finred-tube radiators.and sleel radiators for hot-waterand steam heatingsystems. 15766-CABINET UNIT HEATERS-This Sectionspecifies hydronic,steam.and electriccabinetunit heaters. 15767-PROPELLER UNITHEATERS-ThisSectionspec; fies hot-water.steam-and electricunit heaters. 15768-UNIT VENTIIATORS-This Section specifieselectric, hydronic,and steam unit ventilators. I 5769-RADIANT HEATINGPANELS-This Sectionspecifies electric and hydronicradiant heating panels designed as surtace-mountingunits and for installingin lay-inceilings with an exposedgridsupportsystem. HEATINGCABLES-ThisSectionspecL 15775-ELECTRIC ties electracheatingcables used for radiantheating,snow melting and ice stopping, pipe freeze protection,and hotwater-temperaturemaintenance.
15846-AIR-TO-AIR ENERGY RECOVERY UNITS-IhiS Sectionspecifiesenergy recoveryunits designedfor air-to air energy transfer, including heat wheels, heattipe heat exchangers,and fixedflate exchangers.Section includes devices for built-inair movement systems and those packaged as selfrontained unils.
I
15850-FANS-This Sectionincludesthe supportingdocs ments {€valuations.Drawing Coordination.and Specifications Coordination)for the following Sections specifying fans: . 15851-CENTRIFUGAL FANSfor indoorinstallations . 15852-AXiALFANSfor indoorinstallations . 15853-POWER VENTILATORSfor indoor or outdoor installations 15851-CENTRIFUGALFANS-This Sectionspecifiescentritugalians for indoorinstallations. 15852-MIAL FANS-This Sectionspecifiesaxialfans for ind@r installations. 15853-POWER VENTILATORS*ThiSSection specifies power ventilatorslor indooror outdoorinstallations. 15854-CENTRAL-STATIONAIR-HANDLINGUNITS-lhis Sectionspecifiescentral-stationair+andlingunits with coils for indoorinstallations. AND GRILLES-ThiS 15855-DIFFUSERS,REGISTERS, Sectionspecifiesoutlet and inlet air terminals,includingdiffusers, registers,and grilles. 15861-AlR FILTERS-This Sectionspecifiesfactory-fabri cated air-filterdevices and media used to remove particulate matter from air for HVACapplications. AND CONTROLS15900-HVAC INSTRUMENIATION This Section specitiescontrol components.requiredfor a complete control system, Iound in most HVACcontrol sysrem5. Sectionspeci1594o-SEOUENCEOF OPERATION-ThiS ties control seouencesin HVACsvstems. lt includesexamples of operation sequencesthat require editing to make them apply to the specific equipment and systems installed,desiredoperationalintent, and Proiectconditions.
15990-TESTING, ADJUSTING, AND BALANCING-ThiS Section specifies testing, adjusting, and balancing air and water distributions, measuring electrical performance of HVAC equipment, selting quantitative performance of HVAC equipment. verifying that automatic control devices are properly functioning, measuring sound and vibration, and reporting results of the activities and procedures specified in this Section. DtvtsloN
l6
ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND METH. 16050-BASIC ODS-This Section specifies basic materials and methods for electrical installations, including basic Specifications for raceways, building wire. supporting devrces, concrete bases, and electric identification. lt also includes electrical demolition, electrical component touchup painting, cutting and patching for electrical construction, and electocitymetering equipment lor Owner's and utility company s use. 16060-GROUNDING AND BONDING*This Section specifies grounding of low- and medium-voltage systems and equipment. lt also covers minimum requlrements tor grounding electronic and other specialized systems and equipment. including those for data processing and tele communications. This Section also provides options for specifying grounding requirements beyond the safety minl mums {or both power and electronic systems. 16071-SEISMIC CONTROLS FOR ELECTRICAL WOBKThis Section speci{ies anchorage, fastening, and bracing devices used to prevent undesired movement of electrical components during earthquakes. lt can be edited for use in any ol the following Project situations: Section IDENTIFICATION-This 16075-ELECTRICAL specifies identification tor electrical work, including raceways, cables, and equipment; warning and caution signs; and buriedcable warning tape. lt is applicable on projects where identification requirements are more complex than can be covered by the basic electrical identification specifi'Basic Electrical cations included in Division 16 Section Materials and Methods.' 161 2o-CONDUCIORS AND CABLES-This Section speci fies low-voltage building wires and cables. including taps and solices. 161 21-CONTROL/SIGNAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA-This Section specifies transmission media used for control and signal circuits for building proiects. The Section includes copper conductor cables, optical fiber cables. and associated equipment tor use in buildings, typically lor intercon of electronic datatrocessing, necting components telephone, television, teleconferencing, building manageprotection, and satellite communication systems. ment and 16122-UNDERCARPET CABLES-This Section specifies flat cables for undercarpet installations in building proiects. Undercarpet cables are available in two types to accommodate power and lelecommunications branch circuits. 161 24-MEDIUM-VOLTAGE CABLES-This Section spects fies single{onductor and multiconductor cables, cable splices, and terminations for electrical distribution systems with voltages {rom 2001 to 35,000. This Section also specr lies accessory products used directly with medium-voltage cables including splj€s, terminations, separable connec tors, and fault indicators. 16130-RACEWAYS AND BOXES-This Section specifies electrical conduits, tubing, surface raceways, and wireways used for electriGl power and signal distribution; electrical outlet, device, Il@r, pull, and iunction boxes; raceway fittings; cabinels; and hinged-box assemblies. 161 38-UNDERFLOOR RACEWAY-This Section specities underfloor raceways, including conventional llattop, trench type, flush type. and cellular; service fittings; and junction boxes. lt also specifies materials and labor for raceway con nections to cellular metal deck specilied in Division 5 and cellular concrete tloor raceway specilied in Division 3. 16139-CABLE TRAYS-This Section specifies metal cable trays used for supporting electrical wires and cables. Cable trays are also used for supporting electrical conduit and tub ing systems and mechanical tubing and piping. 16140-WlRlNG DEVICES*This Section specifies electrF cal wiring devices including receptacles, snap switches, plugs, and plug connectors. This Section also specifies wall plates, Iloor seNice outlets. poke-through assemblies, telephone/power seryice poles, and multioutlet assemblies. Receptacle types specified include groundjault circuit interrupters. integral surge suppression units, and isolatedground receptacles. This Section also specifies simple dimmer switches but does not include dimmer systems. {See ') Division 16 Section "Lighting Control Equipment.
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16145-LIGHTING CONTBOL DEVTCES-This Section specifies devices {or automatic control of lighting including time switches, photoelectric relays, occupancy sensors. and multipole lighting relays and contactors.
1641g-FUSED POWER CIRCUIT DEVTCES-ThiS Secrion specifies bolted-pressure switches and other high-pressure contact switches rated 800 ro 6000 A, 600 V or less, and accommodating Class L or Class T fuses.
1621s-ELECTRICAL POWER MONIIORING AND CON, TROL-This Section specifies an electronic interface with circuit protective devices in a power distribtrtion system for both remote and local monitoring, metering, and control of individual circuits. lt also specifies optional integration with the building automation system to extend the capabilities of that system.
1643o-SWIICHGEAR-This Section soecifies metalenclosed, drawoul power. crrcurt.breakerjwilchgear rated 600 V and less. for use in ac systems.
16231-PACKAGED ENGINE GENERATORS-This Section specilies simple systems using a single diesel€ngine generator set for emergency or standby electrical power appli catrons. Use this Section to specify systems with standbv ratrngs lrom 20 througn I 500 kW, sLpptying systems rated 600 V and less. 16264-STATIC UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLYThis Section speci{ies 3-phase, on line, static,type, uninter ruptible power supply (UPS) units rated from 5 to 750 kVA {or systems 600 V and less. This Section can be used to specify lower{ated units in this range that are suitable for rocalon In a computer room or other finished space. Higher-rated units are usually installed separately from the loads seryed. 16265-CENTRAL BATTERY INVERTER-This Section specifies central battery inverters lor supplying power to emergency and standby lighting and power circuits. These unrts combane a battery source wjth a charger and invener. Units obtain power from a normal ac supply and are arranged to sense failure of that supply. When failure occurs. units transfer the load to the battery throuoh the inverter. The approximate capacity range of equi-pment specified in this Section is {rom 0.5 lo 20 kVA. 16280-POWER FACTOR CORRECTION CAPACITORSThis Section specifies capacitortype. power factor correction equipment lor use in electrical power systems rated 600 V and less. lt dlso specrfres fixed capacitors and automatac power {actor correction units.
16441-SWITCHBOARDS-ThiS Section sDecifies deadtront distribution switchboards rated 600 V and less. 16442-PANELBOARDS-This Section specifies branchcircuit and distribution panelboards rated 600 V and less. lt includes loadrenter type and powetrdistribution panelboards with circuit-breaker or fused-switch devices. The Section also includes panelboards with integrally mounted transrent voltage surge suppressor (TVSS) devices, panel, boards with motor-starter branch devices, and oanelboards wrth Internal conlactors and other fealures 16450-ENCLOSED BUS ASSEMBLIES-This Section specifies standard low-voltage feeder and plugjn enclosed bus assemblies for power distribution in buildings. 16461-DRY-TYPE (1OOO V AND TRANSFOBMERS LESS)-This Section specifies dry-type djstribution and specralty transformers rated 1000 V and less. Soecraltv transtormers Include buck-boost and control and stgnal unrts. 16481-MOTOR CONTROLLERS-This Sectjon specifies general-purpose controllers rated 600 V and less used for slarting, stopping, and controlling the speed of ac motors. This Section specifies manual controllers and magnetic and solid-state units. lt also specifies auxiliary devices such as push buttons, selector switches, prlot lights, and control relays used with controllers. This Section specifies individually enclosed and mounted controllers. Basic controllers for use in group-mounted installations such as motor{ontrol centers, switchboards, and motor-staner panelboards are specified in their respective Sections. 16482-MOTOR-CONTROL CENIERS-This Secrion specifies conventional, modular, freestanding motor{ontrol centers operating at 600 V, ac and less.
16288-VOLTAGE REGULATORS-ThiS Section soecifies voltage regulators and the power distribution units that often combine voltage regulators with other equjpment for particular application in computer rooms and other environments.
16491-FUSES-This Section specifies canridge fuses. rated 600 V and less, for use in switches, panelboards, switchboards, controllers. and motor{ontrol centers. Use this Section with Sections specifying the above equipment.
16289-TRANSIENT VOLIAGE SUPPRESSTON-This Section specilies t.ansient voltage surge suppressors tor applr catron on low-voltage electrical power systems.
16511-INTERIOR LIcHTING-This Section soecifies factory-fabri€ted Interior hghting frxrures and lghting trxlures mounted on exterior building surfaces used for general, supplemental, task, and emergency lighting applications.
1631 2-SECONDARY UNtT SUBSTATTONS-This Section specifies indoor and outdoor secondary unit substations. including common types and configurations of incoming and transformer sections. This Seclion does not specify secondary drslr,bution equipment drrectly bUt relers to other Seclions Ior tf'ose requirements. 1631s-OVERHEAD ELECTRTCAL DtSTRtBUTION-This Section specifies medium- and secondary-voltage overhead electrical power distribution up to 35 kV. lt lncludes pole mounting transformers and other equipment and materials used tor upgrades or for extensions lor proiects associated with burldrngsor related construclton. 16341 -MEDIUM-VOLTAGE SWTTCHGEAR-This Section specifies {usible metal€nclosed interrupter switchgear and metal{lad circuit-breaker switchgear used in ind@r and outdoor equrpment up to 34-kv class. This section also specifies major accessory components used with mediumvoltage switchgear, including grounding and test devices, tuses, emergency operating stations, and switchgear con_ trol batte.ies and chargers. 16350-MEDIUM.VOLTAGE TBANSFORMERS-ThiS Sectron specifies transformers up to about 2SOO kVA with medium-voltage primaries. Translormers in this Section are tor both indoor and outdoor installation and are liquid-filled and dry-type distribulron and power transformers. 16410-ENCLOSED SWITCHES AND CIRCUIT-BREAKERS-This Section specifies enclosed switches and circuit breakers rated 600 V and less where applied as individuallv mounted drsconneclrng means, service dtsconnecltng means, and circuit overcurrent protection. Enclosed swatches include fused and nonfused tyres rated BO0 A and less. Circuit breakers include integ.ally fused circuit breakers and moldedrase circuit breakers with thermalmagnelic and electronic trip units.
16521 -EXTERIOR LIcHTING-This Section specifies factory-labri€ted exterior lighting fixtures, poles, and accessG fles. 1655s-STAGE LIcHTING-Thts Section soecifies staqe hghting equipment for live performances in moderale-siie auditoriums in schools, community centers, museums, and corporate centers. This Section also specifies stage laghting fixtures and control systems, including dimmer bankslnd a control console. Use this Section lor limited-scope projects. 16570-DIMMING CONTROLS-This Section sDecifies threee types of modular dimming systems and a range of wrred, programmable, low voltage lighting contro' svstems lrme swttches, photoelectric relays, and occupancy sen sors are Included. This Sectton also specitres relavs and Contactors required to execute 04off control commands for lighting circuits. Manual, low-voltage lighting control switches are also speci{ied. 1671s-PHEMISES T€LEPHONE WtRtNc-This Section specifies premises wiring for residential and light{ommercial telephone distribution, with one to four seryice lnes installed. Some projects may require that the cable and cable-terminating work for the system be provided under a separate telephone equipment contract. In such cases, delete those items and use this Section to srecifv the empty raceway system and the seruice provisions that will be required lor the system. 16 7 2 2 - I N I E R C O M M U N I C A T t O N E O U I p M E N T - T h i s Section specifies direct-connected, manually switched and user programmable, multichannel, microprocessor_ switched, voice intercommunication equipment independent of telephone and other voice-data communication svs, tems. This Seclron includes commercral, Institutronal and industrial applrcations, but not residentral svstems. either single or multifamily.
16415-TRANSFER SWTTCHES-This Section specilies transfer switches and associated equioment rated 600 V and less for emergency and standby power systems. lt specifies automatic transfer switches with and without bypasslsolation swrtches, and it soecifies nonautomatic transfer switches. It also specifies the remote annunciator panels and annunciator and control panels sometimes used with automatic transfer-switch installatlons.
ARCOM; Salr Lake Ciry, Utah, and Alexandria, Virginia
4
I
CONSTRUCTION INFORMATION SYSTEMS
1 6 7 2 3 - S C H O O LI N T E R C O MA N D P R O G R A ME O U I P MENT This Sectionspecifiesvoice intercommunicatioi equipmentfor use rn elementaryand secondaryschool:. The Sectionpermitsthe specifierto selectbetweenmanu allyand microprocessor-switched equipment.The manuaIy switchedsystem is specifiedas the conventional. direcl connected,keyed system. The microprocessor swrl,.., r systemis user programmable and can be upgradedIn thi tuture-Both systemsare specifiedwith the usualootrons for selectivepagingand for clock and programinterface The abilityto transmitprogrammedaudiomaterialto ctass rooms and other spacesis also specilied. 16725-NURSECALL-This Sectionspecifiesbasicvisua and audiovisualpatient-nursecommunicationeouioment for healthcarefacilities.Sectionorganization permits the specifierto selectbetweentwo equipmentoptions:visua, tone and audiovisual/voice. Both types of equipmentare primarilyused in smallinstitutions. The selectionis based on communication needs,existingequipmentcoordination requirements.staff preference,and budgetaryplanning. 1 6 7 2 6 - P U B L I CA D D R E S SA N D M U S I CE O U I P M E N T ThisSectionspeciliespublicaddressand musiceouiomenr It canbe used to specrfyequipmentfor background mus,. announcements, and pagingand lor givinganstructions tn such locationsas stores, public places, waiting rooms. warehouses,offices, industrialplants,and schools.Fea tures covered in this Section, such as the paging console, can be deletedfor projectsthat do not requirethem. Othef featuresmay be added. 16727-SOUND-MASKINGEOUIPMENT-This Section specifies electronic sound-masking equipment to hetp achieve privacy for normal conversationin indoor soaces panicularlyin open office areas. 16740-{0MMUNICATION AND DATA.PROCESSING EOUIPMENT-This Section specifies basic interior wirinq for telecommuni€tionssystemsin buildingsThe commu nicationwiring specifiedin this Sectionis suitablefor local areanetworks (LANS)and telephonesystems for voice and data communications.LAN media included in this Section suppon generaclow- and high-speedLANSfor data trans. mtssronrates up to 100 Mbps or more. system compo, nentsincludedin this Sectionare itemssuchas coDoerand fiberoptic cable, connecting bl@ks, outlet assemblies, crossconnects,and patch panels. 16850-TELEVISION EOUIPMENT-This Section specifies closed{ircuit television (CCTV)and master anlenna televi sioo (MATV) systems. For MATV systems, this Section ancludesthe options of off€ir antennas, a community antenna television {CATV)service, a l@al CCTV svstem and televisionreceive{nlyearthstationsas signalsources for televisionprogram material.Both fibercptic and copper cablingare includedfor transmitting video signals.
TWO
CHAPTER
SITEWORK
Subsurface lnvestigation
144
Site lmprovements 1 59 Amenities
Excavation Support 145 Systems Piles and Caissons Water Distribution
Paving and Surfacing
Retaining Walls
146 / 147
Sernrerage and Drainage
Planting 148
177
and
17O
156
144
Soil Mechqnics PRELIMINARY SUBSURFACE INFORMATION
Sj,l"";"6s
A. Collectavailableinformationfor soal.rock. and watel conditions,includingthe following: 1. Topographicand aerialmapping. 2. Geologicalsuryeymapsand publications. 3. Local knowledge(history of site development, exp€rienceot nearby structures,flooding, subsidence.etc.). 4. Existing subsurfacedata (boreholes,well rrcords,water soundings). 5. Reconnaissncesite suryev. 6. Prwious studies. B. Evaluateavailableinformation for site acceptabil ity. lf availabledata are insufficient,consulta geo trchnical engineerto perform a limited subsurlace investigationto gatherbasicinformarion. C. Consultgeotechnicalengineerfor potentialfounda tion performanceat each site as part of the selec tion process. SUBSURFACE DETAILED INFORMATION After seltrtion of a potential site a subsurlaceand laboratory test investigationshould be carried out by a qualified geottrhnical engineerbetore design is undertal(en.
AVERAGE SOURCE:
OTPTH OF U.S. OEPT.
FROST PENETRATION IIN.I OF COMMERCE WEATHER
The investigationshould provide an adequateunder' standing of the subsurfaceconditions and the information should be asssd to determine mtential foundationbehavior.
EUREAU
The enginer should waluate alternativefoundation methods and tmhniques in conjunction with the architect. The engineeror architect should provide insp&tion during construction to ensure that material and constructionproceduresare as specifiedand to evaluate unexpectedsoil, rock, or groundwaterconditions that may be exposedby excavations.
SOIL TYPES AND THEIR PROPERTIES SYMAOLS
DtvrSroN
ETTER
GW Gravel and gravelly mils
;'...
ur GM GC
Sand and undy soils
HATCH. ING
,%:
FROST ACTION
DRAINAGE
Red
gravel,or gravel-sandmixture,littleor no Jines Well-graded
Excellent
None
Excellent
Red
Poorly gradedgravel,or gravel-sand mixtures,little or no fines
Good
None
Excellent
Yellow
mixtures Silty gravels.gravel-sand-silt
Good
Slight
Poor
Yellow
Clayey-gravels, gravel-clay-sand mixtures
Good
Slight
Poor
Red
Well-graded snds, or gravellysnds. little or no fines
Good
None
Excellent
SP
It-lrr' lO r r
Red
Poorly gradedFnds, or gravellysands,little or no fines
Fair
None
Excellent
Yellow
Silty snds, snd-silt mixtures
F a ir
Slight
Fair
Yellow
Clayeysnds, end-clay mixtures
Fair
Medium
Poor
Gren
Inorganicsilts,rock flour, silty or clayey fine snds, or clayeysilts with slight plasticity
Fair
Very high
Poor
Green
Inorganicclaysof low to medium plasticity,gravellyclays,silty clays, leanclays
Fa i r
Medium
lmperuaous
OL
Green
Organicsilt-claysof low pla$icity
Poor
High
lmperuious
MH
Blue
Inorganicsilts, micaceousor diatomac$us fine sandyor silty soils.elasticsilts
Poor
Very high
Poor
Bl u e
Inorganic clays of high plasticity, fat clays
Very poor
Medium
Imperyaous
Bl u e
O r g a n i c l a y so f m e d i u mt o h i g hp l a s t i c i t yo, r g a n i cs i l t s
Very poor
Medium
lmpervious
Orange
Peatand other highly organicrcils
Not suitable
Slight
Poor
SM
CL
CH
LL>50 OH Highly organic oils
VALUE AS A FOUNOATION MATERTAL
3::$ '/a
ML
Silrs and clays
DESCRIPTION
sw
SC
Silts and clays LL<50
SOIL
COLOR
'%t
ry,
%z
NOTES l. Consultgeotechnicalengineersandlocalbuildingcodesforallowablesoilbearingcapacities 2. LL indicates liquid limir.
Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineersj New York, New York
SUBSURFACEINVESTIGATION
ExcovotionSupportSyslems
I45
EMBANKMENT STABILITY FOR OPEN EXCAVATION EXCAVAT HEIGHT
heck lateral drsplacement
DEPTH VARIES WITH SOIL
SOIL
CONDITIONS
NorE
2
{ sorL 3
Cantilever sheel piling is used for shallow-depth excava uonS_
CANTILEVER
SHEET PILING
OPEN
EXCAVATION
":",1:l':*'1"\
SOLDIER
PILE T
GRADE CONTINUOUS WALE SHEET PILE
=IN[:JE t...-
CONCRETE HEEL
SOLDIER PILES WITH UGGING BOARDS
OR FOOTING
TIMBER
*ooo
sHEETTNG
UGGING
SUBGRADE
TIMBER SHEETING
RAKER BRACE TIEBACK CONNECTION
FREE LENGTH
STEEL SHEETING HOLE DRILLEO THROUGH SOIL] ANCHOR ROD OR TENDON INSERTED: HOLE GROUTEO
relstorrnc; 9PACE /./
X SHEET PILE WALL OR SOLDIER PILES WITH LAGGING BOARDS
\
\
SUBGRADE
S E C U R I N GN U T WITHO G W A S H E RO R EOUIVALENT
I 2'' STEEL
EARTH ANCHOR
TAPERED BRACKET AT SOLOIER PILE
CONTINUOUS WALE
EXCAVATION SUPPORT WALL
HOLE DRILLED THROUGH SOIL AND INTO ROCK: ANCHOR ROO OR TENDON INSERTED: HOLE GROUTED
EXCAVATION
SHEET PILE WALL OR SOLDIER PILES WITH LAGGING AOARDS
PIN DRILLEO SET IN ROCK
CHANNEL
ERACE
SUPPORT
COM
PON
ENTS
N OTES 1. For deep excavations, several tiers of bracing may be necessary.
ANO
2. lf a subgrade of the excavation is used to install spread footings or mats, proper dewatering procedures may be required to avoid disturbing the bearing level. 3. At times. it may be possible to improve the bearing stralum by excavating compressible materials and repiaqng them with compacted granular backfill. 4. For evaluation of problems encountered with sheeting and shoring, consult a foundation engrneer
SUAGRAOE
5. Local codes and OSHA regulations must be considered. Consult a toundation engineer for excavation desagn. BRACED
EXCAVATION
DETAILS
6 Proximity of utilities and other structures must be consid ered in excavation design.
Donald Neubauer, P.E.: Neubauer Consulting Engineers: Potomac, Maryland Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers: New York, New York
EXCAVATIONSUPPORTSYSTE MS
PileFoundotions
146
W w lltl ilr lI )tl AW M W ,Mis.+._ w
vffw qtw
Yll--
TIMBER
E'Jot*o.*o
STEEL
PRESTRESSEO CONCRETE
TIMBER
WOOD, SHELL OR PIPE -J P|LESaEM
STEEL PIPE CONCRETE FILLED
;h??"J'illv
3'J5*.*o
CONCRETE FILLED STEEL SHELL
TIMBER ANO CONCRETE FILLEO SHELL
H.PILE SECTION
STEEL PIPE AND FILLED CONCRETE SHELL
PRECAST CONCRETE TIP
H - PILE AND PRESTRESSEO CONCRETE
PILE STEM PRECAST CONCRETE
WITF TIP
COMPOSITE
t) TOP OF BEARING
CROSS
SECTION (FLUTED SHELL)
STRATUM \
PRECAST
PRESTRSSSED
ryffiff CYLINDER
UNCASED DRILLED
OR
UNCASED ENLARGEO
WITH BASE
PIPE.
(, CROSS SECTION (SPIRAL WELDED SHELL)
SOCKET \
SECTION MINIPILE
SHELL WITH MANDREL
ROCK
SHELL NO MANDREL
DRILLED-IN. CAISSON
CONCRETE N OTES '1. A mandrel is a member insened into a hollow pile to reinforce the pile shell while it is driven into the ground. 2. Timber piles must be treated with wood preseryative when any portion is above the groundwater table.
GENERAL
3. Uncasedpilessmallerthan 30 inchesshouldbe installed usinga continuousflight hollow stem augerwith grout iniected under pressure.Alternatively,a heavy wall casing is used to compact zero slump concrete to enlarge the baseof the pileand assurepilecontinuity.
4. Uncasedpiers 30 inches in diameterand larger are installed using various types of augers and may be enlargedat the base using a bellingtool in some soils Relerto ACI336.1andACI 336.3.
PILE DATA stzE (tN.)
PILE TYPE
OPTIMUM LOAD RANGE (TONS)
USUAL
SPACING
TIMBER
5-l0rip 12-20butt STEEL
concrete filled PrpHlosed end concrete filled
to4 0 "
concrete tilled straight or taper concrete filled unileGrn carsson concrete filled CONCRETE
or ptles or prers
COM POSITE oncrete - lmber
5 -]0 trp 12-20butl
oncrete - prpe
3'0"to4
H - piie
1 9 - 4 1b u t t NOTE Applacable material specifications Concrete,Acl 31 8; TimberASTM D25: Structural Sections ASTM 436. 4572. and
Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers; New York, New York
PILES AND CAISSONS
4690. For selection ot type of pile, consult a foundation engineer.
DomesticWqterSupplySystems TYPES
OF
WATER
147
SUPPLY
Water supply systems commonly emploYed tor resrdential use are public water supply systems (mains): wells; cisterns/ rainwater catchments; natural sprlngs; natural waterways (ponds, lakes, streams, rivers); and distillation GENERAL
NOTES
1. All water supply systems should be inspected, tested, and approved by l@al or state authorities, as required, before operation. 2. Flush nev!,1v installed systems with tresh water, disinfecl to remove contaminants, and perform bacteriological and chemical tests as required. Repeat testing on a regular basis, biennially or as recommended bY health authorities. .ft (or 3. Surface contamination can extend to depths of 20 greater, depending on soil material). Seal casrng/piping joints and voids surrounding the piping to prevent contamrnatron seepage. 4. Depending on the source, groundwater is generally cleaner and more pure than surface water. The ultimate use of the water {for toilet or laundrY, irrigation, waterlng farm animals, human drinking and bathingl determines purity requiremen!s. Consider disinfection and filtration systems to remove harmful bacteria and excessive impu ritaes and minerals that affect water taste or quality.
ZSANITARY WELL COVER (VENTED)
PROVIDE
RECOMMENDEO
DETERMINING
5. "Graywater" (water retrieved lrom bathing, laundry, or kitchen sources) can easily be liltered, stored, and recycled for nonpotable uses such as toilets, car washlng, or irrigation. ln addition, it €n be processed through natural biological systems and returned to potable uses.
PUMP
CAPACITY
LOCKING
DEVICE
PITLESS
ADAPTER
CHECK
VALVE
SNIflER
VALVE
STANDING WATER LEVEL
tr
: l L
\/vELLS
e;
Welldetails given here are generally from the Manual of lndi' vidual Water Supply Systems prepared by the Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Drinking Water (1982).
u> :F >.]
WELL LOCATION: Wells should be l@ated at least 100 ft from (septic tank) sewage disposal. Check local codes.
u0 U< GO
CAPACITY OF WELL. PUMP. AND PRESSURE TANK: After drilling, test capacity for at least 4 hrs at a constant yield and drawdown. Determine minimum acceptable well capacity from the chart on this page titled "Determining Recommended Pump Capacity," then add a factor of safety and usage, preferably 10oyo. Use the same chart to determine the required pump capacity. The capacity of the pressure tank is figured by multiplying the pumping rate by 5 or 10 (42 gal minimum)-
SUBMERSIBLE
6 a 10 12 NUMBER OF FIXTURES
TYPICAL
\ivELL AND
DRILLED
DOMESTIC
SCREEN
TYPES OF WELL PUMPING SYSTEMS: Pumping systems used for wells include a centrilugal pump with a motor aboveground and below the water level in the well; a jet pump, which has both pump and motor aboveground; and direct and reciprocating pumps in the well with a motor aboveground. (An artesian well is one in which the power of the water Dressure elevates a column of water above the original water level without pumps.)
CISTERNS Cistems are ma&rude collection reseryoirs (usually covered to stop evaporation) that stqe rainwater collected from r@fs or paved areas called catchrents. Cisterns are made of steel, polyethylere. @ncrete, and other chemically inert materials. TYPES
OF
TYPE DEPTH Dug
Eored
V\/ELLS DIAM.
REMARKS
3-20 ft "Wishingwell" type;masonry lining;can absorbsurlace contamination; susceptible to periodicdry spells To 100ft 2-30 in Bored with augers; vitrified tile To 50 ft
or steel pipe casing: seal joints to 20-ft depth to prevent surIace contamination
1 - 2 , r . Drivenby welltoints; coupledpipesectioncasing;quick and cheap but shallowdepth To l00O fr 4-24 in Drilled by percussion or rotary
DIVERSION
IN DRUM
/
*) ROOF CATCHMENT
TOTAL CATCHMENT AREA=AXB CALCULATION ROOF CATCHMENT DESIGN FOR CISTERN Nonresistive materials are used lor catchment areas and drainpipes. Water from cisterns may be used for erergencies only or for garden watering, cleaning, toilet flushing, bathing, laundry, dishwashing, or other, nonpotable uses. Major factors used to estimate cistern capacity are amount of rainfall in the catchment area, effective collections surface, storage capacity, user water consumption per day, longest dry period for the region, and availability of other s@rces of water tor emergencies. Basically, cistern size cores down to the relationship between how fast the tank is emptied and how fast it is filled and how much of a bufler is required. For residential use, consumption ranges from 30-50 gal/person/ day. Water is produced at a rate between 0.4 and 0.6 gal/sq ft of catchment area per in. of rain. Consult ltral metmrological records and codes to determine cistern design. CAPACITIES
Driven T o 5 0 f t
bit; plastic or steel casing installed alter lull depth is drilled; expensive, large machinery required but greatest depths/water availability and consrancy
DOWNSPOUT
FINE GRAVEL OR SAND
ll a well does not have a pump capacity shown in the chart on this page, provide a smaller well pump and storage tank followed by a circulating pump and pressure tank. DISINFECTION:Wells and associated piping should be disin' fected before they are put into op€rataon.
\,VATER DISTRIBUTION
TANKS
OF
SQUARE DEPTH ( FT)
AND TANK
CISTERNS
STERN SAND
TYPES CISTERN PURIFICATION NOTES
TANK
DIVERSION VALVE
FILTER
FOR
\^'ATER
ON CISTERNS
1. Locate cisterns as close as practical to the ultimate point of use and away from potential fl@ding to avoid contamination. 2- Screen inlet and outlet piping to prevent the entrance of debris. insects. or animals. 3. Provide sump, drainage, and lockable access for annual cleaning and disinfeclion of the storage tank. (GALLONS) ROUND TANK
SIZES
SIZES (OIAM.)
to F-r
IO FT
12 FT
1920
3000
4320
1500
2350
3380
4610
2880
4500
6480
2250
3520
5070
6920
l4
3840
6000
8&0
3000
4700
6760
9220
10
4790
7500
r 0.800
3760
5870
8460
11,520
12
5148
8976
12,960
4510
7040
1 0 , 15 0
I 3,830
DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA; Washington,D.c
WATERDISTRIBUTION
148
SubsurfoceDroinogeSystems
GENERAL Subsurface drainage systems are very different engineering designs than surface drainage systems. gurface-drainao; systems intercepl dnd collect storm water runoff and co-n_ vey it away from a building and site with the use ol large Inlets and storm drains. Subsurface drajnage systems typi-
cdrly a,e smaller rn srze anl capac'ty, designed to Inlercept lne srower underground flows of a nalural g/oundwaler table, underground stream, or infiltration of soijs from sur lace sources. Surface and subsurface systems rypically requrre discharge either through a pumping station or bV gravity drainage to an adequate outfall.
P A V E M E N TS U B OR OTHER SURFACE FEATURE
GRAVEL \
-/
] 2' OVERUP OF FABRIC
)
DAMPPROOFING
2" ro 4" OIAMETER SLOPED WEEP TUBE (PVC TYP ) CONNECTED FROM ORAINAGE BUNKET TO DRAIN OR PERIM-ER CHANNEL
BACKFILL
ceorexrlre
-l
FABRIC
-_I
WRAPPEO ALLAROUND GRAVEL
I I I J
_iI FREE-DRAINING GRANUUR
o ! ft
CONCRETE SUB (INSUUTE UNDER5UB AS NECESSARY FOR CLIMATE)
t-
4" TO 6" DIAMETER PERFORATED DRAIN, SLOPED
MATERIAL 4" TO 6" OIAMtrER PERFORATEO DRAIN (SLOPE ORAIN TO SUMP OR OUTFALL)
FREE,ORAINING GRANUUR MATERIAL
DRAINAGE BOARD (PROVIOES VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL FLOW FOR SUBSOIL WATER)
TYPICAL
PERIMETER
NOTES
CONCRflE FOOTING
1. The depth ol a draindetermineshow much subsurface water levels will be reduced. 2. When a perforateddrain is used, install it with the holes raclngdown. 3. When used to intercepthillsideseepage,the bottom of a trenchshouldbe cut a minimumof 6 in. into underlvino imoerviousmaterial
FOUNDATION WALL
FOOTING
DRAIN
SURFACE
TYPiCAL
STORM RUNOFF LINE
vf ,st
7
LOWERED WATER TAaLE -'
.
SECTION
il *i i i lrlr,{ , rrrr r{ i r r {
I ir il | -.-
,/
^--. AHEA FOR LOWERED
ii,ii,ii,ii,ll,
oUTFALL
LJ-\+]_ -i L__ [__ ___ J_. Lr___ t_____r aL___*i rLT
NOTES 1. Subsoil drainage systems are laid out to meet the needs ol a site. A grid, parallel lines, or random pattern at low pornts In the topography is used to collect subsurface water.
=====1t l
UNDER-SUB
2. Depth and spacing of subsoil drainage pipes depend on soil conditions. Geotechnical design may be required to ensure eflective operation of a subsoil drainage system.
UNDER-SITE
SUBSOIL
DRAINAGE
PIPE CONNECTOR COLUR /
SUBDRAINS
UNDER-BUILDING
SUMP PUMP DISCHARGE/ TO THE BUILDING ,/ / DRAINAGE SYSTEM
SUBSOIL
POLYETHYLENE
TYPE B
SUBSURFACE
DRAINPIPES
Joseph P. Mensch, P.E.; Wiles Mensch Corporation; Reston, Virginia K u r t N P r o n s k e ,P l ; R e s t o n . V i r q i n i a Harold C. Munger, FAIA; Munger Munger + Associates Architects; Toledo, Ohio
SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE
I
DRY WELL
-4TO6ROWS
OF %" DIAMflER HOLES (BOfrOM HALF ONLY)
CROWN, TYP
INVERT, TYP
Dry wells provide an underground disposal system tor sur lace runoff, but their effectiveness is in direct Drooonion to the po.osity of surrounding soils, and they are etticrent onl\ for draining small areas. High rainfall runoff rates cannot be absorbed at the rather low p€rcolation rates of most soils, so the difference is stored temporarily in a dry well. Efficiency is reduced during extended periods of wet weather, when receiving soils are saturated and the well is refilled before it drains completely.
PIPE CONNECTOR BAND
SLOTS 2" O C ALL AROUND
4- TO 6" DIAMETER PVC OR
NOTE
z l I I
DRAINAGE
PIPE CONNECTOR COLUR
/4TO6ROWS OF %'OIAMEAER HOLES (BONOM HALF ONLY)
FREE,DRATNING ./ GRANUUR MATERIAL -
l_ A
,t
||
C O R R U G A T E DM E T A L TYPE
C
OVERFLOW RELIEF LINE TO ADEOUATE OUTFALL
GEOTEXTILE FABRIC AROUND PERIMETER
iL,' 1t-riir
WATER TABLE
PLAN
TYP
i--lg
ti
To \
DRAINPIPE,
-- -- ;l ll r
rr{
\
4" TO 6" DIAMETER PERFORATED
-*t
ti il 11 | I Jll _lL.:L lLj_A _r------.-/
-
MANHOLE OR INLET (SIZE VARIES)
-..-
UNDER.SUB
t+l+
SUBDRATN o t% MtN sLoPE
DRAIN
S1
UTERAL SPACING SUBDRAIN o.r% MtN.sLoPE
ri'li il I ,, li il i rl,, i
SUBSURFACE
CONNECTOR
COL4R
GEOTEXTILE FABRIC WRAPPED ALL AROUND
SurfoceDroinqgeSystems NATURAL
149
CHANNEL--\
INLET ANO OUTLfl WITH PAVED APRO" --_---------\ AND/OR RIPRAP PREVENTS SCOUR
\ \
SINGLE
OR MULTIPLE
PIPE OR BOX
CULVERTS UNDER ROADWAY
PAVEO CHUTE ON
Lro**,"o .o. -,
./v ,/v SHEtr ,/ RUNOFF ON IMPERVIOUS PAVING SURFACE
SURFACE
DRAINAGE
SYSTEM
TYPES
(IMPERVIOUS
PAVING)
GENERAL
CONCRETE BORDER
Surface drainage systems are designed to collect and dispose of raintall runoff to prevent the llow of water from damaging building structures {through foundation leakage), sit€ structures, and the surface g.ade (lhrough erosion). The two basic types of surface drainage are the open system and the closed system. The open system, which utilizes a ditch/swale and culvert, is used in less densely populated, more open areas where the flow of water above grade €n be accommodated fairly easily. The closed system, which utilizes pipes, an inlevcalch basin, and manholes. is used in more urban, populated areas, where land must be used efficiently and water brought below the surface quickly to avord interlerence with human activity. The two systems are commonly combined where terrain, human density, and land uses dictate. A petuaous or porous paving system is often used for parking and other hard site surfaces. This drainage system allows water to p€rcolate through the paved surface into the soil, similar to the way the land would naturally absorb water. NOTES 1. All slopes, grates, swales. and other drainage features must be laid out according to the ADA, without restricting accessible routes for persoos with disabilaties. 2. Lay out grades so runoff can safely llow away trom buildings. lf drains b€core bl@ked, backed-up water should not acumulate ardnd the foundation. 3. An open system, or one in which water is keil on too ot the surfa@ as long as possible, is generally more ecc nomical than a closed system. 4. Consider the effect ot ice forming on the surtace when determining slopes tor vehicles and pedestrians. 5. Consult lsal codes on such criteria as intensitv and duration of rainstorms and allowable runoff for the locality 6. Formulas given on this page are meant for approximation only. Consult a qualified engineer or lands€pe architect to design a site-specitic system.
o3
o4
o2 ,, /--/
/-I
CONrOUR LINES
CONCRtrE INNER CURB WITH CURB CUTS TO ALLOW RUNOFF OVERFLOW INTO GRAVEL
ol fARKING
LoT,
\cuns, I \ PARxrrc LOT WITH POROUS PAVING (LEVEL SURFACE)
\
/ f
f
j
0
STRIP ASPHALT
SURFACE
C=O.g
ro.msofl 43,560 SO ryACRE
POROUS POROUS
N OTE Followingis a simplifiedmethod for calculatingthe approximate runoff of areaslessthan I 00 acres: O=CxlxA O = flow (cu rusec) C = surfacerunoff value (see table) | = antensity(in./hr;obtainfrom localcodes) A = areaof site (acres) Forexample,assumethe l@al code requires| = 5 in./hr: O=CxlxA Q=0.9x5x0.23 O = 1.04cu fvsec O = approximatevolure of water per secondentering the V{hanrel from the parkinglot CALCULATION SURFACE
OF RUNOFF
RUNOFF
VALUES
RUNOFF VELOCITY
(C)
PAVING PAVING
SYSTEM MATERIALS
The two principal types of porous paving are a monolithic sur facing material and unit pavers. Monolithic porous paving is stone aggregate bound with asphalt or portland cement. The aggregate must be sorted to exclude the "fines" or sandsized particles that normally fill the voids between larger pieces. Wilhout the fines, the paving material allows wateato run through it. Generally, porous asphalt and concrete are both strong enough for parking and roadway surfaces and pedestrian uses. Precast unit pavers, with shapes that allow water to flow through them. can also give surface stability for parking or driveways. Paver types are available for exposed placement or for burial just below the surface. ln the latter €se, the soil{ea gravel or vegetation in the pavers js ex posed and can help percolate precipitation into the ground. To reduce runotf and increase water absorption, porous paving must be underlaid with a bed of unbound aggregate. The unbound aggregate acts as a structural suooon and forms a reseryoir to hold preopitation until it can percolate Inlo the soil. Use of porous paving may permit use of a significantly smaller and simpler storm drainage system. SLOPES
Highdensity residential development
NOTE *8.3% maximum for handicapped access
All values are approximate.
Pearse O'Doheny, ASLA; Graham Landscape Archatecture: Annagolis, Maryland
SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE
r50
SurfqceDroinogeSystems
POROUS
OR ASPHALf
/
//l
n
waJER INFILTRATION
GRAVEL
STRIP
t Y .t {*rI! {.!t t $-
nnl"t'u
CONCRETE .\ BORDER
rl rl
CONCRETE CURB WITH CURB CUTS EVERY 4'.O''r, O C
_. 6"
POROUS PAVING (UNIT PAVERS OR MONOLITHIC SURFACE)
I
I/." TO V2" DIAMETER GRAVEL SEfrING BED AND FILTER COURSE (NO FINES)
SffiING BED (NO FINES) MONOLITHIC
FILTER FABRIC
SURFACE RESERVOIR
CONCRfiE PAVERS
INFILTRATION
2" TO 3" STONE SMING BED FILTER FABRIC
OPEN PAVERS AT GRADE STRUCTURAL PUSTTC INFILTRATION
1"TO 2" BELOW GRAOE
POROUS NOTES TOPSOIL INFILL 4" SO|L MrX:30% TOPSOtL, 70% SANO/ GRAVEL
STRUCTURAL GRID/PAVERS BELOW GRADE
POROUS PAVING TYPES METHOD FOR SIZING CHANNELS Channels andpipestor handling waterrunoffmavbe sazed by determining the tlow of water (O) with the formula O = Va. V is the velcity of the runoff water in fvsec as determined by the Manning formula. and "a" is the cross-sectional area of water given in square teet. For a given Q, adjust the channel or pipe shape, size, and/or slope to obtain the desired velocity (one that will not erode earth, grass ditches. or other features).
PAVING AND STONE
ON
POROUS
RESERVOIR
PAVING
1 . Soils around porous paving installations must have a minimum percolation rate of aboutl/, in.,hr and should not be more than about 3070 clay. On sites where the slope is grealer than 3%, te(acing the paved areas allows the bottom of each reseryoir to .emain level. 2. Proper specification and superyision are imponant in the installation of porous paving materials. Soil under the res eruoir must not be unduly compacted during construction. 3. Porous concrete can withstand heavier loads than oorous asphalt. Because it does not soften in hot weather and may be more susceptible to freeze-thaw damage, it is better suited to warmer climates. Additives mav be introduced to imorove cold climate Derformance.
HYDRAULIC
PROPERTIES
DETAIL Porous asphalt has good freeze-thaw resistance but is best suited for areas in which tralfic is limited, such as employee parking. While clogging of monolithic porous paving is generallv not a problem. recommended maintenance may include use of a hydrovac once or twice a year, as well as the prompt removal ot leaves and windblown sand. The reseruoir below porous paving has no fixed depth bul is designed according to the slope of the site. the soil per colation rate. and the size of the design storm. Consult a civil engineer or landscape architect.
OF TYPICAL CHANNEL
SECTIONS
TYPE SECTION
The Manning formula is V = 1 .486/n x r0 67 x S0 5, io which n = values relating to surface characteristics of channels {see table), r = hydraulic radius (see table), and S = slope (the drop in ft4ength), For example. assume a 200-It concrete V{hannel
for which
W=2ft h=0.5ft s = 0.005 (1 ftl200 ft) r = 0.37 {calculated usinq V{hannel DroDerties) V = (1.486rc.0'15)x 0.25167 x 0 0050I = 2-6 fvsec (see runoft velocity table on first AGS surface drainage page). To check flow, follow these steDs: O = Va ("a" from channel properties) = 2.6 x 0.5 = 1.3 cu fvsec. Use the formula for calculating runoff (O = C x I x A; given on the tirst AGS surface drainage page) to determine the llow required for a site; compare it to the capacity of a channel sized according to the Manning formula to determine whether the channel design is satisfactory. N VALUES FORMULA
FOR
-Kl: TRIANGULAR
7_y-
+
MANNING
a
*-rd) I3W,J 0.3-O.5 lt recommended
Pearse O'Doherty, ASLA; Graham Landscape Architecture; Annapolis, Marytand
SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE
for freeboard {F}
SurfoceDroinogeSyslems TRENCH ORAIN COVER
GENERAL The grate design chosen {or a particular application depends on the priorities assigned to each of the functions listed below. Local conditions mav require inclusion of some or all of the pertormance {eatures in a desagn.
t5l
a" To 51 TO
\=
IRENCH FRAME
CAPACITY: Interception of storm water rs generally consrd ered the most imporiant function a grate can perform. The geometry and size of the openings affect this ability. Consult a civil engineer or hydrologist for individual grate capacities.
|_
=lll.
SCREENING OF LARGE DEBRIS: An inlet grate must act as a strainer to prevent harmful debris lrom entering sewer grale prevents obiects such as lines. A welldesigned branches, sticks, sheets of semirigid material. and chunks of wood, which can easily pass by large curb openings (such as open throat type). trom entering the catch basin. PASSING OF SMALL DEBRIS: Organic material such as grass clippings, leaves, small stones, or twigs may be permitied to pass into the catch basin as they are not a hazard in sewer lines. Provide grate openings wide enough, long enough. or of special design to pass this debris and still meet requirements tor roadway-sale grates.
cRoss sEcTtoN CONCRETE
TRENCH
DRAIN WITH
GRATED COVER
STRENGTH: Inlet grates placed in roadways must be designed to withstand heavy traffic loads. The most generally lor highway loading criteria come accepted specifictions from the American Association ot State Highway and Transportation Off icials (AASHTO). PERMANENCY: An inl€t grate should be design€d to match or exceed the expected life of the installation. Steel, aluminum, and cast iron are g€norally accepted materials for inlet grates, although other materials such as brass. chrome, and structural polyethylene are used in special applications. BICYCLE SAFETY: Gctes 6n be made safer lor bicycie and pedestrian traffic through attention to design and installation. Options include diagenal bars set at a 45o angle; slotted grates, provided the slots ar6 1r/r to 21/. in. wide and a maximum ol I in. long and th€ 16ns6e {crcss) bars ar€ spaced so a bicycle wheel cannot drop lorer thah Sbout 1 in.; and bars transverse to the directaonoI tGffic and stom water flow and slanted to coG duct water into the €tc't! basin. Grate dosign does not ensure safe usage: atention must be paid to usage patterns of probable users. Consult tEffic enginegrs and l@l codes for more infomation. Consider clogging hazards and the geometry of flow-through efficienct when dosigning for bicycle safety. Use ol van+ shaped or sloped bars. rather than conventional vertacal bars, may improve the €pacity of a grate to pass storm water. Grates with these typos of bars are safe for bicycl€s; consult manufacturers. Do not allow gutter slopes to be substantially swaldd into the curb, which could create a pocket in the roadway affecting the satev of bicycles and other traffic. GRATE
SIZING
o = .goca {oa.aa)o5 A = free area (sq ft) d = allowable depth of water above grate {ft) (0.6 for square edges, 0.8 lor C = orifice mfficient round) .66 = clogging factor
,,ziR-I -/rraarur\--l
cRoss sEcTtoN
SECTION
METAL TRENCH
DRAIN ASSEMBLY BRONZE OR ALUMINUM GRATING
POLYMER DRAIN WITH METAL GRATE
ME TAL LINER AVAIUBLE
(
t
STANDARO
Most grates are oversized to prevent buildup of water; see manufacturers' catalogs for free area. The following formula for sizing grates is based on a given allowable depth o{ water over the grate.
where
METAL TRENCH ASSEMBLY
LONGITUDINAL
GRATING
OESIGNS
DNODDODD DDtrBDtrDO trOtrDDtrDtr DOOtr!DCD GRATINGS
GRATING
FOR HEAVY PEDESTRIAN
DESIGN
TRAFFIC
TYPES
..'o J" WATER SURFACE
N-
BEEHIVE
'----/
STRAIGHT H EADWALL
/
oRTGtNAL cneor
lb
F
oo
illzz,^\\-=r;" coNvEx L
REVETMENT
o.oo2 MAX
^{t2'-
9'
STRAIGHT
MISCELLANEOUS
GRATE
DESIGNS
ENDWALL
HEADV\/ALLS
AND
;" TO lz' SAOOLE ENDWALL
ENDWALLS
NOTE Use check dams where channel slope and velocity will cause erosron.
CHECK
DAMS
PearseO'Doherty,ASLA; GrahamLandscapeArchitecture;Annapolis.Maryland
SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE
Monholes,Inlets,qnd Cotch Bosins
152
2-O TO 4 -O" DIAMETER MIN
PRECAST CONCRETE
>a'
FINISH GRADE SLOPES TOWARD
MANHOLE FRAME AND COVER
OF CURB
GASKETED JOINTS REOU'RED
METAL MANHOLE STEPS
INLET GRATE AND FRAME
SANITARY
PRECAST CONCRETE,5" MIN THICKNESS CONCRETE 5: I SLOPE
FILL,
4" TO 6" OPENIN6
OUTFALL TO STORM DRAIN
CURB
FLEXIBLE JOINT FOR SANITARY PIPE CONNECTIONS
PRECAST CONCRETE 5" MIN. THICKNESS
CONCRfrE FOOTING ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE
OR SANITARY
INLET
INLET
CONCRfrE BENCH, SHAPED TO PROVIDE POSITIVE DRAINAGE
LOCKING BOLT
7 :-z
NOTES 1. Pargingmay be omittedin constructiono{ storm sewer mannotes. 2. Wall thicknesson precastconcretemanholesincreases wathdepths greaterthan 12 ft. 3. Brickwalls8 in. thickmay be usedfor manholesup to 12 ft deep. For that part of the manholedeeperthan 12 lt, brick-and-blockwalls should be 12 in. thick. Manholes greaterthan I 2 ft deep shouldhave a base 12 in. thick. COMBINED MANHOLE
SYSTEM
PUN VARIES TO PROVIOE POSITIVE SLOPE TO OUTLS
PIPE
MULTIPLE AVAIUBLE
PANERNS IN A" TO 51 " WIDTHS
INLET GRATE AND FRAME To PRECAST CONCRETE, 5" MIN. THICKNESS
BASINWITH END, SIDE OR BONOM OUTLET, FOR GRATES 7'TO 24 WIDE
SE\/VER SECTION FOR CONTINUATION SEE INLET OR CATCH BASIN DETAIL
GUTTER
INLET
12
.4th"
NOTE Grates without bolts are available
TRENCH
DRAIN
z
i,
SLOPE OF SIDES VARIES TO FIT FRAME
z< PU r!
sii
9 uq F24 N"J@
PUN
ALTERNATIVE SHAPES AVAIUBLE TO MATCH CURA SECTIONS:
CURAS ADJUSTABLE FROM 3" TO 9"
SECTION
SECTION
sEcTtoN
4TA a-
N ()TES
A pipe trap or hood is required for connections to combinatron sewers.
1. Frames and grates are available in many standard shapes and sizes. Constructed of cast or ductile iron. aluminum. and bronze, they are made for light- or heavy-duty loading conditions. Common shapes include round, rectangular, square. and linear. In addition, grates may be flat, concave, or convex. Consult manufacturers'cataloos for the full range ol available castings.
CATCH
TYPICAL
CONCRETE FOOTING ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE
NOTE
JOSepn
BASIN
P. Mensch. P.E.; Wiles Mensch Corporation; Reston, Virginia
KurtN. Pronske, P.E.; Reston, Virginia
Lr)) /ta/ t_-
SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE
FRAMES
AND GRATES
2. Locate drainage structures with grated openings on or beyond the periphery of t.aveled ways to minimize con. tact wilh pedestrian or vehicular traffic Grates that may come into contact with feel or narrow wheels must be constructed to prevent penetration by heels, crutch and cane tips, and slim tires but still have suf{icient openings to pass the expected runofl.
r53
RunotfControlSystems GENERAL Natural filtration devices in the envi.onment retain and treat pollutaOts such as sediment, fertilize., pesticides, and air pol' lutants before they can enter water bodies. Increasing development, however, compromises the ability of the landscape to prevent water resource contaminatioo TypicallY. when land is developed, trees that {ormerly intercepted rainiall and pollutants are felled; natural depressaons that tempo'rarily ponded water are graded, soil is compacted: and the thick leaflitter humus layer of the forest floor, which had ab' sorbed rainfall. is scraoed olf or erodes.
o' To POOL
LEVEL
o- To l'-o"
Once a site has been developed, it can no longer store as much water, and rainfall is immediately transformed into runoff and transported to rivers, lakes. wetlands, or oth3r surface water systems Once construction is complete and some vegetation has returned to the site, expansavejmpeNi' ous surfaces such as rooltops and parking lots prevent most runoff from percolating into the soil. lnstead, it must be directed olf site by a surlace d.ainage system of curbs, culverts, gutters, and storm sewers.
POOL DEPTH
SHALLOW
EMERGENT
I i
I -OABOVE POOL LEVEL
MARSH
{PERSISTENT VEGETATION) Measures for managing pollutants include methods of con struction and land development that replace natural pollution tiltration pathways (e.9., forests. wetlands)with similar filter ing mechanisms. Water detention systems retain water, provide for percolation to groundwater, and filter pollutants out of water runoft. These systems comprise detention basins. constructed wetlands, and other temporary and permanent erosron conlrol measures. When choosing appropriate runoff control measures for a site, consider the following factors: the sensitivity of the local ecosystem: slope of the site; depth of the water table: proximity to b€drock, foundations, and wells; land consumption: land use restrictions; high sediment input: and thermal rmpacts to downstream areas. NATURAL
URBAN BMP OPTIONS water
:xtended letention lonos
ponds
pono lnfiltration
ASSESSMENT
POLLUTANT REMOVAL RELIABILITY
oonds sometimes include a wet lower area for additional runoff retention. Wet ponds are permanently wet, allowing pollutants to settle to the bottom. Wet ponds that extend runoff retention time with control devices can remove a very high percentage of paniculate pollutants.
In general,four wetlandsensitivityissuesshouldbe taken into account: hydrology-the wetland's source of water could be alteredby development;vegetation-the plant species in a wetland have different levels ot hardiness;ecologipristine systems are more sensitiveto d+ cal statHore velopment and runoff pollution; and animal species-fo. instance,nesting birds need greater buffer distances than wintering waterfowl.
Constructed storm water wetlands (engineered, shallow marshlike areas) retain runoff for long periods, allowing pollutants to settle out of the water column and providing biological, chemical, and physical processes for breaking down pollutants. Wetland vegetation slows the velocity of storm water, reducing erosion and allowing pollutants to settle. Many organic and inorganic compounds are removed from wetlands by the chemical processes of absorption, precipitation. and volatilization.
ON-SITE RUNOFF CONTROL MEASURES Architectscan use severalon-sitemeasuresto controlrunoff in developmentprojects.One ot the most ommonly used is a simple open storagearea for runoff. The contigurationof such open systemsvaries,dependingon the desiredlevelof pollutanttreatment.Typi€lly €lled storageponds, detention basins.or (when made to resemblea naturalenvironrent) a constructedstorm mter wetland, open systems generally operatemore thoroughlywith increasedretentiontirne. Simplestorageponds are typicallydry between storms after runoff has evaporatedor infiltrated the groundwater. Dry
ATPLIcABILITY TO MOST DEVELOPM ENTS
Constructed storm water wetlands can also filter excess nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus contained in runoff from gardens and septic tanks. To correctly size a wetland used lor storm water runoff control, consider the total volume and vel@ity of water entering and leaving the system. Potential advantages of using constructed storm water wet lands are that they have relatively low capital and operating costs, offer consistent compliance with permit requirements, and greatly reduce operational and maintenance costs.
OF URBAN BEST MANAGEMENT
WILDLIFE HABITAT POTENTIAL
ENVIRONM ENTAL CONCER NS
PRACTICES
COMPARATIVE
COSTS
(BMPS) SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Applicableto most sites if landis available
High
Stream warming, natural wetland alteralron
Marginally hrgher than wel ponds
!commended wrth desrgn provements and with the use microoools and wetlands
Moderate but not always reljable
20+ years but trequent cloggrng and short detention common
Widely applicable but requires at least l0acres of drainage area
Moderate
Possible stream warming and hab- Lowest cost alternative in itat destruction size range
commended with design im)vements and with the use micropools and wetlands
Moderate to high
20+ years
Widelyappli€blebut requares d.ainagearea of more than 2 acres
Moderate to high
Possible stream warming, tropic shifts, habitat
Moderate to high compared to convenlronal
Wrdely applrcable
Moderate to high
Selectionof appropriatepond option minimizesoverall environmentalimpact
Most expensivepond option
Highly restricted (soils. groundwater, slope, area, sediment input)
Low
within 5 years
Slight risk of groundwater conGmrnalron
wrthin 5 Vears
Hrghly restncted (sorls, groundwater, slope, area, sediment input)
Low to moderate
Slight risk of groundwater contamination
Cost€tfective on smaller sites, rehabcosts can be considerable Constructioncost moderate, but rehabcost high
Mooerarero nrgn 20+ years kedundancyincreasesreliability) Presumedmoderate 50Yo {ailure rate
WIN
site evaluation
Recommended with pretreatment and geotechnical Not widely recommended longevity is improved
High. if working
75% tailurewithin 5 years
Extremely restricted (traffic, soils. ground watef, slope, area, sediment input)
Possiblegroundwaterimpacts, uncontrolledrunoff
Cost€ttectrvecomparedto asphaltwhen conventional workangproperly
Moderate to hrgh
20+ years
Applrcable ior smaller develoPments
Minor
Comparativelyhigh construc- Recommended, with local tion costsandfrequentmain- demonstratron tenance
Low to moderate but unreliable
20+ years
Lowiensity develotr ment and roads
Minor
Low compared to curb and gulter
unknownbut may be limited
flestncted to low areas
settings
inlets
WETLANDS
The sensitivity ol wetlands determines appropriatebufter distances between them and developed areas. Buffers, which may rangefrom 30 to 300 ft or more, should respond to the eflect runoff may have on the wetland ecosystem. (Consulta wetlandsscientistto formulatebufferdistances.)
OF THE EFFECTIVNESS
LO NG EVITYA
NONTIDAL
20+ Vears expected
strips Unrelrable In Water qua[y
FRESHWATER.
Moderate to high, depending on design
Presumed moderate, it working
Grassed swates
OF NATURAL
SYSTEMS
\/\/ETLAND
Wetlands naturally detain and filter water. Scattered throughout the United States, from tropical areas to tundra, they form in depressions in the landscape where the water table is near or at the surface of the soil. They may be as small as a tablelop or span tens of thousands of acres. There is no single, correct. ecologically sound definition for wetlands, primarily because of their diversity, These systems are an imponant part of the ecosystem because they produce fmd and timber, purify drinking water, absorb and store floodwater, suppress slorm surges, and help maintain biodiversity. Water is su} plied to a wetland either by surface sources (e.9., streams or riwrs) or by groundwater.
COMPARATIVE
CROSS.SECTION
ned low
years
Small, hrghly rmpervrous catchments {less than 2 acres)
'Based on current desjgns and prevailing maintenance practices
until
necommenoeo In nlgnty restricted applications with caref ul construction and eflective maintenance
Recommended, with check. dams, as one part of a BMP system Recommended as one ele ment of a BMP system
Minor forested Resuspension of hydrocarbon loadings, disposal of hydrocarbon and toxic residuals
NOTE The variety of urban BMPs avaalable to remove pollutants Irom urban runoff differs widely in performance, longevity.
High compared to trenches and sand filters
Not cur.ently recommended as a primary BMP option
feasibility.cost. and environmentalimpact.As the matrix shows, storm water wetlands are an attractiveBMP choice at manydevelopment sites.
CarrieFischer,"Design for Wetlands Preseryation,"topic ll.A.1 in EnvironmentalBesourceGuide Washington,D.C.: The Amer,canlnstitute of Architects,1992) ThomasSchueler:Metropolitan WashingtonCouncilof Governments: Washington,D.C.
AND DRAINAGE SEWERAGE
154
RunoffControlSysiems
STORM
WATER
PONDIr'VETLAND SYSTEM: A pond/wetland design utilizes lwo separate cells for storm water treatment, a wet pond and a shallow marsh. The multiple functions of the latter are to trap sediments, reduce incoming runofl velocity, and remove pollutants. Pond/wetland systems consume less space than shatlow marsh svstems because the bulk of the treatment is provided by a deep pool rather than a shallow marsh.
WETLANDS
Storm water wetlands can be defined as constructed systems explicitly designed 10 mitigate the effects of sto.m water qualatyand quantiv on urban development. They temporarily store storm water runoff ln shallow pools that create growing condF tions suitable for emergent and riparian wetland plants In combination, the runoff storage, complex microtopography. and emergent plants in the constructed wetland form an ideal matrix for the removal of urban pollutants-
EXTENDED DETENTION WETLAND: In extended detention wetlands, ertra runoff storage is created by temporarily detaining runof{ above the shallow marsh. This extended detention feature enables the wetland to occupy less space as temporary venical storage panially substitutes for shallow marsh storage. A growing zone is created along the gentle srde slopes of extended detention wetlands, from the nor mal pool level to the maximum extended detention water surface.
Unlike natural wetlands, which often express the underlying groundwater level, storm water wetlands are dominated by surface runoff. Storm water wetlands can best be described as semitidal, in that they have a hydroperiod characterized by a cyclic pattern 01 jnundation and subsequent drawdown, occurring 15-30 times a year, depending on rainfall and the imperyiousness of the contributing watershed. Storm water wetlands usually fall into one of four baslc desrgns:
POCKET WETLANDS: Pocket wetlands are adapted to serye small sites {from one to ten acres). Because the drainage area is small, pocket wetlands usually do not have a reliable base flow, creating a widely fluctuating water level. In most cases, water levels in the welland are supported by excavatIng down to the water table. ln drier areas, a pocket wetland is supponed only by storm water runoff, and during extended periods of dry weather it will have no shallow pool at all {only saturated soils). Due to their small size and fluctuat-
SHALLOW MARSH SYSTEM: The large surface area of a shallow marsh design demands a reliable groundwater supply or base flow to maintain sufficient water elevation to suooort emergent wetland plants. Shallow marsh systems take up a lot of space. requiring a sizable contributing watershed (often more than 25 acres) to support a shallow permanent pool.
Ing water levels, pocket wetlands otten have low plant diver srty and poor wildlife habitat value The selection of a partrcular wetland dedlgn usually depends on three factors: available space, contributing watershed area, and desired environmental function. However. storni water wetlands are not typically located within delineate. natural wetland areas, which provide critical habitat and eco system seryices and are protected under local, state, and federal statutes. Storm water wetlands should also not be confused wilh constructed wetlands used to mitigate the permitted loss of natural wetlands under wetland protection regulations. The primary goal of wetland mitigation is to rep licate the species diversity and ecological function of the losr natural wetland; whereas the more limited goal of storn, water wetlands is to maximize pollutant removal and crealr generic wetland habitat Storm water wetlands are also distinguished from natural wetlands that receive storm water runoff as a consequenc€ of upstream development. Although not intended lor stornl water treatment, wetlands influenced by storm water arF common in urban settings. Storm water runoff that be comes a maior component of the water balance of a natura wetland can severely alter the functional and structural qual ties of the wetland. The end result is a storm water-injlu enced natural wetland that is more characteristic of a storm water wetland than a natural one.
MAINTENANCE 25% OF POND PERIMETER OPEN
BENCH
ISUND
GRASS
MICROPOOL
FOREBAY
sEcrloN (*=,: GATE VALVES PROVIDE FLEXIBILITY IN DEPTH CONTROL
tk
rE:lEI?,."? a?EE
ffi'""'(ff[
$r:4(l|l]J4:s.wr"*
+i
25'WffUND BUFFER UNDSCAPED WITH NATIVE TREEgSHRUBS FOR HABITAT
STORAGE ALLOCATION
SURFACE AREA ALLOCATION
NOTE Most of the shallow marsh system is 0-18 in. deep. a depth that creates favorable conditions for the growth of emergenl wetland plants. A deeper forebay is located at the malor inlet, and a deeo microoool is situated near the outlet
SHALLO\/V
MARSH
SYSTEM CONCRETE
AOUATIC BENCH
PLUNGE POOL
NORMAL
POOL
ZONE\ MARSH ZONE. TYP
-;l*;i1t u***X***l
-i:-:{i2
:1{iii j*"-{ ffi-J"--"{ P * + + + + l lJr: +*f
{f:i:i:il, (:i:tX:z
** tl:t:
f+S
*!:if
MAXIMUM SAFETY STORM LIMIT
SECTION
*7i ';K*++
€ro-'fhi f * r
MICROPOOL
;Fi
t
ki1r1
MARSH (30%)
STORAGE ALLOCATION
SURFACE AREA ALLOCATION
NOTE EMBANKMENT RISER IN EMBANKMENT
POND/WETLAND
The pond/wetland system consists of a deep pond that leads to a shallow wetland. The pond removes pollutants and reduces the space required for the system.
SYSTEM
CarrieFischer,"Design lor Wetlands Preservation,"topic ll.A.1 in EnvironmentalResourceGuide (Washington,D.C.:The AmericanInstituteof Architects, 1992) ThomasSchueler; Met.opolitanWashingtonCouncilof Governmentsj Washington.D.C.
SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGE
RunotfControlSystems COMPARATIVE
ATTRIBUTES
TTR I B UTE
r55
OF FOUR STORM WATER \^/ETLAND DESIGNS
SHALLOW
MARSH
PO N D,/W ETLA N D
EXTENDED
DETENTION
POCKET
WETLAND
\^/ETLAND
Moderate; reliable removal of sediments and nutnents
Moderate to high: reliable removal of nutrients and sediment
Moderate; less reliable removal of nutrients
Land consumption
High; shallow marsh storage consumes space
Moderate, as venical pool substitutes fo. marsh storage
Moderate, as vertical extended detention substi- Moderate, but can be shoehorned into tutes for marsh storage site
Water balance
Dry weather base tlow normally recommended source of water supply to wetland
Wetland area/watershed
Minimumratioof .02
removal capability
to maintain wate. elevations; groundwater oot recommended
Moderate; can be subiect to resuspension and groundwater displacement
Water supply provided by excavation to grounowater
as primary
Minimumratioof .01
Minimumratioot .01
Minimumratioof .01
Drainagearea of 25 acresor more. with dry weather O*
Minimumof 10 acresrequiredfor extended detentron
l - 1 0a c r e s
with dry weather O*
Pond,micropool
Forebay,micropool
Micropool,if possible
contributingwatershedarea Drainageareaof 25 acresor more, Deepwater cells
Forebay, channels, micropool
Outletconfiguration
Reversed slope pipe extending from riser. withdrawn approximately 1 ft below normal pool; pipe and pond drain equipped with gate valve
Sediment clei cleanout cycle (aoproximate)
Cleanout of forebay every 2-5 yr
Cleanoutot pond every 10 yr
Cleanoutof Iorebayevery 2-5 yr
Native plant diversity
High. if complex microtopography is present
High, with sufficient wetland complexity and area
Moderatej fluctuating water levels impose physi- Low to moderate, due to small surface ological constraints area and poor control of water levels
High, with complexity and buffer
High,with buffer, attractswaterfowl
Moderate.with buffer
Wildlife
habitatpotential
'O
Broad{rested weir with half-round trash rack and pond drain
: of wetlandevery5 10 yr, on site and stockpilemulch
Low, due to small area and low diversitv
of runoff
EXTENDED DflENTION WETUND ZONE
Z MAXIMUM EXTENDED DffENTION LIMIT EXTENOED DSENTION ZONE
FOREBAY
NORMAL POOL ELEVATION
FOREBAY
MICROPOOL
POOL l2o%)
DEEP POOL (20%)
HIGH MARSH (45%)
EXTENDED DETENTION
HIGH
MARSH
ZONE
MICROPOOL
z
POND BUFFER ro m MTNTMUM
f
DETENTION
SURFACE
ALLOCATION
ALLOCATION
AREA
NOTE
\
EXTENDED
STORAGE
The water level in an extended detention wetland can increase by as much as 3 tt after a storm, returning to normal levels within 24 hr. As much as half the total treatment volume can be provided as extended detention storage, which helos orotect downstream channels from erosion and reduces the sDace needed for the wetland.
WETLAND MAINTENANCE
SWALE
MAXIMUM STORM ELEVATION SASONAL
TRASH
HIGH
RAC
I _ __!____, I
-_-_-_T-----------+-----------T---I STORAGE
l2o%)
ALLOCATION
HIGH
suRFAcE AREA ALLOCATION
MARSH
BROAO.CRESTED WEIR POCKET
STORM
vvATER
WETLAND
Carrie Fischer, "Design for Wetlands Preservation," topic ll.A.1 in Environmental Resource 6ulde {Washington, D.C.: The American lnstitute of Architects, 19921 Thomas Schueler; Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments; Washington, D.C.
SEWERAGE AND DRAINAGF
r56
UnitPqversond PoverAssemblyTypes texture, the better the slip resistance. Abrasion resis tance relers to the wear and tear an assembly is subjected lo under normal use. According to ASTM C902, "Standard Specification for Pedestrian and Light Traffic ' Paving Brick, an abrasion index classificationdetermines the type of unit requrred for an intended exposure. A dense. hard burned extruded brick with 8000 psi compressive strength that contorms to ASTM C902, Class SX. Type 1, resists both abrasion and weathering and is adequate Jor most heavy-traffic exterior applications. Molded brick with 4000 psi compressjve strength that conforms to ASTM C902, Class SX. Type 2, is adequate for most exterior pedestrian applications. It materials other than brick are used for paving, consult the manufacturer to learn which products are suitable for use as pav e.s in a oarticular apolication.
GENERAL Unrt paving assemblies are principally used for applications such as shopping plazas, building entrances, walkways, patros, residential driveways, and residential parking areas However. they may be used for streets with heavy vehicular traflic and lor industrial floors or other special conditio.s. Consult wilh a landscape architect or engineer for appropri ate design guidelines. NOTES
LENGTH
\-/
SPACERS PROVIDE l/16" JotNT
3. Proper subgrade preparation of areas to be paved is im portant. Remove all vegetation and organic material. anc consider the location of existing or proposed under ground utilities and storm drainage, as well as user con venience.
2. Assess potential traffic loads when planning unit paving installations.Heavy vehicular loads require a rigid or semirigid continuous base, while a flexible base and ilexible paving are suitable for light vehicular loads (residentialtype). Use either base type for pedestrian lraffic. Choose a bond pattern based on expected traffic patterns; traffic should travel perpendicular to the long dimension of the paving unit. For vehicular areas, use a gravel subbase
4. Plan for surface and subsurface drainage. Slope paving away from buildings. retaining walls, etc. atl/s to 'L in per toot. Bigid paving always requires adequate surface drainage, with the long dimension of the mortar joints running parallel to the direction of runoff. Flexible pavin.r requires both surface and subsurface drainage. 5. To prevent horizontal movement of flexible (mortarlessl paving assemblies, use a curb of brick soldier coursing set in concrete, landscape timbers, or other edging mate nal_ 6. There are three maior types of unit paver joint materia mortar, grout (portland cement and sand without hy drated lime), and a dry mixture of 9rout.
F L E X I B L E { M O R T A R L E S S )P A V E R S
RIGID (MORTARED) PAVERS
1. Paver units are selected according to color, texture, abras,on resistance. and resistance 10 weathering. The texture of the unit affects slip resistance-the coarser the CBAMFER {OPTIONAL)\
(minimum 6 in. crushed gravel) compacted to 95yo and paver sizes B in square or smaller. Consult an engineer 10 accurately define paver sizes, shapes, gravel depth, con crete base depth, and concrete reintorcement require ments.
RECTANGUUR
NEOPRENE
TACK COAT (2%)
-).
CONCRtrE BASE COURS€ (RIGID) ASPHALT
SQUARE
EXPANSION JOINT
(SEMIRIGID)
MEMBRANEUYER AS AOND BREAK AND CUSHION MATERIAL
GRAVEL BASE COURSE (FLEXIBLE) SENING
BED MATERIAL
CONCRETE BASE COURSE (RIGID)
MEMBRANE AS MOISTURE AND WEED AARRIER AND AS SETTING BED CONTAINMENT
1
FLEXIBLE (MORTARLESS)
PAVER
ruonrlnED)
PAVER
N OTES
*,o*t' HEXAGONAL NOTE Rectangular, square, and hexagonal pavers are available in both brick and concrete.
TYPICAL
PAVER
TYPICAL
SHAPES
PAVER
SIZES
IN IN. (MM)
R ECTANGULART
L 8 (200) 7 51,l1g4) 7 1t" 11901
(100) 51"l92l
W&L
L
6 (150) 6 {1501 8 (200) 8 {200) 8 {200) 12 (300) r 2 (300) 12 (3001 4 {100} 6 (150)
{89) 7 ,le(194) 1 'lal194l (200) 8 (200) 16 (400) 'Check with manufacturerfor availabilitvof chamfers.
NOTE The height of pav€rsvarieswith the manufacturerand applicationbut is usually11/4132),2111\571,251s1671, ot 23/a110).
1. Unit paving assemblies are classified according to th€ type ot base supporting the paver, either rigid {monared) or flexible {mortarless). Base tvpes are a reinforced or unreinforced concrete slab on grade that ac€pts either rigid or tlexible pavers {rigid}; asphalt or bituminous concrete that accepts flexible pavers only (semirigid continuous): a compacted gravel, sand, or sand{ement maxture that accepts flexible pavers only (flexible);and suspended diaphragm or structural floor and roof assemblies, which vary by design and accept either rigid or flexible pavers. 2. Setting bed (cushion) material, placed between base and paving surface, functions as a leveling layer to help refine the finished grade and compensate for itregularities in the base and paver unit surfaces. Sefting bed material can be a 1- or 2-in. layer of sand, pea gravel, stone screenings, roofing felt, asphalt (7% asphalt,93% sand with a neoprene tack coat), or mnar. Sand for sening beds, bases, ioints, and mortar should conlorm to ASTM C144, "Aggregate for Masonry Mortar.- Use mortar setting or leveling beds only in conjunction with concrete and asphalt bases: the thickness of the bed may vary from r/, to 2 in.
PAVER
ASSEMBLY
[]Et_] INTERLOCKING NOTES
Vords may be trlled wath grass. ground cover, or gravel 2. Grass oavers mav be used to control erosion.
PAVER
4. Use base materials, including gravel, concrete, and as phalt. for suppon, drainage, and/or ground swell protec tion. For maximum drainage efficiency and to prevent upward capillary action. specify clean. washed gravel. 5. Expansion joints can alleviate thermal and moisture move rent, especially in rigid or mortared assemblies. Expan sion joints are generally l@ated parallel or adjacent to curbs and edgings, at right angle turns, around interruptions {e.9., manhole cover ass€mblies), at set distances in long runs of masonry, and where dissimilar materials meet
3'OIAMETER PUSTIC RINGS(I"HIGH}
EEE
']
3. Membranes are installed in unit paving assemblies for several purposes: to control the passage of moisture reduce weed groMh, prevent the sand course from filter ing into lower courses, and as a bond break. Considel using bond breaks between rigid paving and rigid bases lo accommodate differential movement. Membranes are of sheet or liquid material that can resist moisture. rot. and decay. Sheet material includes asphalt roofing fell. polyethylene film, vinyl, neoprene, and rubber. Liquld types are asphalt, modified urethane, or polyurethane bitumen; these are preferred for irregular surfaces.
TYPES
CONCRflE INTERLOCKING PAVERS (HOLES FILLED WITH SOIL AND GRASS)
GRASS
MEMBRANE UYER AS MOISTURE BARRIER ntcto
3. Grass rings are available with close ring spacing for pedestrian use or wrth wide ring spacing for vehicular use.
TYPES
DennisCarmichael; EDAW.Inc.;Alexandria, Virginia
PAVINGAND SURFACING
UnitPoverDetoils CUTBACK ASPHALT PRIMER
MORTARLESS BRICK PAVING
WELDED WIRE FABRIC '/r" ASPHALT BED SENING
NEOPRENE TACK COAT (
%" SAND SffiING BED
' 1 WEEPS AT 610" O.C. (E.W.)
4" GRAVEL.
6"X6"X6', COBBLESTONE
4" GRAVEL (FLEXIBLE
I ' W E E P SA T 610" O C. (E.W.)
MIN.. OVER
CONCRETE BASE WELDED WIRE FABRIC\
/2"
BASE
STONE PAVER
BRICK, CLAY TILE, OR ASPHALT BLOCK PAVERS OVER CONCRETE BASE ,2" ASPHALT
SEfrING
4
2'' LONDON
PAVERS
I s.LB ROOFING FELT 3/r" ASPHALT SffiING BED
AASE)
4" CONCRETE WITH WELDED WIRE FABRIC ( R I G I DB A S E )
4" GRAVEL OVER EARTH COMPACTED
4" MIN
BRICK PAVING OVER CONCRETE
157
COBBLESTONE PAVERS OVER CONCRETE (oR GRAvELi BAsE WITH 4" CONCRETE WELDEO WIRE FABRIC
WOOD BLOCK PAVERS (PRESSURE-TREATED)
CONCRETE
I 2" LONG SLIP AT 3',-O" O.C_ DOWELS BRICK
OR
STONE OR
CONCRETE
PAVERS
PAVERS
ASPHALT
OVER
CONCRETE PAVERS OR LONDON OVER CONCRETE BASE
OVER BASE
WALKS
WOOD BLOCK PAVERS OVER CONCRET€
BASE
RIGID BASE PAVER 2" CONCRffE WITH HANDTIGHT MORTARLESS JOINT
COMPACTED SAND
3" DEEP CONCRETE
GEOTEXTILE
GEOTEXTILE
NOTE Preformed lattice unit grids are used for storm runoff con' trol, pathways, parking areas, and soil conservation. MORTARLESS
(FLEXIBLE)
PAVING
SANO
OVER
CONCRETE PAVERS OR LONDON WALKS OVER GRAVEL BASE
BRICK
AASE MORTARLESS
I " TO I %" SCREENINGS BED OR SAND SffING
GRIO PAVING BLOCKS OVER GRAVEL BASE
PAVER
UNOSCAPE
TIMBERS
4- MIN. COMPACTED GRAVEL BASE SOLOIER
COURSE
GEOTEXTILE
GRAVEL
BRICK, CUY TILE, OR ASPHALT BLOCK PAVERS OVER GRAVEL BASE PAVERS
OVER
FLEXIBLE
CUT STONE PAVERS OVER SAND AND GRAVEL BASE
"o*.:3r SITE.FORMED
o"o t,""PAVER
WALK
BASE
Dennis Carmichael; EDAW, Inc.; Alexandria, Virginia Charles A. Szoradi, AIA: Washington. D.C.
PAVINGAND SURFACING
UnitPqverPqtternsqnd Detqils
t58
GEOTEXTILE
LAYER
72'TO 1" SAND CUSHION SffiING GRAVEL WEEP
BEO
PERMITER
HOLES
EXPANSION
AT
ORAINAGE
\
| 6- O C r
JOINT
MORTARLESS
MIXEO
RUNNING
AND
STACK
BOND
BASKET WEAVE
SOLDIER COURSE EOGING EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE FOOTING
BASKET WEAVE
4' GRAVEL COURSE OVER COMPACTED EARTH
EDGE WEEP
DRAINAGE
HOLES
AT
AT FLEXIBLE
PAVING
I 6" O- C
STACK BOND
PATTERNEO
ASHLAR
4" CONCRETE OVER VAPOR
BASE BARRIER
4" GRAVEL OVER COMPACTED EARTH BASKET WEAVE OR PARQUET EDGE
UNIT PAVERS
t
^L
DRAINAGE
AT
RIGID
PAVING
N OTES 1. Drainpipes may be omitted at welldrained areas. 2. Provide posriive outflow for drainpipes.
-1-
BASKET WEAVE
OIAGONAL
RUNNING
BOND
3. Do not use unsatisfactory soil (expanding organic). 4. Satisfactory soil must be compacted to 95%. 5. Handtight paving joints are preleted over mortar joints However, when mortar joints are required and freezin!. and thawing are frequent. use lalex,modified mortar. 6. Concrete tooting for edging should be 10 to 14 in. wide and 6 to I in. deep. lt is preferable to place the bottom of the looting at freezing depth. lf the freezing depth is deeper than the bottom of the tooling, provide 4 in. ol gravel below the f@ting. 7. Interlocking pavers are availableanconcrete, hvdraulical\ pressed concrete. asphalt, and brick in different weighl classifications, compressive strengths, surface textures finishes, and colors. Consult local supoliers for avaitabi ity. 8. Subject to the manufacturer's recommendations anc local code requirements, interlocking concrete pavers may be used in areas subiect to hea\y vehicle loads at sDeeds of 30 to 40 moh.
RUNNING
BOND
COMBINED
HEXAGON
INTERLOCKI NG UNIT PAVERS
DennisCarmichael; EDAW,Inc.;Alexandria, Virginia
PAVINGAND SURFACING
CATHEDRAL
9. Concrete interlockingpaver sizes are based on metilc dimensions. 10.When pavershape permits,the hetringbonepatternis recommended{or pavingsubjectto vehiculartrafljc. ll.Contrnuouscurb or other edge restraintis requiredt., anchorpaversin applicalionssubject to vehiculartraffic
Fountoins ond DecorofivePools JET CLUSTER NOZZLE
FINGER NOZZLE
MUSHROOM
OPERATING
159
DANDELION
LEVEL, TYP 4'l
AERATING
FOUNTAIN
CONCRETE CURA
SPRAY
NOZZLE
f"
HEAD
SMOOTH
BORE
FORMEO
TYPES
AERATING
NozzLE WATER
\
7"i n-sw; bEiAirNc \EATER
LEVEL
LINE \
r .-1.
n
&+
SURGE REDUCTION
TRIANGUUR
FOUNTAIN
CRESTED
LIP SECTIONS VERTICAL TURBINE
DEVICES
DISCHARGE LINE CONCRilE
\\.\)
BASIN
TURBINE SHAtr OR SUCTION SHAtr
DISCHARGE
CONTINUOUS WATERSTOP {HEAT WELD ALL SPUCES)
GRAVITY,FED WATER ENTRY WATER SUMP
72" DIAMffER STAINLESS STEEL DOWEL (SLEEVE ON ONE SIDE OF JOINT)
REINFORCED CONCRffE VAULT (A' TO 12" THTCK)
SEALANT WITH BACKER ROD
6" GRAVEL ON COMPACTED SUBGRADE
PUMP IN ORY VAULT I
CONCRETE
BASIN
JOINT
DETAILS
PIPE SCHEMATIC FOR CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
GENERAL
WATER
Materials used in fountain and pool design should be durable and resist damage caused by water, cracks, weather, stains, and freeze-thaw cycles. Suitable materials include stone, concrete, brick, tile, and metals such as copper, bronze, cast iron, and steel- Fiberglass, acrylic, and waterproof membranes such as PVC, EPDM, and butyl are commonly used.
STATIC WATER: Form and reflectivity are design considerations for water contained in pools and ponds.
OVERALL
DESIGN
CONSIOERATIONS
SCALE: Consider the size of the water feature in relation to its surroundings. BASIN SIZING: For width, consider fountain height and prevailing winds. For depth, consider weight {1 cu ft water = 62.37 lb). Consider children playing near or in the pool. Allow space for lights. nozzles, and pumps. Local codes may classify basins of a certain depth as swimming pools. Nozzle spray may be wshioned to prevent ercessive surge. EOTTOM APPEARANCE: When clear water is maintained. bottom appearance is important. Enhance the bonom with patterns, colors, materials, three-dimensional objects, or textures. Dark bottoms increase re{lectivity. EDGES OR COPINGS: In designing the water's edge, consider the difference belween the operating water level and the static water level. Loosely defined edges (as in a pond) make movement into the water possible both visually and physically. Clearly defined edges (as in a basin) use coping to delineate the water's edge LIPS AND WEIRS: A lip is an edge over which flowing water falls. A weir is a dam in the water that diverts the water llow or raises the water level. lf volume and velocity are insufficient to break the surface tension, a reglet on the underside oI the edge may overcome this problem.
FORM
FOR
VERTICAL
DRY
FOUNTAINS
FALLING WATER: The effect ot falling water depends on water velocity and volume, the container surface, and the edge over or through which the water moves. FLOWING WATER: The visual effect of a volume of llowing water can be changed by narrowing or widening a channel, placing objects in the path of the water, and changing the direction of the llow or the slope and roughness of the bottom and sides. JETS: A pattern is created by forcing water into the air with a jet. Jet types includ€ single orifice nozzles, tiered iets, aerated nozzles, and formed j€ts in a wide va.iety of forms, patterns, and types. SURGE: A contrast b€tween relatively quiet water and a surge (a wave or a splash) is made by quickly adding water, raising or lowering an object or moving it back and forth in the water, or introducing strong air currents to the water. WATER
EFFECTS
SYSTEM
The water effects system comprises lhe pump, nozzles. and piping that move water through the fountain. The combination of nozzles, spray rings, eyeballs, pipes, weirs, and/or channels in a fountain or pool requires a pump system to generate water pressure, a suction line to bring water to the pump, and a discharge line to mve water from the pump to the nozzles. Fountaan nozzles come in four basic types: aerating nozzles, sprav heads, smoothlcore nozzlgs, and formed nozzles- AeF ating nozzles (also known as bubbler jets. geyser nozzles, or foam nozzles) are characterized by white frothy water cre ated by combining air and water. Spray heads are characterized by combinations of thin clear water jets comang from a distribution head in the shape oI a fan or circle (suction or in-
TURBINE
PUMP
line strainer required). Smooth-bore nczzles are characterized by a clear, thin solid stream jet of water that breaks up into small droplets as it reaches its maximum height or distance. Formed nozzles are typified by a thin sheet of water that originates in a jet of varied size and shape. The thinness of the sheet of water makes the tolerances in the jet very tight (suction or in-line strainer required). Fountains are usually closed water systems, i.e., the pump continuously cvcles the water in the basio to the nozzles and back to the basin again. The pumps used to generate water oressure and ooerate the water effects of a fountain are largely powered by electric motors. Three types of pumps are commonly used: submersible. dry centrifugal, and vertical turbine oumps. Submersible Dumos, used for low volume fountains, are among the simplest pumping systems. A watertight electric motor and oumo are set under the water oI the tountain basin. The pump is usually equipped with a motor of '/20to 1 horsepower and moves a maximum o{ 100 gallons per minute (gpm). This type of pump requires fewer pipe penetrations in the basin wall than dry centrifugal or vertical turDrne pumps. Dry centrifugal pumps, most commonly used for larger water features, consist of an electric motor, a pump, a suction line, and a discharge line. This pump type ranges from !/. to 100 horsepower. Vertical turbine pumps, used in large water features, are able to move tremendous amounts of water. Thev reouire a pump and molor, a water sump located in an equipment vault, a gravity feed mechanism to fill the sump. and a discharge line. These pumps are more energy€lficient than those with suction lines, as gravitv moves water to lhe pump. The electric motor is not submerged in water, making a watertight seal less important. Vertical turbine pumps can move up to 5000 gpm.
SITEIMPROVEMENTS AND AMENITIES
160
Designof Fencesond Gotes
GENERAL
7-
Selection critena to use when choosing a fence for a particu lar application Include the degree of privacy or openness and sense of enclosure desired; the aesthetic and stylistic nature of the materials and setting: cultural and historical prece dents; and security issues Consider, as well. materials and marntenance requirementsj soil condjtlons at the site and the foundations and anchorage required; topography, climate, and wind conditions at the site: the effects a desion will have on neighbo.s and adjacenl natural features; the srle of the property: and the permanence and cost of the structureLocal zoning and building codes often regulate the height of a {ence and its relationship to the prop€rty line. Fences should not obstruct traffic sight lines at antersectionsbut should prevent access to potential danger (e.9., unattended children at swrmmrng p@ls or pedestrians at a construction site).
6" DIAMETER TYP (METAL
WOOD. VARIES)
.STRAP
HINGE FENCE POST (4X4OR6X6. TYP.) WITH CAP
-6X6WOOO RAIL AND POST . TYP (METAL VARIES)
COMPRESSION BRACING
2X4 FRAME
\. RAIL
ANO
IO'
POST t'\--8
X l2 HIGH CONCRETE OR STONE
-
BRICK
GATE STYLE USUALLY CONSIS]ENT WITH ADJACENT FENCING MASONRY CURB
TYPICAL
\^r'OOD GATE
I X PRESSURE.TREATED WOOD CAP. IO" SLOPE. MIN
/- ALUMINUM CAP
WIRE CURB //-Posl HEDGSHEDGEROW
BERM OR STONE HEDGE MASONRY
WOOD
COMPACTED FILL
WOOD, VINYL, OR METAL FENCE MATERIAL
ROCK UYER FOR STABILITY (OPTIONAL)
WOOD
CLEAT
FROSA
LINE
ll:
wooo PosT MASONRY WALLS
POST
PIER
WOOO FENCES
/.
GRAVEL STONE BASE STONE
BASE
AND
CLEAT
POST
CAP
DETAILS
NOTES 1. Gates permit personnel and vehicles to oass throuqh ba. riers. Constructron technrques and opetation of gaies a,. similar to door methods; refer to AGS chapter 8 for lur ther in{ormation on these subjects 2. Compression bracing extending from the upper extremitv to the lower connection point of a gate is often required; tension can be modulated through rods and turnbuckles to prevent warpage and sagging. Large or heaw gates can be titted with rollers or wheels to aid ooeration: metal tracks mounted in paving prevent uneven surface wear. 3. Hardware should be made of noncorrosive materials. Latches with internal padlock hasps or locking mecha nisms are available for securitv protection wooo
CONCRETE WITH SLOPED TOP
A retaining wall positioned to be invis ble to the viewer {a
H ;::ffi:"I
rside rs "ll1:'"":'" * ou
\W a-
ilgT ".'
LOW BARRIER PHYSICAL
BARRTER
TAP SEAL AT POST
r3,1l,i,iT,Ll:"'
COMPACTED FILL
g,/ oawtns
METAL FENCE
TYPES
BASE
:lll-
,|-lll r|_
-|t
UNE -
CONCRETE FOOTING (4" To r 2" DIAMSER
FROST
/'FROST GRAVEL
-
STONE
AASE
EMBEDDED
ANO
CONCRETE
CAP
POST DETAILS
Daniel F. C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D.C.
SITEIMPROVEMENTS AND AMENITIES
PosT
ELEVATED U.SHAPED GALVANIZED
WOOD POST
POST \^r'ITH CONCRETE
FOOTING
LINE
r6l
Metql Fences WROUGHT IRON (STEELT RAIL ( lrl2
GATE STEEL ANGLE SET IN MASONRY
3/." X ]" INTERMEDIATE RAIL (STEEL CHANNEL OPTIONAL)
STOP
METAL PANEL (OR CAST METAL ORNAMENT)
FRAME
GATE
REMOVABLE GRILLE FASTENED TO FRAME
BAR SET INTO MASONRY PIER (SN IN NONSHRINX
GROUT)
HINGE WELDED TO ANGLE .2" DIAMETER OR .L" X'/<" PICK€TS. T\P ..- WASHER
PIN SET INTO NONSHRINK GROUT IN WALK NOTE Materials used for this type of fence are steel or aluminum in wrought or cast form.
SURFACE.MOUNTED
GATE PIVOT
HINGE
FOR \^/ROUGHT
GATE DETAILS
IRON
METAL BAR RAIL
TOP
END
FABRIC TIE
RAIL
4" DIAMETER POST. TYP,
SWING
I 2" PAVEO STRIP TO CONTROL GRASS AND WEEDS
GATE
BARBED WIRE
ELECTRIC WIRE
BARBED lv|RE
CORNER POST NOTE
LINE
GATEPOST
POST
For fences 5 ft and taller, a horizontal or diagonal brace, or both, is used {or greater stability- Post spacing should be
CHAIN-LINK
CHAIN-LINK
FENCE
GATE_ELEVATION
FENCE MATERIALS SIZES
MATERIAL
Wire gauge
AND
equidistant and shouid not exceed 10 ft o.c
AVAILABLEi
n o . 1 1o r n o . 9 For especiallyrugged use, use no. 6 For tennis courts, no. 11 is generallyused
Wire mesh Fortenniscouns,usually1%'or 1%'of steel that has been coated with dip galvanizing after weaving
COATINGS canbeused Protective coatings. suchaszincandaluminum, on metal fencing. Also available are various decorative coatings, including vinyl bonding and organic coatings; these are available f rom most manufacturers. VINYL-COATED
\^/IRE FABRIC
MESH
Vinykoated wire fabric mesh is suitable for residential, commercial, and industrial applications. The mesh comes in five sizes-1 , 1 r/a, 1)lr, 131o,and 2 in.-and in four gauges- l 1, 9, 6, and 3.
Top and bottom selvagemay be barbedor 3" X 3-. TYP., WELDEO WIRE MESH, STAPLED
Cornerand end Posts
WELOED WIRE MESH
lawn fences, usually 2' outside diameter For estate lences, 2 in. to( low,2t/2in. lo( and 3' outside diameter for heaw high
For tenniscourts 3' outsidediameter Forlawnfences,1%'or 2'outsidediameter Ltneor intermediate posrs For estate fences, etc., 2' 21 o( 21I H o( | ,
I 4',
,'
sections For tennis courts, 21/2' round outside diametet ot 2'lo' H or I sections Galeposts
Same or next size larger than corner posts; footings should be 3'6'deep
Top rails
1%' outside diameter except some lawn fence may be 134'outside diameter
Middle rails
On I2'4' fence, same as top .ail
Gates
Single or double; any width desired Accessible routes require clear opening width of 32'min. and 18'latchside clearance; latches must be accessible
Post spacing
METAL
FENCE
TYPES
Lineposts10'{' o.c.;8'{' o.c.maybe used on heavyconstructron
SPECIAL FENCING Thisfencingtypeusesverticalstrutsonly: ORNAMENTAL: no chain-link fabric is required. Ornamental lencing is ideal for landscaping or as a barrier fence. ELEPHANT FENCE: This fence can actuallv stoo an elephant. hold back a rock slide, or bring a small truck to a halt. Its size is specified as gauge 3 with a 2 in. mesh. SECURITY FENCE: This fabric is nonclimbable and cannot be penetrated by gun muzzles, knives, or other weapons. lt ls suitable as a security barrier for police stations, prisons, reformatories. hospitals. and mental institutions. Mesh sizes available are % in. for maximum security. 1/2 in. for high security, 5/. in. for super security. and 1 in. for standard secunty.
POST SIZES FOR HEAVY.DUTY GATES ASA SCHEOULE
40
S\^/ING GATE OPENINGS (FT)
(tN.)
Overl2to26 O v e r1 3 t o 1 8
*Sizes given are not standardbut represent the average srzesuseq.
D.C DanielF. C. Hayes.AIA:Washington,
AND AMENITIES SITEIMPROVEMENTS
162
Wood Fences -
5t4 X 2 WOOD SUTS 2X4TOPAND BONOM RAIL
7." X 2 SPACER 2X4TOPAND BOfrOM RAIL
5/4 X 6 PALES ON 2" SPACING
3"O" TO lo'o", TYP 4X4POST
4X4POST
PALISADE OR STOCKADE
BASKET WEAVE
2 X 5/4 UnrCE DECORATIVE
32" EXTERIOR GRADE PLYWOOD
CAP
2X3RAIL I X 4 PICKfrS
4X4POST
UTTICE
2X4TOPAND BONOM RAIL
IXrWOOD STOPS. TYP 2X6TOP RAIL
2\44 DIAGONAL SUTS ALTERNATING 2- ANO 4" SUTS OR SIDING I X 1 STOPSFOR PANES
6X6POST 3/.- EXTERIOR GRADE PLYWOOO
TYP
HORIZONTAL OR VERTICAL LOUVERS
PANEL
\ivOOD PRIVACY
PANEL
COMBINATION
FENCES
A" X 8"CAP 6X6POST
ON
2X4WOODFRAME 4" OR 6" DIAMETER POSTS
2 X 5/4 WOOD PICKETS (TOPS MAY BE CUT SHAPES)
8. MASoNRY -\Kf
J oc concnrrE i)'.1 ' cuns -----f )-
.w
2 X 4 HORIZONTAL
PICKET OR SUT
4X4OR6X6POST OF WOOD OR CONCRtrE POST
AND
RAIL
POST AND BOARD (CORRAL)
3" DIAMETER
POST
4X4POST 5/4 X 4 RA|L
I - OIAMETER RAILS ANO PICKtrS
ROT
4" TO 6" DIAMETER POST
RESISTANT
ruINE BAMBOO
l^r'OoD BOUNDARY
TCTICES
NOTES 1. Untreated wood materials such as wntte oak or tamarack can lasl up to lO Vears; cypress, redwood, and sassatras up- ro.t5 years; red and white cedar up to 20 years; dnd orack rocusl and osage orange up to 25 years. Weathel ano Insecl preservalive lreatments can extend the useful
life io 25 to 30 years lor most species. Verify life expecrancres and compalibilrty with frntshes and hardware wirh manulaclurers 2 Fasteners should be made of noncorrosive materials such as atumtnum alloys or stainless steel; high quality hot_
Daniel F. C. Hayes. AIA; Washington, D.C.
SITEIMPROVEMENTS AND AMENITIES
drpped galvanized steel is acceptable. Metal flanges, cleats, bolts, and screws are preferaDte lo common natls 3 Vrrgin or recycled plastic may be used as an dllernatrve matenal tor the fences illustraied on thrs oaae.
4. Locate assets stored on site but outside the facility within view of occupied rooms in the facilitY. 5. Minimize the signage or indication ot assets on the property. 6. Set the tacility a minimum of 100 {t from the tacility boundary, iJ possible.
GENERAL Consistent with the philosophy of crime preventron th.ough environmental design (CPTED). architects use a combrnation of design and operational tools to address projects requiring site security. These tools include access contlol of oedeslilans on the srte, nalural and mechanical sutueillance ol occuoants of the property, and clear detinrtron of pub|c and private space through a combination of real and sym
7. Eliminate lines of building.
approach
perpendicular to
the
8. Minimize the number ol vehicle access points. 9. Eliminate or strictly control parking beneath tacilities. l0.Locate parking as far trom the building as practrcal,
bolic ba(iers. When terroflsm, workplace violence, or slteet cnme ts pos' sible on a site, the U.S. General Services Administration recommends the following for all government buildings:
while accommodating ADA requirements for parkrng spaces and their proximity to the building. Place parking within view of occupied rooms or lacilities 11. llluminate the exterior of the building and/or exterior sites where assels are located. l 2 Secure access to power/heat plants, gas mains watet supplres. and electncal and phone service Design elements commonly used to create real and symbolic barriers to increase site security include bollards/planF ers. curbs, vehicle barriers, gates, security lighting, and signage.
STANDARD BOLLARD
GATEHOUSE
'l.
Eliminate potential hiding places near the lacility. 2. Provide an unobstructed view around the facilitY. 3. Place the facility within view ol other occupied facilities
LIGHTING
ACTIVE VEHICLE BARRIER
PROTECTION
PERIMETER
PEDESTRIAN
TURNSTILE
9-FOOT-HIGH AND SLIDING
SECURED
FENCE GATE
PERIMETER
ANTIRAM
WALL
TYPICAL
SALLY
PORT
REINFORC
SITE PLAN
/
EXISTING ASPHALT
t-' CONCRETE FOUNDATION
BOLLARD BOLLARDS WITH CONCRETE CONTINUOUS FOOTING
RETRACTABLE
BOLLARDS
TYPICAL RETAINING SECURITY
DETAIL
WALL
FOR
I2,' TNTERMEDIATE
CONCRETE
PLANTER
BARRIER
NONMOUNTABLE
CURB DETAIL
Randall L Atlas. AlA. Ph.D.. CPP; Attas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami, Florida
AND AMENITIES SITEIMPROVEMENTS
SiteSecurityBorriers
164
INTEGRAL STEEL CABLE WITHIN STEEL BEAM
CENTERLINE STEEL REINFORCEMENT
o
{A REBARS AT 2'-O" O.C (EPOXY IN PUCE) ALTERNATING CONTINUOUS CONCRETE FOUNDATION
GRADE
CONCRETE
JERSEY BARRIER
CABLE CRASH
BEAM
FENCE ON BARRIER WALL
CONCRETE
SLIDING GATE IS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN SWINGING GATE
Ltfl MECHANISM
LIFT CRASH
GATE
NOTE SLIDING CRASH
This reinforcedsteel gate has the same cross-sectional prc file as the concretebarrier.lt is usuallycontrolledremotely. GATE AT JERSEY LItr
GATE
BARRIER
PUTE
IMPACT DIRECTION
TRAFFIC PORTABLE FIXED LIF
CONTROLLER
LIFT PI-ATE BEAM-TYPE PUTE
BARRICADE
N OTE Active barriers at access/egress points in high security areas should be fully engaged until vehicles are cleared for passage. A visible signal light or drop arm should indicate the status of the barrier to approaching vehicles. Operating time should not exceed 3-4 seconds. In case oJ oower fail ure, the barrer system must be able lo maintatn rts posrtror to prevent access but be capable of manual operation; it also should be connected to emergency power. Remote controls should include a status indicator.
LIFT PLATE
BARRICADE
SYSTEMS
RECTRACTABLE
Edwin Daly, AlA, and Ellen Delaney: Joseph Handwerger, Architects; Washington. D.C William G. Miner, AIA: Washinglon. D.C. Randall l. Atlas. AlA, Ph.D.. CPP; Attas Safety and Security Design, Inc.; Miami. Ftorida
SITE IMPROVEMENTS AND AMENITIES
BARRIER
INTRODUCTION Plavrnqrs v tal lo lhe physrcal, emolronal and socral growth ot ihilaren To encourage healthy growlh the plav environment must challenge children at their level of development vet reassure them as they investigate their physical limits. Lach staoe ol development tesutts in drtterenl types and tevels oflnteraction and actrvrty The ouldoor pldy envlron ment becomes increasingly important as the boundaries oJ the child's world stretch beyond the home and primary care. Ptav equrpment should be selected and designed to attract. tascrnate,and sustain the Interesl of the age g.oups who will use it, while promoting agility, strength and balance_ Plavrnqmav consrst of rmitation, role play. and fantasy play, as *eil as -ote act,ue pulsulls. Space and equrpment must be provided to encourage iumprng. climbing, swingrng, sltding, crawiing, hanging, running, building. sjtting, and meetino. Des,oni shouid provide opponunities lor children to be and to Interacl socially. Thrnk of lhe equlpment imlao,nati-ve as ttlexible. three-dimensional system that allows children to move in every direction and challenges them wrth a con sistently changing space. Three age groups must be considered in designing plaYorounds. Toddlers (3 to 5 years) should be separated trom 6lder children by a fence they €n see through. This makes it easier for caregivers to superyise the younger children but allows the toddlers to feel part of things. Early elementary (6 to 9 years) and late elementary {9 to 12 years) children have traditionally been separated, but another optron is to design equipment that has several levels of ditficulty, allowing use by both groups. Most traditional play equipment is designed to stand alone as single units, although thes may be hnked -logether. Where soace or other conditions limit the scope of develoF However, because a ment, such equipment is reful. child's play activity tends to proceed in a continuous flow, Inteqrated olav areas have proved more successful than araioements ot individual items. Combining several mate' rials. iolors. and textures also makes lhe play space more inviting. A variety of options is awilable to the designer in both custom and manufactured products-
DESIGN SUGGESTIONS shouldmeetthen€ds andsusof a playground Thedesign
allow more creattve opportunities for children, and a variety of textures stimulates the sense of touch Children never tire of playing with sand and water. Manutacturers ofter a wide variety of water teatures for the playground, including wading pools and tounlarns. Water elements also encourage adult interaction. Space for congregatlng can be provided as semienclosed retuge or open areas. Bridges add interest to equipment and can provide connecttons between structures: thev also creale more climbing and refuqe soace. In addrtiol lo traditlonal plank bridges. there are arched. rooe, suspensron, or tire bridges Suspension bridges may be designed to meet specifications provided in the Americans with Disabilities Act {ADA}.
Most important, a bed of absorbrng ground cover, such as oine bark or wood chips (12 in. deep), pea gravel (10 in deep), or sand (10 in. deep), should be installed beneath the equioment. Hardwood chips and rubberized surfacing are easier for persons with disabilities to travel over' Asphalt, packed dirt, and exposed concrete are not acceptable play
lf a theme such as a ship, castle, or fort is incorporated in the playground, the equipment wiil automatically encourage the child's imagination. However, don't replicate these themes too closely. Leave most of the creation to the child
EQUIPMENT DISABILITIES
Adults should not be separated from the plaY area. Ample seating should be provided, and the equipment should be interesting to adults. too, srnce therr presence gives security, instruction, and approval Practrcalconcerns should be taken Into account in desrgning a playground: how does the equipment appear {rm the suirounding area? What are the views from the site? How much noise will travel to and from the playground? The design should consider the time ol day the equipment will be used and be suilable for use all year. Drainage is important, especially around swings and berms, and shade is especially desrrable over metal sldes.
SAFETY AND MATERIALS No playground is completely safe. The potential for accidents is inherent in the element of risk involved in most play. Nonetheless, playground equipment should provide challenging activities in the salest way possible. Round, square, and rectangular timber should be pine or fir (oak warps. redwood splinters). Color should be in the form of stain, not paint. and all edges should be beveled or rounded. Steel pipe, sheets, chain, and drums can be vinyl coated. Chain, rope, and tires are available in plastic. Use of concrete and stone should be kept to a minimum Hardware should be galvanized, and joints and connections cov' ereo or recesseo.
surfaces. A safety zone of at least 4 ft should surround the entire play area, with 7 ft in tront of slides, I ft in tront ol swangs, and 4 to 5 ft on the sides of the swings. Allow 65 to 70 sq ft of play space per child.
FOR
WITH
CHILDREN
The ADA has raised a new understanding of the need to include children with disabilities in play activity wherever possible. Several elements will encourage the- participation of children with disabilities. Bump stairs, lransfer platforms, accessible suspension bridges, and slides (provided there is enough lractionl, as well as components that can be manipulated lrom a wheelchair, are all useful. Many persons with disabilities have some upperbody mobility, and horizontal ladders and rings can help children strengthen the upper body. Ramps and handrarls should be used wheiever possi ole_
MANUFACTURED VERSUS CUSTOM EQUIPMENT Manufacturers of playground equipment offer products in steel. Available as eather timber, plastic, or powd€r{oated individual items or in predesigned arrangements, these Droducts are durable and easY to install and offer a variety of accessories. Because theY are designed as modular units, they can be used to create a limitless number of comoositions and can be expanded at a later date. Some have no need lor loundations. All products must conform to the Consumer Product Safety Code. equipment has the advantage of b€ing Customiesigned site and situation specific. In addirion. the manipulation of landforms by the designer can result in a much more lnter esting and creative site. Most of the materials used by manufacturers are readily available to designers, making custom design of equipment an affordable option
tain the interest of the children who will use the site. Using nonrepeltive elements and semitransparent features creates mvstery and surprise Dymmic, movable components
rl POLE
6 POLE
o o
)
J_+t
--u
a
tr
it o o o
) E
-ul
fl GRO\/VTH
AND
-l
4AI U) FT-mfl--
L I-
f
4 llll TIRE NETS
i
n
?t1r
-
I
o
LOG
SUSPENSION
CHAIN NET
BRIDGE
DEVELOPMENT
N OTES Two methods o{ expanding the capabilities o{ an integrated playground are: 1. LINKING OF EOUIPMENT: Connecting activitv centers with links that are in themselves play structures, thus multiplying the possible uses of all of the structures involved. 2. JUrrAPOSITIONING EOUIPMENT: Placing units close enough together to generate interaction from one to the other; also increases lhe play polential and interest of the area.
TUBE
SPIRAL
INTEGRATED
SLIDE
CLIMBER
PLAY AREA
Andrew Sumners: University Park, Maryland
AND AMENITIES IMPROVEMENTS SITE
166
Siteond SlreetFurnishings
-"<
TREE
CAST METAL TREE GRATE
CAST METAL TREE GUAROS
PROTECTION
*< UI
CONCRETE
coNcRETE
(W|TH LtcHT)
STEEL (WITH BIKE RACK)
STEEL
CAST METAL
BOLLARDS
ttJ
r/1\r Fj:.'' H
I
I
I I
F+< F,r:
| I
E: F:---+-' ll::' |
I | | 36-
t.'
I
l',: | | [,." | | I
l:." [....
| I
t'... t!-
| |
[':.
| I
I I | |
E ::. |- t k_/ METAL
LANDSCAPE
'{@) I
+---* | /---<
----tr
|-tl
llll"'
I12^lt CAST METAL
LIGHTS
II
1 )
STEEL LEANING
POST
STEEL
LEANING
PIPE
MISCELLANEOUS
RichardJ- Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Cromsville, Maryland
SITEIMPROVEMENTS AND AMENITIES
CAST METAL DRAIN COVERS
METAL (PROJECTED)
DRIVE / WALKOVER
M ETAL (FLUSH)
LIGHTS
Siteond StreetFurnishings 167
+--"--J jk--
(
I l--- --l lllHl lllAl
)
ll:l ltl 1_('
t-l
ffi
I5"
J-
+-<
ll0
(--
m
n L.zl
t|ill ltu It U
ftN D
CAST METAL
LSIffiLBLm \-
CAST STONE
STEEL WIRE ANO FIAERGT-ASS
wooD
l, TERRA-COTTA
OR CAST STONE
VARIES
*--------------\ \ ---:
BANNER
INFORMATION-RELATEO
AND
POLE
FURNISHINGS
Maryland RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsville.
ANDAMENITIES 2 SITE IMPROVEMENTS
t6 8
Gqrden Structures PLANTING -t
SOIL
x3 DRAINAGE GRAVEL l CLEAR
2
TAPERED2XAROOF RAFTERS
2 X 4 CROSS TIES AT RAFTERS THAT FRAME OVER POSTS (4) I/2'' DIAMETEF DRAIN HOLES
COPPER SCALLOPEO ROOF SHINGLES
FLUID APPLIED WATERPROOFING INSIOE AND
ALL
SIDES
BONOM
BUILDING PAPER I,/2
I X 2 SLATS \^/OOD
PLANTER
2 X 4 CROSS TIES AT RANERS OVER POSTS COPPER
SHINGLES
BUILDING
PAPER
2XARAN HURRICANE ANCHOR 1X2
(2)2X4TOPPLATE
SUTS
WOOD COLUMN COVER 4X4WOODPOST
12)2X PUTE
I X4RAILCAP 2 X 4 SUBRAIL 2X2
r x6 wooD FASCIA
4X4 POST 2X4BONOMRAIL
wooD COLUMN COVER
CONCRETE sua
GAZEBO
DETAIL
4X4 WOOO
WOOD COLUMN COVER tt"" DtA. ANCHOR
GAZEBO 2 X 12 LEOGER AT 2 X 4 EDGER BOLTED ro2xtz
2X6JOISTON METAL HANGER
V\/OOD DECK PLATFORM
3/e" x 6"
x 12
X 4 DECKING ALUMINUM
PLATFORM
FOOTING
Gary Greenan;Miami. Florida RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvill€.Maryland
SITEIMPROVEMENTS AND AMENITIES
DETAIL
THtCK
WOOD
BOX
3 X 3 PRESSURE. TREATED WOOD FRAME
GAZEBO
DETAIL
169
Gorden Structures wooD cAP. FASTENED AS
CAP
COPPER
coPPER CAP - --\
NECESSARY
2X
tOJOIS
EPOM PONO LINER
:\
wooD TIMBERS
VIOUS '/2"
FELT DtA
PAD
STAtNLEss
(MIN 2 BOLTS PER CONNECTION) 6X6 ., WOOD ] AROUND
' BACKFILL EARTH FOR PONO EDGE
FACING POS]
-
UNDISTURBED OR COMPACTED EARTH
STEP TO ACCOMMODATE WATER LILY PUNTERS
BALUST
r xa
EPOXY' COATED #5 REBAR THROUGH POST CONCRETE FOOTING
Z
-€POM
pine All wood is pressure-treated TRELLIS
WOOD TRELLIS
POND LINER
DETAIL
CAST METAL FOUNTAIN FASTENERS AT
WATER LEVEL
12
0.c.
WATER PUMP WATERPROOF EPOXY COATING
OVERFLOW
PIPE
METAL PRESSURE
AOHESIVE STRIP CONCRETE FOUNOATION POND LINER
UNDISTURBED OR COMPACTED EARTH
-
coNcRErE WITH
FOUNTAIN MORTAR
REINFORCING
I L-_-\
-___\ I
""'.'::::i:?:.\ STONE
,/
SECTION
RIM FOR
POND
WATER LEVEL
CONCRETE STONE SURFACE AND EOGE
WATER LILY IN PUNTER
2'' PVC
DRAINPIPE
WITH
n,llu) {l
--_G2
WATERPROOF EPOXY COATING
_----J WATER PUMP WITH ELECTRICAL JUNCTION BOX UNDISTURBEOOR COMPACTED EARTH
POND SECTION
IMPERVIOUS FELT PAD
STEP TO ACCOMMOOATE WATER LILY
PUNTERS GRAVEL
DRAINAGE
BED
-€POM
a ll#R UNDISTURBED OR COMPACTED EARTH
POND
DETAILS
GaryGreenan;Miami,Florida Maryland Richa.dJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
AND AMENITIES SITEIMPROVEMENTS
t70
EmbonkmentStqbilizqtion
<\
GENERAL Embankment stabilization is required when steep slopes are subject tO erosion from stormwater runotf or flowing streams. Erosion can damage the site and pollute waterways with sediment
2_J
The need for mechanical stabilization can be reduced through careful site gradings that divert or slow the velocity of runoff. Avoid dislurbing stable, natural stream banks. Check with regulatory agencies before planning to grade stream banks. wetlands, or tloodplains. Numerous proprietary products are available tor stream bank stabilization and erosion control; consult manufacturers.
SEED AND MULCH OR COVER HILL SIDE WITH EROSION,CONTROL BUNKff
NOTES 1. Control erosion during construction with sitt fences, straw bales, sediment ponds, and seeding and mulching. Follow local and state guidelines and regulations2. Lin€ channels with erosion-resistant material (sod. stone raprap, erosion{ontrol blanket). Channel dimensions and lining should be designed for expected runoff. 3. At the bottom of lhe slope drain channel, the flow should be conveyed to a storm sewer, detention pond, constructed wetland, or other control method that meets regurarons.
f
\.!"J
DrvERsroNoi nurorr AT TOP OF SLOPE DIRECTS WATER TO ORAIN CHANNEL STEEPEST SLOPE FOR MOWING
STEEPEST SLOPE WITHOUT STRUCTURAL SUPPORT WITH
LOCAL
CONDITIONS)
TERRACE OR BENCH LONG SLOPES TO SLOW RUNOFF
GRADING
AND
EROSION
CONTROL ANCHOR AT TOP OF SLOPE GROUT-FILLEO FABRICFORMED REVETMENT OVER SAND OR FILTER FABRIC
!/
STEEPEST RIPRAP SLOPE WITHOUT STRUCruRAL SUPPORT (VARIES WITH
LOCAL
SOIL
CONDITIONS)
\ \\\
--
GABION (CLOSED WIRE BASKfr FILLED IN PUCE WITH STONE)
/ 9;' a
arogNctngenrrc MSHODS INCLUOE PLANTING, LOG DEFLECTORS, WILLOW POSTS
^& ^g--;9"
0 3.""'c
oo' THICKNESS OF STONE RIPRAP UYER IS GREATER THAN MAXIMUM STONE SIZE
-J"o' .*-z dz -q
GRADED SAND AND GRAVEL FILTER OR FILTER FABRIC {Us;E UNDER ALL TYPES OF PROTECTIVE UYERS)
5r
DIRECTION
OF
STREAMBED
:PTREAMFLOW EMAED TOE OF RIPRAP BELOW DEEPEST EXPECTED SCOUR, MINIMUM 2@% OF RIPRAP UYER THICKNESS
STREAM
BANK
STABILIZATION
James E. Sekela.P.E.;Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania
RETAINING WALLS
RetoiningWolls GENERAL
MAXIMUM SLOPE
Retaining walls are designed and construcled to resist the thrust of the soil, which can cause the wall to tail by over turning, sliding. or settling. In stone walls, resistance to soil thrust can be helped by bartering the stonework {that is, recessing or sloping the masonry back in successive courses). Garden-type retaining walls, usually no higher than 4 ft, a.e made lrom small building units of stone, masonry, or wood. For higher walls, reinfo.ced concrete is mo.e commonly used. Terracing may be built with walls of wood, stone. brick, or concrete.
171
GRAVEL FILL FOR DRAIN FLAT STONES PREFERRED (25% OF STONES
Z MUST BE HEADER-TYPE LENGTH 2h rtMEs THICKNESS)
= I
Walls less than 2 ft high do not require drains or weep holes. Pressure-treated wood is recommended for any desigrr in which wood is in contact with the ground. Redwood may be substituted it desired.
SLOPE JOINTS INTO HILL
l1
@
PUCE STONES UNDISTURAED SOIL
(BELOW
LINE)
NOTE Staggervenical ioints trom course to course 6 in. min. horizontally.The thicknessot the wall at any point shouldnot be less than half the distancefrom that ooint to the top of the wall+w OVERTURNING
|
|
ler
DRY STONE
SETTLING
SLIOING
STONE
BANK STONE OR BRICK COPING
WALL
GALVINIZED WALL TIE
BRICK ROWLOCK
NOTES
FILTER FABRIC
'1.
H = height of wall, A = area of tooting. W = composite weight of wall; T= lateralthrust of soil on wall; d = widrh of base of mll; Mo = overtumingmoment ot a retaining wall; Ms = 1s5ls116g morenu w = lateralforce on wall in psf: 8C = bearingcapacityof soil. 2. The overturningmoment of a retainingwall (equalto T x HF) is resistedby the resistingmoment of lhe wall. For symretrical s@tions. the resistingmoment equalsW x d2. Using a safety factor of 2, MR > 2 x Mo (assume33' angleof reposeof soil). 3. The lateral (sliding) lhrust ol soil on a wall must be resisted.The resistingforce is the weight of the wall multiplied by the c@fficient of soil triction. Using a safety iactor of 1.5.W > 1.5T,where T = (w x H2)2. 4. The bearing€pacity of th€ soil must resistverticalforces (senling)-theweight of the wall plus any soil bearingon the baseplus any veni€l componentof the soil thrust for a wall with any surcharge.Usinga safetyfactor of 1.5, BC > l.5wA. FORCES \/vALLS
RESISTED
BY RETAINING
GRAVEL FILL FOR ORAIN
GRAVEL FILL FOR ORAIN
4- STONE OR BRICK VENEER
FACE BRICK (OMTT ONE VERTICAL JOINT AT 4rO- O.C. FOR WEEPS)
WEEP HOLES AT 410" O.C..
| 2- CMU
4- X I6- REINFORCED coNcRsE PAD iAcrs AS MOWING STRIP) A" X A' CONCRETE FOOTING WITH MO i3 REBARS, SET BELOW FROST UNE BRICK
STONE/BRICK
WALL
GALVANIZED ROUND WOOD POLES Sff SIDE BY SIDE
4-O"O.C.\
HORIZONTAL 4X60R6X6
GRAVEL
TIE
VENEER
CONCRETE DEADMAN AT EVERY OTHER POST, Sfr OUTSIDE ANGLE OF REPOSE OF SOIL
FILL
FOR DRAIN
HORIZONTAL TIMBERS, UY WITH OVERUPPING JOINTS
WALL
ROD FILL GRAVEL FOR DRAIN 2 X HORIZONTALS
=
IMW 'c:*,Ar610'ocr
(OR CONT!NUOUS HORIZONTAL DEADMAN) FILL GRAVEL FOR DRAIN
ST 4 X 4 POSTS SET SIDE BY SIDE ANO SUNK 2'.O' INTO SOIL WILL RETAIN 2 0" oF sotL
SOIL TERRACING NOTE A structural desrgn.
WOOD
engineer
RETAINING
fo.
UNDISTURBED
SOIL
FOR WALG UP TO 2'.O" HIGH, USE 4 X 4 POSTS AT 4!O- O.C.: FOR WALLS FROM 2IO" TO 4:O" HIGH. USE 4 X 4 POSTS AT 3'€" O.C.: FOR HIGHER WALEUSE 6 X 6 POSTS AT 310- O C
HORIZONTAL TIMBERS should be consulted
ON
VERTICAL
POLES
POST AND BOARDS
the linal
WALL
DonaldNeubauer, P. E.; NeubauerConsulting EngineersjPotomac,Maryland
WALLS RETAINING
Concrete RetoiningWqlls
172
a" . rMtN. 2-MlN+
zt I
+>t .' t t
l t
suoptrc
7
\
sLoPtNG BACKFILL (SURCHARGE)
BACKFILL (SURCHARGE)
/
GRAVEL FILL FOR DRAIN
GRAVEL FILL FOR DRAIN
F I
il
q U z I
I
o
FILTER FAARIC
FILTER FABRIC
'.ll
I
TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT
TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT
;
DRAINPIPE SLOPED TO OUTLfl AWAY FROM WALL (OPTIONAL 2- WEEPS AT 410" O.C.)
DRAINPIPE SLOPED TO OUTLET AWAY (OPTIONAL 2" WEEPS AT 4 -O" O.C.)
VERTICAL EXPANSION JOTNT
--+2'MtN
a FROST
O 67 H (LEVEL BACKFTLL) I .25 H (SLOPING BACKFIT
L.TYPE
RETAINING
DEPTH
FROST O€PTH
I .@ H (WITH SURCHARGE)
WALLS
o.oa H A- MIN /
\sLoPrNG BACKFILL (SURCHARGE)
ll'/
FABRIC F I
GRAVEL FILL FOR DRAIN
I I
CONCRSE RSAINING
I
o o I
-f"-
DRAINPIPE SLOPED TO OUTLET AWAY FROM WALL (OPTIONAL 2- WEEPS AT 4,O' O.C.)
i-T---
o.5 T fi .o T wtTH
NOTES 'lProvide control and/or construction joints in mcr€te retaining walls about every 25 ft. Every fourth @ntrol and/or constructionjoint should be an expansionjoint. Coateddowels should be used if avsragewall height on either side of a joint is different. 2. Consult with a structuralengineerfor final design of all concreteretainingwalls. 3. Concretekeys may be requiredbelow retainingMll f@tIng to prevenl sladanqin high walls and those built on moist clay. 4. T = the lateralthrust of the soil on the wall in the drawing of a gravityretainingwall.
PRELIMINARY
SURCHARGE)
GRAVITY
o.5 H (0.67 H W|TH SURCHARGE)
RETAINING
BACKFILL
\iVALL
SLOPING
I
I
GRAVEL FILL FOR DRAIN
I d
DRAINPIPE SLOPED TO OUTLET AWAY FROM WALL (OPTIONAL 2- WEEPS AT 4 -O" O.C.t
o I
--T." "'" LINE
STRUCTURAL STEEL REINFORCEMENT
T-TYPE
RETAINING
HEEL (b)
(c)
RETAINING
DIMENSTONS
WALLS
(FT-tN.)
BACKFILL
LEVEL-NO
{ E I G H T O F WIDTH OT Nr'ALL (H) BASE (B)
SURCHARGE
t/lr'IDTH OF WALL (A)
H EEL
(b)
(c)
2-a
0-9
t-5
0s
3{
2-1
0€
1-0
0-5
44
3-5
0-9
24
G8
4-0
2a
u{
l-7
0-5
5{
4€
Gl0
2$
1-2
fi
3-3
0€
2-2
0-5
m
54
G10
2-11
1-7
6{
G8
2-5
0,8
0-10
3-5
74
0€
24
'I -O
74
l{
?9
2-A
1{
7$
l{
r0{
8€
1-0
l1{
l1{
l-l
124
124
t3{
14-o
t4,0
1$0
15{
'r6{ 174 t8{
24
8{
4€
1{
24
9{
u2
1{
4-9
2-9
10{
5-9
'l{
7-2
2-9
l1{
G7
124
7-3
7-10
1-B 1-9
7-1 0
I4-0
8-5
3-9
15,0
9{
44
16-0
9-7
174
10-3
18-0
10-10
6 -7
1€
11 - 1
1-10
€
4S
124
r9{
19{
1 - 11
4-9
r 9-0
I t-c
2G0
24
m
20-o
124
214
21.o
2-2
s3
21-O
12-7
224
22-O
24
tu
22-0
DonaldNeubauer.P.E.; NeubauerConsultingEngineers;potomac,Maryland
5-0 5-5
| 3-0
35
14
144
1-5
-3
3-3
9-1
1G5
1-2
4-1
4-l
&5
7
1{
3-7
2
,5
16-0
18{
-l
14
204
vt/ALL
RETAINING WALLS
CONCRETE
WALLJOINTS
3{
8{
TEMPERATURE REINFORC€MENT
RETAINING
DlA. = 29o 45i (tV.r | )
WI DTH OF WIDTH OF B A S E ( B ) WALL (a)
74 LEVEL BACKFILL
VERTICAL CONTROL JOINT
FOR CONCRETE
APPROXIMATE
HEIGHTOF WALL (H)
I
DIMENSIONS
",t.
FROST DEPTH T=O.l3H (o_tTHwtTH
I
-o . 5 5 H
-5
5-9
1 - 11
6-2
24
6,7
2-2
1-1
2-3 2-5
7-r0
2-6
-9
a-2
2-A
l-1 1
a-7
2-9
ReinforcedCMUond PrecqsfConcrefe RetoiningWqlls NOTES 1. Materials and construction practices for concrete ma sonry retaining walls should comply with "Euilding Code Requirements for Concrete Masonry Structures (ACl 5 3 1) . 2. Use fine grout when grout space is less than 3 in. in)he least dimension. Use coarse g.out when the least dr mension of the grout space is 3 in. or more
BACKFILL SLOPING (sEE NOTES FOR DESTGN) --\__-,
S ARE GROUTED AND REINFORCEO IN RffAINING WALLS
/-cR^oE
ruO {4 BARS IN BOND BEAMS AT | 6- O.C. OR JOrNT REINFORCEMENT AT 8" O.C.
3. Steel reinlorcement bars should be clean, free from harmful rust. and in compliance with applicable ASTM standards for deformed bars and steel wire.
2h" rN a- wALs, 3" IN 12" WALLS
4. Alternate vertical bars may be stopped at the mid height oI the wall. Vertical reintorcement is usually secured in place after the masonry work has been completed and before grouting. 5. Designs shown are based on an assumed soil weight (vertical pressure) of 100 pcf. Horizontal pressure is based on an equivalent fluid weight for the soil of 45 pcf.
DOWEL (SAME SIZE AND SPACING AS V,BARS)
6. The walls illustrated are designed with a safety factor against overturning of not less than 2 and a safety factor against horizontal sliding of not less than 1.5. Computations in the table tor wa,l herghts are based on level backfill. One method of providing for additional loads from sloping backfill or surtace loads is to consider them as additional depth of soil. In other words, an extra load oi 300 psf can be treated as 3 ft of extra soil weighing 100 psf. 7. The top of masonry retaining walls should be capped or protected to prevent water from entering otheffiise untilled hollow cells and spaces. lf bond beams are used. steel is placed in the beams as the wall is constructed. Horever, horizontal ioint reinforcement may be placed in each ioint {8 in. o.c.) and the bond beams omrtted. 8. Allow 24 hrs tor masonry to set betore grouting. Pour groul in 4 ft layers. with one hour between each pour. Break long walls into panels 20 to 30 ft long with vertical control joints, Allow seven days lor finished walls to set before backfilling. Prevent water from accumulating behind walls by reans ol 4 in. diameter weep holes spaced 5 to 10 ft apan (with screen and graded stone) open joints or by a continuous drain with lelt{overed combined with waterproof ing. 9. When backfill height exceeds 6 ft. provide a key under the f@ting base to resist the tendency of the wall to slide horizontally.
173
F,BARS
--iF ,' ,,*
-F
#3 BARS AT t 2- O.C
SECTION
DIMENSIONS AND REINFORCEMENT FOR CMU RETAINING WALLS B
H
V.BARS
F.BARS
8'
*3@ 32'
*3 @ 27'
l0'
#4@ 32'
*3 @ 27'
l0'
12', *5@ 32'
#3 @ 27'
t4'
#4 @30'
6'{',
r0' 12' l0' 12' 12' 4 ' - 1 0 ' 12' 5'-4' 12' 5',-10' 14' l4' 3'€'
6'{' 6'€' 1'4' 8',{' 8',8'
1 1. A structural engineer should be consulted for the linal deslgn.
T
4'€'
12'
10. Heavy equipment used in backfilling should not come closer to the top of the wall than a distance equal to the wall height.
NOTE Long retainingwalls shouldbe brokenwith verticalcontrol ioints into panels20 to 30 ft long. These panelsmust be designedto resistshearand other lateraltorceswhile permittinglongitudinal movement.
9'-4' TYPICAL WALL
#4 @ 16' #6 @ 24'
s4 @ 25'
14',
*4 @ 24'
*3@ 25'
15'
#4 @ 16'
*4 @30'
to
#6@ 24',
#4 @ 22'
#5@16'
#5 @ 26'
#7 @ 24'
#5 @ 21'
#6@8'
*6 @ 26'
#8@8'
*6 @ 21'
18' 20' 22', 24'
CANTILEVER
RETAINING
SHEAR-RESISTING
PRECAST
CONTROL
JOINT
CONCRETE
ANGLE OF SURCHARGE
PRECAST TIE
VARIES SLOPE (BATER VARIES ( I :4
r"',u, r" , I V;
4" DIAMffER WEEP HOLES, 5!O" TO
to-o" o.c., HORIZONTALLY
DEAOMAN
DOUBLE.DEPTH
I CU trOF CRUSHED STONE OR GRAVEL AT EACH WEEP HOLE
UNDISTURBED
SECTION
N OTE
For retaining walls taller than a cenain height, double- or tripleiepth walls may be needed. Fill composition varies from crushed stone to granular soil, according to condilions. Consult a structural engineer.
DRAINAGE
DETAILS
FOR RETAINING
\^/ALLS
PRECAST SYSTEM
CONCRETE
CRIB WALL
P.E.;NeubauerConsultingEngineers; DonaldNeubauer, Potomac,Maryland
WALLS RETAINING
174
FreestqndingMosonryGorden Wqllsond Coping Detoils
GRAOE EOUAL ON BOTH SIDES
TERMINATION
NOTES
NOTES 1. Design straight garden walls (without piers) with sufficient thicknessto providelateralsrability. 2. To resist 10 psf wind pressure,the height above gradq (H) and thickness(T) should relate as follows: H < .75T' (H andT are in inches).
1. The radius of curuature (R) of a 4in. thick serpentine wall should be no more than twice the height of the wall above finished grade. 2. Th€ depth (D) of curvature of a s€rpentin€ wall should be no less than half the heighr of the wall above grade lmax. height = 5 ft 0 in., typical).
STRAIGHT
SERPENTINE
EUSTIC
GARDEN
WALLS
GARDEN
No r€inforcing steel is used in this type of wall. Serp€ntine walls are not recommenoed areas.
WALLS
SEAUNT
%%
o E I
) -
(IF FUSHING NECESSARY)
t--l [-l
BRICK
e@e
STONE
PANEL WALL REINFORCEMENT STEEL, TYP,
COPING {ROWLOCK BRICK SHOWN)
TERRA.COTTA
GALVANIZED OR STAINLESS STEEL ANCHOR
BRICK PANEL (NO FOOTING
WALL UNDER)
O.C PIER REINFORCING STEEL
FUSHING
\
COPING DETAILS FOR PIER
(to PsF)
PIER-ANO-PANEL
NOTE To tigure the vertical spacingand size of reinforcingsteel requiredfor panelwalls.considerthe probablewind loadand the wall span between piers- Consult a structuralengineer for assistance.
DennisCarmichael;EDAW, Inc.; Alexandria,Virginia
RETAINING WALLS
L.-r.'--l
t--l
/\
f--_]
CAST STONE/CONCRETE NOTES 1. Copings and caps prev€nt water from entering the inner rellfrom abov€ by shedding water to the sides. where it is thrown clear of the ffill, usually by means ot a drip €dge. 2. Anchor coping 6 necessary. lf the coping material is different from the wall material, compare their thermal and moisture expansion characteristics and make provisions fordifferential movement,
w-- .%-,%=-,
ffi''t(ffi"t(ffi': .,ru,i ',,_m l.mi\,M/ \,%/
W__-/
COPING PIER
TYPES
FOR VI/ALLS
REINFORCING WIND LOAD (lo PsF)
PIER TYPES
loundalion is required. All other values have been obtained using an 18in. diamet€r foundation.
Erfl l--l
SYSTEM
w%w
'For wall sizes shom within heaw lines, a 24-in.diameter
fi|-)
l--l
NOTE In general, throughffill flashing should be used immediately under the coping of garden walls. However, this decision depends on several factors, including th€ type of coping used, the number of ,oints used, and ths climatic condilions of the area (whether there is high or low precipitation and the number of frezing and thawing cycl6s).
rlllt n
ptEn roottruG ( I A- TO 24- DIAMtrER)
BRICK (NO DRIP SHOWN)
REQUIRED EMBEDMENT FOUNDATION*
2z
F I
GALVANIZED OR STAINLESS STEEL OOWEL (2 PER frONE)
24"
for use in seismic
'% hmrun[-l
r2" TO t6---><
(CAST SHOWN)
COPING STONE
The running bond brick pattern is best {or serpentine wails.
STEEL*
WIND LOAD (r5 PSF)
WALL
HEIGHT
(FT)
NOTE The pier€ndfanel wall is composed of a se.ies of relatively thin (4-in. thick) reinforced brick masonry panels. which are braced intermittently with masonry piers. This wall is relatively easy to build and is economical because of the narrowness of the panels. lt is also €asily adapted to varying terrain conditions.
PIER-AND-PANEL
GARDEN
livALLS
shown wrthrn heavy ftnes, i 2 x 16 In. prers are
Freestonding MosonryGordenWolls,SeotWolls,ond Slep Detoils Design factors that should be addressed when designing freestanding garden walls include these:
FREESTANDI NG GARDEN WALLS Freestanding garden walls provide a physical or visual barrier to outdoor areas. Walls higher than eye level (approximately 5 ft 6 in.) provide both a physical and visual barrier; typically they are situated near and designed to blend with an adiacent architectural structure. Walls designed under eyb'le,/el provide a sense of partial enclosure while maintaining a view, which is sometimes framed by the wall design.
2 X 6 PRESSURF.TRFATFn WOOD OR REDWOOD
/-
-.---! x4wooD
Oualrty and durability of materials (unit material, mortar, and.einforcement) and detailing when exposed over time to rain. wind, sun, thermal movement, and degradation
%" x 2' wooo
SPACER
3/S" DIAMETER GALVANIZED THREADED ROD
Appearance of both sides of the wall Foundation design Adiacent plantings
WOOD
PLUG
wooD SCREW. TYP. _SLOPEDOWN
tl
%" GALVANIZED STEEL PUTE
1 %" STUCCO COPING WITH DRIP. EACH SIOE
8" OR r2" CMU WALL
BRICK HEADER (AS PER BOND
REBAR (AS NECESSARY)
PAfrERN) FACE
175
3" DIAMNER GALVANIZED STEEL POST
o
%" DIAMETER X 6" LONG GALVANIZED UG SCREW IN LEAD ANCHORS
PAVERS
BRICK
: %" SAND SEfrING BED 6" COMPACTED AGGREGATE
CONCRETE FOOTING
BASE CONTINUOUS WELD
FROSI LINE
WOOD
SOLIO
STONE
PAVING
SITE BENCH
STUCCO OVER CMU
MASONRY
STONE COPING (2 STAINLESS STEEL DOWELS PER STONE) BRICK COPING WITHDRIP
STONE VENEER (4" MIN- DEPTH)
MASONRY ANCHORS
FACE BRICK
REINFORCED CONCRETE
GROUT REBARS (AS NECESSARY)
BRICK VENEER STONE PAVERS ON REINFORCED CONCRETE SUB
CONCRETE FOOTING
SEAT WALL
TOP AND BOtrOM POSTS IN 2" DIAMETER RAIL_Sff HOLE. ALL WITH GROUT
FOR
%" THICK EXPANSION JOINT FILLER
STONE OR PRECAST STEP SET IN MORTAR %" RADIUS OF AT CURVATURE LEADING EDGE (ADA)
STONE VENEER OVER REINFORCED CONCRETE
GROUTED REINFORCED MASONRY
MASONRY
FREESTANDING
GARDEN
%" EXPANSION
ARTCK PAVER SET INTO ]' TO 2' SANO OVER FILTER FABRIC ANO COMPAqED FILL -......._-RowLocKcouRsE
WALLS STONE
JOINT
FILLER
RISER
STONE STEP SET IN MORTAR BED
---'-
STRETCHER COURSE
FINISH
SLOPE DOWN (% CAST
STONE
REINFORCED CONCRETE FOOTING TO FROST DEPTH TOP AND BONOM
NOTES REBAR IN NOSING. 6" GRAVEL
REBAR IN NOSING. REINFORCED CONCRETE FOOTINGS. TO FROST DEPTH BRICK
MASONRY
1. Provide handrails on both sides of all stairs along accessi ble routes.
REINFORCED CONCRETE FOOTING. TO FROST DEPTH
2. Steo sur{aces should be slooed so waterwill notaccumulate on the walking surface. 3. These details are for reference onlv. Consult ADAAG for tread and handrail requirements for specific applications and BOCA for riser-to-tread ratios
SITE STEPS
Virginia DennisCarmichael; EDAW,lnc.:Alexandria,
WALLS RETAINING
176
Freestonding SloneWollsond Hedges t\ t\ -tr -lf --tt---
COPING. TYP
##
MORTAR JOINTS RAKEO OUT %" MIN
nli
--:-f:-T --__-lf--lr I
__Jr
HEADER STONES
l[
-Tr:=--'=--
BATTER BOTH SIDES OF WALL
COURSED WITH IRREGUUR COURSES
COURSED WITH REGULAR COURSES t\ ll--
---tr---l
-
p-
-.'-------1>:l.!<=4=__=_)=/ T V -
l(.-
-l*( COURSED WITH BROKEN COURSES
(STONE OR FOOTING CONCRflE, TYP.)
ASHLAR
fIT''" NATURAL FIELOSTONE (UNCOURSED)
MORTARED
STONE
ASHUR
RANOOM-COURSED RANOOM BONO
STONE
WALL
PATTERNS
(COURSED}
WALLS
TSLOPEl COPING,
TYP
OVERLAP JOINTS, AVOID LONG VERTICAL JOINTS IN WALL
COURSED WITH ROUGHLY SQUARED RU BBLE
UNCOURSED WITH ROUGHLY SOUARED
SLOPE (BANER) BOTH WALL FACES. TYP.
HEADER STONES (25% TO 30% OF WALL) UNCOURSED WITH ROUGH RUBBLE
RANDOM RUBBLESTONE PATTERNS
l-ll' DOUBLE
TIER WALL
DRY STACK
STONE
SINGLE
TIER
WALL
WALL
WALLS RANDOM.RANGE QUARRY-FACEO
ASHLAR
E o
COURSED DRESSED NER
ASHI.AR
BOTH SIDES
FORM
JOINTS
HEOGE
CORNISH
HEDGE
H EDGES
r-a
(-
rl '"ffi t-
rs9Tfifirgl r#F -ffi
rusqrr[fi] -=ff
F r{ ?5 t1 BUCK
STONE WALL COPINGS
DennisCarmichael;EDAW, lnc.; Alexandria,Virginia
RETAINING WALLS
ANO
DRAFT
Most types of stone canbe used for ston€ walls, but granite, limestone. sandstone, and slate are preferred. Ashlar and rubbl€ are th€ main types of storework used for walls. Ashlar is stone that has been cut and squared and can be laid in straight courses to create a uniform, stable wall; its surface can have any texture. Rubblestone has not been cut or dressed. and stability is largely achieved by using header stones that run through the wall, binding it together.
FILL
soo sTRrPs BETWEEN
STONE
ASHLAR
MARGIN
NOTE
WELL.COMPACTEO EARTH
WITH
-+-+-C -+r-!ffi ^nnnnnn l4rrJd#JAp
-5-t
--llrI-
STON E TYPES
-a'-f--lrY
FOR \ffALLS
-\
lrl
( f
ffi.'" i--1 am ffi
\/
--
-.>-'l-'l'*: -r.w+A.e
R UB BLE -jffi.
d{,qrl{hilnF''ilnnntr l % I _
l J
( /
--
< n\/
./ I
) 1
+#k1!4
TURF/GRASS
EnvironmentolEffectsof Trees GENERAL The physical environment of the site, the design needs of the project, and the design character of the trees are all fac tors that must be considered in selecting trees and preparing a landscape plan for a build'ng.
177
TREES PROTECT VIEWER FROM GURE OF SURFACES SUCH AS WATER. PAVING.
Soil conditions (acidity, porosity) at the site, the amount and intensity of sunlight and precipitation. and the seasonal temperature range in the area create the physical environment in which trees must be able to suryive. As well. consider how th'e location and topography ot the site will direct the wind, resulting in cold winds and cooling breezes that can af{ect the health of trees. Trees can be used to address the design needs of a proiect by directing pedestrian or vehicle movement, framing vistas, screening objectionable views, and defrntng and shaping exterior space. Trees can also be used to modify the microclimate oI a site and to help mnserye building energy use from heating, c@ling. and lighting systems. The design character of the trees themselves plays a part in which species are best suited for a particularapplication.The shape of a tree can be columnar, conical, spherical, or spreading, and the resulting height and mass will change over time as the tree matures. Some trees grow quickly and others more slowly. and their color and texture varies from coarse to medium to fine, affecting their character. The appearance of deciduous trees changes with the seasons, while the effect of an evergreen remains relatively constant.
NOTE
NOTE
The venical angle of the sun changes seasonally; therefore, the area of a building subject to the glare of reflected sunlight varies. Plants of various heights can screen sun (and artificial light) glare from adjacent surfaces.
ln summer, trees obstruct or filter the strong radiation from the sun, cooling and protecting the area beneath them. In winter, evergreen trees still have this effect, while decidu, ous trees. having lost their leaves, do not.
GLARE
SHADE
PROTECTION
PROVISION
CROWN: HEAD OF FOLIAGE OF TREE
LEAVES: FOLIAGE UNIT OF TREE THAT FUNCTIONS PRIMARILY IN FOOD
NOTE
MANUF
NOTE Large masses of plants physically and chemically filter and deodoriz€ the air, reducing air pollution. (Top) Particulate matler trapped on the leaves is washed to the ground during rainfall. Gaseous pollutants are assimilated by th€ leaves. {Bottom) Fragrant plants can mechanically mask fumes and odors. As well, these pollutants are chemically metabolized in the photosynthetic process.
ROOTS: ANCHOR THE TREE AND HELP HOLD THE SOIL
AIR FILTRATION ROOT HAIRS: ABSORB MINERAS FROM THE SOIL MOISTURE AND SEND THEM AS NUTRIENT SALTS IN THE SAPWMD TO THE LEAVES
HEARruOOD. NONLIVING CENTRAL PART OF TRE€ GIVING STRENGTH ANO STABILITY
A combination of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs reduces sound more effectively than deciduous plants alone. Planting trees and shrubs on earth mounds increases the attenuating eff€cts of a bufler belt.
SOUND
ATTENUATION
LEAVES AND BRANCHES ARE COATED WITH THIN FILM OF WATER HOLDING IT FROM
SHELTER
ANNUAL RINGSj REVEAL AGE OF TREE AY SHOWING YEARLY GROMH
H = HEIGHT
OF TREES
OUTER BARK: AGEO INNER BARK THAT PROTECTS TREE FROM DESSICATION AND INJURY
tr
INNER BARK (PHLOEM): FOOO FROM CARRIES TO BRANCHES LEAVES
8 -* J
TRUNK. AND ROOTS
6 25%
z =
CAMBIUM: UYER XYLEM AND BETWEEN PHLOEM WHERE CELL ADDING GROffiH OCCURS, NEW TO INSIDE SAPWOOD INNER AND NS
to
NOTE
(XYGM): SAPWOOD CARRIES NUTRIENTS ANO WATER TO LEAVES FROM ROOTS
CHARACTERISTICS
5051ot52025 MULTIPLE OF SHELTER BELT HEIGHT
BARK OUTSIDE
PHYSICAL TREES
o%L
OF
Shelter belt wind protection reduces evaporation at ground level, increases relative humidity, lowers the temperature in summer and reduces heat loss in winter, and reduces blow ing dust and drifting snow. The amount of protection afforded is directly related to the height and density of the shelter belt.
NOTE Mature trees absorb or delay runoff from stormwater at a rate 4 to 5 times that of bare ground
\ivlND PROTECTION
RUNOFF
ROOTS ABSORB WATER RUNOFF FROM BRANCHES
REDUCTION
James Urban, ASLA: James Urban Landscape Architecture; Annapolis, Maryland
PLANTING
178
PlontingDeloils
DO NOT STAKE OR WRAP TRUNK; MARK THE NORTH SIOE OF THE TREE IN THE' NURSERY ANO LOCATE TO THE NORTH IN THE FIELD
,/ , ,' ./ !:t - '/ !!-..:2
i.;:"
SOIL
AVOTD PURCHASING TREES WITH ruO LEADERS oR REMovE oNE AT pLANTTNG: orHERwtsE. oo NOT PRUNE TREE AT PLANTING EXCEPT FOR SPECIFICSTRUCTURALCORRECTIONS
// ,/
/
FOLD
BURUP
,/
,,'
AWAY
FROM
TOP OF ROOT
BALL
ROOT BALL FLUSH TO GRADE OR SEVERAL
/-SEr
INCHES
HIGHER
IN POORLY
ORAINING
SOIE
Ouring the design phase. assumptions must be made regarding the probable condition ot the soil after construc tion is complete. The health of existing or remaining so determines what types of soal preparation will be requirec and the volume of soil to be prepared. Conditions will vary from location to location within a project, and details musl be condition-specific. For large projects or extreme cond tions. it is useful to consult an expert experienced in modify ing planting soils at urban sites.
4" BUILT,UP EARTH SAUCER 2" BARK MULCH (DO NOT PUCE MULCH IN CONTACT WITH TREE TRUNK) X = MINIMUM WIDTH OF PREPARED
IMPROVEMENT
The quality of soil available for planting varies widely fro' site to site, especially after construction activity har occurred. The nature ol construction results in comDaction frl|ng, contaminatron, and grading ot the oilgrnal soil on site, rapidly making it useless for plantlng Previous huma activity at a site can also affect the ability o{ the soil to sul: port plants.
BEFORE PUTITING, ADO 3" TO 4OF WELL.COMPOSTED LAVES OR RECYCLED YARD WASTE TO BED AND TILL INTO TOP 6OF PREPAREO SOIL
NOTES 1. lf site or design constraints prohibit use of the dimen sions shown on this page, follow the guidelines for planl ing in urban areas. possible. the soil improvement area should b. Whenever 2. connected from tree to tree. 3. Always test soil for pH and nutrient levels and adjusr these as required,
4" TO 6' DEEPER THAN ROOT BALL PREPARED SOIL FOR TREES DIG WIDE, SHALLOW HOLE WITH TAPEREO SIOES
CUT TOP BANDS OF WIRE BASKET AND FOLO AWAY FROM TOP OF ROOT BALL
NOTES 1. For container{rown trees, use fingersor smallhandt@ls to pull the roots out of the outer layerof poning soil: then cut or pull apart any r@ts circling the perimeter ol the container. 2. Incorporate@mmrcially prepared my@rrhizaspores in the soil immediatelyaroundthe root.ballat rates specilied by the manufacturer. TREE
PLANTING
(BALLED
DETAIL
FOLD BURUP FROM TOP OF ROOT BALL OOWN INTO GROUND SET TOP OF BALL FLUSH WITH FINISH
4. Loosen soil wilh a backhoe or other large coarse-tillinc oquipment when possible. Tilling that produces large, coarse chunks ot soil is prelerable to tilling that results in line grains uniform in texture.
\;gRrgll%lhBi,isl
TAMP SOIL SOLIDLY AROUND BASE OF ROOT BALL
AND
3. Duringthe designphase,confirmthat water drainsout ot the soil; designalternativedrainagesystemsas required4. Thoroughlysoak the tree root ball and adjacentprepared soil severaltimes duringthe first month after plantingand regularlythroughoutthe followingtwo summers. 5. The planting process is similar for deciduousand evergreen trees.
BURLAPPED
PREPARE SOIL IN THE ENTIRE BED USING PROCEOURES OUTLINEO IN CHART BELOW
ROOT
HEIGHT RANGE (FT-tN.)
1 BEFORE PSNTING. ADD 3- TO 4" OF WELL.COMPOSTEO LEAVES AND RECYCLEO YARD WASTE TO BED AND TILL INTO TOP 6' OF PREPARED SOIL
UWN
SOIL
a" To 12" PREPAREO
SOIL
FOR
NOTES 1. For conlainergrown shrubs, use fingers or small hand tools to pull the r@ts out of the outer layerof potting soil; then cut or pull apartany r@ts that circletho perimeterof tne contarner. 2. Incorporate@mmrcialv preparedmyorrhiza spores in PT.ANTING
GENERAL
BALLED AND BURUPPED
SHRUBS
FOR
MAX. HEIGHT (FT)
MIN. BALL DIA. (|N.)
MIN. BALL DEPTH (tN.)
8
2
9
ffi
l0
4
10-
8-10
11
6
&10
12
1B
13)12
G
t4
20 22
13r l,
14
2
2-14
2r l,
2-14
3
4-16
18
32
19)12
4-16
18
38
1G18
22
42
23 25 32-
24 28
18r /,
5 18-20 26 54 *Up to and includingthe 4in. calipersize,the calipermea surement indicatesthe diameter of the trunk 6 in. above ground level. For larger sizes, the caliper measurementrs taken 12 in. aboveground l€vel.
PUNT
NOTES the soil imdiately aroundthe r@t ballat mt€s specified bv the manufacturer. 3. Confirmthat water drainsout ol the soil duringth€ design phase;designalternativedrainagesystemsas required.
1. See American Standardfor Nursery Stock, ANSI 260.1. for mmd€te list of nurserystandardsfor other types and sizesof trees and shrubs. 2. Se IntemationalSmiety of Arboriculture's"Principlesand Practicesof PlantingTreesand Shrubs," 1997.
DETAILS
RANGE OF SOIL MODIFICATIONS
POSTCONSTRUCTION
SIZES
SHADE TREES
ffi
1fl,
4 -
SOIL SURFACE ROUGHENED WITH NS
1t lz
OR PAVING
CONTAINER GROWN PLANT WITH ROOTS PULLEO OUT OF BAL
BALL
NURSERY.GROWN
GRADE
t2" TO 18- (FOR URGER SHRUB ROOT BALG, MAKE DEPTH MIN,4" DEEPER THAN BALL)
SHRUB
STANDARD
CALI PE R* (lN.)
PLANTS)
2' MULCH (OO NOT PUT MULCH AGAINST THE BASE OF THE PLANT)
TO BIND
5. The bottom of planting soil excavations should be rough to avoid matting of soil layers as new soil is added. lr is preferable to till the first lift (2 to 3 in.) ot planting soil into the subsoil.
SOIL CONDITION
AND VOLUMES
MIN. \lv|DTH PREPARED
FOR VARIOUS SOIL CONDITIONS SOIL FOR TREES
(X)
TYPE OF PREPARATION
Good soil (not previously graded or compacted, topsoil layer Intact)
6 ft or twice the width of the root ball, whichever is greater
Loosen the existing soils to the widths and depths shown in details above.
Compacted soil {not previously graded, topsoil layer disturbed bul not eliminated)
1 5f r
Loosen the existing soils to the widths and depths shown in details above; add composted organic matter to bring the organic content up to 5% dry weight.
Graded subsoils and clean fills with clav content between 5 and
20ft
Minimum treatment:loosenexistingsoil to widths and depths shown, add compostedorganicmalter to bring organiccontent up to 5?o dry weight. Optimumtreatment:removetop 8-10in. or the existingmaterial, loosenexistingsoils to the widths and depthsshown, add 8l 0 in.of loamtoDsoil.
2011
Remove existing soils to the widths and depths shown, .eplace with loam topsoil.
35v"
or qualaty tills, heaw clay soils, soils contaminated with rubble toxic malerial
James Urban,ASLA; James Urban LandscapeArchitecture;Annapolis,Maryland AmericanNursery& Lands€pe Association(formerlyMN); Washington,D.C.
PLANTING
TreePlontingond Protection CONSTRUCTION EXISTING TREES
179
AROUND <2O
Great care should be taken not to compact, cut, or fill the earth within the crown area ot existing trees. Most tree roots are located in the top 6 to 18 in. of the soil and often spread considerably tarther than the drip line of the tree. Compaction can cause severe root damage and reduce the movemenl of water and ai. through the soil. To avoid com pacting the earth, do not operate equipment or store materaals within the crown spread. Eefore construction begins, inject the soil within the crown area of nearby mature trees with commercially prepared kelp+ased lertilizer and mychorrhiza lungus developed to invigorate tree roots. Prune tree roots at the edge ol the root save area, as roots pulled during grading can snap or split well into the root save area- Rot and disease that enters dying roots in compacted or filled areas can move into the tree it root pruning has not been carried out. Install tree prc tection fencing and silt protection at the limits of construction activity near trees. During construction, apply additional water in the canopy area to compensate tor any root loss beyond the crown spread- Have all mature trees inspected by a certified arborist before construction begins to identify any special oroblems. Remove all deadwood and treat all tre€s for existing insect and disease problems. When possible, begin fertilization and problem treatments at least one full growing season betore construction. Removal of significant portions of the crown will affect the health of a tree by reducing its ability to photosynthesize in proportion to the mass of its trunk. Younger, healthier trees withstand construction impacts better than older trees.
I doo
;ood
,//
DIAMETER OF TREE CROWN OR GREATER
+
TOPSOIL
.
OLD GRADE
:
T
NEW GRADE
wooD, sToNE, oR cMU ORY WELL (WITH NO FOOTING)
,-
PERFORATED VENT CAP TO PROTECT PIPE FROM CLOGGING ANO PERMIT AIRFLOW
PERFORATED PIPE UID ON OLD GRAOE (4" DIAMETER MtN.)
ROOT PRUNE TRENCH BEYOND VENT LINE
DRAIN TO DAYLIGHT
'o" o.c.,
:t_-:::_::=:
CRUSHED STONE
FILLING
AROUND
MIN.
VENTEO T SECTION COLLECTS DRAINAGE FROM ORY WELL AREA CONNECTING TO DRAIN LEADING TO DAYLIGHT
EXISTING
TREE
ROOT PRUNE TRENCH CUT WITH ROCK SAW (FILL OR TRENCHER AtrER WITH SOIL)
2X PLANKING LOOSELY CABLED AROUND TREE
wooD cHtPs
PLruOOD MANING
lr+
NOTE
NOTE A root prune trench seversroots with a clean cut, protecting remainingr@ts from cracking,rot, and disease. ROOT PRUNE
TRENCH
lf constructionoperationsmust take place wilhin the crown spreadarea, install6 in. of wood chips on top of the soil to protect it. Us€ pl'4aoodmatting over mulch in areaswhere equipment must operate.Protect the trunk of the tree wath plankangl@selycabledaroundthe tree to reducescarringby equipment. Remove planking,matting, and mulch as soon as op€rationsare linishedTREE AND
ROOT
WITHIN CROWN SPREAD AREA RETAIN EXISTING VEGETATION OR APPLY 2- TO 3" MULCH
WOOD AND wtRE sNow FENCE ON
SIGN . "KEEP OUT: TREE PROTECTION AREA"
SILT
(25-O'O.C.)
OIAMffER OF TREE
CROWN
\
MULCH OVER SILT CLOTH
NOTE A barrier such as that illuslrated can keep construction equipment and personnel from compacting the soil around rfee r@G.
PROTECT]ON
Fewer roots are severed by tunneling under a tree than by digging a trench beside it.
UNDERGROUND UTILITY LINE EXISTING TREES
NEAR
CUTTING TREE
GRADE AROUND
EXISTING
FILLING TREE
GRADE AROUND
EXISTING
James Urban,AStA; James UrbanLandscapeArchitecturejAnnapolis,Maryland
PLANTING
TreePlontingin UrbonAreos
180
CROWN EXPANDS EVERY GROWING
6" IO I 8" SEASON
INSPECTION NUTRIENTS
D
RooM \T TO GROW
'
[--l
LINE
OR CANOPY
o"o'*oo.
\-.2
TREES (OR CLOSELY SPACED TREES NEXT TO BUILDINGS) CAUSE SIGNIFICANT CROWN COMPETITION, INSIDE BRANCHES DIE AND TREE DEVELOPS LONG,TERM PROBLEMS STRESS.RELATED DRIP
ROOM TO GROW
NOTE Soil volume provided for trees in urban areas must be suffi cient for long-term maintenance.
FOR
SOIL VOLUME-REQUIREMENTS TREES
PROJECTION
TRUNK EXPANDS AY A RATE OF %- TO I " IN OTAMETER PER YEAR
TRUNK SWAYS SEVERAL INCHESIN HIGH WIND
30" oR MORE
510" TO 6:0' RAOIUS AROUND TRUNK IS ZONE OF RAPID ROOT TAPER
INTERCONNECTED SOIL VOLUMES UNOER PAVING FROM TREE TO TREE
TRUNK FURE EXPANDS AT ruICE THE RATE OF THE TRUNK (€A5ILY DAMAGED AND OAMAGES ADJACENT PAVII{G AND TREE GRATES)
TREE
STRUCTURE_PARTS
AND
ROOTS GROW HORIZONTALLY WELL BEYONO ORIP LINE (12" TO 24" DEEP WITH NO TAPROOT)
GROWING
GENERAL Areasof denseurbandevelopmentleavelitde rem for tree roots to develop.Largeareasof pavement,compotitionwith Ioundationsand utililies tor space below ground,and extensive soil compactionand disruptionlimit the amunt oJ soil availablefor trees.When the area of groundsroundthe tree open to the rain and sun is less than 40O to 5OOsq ft p€r tree, the following design guidelinesshouldbe followed to encouragethe growth of largehealthytrees. Five maior parts oI the tree structure musl be accomme dated in the designprocess: CROWNGROWTH:The tree crown expandsevery growing season at a rate of 6 to 18 in. per year. Once the crown reaches a competingobject such as a building or another tree canopy,the canopygroMh in that areaslows and then stops. Eventuallythe brancheson that side ot the tree die. As the €nopy expansionpotential is reduced,the overall groMh rate and tree healthare also reduced. TRUNKGROWTH:The tree trunk expandsabout 1/zto 1 in. per year. As the tree increasesin size, the lower branches die and the trunk lengthens.Tree funks move mnsiderably in the wind, especiallyduring th€ early years of d€velopment, and are damagedby close objects. TRUNK FLARE:At the point where the trunk leaves the ground,most tre speciesdevelopa prqdned swellingor flareas the trre matures.This flare gros at rure than twice the rate of the maintrunk diareler and helostho tr€ remain structurallystable.Any hardobject pla€d In this area,suchas a tree grate or con{iningpavement,will eith€r damg€ the tree or be ruved by the tremendousfore of this grovvth.
CHARACTERISTICS
NOTE The interconnectionof soil volumes from tree to tree has been observedto improvethe healthand vigor of trees. SOIL VOLUME_INTERCON
NECTION
criticalfactor in determininglongterm tree health.Bmt-supporting soil is generallydefined as soil with adequatedrainage, low compaclion, and sufficient organic and nutrient componentsto supportthe tree. The root zone must be prc tected from compactionboth during and atter construction. Root zones that are connectedfrom tree to tree generally producehealthiertrees than isolatedr@t zones. sotL MootFlcATtoNs Thoroughlytill organicmatter into the top 6 to 12 in. of most plantingsoils to improvethe soil's abilityto retainwater and nutrients.(Do not add organicmatter lo soil more than 12 in. deep.) Use composted bark, recycled yard waste. peat moss, or municipalprocessedsewage sludge.All products should be composted to a dark color and be free of pieces with identifiableleaf or wood structure. Recvcledmaterial shouldbe tested for pH and cenified free of toxic materialby the supplier.Avoidmaterialwith a pH higherthan7.5. Modify heaw clay or silt soils {morethan 40% clay or silt) by adding compostedpine bark {up to 30ry.by volume)and/or gypsum. Coarsesand may be used if enough is added to bring the sand content to more than 60yo of the total mix. lmprove drainage in heavy soils by planting on raised moundsor beds and includingsubsurfacedrainagelines. Modify exrremelysandy soils (morethan 85yo sand)by adding organicmatter and/ordry, shreddedclayloam up to 30yo of the total mix. SOIL
VOLUME
FOR
1. Coarseplanlingskeep pedestriansout of planters. 2. Curbsprotectplantersfrom pedestriansand deicingsalts 3. Undergroundsteam lims must be insulatedor vented to protect plantersoil. SOIL PROTECTION COMPACTION AND
FROM DEGRADATION
RAPIO GROMH
AXIS OF SYMMffRY
TREES
SLOW GROMH
12@24
s20 ZONE OF RAPIDROOTTAPER:Tree roots b€gin to form in the trunk llare and divide several limes in the immediate areaaroundthe trunk. In this area,about 5 to 6 ft away from the trunk, th€ roots rapidlytaper from about6 in. in diameter to about 2 in. Most damageto adjacentpavingoccurs in this area immediatelyaroundthe tree. Keepingthe zone ol rapid taper free of obstructions is important to long-term tree health.Once a tree is established,the zone of rapidtaper is generallyless susceptibleto compactiondamage than the rest of the r@t zone. ROOTZONE:Tree roots grow radiallyand ho.izontallyfrom the trunk and @cupy only the upper layers(12 to 24 in.) of the soil. Tres in all but the most welldrained soils do not have
[email protected] relationshipexists betwmn the amount of tree canopyand the volume of r@t-supportingsoil required (see the ac@mpanyingchart). This relationshipis the most
o: 64/t 6 FQ
4AO/12
<;
320/8
ilj l
144t4
>]
2m
6@
8m
lm
12m 1d
1m
'The ultimate tree size is defined by the projected size ot the crown and the diameter of the trree at breast height.
TREES IN LARGE SOIL VOLUME NOTE
TREES IN SMALL (PUNTERS) SOIL VOLUME
NOTE
lf visually symmetrical tree planting is requrred, symmetrical soil volumes are also reauired to oroduce trees of similar croM size.
For example. a lGin. diameter tree requires 1000 cu ft of soil.
VISUALLY
James Urban,ASLA:James Urban LandscapeArchitecture:Annapolis,Maryland
PLANTING
4m
sorl voluME aeeutaeo trt3)
SYMMETRICAL
TREES
r8l
TreePlontingin UrbonAreqs GENERAL Traditional urban designs in which trees are regularly spaced in small openings within paved areas generally result in poor tree performance. This is because such designs generally do not provide adequate soil for root g.owth and ignore the fact that trees musl significantly increase trunk srze every year. As well, competition for space, both at ground level and below, is intense in urban areas
Although it is possible to design uncompacled sorl volumes for trees under pavement, this is very expensive and the soil is never as efficient as that in open planting beds. Increasing trunk size can only be accommodated by using tlexible materials that can change configuration gver time. Urban designs that have flexible relationships between trees, pavrng, aod planting beds and large areas of open planting soil offer the best opporlunity for long-term tree heallh and lowet matnte' nance cosls.
MAKE OPENING AS URGE AS POSSIBLE
REINFORCED CONCRETE OVER SOIL TRENCH LOOSELY COMPACTED LOAM SOIL CONTINUOUS FROM TREE
TREE
-r
CONTINUOUS MULCHED OR PUNTEO AREAS
SIDEWALK CONTINUOUS
SOIL
TRENCH
NOTE !MPROVED
A continuoussorltrench provides very good sorl but ln ltmited quantity. Use in areas where adiacent backfill is compactedsoilsor fills
SOILS
NOTE
CONCRETE OR SAND
Best designoption: Plantingtreesbetweensidewalksand buildingscreates the lewest conflicts between roots and pavingby permitting rooting activityon adiacentproperty.
PRODUCES WIDE SPACING TREES HEALTHIER
GRAVEL. ASTM {57
NOTE CONTINUOUS MULCHEO OR AREAS PUNTED
Best design option: Separate planting and walking areas Avoid small disconnected soil volumes to minimize roovpaving con{licts.
ORAIN
LINE
SIDffALK
IMPROVED
u'"", _+ + STRUCTURAL SOIL
SOILS
NOTE Acceptabledesign option: Plantingbetween curbs and sidewalks in a continuous unpavedplantingbed providesgood soil levelsfor trees but contributesto roovpavingconflictsas rrees malure-
NOTE
#i NOTE
-O- ' \2O'-O- TO 2s NARROW SPACING INCREASES TREE PRoaLEMS
10'-o" OR LESS 10 - o" OR MORE
Structural planting soils replace subgrade material with a fill that can be mmpacted to meet normal engineering compaction requirements and still suppon root groMh below the pavement. The principle is that when the gravel is compacted, the soil is rct because the amount of soil in the mix is insufficient to fill all the voids. Hydrogel, a crosslinked polassium copolyrer, is used to help bind the mixture during the mixing process. The soil mix includes ASHTO #4 gravel (100 lb calcs lated dry weight), shredded clay loam (1t18 lb). hydrogel {0.03 lb}, and water r10 (including the water calculated in the gravel and the soil). For further information, contact the Urban Horticulture Institute at Cornell University (lthaca, NY). ROOT PATH TRENCH SET IN RADIAL PANERN FROM CONTINUOUS
TREE {4" WIOE X
CONTINUOUS OF INTERCONNECTION SOIL FROM TREE TO TREE
REOUIRED UNDER PA NOTE
CONCRflE
GRAVEL, ASTM #57
DEEP)
Difficulr design option: In highly developed areas wrth park' ing adiacent to the curb, planting in long narrow tree openings with an 18-in. wrde walk along the curb accommodales pedestrians exiting cars. RmVpavrng conflicts are probable.
INTERCONNECTION OF TREE SOIL FROM BED TO BEO REOUIRED NOTE Oifficult design option: Shading. slow tree groMh, and poor health are problems. Roovpaving conflicts are likely.
MAKE OPENINGS AS URGE AS POSSIBLE
ROOT PATH TRENCH NOTES
MAKE WALK WIDTH AS NARROW AS POSSIBLE AT TREE
PUNTED SOIL BED (oo NoT USE TREE GRATES)
CONTINUOUS INTERCONNECTION OF SOIL FROM TREE TO TREE REOUIRED
INTERCONNECTION FROM BED TO BED
UNDER PAVING
OF TREE SOIL REOUIRED
NOTE Most difficult (and most expensive) design option: Tree openings are undersized for future trunldroot development. Severe roovpaving conflicts are very likely.
SIDEWALK
STRUCTURAL SOIL MIX CONTINUOUS OVER ENTIRE AREA
PI-ANTING
OPTIONS
NOTE Most difficult (and most expensive) design option: Slow tree groMh and severe roovpaving conflicts are to be expected.
PI..AZA TREE
PLANTING
OPTIONS
1. In urban areas where the pavement subgrade is compacted soil that is free from rubble, toxic. or poorly drained fills, a system of root paths can be inslalled to guide roots under the pavement, where they have room to grow. These roots grow deeper in the soil, causrng fewer roovpaving con{licts than roots left to exploit the normal minor weaknesses in paving and subgrades. 2. A root path trench is made by installing a length of strip drain material {a 12-in. wide x f -in. thick plastic drain core wrapDed in filter fabric) in a narrow trench and backtilling with loam topsoil. This allows air and water to tlow more freely into the soil under the pavement. lnstall geotextile fabric and the gravel base material and then the paving. 3. R@t paths cannot replace larger soil trenches or structural planting soil in areas in which existing soil conditions are extremely poor for root exploration.
TREE SOIL INTERCONNECTION OPTIONS UNDER PAVING
Annapolis, Maryland Architecture; JamesUrban,ASLA;JamesUrbanLandscape
PLANTING
182
TreePlontingin UrbonAreos MULCH I " TO 2" THICK
-
DOWN
AT 5%. MIN
COLLECTS GRATE
a -o"To |o -o"oPT|MUM (COST AND STRUCTURAL R E O U I R E M E N T SL T M I TS I Z E )
WRAP FILTER FABRIC OVER EXPOSEO ENDS OF DRATNAGE MATERIAL AND OVERUP BACK SIDE 6", MtN.
CLEANOUT FIPE EACH
TRASH UNDER SLOPE
DRAIN
WATERPROOF MATERIAL WITH PROTECTION BOARD
WRAP FILTER FABRIC UP SIDES OF ALL RISERS AND CONDUITS AND TIE OFF WITH COPPER WIRE
PUSTIC ORAINAGE MATERIAL ON BONOM AND SIDES TO WITHIN 2" OF FINISHED GRAOE
WOVEN
FILTER
FABRIC
RING DAMAGES TRUNK OR REAUIRES
\: lLE_qqErr_iryqa9l!9,/
AND EVENTUAL REMOVAL/ PUNTING SOIL (COMPACTED TO 80% DRY DENSITY)
ruO,LEVEL ROOF ORAIN
SLOPE DOWN AT 2% OVERUP FILTER CLOTH JOINTS I 2' MIN. AND PIN TOGtrHER
ROOFTOP
COMPACT PAD UNOER ALL TREES WITH 2" CALIPER (TRUNK DIAMETER) OR LARGER
PT.ANTER
REOUIRED SIDEWALK EDGE STRUCTURE ALTERS ROOT PANERN SOIL COMPACTION REOUIRED FOR SIOEWALK SUPPORT REDUCES ROOT
..))
NOTE Tree grates decorate the base of a tr€e but provide no signif i€nt benefit. Many aspects of tree grates can damage a tree or reduce its potential for growth.
TREE GRATES
SELECTING PLANTS FOR ROOFTOP PLANTING When choosingplantsfor a r@ftop setting,@nsiderthe factors outlinedbelow: WIND TOLERANCE:Higherelevationsand exposureto wind can euse defoliationand incr€asethe transpirationrate of plants. High parapet walls with louvers can reduce wind velocityand provideshelter for plants. HIGHEVAPORAIIONRATE:The drying effects of wind and sun on the soil in a planter redu@ soil moisture rapidly.lrrigation, mulches. and moistureiolding soil additives (diate roceous earth or organicmatter) help reducethis moisture toss. RAPIDSOILTEMPERATURE FLUCTUATION: The variation in cmduction capacityof plantermaterialsresults in a broad rangeof soil temperaturesin plantersof different materials. Cold or heat can causesevere rmt damagein certain plant species,Properdrainagehelpsalleviatethis @ndition. TOPSOIL:lmprove topsoil in planters to provide optimum growing conditionsfor the pbnts selected. A general formula calls for adding fenilizer {d€terminedby soil testing} and one part peat moss to fiv€ pans sandy loam topsoil. More specific requirementstor certainvarietiesof plants or grassesshouldbe considered.
for shrubs.24 in. deep:and for lawns, 12 in. deep ('lO in. if irrigated). SOIL VOLUME: To determino sufficient soil volume- see chart on SoilVolumesfor Trees (on anotherAGS pagein this section). SOIL WEIGHT: The saturated weight of normal soil mix rangesfrom 10Oto 120 pcf, dependingon soil type and compaction rate. Soils can be made lighter by adding expanded shale or perlite. Soils lighter rhan 80 pcf cannot provide structureadequateto suppon trees. DRAINAGEFABRIC:Plastic drainagematerial should be a minimum of 1/,in. thick. Most drajnagematerialcomes with a filter fabricanached.but the overlapjoints providedar€ not wide enough tor the unconsolidatedsoils tound in planters. A second layer of woven filter fabric, delivered in rolls greaterthan 10 ft in width, shouldbe instalted.Tuck the fats ric over the exposedtop of the drainagematerialto keep soil out of the drainagelayer. INSULATION:Most plantersdo not requireinsulation:however, in colder climates planters with small soil volumes l@ated over heated structures may require insulation.Consult localsourcesfor a list ot cold-hardyolants. SIZE OF GUARD TO FIT OUTSIDE OF ROOT BALL ANO NOT DAMAGE SWAYING TRUNK
ROOTCAPACITY:Choose plant speciesGrefutly, considering their adaptationto the size of the plant bed. lf species with shallow,fibrous roots are used insteadof soecieswith a c@rse root system, consult with a nurseryadvisor_Considerthe ultimale maturityof the plant specieswhen sizinga otantet-
URGE OPENING ON SIDES ANO BOTTOM TO AVOID TRASH REMOVAL PROBLEMS
PLA,NTING DETAILS SOIL DEPTH:Minimum soil depth in a planter varies with the plant type: lor largetrees, the soil shouldbe 36 in. dep or 6 in. d€eperthan the r@t ball;for srull trss, 30 in. deep:
LOOSE.Sff SUPPORTS DESIGNEO TO BE REMOVAALE IN IO YEARS
SAND ONLY
SANO.SET
PAVERS
Young tre€s planted in lawn areas face substantial competilion trom the roots of grasses.
NOTE Tree gurds €n protect young trees from trunk damage causedby bicycles.lf made too small,however(lessthan 30 in. in diameter ), th€y can damage the tree as it grows and are difficult to remove.The high cost and potentialharm to trees outweigh the minor protetion tree guards afford a trunk. They should only b€ used in areas with particularlv high traffic.
Alternatives to tree grates (and guards) include softer, organac coverings that suit the purpose better, are less expensive, and require less maintenance over the life of the tree.
TREES
TREE
TREE
- - - - - 7 'I
uwN--t
NOTE
PLANTED
IN LA\ivNS
GUARDS
James Urban,ASLA;James UrbanLandscapeArchiteclure;Annapolis,Maryland
PLANTING
LOW FENCE AND GROUND COVER NOTE
BASE
PROTECTION
t84
Economyof Concrete Formwork
GENERAL
FLAT
Formworkcosts are a substantialparl of the total cost of putting concrete in place-anywhere from 35 to 60 percent.Thus,by developingdesignelementsand detailsthat simplifyor standardize form requirements, the architectcan help containoverallcosts: 1. Reusefoms: Thisis crucialto economvof construction. The designercan facilitateform reuse by standardizing the dimensionsof windows, columns, beams, and footings, using as few different sizes ot each as possible. Where columnsmust changesize,hold one dimension (e.9., width) constant, while varying the other (depth). This enablesat least half of the torm panelsto be used maqy times. Repeat the same floor and column layout from bay to bavon each lloor and lrom floor to tloor. This improves labor productivityand permits reuse of many IOrms. 2. Use a preconstructionmockup:The architectand builder should agreeon the locationand desired appearanceof architecturalsurfaces before any of the exposed concrete work begins. Specify a ful-scale preconstruction mockup to help achieve this and to avoid postconstruction disagreements. 3. Handleforms in largepanels:This also reducesconstruction costs. Wherever possible, make uninterrupted formed areasthe same size. Increasingthe size of such areasenablesthe builderto combineform panelsinto gangs for efficientcrane usea. Simplifydesjgn details: Intricaciesand irregularitiescost more and often do not add proponionatelyto the aesthetic effect.
awooD
COLUMN
RECOMMENDED LOW.COST FORMWORK R,ECOMMENDED -
36rs^?s folP
w
MID-COST FORM\^/ORK
HIGH-COST FORM\n/ORK
N OTE
In general,the least costly designto form has columnsthe same width or narrower than the beams they suppon. allowinglhe beam form to be erectedin a continuoustine. In midrost formwork design, the beam bottom foms are cut to fit around the column tops. ln high{ost formwork design, the beam lorms are fitted into p@kets on both sides of the column{orms. BEAM-TO.COLUMN ECONOMIES
CONSTRUCT( JOTNT MID-c:c)ST FORMWORK
HIGH-CO€iT FORMWORK
NOTE
Flat beams designed to be equal in depth & the floor assembly are th€ least costly, since they mod €fficientlv accommodateflying form construction.Deeps. harrower beams cost more, but if deeper beams are necded, costs can be controlledby making the beam the sam thickness as the column depth and at least panially uFclrrned.The most costly option is a column thickerthan the bam, since this requiresa columncollarwith constructionirirt.
-
STANDffiD DIMENSIONAL
RECOMMENDED FOOTING DESIGN
MODULE
When stepped footings are required.use lewer steps and design them to standardlumber and plwvood dimensions or modulardivisionsof thesedimensions. WALL
7." R,WOOD FOruWORK
4-' MODULE OR A'O' MODULE
NOTE PANEL HANDLE
@LUMN
LUMBER FORMWORK F@TING
8',-O'
COLUMN @LUR
WP.
TIES. WP. (2'O' O.C.. ERTIGL) AT PANEL JOIMS
TO
saB
./-
sE Cm ONOMIES
FORMWORK
2',-O', 4 €', OR A'-O' MODULE.
PARTIALLY
UruRNED BAM
N=il6
FORM FACING
4'{'
-\
BEAM
FOOTINGS 2 €'
MtN
DEflH DROP
Adapting design elements to the modular si€ of torm, work lumber and plywood and dimensioning p€ns o{ the structure to fit the modules can save the expme of cus lom formwork. For example, to save the waste ild time of sawing and piecing together the edge form, make the depth of the drop in a slab equal to the aclual size of stan dard lumb€r plus % in. for the pl.iryood's thicknss.
CONCRETE
STEEL PUTE OR ANGLE CAST INTO CONCEIE frEN WELDED TO ADOINING WALL NATE @NCRETE POURED ONTO EXSTING FL@R %B ON (FORM LIMRS GroE UID oN smB onroN4)
L-.,,"
MTTAL
i*
FORM
T*EADED LIMNC HffiDWARE INTO C€T CdCRETE (4'MrN.)
HOLE FOR (S/EDGE PN THROUGH sLoT rN qN)
BLMKOU] FG OPENING
aY cof FItrING NOTES 1. Commonly made of steel-{ramed plywood, panels are also availabl€ in aluminum. Wall tles (typically flat ties) and wall forms are held together by slotted pins that run through adjoining holes. A wedge pushed down into the slot alongside the wall lorm tightens the joint. SeMce life can be extended by turning or replacing the plyw@d Iace. 2. Reusable plastic liners may be attached to inner surfaces to oroduce oatterned concrete. 3. For maximum economy, panels can be assembled in large gangs and set in place by crane.
HAND.SET FORMS
MANUFACTURED
WALL
NOTE
BLOCKING AND BRACES EDGE
FORMS
Installing and removing ties and patching tie holes are some of the most labor-intensive operations in forming wlls. Also. getting a durable, inconspicuous patch often proves difficult. Avoid this problem by specifying smooth cone fittings at the tie ends, then either leaving the resulting unitorm tie holes exposed or plugging them with preformed concrete plugs and a bonding agent. Leave no exposed corrodible metal within 1r/2 in. of concrete surface. Contractors may propose tie spacing wider than 2 ft o.c. to reduce the total number ot ties to save monev. but this calls for stronger ties and heavier form suppons.
ln tilt-up construction, walls are cast on the completed lloor slab, which must be level, smoothly finished, and treated with a bond-breaking agent to permit easy separation. The wall is then tilted or lifted into vertical position and lastened to the adjoining wall piece. This method reduces formwork and labor and eliminates transportation requirements that mav limit oanel size.
FORM TIE PATTERN
TILT.UP
Mary K. Hurd;Engineered Publications; Farmington Hills,Michigan
3
G
S1-.A,B FORMWOFIK N OTE
CONCRETE FORMSAND ACCESSORIES
TILT.UP N OTE
WALL
FORMWORK
WALLS
ConcreteFormworkfor Columnsond Footings
REBAR TEMPLATE
lg5
,-2X4 SPACER /
2X4TEMPLATES FOR REBAR OR ANCHOR BOLTS
7." STEEL AAND PANEL ROD
WALL
OF
%' _'
WITH2X4CLEATS
2X4 STAKE
FOOTINGS
PUNK OR SECoNDHAND
2 X 4
FC)OTING PANEL OF ..-.-.-..-_ STOCK
SPACER
--2X4STAKE
WALL
AEOW
ELEVATION
WALL
FOOTING
PLAN
COLUMN
FOOTINGS
rt I I
//-2X4
f
I L
ts I
L I I
E
SQUARE
SQUARE NOTE
COLUMN
COLUMN
It is recommended that chamfe. slrips be used at all out, srde corners to reduce damage to concrete when forms are
COLUMN
PLANS
@LUMN
I,-ARGE
COLUMN
PT--A.N
removed. Consult manufacturers'guides and catalogs tor ideal materials, pour rate (fVhr), and outside temperature {oF).
SECTION
DROP PANELS AT COLUMN
TOPS
TuckerConcreteFormCompany;Stoughton,Massachusetts
CONCRETE FORMS ANDACCESSORIES
Concrete Formworkfor Wqlls
186
DOUBLE
WALERS
RUSTICATION (PREFERRED) GASKETED FOR WATER TGffiNESS
PLYFORM SHEATHING STUDS
SILL WALL
OR
PGTE
TIES
F@TING (CONCRETE)
EPOXY 45'CUT
ON
AND TONGUE GROOVED (WITH CAULKING)
|')'j'j#
t\ /l t>
TO SOLID BRACE CONSTRUCTION. AS NECESSARY
t/
l
\l
.
-e
i
. I
v
r
TAPED
o.c.
l------/l l-'-----l
TYPICAL COIL
TIE
SITE.BUILT
WALL
SPLINED (wtTH cA'r.JLKrNG)
FORM\ivORK REMOVABLE W@D OR
-
W@D SruD BOLT AND WASHER
CONE
WITH GASKETED CELL CLOSED COMPRESSIBLE MATERIAL
ruBLE WAERS
FORM
AFGM SHEAfrING
SHEATHING
. .3
.
:
l\\-/-
l/-\-l
rery | \ / | ---"\ |JOINT
AT
SITE-BUILT
|
|I
DETAILS @NNNUOUS 2 X 6 SPIKED ON IF GNGED FORMS ARE USED
TIE LENGfr TO REMAIN IN WALL
SECTION
: a
IT
WALL
WALL
TIE ROD
TIE
TYPICAL EXPOSED ELEVATION
FORMS
NE END
CONCRETE
ruYFORM SHilTHING @RNER
LOCK
CONCRETE MO2X4 WALERS
PLruOOD 2X4STUD
2X4SruD
NE
lX4SHOE ruo2x4 WALERS CONCRETE
NOTE Verify size and spacing of components for each job. The combination of plyform sheathing, studs, walers, and ties must be chosen carefully to safely resist contrete pressure and limit deflection of the lom face. St€el and aluminum studs and Mlers my be used in place of wood.
TYPICAL
WALL
WITH
OFFSET
TYPICAL
CORNER
TYPICAL
JOB-BUILT
WALL
SECTION
NOTES 2X4SruD
2X4SruD
ruo2x4 WALERS
2X4SruD
PILASTER
TYPICAL
T WALL JUNCTION
1. The typical wood and plywmd framing details shown must b€ modified as necessary to accommdate the lat eral pressure of fresh concrete on the forms. Studs and walers of aluminum or steel are frequently used. Lateral pressure varies depending on the rate at which the torm is filled. lhe temperature of the concrete, vibration proce dures. and the type of admixtures used in the concrete. 2. Consult manufacturers'recommendations for sate work ing loads on ties. Consult the American Concrete Insti lute's Formwork for Concrete (SP-4) for detailed design recomrendations, 3. A great variety of form ties are commercially available (see AGS page on concrete formwork hardware). For architectural surfaces exposed to weather, choose a tie that leaves no corrodible metal closer than 1'l, in. from the concrete surface. Ties should be tighr fitting and sealed as necessary to prevent leakage at holes in the forms. 4- Ties tift€d with wood or plastic cones should leave depressions at least as deep as the surface diameter of the cone. Th€ holes may be filled with recessed plugs or left unfilled if noncorroding ties are used. 5. Provide cleanout d@rs at the bottom of wall torms.
TuckerConcreteForm Company;Stoughton,Massachusetts Mary K. Hurd;€ngineeredPublications; Farmington Hills,Michigan
CONCRETE FORMSAND ACCESSORIES
Concrete Formworkfor Slobsond Beoms 3 Patented steel forms or tillers can be special ordered for unusual conditions; see manufacture.s' catalogs Fiber forms are also on the market in simila. sizes. Plyform deck is required for forming.
GENERAL NOTES 1. Scaffolding, steel shores, or wood posts may be used under stringers depending on loads and height requiremenls. 2. For flat slabs of {lat plate forming. metal "flying forhs" are commontv useo.
4. Plyform is usually % in. minimum thickness, Exposure 1
CONCRETE
'at'
''-\
STRINGER
2b' .:+< SCREW JACK
WIDE BOARD -a'To
TYPICAL
PAN
TUBUSR SCAFFOLDING
FORM
TYPICAL
naildown lorm but with board insert for smooth aooear(withoutflanges;producessmooth ance);and adiustable rab). 2. ConsultANSI A48.1-1986for comDleteoan form standards.
1. Forms are available in steel and lightweight fiberglass. Consult manulacturers for forms with different dimensions and riF.form variations. Typically three types are llange (simplest, but produces available: nailiown rough, nonarchitectural surface); slip-in type (based on
PAN FORM FOR ONE.WAY
\
Foo€*.or5.,a'RIBS)
N OTES
)
/
1. Standard waffle slab forms are square for ease of use and economy. Dimensions vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer. Consult ANSI A48.2-l986 tor com' plete dome form standards. 2. Forms are available in steel and lightweight fiberglass. Consult form manufacturer for options in material, textures, and dimensaons.
CENTERING
N OTES
TYPICAL
187
TYPICAL DOME FORM FOR WAFFLE TWO-WAY SLAB
OR
FORMWORK SPLIT TO ACCOMMODATE WATER STOP -
SLAB
sua
CONCRflE
SUB
QG '.'t'
LESS
THAN
GUARDRAIL KNEE BRACE
WATER
STOP BULB
CENTER
FOLDING
NOTE Waterslops are flexible barriers used to prevent the passage of liquids and gasses under pressure through joints in concrete slabs. Waterstops are typically made of polwinyl chloride, and their shapes vary according to application. lf a center bulb is specified, it musl remain unembedded in the center of the ioint.
OfRIGGER HEAD
SLAB
FORMWORK
WITH
WATER
STOP
ADJUSTABLE WIDTH THREADED HANGERS . -'----
TYPICAL
SLAB AND SHALLOW
BEAM FORMING
[.
@NCREE GUARDRAIL BEAM
-.\
JI
PLYFORM
SIDES /-
LEreER/ WALER
RYFORM DECK
ll il'
JOTSTS
II ll tl
BAM STEEL
l.
\
WPE COIL HANGER
AEAM aofroM
BLOCKING
SCAFFOLDINlG |uNKS
BEAM SIDE JOIST
CLEATS
-
!
TOE PLATE
STRINGERS
ARRIER
-
STRINGERS
4 €" W|DE SGFFOLDING
TIEDOM TO BL@K IN rcURED FLOOR
2 -O' W|DE SCAFFOLDING
-
corl BoLT OHREADS rNTO CO|L END OF HANGER)
FLAT WASHER -AND CLAMP
NOTE This type of tormwork is used to fireproof structuralsteel beams by wrappingthem in concrele.
TYPICAL SLAB AND HEAVY BEAM FORMING
TYPICAL SUSPENDED FORM WITH COIL SADDLE-TYPE HANGERS
TuckerConcreteForm Company;Stoughton,Massachusetts
CONCRETE FORMS ANDACCESSORIES
r88
Concrete FormworkHordwqre
GENERAL
waLER
Concreteformworkhardwareincludesties,anchors,hangers,and spacersused to holdformsand reinforcements in placeagainstthe forces of unhardenedconcrete and other loadsappliedduringconstruction. are tensile Concretd.ties units adaptedto hold concrete lorms together and may be classifiedby use or by loadrarrying capacitta.Classifiedby use are two main concrete tie types: "continuous single member," in which the entire tie rod extends throuoh the wall and through both sides ol the formwork (this ca; be a pullout tie or a snap{ff tie},and "internaldisconnecting," in which the tensile unit has an inner part with threaded connectronsto removableexternalmembers.Classifiedby load{arrying capacityare lightiuty {safe working loads of up to 3750 lb) 6nd heavy{uty (loadsot more rhan 3750 tb) concreteties. SaIe working load shouldbe set at no more than half the tie's ultimate strength. Other hardwaresvstems and configurationsmay be available;consult manutacturersfor comoletedetails.
WALL
\
PLruOOD
\
STItrF BACK CAM:
I'1
SECTION TrE GRTPPEF
CONE
CAM BRA*ET
-fitrlao%'Dra
NorE
WALL
Fiberglassform ties, straight rods secured with reusable external metal grippers, have safe working loads ranging lrcm 2250 to 25,000 psi. The ries are readilybroken off or cut at th€ concretesurface,then groundflush. FIBERGLASS
SECTION
TIE ROD I OOP CONNtrCTS ] O
"*1;d+ffiBRAcKtrr
caMBRA.KET=^,.rq-ft+ -\
FORM TIE
C:aMCRAN(/ srlFF BAcK aM TIGHENS WRf TO HOR|ZONTAL
WALL
FORMWORK
I -flJ
(FASreNS aND ICAL STUDS WALLRS)
,..-/
NOTE Thislightiuty system is suitablefor iob-setforms. SECTION
CAM LOCK BRACKET/TIE CONE (offiroNAL)
WALER WALL
SCAFFOLDING
SEC:TION
SYSTEM
,/-FORVWORK -SETBACK
6'
MIN.
HE-BOLT
9', MrN. SPREADER BaD. LocarEs SPRADER WASHER-
HOT
FC)RGED
HAD
COiL-END LOOP ANGOR
CONCRETE
Coil ties are medium- to heavyduty ties fabricaled to accepta threadedbolt, which passesthroughthe lormwork tummr.
WASHER
MOOUUR j
CONE NOTE
/
FORM
WALL
ANTITURN FATURE (FUT OR CRTMP)
WALL
PUSTTC CONe WTH e}REAKBACK INSIDE CONE E
cotL TrEs reDGE AND BOLT
BREAKBACK
TYPE
/(
TYPE
\
SECTION r.- TO r; orn
/ /
-AE-BOII (C..ATED RELilSE
wlTH AGENT)
rrrnnrnnr+m
ffi
9ffi3"13.^ --'N
"oi=
Snap ties are a type of through tie for lightduty use, fabricated so the exposed ends ol the tie cah be snapped of{ at the breakback (a notch in the rodl. The antiturn device makes it easier to break off the exoosed end.
The coil anchor is embedded near the top of a concrete lifr to support the formwork of the succeeding lift. The reus able hebolt is threaded into the coil.
SNAP TIES
HE.BOLT
WITH
COIL ANCHOR
SEC:TION _1
waLL (6'TO
THICKNESS 24', ryP)
{-
N OTE
ROCK ANCHOR
WALL
Flat ties are lightiuty ties used with a wedge and bolt to secure and space modular wall forms.
SEC:TION
cotL n
-
NS---_\
NOTE
RMK aNcHoR
TtE __\
gF;- ilnr
FLAT TIE
SHE. BoLT/ \^'/ALL
@tL
A
a+
--__\ ,*
.nsmrry- W_E '
noo
txctraDco corL RoD
11/4' fO
2\h'
--
ROD
t
WATER BARRIER WASHER (1'OR I '4. Dta.)
CONE 1" rO
,/
She-bolts are reusble heavyduty tie components threaded onto an internal tie rod permanently embedded in the concrete. They are typiclly used with crane+andled forms.
SECTION DIA,
END
l fNSrDe rE RoD (1hao 1. DA.)-
SHE-BOLT/TIE
ROCK ANCHOR WALL
TAPERED l(@--
N OTE
Rmk anchors are used with coil ties to facilitate one-side torming of walls.
FUT WASHER /
SECTION
-
(LENGTH 2.h'frp.)
STAB TO aCCEPT
TrE
A,.rir
)
dk W
u)7 34. TO
Generally used lor heavyduty loads of up to 5O,O0Olb, the taper tie system is a versatile forming system whose parts are removed after the concrete sets and mav be reused. Tres may be installed after lorms are in place.
Steel wedges are placed at the outside threaded ends of pullout or snap tie rods, holding the tormwork in place. Plastic or wood cones mav be placed on the tie rod at the Jormwork wall surface, so that when the formwork is removed the tie rod ends are set back Jor subsequent finishing (with plugs, erc.).
STEEL TAPER TIE
TIE ROD ACCESSORIES
NOTE
Ma.y
3
K. Hurd;Engineered Publications; Farmington Hills,Michigan
CONCRETE FORMS ANDACCESSORIES
HIGH N OTE
CHAIR
SIDE
Bar supports are used to maintain the reinlorcement's design distancefrom the wall sides or slab bottom. They are typicallymade ot stainlesssteel or epoxy- or plastic coatedsteel. REINFORCING SUPPORTS
BAR AND MESH
r89
ReinforcingBqrsond Wire
ffi;==-ffi,-^* H
GENERAL Steei reintorcement ior concrete conslsts of rernforcrng bars and welded wire fabric. Bars are manulactured by hotroll p.ocess as round rods with lugs, or deformations, which inhibit longitudinal movemenl of lhe bar in the surrounding concrete Bar sizes are indi€ted by-numbers. For sizes #3 through #8, the numbers are the number of eighths of an inch in the nominal diameter of the ba.s. Numbers g, 10. and 1 1 are round and cotrespond to the former 1 in., 1rls in., and 1rL in. square sizes. Sizes #14 and #18 correspond to the former 1rl, in. and 2 in. square sizes. The nominal diameter of a deformed bar is equal 10 the actual diameter of a plain bar with the same weight per foot as the deforred bar. Epoxy-coated, zinc{oated {galvanized}, and stainless steel reinforcing bars are used when corrosion protection is needed: stainless steel also has nonmagnetic properties. in some instances. a fiberreintorced plastic (FRP) rebar is used for highly specialized concrete reinforcement because of its high tensile strength and light weight. corrosion resistance, and dielectric (nonconductive) properties. FRP rebars are manufactured in the same sizes as steel rebars and also have deformations on the surface. Consult manufacturers for f urther information.
NUME}ER
SYSTEM
ONE
MAIN SYMBOL OF PRODUCING MILL
TRANSVERSE
ryPE STEEL (NEW BILLET)
NOTE
LINE
GRADE @
GRADE
Steel iype grademarks:S-billet (4615).l-rail (4616).lBrailmeetingsupplementary requirements, Sl (A616),A-axle (4617),W-low alloy(A706). REINFORCING
BAR GRADE MARK IDENTIFICATION
ASTM STANDARD REINFORCING BAR SIZES
w1e
Dr8
w16
D16
w1o
STEEL
oro
WIRE
SIZES
AND
GAUGES WEIGHT (LB/ LIN. FT)
w''z
.490 .419 .462 .451 .431 .422 .394 .391 .374 .366 .363 .357 .348 .338 .331 .329 .319 .309 .307 .299 .248 .283 .216 .265
25r
w10.5 wr0 w9.5 W9 w8.5 W8 vw.5
D,1O
= * D7
w6.5
NOTE Melrication of reinforcing bars is being considered in the United States: as of October 1995. a decision had not been made about what metric rebar sizes would apply in the United States. Metrication may result in a reengineering of reinforced concrete structures using the new bar sizes.
G
D6
W5
_
w5.5
w3,s
.252 .244 .239 .226 .211 .207 .195 .192 .118
tj
i 5
W3 vv2.9 w2.5 w2.1 w2
OF
SECTIONAL AREA OF CONCRETE, ONE WAY
w''.0
AND
I t 3
wa.s
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE
SHEETS
75
SYSTEM
STANDARD PLAIN WIRE NUMBER
COMMON
--''
GRADE MARKS
GRADE 40 GRADE 50
Wire in the form of individual wire or groups of wires is used in the fabrication of prestressed concrete.
PERCENT
LINES
LUGS
Welded wire fabric is used in thin slabs. shells. and other designs in which available space is too limited to give orooer cove. and clearance to deformed ba.s. Welded wire tabric. also called mesh. consists ot cold drawn wire (smooth or delormed) in onhogonal panerns; it is resistance welded at all intersections.
cRoss-
MO
LINE
RIBS
5TOCK STYLES OF WELDED
\/VIRE FABRIC
:
;
7 I
.160 .148 .124
I
REINFORCING
BAR
GRADES
AND
.r 8 9 .180 .168 .160 .146 .140 .122 .120 . 11 0 .105 .103 .100 .095 .090 .086 .085 .080 .o75 .o74 .070 .065 .063 .060 .055 .054 .050 .o47 .045 .040 .035 .034 .030 .o29 .o25 .o21 .020 .017 .0't4
.571 .544 .496 .476 .415 .408 .374 .357 .350 .340 .323 .306 _292 .289 .272 .255 .251 .234 .221 .214 .204 .147 . 18 3 .170 .160 . 15 3 . 1t 9 . 11 5 .102 .098 .085 .071 .068 .058 .048
STRENGTHS
MIN. YIELD STRENGTH (PSl)
ROLLS
steel
LOIGITUoINAL
1l-'
T R A N S V E R SE wtR€ -_-/ METHOD
OF
-------#" "
DESIGNATION
LONGITUDINAL WIRE
Wire Size
Spacing
>FOR
Vi/ELDED
TRANSVERSE WIRE
\^r'IRE FABRIC
Weldedtabric
W 1 . 2
Concrete Reinlorcing Steel Institute; Schaumburg, lllinois Gordon B. Batson, P.E.: Potsdam, New York
CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
t90
ReinforcingBorsond Wire
DETATLTNG orueNsror I oR G,
_-*_'--_--t--t
DETAILING
DIMENSION
+r____r-.-"..---------..--|-----T-.------.-;14
-l |
("/ '(l
.1.-ff
#
oR 2rl2'MIN
STANDARD
HOOK
STIRRUP HOOKS AND TIES
STANDARD REINFORCING BAR HOOK DETAILS COMPRESSION LAP SPLICES AND ANCHORAGES REINFORCING BARS STEEL GRADE (FY-KSr )
CONCRETE COMPRESSION (F'c) STRENGTH
LAP SPLICE IN db>t2 tN.
JUUU 4000 5000
50
DOWELS. tN db(a tN. MrN.)
ZU 20 20
JUUU
4000 5000
40
FOR
TFNSTON LAP SPLTCES ANO ANCHORAGE F C = 3OOO PSI. NORMAL WEIGHT BAR
stzE
to
JWU
60
75
4000 5000
30 30
19 18
JWU 4000 5000
44 44
24 23
3/." FoR suRFAcEs NoT EXPOSED TO WEATHER FOR 15 OR SMALLER (2" FOR *6 ANO URGER)
JOTSTS o z
3/." FoR suRFAcEs Nor ExposED TO WEATHER ( I r/2- EXPOSEO TO WEATHER FOR 15 OR SMALLER: 2" FOR f6 AND LARGER) FLOOR SUBS
3/4-
I' MIN. OR NOT LEss rHAN I r/3" x COARSE AGGREGATE OR NOM. BAR DIA. BEAM OR GIRDER
MtN
l
o_ o* oi u<
0u oi
l. t. I |
I I
il6 | 1: ".
2'' MIN, FOR #6 AND URGER WALLS
COLUMNS
PROTECTION
3
I
6
l3 l6
B
z3 30
tz 2A
B
46 5U 65
4U
52
35 46
32 42
3Z
B
JO
JO
B
89
71
63
50
49
bJ
51 66
45
49 43 56
90
72
63
cl
b4 6J
57 74
4U 63
114
9l
80
64
57
48
t2
45
102
OJ
76
69 I to
td
94
56 73
45 58
r 0 0 89 1 3 1 93 192 137
93
tz 2A
1 1 7 94 a2 114 Y I UU 148 1 1 9 104
21
21
16
2A
2A
2A
22 22
't/
242
J5ti
3btt
22
35
42
1to tto zbt) 2bl)
6Y
't21 ltE
aa
36
93 121 '| IA
,|
7
I 7
22
22
27
27
J I
42
d l
1 8 8 1 5 1 132 1 0 6 't25 174 100 231 1 8 5 r 6 2 1 3 0 242
to
t1
35
ttc
B
to
21
40
J5
30 39
55
Aq
32
7A 142 1Al
1
'| 31
274
274
192
81
29 38 43
NOTES
t,tz MIN
3/4- MtN
34" MtN
5
t( ,1
B
1 BAR DrA. (dh) OR 3lr" wHtcrev-en
OTHER BARS CATEGORY
to tl
B
2. Reinforcing bars #14 and #18 may not be used in lap splices exept when lapped to #1 1 bars or smaller. To find the lap dimension, take the larger figure of either 22 db of the larger bar or 30 db of the smaller bar. 3. Consult Concrete Reinforcing Steel Insritute (CRSI) for tension splices and anchorages.
2
B
B
N OTES '| . db = reinforcing bar diameter.
TOP BARS CATEGORY
LAP CLASS
FOR REINFORCEMENT
ConcreteReinforcingSteel Institute:Schaumburg,lllinois
CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT
1. Lap splice lengthsare multiplesof tensiondovelopmentlengths;ClassA = 1.0 ld.ClassB = 1.3 | d-0qcl 12.15.1)Valuesof ldfor bars in beams or @lumns are based on transwrse rein torcementmeelingminimumrequirements for stirrupsin ACI 11.5.4and t 1.5.5.3,or meeting tie requirementsin ACI 7.10.5:and are basd on minimum mver specifiedin ACI 7.7.1. 2. Conditionsthat requireCategory1 or Category2 lap spli@ lengnhsshould be awided if at all possiblefor the larger bar sizes.Theseinordinat€lylong lengthspresent possible@nstruction problemsdue to placing,congestion,etc. Options availabl€in trying to avoid Category1 or 2 conditionsinclude: a, Increasingthe concrete cover to moro than one bar diam€terand/or increasethe bar c.{. spacingto more than thre bar diamoters. b- Utilizingthe A, allowancein ACI 12.2.3(b)for beams or colums. Noto thar if ties or stirrups meet the minimum Ar requirement.Category1 lengths ars reducedto Category5 lengths and Category2 lengthsare reducedto Category6 lengths. 3. The ACI 318-89code does not allow lap splicesof #14 or #'l 8 bars:The valuestabulatedfor those bar sizesare the tensiondevelopmentlengrths. 4. Top bars are horizontalbars with more than 12 in. of concretecast below the bars. 5. #1'l and smalleredge barswith c.{. spacingnot l€ss than6d b are assumedto havea side cover not less than 2.5d b. OtheMise, Category5 appliesratherthan Category6. 6. Forlightweighlaggregate, multiplythe valuesaboveby '1.3. 7. For epoxy{oated reinforcingbars,multiplythe valuesabov€by one of the followingfactorsl a.Cover< 3d b or c.{. spacing< 7db multiplytop barsby '1.31andall otherbarsby 1.50. b.Cover> 3d b and c.{. spacing> 7d b multiplytop bars and all other bars by 1.20. 8. See CRSI'SReinfor@ment:Anchorages,Lap Splicesand Connectionsmanualfor tables of tensiondovelopmentand lap spliceslor other concretestrengthsand epoxy{oated rebars.
Plqcemenlof SteelReinforcement
t9t
oowELs
, IcoNTTNUATTON I l/2 TURN FoR ANCHORAGE
DOWES REOUIRED
CLOSED STIRRUP REOUIRED
1-6" MNf
BRICK
/ LEDGE f SPANDREL OR I EDGE AEAM , J
TYPICAL BEAM OR GIRDER
UPTUR NED EDGE BEAM
BARSsHowN FOR
PROVIDE SHRINKAGE REINFORCE AS REOUiRED BY DESIGNER
VERTICALLY
VERTICAL REINFORCING (6) BARS MIN {ONLY 2 sHowN)
KEY REOUIRED
I -{t,'| r--
TOP BARS
@
(TYP,)
EARTH
A'MIN,
SPIRAL TIE
PROVIDE SHRINKAGE REINFORCING AS REOUIRED BY ST,RUCTURAL DESIGNER
MAX.3MlN. l3/s oR I '|/3X AGG. SIZE J
6TH
EXPANSION JOINT
BOnOM BARS
PUN OF BASEMENT WALL EXTERIOR CORNER
REINFORCING
PLAN
PLAN
OF
H J | \#3 TrEs MtN
FOUNDAT
SHOWN
WELDED SPLICE
AREA (MlN.) CLEAR
3,,MAX. LN
SPAN
-
SMALL BAR S
APPLICATION
2 - *5 BARS AT CENTER OF SLAB EXTEND TRIMMER BARS2,.6'' MIN. BEYONO SIOES OF OPENING OR AS FAR AS POSSIBLE ANO HOOK
MIODLE STRIP
l.T5BARAT TOP OF SLAB
1. Provideextra bars (not shown) parallelto sidesof openings,equalto areasot interrupted slab bars. Extend Jull length of spanor to top barsas applicable. 2. This detail is typicalat openingsup to 4 ft maximum dimensionsexcept as otherwrse snown. 3. Circularop€ningsless than 18 in. diameter requireno rein{orcing. OPENING PLATE
_
CONSTRUCTION
COLUMN
IN
OR
SLAB
t 4 ( M t N . )T O P AND BOfrOM
o.33
LN
rfln
OOUBLE TENSION
ITII BAR
ilt\ rl li v srEevE cuMP ;' lt tl ll
rl I rTl ftt
COMPRESSION
sPLrcE REBAR LAP I ENGTH
( I //
STRIP
//
rffil
REBAR BUNDLES DOUBLE TIES
lN&'*
MIN. CONSTRUCTION
DEPTH = SPAN/I8 5 (EXTERIOR OEPTH
WAY LONGITUOTNAL SECTION-{NE CONCRETE JOIST CONSTRUCTION WELDED
t+/---
2ND FLOOR
WALL
8 " , l o " , AND I 2" FOR 20. PANS a " , l o - , 12 .14". 16"- AND 20" FOR 30, PANS TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT 2t t2" ao 4t t2
OISTRIBUTION RIB (l)-SPANS20TO30 (2) , SPANS OVER
FLOOR
4TH
N OTES
FUT
O
4-O MAX,
L
C. SPAN
PLATE CONSTRUCTION
FACE OF SUPPORT
ANGLE
HERE
RECTANGLE FOR REINFORCING
. o rs ( M A X . )
FUT
MAX. TIE SPACING 4A TIE DIA 16 BAR DIA LEAST COL DIM.
DETAILS 1 . 15 BAR AT TOP OF SUB OPENING MAY HAVE ANY SHAPE OTHER THAN
p46E pp
THRUST TIES REOUIREO
15-neean il. tl
:l ll @l lll. -iLt-
OF
BASEMENT WALL INTERIOR CORNER
BASEMENT WALL INTERSECTION
;f =t
3'MIN COVER
DOWEL
11/2TURN FoR ANCHORAGE
MrN.l
la
FOOTING
MAX. TIE SPACING 4A TIE DIA. I6 BAR DIA LEAST COL DIM.
FLOOR
{,.-
I
, cC o O R EE oOr IaA ,
- SPAN/21
USUALLY 20" oR 30' srD
(INTERIOR)
aa-
EXPANSION
TO 4't2
MIN
6
COLUMN STRIP SLAFSQUARE
CONCRETE
DEPTH
- SPAN/24
o125L
FUT WAFFLE BAY CONSYRUCTION
FLOOR
OI5L(MAX)
MIDDLE
SYSTEMS
STRIP
C. . C. SPAN
L
24'TO 36 c.-c.
COLUMN
REINFORCEMENT
Anthony L. Felder: Concrete Reinforcing Steel lnstitute; Schaumburg, lllinois Kenneth D. Franch, AlA. PE; Phillips Swager Associates, Inc.; Dallas, Texas
REINFORCEMENT CONCRETE
192
Concrefe Admixtures
GENERAL
Concrete should be workable, finishabte, slronq. durabte. watertight, and wearaesistant. These qualilres cian usuallv be achreved by selectrng surtable matefials or bv chanaina the mix proportions. Sometimes airentrainrno jdm,rt,]rei are necessary, but in most cases admixturei can be for_ gone. No admixture can substitute for good concreting practice.
Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete other tban portland cement, water, and aggregates that are added to the mixture immediately before or during.mixing. Admixtures can.be classified by function as follows: air€ntraininq admxturesj water reductng admixtures; retardrng admix. tures:.accelerating admixturesj superplastjcizers; tinely divided mineral admixtures; miscellaneous admixtures thai aid workability, bondrng, dampproofrng, gas-tormrng, grout_ Ing lrcnsnnnk,, and colonng and help reduce p€rmeability and inhibit corrosion.
TOTAL TARGET
AIR CONTENT
NOMINAL MAXIMUM AGGREGATE SIZE (IN.)
The major reasons for using admixtures are to reduce the cost of concrete construction; to achieve certain properties rn concrete more effectively; to ensure the qualitv 6l con_ crete during mixing, transporting, placing, and curing in adverse weather conditions; and to overcome certain e;er_ gencies during concreting operations.
FOR C O N C R E T E ] AIR CONTENT
SEVERE
EXPOSURE3
MODERATE
(PERCENT)2 EXPOSURE3
NOTES 1- The effectiveness of an admixture depends on such fa. tors as type, brand, and amount of cement; water con tent; aggregate shape, gradation, and proponions: mix;ng trme; slump: and concrete and air temperatures. 2. Trial mixtures should be m€de with the admixture anrt the iob materials at temperatures and humidities antic pated on the job to ensure compatibility wjth otheJ admixtures and job materials and to allow obseruation ot how the properties of the fresh and hardened concrete are affected by lmal conditions. 3. The cost ol using admjxtures should be compared wrth lhe cost of changing the basic concrete mixture. Deter mrne how using an admixture will affect the cost of kansponing, placing. linishing, curing. and protecting the concrete. 4. Recommended total air contents for dif{erent exoosure conditions are shown for diflerent aggregate sizes in thp table below.
MILD EXPOSURE3
3,/,
rExperienceshows that hardened concrete with the ajr ontents specifiedin this table, as sampledand tested in tF plastic state, performs satisfactorily.The air content of hardenedconcretemay be smewhat different. , Projectspecificationsoften allow the air content of the delivered concrete to be within several percentage pcintsof the table target values.
3 S€vereexposureis an environmentin which concreteis exposedto w€t freez&thaw conditions,de-icers,or other aggr€ssive agents. Moderate exposure is an envaron_ ment in wtlich concrete is exposed to freezing but will not.be continuallymoist, not exposedto watei for long periods befor€ freezing,and will not be in contact with d+icers or aggressivechomicals. Mild exposure is an environmentin lvhich @ncrete is not exposedto treez_ ing conditions,cleicers,or aggressiveagents.
CONGRETE ADMTXTURES BY CLASSTFICATTON TYPE OF ADMIXTURE
MATERIAL
Type C) d€trainers
€lcium nitrite dibutyl
silicones Arr€otratntng admixtures (/ASTM C 260) segregation and bleeding are reduced or eliminated
reoucers
resrn);some proternaceous ._"11"-' materiat;fatry and resinousacidsand rheir sitts; altyibenzene !..",y^*yl :."lt",of surronales;sails ol su[onated hvdrocarbons lrthrum and barium, caoon
phthalrcyanine,
(ASTMC 979)
, sodium benzoate,
admrxtures
aomrxlures Cementitious
enrrarnrngagents
calciumor ammoniumstearateor
pnosphates srearate;
Hydraulic properties; partial cement replacement
G@nd granulatedblast-furnaceslag (ASTMC 989)j naturalcemenu hydraulichydratedlime ASTMC 141r
Pozolans
Pozzolanic activjty; improve workability, plasticity, sulfate resistance; reduce alkali reactjvity. pem;ability. heat of hydration; partial cement replacement; filler
shares, vorcanic pumicites (AsrM c 618, crass N);fry 31"Jift1"fi"&i8:3tr""i1"":^3l""i,iJ:r,'; tuffs,
P@olanic and cementitlm
Same as cementitious and pozzolan caregones
High€lcium fly ash (ASTMC 61B, ClassC);groundgranulatedblast-furnacestag {ASTMC 989)
lmprove workability; filler
Marble,dolomite,quartz,granite
Nminally inert insecticides
powder;r€srnsoap admixtures,accelerators,retardes
shnnk grout tor sefting steel on masonryor mncr€te, till regletsand cracks)
grounosrag mtural pozzolans;water U'rgan|candsynthetic'polymers;organicfloccu|ents;o@ pyrcgenicsiticas;naturatpozzotans(ASTMC 618, CiassN); fty ash {i 3:y"::t-T-1t?11","ld oru, LrassesI andC);hyd.atedtime(ASTMC 141) B)
delay initial set lor difficult placement, or for special finishrng, such as exposed aggregate
both ASTM 494 a n d C ' 1 0 1 7specilications neously.
Robert W. Shuldes.P.E.;PorttandCementAssociation; Skokie.llljnois
3
sugar; tartaric
sates;lignosulfonates
5uperpEs!czerand retarder (ASTM C 10't 7
fype 2l reorcer TvDeAl * Superplasticizers are also referredto as high-rangewater reducers or plasticizers.These admixtures often meet
Lignin:
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
Concrete Foundotions
STRUCTURAL COLUMN
REINFORCING
/-
/ ,/
COLUMN
FOOITNG BELow]
193
DOWELS
CONCRETE CAP FINISH FLOOR
/-
\ \
GROUND WATER ,,'\ TABLE/ CONCRETE FOOTING, TYP
SLOPE AS R E O U I R E OB Y LOCAL CODE
CONCRETE SHAfl IN TEMPORARY CASING
\
COMPACT
SAND
caYJ REFUSALOR HARDCUY
(UNDISTURBED
(rrr** COMBINED FoorrN)
COMBINED MAT OR COMBINED
a
o \ couuur
E L
BELL DIAMETER
3 o
NOTES 1. Test soils to determin€ their allowable bearingcapacity. Refer to localbuildingcodes. 'H'is tunctionof the passiveresistance of the soil,gen2. a erated by the moment appliedto the pier cap. 3. Piersmay be used under grade beams or concretewalls. Forvery heaw loads,pier foundationsmay be more ecG nomicalthan piles,
J U o
FOUNDATION
SECTION
SPREAD FOOTINGS
BELL
PIER FOUNDATION
STRUCTURAL COLUMN
0 &
CONCRETE CAP FOR MULTIPLE COLUMNS
dz
OR PIERS
MJ
ANCHOR BOLTS REINFORCEMENT FOR COLUMN OR MOMENT DESIGN CONCRflE
F o o E
SHAtr
IN
TEMPORARY CASING
;o J
^oan----"
o
HAND OR MACHINE SOCKET EXCAVATED CUT INTO ROCK
PILE-SUPPORTED
I I'.
FOUNDATIONS OF SOCKET DEPTH (CONSULT ENGINEER)
N OTES
1. Set pier into a s@ket in r@k to transmit high compres' sion or tensionloadsinto rock by bond. 2. Pier shaft shouldbe poured in dry conditionsiI possible, but tremie pourscan be used.
FOUNDATION WALL
SOCKET
PIER FOUNDATION GRAOE
MAXIMUM STEEPNESS
WALL AREAWAY WITH REINFORCING
IF NEEDED
SEAUNT
SUB
ON GRADE
POROUS FILL FOR ORAINAGE
CONCRETE FOOTINGS DISCONTINUOUS
STEP
FOOTINGS
CONTINUOUS
FOOTINGS
,/,
AREAWAY SUB ABUTS BUILDING
FOOTING
AREAWAY
WALL
Donald Neubauer, P.E.; Neubauer Consulting Engineers; Potomac, Maryland Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers; New York, New York
CONCRETE CAST-IN-PLACE
194
ConcreteSlobson Grqde srderable traffic by hard wheel vehicles. such as forklifts. A semrrigid filler Shore Hardness "A" of at least gO should be used in joints supponing forklitt traf{ic.
GENERAL Factors to consader in the design and construction of all slabs on grade include the intended use o{ the slab or slab section, the condition and preparatton oI a unilorm subgrade, quality of concrete, adequacy of structural capacity, lype and spacrng of,oints, frnishing, currng. and apptrcalion ol specral surfaces The subgrade support must be reasonably uniform and the upper ponion of the subgrade (called the base) should be of uniform material and densitu. Both should be properly compacted. A thin laver of comoactable granular fill may be placed rmmediatelv beneath the slab lo act as a Oercolation barrier.
Concrete fl@r slabs are monolithically finished as a qeneral pr@edure by tloating and troweling to a smooth and-dense top surface finish. ACI 302 provides specific guidance for appropriate linishing procedures to control the achievable floor flatness. ACI 302, ACI 360, and ACI I I 7 Drovide ouidance for tlatness selection and the techniqubs bv ';hich flatness and leveln€ss are produced and measured. Two systems are used. The preferred method of measurinq flatness and l€velness (documented in ACI 302 and ACI li 7) ,s the F-Numb€r System. Special linrshes are available to rmprove appearance as well as surface oroDerties. These include sprinkled (shake) finishes or high-strength toppings, erther as monolithic or separate (two-stage floorl surfaces. Where propagation of water vapor is undesirable, a waterproof vapor barier, with permeance not to exceed O.2O perms, can be used
Wear resistance (abrasion) is directly related to the condition ol the top portion of the concrete slab. Surface hardness.and abrasion resrstance may be provided by special addrtrves or hardeners to the surface. The quality of the overall concrete slab will be enhanced by proper water-te cement ratro, reasonable slump limits, and wellgraded aggregates with the maximum size of the coarse aggregate as large as placing will permit. Exterior concrete subleited to freeze-thaw cycles should have 4 to 7yo entrained ;ir.
THICKNESS
/-PREVENTBoND
'z f''-':''1,;;: .> BUTT
JOINT
CONSTRUCTION
JOINT
BUTT TYPE CONSTRUC:TION JOINT PUSTIC OR PREFORMED HARDBOARD STRIP IF SAWCUT ONLY, FILL WITH SEALER (SHORE HARDNESS > 80) SAWEO OR PREMOLDED CONTRACTION JOINT PREFORMED METAL OR PLASTIC JOINT MATERIAL
DESIGN
In general, the controlling loading to a slab on grade is the heavrest mncenirated loading lhat it will carry. This is frequently the axle loading of an industrial lift truck or the set of post loadings {rm heaw rack storage shelves. The concretg slab thickness required will depend on the toading itself, the modulus of ruptur€ of the concrete (usuallv based on the comprossive strength of the concrete). the selected factor of safety used in th6 design, and the modulus of sub-. grade reaction (kl of the soil suppon system (subgrade). Procedures and examples are shown in ACI 360, ACI 330, '1, and ACI 302. Class 2, and 3 fl@rs should be no thinner than 4.or 5 irches. Loading and usage frequently require floors thic*er than 6 inches.
Rein{orcement in concrete slabS is unnecessary where frequent lornt spacings are used. Where less lrequent ioint spacrngs are used, reinforcement is placed in the slab, at or above the mid{epth (generally'/3 down from the top surlace) to act as crack control. Common conlraction ioint spacing rs 15 ro 25 ft, depending on the thickness ofthe slab and the construction type. Checkerboard placemenl oI slabs is no longer recommended bv American Concrete lnstitute (ACl) 302.1 "Guide tor floor and slab construction,' where strip placement of slabs is recommended for €rge areas.
r/s"RADrus--
TONGUE
AND
GROOVE
JOINT
SAWCUT FILL WITH SEALER {SHORE HARDNESS > 80) COAT OOWEL WITH NONBONDING AGENT CONTRACTION
JOINT
WITH
OOWELS
JOINT
SEALER
Three types of ioints are remmmended: EXPANSION MATERIAL
1. ISOLATION JOTNTS latso cailed expansion joints): Ailow movement between slab and fixed pans of the building such as columns, walls, and machinery bases. 2. CONTRACTION JOINTS (also called conrrot ioints): Induce cracktng at preselected locations 3. CONSTRUCTION JOINTS: ProMde stopping places during fl@r construction. Construction joints also function as control and isolation joints-
AONO
DOWEL SIZE AND SPACING (IN.)
'4 REBAR AT 24" MIN
TYPICAL
C LASS
OF CONCRETE
RECOMMENDED SLUMP 0N.)
3000
4
SLABS
RECOMMENDED 2A - DAY COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (PSI)
3500
DETAILS
ON GRADE USUAL TRAFFIC
Lrght lool rool
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS ncsrqciludt
Suilaces;
mainly with floor coverings
braoe tor dralnage; level slabs suitable for applied coverings; curing
unrces and churchesi usually with floor covenng
sunace tolerance 0nctudtnq - elevated slabs); nonslip aggregates In specrtrc areas
Decorative
CONCRETE FINISHING TECHNIQUE
nonsliptinish where required
Colored mineral aggregate; hardener or exposed aggregate; artistic joint layout
As required
c
3500
l-oot and pneurutic wheel
Exterrcr walks, drivewavs, garage floors, and sidevialks
5
Grade tor drainage; proper air content; curing
4000
l-loat,trowel. or brmm finish
l-oot and light vehicular traffic
rrrS!tu!onal commetctal
Level slab surtable for aoolied coverings; nonslip aggregate ror spectTtc areas an€l cuflng
trowel finish
4000
hdustnal vehaelar traff ic---pneumatic whel
Lrght{uty Industrial tloors for manufacturing., processing, ano wa16nousrnq
4500
Inous(rar ventcu6r traffic--+tard whe€ls
lndustnat fl@rs subject to heavy traffic; may be subject to impact loads
6ase 3500
Industraal vehicular traffic--+lard wheels
tsonded twHourse floors subject to heavy traffic and rmpact
odse sraHooo untrorm suborade: reinforcement; ioint lavout j lev;l surface: curino Toppingr-Coriposed of welt!raded alFmineral or all-metallicaqqreoatei Mrneral or metalhc aggreglie applied to high-strengrh plain topping to toughen; surface tolerance; curing
I opprng
As in classes4. 5. and6
Unbondedtopoinas--+reezer floorson insulition.on otd floors, or where construction scheduledictates
Bond breaker on old surface; mesh reinforcement: minimum thickness 3"(nominal 75mm) abrasion resrstance. and curing
Supertlator criti€l surface tolerancerequired.Special materials-handling vehicles or roboticsrequiring specifictolerances
Natrow-arsle,hrgh-bay warenouses: tetevtston studios
varyrn9 concrete quality requirements Shakmn hardeners cannot be used unless special application and great care are employed. Proper ioint arrangement
4
5000 - 8000
ot
Boyd C Ringo;Cincinnati, Ohio
3
BREAKER
USE AT NONBEARING MASONRY PARTITION WITH 2 *4 REBARS CONTINUOUS(MIN.)
Sawcutcontrol joints should be rode as early as is practical after tinishing the slab and should bo fjlled in ireas with wet conditions. hygienic and dust control requirements. or con-
CLASSIFICATION
JOINT
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
ano
u@d unrtormsubgrade;surtac tolerance;joint.layout;abrasion restslance;cuflng Umd unrtormsubgrade:surface tol€rance;ioint lavout;load transfer; abrasionresistance;curing
trowel finish SDectal m€tallic or maneral aggregate; repeated hard steel troweling suitable tor subseauenl bonded topping Special power tloats with repeated steel trowelings
Hard steel trorel finish
technrques as indacated in seclion 7.'15 of ACI 302
Concrete Stqirs RAILING
r95
TYP
I F
o
;
E. F o
r/2 REeUTRED WIOTHMIN
1t tz" MtNa ICLEARANCE
N FULLY DOOR OPENED, NOT SHALL MORE PROJECT THAN 7 "INTO
REOUIRED
THE REQUIRED WIDTH
DETAIL
A
SLIP RESISTANT AND ANCHOR NOSING
SPAN
PLAN
't DffAIL
Lr==.=
A
REINFORCEMENT AS REQUIRED
SLIP RESISTANT ABRASIVE ON STEPS AND LANDINGS
PRELIMINARY SL.AB THICKNESS BE SHOULD SPAN/26
DETAIL B
oEr^tL c
OETAIL B
//
r2
-o
THICKNESS REOUIRED TO ACHIEVE FIRE RATING AND STRUCTURAL NEEDS (ASSUME .NOMINAL FOR A
MAX
OR CONCRflE) FLOOR
LEVEL
DETAIL C NOTES 1. Structural engineer to determine reinforcement specifi cations and specilic placement in stairs. 2. Check codes for dimensions and clearances tor accessl bility standards.
s€cTloN
U_TYPE CONCRETE
STAIRS SPAN = CENTERLINE OISTANCE BETWEEN THE TWO FIXED ENDS
PRELIMINARY THICKNESS SUB
SLAB PR€LIMINARY - SPAN/26 THICKNESS
TREADS MAY BE TILTED INWARD SLIGHTLY TO COMPENSATE FOR THE OUruARO CENTRIFUGAL FORCE OF SOMEONE WALKING DOWN THE STAIR
NOTE
N OTE
N OTE
Extend hinge only as required by stair width, unless other wise permifted by struclural engrneer.
Use of helicoidal concrete stairs depends on very stiff fixed end support and small support deflection.
Reinforcement must develop full bond in masonry walls and have tull development length in concrete walls
FREESTANDING
CONCRETE
STAIR
HELICOIDAL
CONCRETE
STAIR
CANTILEVER
CONCRETE
STAIR
Krommenhoek/McKeownand Associates;San Diego,California Ka.lsbergerand Companies:Columbus,Ohio
CONCRETE CAST-IN-PLACE
196
Concrete FloorSystems
GENERAL
NOTES 1. Theinformation presentedon thesepagesis intendedonlyas a preliminary designguide.All structural dimensionsfor slabthickness,beamandjoint sizes,cblumnsizes,eti, U" calculatedand analyzedfor each proiect conditionbt a licensedprofessronar "ioutO engrneer.
2. Spansshownare approilmdleandarebasedon use ol m,ldreinforcrnq steel.Soansmav b, increased25 to 50yo wrth the use ot prestressrng. For spansgreateithan ao tt Posttensionino_ """ri.r.,
NOTES
l.Advantages: Inexpensiveformwork; ceilings may be exposed; minimum thickness; fast erection;flexiblecolumn location. 2. Disadvantages: Excessconcretefor longerspans;low sh€arcapacity;greaterdsflections. 3. Appropriatebuildingtypes: Hotels,motels,dormitori6s.condominiums,hospitals. 4 is best for moderatespans beeuse it is the most ffinomi€l floor system and l-f]1?l?!" nas me bwest structuralthickness.Avoid penetrationslor pipingand ductwork through the slab nearthe mlumns. Spandrelbeams may be necessary. FLAT
PLATE
NOTES 1. Advantages:Longerspans than flar plate:typicallyposttensioned;minimum thiclness. 2. Disadvantages: Must reuse formwork many times to b€ economical. 3. Appropristebuildjngtypes: High-risebuildings;sare use as flat plates it flying forms can be used more than 10 tim€s. 4- A bandedslab has most of th€ adv€ntagesof a flat plate but permits a longer span in one dirpction.lt can resist greaterlateralloadi in the direition of th; beams. BANDED
SLAB
DRC)P PANEL DIMENSIONS: %G OF SPAN FG EAG DIRECTON OtrIONAL COLUMN DES;IGN
N OTES
N OTES 1 . Advantages: Economial for design loads greater than 1SO psf. 2. Disadvantages: Formwo.k is costly. 3. Appropriate building types: Warehouses, industrial structures; parking structures 4. Flat.slabs are most commonly used today for buildings supponing very heaw ' loads. When live load exceds 150 lb per sq ft, this scheme rs by fa-r tne'mosi e-conomical.
FLAT SLAB
3. Appropriate building types: Schools, offices, churches, hospitals, public and institutional buildings, buildings with moderate loadings and spans. 4. This is the best scheme if slabs are too long for a flat plate and the strucrure rs not exposed. The slab thickn€ss between joints is determined by fire requirements. ro,sts are most economrcar Ir beams are the same depth as the ioists. Orient joists in the same direction throughout the building and in rhe long direction of long rectangular bays.
JOIST
RussellS. Fling,P.E.,Consutting Engineer;Cotumbus. Ohio
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
SLAB
Concrele FloorSystems
\
go rooo
w"
NOTES 1. Advantages:Uses less conqete than joist slab; lower rebar placingcosts; ioist space used for mechanicalsystems.Permitslights and equipmentto be recessedbetween ioasts. 2. Disadvantages:Simalarto idst slab;ioists must be designedas beams; {orms may require specialorder. for longerfire ratings. 3. Appropriate buildingrype:Sameas for ioistslabs,especially 4. Ensurethe availabilityof fmwork before specifyingskip joists. For larger projects.a skip joist slab should be less exp€nsivethan a ioist slab, and it permits lights and equiprent recessedbetween ioansts. SKIP
197
JOIST
NOTES '1 . Advantages: Long span in one direction. 2. Disadvanlages: Beams interfere with mechani€l seryices; mor€ expensive forms than flat Dlare. 3. Appropriate building types: Parking garages, especially with posttensioning. 4. This scheme is most favored lor parking garages, but the long span of about 60 ft must be prestressed unless beams are quite deep. Shallow beams will deflect excessively.
()NE-WAY
BEAM AND SLAB
N OTES
NOTES
spans; attractive exposed ceilings: heavy load capacity. 2. Disadvantages: Formwork costs more and uses more concrete and steel than a joist slab. 3. Appropriate building types: Prominent buildings with exposed ceiling structure; same types as are suitable tor flat slab but wth longer spans. 4. Column spacing should be multiples of pan spacing to ensure uniformity ot drop panels at square. or reclangular. each column. Drop panels €n be diarcndshap€d,
1. Advantages: Long span in two directions; small detlection; can carry conceotrated loads. 2. Disadvantages: Same as lor one-way beams, only more so. beam framing is needed 3. Appropriate building types: Portions of buildings in which twlway tor other reasons; industrial buildings with heaw concentrated loads.
\ivAFFLE
TWO-WAY
1 Advantages: Longer twcway
SLAB
4. The high cost of the formwork and structural interference with mechanical systems make this scheme unattractive unless heaw concentraled loads must be carried.
SLAB AND BEAM
Columbus,Ohio RussellS. Fling,P.E.,C onsultingEngineer;
CONCRETE CAST-IN-PLACE
198
Concrete Surfqces,Finishes, ond IntegrolColor
GENERAL
NOTES
Architectural concrete and structural concrete are both made from portland cement, aggregate,and water, but lhey have entirelydifferent concretemix designs.A variety o{ architecturalfinishes and colors can be achieved bv changingthe mix of these three simple ingredrents. The cost of productionusuallydetermnes the limlt of finish [email protected] are three basicways to changethe appeatr ance ol a Concretesurtacelinish:
1. Choosing a placing technique (pumping vs. bottom drop or other buckel type) is an important step toward achiev, ing a desired architectural concrete surface and finish. Evaluate whether architectural concrete forms can also be used for structural concrete. Verifu that the vibrators used are of the proper size, frequency, and power. 2. Shop drawings should be carefully checked to determine form quality and stel reinforcement placement. Require approval of forru and finishes; field mockuD is advised to evaluate the appearance o{ the concrete panel and the quality of workmnship.
MATERIALVARIATIONinvotveschangingthe size, shape, texture,and color of the coarseand tine aggregate,particularlyin exposedaggregateconcrete,and ch@sing whit€ or graycemenl. MOLD OR FOHM VARIATIONinvolves changingthe texture or pattern of the concrete surface bv means of form design.form liners,or ioinVedgetreatments. SURFACETREATMENTinvolvestreatingor tooling the surface after the concretehas cured. Design drawings for architecturalconcrete should show lorm details, including openings, jointi (contraction,construction, and rustication),and other important specifics. Other factors that affect concrete surfacesare mixing and placing techniques, slump control. curing methods, and rereas€agents.
EXPOSURE
METHODS
METHOO
FINISH
STANDARD JOINT DffAL BEARING AREA
3. Release agents are chemical treatments applied to the liner or face of the form that react with the cement to prevent it from sticking to the lorm. The safest way to select a release agent is to evaluate several products on a test panel under actual job conditions. The curing compound, used to retard or reduce evaporation ol moisture from concrete or to extend curing time, is typically applied immediately after final finishing of the concrete surface- Consult manutacturers and the American Concrete Institute for mora detailed informataon about the compatibility of th€se treatments and the form surface material or other finishes and surfaces to be applied to the concrete.
FOR ARCHITECTURAL
CONCRETE
EFFECT
REruCED BEARING AREA IMROWS TIGffiNESS OF rcINT
SURFACES CRITICAL
DETAILS
Slump = 2rl2to i Joineryof forms Properreleaseagent Pointform joints to avoidmarks
ARCHITECTURAL CORNER
FEATURE
AT
surfaces a- Brushblast
Uniformscour cleaning
Cement and fine aggregate have equal intluence
b. Light blast
Blastedto exposefine and some cGrse aggregate(sandblast, water blast,air blast,ice blast)
Fine aggregate pri" mary, coarse aggregate and cement secondary
Scouringatter 7 days Slump = 2tl, to 31/r' 'loYo more coarse aggregate Slump = 2t7,1e3t7r" Blastingb€tween 7 and 45 days Water and air blasting used lvhere sand blasting prohibited 1500 PSIconcretecompressivestrength,min.
c. Medium exposed aggregare
Blasted to expose coarse aggregate (sand blast, water blast, air blast, ice blast)
Coarse aggregate
All smooth
d. Heavy exposed aggregate
Blasted to expose coarse aggregate (sand blast, ice blast) 80% visible
Coarse aggregate
All smooth
of surfaceset
Hagherthan normal coarseaggregale Slump=2163" Blastbefore 7 days Specialmix coarse aggregare Slump=0to2" Blastwithin 24 hours Use high-frequenry vibrator
SHEAHING
HORIZONTAL FORMWORK
JOINT
N OTE A notch at the joint between two form members reduces the bearingareaat the point of contact.improvingthe tight ness of lhe joint. A non-notchedioint is acceptable.but a notch is recommended.
mines etch depth Strippingscheduledto prevsnt long drying betlv€en strippingand mshoff
surfaces,s€ling, bush hammering,jackhammering,tooling
SHEAfrING
for scaling and tooling 2r/2' minimum @ncrete cover over reinforced steel
rrregurar pattern Corrugated/abrasrve Venical rusticated/abrasive blasted Reededand bush hammered Seededand hammered Reededand chiseled and polashang
FORM LINER SHEETS
4000 PSIconcretecompressivestfenglh, minimum on type rsh desared Wood flute kerfed and nailed loosely
blemashes shouldbe patched 5000 PSIconcretecompressivestrength,minimum
FORM
LINEFI
JC)INT
N OTE Placing the inner sheet above the outer sheet reduces shadows, particularlv on sm@th surfaces.
JOINTS IN FORMWORK D. Neil Rankins;RGAy'r'irginia; Richmond,Virginia
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
ond lntegtql Color ConcreteSurfoces,Finishes, SURFACE
Patterned lorms and liners make it possible lo simulate in concrete the textures of wood, brick, and stone at a lower cost. The texture and resulting shadow patterns conceal minor color variations or damage that would be conspicuous and unacceptable on a smooth surface. Use ol rustication strips at joints n textured liners simplifies form assembly work.
Sources for coarse and fine aggregates should be kept the same lor an entire iob to avoid variations in the final surface appearance, paniculady in light-toned concrete. Following are the common types of aggregate available:
NOTES
OUARZ is available in clear, white. yellow, green, gray, and light pink or rose. Clear quartz is used as a sparkling other colors and prgmented surtace to complement cements. GRANITE is known for its durability and beauty and is available in shades of pink, red, gray. dark blue. black. and white. Traprock such as basalt can be used for gray. black. or green.
TEXTURE/FORM
LINER
AGGREGATE Aggregate is one of three components ot concrete and greatly affects the final appearance of the concrete surface. Aggregate should be selected on the basis of color, hard ness, size, shape, gradation. method of exposure, durabilitv, availability,and cost. Aggregate hardness and densitY must be compatible with structural requrrements and weathering conditions.
1. The choice of liner material may depend on whether the work is precast, cast-in-place, or tilt{p. Thin liners thal work well lor horizontal casting may wrinkle and sag in vertical forms, where sturdier liner materials are required. Form liners such as plastic foams can usually be used only once, while many elastomeric liners are good for 100 or more uses with reasonable care. 2. Reusable aluminum wall forms, textured with various patterns, can also be used; sections are held together with metal pins. Typical sizes are 3 x 8 {t and larger.
MARBLE orobablv offers the widest selection ot colorsgreen, yellow, red, pink, gray, white, and black.
3. Making a preconstruction mock-up is helpful in choosing patterned liner materials. lf built on site, the mock-up can be used as a reference standard for inspectors and workers. lf ribbed liners are specified, the largest aggregate pa(icle should be smaller than the nb.
LIMESTONE is available in white and gray.
4. Typical form liner materials are
MISCELLANEOUS GRAVEL, after being washed and screened, can be used for brown and reddish-brown fin ishes. Yellow @hers, umbers, buff shades, and pure whate are abundant in riverbed gravels. Check local supplies. CERAMIC exhibits the most brilliant and varied colors when vitreous materials are used. EXPANDED LIGHTWEIGHT SHALE may be used to duce reddish$rown. gray, or black aggregate. Porous crushable. this shale produces a dull surface with soft ors. lt should b€ tested for iron staining characteristics must meet ASTM C 330.
prc and coland
RECYCLED CONCRETE aggregate is produced when old concrete is crushed. Primarily used in pavement work, this material generally has a higher absorbsion rate and lower density than conventional aggregate. lt should be tested for durability, gradation, and other properties, as wath any new aggregate source. EXPOSEO
AGGREGATE
An exposed aggregate surface is a decorative tinish for concrete work achieved by removing the surface cement to expose the aggregate. Aggregates suitable for exposure may vary fromr/. in. to a cobblestone more than 6 in. in diameter. The extent to which the pieces of aggregate are revealed is largely determined by their size. Size is generally selected on the basis of the distance from which it will b€ viewed and the aDpearance desired. Aggregates with rough surfaces have better bonding proP enies than those with smoother surfaces; bind is impor tant, particularlv when small aggregate is used. For better weathering and appearance. the area of exposed cement matrix between pieces of aggregate should be minimal. which makes the color of cement in exposed aggregate concrete less rmportant.
a. Plyform: Sandblasted, wire$rushed, or striated plyform can be used as lorm sheathing or as a liner inside other structurally adequate forms. b. Unfinished sheathing lumber: Used to produce rough, board-marked concrete. this lumber can be used as form sheathing or liner. Ammonia spray on wood will raise grain and accentuate the wood pattern. c. Rigid plastics: ABS, PVC, and high-impact polystyrene sheets can be molded or extruded to produce nearlv any pattern or texture. Although typically supplied in sheets of 4 x 8,4 x 10, and 4 x 12 ft, they can be special ordered in lengths up to 30 ft or longer. d. Glass tiber-reinforced plastics (GFRP): These look much like other plastics but are stronger and more durable, particulady laminated GFRP. Extruded GFRP is less expensive (and less durable). Custom lengths up to 40 tt are available. e. Elastomeric plastics: These rubbery liners, typically polyurethane, are the most costly, but they are very strong and durable and flexible enough to accommq date finer details. Standard sheets in sizes up to 4 x 12 ft arer available,as are larger custom sheets. Typically attached to lorm sheathing with adhesive, they are sensitive to temperature change and may deform; consult manufacturers. f. Polystyrene foam: Single-use liners are used to produce unaquepat'ternsfor specilic jobs.
CEMENT
COLORED
INTEGRALLY
t99
Colored concrete can provide a cost-effective simulation of natural stone or other building materials. Two standard types of cement ar€ available, ot{ering different shades of color: standard gray portland cement and white cement. lntegrally colored concrete is made by adding mineral oxide pigments to concrete mixes made with one of these two types. Fine aggregates should be selected caretully, since they can enhance the color effect. The amount of coloring material should not exceed 10% by weight of the cement; any excess prgment may reduce concrete strength, and strong colors can be achieved with less than 1070 pigment. White cement is used when lighter, more delicate shades ol concrete are desired, although it is more expensive; da.ker hues can be produced using gray cement. N OTES 1. Variations in all components ot the concrete mix make color formulas only approximate. After a basic color is selected, the exact shade may be determined by prepar ing a number of small panels, varying the ratao ot pig ment to cemenl, wrth aggregate playtng a more import3nt role in exposed aggregate mixes. To evaluate panels properly, store them for about five days under conditions similar to those on the construction site. Panels lighten as they dry. 2. Batching, mixing, placing, and curing practices must be uniform, and sources of ingredients must be constant throughout a iob to maintain color uniformity. Avoid admaxtures lhat contain calcium chloride, since it can cause discoloration. Ciean forms and nonstaining release agents are vital. Consult pigment manufacturers'recommendataons. 3. Pigments should meet the quality standards of ASTM C979. Finely ground iron oxides are the most widely used pigments for coloring concrete. Colors and their sources include blue (cobalt oxide). brown (brown iron oxide). buff (yellow iron oxide), green (chromium oxide), red {red iron oxide}, gray/slale (black iron oxide). integral color and 4. Colorconditioning admixtureso{fer have additives that improve workability, better disperse color and cement, and reduce color bleeding for imoroved uniformitv. Consult manufacturers. ---4J---
E*+
-y
/-/
-HARDWOOD R FMOW REMOW
||lfiJ-------"", ryru
-
\br
WOOD
FORM
STRIP
AND AND C A U IK J O T N T
INSERT '-
SHEET WOOD MOVE JOINT
METAL WITH FILLER, RE. AND CAULK
5. Joints in the forms and Iiners must be executed carefuliy and the liners handed properly to achieve high{uality workmanship. Check liners for compatibility with release agents and adhesives. JOINT
FACE SPLIT SURFACE OPTIONAL
DEtrH
SHEET N OTE
METAL
FORM
INSERT
In flal concretework, a rotary saw may be used to make a contractionjoint. CONTRACTION
J()INTS
SUGGESTED VISIBILITY SCALE OISTANCE AT WHICH TEXTURE IS VISIBLE,
AGGREGATE srzE, tN. (MM)
FT (M) MOLDED ROUGH MASONRY
SHIPT-AP
W,; PANERN
EXPOSED
f-7-
-u''
r( '* I /rr
-o,'
RADTUS
t
RADIUS CORNER
%'TO 1,/"' ryP.
'l+
)-f..'.-l
4't
rIF** rcnc-Fr
7.'TO 3'\
tl rol
*
l. | |
:i
+
I lr; .l iro l3'
,iI L---, +-
TRAPEZOID (TYPICAL FOR RUSTICA,TION
JOINT)
Fq
--.
fr l,/
', /. / X
ROUGH BOARD
RANDOM
FORM TO EXERT MAIMUM RESSURE ON
GASKET
ON LUG FACE -
TIE ROD
/ / ' 't 1.ao 2'+
TRIANGLE RIGHT CHAMFER
MISCELLANEOUS CONCRETE JOINT/EDGE SHAPES
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
RIETE}ED
TYPICAL CONSTRUCTION
NPffi:""J;
CONSTRUCTION JOINT
Ni RANDOM
JOI NT PREFERRED LOCATION
oFrroNAL-\
f-:---7
|
AGGREGATE OffIONAL
ENEND BELOW
STONE
STRIATED CENTERLINE GROOVE
NOTE Consult manufacturers for other available patterns
REUSABLE
FORM LINER PATTERNS
RUSTICATION JOINT
AT CONSTRUCTION
Virginia Richmond, D. NeilRankins;RGA/r'irsinia:
CONCRETE CAST-IN-PLACE
200
Concrete Surfoces:Defect Prevention,Repoir,Cootings,ond Treotments
CONCRETE
REPAIR
REPAIR
MATERIALS
Prepackaged cementitious and latex-modified cementjtious repair materials are available, with tormulations tor thin or thicker repairs. Where aesth€tics are important, use the same cement and aggregates as in the surrounding work. Most types of Portland cement are acceptable, but match lhe origtnal type, rf posstble. Certain prepackaged mrxes must conform to ASTM C 928. Aggregates should match the existing concrete aggregate, it possible. For exoosed aggregate, matching the texture and color may require special mixtures to meet the specitications. Any admixture used in concrete work can be used in reoair mixtures. Bonding agents may be requrred for some repairs, especially thin ones; they are typicalty either cement-based. latex-based (ASTM C 1059), or epoxy-based {ASTM C get ). Acrylics, methyl methacrylates, and polymers are less expensive than epoxy bonding agents but are more likely to shrink. Repaired areas should be sealed or coated to the same specifications as the surrounding concrete work to protect against natural forces. corrosives, and chemicals.
Damage or deterioration of concrete can occur at any time during service life. Minor repairs may be reqoired durjng initial construction, for example, filling form tie holes; patching lifting l@ps on precast concrete; or repairing broken edgei on beams, walls, and columns. Distress my result from inadequate design or construction, or deterioration, natural eftects, or exposure to aggregate chemicals_ Most repairs rmprove appearance, blending adjacent surfaces by match, ing texlure and color. The repair area should be perma nently bonded to the adjacent concrete and sufficientlv rmpe.meable lo lquid penelratron lo keep it from shnnkrng or cracking. Repairs should withstand freezelthaw cycles as well as surrounding concrete does. The American Concrete lnstitute delines generally acceptable architectural concrete surfaces as those with minimal color and texture variation and minimal surface defects when viewed at 20 lt. Most architectural concrete contains some irregularities, such as blowholes or buqholes. Criteria for acceptabiltty should be defrned in advancl. but oatches should match lhe surrounding area as much as posstble
SIDES OF AT RIGHT
HOLE ANGLES
-
MrN. + + tl I I I I I I I
I.
EPOXY OVER
IMAY BE I EITHER IRECESlsED oR IFLUSH lwTa ISUR' I FACE \
CONCRETE
ARA
SOUND CONCREE
LEVEL
SOLID
PATCH
PLUG
Solid plugs may be made of pre€st mortar, plastic, or lead. Monar oI a drytamp consistency will be less likely to smear on surrounding concrete_ lf surrounding concrete is smooth, recess plug or patch.
TIE HOLE TREATMENT
OPTIONS
IN CONCRETE
OF DEFECTIVE
CONCRETE
NOTES 1. Floor-hardening agentsare appliedto reducedustingand Increasehardnessslightlyat the surface. 2. Consult a quallfied specialistto determine the corect coatingor sealerfor a particularapplication. 3. There may be restrictionson the use of solvent-based coatingsand sealersin some areasdue to the Dresence of VOCs{volatrle organrc compounds}.
CONSTRUCTION SLABS
SU RFACE CRAZING
sureS
./
GUIOELINES FOR PATCHING L Designpatch mix to match original,with smallamount of white cement; may eliminatecoarseaggregateor hand place it. Trial and error, the only reliablematch method, shouldbe perlormedon a mock{p lirst_ 2. Remov€defectiveconcrete down to soundconcrete:for expos€d aggregateconcr€te. chrp slightty deeper ihan maximumsize of aggregate. 3. Cl€anarea;saturatewith water and arpplybondingagent to base of hole and to water of patch mix. 4. Packpatch mix to densityof originat. 5. Placsexposedaggregateby hand. 6. Bristleirush after setup to match existingmaterial, 7. Moistrure to minimizeshrinking. 8. Use form or finishto match originat.
NOTE
CRACKING
Decorative coatings usually protect as well and are formu lated in a wide selection of colors. Decorative coatinqs Include watetrbased acrylic emulstonj elaslomeric acryIr resin; liquid polymer stain; solvent- based acrylic stain; port, land cement-based finish coating; and water-based acidic stain {a solution of metallic salts).
NOTE
PATCHING SURFACES
TIE
1/4.-7.. CUT
Sealers are usually clear and are expected to penetrale thF surtace without leaving a visible film. Coattngs are clear o, opaque and, while they may have some penelration. thev leave a visible lilm on the surface. Sealers and coatinqs should allow vapor emission from the concrele but at the same time keep moisture from penetrating after curing.
Larger and thicker patches should be anchored mechanically to the surroundingconcrete.
\
t.
W|TH SAW
tecl against severe weather, chemicals, or abrasions: lo prevent dusting of the surface layer; to harden the surface layer; or to add a decorative finish.
PROTECTIVE COATINGS AND SEALERS
OULINE DEFECTIW CONCRETE ARA OEEP
PROTECTIVE AND DECORATIVE COATINGS Concrete surlacesmayrequirea sealeror coatingto pro
PLASTIC
EARLY CONCRETE VOLUME CHANGES
SHRINKAGE
BEAMS, WALLS, COLUMNS. AND STRUCTURAL SLABS
ON GRADE OTHER
CRACKING
5hrnkage ot cement paste at exposed concrete surfaces due to concrete mix, toGwet excessive bleeding, overtroweling surface, rapid drying of surface
water al the concrete surtace evaporates too rapidly due to job site conditions such as low humidity, high wand speeds, high concrete temperatures, high to moderate air lemperatures
As concretecools and hardens,concrete volumeshrinks;crackingwill occur if slab is restrainedat any point
JUOgraoe setflement
rrematute excesstve loading on slab
unsrgnry cracktng ot surface layeralthough surface is probably sound
Parallel cracking, laidy wide at the exposed surface but shallow; doesn't typically extend to slab edge; crack spacing and length vary greatly
Handomor regularlyspacedqacks, usuallypassing@mpletelythrough slab; duringsawcuttingof ioints, crack may iump aheadof sawcut
and crack
through al edge by heaw equipment. eIc.
heouce amount and rate ot shrinkage at concrete SUrface by avoiding wet mixes, limiting bleeding by increasing sand or ai. content, limiting troweling/not troweling too early, curing as soon as possable
neouce rale at wntch 5ufiac€ morsture evaporates by erecting windbreaks or building walls betore slab, avoidangwet mixes, dampening subgrade before concrete pour, curing as soon as possible, avoiding vapor barrier under slab unless necessary
Not alwayspreventable;carefuljoint designor reinforcementmay help; other measures:tool or sawcut ioints rL of slabthickness,min.,time sawcut accordang to concretecuring rate; locatecontractionjoints at columnlines, min.:for unreinforced slabs,spacejoints at 24 to 36 times slab thickness.max.: posttensionat slab; isolateslabstrom adjoining structureswith preformedioint filler or if continuityis required,increase slab reinforcement
LOillljdct
uenefaIy, curangperiods of4toTdays, tollowed by 1 to 2 days of oryrng
subgrade well
NOTE Expecl gme cracking in concrete conslruction. Generally, cracking is controlled with ioints and reinforcement; how-
ever, not all cracks indi€te errors or Oerlormanceorob-. lems,andnot all cracksneedto b€ reoarred.
Grant Halvorsen, S E., P.E.; Wheaton, lllinois
CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE
SETTLEMENT
5ameas tor slabs on graoe;atso, heavaeramounts of reinforcement and natureof formed or shored construction
CRACKS
rrexrote lorms and insufficient vibrationcan increaselik€lihood
OTH ER CRACKI NG
SubgradeOrtormwrk settlement, earlyvolume changes,constructim overloads. errorsin design and detailing
LOngrtudrnal cracks develop over reinforcement bars; can cause reinforcement bar corrosion rroper lorm design and sufficient vibration or revibration: use lowest possible slump, increase concrete cover
LOnSUltWth structural concrete engi. neer or consultanl to prevent
/1 L I
PrecqstLong-SponDecks,Girders,ond Beoms
a-o" nPLa roo" frPtra ------., roeerruo omroNau
DOUBLE
I
DECK TYPE
]
+ot:
l-'\vaRrES
o o' 50'
I |
APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM SPAN FOR STEMMED DECK SECTIONS
,
ffi5ntr U--u ,lt
203
(DT)
TEE
1 i+
5-o'
,f
+\
37.'OR
47.'
TEt
DOUBLE
PRETOPPED
-
NOTES l.Sate loads shown indicatedead toad of 10 psf for untopped members and t5 psf for topped members. Remainderis live load. 2. Contactmanufacturersin the geographicareaot the prorcsed structure to detemine availabilitY,exacl dimensions.and load tablesfor wrious sections. 3. Check camb€r for its effect on nonstructuralmemb€rs {partitions.folding d@rs. elc.), which should be placed with adequateallowancefor error. Calculationstor topping quantitiesshouldalso remgnize cambervariataons 4. Normal-weightconcrete is assumed to be 150 lb/cu ft: lightweightaoncreteis assumedto b€ 115 lb/cuft. STEMMED
DECK MEMBERS
NOTE Strandpattern designation: Numberof strands(201 = straisht,D = depressed I -S 208 Dr L Number of dePressionPoints I I Diameterof strandin sixteenths
Toppingconcrete = 3000 Psi 150 lb/cuft lc = 5000 psi for normalor lightweightdeck
SAFE SUPERTMPOSED SERVTCE LOAD (PLF)* FOR PRECAST BEAM SECTIONS 5PAN
(FT)
m=*
[.,'.:;.'lI
f,r,t"I [.';.l I
|5=-_+ -f-9;ftz-
oc te'
7E+
['l':.1 .,| l:
r'{
|
|
|
:: l l :. -; . : ' -.J_ I . xl _l_ 1 .-..: |
fl -.-.; r. :t: .. :'i;l t ", 1 r I,
II
l---+--1
I I I
l--i t__ * l.;1:'l | | Ii::.11 |*'i
JI
Iri F-"', , i;r--f , ,Ii l I " Il 'rl ft :,.;:.'..:,.;.l '.1:-'.::'.1:.t I
P
INVERTED
+ +
TEE
' Safe loads shown indicate507. dead load and 50% live Ioad;800 psi top tension has been allowed, therefore additionaltop reinforcerent is required.
ConcreteInstitute:Chicago,lllinois SidnevFreedman;PrecasvPrestressed
CONCRETE PRECAST
PrecqstConcreteWqll ponels
204
wRrry FINISH a€'
:'fr+
-- SPECIAL FINISB
WINDOW
-
WALL
INSUUTTON
OPENING
rffi
lil[]ll lNqll tNtl
ill|l|l
ilLllj_tl FI-AT OR .V'GROOVE
F\-
N lill l/--l ill
t{
=-J
\\\j L(::&TE.'OIN TE .'OINTS TO OiANNEL WATER -
TRUSS
s( SCULPTURED
?8="ttt
SANDWICH PANEL
HOLLOW C:ORE SANDWICH PANEL
coLoRs Select a color. range, as complete unilormity cannot be guaranteed. White cement offers the best cols uniformitv gray. cement is subject to color variations even when sup plied from one source. Pigmenls require hrgh{uality manJ tactunng and curing standards. Fine aggregate colo requires control bf the mixture graduation; c@rse aggra gate color provides the best durabrlityand appearance.
NN
-
SPANOREL COLUMN
TYPE
F!NISHES Form liner molds provide a wide variety of sm@th and tex lured finishes. Fintshes after casling but prior to hardenrnq Inctude exposed aggregate, broom, trowel, scred. float. o, stippled. After hardening, linishes include acid€lched sandblasted, honed, polished, and hammered rib.
*----!J
V,tr?BK
PANELS
Carefully distinguish between the more specialized arcj tectural wall panel and the structural wall parel that is. derivattve ot floor systems. Always work *itt, ^"nuii"ru, ers early in the design prcess. Careful anention must b. grven lo manufactufing and joint tolerance during des,a Inoroughtv examrne ioinl sealants tor adhesron an expected joint movement.
AND CI.ADDING
MULLION
WALL
PANEL VARIATIONS
SRUfrURAL \ffiHE SRUCTURAI WHE
f]J,,Ci.-]
NON. STRUCTURAL WTHE RIGID INSUUTON
\\-
PUE INSERTS (vvELDED TGETHER)
smucTURAL \ffiHE
STANLESS SEEL OR GALVANI.ZEO REINFORONG BAR
PANELS
MESH RIGID INSUUNON
BONO BRAKER IF REOUIRED
VERTICAL WALL
PANEL
TO
WALL
PANEL
SLAB-TO-WALL
PANEL
AT
TIE
Panel requires accurate location of ties and reinforcemenr and established concrete qualitv control.
NOTE Pocket onnection
SECTTON
N OTE
may be at top of panel.
SAND\/VICH WALL
CONSTRUCTION
BEARING PANEL CONDITTONS
DISCOMINUE SAUNT AT VERTICAL JOINTS TO DRAIN JOIMSEMM COMINUES HORZONTAL JOIMS
MLD BNWEEN CLIP ANGLE AND CASTIN PUTE
SEEL
BEAM
VERTICAL
AT
HORIZONTAL JOINT
JOINT
T\^/O-STAGE
SEALANT
JOINTS
FLoOR SAUM BAAER
STEEL ANGLE WELDED TO STEEL BAM
AND ROD
CONCRETE 7a"
TAPER REVEAL
RECESSED
SPANDREL
CONDITIONS
SidneyFreedman;PrecasvprestressedConcr€teInstitute;Chicago,lllinois
PRECAST CONCRETE
JOINT
JOINT DETAILS
MIN
OR
AUIRK
DETAIL
PrecqstConcreteWoll PonelToleronces
20s
alt,
GENERA,L Architecturai precast concrete rs subiect to the same erec_ tion and manulacturing tole.ances as other building materts als. When srch tolerances are considered in the design stage, the task oJ determining and specifying them is sim pler. By requiring realistic tolerances, architects strengthen and simplify their standards lor acceptance. Unrealistic, are costly, panicularly tor custom-proclose tolerares duced elerents. Tolerances set the limits of size and shape for precast concrete units. Three groups ot tolerances should be established in pre€st concrete design: product (manufacturing) tolerances, erection tolerances. and interfacing tolerances. Product and etection tolerances usually do not cause site oroblems. Tolerances are most oroblematic at the intertace of precast concrete and other building materials.
"1"
D#
Tolerances should be established {or the lollowing reasons: STRUCTURAL: To ensure that structural design properly accounts lor faclors sensitive to variations in dimensional control. Examples include eccentric loading condition. bear ing areas, hardware and hardware anchorage locations, and locations of reinforcing or prestressing steel. FEASIEILITY: To ensure acceptable performance and interfacing materials in the {inished structure.
of ioints
{
VISUAL: To ensure thet the variations will be controllable and result in a structurs that is visually acceptable. ECONOMIC: To ensure ease and speed ot production and dimensions for precast erection by having agreed{pon concrete Products. on propsrty lines and to LEGAL: To avoid encrGching establish a standard against which the work can be compared in event of a dispute. CONTRACTUAL: To establish a known acceptabilitY range and responsibility for developinq, achieving, and maintaining mutually agreed-upon tolerances.
ELEVATION A = Plan location from building grid datum t'/z in.' 41 = Plan location from centerline of steel 1rl2 in.2 B = Top elevation from nominal top elevation: exposed individual panel trl in.; nonexposed individual panel trh in.: exposed relative to adjacent panel r[ in.; nonexposed relalive to adiacent pan6l 1/2in. C = Suooon elevation from nominal elevation: maximum lowr/, in.: maximum high '/a in. D = Maximum plumb variation over height of structure or 100 ft, whichever is less 1 in.r E = Plumb in any 10 ft of element height 1l in. F = Maximum jog in alignment of matching edges ![ in. G = Joint width (governs over ioint taper) 1r/a in. H = Joint taper max.3/s in. Hro= Joint taper over 10 ft length 1/ain-
->EXrcSED FAG-
tILENGTH l
| J
OF BOW I
BOWING (PUN) EXrcSED (co|.'lr)
= Max. iog in alignment of matching faces l/a in. = Differential bowrng or camber as erected between adjacent members of the same design r/. in. 1 For precast buildings taller than 100 ft, tolerances A and D can increase at the rate ot'/e rn. per story to a maximum ol 2 in. 2 For precast concrete erected on a steel frame building. this tolerance takes precedence ovet tolerance on dimension A.
PI,AN (coNcavE BOWING)
Pt-AN (CONVEX ElowrNG)
LENGTH OF BOW (ELEVATION)
FOR WALL
ERECTION TOLERANCES PANELS
FACE
(coNcavE)
l-sowNo
TRUE PUNE
(ELEVATION)
MS|MUM wNG
I i
CORNER
RECAST CONCR€E
te*et" G BOW PANEL EIOWED PI-AN ANO EIOTH ELEVATION
ELEVATION BOV\/ING
DEFINITIONS
GUIDELINES PANEL
A = Overall length and width {measured at neutral axis of ribbed members): l0 ft or under i1ls in.; 10 to 20 ft +1/s in., -3116 in.; 20 to 40 ft:1/a in.; each additional 10 ft trl6 in. per 10 ft. = Total thickness or flange thickness -'ls in., +1/a in. B C = Rib thickness |/B in. D = Rib to edge o{ flange irls in. E = Distance between ribs ir/s in. F = Angular variation of plane of side mold ir/3, in. per 3 in. of depth or frlj6 in., whichever is greater. G = Variation from square or designated skew (difference in length of the two diagonal measurements) lr/s in. per 6 ft of diagonal or trl, in., whichever is greater.' H = Length and width of blockouts and openings within one unit t1L in. Hr = Location and dimensions of blockouts hidden from view and used lor HVAC and utility penetrations t3l. in. H2 = Sore types ot window and equipment frames require more accurate types of openings. When this is the case, the minimum practical tolerance should be defined with inDut trom the oroducer. I = Dimensions oI haunches lll in. = Haunch bearing surface deviation from specified plane t'le in. K = Difference in relative position of adjacent haunch bearing surfaces from specified relative position trla in. L = Bowing tL,/360 max. 1 in.
J
M = Differential bowing between adjacent panels ol the sare design 1/, in. N = Local smoothness r/. in. in 10 ft. {does not apply to visually concealed surfaces. O = Warping oI distance from nearest adjacent cornerl/,u in. per ft. P = L@ation of window opening within panel 1r, in. O = Position of olates t1 in. R = Tipping and flushness of plates trl. in. 'Applies both to panel and to major openings in the paner.
PANEL
\
dr, tx
FOR
IN
PANELS
OISTANCE ADJACENT
TO NEAREST CORNER
\^r'ARPING DEFINITIONS
FOR PANELS
FOR PANEL THICKNESS'
TOLERANCES FOR PANELS, SPANDRELS, AND COLUMN COVERS
OIMENSIONS
' This table should not be used for FEnel thickness selection. , This table shows a relationship between overall flat panel dimensions and thicknesses below which suggested
Position tolerance for castin items measured lrom datum line location as shown on approved erection drawings: weld plates t1 in.; inserts i,l, in.; handling devices 13 in.: reanforcing steel and welded wire labric where position has structural implications or affects concrete cover 1'l4 in , othemise t'lz in.; tendons irls in.; flashing reglets 1'la in.; flashing reglets at edge of panel trls in.; reglets for glazing gaskets irlro in.; groove width for glazing gaskets trlr6 in.: electrical outlets, hose bibs, etc. +1/, in.; haunches irl. in.
bowing and warpage possibly increased. thickness should be continuous from one
tolerances should be reviewed and For ribbed panels, the equivalent the overall thickness of such ribs if end ot the panel to the other.
ConcreteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois SidneyFreedman;PrecasvPrestressed
CONCRETE PRECAST
206
PrecqstConcreteConnections TOPPING SLAB THREADED BAR
rN TOPPTNG /-ltBARS .WTHOUT TOPPING BAR GROWED IN SHEAR KIY
DOWELS IMO MIN 2'frrcK TOPPING
HOLLOW
CORE
SL.A,E}
z-aST_lN METAI PUTES;
RECAST FLOOR SLAB
CAST1N METAL PUES
BARING STRIP
BEARING STRIP
FLOOR-TO-WALL
/. .
FLOOR-TO-BEARING
DETAII.-S
\^/ALL
CONNECTIONS
SPANDREL
CONNECTIC)N
CON N ECTIONS
GENERAL
PRECAST COLUMN
'-
To fasten members lo foundations.set them on shims, tighten nuts to level,then fill spacewith nonshrinkgrout.
PRECASf GIRDER
CdPLER
PRECAST
WALL PANEL
POSTTENSIONED
RODS
SHIMS AND GROLJT FOUNDANON
WEL OOWEL frRADED IMO AN INSERT IN BARING PAD JUST BEFORE ERECNON
NOTE
NOTE
Verticalposttensioningcan be used to resist uplift forces; moment resistanceis achi€v€d.
The girder sits on the bearingpad, wl]ich providesuniform bearing and accommodates sroll movements du€ to shrinkage.creep,and temperaturechanges.
Steel haunches are small€r than concrete bearing pads, which is imrcrtant if headroomis critical-
POSTTENSION FOUNDATION
DOu/ELED BEAM.TO.COLUM CONNECTION
HAUNCHED BEAM.TO-COLUMN CONNECTION
ED WALL.TOCONNECTION
N
ffiECAST COLUMN
STEEL REINFORCING
LOCKNU
PRECAST @LUMN
CAST IN WALL (SINGLE PANEL BAR, OMONAL)
STEEL |uE
-
BASE
STEEL POCKnS
SHIM AND GROUT
RETNFORCING BARS
SHIM AND GROf
SHIMS. 1'MIN. ruBLE NU'S. 2' MtN.
CORRUGATED SEEL SLEEE asT rN FOUNDANON WtLi FILLED WTH GROUT
COLUMN FOUNDANON ANCHOR
PANEL PUCEMEM @LUMN FOUNDANON
GROUTED WALL.TO.FOUNDATION CONNECTION WELD AST WAU
COLUMN-BASE
CON NECTION
PUTE IN PANEL
OVERSIZED BASE PLATE AT COLUMNBASE CONNECTION
ru UE CAST
ANCHORS
IN
REAST WALL
PUE
PNEL
PUTE SEEL ffiLDED TO W{L AND FOUNDATION ruTE
AND IN FOUNDATION
FOUNDATION
SHIM MH DRY-PACK OR NONSHRINK
SHIM AND DRY PACK OR GROUT FOUNDATION
ASTIN BOLT WtG SHIM DRY.PACK NONSHRINK GROUT
OR
DRILLEDJN APANSION
NOTE
(offroNAL)
Two connections per panel are typical.
BOLTED WALL-TO.FOU CONNECTION
NOATION
r^/ELDED WALL.TO.FOUNDATION CONNECTION
Sidrey Freedman;PrecasvPrestress€d ConcreteInstitute;Chicago,lllinois
PRECAST CONCRETE
ANCHOR BOLT (omloNAL)
v\/ELDED PLATE.TO-FOU CONNECTION
STEEL PUTE WELDED TO FOUNDATION, BATED TO WALL (OMIONAL) PNEL
N DATION
PlecqstConcrete Connections
207
PRECAST PANEL --
INSERT ROD BOLT
PRECAST PANEL
WALL
STRUCTURAL TUBE
OR CASTJN PUTE
sHrM (oR LE€LING
-OVERSIZE HOLE OR SLEEVE
STEEL
-
BOLT)
BRACKET
STEEL
(SHOP INSTALLED
GROUT
LEWLING s BOLa
COLUMN
STRUCruRAL COLUMN
BEAM
J
PRECAST
/
gi*'E.
N OTE Shim stacks occur at two points per panel adjacent to con nection.
ECCENTRIC
DIRECT BEARING CONNECTION
DTRECT BEARING CONNECTION
THREADED
.
BEARING
CONNECTION
PRECAST WALL _ _ _----\ PANEL
SLONED OR THREADED INSERT
PGIN ROD WTH THREAD AT ONE END OR STRAP
ROD
CLIP ANCLE, BARS, ETC. TO WITH SLOT PERPENDICUL4 TO INSERT WELD
WELD-
STRUCruRAL BEAM
---
\
STRUCTUUL BEAM
EXPANSION
BOLT
PREAST PANEL
SLONED OR THREADED INSERT
WALL
N OTE Accommodates
BOLTEO
large tolerance with expansion bolts.
BOLTED
TIE-BACK
TIE-BACK
WELDED
CONNECTION
TIE-BACK CONNECTION
ALIGNMENT PUTE. WP
CAST.IN STEEL PLATE RECAST PANEL
WELD WALL
PRECAST PANEL
NOTES
BOLTED
ALIGNMENT
1. Good shear transfer.
N OTE
2. Rigid connection. 3. Possible volume change restraint problems
Alignment plate is welded to one plate only to allow for possible volume change ot panels.
WELDED
\/vELDED ALIGNMENT
ALIGNMENT PANEL ANACHED WELDING SUB
STRUCruRAL COLUMN
A|ruR
WELD
/-
PREAST CONCRETE
PRECAST T SUB
GSTIN-PUCE ONCRETE
FL(:ff
COLUMN COVER .DOWEL
WELDED TO BOTH PUTES CAST1N STEEL PUTES
COLUMN
COVER
PRECAST
THREADED OR COIL WtrH Nf WASHER
ROD ROD AND
INSERTS IN PANEL
CAST
CONNECTION
WALL
PANEL
NOTES 1 . Avoid use ol this detail at both ends of slab to Drevent excessrve restrarnt.
N OTE
2. Rotation of wall elements and ef{ects on bracing wall connections and volume changes must be considered.
Onepiece spandrels may require support and restrict place. ment of concrete.
SLAB.TO-\^/ALL
PRECAST PERMANENT
CON
NECTION
FORMWORK
Pre€svPrestressed ConcreteInstituteiChicago,lllinois SidneyFreedman:
PRECAST CONCRETE
208
Tilf-upConcrete tilevers of 10 ro 1 5 ft. Panels are designed structurally to resist lifting stresses, which frequently exceed in place loads. Floor slab design must accommodate panel and crane toaos.
GENERAL Tilt-up concrete construction is a fast, economical method of enclosing a building with durable. load-bearingwalls. The wall panel units are formed and cast horizontally at the job sate,on either the building slab floor or on a temporary casting slab. Since the panels do not have tg be transported, there are tewer restrictions on panel srze. Wood formwork is typi€lly used to deline the edges, reveals, details, and openiogs in the panel. Once the concrete has reached sufficient strength. the pan€ls are lifted, or tilted up, by crane and placed on isolated or continuous foundations (usually grade beams). The panels are braced against the floor slab or a btrace toundation until thev are tied to the roof and floor system and become an integral part of the completed structure. Although tilt-up concrete construction is mainly restricted to buildings ol one story, walls up to four stories tall have been cast and lifted inlo position.
TOP
PANEL
OF
-_---\
t BEAM
FINISH
PULLTY
Most of the finishes used for factorv orecast concrete are possible in tilt-up construction. Panels €n be cast either face down or face up, depending on desir€d finish and formwork methods. The faceiown method, however, is usually easier to erect. Casting method, desired finish, and available aggregates affect concrete mix design. Control of the concrete mix design and placement of the concrete in the torms are more difficult than with factory{ast units. Discoloration occurs if cracks and joints in the castrng are not sealed. Commonly used finishes are as follows: '1.
Sandblasting (light. medium, or heavy exposure) 2. Fracture (similar to bushhammered) 3. Form liner (metal deck. plastic, fiberglass, EPS)
OESIGN Panel thickn€ss variesfrom5112 to 11114 in.depending on
height. loads. span. depth of reveals,surtace finish, local codes,and conslructionpractices.Full-heightpanelwidths of 20 ft and weights of 30.000 to 50,000 lb are tvpical. Spansof 30 ft are common for spandrelpanels.as are can-
4. Paint {usually textured) 5. Brick or tile veneer 6. Aggfegate (cast lace down in sand bed)
CABLE TOTAL PANEL MINUS
MIN. LENGTH HEIGHT 1€'-
.
LIflING ANCHOR
CONCRETE TILT-UP
NOTE The rigging and anchor configuration show is the mo common for tilt-up coostruction for plain panels withc. openings. Other configurations may be required depend . on the size and shape of the panel; consult a tilt-up coi struction srecialist.
TILT-UP PROCEDURE UTERAL LOATED
BRACE AT
MID LENGTH BRACE (MUST BE coMNUOUS) $1r15) ROVDE END ARAG FOR TOTAL BRACE STABILfr PIPE
BRACE (PPE) FLOOR SUB NAILING |uEFOR TATERL BRACE CONCRETE
PANEL
TYPES
TEMPORARY BRACING
SPRilD
FOONNG
CONSTRUCTION
SURFACE-MOUffiD @UNTERFUSHING BUILT UP ROOF
STEEL
DECK
STEEL
JOIST
frP. 3' DEEP PO*ET AND EMBEDDED STEEL ANGLE IN PANEL 2%' MIN. BEMING PARAPET AT JOIST MULTIBAY
LOAD.BEARING
PANEL
CONNECTTONS
AT ROOF (SECTIONS)
JOINT
INSIDE ..
SAGNT ROD ON
AND EACH
2%'
coNcRmFILLED PIPE BOLURD OERHEAD D@R TRACK
FACE
BACKER SIDE
PERSONNEL
|:rcR
++k rllr
OVERHAD moR
PANEL
DETAILS
(PLAN)
HaynesWhaleyAss@iates,StructuralEngineers:Houston.Texas RobertP. Foley,P.E.; Con/sr@l Tilt-upSysrems;Dayton,Ohio
3
PRECAST CONCRETE
45'
JOINT JAMB ANGLE (GIVANlzED)
MtN
rcWNSrcUT ADDITIONAL REINFORCING GP
S4B RECESSED AT rcORSILL
PANEL REBLS PRODUCED FROM RIBBED FORMED LINER
CHNFER AT PANEL JOIM
(SECTION)
PIER CONNECTION
CASTIN-PUCE HOLLOW MET& DOC)RFWE PANEL
NCHOR PUE.AND ANCHOR BqTS AT FULL DOCK HIGH BUILDINGS
PARAPET AT EIEAM MULTIEAY
Ft-AT
JOINT
-
210
Mortorond Grout
INTRODUCTION Mortarand groutare the cementitiousbondingagentsthat . ntegrate masonry units Into masonryaassemblages. becauseconcrete,rilasonrymonar, and gr6ut contarnlhe samepnncipalingredients, some designersqssumewhat is gmd practicefor one will also be good praciicelor another. In reality.the three materialsdifter in proponions,working consrstencies, methods of placement.and structuralDertor_ mance.
ASTM C 2o7-Hydrated Lime for Masonry purposes is available in four types: S, SA, N, and NA. Because unhydrated oxides and plasticity are not controlled in tvDes N or NA, only type S hydrated lime should be used foi masonry mortar and grout.
Clean. potable water that is free o{ deleterious aclds, atta lres. or organacmaterials is suitable for masonry mortar ano grout.
MASONRY
COLOR
CEMENT
Eilher.natural or manufactured aggregate may be used. Uradatron lrmits are giv€n in ASTM C 144 and C 404 tor aggregate used in monar and grout. Only tine aggregate may De used rn mortar; fine and coarse aggregate may be used an grout. Gradation can be easily altered by adding fine or coarse sands. Only clean sand is recommended fo-r use in masonry mortar and grout.
ASTM
TABLE
SPECIFICATTONS
Mo.tar mnlorming to the p.operty speciticationsmust be establishedby tests of laboratoryprepa.edmortar. which should be mixed from the monar materialsto be used rn the masonry strucrure. Table 2 provides th6 propertv requirementsfor types M, S, N, and O monars. AlthoughASTM C 270 uses the same leners to desionate mnar type under both the proponion and propertysftcifi_ etions, the propertiesof these mortar types are not bquivalenl. A mortar mixed to the type N proponionspecificaiion will havea laboratorypreparedcompressivestrenothsionif_ i€ntly higherthan that of a type N mortar requir6dbv-the prop€rty specitictions. Monars mav b€ made with either ptrtland cement or masonrycemnl. ASTM C 476_GROUT FOR MASONRY This is the standardspeciticationgoverninggrout for rernrorceo and nonrentorced masonry assemblies.Two lypes ot grout, tire and coarse, are specitied by proponionsof ingredients.Both types should be proportionedwithin the limits given in Table5. Grout consists of cementitious materials and aggregate thoroughlymixed with sufficientwater to attainthe desired consistency.Grout should b€ wet enough to pour without segregationof the constituents.Grout can be used to bond two wythes of masonry. to provide additionalmaterialto resist load, or to bond steel reinforcementto masonryso the two mterials exert common action under l€d. MATERTALS PORTLANO CEMENT Portland. @rent. a hydraulic cement, is the principal cerentitaousingredientof mrtar and grout.ThreeWpesof ponrandcerent mvered by ASTM C 1so_Standard Specifl cationfor PortlandC€ment are recommenoeo: For general use when the specialpropertiesof Typesll and lll are not requjred Typell: For use when moderate sulfate resistanceor moderateheat of hydrationis desired Typ€lll: For use when high early strengthis desired The allowable stresses for the structural design of brick masonry are based on the results ot tests in which onlv portlandcementswere used The use of blendedhvdrault; cerents and naturalcements rs not recommendedunless the strengthof rhe masonryis tirst establishedby appropii ate tests. Ftr nonstructuralmasonry,such cements may be substitutedfor regularponlandcement without testino.
ANO
OTHER
AGG R EGATE
l: PROPORTToN
Air entrainment has the detrimental effect of reducing the bond between monar and masonry units or rernforcerienl. use.or arr€ntrarnrng ponland cements (typ€s lA, llA, ol .rne lllA) and air€ntrained lime (types SA and NA) tor masonry monar and grout may not be appropriate. Two different ai; entrarnrng agents should not be used in the same mortar or grout. Air€ntraining admixtures should not be used in struclural masonry Euildrng cddes mandate lower allow able flexural lension stresses rf air€nlratneo cements ol lime are used in monar.
REQU|REMENTS
FOR MASONRy
TYPE
MORTAR
lame
PORTLAND CEMENT OR BLENDED CEMENT
MASONRY
CEMENT
M
HYDRATED LIME OR LIME PUTTY
N
s
ovet I14 to 1/2 ove( l12to 1 114 over 1 ,lato21f
N
o M
cement
I
j
s s
N OTE * Two
AGGREGATE
RATIO
{IVIEA5UKEU IN UAMH LOOSE CONOITTONS)
Not less than 2 r/aand not more than 3 times the sum of lhe separatevolumesof cementttrous materials.
I
N
airentraining materials stE l not be combined in mortar
TABLE 2: MoRTAR
PRopERTy
SpEC|FTCAT|ON
REeUTREMENTS,
AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AT 2A DAYS MIN. PSI (MPA}
MORTAR
AGGREGATE RATIO (MEASUREO IN DAMP LOOSE CONDtTtONS)
Not less than 2 '/4 and not more than 3 '/2 times the sum of the separate volumes of cementtttous materials_
N OTES 1. Laboratorypreparedmortar only. 2. \Men structuralreinforcementis incorporatedin ementlime morlar, the maximumair content is 12yo. 3 when structuralreinforcerent is in@rporateoIn masonrycement mortar, the maximum air content is l gyo
TABLE
3: GUIDE
FOR
THE
SELECTTON
OF
MASONRY
MORTAR, MORTAR
LOCATION
BUILDING grade
grade
SEGMENT
LOaOmanng watl Non]@d bearing wall Parapet wall
RECOMM ENDED l\
o2 N
founoalron wail, retarnrng wall, manholes, sewers, pavements. walks, and patios Load beanng wall Non$earing panitions
TYPE ALTERNATIVE SorM NorS S
or l\
o
orM N
NOTES 1 This table does not include many specializedmortar uses, such as chimney reinforcedmasonry and acid-resistantmortar. 2 Type o mortar is recommendedfor use.where-themason.yis unlikelyto.be frozenwhen saturated, -' or - -unlikely ' to be subjected to high winds or orher significantraterarroads.Types N or s monar shburdbe used i" ;Gr;;;;;;. 3 Masonryexposedto weather in a nominallyhorizontalsurfaceis extremelyvulnerableto wealheriog. Mortar tor such masonry shouldbe selectedwith due caution.
GraceS. Lee;ftippeteauArchitects,pcj Washingron, D.C. BrianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America:Resion,Virginia StephenS. Szok€,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAss'ociition;Herndon.Virginia
MASONRY MORTAR
MORTARs*
PROPORTIONS BY VOLUME (CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS)
Typel:
HYDRATEO LIME Hydra_ted lim, a dry powder, is made by adding water to quicklime,thus convertinglhe calcium oxide rnio calcrum hyd,oxide.Hydratedtime can be used without extra prepa_ ration and thus is more convenientto use than ouict
ADMIXTURES
Many difterent types of admixtures can be added to mortar grouts. Admixtures are used in monar to prov.de color, enhance workability, reduce water penetration, accelerate curing, and substitute lor @nventional materials. Admix, tures are used an grout to increase flujdity, accele.ate cur ing, and decrease shrinkage. Admixtures must be used wrth extreme caution so the performaoce of the masonry is not aftected. Admixtures containing chlorides should never be used because theV tend lo corrode metal.
These proprietary mortar mixes are widely used in mortar because of their convenience and good workability. Masonry cements. however. should not be used in oroui. The requrrements for masonry cement are coverid in ASTM C 91-Standard Specifrcation for Masonry Cement. Masonry cements are prepackaged as types M, S, or N monar mixes. Most building codes have lower allowable stresses when masonry cements are used.
Mortar and grout structurallybind masonryunits together, whereasconcreteis usuallyitself a structuralmaterial.One of the most importanttunctions of concreteelementsis lo €rry load. whereas the principal lunction of mortar and grout ts to devetopa complete.strong.and durablebond with masonryunits.Concreteis pouredinto nonabsorbent tormswith a minimumamountof water. Mortarand orout are placed, with much more water, between absor-ptrve torms (masonryunits).The waterrcementratio,as mixed.is very imponant in concrete work, but it is less imoortantin working with mortaror grout for brick masonrv.When mor_ tar or grout is placedwith masonryunits, the water/cement ratrorapidlydecr€asesbecauseof the bricks,absorbency.it is imponanl to distinguish between the requirementsfor concrete,masonrymortar, and grout.
ASTM C 27O-MORTAR FOR UNIT MASONRY This standardspecificationcovers four typ€s of mortar in each of two methods: proponion specificationsand Droc erty specifi€tions. Vvhen specifying a panicular monir type,.erther the proportion or the property requirements shouldbe given.but not both. When neithei proponionnor propertysp€cificationsare specified,the proportionspecili_ cation is mandat€d.Table 'l shows the proportionequire_ ments tor types M, S, N, and O monars.
\^/ATE R
Mortqrond Grout RECOMMENDED
TABLE
TYPES
5: GROUT
MORTAR No s'ng,letype ol mortar rs best surted tor arl purpose!. but there a.e several rules lor selecting mortar lYpe. NevQluse a mortar that is stronger in compression than nee*d by the structural requirements. Always select the mortar weakest in compression that is consistent with the perfoL mance requirements of the project. However, this guideline should be coupled with good engineering judgment: for example, it would be uneconomical and unwise to change mortar types in various parts of a structure lf mortar is used with reinlorcement in a collar ioint or in a cell of a hollow unit, then the air content must be less than 127o for portland cement-lime mortars and 187o for masonry cements. The use of mortar is recommended only in unreinforced collar ioinls of 3/r in. (19 mm) or less. Following are the recommended mortar:
PROPORTIONS
PARTS BY VOLUME OF PORTLAND CEMENT OR BLENDED CEMENT
TYP E
BY VOLUME AGGREGATE (MEASURED IN A DAMP. LOOSE CONDITION)
PARTS BY VOLUME OF HYDRATED LIME OR LIME PUTTY
COARSE
FIN E
2 '4'3 trmesthe sum ol the volumes of cementitious materials
Ine groul
2 L - 3 t t m e s t h e s u m 1 - 2 timesthe sum ot the volumes of the volumesof materials materaals cementitious cementitious
grout
uses fo. different types o.f
Tvoe N mortar: A medium strength mortar surtable for 9en eral use in exposed masonry above grade and recommended specificaily where high compressive or transverse masonry strengths are not required.
Brick more than 75olosolid Net area equals gross area Full mortar bedding
Type S mortar: A high strength mortar suitable for general use and soecificallv for circumstances where high trans verse strength of masonry is desired; for reinforced masonry, where mortar bonds the facing and backing; and for areas subiect to winds greater than B0 mph (130 kph).
NET CROSS-SECTIONAL
Hollow unil Full mortar bedding
(requires alignmentof crosswebs) AREA
Type M monar: A high strength mortar suitable for general specilically for masonry below use and recomrended grade or in contact with 6arth, such as foundations, retaaning walls, or paving.
GROUT Groutshouldbe mixedthoroughlyin a plasticmix suitable for olacementwithout seoarationof the constituents.Add enoughwater to achievea slump of 8 to 11 in. (200 to 275 mm). The compressivestrength of the grout should match that of the brick masonry but must have a minimum compressivestrengthof 2000psi (13.9MPa).
Type O mortar: A low strength mortar suitable for use in non-load b€aring applications in walls of low axial compressive strength and where masonry ts not subiect to severe weathering.
Finegrouti Can be used for groutinginteriorverticalspaces between two wythes ot masonryor aligned,unobstructed vertical spaces in hollow masonry units. See Table 4 for groutspacerequirements.
PRorRUSroNsr
n(
\
+--L-r
j-ffi .4ffi
pRorRUSroNs
I
5 12 24
2 21lt 3
2x3 2 1 1 x, 3 3 x3
1'lz 2 2'1, 3
1 , 1 2x 3 2 1 l zx 3 3 x3 3 x4
\ m-l E
A'A
\WMvz
\wm
Wo\WW ry.ia **w
MINIMUM GROUT SPACE DIMENSIONS FOR GROUTING CELLS OF HOLLOW UNITS (IN. X IN.}
%WffiW- ffiaz
I
5 12 24
K
wr# HTH
_ -< B
MINIMUM WIDTH OF GROUT SPACE (IN.)
!
[dEq
a > Minimumgroutspacedimension b > Minimum grout space dimensionplus horizontalbar diameter olus horizontal orotrusions(see table)
TABLE 4: GROUT SPACING REQUIREMENTs MAXIMUM GROUT POUR HEIGHT (FT)
S
SECTION
Coarsegrout May be used when the groutspaceexceeds 2 in. (50 mm) in width. l{ the minimum grout space dimen' sronexceeds6 In. (150 mm), a largeraggregatesize may be specified.
SPECIFIED GROUT TYPE
211
ed
sEcrroN a,B
a > Minimum grout space dimensionplus horizontalbar diameter plus horizontal (seetable) protrusions
N OTES
1. Groutspacedimensionis the clear dimensionbetween any masonryprotrusionand shall be increas€dby the diametersol the horizontalbarswithin the cross sectionof the grout space. 2. Areaof verticalreinforcementshouldnot exceed670of the area of the grout space
TYPES
GROUT SPACE REQUIREMENTS
OFJOINTS
Monar serves multiple functions: 1 . Joins and seals masonry, allowing for dimensional vaiations in masonry units. 2. Affects overall appearance of wall color, texture, and patterns. 3. Bonds reinforcing steel to masonry, creattng composrte assembly-
MORTAR
JOINT
FINISH
.V" SHAPED (GOOD)
CONCAVE OR RODDED (GOOO)
WEATHERED (FAIR)
EXTRUDED (POOR)
BEADEO (POOR)
GRAPEVINE (GOOD)
STRUCK (POOR)
RAKED (POOR)
METHODS
1. Troweled: Excess mortar is struck o{f. The trowel is the only tool used for shaping and finishing. 2. Tooled: A special tool is used to compress and shape mortar in the ioint. FLUSH OR PUIN CUT lFAIR)
RULED (FAIR)
TYPES
OF
JOINTS
(WEATHERABILITY)
TERMS
APPLIEO
TO
JOINTS
MORTAR JOINTS D.C. Architecrs,PC;Washington, GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau ErianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America;Reston.Virginia Association; Herndon,Virginia Masonry StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcrete
MORTAR MASONRY
212
Anchorogeond Reinforcement
GENERAL Masonryconstruction hasnot alwaysrequiredthe inclusion ot metal elements- Historically,composite masonry constructionconsistedof multiple wylhes of masonrybonded together by headers.However, contemperarvmasonry walls requireties between the inner and.hJter wthes. whichare thenancho'red to lhe strucluralframe Manvoeo ple use the terms wal, ,rb and arcrror interchangeably,but In practrcethe term tie r€ters to combining a wythe oI masonry to its backing system. while anchor rctets to a componentthal secures structuralelementsto a structural support.A fasteneris a deviceused to attach nonstructural elementsto masonry.Anchors and ties with flexiblecomponentscan accommodatedifferentialmovemenl between the structuralframe and the masonrywall by allowing for In-planemovement. CORROSION PROTECTION The durabilityof any metal accessoryis usuallybasedon its ability to resist corrosion. Since masonry walls are often subjectto moisture.metal items must be protected.either by galvanizingthem or by use of corrosionresistantmetals. The following ASTM standardsapply to corrosionprotection oI carbonsteel metal accessoriesbased on their location and the sizeof the piece: 1. ASTM A 641-Mill galvanizing: joint reinforcement, inte nor 2.ASTM A 1s3-Hotdip galvanized: joint reinforcement, wire ties, and wire anchors,exterioror moist interior 3. ASTM A 1s3-Hotdip galvanized:sheel metal ties. exterior or moist int€rior 4. ASTM A 52s-she€t metal tios. interior 5. ASTMA 123 or A 153-steel olatesand bars Corrosion protection is also provided by stainless steel anchorsand ties conformingto ASTM A 167,Type304. ANCHORS,AND
STONE
TO
MASONRY
TYPICAL METAL DOWEL
TH Elti !l
ttl lr'l .l'-fr1
@ \L---
||
#
J*J
ANCHORBOL
$o"rt5tto,"J=.ot
ffi
@
V
Ys??tlt" ANCHOR
STONE OR PRECAST CONCRETE TO MASONRY
DETAILS
REINFORCEMENT
Selectionof anchors and reinforcementis determined bv the relationshipol the masonry element to the struclur;l support.Reinforcingbars may b€ placedhorizontallyor verticallyin masonry.The reinforcementmay be placedin the cores or cells of masonry units or between vMhes of rusonry. The use of dovetailslots welded on steel or condete columnsrequirescoordinationduringthe steel or concrele tabrication stags. Th€ typ€ of anchor specified. includingits size, diameter, and spacing,should be called out on the contractdocum€nts.
ANCHOR BOLT/REINFORCING SPACERS
I MffAL CAP FUSHING
ROD ANCHOR SET CONCRETE WALL
BAR
SIGN THREADEO ANCHOR AOLT
IN
NUT WITH STEEL PLATE OR WASHER AS NECESSARY
WEDGE INSERT
CMU SUPPORT WALL FILLED WITH GROUT
ASKEW LEAD BOLT
REINFORCING BAR SIGNAGE DETAIL
BRICK
TIGHTEN NUT AY HANO ONLY
ANGLE CLIP ANCHOR TIE
SPACING
REBAR SPACERS
8"x8'xllz" SLONED STEEL PUTE
RECOMMENDATIONS* TIE AND GAUGE
MAXIMUM HORIZONTAL SPACING (IN.
SMOOTH FUSHING ON ROOFING FELT ANCHOR BOLT FOUNDATION
NOTE ' Masonry
laid in running bond. Consult applicable building code for special bond patterns such as stack bond.
MASONRY WALL TO FOUNDATION ANCHORAGE DETAIL
ANCHOR Trimbl€;Brick Institute of America:Reston,Virginia
4
MASONRY ACCESSORIES
BOLT
DETAILS
213
MosonryTies
m 1ilil
MASONRY
TIES
Wall tres perform one or more functions: they provide a connection, transfer lateral loads, permtt In-plane move ment to accommodate differential movements, and may act as hoflz-ontal structural reintorcemenl. As shown on thrs oaqe, wall ties include unit ties, loint reintorcemenl adrustable unrr lres. and adiustable ioint telnlorcemenl Wall trq soacinq rs |sted rn a table on the ACS page on Anchor aoe and Aeinforcement. The tres should be staggered in aiiernate ro*s. and only one row of ties should be located in the same bed ioint to allow proper embedment in the mortar.
$+ oo,,s",,,,."
ln wall construction in which masonry wythes are built up toqether and the toints align, a srngle piece rs la'd ove. bolh w.lthes. Where one wylhe ol masonry rs lard up before the other wythe or when joints do not align, adjustable ties may be necessary Adlustable tres are advantageous tor several reasons: (1) interior wythes can be constructed betore the exterior wythe, allowing the svucture to be enclosed faster, (2) lhe risk of damage to the tles when the exletior wythe is constructed is reduced; (3) adiustable tres can more readily accommodate construction tolerances; and (4) adiustable ties can accommodate larger differential movements. Howevet, adjustable ties must be installed properly or the tie may be rendered useless. Location of the first piece rs critical s nce the second piece must engage the ftrst and be properly embedded in the exterior wythe. I arge eccentricities may occur between the two pieces, which would result in less strength and stillness than anticipated.
TIE OETAIL
ADJUSTABLE JOINT REINFORCEMENT
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM TIE DIAMETERS AND GAUGES
NOT E
MINIMUM SPECIFIED OIMENSIONT
Differential movement must always be accounted {or in stud-backedwall systemswith adjustableties. TI E SYSTEM
ADJUSTABLE STUD BACKUP
DIAMETER (|N.)
GAUGE
UNIT TIE FOR STEEL TRUSSTYPE
€€€z{\l €-r{4l UNIT TIES_STEEL
LONGITUDINAL WIRE LADDER TY
REINFORCEMENT JOINT BACKUP MASONRY
ll
FRAME
LONGITUOINAL TRUSS TYPE FOR
a&?
Unit and "2" Rectangular Corrugated Jointreinforcement Ladderand truss Tab
22 9 I
Unit Bectangular and "2" Dovetail/channel slot Corrugated Connectior slot
Slot plate Backer plate Joint reinforcement Standard section Tabs 'Thicker diameters and gauges are available
ADJUSTABLE BACKUP
p
-.s9s>'
UNIT TIE-STEEL
FRAME AOJUSTABLE
\"
V
UNIT TIES_MASONRY
/
TIE DET NOTES
TIE
ADJUSTABLE UNtT TIE FOR CONCRETE FRAME BACKUP
1. Z ties can be used only with solid masonry veneer units r/, in. onto solid 2. Tie must extend a minimum of 1 masonry unils and be fully embedded in mortar on the outer face shell of hollow masonry units.
UNIT TIE FOR MASONRY
BACKUP
TYPICAL ADJUSTABLE
UNIT TIE
BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Beston,Virginia
ACCESSORIES MASONRY
214
MosonryAccessoriesond Reloledltems
PUSTIC OR COATEO ALUMINUM WEEP HOLE VENT (RESTRICTS INSECT TRAVEL)
3 TO 4'' OF PEA GRAVEL TO FACILITATE D R A I N A G EA N D PREVENT CLOGGING
NAILING ALOCK SET FLUSH TO
ADJACENT BRICKS
BY MORTAR
HEAD JOINT BEHIND VENT KEPT FREE oF oEaRts
SHELF
ANGLE
FUSHING
24" O.C. HORIZONTAL
WEEP HOLE VENT
ATTACHED ANCHORS SET INTO MIODLE OF AED JOINTS
CONON ROPE WICK, COILED INTO CAVITY
FUSHING
SHELF
ANGLE
ROPE
WICK
NAILING
BLOCK
3 TC 4" OF PEA (ALSO GRAVEL RECOMMENDED: I2" HIGH PUSTIC
DRAINAGE MESH) PUSTIC WEEP HOLE
FLASHING SHELF
ANGLE
(OPTIONAL INSECT WRAP
HEAD JOINT KEPT OPEN AND FREE OF DEBRIS
SHELF
V\/EEP HOLE
DETAILS
SCREEN
DRIP EDGE
BRICK OR BLOCK VENT
NAILING
RECEIVERS
\/VEEP HOLES AND VENTS Withproperdesignandinstallation. weepholesand
NAILING PLUGS
BLOCKS
POTENTIAL
MATER|ALS E U
\.\
l
=
E
o
MATERTALS
f J
a
Aluminum
BETWEEN
COMMO
o (n U
zd
JU
FF 00
o o o
a
o
Lead
o z il
LASHING
o o o o
U N
z o
o
O
o a
o o
a
REINFORCING
BARS
FOR
#4 #5 *7 #8 #10 #lt' ' Bar sizeslarg€rthan
\/lr'EIGHT (LB/FT)
0-3,/ti 0.668 1.043 t.bu2 2.O44 2.670 3.400 4.303 5.313
DIAMETER
0.500 0.625 0. /50 0.875 1.000 tza 270 410
*1 I are not permitted in masonrywork
Grae S. Lee and A. HarrisLokmanhakim.AIA; RippeteauArchitects,pC: Washington,D.C BrianE. Trimble;Brick Institute of America; Reston,Virginia StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAsjociation; Herndon,Virginia
MASONRY ACCESSORIES
z
o o a
O
o o
gO UGF tr
:5f; f>u
o O a)
o a)
a
MASONRY NOMINAL
BAR SIZE OESIGNATION
)U
J
NOTES '1. Galvanic action will mur. hence direct contact should be avoided. i ellon ray @cur under cenain circumstances and/or over a period of tim€. tl ::lwl!c baNanrc (J actron rs Insrgnttrcant: metals may come into dir*t contact under normalcircumstances 2 Galwnic ctrrosion is apt to occur when water runoff from one material comes In contact wtth a Dotentaallv reaclve mare1.
STANDARD
MATERIALS
c
o o a o o
(IN.)
DIM
cRosS-s
AND
WALL
Wood nailingbl6k shouldbe of seasonedsoftwood to ore_ vent shrinkag€and be treated to inhibrtdeterioration.Thev shouldonly be placedin the head,ornt.Metal wall plugsare made of galvanizedmetal and may containwooden oi fiber ins€rts.,Suchplugs may be placedin either the heador bed OTmasonry. JOtnIS
N
z u
(SET IN MASONRY)
The prrcedure for attaching other materials,tixtures. and the like to brick masonryis relativelysimple and can be executed either during or after construction.postconstruction fasten€rs, such as lag bolts and sh,elds, are commonlv used b€€us6 ot their flexibility in placement. However. when the prgcise l@ation of the fastener is determined. nailing blocks and metal wall plugs are an acceptable means of attachmentto brick masonry.They are placedin mortarioints as the bricksare lajd.
u t!
Zinc alloy
ASTM
PLUGS
\^/EEP HOLE DETAILS
GALVANIC CORROSION (ELECTROLYSIS) CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS ucTroN
METAL WALL
drscharge water and moisture as vapor in wall cavrtre musl always be used with flashing. \/vhsn vents are lr at the bottom of the wall. directly abore flashing and ,. lunctron with small openings at the top o{ the cavrr. vord rs vented, allowing moisture removal from the Ine rype or weep hote chosen is not critiel as long a properly sized and spaced at the required lmtioni. t holes are sometimes created by placing greased ol tubes or coils into the mortar and then extractino when the monar is ready to be tmled. For CMUi adverse weather conditions, it ruy be n4essary to weep holes at the base of the first @urse at all oDen c as well as at the head,oints for wall €vity venting holes should never be lo€ted below grade and sho small enough to keep out rodents.
WATER STOP
-\--{.t
ANGLE
WEEP HOLE TUBE
CAST ALUMINUM BLOCK VENT
FLASHING
MTAL WALL PLUG Sfl IN HEAD JOINT
OVER END) FLASHING
OPEN HEAD VENT
INSECT
METAL WALL PLUGS Sff IN BED JOINT
IONS _
ROUND
SECTTONS
AND
SELECTED
^^a
:x< rrX
O
3 Exx ;ige;
u !J F
o z t
o o
O
C
a
o o C
o o
a
o
MosonryMovementJoints INTRODUCTION
MOVEMENT
The various materials and elements used to construct a building are in constant motion. All building materials change in volume in response to internal or external stimuli, such as temperature chang€s. moislure expansion. €nd elasl,c deformatron due to loads ot creep. Restraining sich movements mav cause stresses within the building'blements, which in turn may result in cracks.
Thereare varioustypes of movementioints in buildrngs: expansionjoints, controljoints,buildingexpansronjoints, and construction joints. Each type oI movement ioint is designedto perform a speci{ictask and should not be used interchangeably.
To avoid tracks. the building design should minimize volume change. prevenl movement, or accommodate ditlerential movement between materials and assemblies. A system oI movement joints can prevent cracks and the problems they cause. Movement joints can be designed by estimating the magnitude ot the several types ol move ments that may occur in mason.y and other building materi als.
OF
MOVEMENTS
CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS The designand constructionof most buildingsdo not allow precisepredictionof movementsof buildingelements.Vof ume changesdepend on materialpropeniesand are highly variable-Age of materialand temperatureat installationalso influence exoected movement. When ntean values oI material prop€nies are used in design, the actual movement may be underestimatedor overestimated.Designers values. shouldusediscrelionwhen selectingthe applicable The types of movement affectingvariousbuildingmaterials are indicatedin the table.
JOINTS
Expansionioints are used to separatebrick masonry into segments to prevent crackingfrom changes in tempera ture, moisture expansion,elasticdeformationdue to loads, and shrinkageand creep in concreteframed buildings. Expansionjoints may be horizontalor venical. They are formed ot elastomeric materials placed in a continuous, unobstructedopening through the brick wythe. This construction allows the ioints to close iI the size of the brickjoints must be Iocatedso the work increases.Expansion structural integrily of the brick masonry is not compre mised. In some casesexpansionioints are necessaryin concrete masonry walls. Architects often designatethese joints as control joints.
A construction (cold) ioint is used primarily in concrete construction when construction work is interrupted. Construction joints are located where they will least impair the strength of the structure.
SPACING OF EXPANSION CONTROL JOINTS
AND
No single recommendation on the positioning and spacing of expansion and control joints can be applicablelo all structures. Each building should be analyzed to determine the extent of movement expected within that pa.ticular structure. Provisions should be made to accommodate these movements and their associated stresses with a series of exDansion and control ioints.
Controljoints are used in concrete or concrete masonryto create a plane of weaknessthat, used in conjunctionwith reinforcementor loint reinforcement,conrrols the location oJ crackscausedbV volume changesresultinglrom shrinkage and creep.A controljoint, usuallyvenicaland formed ot inelastic materials. will ooen rather than close. Control joints must be locatedso the structuralintegrityof the concrete masonrywall is not afJected. A buildangexpansion(isolation)joint is used to separatea building into discrete structural sections so that stresses developedin one sectionwill not affect the integrityof the
Expansion and control ioints do not have to be aligned in cavity walls; however, they should be aligned in multiwythe walls.
OF
MOVEMENT
BUILDING MATERIAL
CONTROL
entire structure. The isolation joint is a through-the building joint, including the roof assembly.
Generally, spacing of expansion joints is determined by considering the amount of expected wall movement and the size of compressibility o{ lhe expansion joint and expansion joint materials. Expansion joints are often sized to resemble a mortar joint, usually 3/r in. {10 mm) tor/2 in. (13 mm). The maximum size of the expansion joint may dep€nd on the sealant capabilities. Extensibility of highly elastic expansion ioint materials is typically in the range ol 25 to 507'. Compressibility of backing materials can range up to 75olo.
TYPES
THERMAL
bncKmasonry Concretemasonry Concrete Steel Wood
SEAUNT AND AACKER ROD
215
OF
BUILDING REVERSIBLE MOISTURE
MATERIALS IRREVERSIBLE MOISTURE
ELASTIC D EFOR MATION
CREEP X X
x x
x X x x
:
X
JOINT
UNIT
CONTROL JOINT SPACING FOR MOISTURE CONTROLLED, TYPE I CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
CONTROL
BLOCK
CONTRACTION JOINT
PR€FORMED
GASKfl
SEAUNT AND BACKER ROD SASH
INTERIOR EXPANSION JOINTCOVER -
BLOCK
VERTICAL
UNIT
EXPANSION
JOINTS
BRICK
FLEXIBLE METAL TIES
CONTRACTION JOINT
GASKET TYPE
SEAUNT AND BACKER ROD
EXPANSION JOINT AT MASONRY CAVITY WALL BUILDING PAPER
CONTRACTION JOINT
CORE FILLED WITH MORTAR SEAUNT ANO BACKER ROO
EUSTIC SEAUNT AND BACKER ROD OUT-OF-PUNE CONTROL
R€STRAINT
JOINTS
CONTRACTION JOINT
HORIZONTAL
EXPANSION
EXPANSION
JOINTS
JOINT
OOUSLE WYTHE MASONRY EXPANSION
AND
CONTROL
JOINTS
PC;Washington. D.C. GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects, BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia Herndon,Virginia StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociaiion;
MASONRYACCESSORIES
216
Floshingin MosonryWqlls
PURPOSE Flashing in masonry construction is necessary to collect moisture that enters the wall system and to channel it to the exterior through weep holes. Moisture enters masonry walls through condensation, penetratiotr of winddriven rains, failed sealant joints, interfaces with other components, or other components themselves. such as windows or roofs. There are two types o{ flashing. Exposed {lashings can be applied to all masonry construction, while use of embedded flashing is usually limited to drainage-type watls. Masonry is a durable, long-lasting construction material- Thus, the flashing materials selected should also be durable and have a long life. especially embedded flashing materials. which are difficult to replace.
MATERIALS Flashingmay be made of sheet metal {copper,lead, stainless steel, galvanizedsteel, or aluminum).plastic,or composite materials {usually paper-backed,coated, metallic sheet, or fibrous glass mesh). When selecting flashing materaals, avoid those that would have €thodic reactions with mortar, other metals, or other constructionmaterials. The thicknessof the flashingmaterialspecifiedshould take into accountthe span between embedment,bends,or connections.Coppermay cause a patina,which may be desir-
able. Lead and galvanized metal may result in some white staining. but this may be minimal if coated materials are used. Choose aluminum as an embedded tlashing only if it is properly coated, so it will not react with the mortar. Polyethylene should not be used as flashing unless it has been chemically stabilized so it will not deteriorate when exposed to sunlight (ultraviolet radiation). Asphalt impreg nated building paper (building telt) is not air acceptable flashing material. Adhered flashings must be held back from the lace ot the wall to avoid deterioration and stainino caused by high temperatures.
INSTALLATION Embeddedflashing is typi€lly used in drainagewails at the base, above all openings,at sills and shell angles,and under copings. Continuousembedded tlashing should be lappedat least 6 in. and sealedwith an appropriatesealer. Discontinuousflashing should have the ends turned up at least I in. to form a dam. Dams Dreventwater collect€don the flashingfrom drainingoff the ends of the tlashingback into the wall system or into framingor mullions. Emb€ddedflashing should extend at least 8 in. vertically within the wall system; it shouldextendat least 't% in. into the Interiorwythe and throughthe exteriorwythe at teastlL m. to fom a drip. The drip minimizes possible staining. Sometimes,it may be necessaryto avoidthe drip, as with rough textured units and ribbed,scored,or fluted masonry unrls. The tlashingmust be €refully broughl to the surtace
ot the recessed portion of the masonry. Plastic flashino i. often exposed and cul off llush wrth the tace of lh. masonry lf the flashing is recessed and d@s not reach th. surlace, water collected on it may be channeled by mo.tar under the flashing and back into the wall svstem. Weep holes are required in the head ioints oI the course ol masonry immediately above all embedded flashing. Weel, holes may be open head ioints, holes formed with nvlorl rope o. oiled rods, plastic or metal tubes, fib.ous rooe. o conon sash cord. Open head ioints are often titted wrtt vents or screens to keep out insects or rodents. Formed weep holes should have a minimum diameter of r[ in.; tubes used for weep holes should have a minimum inside diameter of l/a in. Weep holes are preferred as open head joints occurring no more than 32 in. on center, although il brick masonry it is generally recommended that thev be spaced no more than 24 in. on center. lf cord or roDe is used, the material should be at least 16 in. long. Weep holes other than open head joints should be spaced no more than 16 in. on center. Drainage within the wall syslem is critical for proper perfor mance. Placing two to six inches of gravel or draanage material immediately above embedded flabhing will hetp ensure proper drainage within the wall and effective chan neling of water to the weep holes. The drainage material or pea gravel will act as a drainage field within the wall svstem and help keep mortar dropprngs from clogging the wepp notes.
CONTINUOUS SON JOINT / /
RETNFORCED CONCRETE SPANoREL
/
I
MSAL SILL FLASHING
CONTINUOUS FLASHING
DOVETAIL ANCHOR SLOT
CONTINUOUS FUSHING
MASONRY
(:
CONTINUOUS FLASHING REGLS
SILL
CONTINUOUS gEEL ANGLE
-
CONTINUOUS REGLET CONTINUOUS FLASHING
SEAUNT
DOVETAIL ANCHOR SLOT
SPLICE CEMENT
FULL LIPPED
TAL JorNT
sofl
FLASHING
BRICK
HORIZONTAL SON JOINT
HORIZONTAL SOtr JOINT
\--
CAVITY WALL
FLASHING
CAVITY WALL
FLASHING
OUTSIDE CORNER
AOJACENT CONsiTRUCTION CONTROL STEEL
ANGL€
FLASHING
VERTICAL CONTROL JOINT
JOINT
CONTINUOUS FLASHING
COMPRESSIBLE FI|JR BACKER
wEEP HoLE
ROO
ELASTOMERIC SEAUNT
SEAUN]
LIP BRICK CONTINUOUS FUSHING STEEL
ANGLE
COMPRESSIALE FI[ER BACKER
HORIZONTAL 50tr JOTNT
ROD
EUSTOMERIC SEAUNT
HORIZONTAL
SOFT JOINT
HORIZONTAL
son
WEEP HOLE AT 24" O,C TUBE WEEP HOLE
END DAM
Lsqa!'re D. Sherman,AIA; Lev Zetlin Assmiates, Engineersand Designers;New york, New york ErianE. Trimble;Brick Instituteof America;Reston,Virginia
MASONRY ACCESSORIES
HORIZONTAL SOFT JOINT AND VERTICAL CONTROL JOINT
JorNT
Linlels BONOM OF FLOOR OR ROOF CONSTRUCTION
BOfrOM OF FLOOR OR ROOF CONSTRUCTION
Simple lintel without arch action carries less wall load than triangle above opening: Hr or H, < 0.68
Simple lintel wth arch actron carries wall load only in triangle above opening:C>BandD>B
LOADING COND|TIONS
LINTEL
(CONSULT
HANDBOOK
ALLOWABLE FOR STEEL
FIREPROOF
CAVITY WALL
5 x3'l2x 1la x 6ls j/n x 6 x 3 1 l 2 x1 l a I s/ro , 3/e
NOTE
FireprooJlinlel for long spans. All steel members to be designed by structuralengineer Flashing details must be designedto suitiob condition. STEEL
LINTEL
(IN
LB)
SPAN (FT} (CENTER TO CENTER
\/vEIGHT PER FT (LB)
x 3/a
24- O.C
WALL
LOAD
SUPERIMPOSED UNIFORM ANGLE LINTELS
SIZE 'l2x '14 3\J x b/ro 3 1lrx3 llrx lla ^ ,16 4x3 tlrx lla PUTES
Lrntels at movement lornts requrre special design considerations.
Lintel with concentrated load carries wall and portion of concentrated load distributed along length B,
FOR DESIGN FORMULAS)
ANGLE
CARRY BRICK ACROSS OPENING
'-
Lintel with uniform lloor load carries both wall and floor loads in rectangle above opening: C < B
STRUCTURAL
217
PER
OF REQUIRED
BEARING)
to
9
5
FOOT
LINEAR
l2
YCO
6.6 5.8 7.2 6.2 7.1 9.1 10.6 7.O 4.1 't2.0 1.9 9.8 1 1. 7
11 6 6 1281 1589 1622 2110 2434 2760 2600 3087 4224 3577 4390 5200
637 891 910 11 8 4 1365 1548 '1460 1733 2371 2009 2465 2922
323 406 507
144 232 290 338
855 978
490
I 106 1047 1283 888 1574 1090 r 865 1291
113 1M 179 210 262 305 349 398 486 655 798 945
118 139 173 20'l 230 2U 323 439 538
65 80 95 138 t5d
184 224 302 306 375 443
68 85 98 113 132 217 221 271 320
62 71 a2 97 1r9 160 201 237
60 73 89 120 124 t5l
179
NOTE
DETAILS
Allowable loads to the left of the heavy line are governed by moment, and to the right by deflecrion. Fy = 36,000 psi. Maximum deflection 1t00. Consult structural engineer for long spans.
MlN. I AIRSPACE REINFORCED CMU LINTEL
REQUIRED REINFORCING CONCRETE REINFORCED
8'BEARING
FOR SIMPLY SUPPORTED MASONRY LINTELS REQUIRED
REINFORCING
CLEAR
SPAN
#4
STEEL LINTEL WITH FUSHING MIN.4- AEARING
MASONRY
LINTEL
DETAIL
NOTES 1. Includes weight of lintel 2. Wall loads assumed to be 300 lb per linear ft 3. Floor and roof loads including wall loads assumed to be 1000 lb/linear ft 4. 8 in. lintels assumed to weigh 50 lb/ft 5. 16 in. lintels assumed to weigh 100 lb/fi
MAXIMUM
DESIGN
LOADS
FOR
PRECAST
CONCRETE CLEAR
REINFORCEMENT
2*4 2*5
3 -4 4-O 4 -A rtoc 1855 1300 9 1 0 1425 1410 r 005
LINTELS
9 -4"
5 -4 665 725
(LBILINEAR
500 535
380 410
300 315
235 250
IUU
t45
195
150 155
o -o ro -a 115 120 125 100
NOTE
pRECAST
CONCRETE
LTNTEL DETAIL
FT)
SPAN
L i n t epl r o p e r t i e s i w i d t h = 7 % i n . , h e i g h t = 7 % i n . , w e i g h t = 6l b0i 4 i n e a r lf't".= 2 5 0 0 p s i
Architects,PC;Washington,D.C. GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau BrianE. Trimble;BrickInstituteof America;Reston.Virginia Herndon,Virginia StephenS. Szoke,P.E; NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;
ACCESSORIES MASONRY
BRICK BONDS Vvhena circular rusonry wall is to b€ laid up in running bond, the proiectionsot the @mers ot units beyond the face of the units on the @urs6sabow and b€low mav need to be limited for aestheticr€asms. Gonerally,projectionsof approximatelyr/s in. for nomiml I in. long units and i/{ in. for nominal16 in. long units are a@ptabl€. lf the wall surface is to be stucco€dor otheNi$ covered,prcjectionsof r/, to in. may not be objectionable.However,if it is % desirable to obtain a sm@th appeatancefor the curye or limit lhe shadows createdby th€ priiected @rners, the projectronsshould not exceedtho$ indieted abov€. proiections of less than t/s in. are usuallyimpraclicalbecauseof constructrontolerances.
! b?li:r l) "o,_i{...JL_ J u p p E R \ , r \ l \P /l zls['.) Yr
i
l\
MINIMUM
RADII OF MASONRY '/. tN- EXTERTOR MORTAR
JOTNT
'/z tN. EXTERTOR
NUMBER OF UNLTS tN 360' \^/ALL
NOMINAL LENGTH
27',-5' 41'-9" In. {"/. In., cuts
interiorface, both enos, In. {t
tn., cuts
interiortace. both €nos, Interaormortarjoints maintainedat approximatelyr/" in.
_/'
RADIAL \^r'ALLS AND
4
IN.
WALL
TO
4
IN.
BRICK
PROJECTIONS
WALL
5
IN.
WALL
TO
6
IN.
WALL
A IN. WALL TO 8 IN. WALL
I Z IN.
WALL
CORNER
TO
I2
IN.
WALL
LAYOUT SHO\/vTNG ALTERNATING
IOIN.WALLTO
COURSES
A. Harris AIA: RippeteauArchitects,PC:Washington,D.C. ,Lokmanhakim, Stephen S. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonrvAssociation: Herndon.Vrroinia Brian E. Tnmble.;BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia
a\ -Lr
MASONRY UNITS
IOIN.WALL
MORTARJOTNT
NUMBER OF UNITS rN 3600
PROJECTION OF UNIT (IN.)
Cloy MosonryUnits BRTCK
AND
TILE
ent applications in which brick can be used. Bricks must meet a grade ot SW. MW, or NW based on the weathering index and the exposure thev will receive. The weathering index is the producl of the average annual number of freezing cycle days and the average annual winter rainlall in inches (see map below). The exposure is related to whether the brick is used on a vertical or horizontal surface and whether the unit will be in contact with the earth (see table 3). A higher weathering index or a mo.e severe exposure will require face brick to meet the SW requirements The grade is typically based on physical properties of the brick. The grades {or each specification are listed in table 2.
CLASSIFICATION
Brick and tile are classified accordrng to the specific location where thev are used. Standard specificalions have been develooed to produce uniJorm requirements for brick The American Societv for Testinq and Materials (ASTM pub lishes the lnost widely accepted standards on brick Standard specifications include strength, durability, - and aesthetlc requtrements. CLASSIFICATIONS TYPE OF BRICK
A5T M D ES IG NATIO N
UNIT
Buib-frg_-brcl< Ech-sEak
c62 c216
t-tottow brick
C652
Pavingbrick
LS02
Ceramic Alazed brick
c 126
Thinbrickveneerunits
C 1088
Smr
TABLE 2: GRADE REQUIREMENTS FOR FACE EXPOSURES* AND
ln contact wrth eanh Not in contact with earth ln other than vertical surfaces: ln contact with earth Not in contact with earth
and manhole brick ' C279
Chemiml resistant brick
C410
l n d u s t r i a lf l o o r b n c k
C34
Structural clay load bearing tile Sreturet
C 56
clav non-toad bearrnq tile
Structural clay facing tile
C212
51rus1srs1elav non-load bearing screen !te
C530
TABLE 3: EXPOSURE
Ceramic glazed lile
C 126
ASTM STANDARD
C 2 16 Grade C 652 Grade C 902 Grade c 1261 Cl088 Grade sewer2 C32 Grade manhole
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS mayinclude tor classification Termsusedin eachstandard exposure, appearance. physical iloperties, efllorescence, dimensional tolerances, distortion, chipping, core, and froos. Bricks can be classitied by use, grade. type, and/or cla;s in most specifi@tions. All options should be sp€cified, as each ASTM standard has minimum requirements for grads and type that apply automatically il an option is omatted. lf the desired requirements are not specified, a delivery may contain bricks unsuitable for the intended use.
APPEARANCE Brick tvpes are related to the appearance ot the unit, and soecificallv to limlts on dirensional tolerances. distortion tolerances, and chippage. The brick type can be selected depending on whether a high degree of precision is necessary, a w,der range of color or size is permitted, or a charac teristic architectural effect is desired. The tvpes of bflck tor each soecrfication are listed in table 4
TABLE 4: APPEARANCE AST M STA N DAR D
LOOSER TOLERANCES
TIGHTER TOLERANCES
C 216 Type C 652 Type c 902 applicatron C 126 Grade C1088 Type C 32 sewer
FBX HBX PX
AESTHETICS
AND
FBS HBB
HBS PS
SSS TBX
TBS None None
VERE POSURE
SEVERE EXPOSURE
SW SW MX
1
NX
When specifying the size of units, dimensions should be listed in the following order; width by thickness by length. The size of the brick influences cost because larger units require fewer bricks, normally resulting in less labor. Specially shaped bricks are available to add interest to a wall, includrng water table bricks. radials, caps, copings, corners, and others. Consult the manufacturer lor specilic sizes and availabilitv.
SM
SS MS
CORNER BRICK
NOTES 1. No requirementstor durability. 2. Basedon durabilityand abrasion
EXPOSURE
l: STANDARD
MODULAR
UNIT OESIGNATION
RADIAL BRICK
FOR BRICK SIZES
NoMENCLATURE
NOMINAL DIMENSIONS
(IN.
BRICK SIZES
JOINT THICKNESSI d N.)
SPECIFIED DIMENSIONS'
(IN.) VERTICAL COURSI NG
covE TABLE
BULLNOSE WATER TAALE BRICK NONMODULAR
'BA
SHAPES
tsxrenor
Soecific qrades of brick are required to accommodate the v;rious climates found rn the United States and lhe diffeF
TABLE
FBA HBA PA
Brick is readilv available in many sizes, colors. textures, and shapes, all adaptable for vinually any style or expression. Brick's small module can be related to the scale of the wall, and its sizes can be combined to create different appear ances and oatterns. Sizes available are shown in table 1.
*See map below
TYPE OF TILE UNIT
219
SHAPES
BRICK SIZES
N OTES
!
necrtctare
L Common joint sizes used with length and width dimensions. Actual joint thicknesses vary between bed joints and head joints. 2. Specified dimensions may vary within this range among manufacturers.
I
uoornlre
I
sevene
wEATHERTNG wEATH€RrNG
weerHERrNG
U.S. WEATHERING
INDEXES
Grace S. Lee; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C. Stephen S. Szoke. P.E.; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia Brian E. Trimble; Brick Institute of America: Reston, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
220
Concrele MosonryUnits
GENERAL Concretemasonryunits (CMU)conlormto ASTMstandard specitications.The most common concrere masonryuntts used in buildingconstructionare load bearingunits a;d c;;_ cretebrick.Non-ioad bearingunitsmay be specifred for par Irlronsand are commonlyused for lrre protdctronof steel cotumnsand frre-rated oanittons
VOLUMETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL HOLLOW MASONRY UNrTS (7 "/.x ts % tN.) \^/IDTH ilN.)
Typ_eI or moisture{ontrolledunits are specifiedto obtain a unitormdegreeot volume changedue to moistureloss in a pa.trcutar ctimate.The specification of Type I unils facili_ tatesthe l@€tronof controljoints.Type li or non_moislure controlledunits may be more economicalbut will typically requrrecloserspacingof controljoints_
Concretemasonryunits are availablein a varietyof colors. sizes,lextures, configurations,and wetgnts to accomme qate oesrgn,deta,ltng,and @nstruction.Colors are now providedwith ligtttfastmetallicoxide pigments conforming to ASTM C 979. Tle texturesmay be sr;oottr, grouna,spiii floDeo,or otheMtse preparedto maxrmizedesign versatil_ rry. )mootn tnrshes and more color options ar6 available with pretaced,'integral glazed"concrete masonryunits. Concretg.rusonryunits are specitiedas width by height by rengrn.Ine nomrnatdimensionsare usually in. larger % than the actual uoit dimensions.The most common nominal widths of @rcret€ masonryunits are 4 in-, 6 in., g in., '10 in.,and l2 in.The nominalheightsare mostlyg in.and 4 rn., except concrete bricks are typicaily 2 % in. high. The nomrnarrengthsare usually16 or tg in. Concretebrick tengthrs usually8 in. but is often 12 In. Lengthsmay be I g ot 24 in. in some regions.Theselonger leng-thsare usually more economtel tor Dlacement
GROSS VOLUME, CU IN. (CU FT}
SHELL (IN.)
432 (0.25)
u.t5 1.00
{0.388)
YUU (0.526)
ln addirionto type, concrete bricks are specifiedby grade. GradeN is intendedfor use as architecturalveneerin! facing units in exteriorwalls and for use when high strength and resistanceto moisture penetration ana s-everefr6it actronare desired.GradeS is intendedfor generalmasonry where moderatestrengthand resistanceto trost actionand morsturepenetrationare required_
MINIMUM THICKNESS
I 145 (0.664)
(0.803)
2 CORE UNITS
wEB (tN.) 0.75 1.00
.00 .12 .25 .37
PERCENT SOLID VOLUME
73
2.66
5l 64
50
12 12
59
.25 .37 .50
12 12
25
3.43 3.60 3.A2
53 4.35 4.50 4.62 4.91 5.20 5.12
46
51 54
1. 1 2 1. 1 2 't.25
46 49 52
1.25
The weight of the units also varies.Dependingon the aggregateused. concrete masonryunits are typicallymade usrngMcretes with densitiesrangingfrom g5 to 140pcf. rne trghteruntts tend to providemore fire resistance and have an improved noise r€duction coefficient. and lhev often are more economi€l to place in tt" ffejuili unrts tend to provide increasedcompressivestrength, ".inbet_ ter resastanceto sound penetration,higher water f,enetraton resrstance,and greatorthermalstoragecapabilities.
F3l'JXi,'.:t'.,'"?i''
b4
.00 .00
1.37 1.50 1.75
CONCRETE
5.10 6.05
ASTM STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS C sG-Concrete Brick C THalcium C gH-oad
SilicateFaceBrick (sand-limebrick) BearingConcreteMasonry Units
C 12g-Non-load BearingConcreteMasonry Units C l3Honcrete Masonry Unrts tor the Constructionol Latcn Bastnsand Manholes C.144--Prcfaced Concrete and Calcium Silicate Masonry Units
ce3'-solidconcretelnterlockinsPavinsun (h
we@CAW_J @ao @ @ffiffi @ffiffiffiffi 6h
/a>
STRETCHER
CORN ER
z>,
COREO
FROGGED
CORNER RETU RN
-.s,
_..\
FROG OPEN IN REAR
I 0096 so|-tD
LINTEL
CONTROL JOINT
JAM B
JOIST UNIT
4
A.BLOCK BOND BEAM
H-BLOCK BOND BEAM
UNtT
&
ffi AOND BEAMS
CLEANOUT
L4r" U-BLOCK OPEN-ENtr UNITS
A-BLOCK
ffiffi@ffi@@@@tu
A X A SCOREO FACE
SPLTT FACE
RIBBED OR SCORED
SPLTT RIBBED
FLUTED
COLUMN
PILASTER IN SERT
RIGID INSUUTION
A* )
\lv CHIMNEY
TYPICAL
CONCRETE
MASONRY
UNITS
T J T { 1 AS H A P E S
StephenS. Szoke,P.E.:NationalConrete.Masonry Association; - - ' Herndon, - --' Virginia GraceS. Lee; Ripp€teauArchitects,pC; Washingtdn,O.C.
MASONRYUNITS
SCREEN
| il tl
!ry
22r
MosonryFoundotionWqlls Thermal protection may be provided with interior turring and batts or rigid board rnsulation, an exterior rigid board insulation and protection system, or with rntegral rnsulation strategies. The latter include foamed-in-place insulation. granular lill insulations, and premolded polystyrene inserts. Use of interior and exlerior insulation rather than premolded inserts allows reinforcing steel to be installed more easily
GENERAL Masonry walls have long served as foundations tor struc tures. Today, most masonry foundation walls consist ot sangle wythe, hollow or solid masonry unit construction. depending on the required bearing capacity. The wall systems may be used as perimeter walls for slab{n-grade construction or to form crawl spaces or basements. The walls are reinforced as necessary to resist laleral loads. Generally, such reinforcement should be held as close to the interior lace shell as possible. to provide lhe maximum tensile strength most economically-
Optimal insect protection can be achieved using anterior or integral insulation and a termite shield. Metalllashing materials often perform well as termite shields. For extenor insulation strategies in locations where termites are a concern, the termite shield musl extend over the exterior insulation.
Foundation systems, especially basement walls, need to do more than simply support the structure. They must protect against heat, insect infestation (particularly termites), fire, and penelralron of warar soil gas. "nd
THICKNESS FOUNDATION
OF FOUNDATION WALL
Waterprooting and dampproofing are specified by building codes, as discussed in chapter 7. Generally, waterproofing makes the foundation or basement wall resistant to air infil
WALLS MAXIMUM DEPTH OF FILL (FT) UNBALANCED
NOMINAL THICKNESS (IN.)
CONSTRUCTION
hollow unrts, ungrouted
tratron and thereby resistant to soil gases such as radon. Typical waterproofing consists of a minimum 3/ain coat of cement stucco pargrng and an approprate lrquid applred membrane, but some lrquid-applied membranes alone or combined with built-up membranes are acceptable. Surface-bonding mortar mixes are also effective for resisting water and soil-gas penetrat,on. A good perimete. drainage system in contact with open air or connected to a sump pit should be used for effective drainage. lf radon is a major concern, the top course of the masonry and the course of masonry at or below the slab should be constructed of 100% solid unrts or hollow unifs fully filled with grout. French drains (drainage channels at the Intertaces of foundation walls and floor slabs), which often are used to collect and drain condensation moisture in basements, should be avoided in areas where soil-gas entry rs a concern. Architectural masonry units may be used to improve the appearance of foundation walls, often in the above{rade portion of the walls. Masonry units with architectural finishes facing the interior can be used for economacal con structron of finished basement spac€. Masonry easily accommodates any floor plan, and returns and corners increase the structural oerformance of the wall tor lateral Ioad resistance. Returns and corners that supoort porches, fireplaces. and the like may also serye as wane cellars. Returos for window wells permit an increase in daylighting. making below{rade areas more atlractive as habitable soace.
solrclunrts
hollow or solrd unrts,
N OTE Drainagemust be providedon surfaceand below gradeto removegroundwater from foundationwall. The backfillmust be granular and soil conditionsnonexpansive. ,d
CONCRETE
MASONRY
ANCHOR BOLT IN FULLY GROUTED CELL
UNIT LINTEL
f-T
SOLID GROUT FILL WITH REINFORCING
WINDOW WELL BASEMENT WINOOW FREE
DRAINING
AACKFIU TYPE
S MORTAR
OAMPPROOFING AND PARGING
^I
-2
p shz
o.1
Wherei
CONCRETE FLOOR SLAB GRAVEL BED COMPRESSIBLE FILLER FULL PERFORATED
MORTAR
BED
PIPE CONCRETE MASONRY CONCRETE
UNIT
P = allowable total horizontal projection of corbeling p = allowable projection ol one unit t = nominal wall thickness (actual thacknessplus the thickness of one mortar joint) h = nominal unit height (actual height plus the thickness of one mortar joint) d = nominal unit bed depth {actual bed depth plus the thickness of one mortar joint) N OTE Corbeling is used to increase wall thickness to suit bearing requirements above foundation. Corbeling may be equal on both sides of the wall.
FOOTING
LIMITATIONS TYPICAL
FOUNDATION
ON CORBELING
WALL
Grace S. Lee; RappeteauArchitects, PC; Washington, D.C. Stephen S. Szoke, P.E.; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
222
MosonryFoundolionWqlls
NOTE S = spacing of vertical reinforcing bars B = bar size H = height of backfill
FOUNDATION WALL REINFORCEMENT
FLOOR DIAPHRAGM INCLUOING JOIST ANO SUAFLOOR TO PROVIOE LATERAL SUPPORT TO TOP OF WALL
VERTICAL BAR SIZE AND
REINFORCEM MAXIMUM
H EIGHT
ENT
BAR SPACING
OF BACKFILL.
H
VERTICAL BAR POSITIONER IN MORTAR BED ONE COURSE BELOW BOND BEAM HOR IZO NTAL MORTAR JOI NT
JOI NT R E I N FO RC EM E NT
HEIGHT
a
OF BACKFILL.
H
a
l3 ga
VERTICAL BAR POSITIONER IN MORTAR BED TWO COURSES ABOVE FOOTING
9ga
Y ga.
I ga.
6 ga.
9ga
9ga
I ga.
I ga.
I ga.
v ga.
9 ga.
u ga.
Y ga.
9ga
I ga.
v ga.
9ga
I ga.
v ga.
9 ga.
Yga
9a
ga
8 ga.
ga.
NOTES 1. The empiri€l design method of the Building Code Requirementsfor MasonryStructures,ACI 530/ASCES, chapter9. allorc up to 5 ft of backfillon an 8 in. nonreinforced concretemasonrywall. 2. As an alternate,9 gauge joint reinforcementplaced in ioints numbers3, 4, 5, 7, 8, andl 1 may be used.
CONCRflE FOOTING
VERTICAL
REINFORCEMENT
8" CMU (TYP
SPACING
JOINT REINFORCEMENT AT I 6" (TYP.)
CONTROL JOINTS
A- CMU {TYP.) JOINT REINFORCEMENT AT I6" (TYP.)
CONCRETE
SOLID CMU 8"X8'Xt6
DOWELED
CONTROL
8-
8- CMU (TYP.)
CMU
FOOTING
DETAIL
(TYP.)
JOINT REINFORCEMENT AT I 6- ffYP. )
CONTROL
WALL FOUNDATION BEARING WALLS
FOR INTERIOR
\/VALL FOUNDATION FOR NON.BEARING OR BEARING INTERIOR V\/ALLS
GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,PC; Washington,D.C. StephenS. Szoke,P.E.:NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon.Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
REINFORCED WALL DETAIL
FOUNDATION
o!
)--.--
.Xoo9;
GRAVEL STOP AND FASCIA
noorrnc
\.
STEEL AEAM
/BAN INSUUTION
'/4' x a LoNG BENT PLATE AS R E Q U I R E DA T 4 -O O.C.(TYP.\ 2 DtA WASHER
INSUUTiON STEEL
JOIST
CONTINUOUS STEEL BAR ANCHOR
BOLT
GROUTED BOND AEAM REINFORCING BARS
1/z otA ANCHOR EMBEDDED t5 AT6 0C
VENT /
I \
CORES FILLED
ANGLE
5X3XY1 X6 LONG AT 4' - O" O.C { T Y P .) .
GROUT
THROUGH FUSHING CMU
METAL LATH
LINTEL
wtNoow HEAD
PREcAST
--__\ LTNTEL
RIGID INSUUTION INSERTS
SEAUNT JAMB PRECAST STONE SILL WITH ORIP EDGE
t
Bgl
_ _lg1 [ . tffil .:El
wtNDow
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT IN GROUTED
lt{
FrNrsH lf vaRrES----ll:.' JUy'/l
sEAuNr --l
..i El .". .ffi|
HORIZONTAL SUPPORT FOR NON.LOAD BEARING WALLS - STEEL FRAME
t;4%4
I ll I I _L\,/|LI
:T.' _ -_rffiru| iH?J= ffi t tl| -L---4. JAMB -
METAL DECK WITH OR WITHOUT CONCRFTE
I O GAUGE PUTE 8,' LONG (TYP.)
1[
CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT FURRING STRIPS
PRECAST SILL
ANGLE 5x3xr/4x6 LONG AT 4 -O" O.C
ruo-wtRE TRUSSOR UDDER TYPE HORIZONTAL JOI NT REINFORCEMENT FUSHING
GRAOE \
WALLBOARD
GRAVEL BASE % PREMoLDED JOINT(TYP,)
HORIZONTAL SUPPORT FOR NON.LOAD BEARING \^/ALLS _ METAL DECK
INSUUTION (IF REOUIRED)
;LE WYTHE =L FRAME GLE
WYTHE
MASONRY
WALL
\^/ITH
WYTHE SINGLE FRAME WOOD
MASONRY
WALL
WITH
MASONRY
wythe masonry wall construction is common for lpolications, both load bearing and non-load bearing terior and exterior walls. These systems are lreused as interrot partrtions for file pfotectio.. r single vvythe walls may be integrally insulated with rr fill insulation, foamed-in-place insulation. or site d or {actory installed molded polystyrene inserts. wthe walls mav also be insulated on the interior or r lhe insulation mav be adhered or mechanically
fastened directlv to the masonry, or it may be installed in coniunction with conventional furring or studding sYstems. The benefits of thermal mass are generally optimized with Integral and exterior insulatron strategies. When single wythe walls are used as exterior walls and a high degree ol water penetration resistance is required. the use of integral water repellents; exterior coatings, sealers, or finishesj or both may be required {or concrete masonry construction- Clay masonry does not requrre these treal ments.
ELECTRICAL
OUTLET
BOX IN CMU WALL
S Lee: Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington. D.C. :n S. Szoke. P.E; National Concrete Masonry Association; Herndon, Virginia Trimble; Brick lnstitute of America; Reston, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
224
SingleWytheWolls GENERAL
JOINT REINFORCEMENT
AT 16" O
3/B"ANcHoR ROD I 2" LONG
FINISH VARIES
GROUTED CMU BOND B€AM REINFORCE AS REOUIRED
CONCRffE ON MffAL DECK ON
r/." x 3/16 TW|STED STEEL PUTE AT 6 - O" O.C. FOR
The action of roof and floor diaphragms affects the distribu. tion of lateral forces to the shear walls. Diaphragms are classified into three groups: rigid, semirigjd (or semiflexi ble), and flexible. In design, the rigid diaphragm is assumec to distribute horizontal forces to vertical shear walls in pro ponion to their relative rigiditi€s (longer or thicker walls being more rigid than shorter or thinner walls). More com. plex design approaches may consider the diaphragms to be semirigid or flexible. The distribution of toads in th!se more complex designs is similar to @ntinuous beam desion and design based on tributary areas, respectively For the diaphragms to be effective, there must be adeouare connections between the rool and floor systems and the masonry walls. In many instances, adequate connection is achieved with the walls supported on masonry bond beams. Horizontal members (roofs and floors) are often connected to the walls with reinforcing steel. Adequate connections may be reinforcing steel into bond beams or may be coordinated with the masonrv wall reinlorcement Connections will vary with the requirement to resist loads.
4" MtN. BEARING
CMU WALL TO WOOD JOIST ANCHORAGE
Design oi multistory bearing wall buildings rs based or combaned structural action of the {loor and root svstem with the masonry walls. Floors carry the venrcal loads and actrng as diaphragms, also distribute tateral loads to rhe walis. In masonry bearing wall buildings, lateral {orces fronl winds or earthquakes are usually resisted by shear wal|:, parallel to the direction of the lateral force. Bv thejr shearjno and flexural resistance, these walls transfer lateral forces t6 the ioundation.
CMU WALL TO STEEL JOIST ANCHORAGE PRECAST COPING PROVIDE METAL CRAMP AT JOINTS CONTINUOUS FUSHING WATERPROOFING TREATMENT
REINFORCEMENT
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT (FILL CEL6 AT REINFORCEMENT
AS REOUIREO FINISH
vARlEs=-_l PREcAsr Horrow
BASE AND COUNTERFUSHING
I
PRE.FAB CANT
I I
BUILT-UP ROOFING ON INSUUTION ON PRECAST HOLLOW CORE
LEOGER 3,' X 8" MtN MIN. CONTINUOUS WITH AOLTS TYP. (USE WITH SAME DEPTH AS JOISTS)
ANCHORAGE
3 MtN. AEARING
REINFORCEMENT
BOND BEAM
#4 REINFORCING ROD IN JOINT X 2, . O,, LONG (TYP.) GROUT SOLID GROUTED CMU BOND BEAM REINFORCE AS REOUIREO
INTERIOR WALL TO JOIST ANCHORAGE
WALL
CMU WALL TO CONCRETE JOIST ANCHORAGE
5/16"Roo WELDED TO COLUMN AT 5" O.C
GROUT CEL6
,/,. ANCHORAGE
DETAILS
Grace S Lee; RippeteauArchitects.PC; Washington,D.C. Stephen S. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia Brian E. Trimble;Brick Instituts of America;Reston,Virginia
(-1r /\
MASONRYUNITS
CONCRETE COLUMN
3/ro" FLEXtBLE ANCHOR
TO COLUMN
CMU PARAPET TO CONC:RETE ROOF ANCHORAGE
DETAILS STANDARD BENO I " (TYP,)
WALL
SLAB
OOVETAIL SLOT
REINFORCEMENT
STANDARD
In many applicarions,single wythe wails are reinforced. The Reinforcement paniatty reinforced is erroneous. E(m schedules are designed for a particular appli€tion, ant all is necessary the required reinforcement
MASONRY
Walls are often partially grouted, that is. only the cells or cavities of the wall containing reinforcement are grouted. When walls are partially grouted, special units or construction fabric are used for vertical containment of the grout. Horizontal containment is usually provided by mortaring the webs of the masonry units. When steel placement is lrequent, it may become economical or nece$ary to fully grout the wallsStructural components of a building using reinforced masonry combine the tensile strength of reinforcement with the compressive strength oI the masonry to resist design loads. Walls. columns, pilasters, and beams are designed to resist dead, live, wind, seismic, and lateral earth pressures using reinforced masonry. The benefits of incorporating reinforcement are improved ductility. structural integrity, and resistance to flexural and shear stresses. Reinforced masonry walls are extensively used Jor warehouses, institutional buildings, retaining walls, shear walls, basement walls, and load bearing walls, particularly in multistory hotels and apartment bualdings. Reinlorced especially construction, masonry provides economical when a high degree of resistance to lateral loads is neces-
MATERIALS
SELECTION
FOR
MASONRY
REINFORCED
REI N FORCEM ENT
MORTAR ANO GROUT
UNITS beaflng
MasonryConstructionASTM A 615 MasonryUnits ASTM C 476 Groutfor Masonry A S T MC 2 1 6 FacingBrick(solid ASTM A 616 masonryunits madelrom clayor shales) (hollow ASTM A 706 ASTMC 652 HollowBrick uBc 24-15 masonryunits made from clayor shale)
BOND BEAM COURSE EVERY 4A" O,C (TYP
Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars RaifSteel Deformed and Plain Bars Low-Alloy Steel Deformed Bars Joint Reinforcement tor Masonry
)
STEEL HORIZONTAL IN BOND BEAM -
PUCE METAL UTH OR WIRE SCREEN UNDER BOND BEAM TO CONFINE GROUT VERTICAL STEEL
sary. S€ismicperformancecategoriesA and B requireno special orovisions.In manv instances,the wind loads will govern the minimum reinforcinglevetsin seismicperfomance category C and above. For designs in seismic performance €tegory C, venical reinforcementof at least 0.20 in. in cross-sectionalareas shall be providedcontinuouslyfrom suppon to support at each corner,at each side of each opening,and at the ends of walls. Horizontalreinforcementof not less than 0,20 in. shall be providedat the bottom and top of all openingsand extend not less than 24 in. nor less than 40 bar diameters past the op€ning. Horizontal reinforcement should be installed continuouslyat structurally connected roof and floor levels,at the tops of walls, and at the bottom of the wall or at the top of ths foundation;maximum spacingis 10 ft unless uniformly distributedioint reinforcementis pre vided. For designs in seismic performancecategoriesD and E, walls shall be reintorced both vertically and horizontally. Reouirementsin additionto those for seismicperformance category C include that spacing shall not exc@d 4 ft, except for designs using moment resisting space frames, where the spacing ot principal reinforcement shall not exc€ed 2 ft. Also. the diameter of the reinforcementshall not be less than % in., excepttor ioint reinforcement.
CELLS CONTAINING STEEL ARE wlTH GRoUTi Fl[ED SOLIDLY VERTICAL CELLS SHOULD PROVIOE A CONTINUOUS FREE OF MORTAR SPACE, AND AT LEAST DROPPINGS, t112, x 2,, tN stzE (TYP.) (SEE GROUT TABLE. PAGE 2 I ! )
PLACE MORTAR ON CROSS WEBS ADJACENT TO CELLS THAT WILL BE GROUTED TO FORM OAMS
METHODS OF REINFORCING
C = 24 in. minimum bul not Iess than 40 bar diameters.ln seismicperformancecategoryC, categoriesD and E, S = 4 ft maximum. S = 10 ft maximum:in seismicperformance REINFORCED
LOAD BEARING
BRICK OR CMU WALLS
D.C. Architects,PC;Washingron, GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau Herndon.Virginia StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation; BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot America:Reston,Vrginia
MASONRYUNITS
MULTIWYTHE MASONRY Multiwythe masonryconstructionis common for many applications,both load bearing and non- load bearing and tor interiorand exteriorwalls. Thesesystemsare frequently used as exteriorwalls or other applicationswhen exposed architecturalmasonrv units are required on one or both sides ol the masonrv.Such walls are constructedwith full collar joints between wythes of masonry.The most cofr mon multiwythewall is the compositewall, which consists ol a clay brick wythe and a concretemasonrywythe with a 3/ain. collar,oint, and brick headersor anchors.The collar ioint is often difficult to fill and may be {illed by pargingthe backupor by grouting.Generallythe method of lilling the joint sh@ld not be specified.The mason shouldbe permit-
ted to use the method that is most etlective based on the talent available,the wall configuration, and the construction sequence. Often a single wythe of the wall might be rein, forced. See the section on single wythe walls for a discussion of reinforced masonry. In multiwythe construction the collar ioint may contain reinlorcement lf this is so, the collar joant width must be increased to provide adequate coverage for the reinlorcement. The diameter of the reinlorcement should not exceed half the collar ioint thick, ness. When fine grout is used there must be at ieast,/. in between the reinforcemenl and the masonry. When coarse grout is used. the space must be at least '/, in. Multiwythe walls may be constructed as pa.tially grouted walls, using cavity wall or multiwythe wall construction. For
GRAVEL STOP
this type of wall, the grout is contained horizontallv wth building fabric and vertically wrlh dams. The ddms are tvol cally masonry units placed withan the cavitv. In oartiailv grouted hollow wall construction, {lashrng may be neces sary at horizontal interruptions in the cavity. Insulation tor exterior walls may be integral in a wythe ol masonry or may be on the exterior of the wall, but it is usu ally on the interior. The insulation may be adhered or mechanically tastened directly to the masonry, or the insu, lataon system may be pan ol a conventional furring or stud ding system. The benefits of thermal mass are generally optimized with integral and exterior insulation strategies.
METAL COPING wlTH I/2" DtA. ANCHOR (TYP.) CAP ANO BASE FUSHING
CONCRflE OR STONE
wooD
CAP
PREFAB CANT
NAILERS
BUILT,UP ROOFING BRICK CAP ROOF
wooo
ON
FUSHING AND WEEP HOLES
JOISTS JOIST
REINFORCEO GROUTEO CMU BOND EEAM
I r/a" x 3/,6" TwtsTED STEEL PUTE AT 6' - O" O.C. OR EVERY 4TH JOIST (TYP-)
TWO WIRE TRUSS.TYPE JOINT REINFORCEMENT
MflAL TIES AT r6 0.c. (TYP.) FUSHING WITH WEEP HOLES AT 24 O.C. (TYP.)
DOVETAIL ANCHOR
STEEL LINTEL
SOLID CMU
wtNDow
DOUBLE ANGLE STEEL LINTEL
TRUSS OR UDDER,TYPE HORIZONTAL JOINT
REINFORCED CMU LINTEL
REINFORCEMENT
SEALANT
SEAUNT
FUSHING WITH WEEP HOLES (otr.)
coRRosroN RESISTANT WIRE TIE
CMU WYTHE
'-''---
RECESS AND SILL DETAILS IN BRICK \/VALLS
BRICK WWHE
SEAUNT
SEAUNT
SILL UNITS
WNDOW
I5" MIN SLOPE
SILL FUSHING WITH END OAM
SEAUNT FUSHING WITH WEEP HOLES AT 24' O.C. (TYP.)
MASONRY TIE AT | 6" O.C. ftYP.)
When backup wythe is more than
4 an.nominal,use threewre horizontal joint reinforcement.
INSUUTION
coRRosroN
WALLAOARO
RESISTANT WIRE TIE
SEEL fUO WALL
FILLEO COLUR JOINT
3/.' coLLAR JOINT (flP.)
coRRostoN RESISTANT WIRE TIE
TWO WIRE LAOOERWPE JOINT REINFORCEMENT AT r6- O.C. (TYP.)
FUSHING WITH WEEP HOLES AT 24" O.C. (TYP.)
RECTANGULAR
CONCRflE
suB
FULLY GROUTED WIREMESH OR HARDWARE CLOTH
FUSHING WITH WEEP HOLES AT 24- O.C (TYP
r/r- PREMoLDED JOINT
(TYP.)
collar joint is intended as an barrier, flashing is not
RIGIO INSUUTION
necessafy
MULTIWYTH
E MASONRY
\,VALL
ALTERNATE SECTION
Grace S. Lee: RippeteauArchitects.PC;Washington,D.C. Stephen S. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia BrianE. Trimble;Brick Instituteof America:Reston,Virginia
A 'rJ
MASONRYUNITS
MULTIM/YTHE
WALL
STEEL AND CONCRETE ANCHORAGE
COLUMN
Multi-WytheWolls
227
JOINT REINFORCEMENT OR METAL WALL TIES
FIRECUT EXPANSION JOINT
WOOD FLOOR ON WOOD JOISTS
DOVETAIL ANCHOR
t t/o'x 3rro rutsrED STEEL PUTE JOIST ANCHOR AT 6'' O O.C OR EVERY 4TH JCIST (TYP.) 3" MIN BEARING GROUTEO CMU
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
COLL}R JOINT BACKUP ROD
\A/ALL TO \,VOOD JOIST ANCHORAGE
JOINT REINFORCEMENT OR METAL TIES AT t 6" O.C. (TYP.)
CONCRETE
AND
BEAM
\l
COLUMN
I a2/
\l
w
HOLLOW PRECAST CORE SUB
ANC
Mz'.<
NOTE Placement of positaoners or other means ol securing anchorage is required to prevent displacement by construction loads or by placement ot grout or mortar. TYPICAL
REBAR
POSITIONERS
G R O U T D A M _ V E R T I C A LC O U R S E OF UNBONDEO MASONRYUNITS; USUALLY BROKEN BRICK OR BLOCK
WALL TO CONCRETE ANCHORAGE
JOIST
CONCRTTE ON METAL DECK ON STEEL JOISTS
REIN FORCING HORIZONTAL AS REOUIRED STEEL. SPACING
3/s- encHon ROO. I 2- LONG
4"
VERTICAL POSITIONER
r/4" MtN. covER FOR FINE GROUT t/2'FoR coARSE GROUT
MIN. EEARING
GROUTED COLUR
CMU
NOT E Cleanouts are required at bottom o{ wall (tirst course of masonry) if grout pours exceed 5 ft Cleanouts should be adiacent to vertical rebars and soaced no more than 32 in. on center.
JOINT
JOINT REINFORCEMENT OR METAL TIES AT 16" O.C. (TYP.)
WALL
TO
STEEL
JOIST
ANCHORAGE
GROUTED
HOLLOW
WALL
GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,PC:Washington,D.C SteohenS. Szote, p e.; NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot America;Reston.Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
GENERAL Cavity walls consist of two wythes ol masonry separated by at least a 2 in arrspace The airspace may be increased lo 4rl2 in. wrth only minor increases rn tie size and or spacing. lf the cavity is to be more than 4rl2 in., the wall system should bc approprrdtely engineered. Either or both w!.thes ot the wall system may be load beari.g.
METAL COPING ASSEMBLY
The cavity wall is a drainagetype wall that provides excellent resistance to water penetration. The mass and discontinuity of construction provided bv the metal ties result in optamal sound penetration resistance. The calculated fire resistance of cavity walls usually exceeds 4 hours. Interior and exterior wythes may be considered as the.mal mass for sp€cific thermal requirements. Either or both wvthes may be used to provide the desired archit€ctural finishes. anterior or exterior. For these reasons, the rusonrv cavitv wall is generally prefetred. When the cavity wall is selected because of its thermal Derfomance, generally only the interior wythe is load bearing. This construction permits the insulation layer to be continuous within the wall and pass the slabs, minimizing thermal bridges. The Insulation may be granular fill or rigid board insulation. lf rigid board insulation is selected, there musr b€ a nominal 1 in. airspace between the back of the exterior wythe and the exterior surface of the insulation board. The insulation board may be held in place with the wall ties. Twepiece adiustable ties serye well tor this application. Seams in the insulation should b6 made with tongue-and, groove joints, shiplapped, or sealed with tape, lf the ties selected are not appropriate for holding the insulation against the backup wythe, then the rigid board insulation stlNld be adhered or mechani@lly fast€ned to th6 backup. It granular fill is used, it is necessary to select weep hoie systems that wll permit drainage bul ksp the granutar till within the wall system. Typical cavity walls may contain 2 to 4 r/2 in. of granular fill insulation or 3 1/, in. of rigid board insulation-
ADJUSTABLE MASONRY TIE
ROOFING
'\
CEIL!NG JOIST
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT IN GROUTED CELLS
Il z ' X 2 0 ' ANCHOR BOLTS 4 'O OC.(TYP 3x6x1/4" PUTE (TYP,) INTERIOR FINISH OPTIONAL
OOVETAIL ANCHOR SHELF
ANGLE
EUSTIC SEALANT AND AACKER ROD
INSUUTION
WOOD TRIM REINFORCED LINTEL
END OAM
JOINT REINFORCEMENT
WINOOW HEAO WEEP HOLE
SEAUNT
FLASHING
STEEL
PRECAST LINTEL
LINTEL
BLOCKING
2 X lO PUTE
M ETAL FUSHING WALL TIE METAL 24
SEALANT
0.C.
t/2- BoLT 4 -O"O.C
COMPRESSIBLE
MATERIAL
3X6Xr/4STEEL PUTE WELDED TO BOLT
BRICK
SILL
wlNDow CEILING
t:
wooo
RIG'D INSUUTION
TRrM FUSHING
cypsuu DRYWALL
ALTERNATE
CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT
ROOF DETAIL
AIR SPACE WALLBOARD
WEEP HOLE
ADJUSTABLE MASONRY TIE
ELASTIC SEAUNT WITH BACKER
FUSHING
ROD
MtN. l/e SPACE BELOW SHELF ANGLE
z coNcRfiE
(=T SEAUNT
ALTERNATE
EXPANSION
JOINT
DETAIL
RIGIO INSUUTION
PEA GRAVEL
*/-
FACE ARICK
GYPSUM WALL BASE FINISHEO FLOOR
2' RIGIO
INSUUTION (TYP,) WEEP HOLES AT 24- O.C. {TYP
WEEP HOLES
GROUT WIRE MESH AND BUILDING PAPER
ORIP
BOND AEAM OR SOLID UNIT
sofl JOINT
EXPOSED
SLAB
DETAIL
BRICK AND CMU CAVTTY WALL
GraceS. ^Leeand A HarrisLokmanhakim,AIA RippsteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Hemdon,Virginia BrianE- Trimble;Brick lnstitute of America;Reston.Virginia
A
-1r
JOIST ANCHOR EVERY FOURTH JOIST (TYP.)
MASONRYUNITS
ALTERNATE BRICK AND CMU CAVITY WALL SECTION
Covity Wolls
METAL WALL TIES AT 16''O C (TYP ) rtrtsr
4.
MIN
BEARING
ON METAL CONCRETE DECK ON STEEL JOISTS
vlRtES'
WOOD FLOOR ON WOOD JOISTS
229
METAL AT I6"
WALL TIES O C ITYP )
FINISH
VARIES
HOLLOW PRECAST CORE SUB
FIRECUT PAPER
3/s" ANcHoR 12' LONG
I IL X3/T6 TW|STED STEEL PUTE JOIST A N C H O RA T 6 ' - O O C . OR EVERY FOURTH JOIST
RoD.
GROUTED CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT
3'' MIN. BEARING
WOOD
STEEL
FLOOR
WALL TO FLOOR ANCHORAGE
JOIST
GROUT
FILLED
4"
BEARTNG
MrN
. GROUTED CONCRETE MASONRYUNIT
METAL WALL TIES AT 16" O.C. ffYP.)
GROUTED CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT
DAM
PRECAST
FLOOR
HOLLOW
CORE
FLOOR
AT CAVITY WALLS
METAL WALL TIES AT | 6" O.C. (TYP.)
OOVETAIL SLOT
DOVETAIL ANCHOR
COMPRESSIBLE FILLER COMPRESSIBLE
GROUTED CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT
SPANDREL
COLUMN
DETAIL BOX TIE I PER 4 SO fr OF MASONRY
FLEXIBL€ DOVflAIL ANCHOR AT I6'' O.C VERTICAL
AND BEAM ANCHORAGE DOVETAIL
HORIZONTAL REINFORCEMENT
DETAILS ANCHOR
SLOT
CONCRETE COLUMN CONCRETE
CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT
GYPSUM DRYWAI
COLUMN
DOVETAIL SLOTS
CONCRETE
FUSHING
suB
RIGID
BRICK
INSUUTION
BRICK
FUsHING REGLET AT COLUMN HORIZONTAL R€INFORCEMENT
METAL ANCHOR SET IN DOVETAIL SLOT GYPSUM
ORYWALL
FURRING RIGID INSUUTION
CONCRETE MA5ONRY UNIT
DOVETAIL ANCHORS
AT CORNER
- CONCRtrE SHELF ANGLE
lz
BOX TIE t PER4
WHEN ANGLE ARE GREATER BOLTS THAN 9'' FROM CORNER, WELD '/S" THICK PLATE TO OF RELIEVING BOTOM (BOTH PIECES) ANGLE
MASONRY CONCRETE M A S O N R YU N I T
SHELF ANGLE AT CORNER
COLUMN
Architects,PC:Washington,D.C GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau He.ndon.Virginia SteohenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation; BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
230
Covity Wolls NOTES '1. Eoth wythesof solidmasonryunits (75% solidor m.ore). 2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or less. Wythes should h erectedsimultaneouslyfor this tie strategy. MtN.
NOTES 1 . Horizontal ioint reinforcement as tles at g, I 6, or 2.1 in. on center vertically (typical) as required. 2. Both wythes constructed simultaneously.
I t/2" .
EMBEOMENT
UDDER-TYPE HORIZONTAL JOINT REINFORCEMENT. WITH THREE LONGITUOINAL WIRES
TWO LONGITUOINAL WIRE UDOER-TYPE HORIZONTAL JOINT REINFORCEMENT
LADDER-TypE HORTZONTAL JOTNT RETNFORCEMENT FOR 4 IN. V\/YTHES OR LESS MtN. l/2" EMBEDMENT ON FACE SHELL
AS TrES
LADDER.TYPE HORIZONTAL JOTNT REINFORCEMENT FOR MORE THAN 4 IN. VI/YTHES
NOTES
NOTES
1. Rectangulartab ties and horizontalioint reinforcement in alternatingcoursss (typical). 2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or lass. 3. Both wythes constructedsimultaneouslv. 4. Z-ties are ac@ptable if both wythes are constructedof solidmasonry.
1. Rsctangulartab ties and horizontalioint reintorcement in allernatingcourses (typical). tt2' MtN.2. Both wythgs mnstructed sjmultaneously,
RECTANGUTAR TAA TIES
RECTANGUUR TAA TIE WWHE OF MASONRY
TRUSS OR UDDER-TYPE HORIZONTAL JOINT REINFORCEMENT. ruO LONGTTUOINAL WIRES
HOLLOW
WWHE OF SOLID MASONRY
soLro MASONRY NOMINAL OR LESS
TWO LONGITUOINAL WIRE TRUSS OR UDOER-TYPE HORIZONTAL JOINT REINFORCEMENT
RECTANGULAR
TAB TIES FOR 4 IN. WYTHES
OR LESS
RECTANGULAR
TAB TIES FOR MORE THAN
SOLID MASONRY NOMINAL OR LESS
4"
MtN. I '/2" EMBEDMENT FOR SOLID UNITS HOLLOW NOMINAL
4 IN. \/VYTHES
NOTES
1. Maximummi$lignment ol couGes is I r/! in. 2. Both wythes nominal4 in. or loss. 3. Both wyth€s not constructedsimultanoously 4. Pint€lshold rigid board insulationin prace.
NOMINAL
4
HOLLOW MASONRY MORE THAN NOMINAL 4-
NOTES
souo 4"
AS TIES
/ I Ir
HOLLOW MASONRY MORETHAN NOMINAL 4"
1. Maximum mi$lignment of coursesis j '/4in. 2. Both wythes not constructedsimultaneously 3. Pintelshold rigid boardinsulationin prace.
EYE AND PINTEL TIES
4"
OR LESS
l/2"
REINFORCEMENT a" oR | 6' o.c. VERTICALLY (TYP.) AS
ADJUSTABLE
TIES FOR 4 IN. \^/YTHES OR LESS
GraceS. _Lee;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C. StephenS. Szoke.P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;Herndon,Virginia BrianE. Trimble:Brick Institute oI America;Reston,Virginia
A -1r
MASONRYUNITS
ADJUSTABLE
TIES FOR MORE THAN
MtN
HORIZONTAL JOINT REINFORCEMENT a" oR r 6" o.c. VERTICALLY (TYP.) AS REOUIRED
4 TN. WYTHES
231
BrickVeneer -
AVEL STOP D FASCIA
/
2' MtN ATRSPACE
1-t BUILDING
ROOF
PAPER
JOIST
-
I MtN. AIRSPACE
FLASHING
ADJUSTABLE ANCHOR
INSUUTION VENEER
BRICK
STEEL BEAM
METAL TIE AT STUDS
BUILDING
SHEATHING
ADJUSTABLE Tl€
WALLBOARD
FUSHING
FUSHING
WEEP
EXTERIOR
LINTEL
STEEL
WOOD TRIM WINDOW HEAO
END DAM SILL ENO
ADJUSTABLE WIRETIE
SEAUNT STEEL LINTEL
FLASHING DAM
BUILOING PAPER
2" MlN. AIRSPACE
I,, MIN. AIRSPACE WINOOW JAMB
AOJUSTABLE ANCHOR AT STUD
SEALANT
wTNDOW JAMB
SILL FUSHING END DAM
wtNDow
WINDOWSILL
WINDOWSILL
BRICK
MATERIAL BELOW ANGLE SHELF
TRACK
wrNDow HEAD
-
HOLE
EUSTIC JOINT SEAUNT
SHEATHING
HOLE
AOJUSTABLE TIE AT STUDS
WEEP
SHELF ANGLE
DETAIL
CONCRtrE MASONRY WALL
SEAUNT WIRE UTH
BRICK SILL
SILL
TRACK FUSHING
BUILDING PAPER INSUUTION BETWEEN STUDS
ADJUSTABLE ANCHOR AT STUD
SCRATCH COAT
AUILDING PAPER
BOND COAT
INSULATION SHEATHING
BRICK VENEER
STEEL STUD
WALLBOARO
WALLBOARD
PLYWOOD
WEEP HOLES Ar 24- O-C. (TYP )
1;;il;
THIN BRICK
FUSHING
FLOOR JOIST
THIN BRTCK VENEER ON CMU
RUNNER
FUSHING THIN
CORROSION RESiSTANT METAL SCREW
AOJUSTABLE TIE AT STUD
WEEP
MASTIC ADHESIVE
SLOTS
\y^\\ys
MORTAR
WITH FUSHING WEEP HOLES
AT 21" O.C.
. Hl%,F,.'
CEMENT
WOOD
;\:fb\\\YN lJ,,r'. . l:, PAPERilIRE
BRICK
BOARD
STUD
WALLBOARD
MESH
si^AXff: VENEER BRICK BACKUP ANCHORED
ON
WOOD
STUD
VENEERS
Masonry veneers provide an aesthelrc, durable noncombustrble, weather resislant tinish for structural masonry or lioht tramrno construction. The inherent mass of the veneer sound penetrapiovrdes inireased thermal perlormance iion resistance. and lire resistance. Anchored veneers typr callv consist of nominal 3 or 4 in. wythes of masonry taed to a backing system. Veneers are not intended to support any loads other than their own weight All lateral loads are intended to be transferred to the backing system. Empirical design permits the construction of masonry veneers with a nominal thickness of 4 in. to heights of three stories, 30 ft
VENEER BRICK BACKUP
ON
STEEL
STUD
at the plate and 38 ft at the gables. For veneers wlth a nominal thickness of 3 in., the heiqht is limited to two stories, 20 It at the plate and 28 ft at the gable. For building heights greater than two stories, the brick veneer must be supoorted by a shelf angle at every floor. Veneers are drainage-type walls. Although a nominal 1 in airsoace is acceptable for drainage In most low-rlse, resF deniial aoolications. a minimum 2 in- airspace between the back of the masonry and the exterior surface of the backing or exterior sheathing is recommended for masonry veneers in mrGrise and high{rse conslruction.
THIN
BRICK
VENEER
ON
WOOO
FRAME
ADHERED VENEERS Thin brick veneer, also referred to as adhered veneer, is an '/, to | % aoolication of thin brick veneer units-between a backing system. Adhered veneer relres on in. thick
Grace S. Lee: Rippeteau Architects. PC; Washington, D.C Brian E. Trimble: Brick Institute of America: Reslon, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
232
BrickVeneer FRICTION FIT METAL COPING OPTIONAL FUSHING DEPENDING ON TOLERANCES OF STRUCTURAL FRAME
CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT SEAUNT
FUSHING AT COLUMN
THREE WIRE UDDER-TYPE JOINT REINFORCEMENT
HORIZONTAL EXPANSION JOINT
ROOFING
REGLET FUSHING
FOR
WEEP HOLES AT 24- O.C (TYP
LIP BRICK
FUSHING
ANGLE
ANGLE
COMPRESSIBLE
BRICK VENEER
MATERIAL
EUSrC SEAUNT AND BACKER ROO DOVSAIL SLOT REINFORCEO LINTEL STEEL LINTEL
WALL ANCHORAGE
WEEP HOLES 24- O.C.
IN CONCRETE
COLUMNS
AND BEAMS
ADJUSTABLE ANCHOR FASTENED THROUGH SHEATHING TO STUD
RIGIO INSUUTION INSERTS
INTERIOR SHEATHING
INSULATION
A'RSPACE (TYP.)
S.rt.",o* wtNDow
SHEATHING
SEALANT WOOD TRIM WALLBOARD .BRICK VENEER BRICK VENEER
THR€E WIRE LADDER.TYPE JOINT REINFORCEMENT
BUILDING PAPER
THROUGH ANCHOR ROD WELOEO TO
FUSHING CONCRETE suB \
ADJUSTABLE ANCHOR WELOED TO STRUCTURAL STEEL
COLUMN
FRAME
AOJUSTAALE ANCHOR STEEL ANGLE KICKER WEEP HOLES AT 24' O C. (TYP
VERTICAL STEEL ANGLE SUPPORTING
WEEP SLOTS AT 24' O_C. (TYP
SHELF
ANGLE
STEEL
SHELF
STRIP ANGLE
wtNoow FUSHING
qRrcK VENEER ON CONCRETE MASONRY UNIT BACK-UP GraceS. LeejRippeteau Architects,pC; Washington, D.C. BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteot Amenca;Reston,Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
WALL ANCHORAGE
MULLION
IN STEEL COLUMNS
AND BEAMS
WINOOW
ond Beoms Columns,Pilqsters,
D
li'r'i r,
I
t
[:jilt---l t -') ti::ij
UTERAL TIES
T I E S E M B ED D E D O N MORTAR JI )INT5
FULL HEIGHT OF REINFORCING CAGE NOT SHOWN
233
UTERAL TIES
EMBED EXTRA TIES OR PART OF REQUIREO LATERAL REINFORCE IN MORTER JOINTS
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT TIED TO OOWELS IN EMBEDDED FOOTING
CONTROL JOINT
)
ntr
t]
TYPICAL SPECIAL PILASTER UNIT FOR USE v\/ITH CONTROL JOINTS
TIES E EM MI B E D D E D O N M O R T rAR A R JOINTS
REINFORCED CONCRETE
WHEN CLEANOUTS ARE NOT PROVIDED MAX. POUR HEIGHT SHOULD NOT EXCEED 4,
FOOTING
COLUMN CONSTRUCTION USING LOW.LIFT GROUTING TECHNIQUES
UTERAL ALTERNATE COURSES
DOWELS EMBEDDED IN FOOTING
UTERAL TIES IN MORTAR JOINTS
12 IN. SAUARE BRICK COLUMN
REINFORCED
r/4" DtA. BARS BENT IN FORM OF U. GREASED LEGS AND SPACED I 6- O.C.
20 IN. SQUARE BRICK COLUMN
TYPICAL
COLUMNS
PILASTER
ED WALL'PILASTER ZE AND RETNFORCEMENT
LAYOUTS
FOOTING. AS REQUIREC
PILASTER CONSTRUCTION USING LOW.LIFT GROUTING TECHNIQUES
COMPRESSIBLE FILLER
NOTE 4
HORIZONTAL STEEL
BRTCK
JOINT SEAUNT
PUCED IN ALTERNATE COURSE TO AVOID CROSSOVER OF STEEL IN SAME JOINT REINFORCED BRICK MASONRY COLUMN
REINFORCEO
BONO BREAK BRICK
PILASTER
MASONRY
BRICK CURTAIN WALL AND PANEL WALL REINFORCEMENT , 75b"
STEEL STIRRUPS SPACED 3'' APART
t-fr. "d ['i;' ..,-trl
CONTINUOUS REINFORCING RODS TOP AND
l.:.o....'iY:{
'/2" MtN. CONCRETE COVERAGE
FFir-6.--Il r::: .1.I
GROUT SETTING AED
lx t-.f:......t11
Ie-.+3__+
BEARINGZONE (W X H) MUST BE CONCRETE, SOLID MASONRY OR GROUTEO MASONRY
' d * -
DOUBLE COR E
3ut"
cMu
CONCRETE
PRECAST CONCRETE
ffi
4{
m m m m v2
m
+F
Azr
m tu ai}u
REINFORCED
BOTOM
'l
l/,///)
vvz
Cut block in first course before laying to form cleanout openings at base of cells to be lilled. Remove all mortar droppings, set and inspect venical reinforcement, and form over opening before filling with grout or concrete. When cleanouts are not provided maximum pour should not exceed 4 ft.
COLUMN AND PILASTER CONSTRUCTION NUMBER AND REQUIRED
OF
SIZE
} INTEL TYPE letnlorceo concrere {7 5/s" square section)
'PAN MAX.
)
4',- Q' 8',-0'
Concretemasonryunlt {7 %" squaresection) n o m i n a8lx 8 x 1 6 u n i l
4-O8'- 0"
REBARS BRICK
ao LB./SQ :T)
4-*3 4-#4 4-*5 2-#4 2-#5 2-#6
,
a-
(Aazr
mm mm mm varn Ai.iVt
vzm
12'
ffi
vzr2vrz METAL
TIE
OR GROUTED AND REINFORCED
mmm nmm mma
cMU
(5O LB/
4-#3 4-*3 4-*4 2-#4 2-#5
NOTES 1. For precast concrete and reinforced concrete masonry loads. unitlintelswith no suoerimoosed 2. fc' = 3000 psi concreteand grout; ly = 60,000psi
AND CMU BEAMS OR LINTELS I
a
IF CAVITY WALL. USE METAL SCREEN OR MASONRY GROUT DAM TO CONTAIN
POUR
mmm 2',..::a.t..{4 mmm
BRICK BEAMS OR LINTELS
D.C. Architects,PC;Washington, GraceS. Lee; Rippeteau BrianE. Trimble:BrickInstituteof America;Reston,Virginia;S Herndon.Virginia StephenS. Szoke,P.E.;NationalConcreteMasonryAssociation;
MASONRYUNITS
234
MosonryArches pER FEET oF spAN SKEWBACK-r/2 FOR EACH 4 " OF ARCH DEPTH
KEYSTONE
CAMBEF
t/a-
PER FEET OF
TYPES OF JACK ARCHES
FOUR.CENTEREO
ANO TUDOR
\
\l-'-
-''
---l--t't
. ,l . t l \
;J";iJ-l---
---
G L|NE
I Esonry must rtal thrusts.
York
MASONRYUNITS
GOTHtc
Arih is calledpointedwhen radiiare equal to span and is calledlancotwhen radiiare gr€aterthan span.
Fireploces:Generol Informotion GENERAL The frreplaceand chimney are usually large elements In tesidences. but their scale can be adapted to any archltectural style. The purpose of the residential fireplace has changed over the years from heating to decoration. However. increasing public interest in renewable forms of energy has instigated a new demand for tireplaces tor heating homes. Fireptace design and construclion are governed by building and mechanical codes. The internal diagram of a working fireplace shom the several required pans and their vertical organization. Each part is illuslrated on succeeding pages. The main function of the fireplace and chimney is to sustain combustion and carry smoke away safely. Their design is
CONCRETE CAP
based on empirical data proven with years ot safe perfor mance. The charts on the following pages show the appre priate sizes o{ fireplace and chimney elements. One of the mosl important design decisions is the l@ation of the lire olace. To orevent heat loss to the exterior, it is best to locate a fireplace at the center oJ the house. Again to improve perlormance, a fireplace should not be located opposite an outside door or near an open stairway leading to an upper tloor, a forced air furnace, or a return air register. Combustion can be improved by providing a measured supply of outside air, independent of room air, to the fireplace. This is done by installing an air duct trom the exterior of the house to the fireplace. The chimney must be proP edy sized to carry the combustion products away. Two factors primarily affect the chimney draft: size of the tireplace
opening and height of the chimney. The figure on the tollowing page should be used to size the tlue accurately based on these factors. Several distinct types of fireplaces are currently used in residential applications Single-face tireplace styles are the most popular and include the conventional tireplace, the Rumlord fireplace, the Rosin fireplace, and air circulating fireplaces. Multiface fireplaces are also popular and include the see-through fireplace, the corner fireplace, and the freestanding fireplace. The masonry heater. or masonry stove, is a specialized type of fireplace and is the most efficient of all these types.
FLUE
SEAUNT
CONCRETE CAP
235
LINER
COMPRESSIBLE
FILLER
COUNTERFUSHING BASE
FUSHING
ROOF
FELT
CRICKET
ATTIC
SHINGLES
WOOO SHEATHING
SECOND FLOOR
FIRE CUY FLUE LINER
STRUCTURAL SUPPORT FOR FIRE CUY FLUE
MANTEL
SMOKE CHAMBER
LINER
SMOKE
DAMPER FIRST
INCLINED BACK WALL
FLOOR
INCLINED
BACK
WALL
FIREBRICK
SMOKE
FIREPUCE
LINTEL
SHELF
THROAT HEARTH
ASH
/
OUMP
VERTICAL BACK WALL
FIRE
BRICK
AIR DIFFUSER
ASH
DUMP
ZOUTSTDE AIR INTAKE HEARTH SUPPORT (INNER ANO OUTER) AIR INTAKE
BASEMENT
HEARTH ASHPIT
CLEANOUT DOOR -
CLEANOUT DOOR
BASE FOUNDATION
FOOTING
REINFORCEO CONCRSE FOOTING SECTION
ISOMETRIC
Brian E. Trimble; Brick Institute ot America; Reston, Virginia Grace S. Lee: Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
MASONRYUNITS
236
Typicol FireploceDimensions CONVENTIONAL
FIREPLACES
The design of single-face fireplaces has been well doc mented, resulting in the development of a reasonably acc! rate set ol design dimensions for fireplace openiogs damoers. and {lue liners. Single-face fireplaces can be efficient radiant heaters. Thl amount ol heat radiated and reflected into lhe room :, direclly proportional to the masonry surface area exposec lo the fire. Th€ Rumford fireplace is a variation oI the singte face fireplace with a shallow firebox, a high throat, and widely splayed sides, all features that contribute to optima direct radiant heating. In addition, the energy efficiency of new fireplaces can b. improved by following these recommendations: 1. Locate the fireplace on the interior of the house. 2. Supply outside air for combustion and maintenance ol oositive rmm oressure. 3. Provide glass fireplace screens to prevent unwanted a| inliltration when the fireplace is not in use.
CONVENTIONAL SI NGLE-FACE FIREPLACE DTMENSTONS*(tN.) FINISHED OPENING
CONCRETE SUB
FIREPLACE
B 1 SID€
26 28
SECTION
24
2t FIRE CLAY FLUE LINER4
]
36
tq
42 48
32
40
,1, /
to
5
to
19
to
60 |
'
CHAMBER
, -/\
14 14 14 14 14 14 't4
F
'18
H
34 J6
23
A
4U 50 56
22 22
42
to to t8
30
ou 72 72
&t
td l8 't8
30 30
96 108
4t) 40
76
IJ
24
3 6 6 7 r0
16
29
l'l
40
ta
18
\\
84 96
ROUGH BRICK\^r'ORK E
21 21 24 2l 32 45 45 45 56
4
36 42
ot
75
NOTE DAMpER a
'Determineflue linerdimensions, G. Dimensions are equalto ths outsidedim€nsions of thefluelinerplusal leastI in.(25mm).
- \ \ \l\
::+ STEEL ANGLE \
RUMFORD SINGLE-FACE FIREPLACE DIMENSIONS* FINISHED OPENING
FIREPLACE
B
FRONY ELEVATION
FRONT
ELEVATION
40 40 40
32 37 40
48 48
& 48
D
F
H
to to
to
z6
20
2a 33 32
t4 to
20
44 48 48 48
32 40
56 56
r8 l8
JZ 40 46 40
6
16 to
20
u
2t)
J
29 29
ro
to
20
4A 4A
(IN.)
ROUGH BRICK\^/ORK
2Q 20 2V 20 20 20
zv 20 20
66 66 12
24
36
45 42 45
NOTE * Determine flue liner dim€nsions, G. Dimensions are equal to the outside dimensionsof the llue liner plus at least 'l in. (25 mm) for airspacesurroundingflue liner.
(TYP,) NONCOMBUSTIBLE FIRESTOPPING TO I " BELOW BONOM OF JOIST
FLOOR FRAMING AT FIREPUCE
FIREPLACES
BACK TO AACK IN PARTY WALL
CONVENTIONAL
RUMFORO
FIREPLACE
FIREPLACE
GraceS. Lee; FippeteauArchitects, PC;Washington,D.C
MASONRYUNITS
MosonryHeoters GENERAL
CEILING STRUCTURE
Masonrv heaters male Jse ol two baSlc princlples lo oblarn arr hiqh combustion and heatrng elictencies{onttolled iniake to the combustion chambe/firebox and d heat exchanqe svstem of baffled chambers through which hol combuJtron gases are crrculaled Such heaters are elficlenl, clean burning devices.
a" )-. (2m mm) utt \:
2 (50 mm) MlN. TO COMBUSTIBLE FRAMING HEATER CAPPING SUB MASONRY HEATER
Brick masonry heaters or masonry stoves used in North America are adapted from those used in northern and eastern Europe, which were employed for cooking as well as heating- Modern masonry heaters come in a wide variety of shams and sizes. The size and layout of the house, the clF mate, and the needs of the homeowner are all considered in the design of a masonry heater. For optimum pertormance. however, it should be located near the center of the house. Masonry heaters may be custom built on sate or Modern pre{abricated components from assembled rusonry heaters may incorporate lire viewing, bake ovens, benches. warming stoves, and Two safety but are not integrity of perature of
concerns that apply to brick masonry heaters listed in the maior model building codes are the the enclosing walls of the healer and the temthe exterior surfaces of the walls:
To maximize the integrity of masonry heater walls, theY should be constructed of two wythes of brick (ASTM C 216 or C 62 for facing brick) with a nominal 1-in. airspace between lhem- Fill the airspace with a compressible, noncombustible material such as insulation, and tie both wythes together with corrosion-resistant metal ties. Add horizonlal joint reinforcement every sixth course (only at exterior wythe). To safeguard against the effects ot the high surface tefr peratures of the heater (between 100" and 1 9ffF), a minimum 12-in. clearance should be observed between the heater and any combustibles and there should b€ a 2Gin. extended hearth in {ront.
DOWNDRAN
FIREBOX OPENING' EXTENSION HEARTH
\x ,,><\
)
(1@ mm,
48 iI2OOmm)TO MATERIAS COMBUSTIBLE
MIN
J
NOTE For clearancestrom specifictypes of tirebox openingsand other requirements,consultASTM E 1602 and localcodes. Most clearancesmay be reducedit an engineeredprotec' tionsvstemis orovided. FOR
CLEARANCE TO COMBUSTIBLES MASONRY HEATERS FLUE
LINER
DAMPER
SHUTOFF BYPASS
KACHEL (MASONRY HEATER TILE) (4'' NOMINAL,
237
DAMPER
CAPPING SUB INSUUTION FIREBRICK
GERMAN TILE/BRICK (GRUNDOFEN)
HEATER
SHUTOFF
DOWNDRAff
CLEANOUT FIREBOX ASHBOX
COMBUSTION AIR FIREBOX
DOOR
N OTE ln Finnish or contraflow heaters, heated air is forced from the top of the smoke chamber doM through the baffles on the sides of the heater, Mile room air rises by convectlon along the exterior surfaces of the masonry. This construction allows for even heating of the masonry and efficient radiant heating of the room. The baffles converge below the firebox and open out to the flue at the base of the chimnev. FINNISH
(FOUNTAIN-STYLE)
HEATER
N OTE Russian heaters are typically deep with a small opening to the firebox. above which is a svstem of either vertically or horizontally aligned batfles in place of lhe smoke chamber. Alter circulating through the baffle system. exhaust gases oass directlv into the flue.
RUSSTAN (MULTIFLUE)
HEATER
Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C. Brian E. Trimble, Engineer; Brick lndustry Association; Reston, Virginia
MASONRYUNITS
238
Cleoronces,Connections,ond Crowns
FIREPUCE OPENING EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN 6 SO FT
WHERE TRIM PROJECTS MoRE THAN I r/2" FRoM
I
-
EXTERIOR
FActNG
WHERE TRIM PROJECTS uP to t ttz" FRoM FActf FIREPLACE LESS THAN
OP€NING 6 SO fr
FIREPUCE FACING
HEARTH EXTENSION REQUIREMENTS
FIREPLACE EXTENSION
HEARTH DETAILS
FIREPLACE
FIREPUCE CLEARANCE TO COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL
CLEARANCES
MORE THAN IO'
to' CHIMNEY 3'MtN. GAS VENT OR TYPE L VENT 2,MIN-
CHIMNEY 3 MtN. GAS VENT OR TYPE L VENT 2 MrN_
CHIMNEY
TERMINATION
CHIMNEY
LESS
THAN
IO'FROM
RIDGE,
WALI.-
AEOVE ANY ROOF SURFACE wtTHtN I O' HORIZONTALLY
-+
TERMINATION
MORE THAN
IO'FROM
No height above parapet required when distance trom walls or parapet is more than 10 ft
RIDGE, WALL, OR PARAPET
CLEARANCES BACKER ROD AND SEAUNT
MtN. t 2 TO COMBUSTIBLES l2-oFBRtcK
( E l J L
\ r
rACl.Onv_
Jllll
.'*=.*" \l I
;Tr
frfr-tiilER"* z =
I
o
CONNECTOR
USE CHIMNEY MANUFACTURER'S PART TO ATTACH CONNECTOR SECURELY
I
SOLID INSULATEO L'STEO FACTORY. BUILT CHIMNEY LENGTH
INS|DE OF // FLUE __--/
TwoArR CHANNES EACH tl J L
z
AIR CHANNELS -. EACH I CONSTRUCTED OF SHEET METAL
coNNLCron-\>
fflJs,? /
NOTES 1. Minimum chimney clearance trom rusonry to brick, sheet steel suF ports, and smbustibles 2 in. 2. Masonry chimneys constructed to N F P A2 11 .
1::2..
=F J lF
IHH- 1ffi;1". lHH\.",**." \S--'* 'tr
= .
I
CHTMNEY
ZSHEET STEEL ,../ suppoRTs / / ' f | /|-CHIMINEY | /l sEororu- ' l/|---
corurecroa ffi
/l_-T -_
sHEffMffAL SUPPORTS
MASONRYUNITS
CAP
_ MtN.
f l
E
/
?^
= I u
| \ ""'"tev coNNEcToR \ \2-lrnspaCg
SYSTEMS AND CLEARANCES
Grace_S.Lee; BippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C. BrianE. Trimble;Brick Institute of America;Resion.Virginia
I I
DETAIL AT CHIMNEY
SHES STEEL SUPPORTS
i
MrN 6Fl\ GUSSFIBERIII r N s u u T r o N" l I
CONCRETE CROWN
q'F+
|FHI :srig+'""-tlN llF
ANCHOR
NoNsoLUBLE REFRACTORY CEMENT)
R
U
CHIMNEY
CHIMNEY OR VENT
GAS VENT OR TYPE L VENT 2 MtN.
WALL OR PARAPff
PARAPET
THAN
CHIMNEY 3, MtN.
CHIMN€Y 3,MIN. GAS VENT OR TYPE L VENT 2,MIN.
OR VENT
OR
MORE
FROM COMEUSTIgLE
titeeaNce CEMENT WASH
I AIRSPACE TO CHIMNEY LENGTH CHIMNEY CONNECTOR CHIMNEY LENGTH
SUPPORTS
\MILLS
CHIMNEY
POT
FlueSizes,Shopes,ond Fireploce Froming HEIGHT OF ADJACENT FLUES SHOULD VARY APPROX 4'
239
*m lffi -t
ti
tr
'--*f
-
H
IHH IHH l|-,# 'k,.@,
'#
RECTANGULAR FLUE LINING (STANDARD)
NOTE Eachlareplaceor stove requires its own separateflue. FRAMING INSULATION OF WOOO MEMBERS AT A CHIMNEY
RECTANGULAR FLUE LINING (MODULAR)
INCOMBUSTIBLE FILL BRICK CHIMNEY CONCEALEO BEHIND STUD WALL FLUE ANGLE NOT LESS THAN 60' CUT FLUE TO ENSURE TIGHT JOINTS. MAINTAIN
INCOMBUSTIBLE AIRSPAC
ROUND
FLUE
N
LINING
DAMPER
FIREPUCE
BRICK
CLAY
FLUE
LININGS
CHIMNEY
CHIMNEY
EXPOSEO
FRAMING
AND
INSULATION
NOTES 1. Availability ol specific clay flue liners varies according to location. Generally, round fiue liners used in construction with reintorcing bars are available in the western states, while rectangular flue liners are commonly found throughout the eastern states- Check with lmal manufacturers for available tyDes and sizes2. Nominal flue size for round flues is interior diameter; nominal flue sizes for standard rectangular tlues are the exterior dimensions and, lor modular flue lif,ings, the outside dimensions plusr/, jn.
TYPICAL RESIDENTIAL
3. Areas shown are net minimum inside areas. 4. All flue liners are generally available in 2 {t lengths. 5. Fireplace flue sizes can be approximated using the tollowing rules of thumb: One-tenth the area of fireplace opening recommended: one-eighth the area of opening recommended if chimney is higher than 20 tt and rectangular flues are used: one-twelfth the area is minimum required; verify with local codes.
CHIMNEY
MASONRYUNITS
240
FireplqceOpenings:Dompers,Ash Dumps,ond Cleqnouts FRAMED METAL PRE.FAB FLUE
COMBUSTIBLE
HIGH FORMED DAMPER
(IN.)
HIGH FORM€D DAMPERSprovide corect ratio of throattefireplace opening with an optional pretormed smoke shelf, which can reduce material and labor reouirements. They are useful for both single and multiple opening fireoraces.
FORMED DAMPER
(IN.)
SQUARE FORMED DAMPER (IN.)
SOUAREFORMEDDAMPERS havehighslopingsidesthat promote even draw on alfsides ot multiple opening fireplaces. They are prop€rly proportiored for a strong draft and smokefreeoperation. FORMEOSTEEL DAMPERSare designed to provide the correct ratio of throat-t}tireplace opening,producingmaximum draft. Thsse dampers ar€ equippedwith poker type controland ar€ easilvinstalled.
FORMED STEEL DAMPERS
''1.-\ | l\
NOTES 1. Locateboltom of damperminimum 6 to 8 in. from top of fareplaceopening. 2. Mineral wool blanket allorc for exoansion of metal damperwalls. 3. Dampersare availabl€in heavygauge steel or cast iron. Checkwith l@l suppliersfor specificforms and sizes. 4. A cord of w@d consistsof 128 cu ft or a stack 4 tt high and 8 ft wide, with logs 4 ft long. 5. A face cord ot w@d consistsof 64 cu ft or a stack 4 lt high and I ft wide, with logs 2 ft long. 6. Logs are cut to lengths of 'l tI 4 in., 2 ft 0 in., 2 ft 6 in.. and 4 ft. Allow 3 in. minimum clearanc€b€tween loas and each side of fireDla@.
--.. \/-
a\
I\ASHPIT.1
CLEANOUT DOOR
DOOR DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
DUMP DtMENStONS(tN.) BlTlelr0 NOTE Ash dumps and cleanout doors are available in heavy gauge steel or €st iron. See local manufacturers for available typ€s and sizes.
CLEANOUT
OR ASHPIT
DOOR
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C.
MASONRYUNITS
ASH DUMP
Designof Speciol Fireploces
241
GENERAL Multifaced fireplaces have more than one face ol the firebox open to the r@m. There are three types of multifaced fireplaces: projected corner, with two adjacent sides open; double faced, with two opposite sides open; and three taced, with only one side built of masonry construction. Multifaced fireplaces usually are not as energy€fficient as conventional, single-faced fireplaces because there is less mass surrounding the lire to hold and radiate heat to the room. However, multitaced tireplaces usually are located on the interior of a space, not on an exterior wall. and their can be augmented by the features disenergyefficiency cussed below. The addition of energy€fficient features to fireplace design can increase both the combustion oJ the wood and the abi! ity to heat the room or building. Energy€fficient features for conventional lireplaces include glass doors, damper controls, and outside air intake to the firebox. Designs that increase radiant heat also are energy€f{icient. For example, fireplaces the obliquelv llared sides ot Rumlord-type increase radiant heat. Air{irculating tireplaces ancreasethe fireplace through from a heat emanating amount of radiant natural con /ection or by forced-air circulation.
TYPICAL
DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
TYPICAL
DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
NOTE
The sides of the lireplace are partiallyenclosedby recessing the brick into the wall behind the fireplace.This design helpseliminatesmoke from cross{rafts.
fireplaces The narrowness and length of narroslront require that they be fitted with two square€nd dampers. To allow for expansion, the dampers should be neither solidly emb€dded in mortar nor mechanically fastened to steel angles.
TffiTFIREPLACE
ffis-paggD, FIREPLACE
NOTE
SINGLE
NARRow FRoNT
DOUBLE LOW
HIGH
DAMPER ARRANGEMENT BONOM
OF DAMPER
.
TYPICAL
TYPICAL DIMENSIONS
DIMENSIONS
(IN.)
(IN.)
N OTE N OTE The fireplace must be l@ated and designed to allow proper updraft through both openings. Exterior doors should not be located opposite the tireplace on either side because they may cause cross{ratts through the fireplace.
T\^/O-FACED
FIREPLACE
NOTE This design is similar to the projecled{orner
THREE-FACED. FI REPLACE_S
\/vIDE FRONT ECTIO N
fireplace
fireThe significant difference between a projectedtorner place and a conventional singlejaced fireplace is the shape fireplace uses a square of the damper. A proiected{orner end damper instead ol a tapered€nd damper. The open side should have a shon wall to help stop the escape of occurcombustive gases when crossiralts
PROJECTED-CORNER
FIREPLACE
D.C Architects,P.C.;Washington, Rippeteau
MASONRYUNITS
242
StructurqlFocingTile:Wqllsecfionsond Properties
GENERAL
WALL SECTIONS
Structural clay facing tile rs chosen as an attractive and durable wall system in many speciatrzedapplicatrons,espe. cially when maintenance and.esistance to vandalism are consadered. Applications include walls and-partitions in correctional lacilities. schools, public buildings. and food processing facilities. Structural clay tile can be glazed or unglazed, load bearing or non load bearing, and behaves similarly to brick. Structural clay rile is manutactured in many sizes and shapes. Numbers and letters shown on the units in the ligures indicate the standard shape classifications of structural clav tile used bv manufacturers.
WALL
AND PROPERTIES
TYPE NUMBER
loao (lb/linear ft) Marenar quanilty (per 100 sq tt)
(BTU/sqft hr "F) Lateralsupportspacing required{tt) resrslance
NOTE S '1. % in. plasteron backof theseunitswill producet hourlire rating 2. lf collarjointis tilled,add 2.6 cu ft per 100sq ft of wall.
ffi ll GUZED FACING
TILE
ARICK
FACING TILE
2- STRETCHER
4,' STRETCHER
4- STRflCHER
MffAL TIES ] 6'' O,C, VERTICALL 36 0.C.
MSAL TIES I6. o.c. VERTICALLY
HORIZONTALLY
HORIZONTALLY
TYPE 4 6 IN. WALL FACES BOTH SIDES METAL TIE BONO
SECTION
4
IN.
WALL
FRAME CLOSURE
6T54NR
6Trc2NL
6T54ANL 4 IN. SINGLE-FACED WALL WITH SILL AND JAMB; SQUARE LINTEL RUNNING BOND
BULLNOSE
SECTION
SECTION
GraceSj Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C. FacingTile Institute;Washington,D.C.
MASONRYUNITS
EXTERIOR BUCK
6 IN. DOUBLE.FACEO WING WALL BONDED TO MAIN WALL WITH TYPICAL BUTT JOINTS
FRAME
FITTTNGS
TYPE 5 I O TN. CAVITY WALL BRICK ONE FACE TILE ONE FACE
Teno-Cottoond Cerqmic Veneer TERRA-COTTA
N OTES
Te.ra{otta is a high grade ot weathered or aged clay, which, when mixed with sand or with pulverized f ired clay, can be molded to a hardness and compactness no6obtainable wilh other materials. Used extensively until the 1930s, terrarotta has been largely replaced with ceramic veneer.
Ceramic veneer can be anchored or adhered to masonrV.
Terra{otta was usually hollow cast in blocks, open to the back lo reveal internal webbing. Ceramic veneer is not hollow cast but is a veneer of glazed ceramic tile that is ribbed on the back. lt is frequently attached to metal ties that are anchored to the building. Other tvpes of terra{otta
are:
l.Brownstone terratotta. A dark red or brown block, which is hollow cast. Used extensively in the mid- to late1gth century. 2. Fireproof @nstruction terra{otta. Inexpensive and light weight, these rough-finished hollow burlding blocks span widely b€ams. The blocks are available but not used today. 3. Glazed architectural terra{otta. Hollow unats were hand cast in rulds or carved in clay and heavily glazed. Sometimes called architectural ceramics, this terrarotla type was used until the 1930s.
The ceramic veneer manufacturer should provide scale shop drawings as detailed from the architect's drawings. To be used for setting, the shop drawings should indicate all dimensions and sizes of joints, and all anchors. hangers, expansion, and control or pressure-relievingjoints. Nonferrous metal anchors should be embedded in the masonry and encased for Drotection from corrosion. The minimum thickness ol anchored-type ceramic veneer, exclusive of ribs. should be 1 in. Ceramic veneer should be set true to line in setting mortar. Spaces between anchored ceramic veneer and backing walls should be lilled with grout: spaces % in. or more in width with pea gravel and spaces 3/. in. with monar. The minimum thickness of adhesion-WDe ceramic veneer, including ribs, should be lL in. with ribbed or scored backs. An evenly spread coat of neat portlano @ment and water should be aoolied to the wall and the entire back of the ceramic veneer panel about to be set. Then one hall ol the setting mortar coat should be immediately applied on the chosen wall area and the other on the ceramic veneer piece's entire back. Tap the piece into place on the wall to completelv fill all voids, with the tolal thickness of the mortar averaging % in. Th6re should be some excess mortar forced out at the joints and edge of the c€ramic veneer.
243
MOLD-PRESSED CERAMIC VENEER The minimum thickness ol the exposed faces of moldpressed ceramic veneer is 1 in. Eacks of special shapes should be open and ribbed. For placement, turn all units bottom side up and fill solidly with grout liller fo. mold-pressed ceramic veneer. When the fill has set sufficiently to permit handling. set the units. When applied to soffits, each piece of ceramic veneer. in addition lo the usual centers and wooden wedges, shall be supponed by bent and vertical wooden shores. A constant upward pressure is needed unlil the mortar coat has set. Adhesion can be tested with a 1 x 1 x 4 in. vitrified test bar. First dissolve vinyl acetate in methyl iso-butyl keytone. Applv to the ceramic veneer surface and test bar. The adhesive is heated by means ol an infrared lamp until bubbling ceases. Press the two surfaces together until cool. Then knock or pry off test bar.
TERRA-COTTA PANEL
VENEER
PRECAST
Terra{otta precast panels have a keyback design, which allows each piece to easily become an integral part of the precast unit through a mechanical bond. No fasteners are neeoeo. W I N D O WU N I T SEAUNT C E R A M I CV E N E E R 3/a" MoRTAR BED
r/s" ANcHoRs
METAL SUPPORT SYSTEM ANGLE CLIP WELDED TO METAL PUTE ANO STUD CAST IN CONCRffE (TYP.)
MASONRY BACKUP LOOP OOWEL ANCHOR AT I S- O.C r/4" Roo 1/." PtNs AT JotNTS . EXTRUOED TERRA.
.DOVETAIL SLOT DOVETAIL ANCHOR LOOP
DOWEL
l/s" ANcHoR CERAMIC
BACKER PANEL METAL ANCHOR (TYP.)
VENEER
TERRA.COTTA OOVffAIL IN AACKUP
DOVflAIL
PRECAST
SLOT SYSTEM
ANCHOR
3/4" MoRTAR BED
l/s" ANcHoR
I CERAMIC VENEER
CERAMIC VENEER CERAMIC
VENE
r/4" RoD
MffAL UTH l/2" scRATcH COAT 3/i" MoRTAR BED
rs " o.c
r/s" ANcHoR BACKUP SYSTEM
' I CERAMIC VENEER
C E R A M I CV E N E E R TERRA.COTTA
ETE METAL FRAMING
L@P- DOWEL ANCHOR AT
ADHESION
PANEL CONCRETE OR BLOCK BACKUP
(ANCHORED)
STUOS WOOD FRAMF MEMBRANE WATERPROOFING
MORTAR DOVETAILED VENEER BACK t/s'ANcHoR CERAMIC VENEER TYPICAL
AASE
NOTE
ADHESION TERRA-COTTA
(ANCHORED)
WIREMESH l/4" scRATcH COAT 3/a" MoRTAR BED I CERAMIC VENEER CERAMIC VENEER ON WOOD STUDS
Design of Eest Products Corporation
TER RA-COTTA
VI/ALL SECTION
ANCHORING
SYSTEMS
GROUT-ADHERED
CERAMIC VENEER
Architects,PC;Washington,D.C EricK. Beach;Rippeteau
MASONRYUNITS
244
GlossBlock: DesignDolo
GENERAL
PANERNS OCCUR ON THE INTERIOR SURFACE PRIOR TO FUSING
Glass bloct rs a drverse buildrng malerial whose many apphcatrons exhrbrt ils multilaceted: characteris{ics. I he varying forms of glass block - 1ype, thrckness,.jlize, shape, and patterns - along wrth the methods of insblfatron can combine to create unique design solutions. Applications range from entire facades. windows, interior dividers. and partitions to skylights, floors, walkways. and staiMays. In all applications. glass block units permit the control ot light, both natural and artificial, for function or drama. Glass block also allows for control of thermal transmission, noise, dust, and dratts. With the use of thick-faced glass block or solid 3 in. bullet-resistant block, security can also be achieved.
EXPANSION STRIP
The basic glass blck unit is made of two halves fused together with a panial wcuum inside. Facesmay be clear, figu.ed, or with integralrelief forms. Glassblock is availablein thicknessesrangingfrom a minimum of 3 in. for solidunitsto a maximumof 4 in. (nominal) tor hollow units. Metric thicknessesranqe from 76 to 98 mm
MORTAR glassblockunitsis 'l An optimummonarmixfor installing panportland cement,I /2partlime,and4 partssand. The table below gives the number of glass block that can be installed with a mortar batch consisting oI: 1.0 cu ft (1 bag/94 lb) portland cement 0.5 cu ft (20 lb) lime 4.0 cu ft (320 lb) sand
SQUARE
GLASS
BLOCK/MORTAR
BATCH
End block units have a rounded,finished surfa€ on one edge. They may be used to end interior partitionsor walls as well as spacedividerswhen installedhorizontally.
41ltin.x 4'lzin. 6 in. x 6 in. (5% in. x 53/!in. actual) 1lrin.x71l.in. 8 in. x 8 in. (73t in. x 73L in. actuall 91/,in. x 91/,in. 12in. x 12in. (11%in. x l1% in. actual)
END BLOCK
1 1 5m m x 1 1 5m m '190 190 mm x mm 240 mm x 240 mm 300 mm x 300 mm NOTES Metric sizes are available from foreign manutacturers through distributorsin the UnitedStates.
1. Includesl 57owaste 2- Basedon a r/. in. exposedjoint
# SOUND
sTc,
*'tA'
PANEL REINFORCING
Jf*'t;
m
TRANSMISSION'
stze
PATTERN
d
X5
XJ
AII panerns
8
x8" x4
All patterns
ASS EM B LY CONSTRUCTION
sy REGUUR THICKSET Some manufacturersprovide thick blocks for criticalapplicationswhere a thick-faed. heavierglassblock is needed. These bl@ks haw a superior sound transmissionrating properti€s.Their faes are three times as thick as regular unrrs.
All patterns
with LX fibrousfilter E xE x4 thick {aced block
hrck blocl
<>o9 p t_trtL\,' 45" BLOCK
J"
THICK BLOCK 50ltd block
solidunits NOTES 1- Testedin accordance with ASTM E90-90"... Measurerent ot AirborneSoundTransmission Loss..." 2.STC rating value in accordancewith ASTM E413-87 "Classificationfor RalingSoundInsulation." 3. Test method and STC rating value in accordancewith ASTM E9G81and ASTM E413-73accordingly.
THERMAL
BLOCK
PERFORMANCE/LIGHT
TYPE
HEAT TRANSMISSIO U-VALU E ( BTU/H R FT" "F)
Solid glass block units (glass bricks) are impacl resistant and allow throughvision.
CORNER BLOCK
Solarmntrol units have either insertsor exteriorcoatingsto reduce heat gain. C@ted units requireperiodiccleaningto remove alkali and retal ions that can harm the surface coating. Edge drips are requir€d to prevent moisture rundou,n on the surface.
n
PANEL REINFORCING
fr,C
fr rmo
TRANSMISSION,'
THERMAL RESISTANCE' R-VALUq ( H R FT' -FIBTU
)
THERMAL EXPANSION cpEFFrctENT (rF\
CORNER
SHADING COEFFICIENT'
BLOCK
A few manufacturershave sp€cialshapes to execute cor ner designs. These units also may be placed together for varyingpatternsand fo.ms. SPECIAL SHAPES
sheet glass
NOT€ S 1. Valuesequalr 5%. 2. Winter night values. 3.To calculateinstantaneousheat gain through glass block panels, see ASHRAE Handbookof Fundamentals,1985, section 22.41 .8. 4. Basedon I in. squareunits: ratio of heat gain throughglassblockpanelsvs. that througha single light ol doublestrengthsheet glassunderspecificconditions.
GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau Architects,PC;Washington, D.C.
GLASSUNITMASONRY
(CORNERS)
n{tt4ffi
-suRFAcEDESrcN
Surfacedecorationmay be achievedwith fused{n ceramic, etching, or sandblasting.Glass block units ruy be split or shippedin halvesin order to apply some decorationto the inside.Blocksthen must be resealed.Resealedblocks will not perform the same under various stresses as factory sealedunits. Placementin walls or panelsshouldbe limited to areasreceivingminimum loading-
GlossBlockDeioils MAXIMUM
PANEL
DIMENSIONS
245
NOTE Full bed of mortar typrcallyr/a in. wide at face ot wall. Mortar to be type S optimum mixture: '1 part portland cement '/, pan lime 4 pans sand
SECURE METAL ANCHORS PANEL TO BLOCK GUSS CONSTRUCTION ADJACENT (BEND WITHIN EXPANSION JOINT)
PERIMETER SUPPORT METHOD
STRIP EXPANSION TO ALLOW FOR DIFFERENTIAL
NOTE Maximum exterio. panel sizes are based on a design wind load ot 20 lb/sq ft with a 27 salely tactor.
JOINT HORIZONTAL AS REOUIRED REINFORCING FOR EACH INSTALUTION
MOVEMENT
CLEAN SURFACES AFTER E]RECTION WITHORDINARY SCRUB H O U S E H O L D SCRUts HOUSEHOLD BRUSH W|TH STIFF BntStUES --
GLASS BLOCK J32''
MIN.
,/
./
PANEL COMPONENTS
RAD
ELEVATION
NOTES 1. Area of exterior unbraced panel should not exceed 144 sq ft. 2. Area of interior unbraced panel should not exceed 250 sq
ir. 3 Panels are designed to be mortared at sill, with head and jambs providlng for movement and settling. Deflection of lintel at head should be anticioated. 4. Consult manufacturers {or specific design limitations of glass blek panels. Thickness of block used also determines maximum panel srze.
(65' MIN. RAD A" SOUARE BLOCK)
INTERMEDIATE EXPANSION JOINTS ANO SUPPORTS
NUMBER OF BLOCKS FOR lOO SQ FT PANEL
GLASS
BLOCK
CURVED
PANELS
€LASTIC PERMANENTLY SEALING COMPOUND
FOR MINIMUMS RADIUS PANEL CONSTRUCTION MANUFACTURER'S EXPANSION JOINT MATERIAL
INTERMEOIATE EXPANSION JOINTS AND SUPPORTS
DO NOT BRIOGE EXPANSION REINFORCING JOINT WITH PANEL
JOI NT THICKNESS BLOCK
NOTES
N OTE Expansion ioints should be installed at every change ol direction ol a multicuryed wall, at points o{ curved wall intersection with straight walls, and at cenler of curvature in excess of 90 degrees.
GLASS BLOCK EXPANSION
CURVED
JOINT
1. lt is suggested that curued areas be separated from flat areas by intermediate expansion ioints and supports. as indicated in these drawings. 2. When straight, ladder-type reinforcing is used on curued walls, the innermost parallel wire may be cut periodically and bent to accommodate the curuature of the wall.
4
XU
6" x 6
CURVEO PANEL CONSTRUCTION
D.C Architects,PC;Washington, GraceS. Lee;Rippeteau
GLASSUNITMASONRY
(IN.)
246
GlqssBlockDetoils
TYPICAL CRITERIA
SUPPORT
DESTGN
METAL
FSSHING
STEEL
STUD
(STRIPPED
IN)
HORIZONTAL REINFORCING
.
When specifying supports and shelf angles. the installed werght and deflection limitation of the glass block should be taken into account. Local building coCes should be checked for any limits on panel sizes or installation details.
INSTALLED WEIGHT OF GLASS BLOCK
SEAUNT
WEEP
STEEL
TUBE
STEEL
LINTEL . WELO
CHANNEL TO TUBE
SPACE
V\/EIGHT
STEEL
SEAUNT AND BACKER (TYP.)
PANEL
AND
BACKER (TYP.) STEEL CHANNEL
INSUUTION
DEFLECTION
INSTALLED (LBISA FT)
FRAMING
CHANNEL
EXPANSION STRIP
HEAO AT STUB WALL WITH BRICK
EXTERTOR FrNrsH ---_\
I |
DEFLECTION LIMITATIONS Maximum deflection of structural members supporting glassblockpanelsshallnot exceed:
oerucloru ,) SPACE --___j-l
GUSS
Where L = distancebetween verticalsuppons
BLOCK UNIT
BACKER(TYP.) MASONRY UNIT WALL
HEAO AT CONCRETE GUSS
EXPANSION STRIP
CHANNEL SEAUNT AT WELO TO TUBE LINER (TYP. ) JAMB AT STUD WALL WITH BRICX
'" u'r$l
L 600-
BLOCK UNIT
STEEL STUO STEEL TUBE
SEAUNT AND AACKER (TYP.) FILL SPACE WITH EXPANSION STRIPS
BLOCK UNIT MORTAR
PRECAST CONCRtrE
-
ASPHALT
I\
--
EMUsroN
SILL I
i|
/|NTER|OR
lcuss
CONCRETE MASONRY
BLOCK UNIT
UNIT
HORIZONTAL PANEL REINFORCING
FtN|SH
ll"
tNTERtoR FrNrsH --l SILL AT CONCRETE
EXTERIOR
MASONRY UNIT WALL
CONNECTION
STEEL ANGLE ztt2x2xttal'fyp.)
I
JAMB AT CONCRETE
MASONRY UNIT WALL
DETAILS MffAL
STEEL BRACE .SECURE TO STRUCTURE ABOVE
STUD
FRAMING
SEAUNT
ELEVATION
(TYP.)
HORIZONTAL PANEL REINFORCING
-tSEAUNT AND BACKER (TYP.)
MORTAR
rtr
GUSS
/'"-
SUSPENDEO CEILING
\ OEFLECTION
SPACE
ASPHALT EMUT-SION
SEAUNT
SEAUNT BACKER
SEAUNT
PANEL ANCHOR
MULLION AND (TYP )
(TYP.)
BLOCK UNIT
PANEL ANCHOR
souo BLOCKING
EXPANSION STRIP
EXPANSION STRIP
HEAO AT SUSPENDED
CEILING
JAMB
AT
INTERIOR
PARTITION
METAL STUD (TYP.) METAL STUD FRAMING
PANEL ANCHOR
EXPANSION STRIP
GYPSUM BOARD
\L-cYPsuM DEFLECTION
BoARD
SEAUNT
SEAUNT
MORTAR MULLION
PANEL
ASPHALT EMULSION
HORIZONTAL REINFORCING
SOLID BLOCKING (TYP.)
EXPANSION STRIP
ANCHOR
EXPANSION
HEAD AT INTERIOR
Gt-ASS BLOCK
SEAUNT BACKER
UNIT
ANO (TYP,)
INTERIOR
SOLID BLOCKING
PARTITION
CONNECTION
JAMB AT PERPENDICUI-AR
PANEL
GUSS
BLOCK
PANEL
ANCHOR
EXPANSION
UNIT
STRIP
PARTTYION
DETAILS
PANEL ANCHOR (TYP.) SHELF ANGLES IN VERTICAL PANELS
MULTIPLE
HOLLOW MffAL OOOR HEAO
EXPANSION STRIP
(TYP,)
SEAUNT
JAMB ANCHOR , SECURE TO STEEL BAR CONTINUOUS STEEL BAR , SECURE TO STRUCTURE ABOVE
(TYP.)
STEEL BAR LINTEL
PANEL ANCHORS ANACHED TO
STEEL PUTE
HOLLOW METAL DOOR AND JAMB HEAD AT OOORFRAME
SUPPORT IN HORIZONTAL
MULTIPLE PANELS
SECTION/ELEVATION
HORIZONTAL REINFORCING
PUTE EXPANSION
N OTE Panels with an expansion joint stiffener incorporating a con_ cealed vertical plate should be limited to 10 ft maximum height. HEAD AT DOORFRAME
SECTTONS AT SUPPORTS
GraceS. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C
GLASSUNITMASONRY
DOORFRAME
PUN
DETAILS
(JOINT ABOVE JAMB)
STRIP
PANEL
StoneUsesqnd properties GENERAL
The threeJock classes are rgneous, sedrmentary. and mela_ morpnrC. UOmmon COnSlructiOnSlOneSare marketed Under the names grven in the table below, although specialtv stoneS sUch aS soapstone and serpentrne a'so are avarlable tach stone has various commerctal graoes. Ltmestone grades are A, statuary; B, selectj C, sranOarO;D. rust,c; E, varegated and F, old Gothic. Marbte rs gradeo A, B, C, or D on the basis of working qualities, uniformity, and ftawi and rmpertectlons.
N a t u r a l s t o n e r s u s e d , n b u , l d i . g a s a f a c t n g .v e n e e r , and oecoratron. lhe malor lactors affecbng the suilability and use ot stone fall under two broad. bul overlappinq qj19q9_ nes: physrcal and structural propertres and aesthetic quilrlres. lhe three lacrors of burldrngStone that most influence therr selection by archttects for aesthetic reasons are oaF tern, texture, and color. Consideration also should be oiven to costs, availability, weathering characteristics, phtsical propenies, and size and thickness limitations.
PHYSICAL STONE
Stone patterns are highly vailed, and they provrde special teatures that make burldrng stone a unique material. Tex_ rufe rs vafled, rangrng trom coarse fragments to fine grains and crystalline structures. Texture also varies with ththardness of minerals composing the stone. To accuratelv compare stone colors lhe rock color chart publshed by the Geological Society of America (Boulder, CO) is recom_ mended. Samples also may be used to eslablish acceptable color ranges for a panicular installation. Pattsn, texture, and @lor all are affected by how the stone is fabricated and finished. Granites tend to hold their color and pattern, while limestone color and pattern changes wrlh exposure Texiures may range from rough and flamed lrnrshes to honed or polished surfaces. The harder lhe stone, the better it takes and holds a polish.
STONE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING
PROPERTIES
OF
The physical characteflstics ot a panicular stone must be surraore lor tts tntended use. lt rs imporlant to determine the physical p.operties of the actual stone being used rather lhan using values from a geneilc table, *n,cn'can Oe very mrsreadlng. uonsrderations of the physrcal propentes of the stone being selected include modulus ot,rpture, shear.strength. coefticient of expansion, pe,maneni iirt_ versrore growlh and change in shape, creep deflectron, compresstve strength, modulus of etastrcrty. moisture resistanc€, and weatherability. Epoxy adhesrves, otten used wrth slone, are affected by cleanlness ot surfaces to be bonded and ambient temperature. Cunng time rncreases wrth cotd temperatures and decreases with warmer tem. peratures.
TO QUALITIES AFFECTING
C LASS
SPECIAL
FABR ICATION,AND
241
INSTALLATION
With the rntroductron ot new syslems of tabr1s61,91 a.a rnstailatron.and recenl developments rn the destgn and oelailrng ol slone cu[rng, suppoat, and anchoraqe. costs are b€tter controlled. Correct design of ioinls, seieclion ol monars, and use of sealants affect the quality and durabiljtv of installation.Adequate design and Aetiitinq'of the anchei' age of each piece of stone are required. The size and thick_ ness ol the stone should be established based on physjcal propedies of the stone, its method of anchorage, and the loads it musl resist. Appropriate safety faclorishould be developed based on the variabtlity ol the stone properlres as well as other considerations such as imperfect work_ manship, method of support and anchorage, and degree of exposure of the cladding installation. Relieving angles for stone support and anchorage may be necessarV to Oreclude unacceptable loading of the stone. The stone should be prolected from slaining and breakage during shipment, delivery, and installation. Since stone cladding design and detailing vary with type o{ stone and installation, the designer should consult itone supptrers,stone.-se_tting specialty contractors, industry stan dards (such as ASl Ml, and other publicatrons to hetp selecl ano rmptement a stone cladding system. Resource rnforma tron is available in publications such as the Indiana Lime_ stone lnstitute's lndiana Limestffie Handb@k and the Marble lnstitute of America's Dimensioned Stone. lvol. g.
USE
FEATURES
HARDNESS
CHIEF
USES
red;may tarnishto brown
to black: also blue{rav and light to dark otive gieeh; also prnKtsn
rgneousrock)
used tor building
colorsor angularrock pises or fossils
may have irregular lractures
stonebut usuallyin panels decoratave
May be bandedwith pink, whrte, or gray streaksand
Not.necessanly anyregular panrngDuttractures irregularly Not necessarilyany regular partrngbut may fracture rrregulafly
6urldrng stone,but als panelingif attractively colored
Vafies: pank,purple, black; usable, rarely almost white
Burldrngstone, but also use( an panels if nicely banded or
crystalline as strong as granite; if
buildingstone; not decorative txceltent ior burldrng but hard to "shape"
dark brown, usuallygray; may be banded
crystals give slaty {acture
gray wrth some whtte. or hght gray
PHYSICAL
ts
bands very weak, however
PROPERTTES OF REPRESENTATIVE IGNEOUS
PHYSICAL
PROPERTY
quanzile: scratches easily
GRANITE
No special paning; tends to break along banding
be decorative if banded
STONES ROCK
SEDIMENTARY LIMESTONE
ROCK
METAMORPHIC
ROCK SLATE
strength {psr) Imate stress {psi)
stress(psi) ensron -
allowable
Ing stress
water (percentage by expansron N OTE P€nicular stones may vary greatlV from average properlres shown In table. A panicular stone s physical propenres. as
well as its allowable working values, always should be developed for each panicular application.
The McGuire & Shook Corporation: lndianapotis, Indiana Christine Beall, RA. CCS; Austin. Texas
STONE
248
StoneMosonry;;;tt
ono veneer -
-tl
I
tl
tl
It l{
FIELOSTONE
UNCOURSED
PATTERN
COURSED
_
ASHLAR
RUNNING
ONE-HEIGHT
BOND
PATTERN
(SINGLE
RISE)
tf
ililtl
=I =-l
llll ]|----''----.--l|
IFL lF-rr
ilil
il
lL TWO-HEIGHT PATTERN QO 6096 AT s rN.)
ASHLAR
UNCOURSED
LEDGE ROCK PATTERN
RANDOM COURSED
UNCOURSED
ROUGHLY SQUARE PATTERN
RANDOM BROKEN COURSEO ASHI.AR
RUBBLE STONE MASONRY ELEVATIONS PATTERNS -
SPLIT STONE PATTERNS -
€€gr
ANCHOR
ANCHOR
THREE - HEtcHT PATTERN ( | 5 40% AT s lN.; 4s96 AT 7% tN.)
AT 2rl. lN.;
SPLIT STONE MASONRY HEIGHT ELEVATIONS PATTERNS -
MASONRY ELEVATIONS TYPE C OR D
TYPE A OR B
A"f 2'1.IN.i
STONE TO STRUCTURE
STONE TO STONE
ANCHORS
SQUARE
COLUMNS
INSTALLATION
ROUND/QUADRANT
NOTES 'L A course is a horizontalrow oI stone. Bond pattern is describedby the horizontalarrangementof verticalioints (Se also Brickwork.)Structuralbond refers to the physi' cal tying together of load bearingand veneer portaoisol a comoosite wall. Structuralbond can be accomplished with metal ties or with stone units set as headersinto the backup. 2. Ashlar masonry is composed of squared{ff building stone units of varioussizes.Cut ashlaris dressedto spe cilic designdimensionsat the mill. Ashlaris oflen used in randomlengths and heights.with jointing worked out on the job. 3. All ties and anchorsmusl be made of noncorrosivemate rial. Chromiufrnickel stainlesssteel types 302 and 304 and eraydoalloyzincare the most resistantto corrosion and staining.Use stainlesssteel type 316 in highlycorrosive environments{potlutedor near the sea).Copper, b.ass,and bronzewill stain under some conditions.Local buildingcodes often governthe tYpesof metal that may be used for some stone anchors. cement mortarshouldbe used on porous 4. Nonstaining and light colored stones.At all cornersuse extta tles ano when possible,larger stones. Joints for rough work are usually1/, lo I 1/, in. and 3/sto 3L in. Jor ashlar.Prevent electr@hemicalreactionbetween different metals combined in the same assemblyby properlyisolatingor coat Ingtnem_
COLUMNS
DETAILS
SPOTS MORTAR AT ANCHOR LOCATIONS
BACKUP BACKUP WALL AIRSPACE
NONCORROSIVE CORRUGATED
SCRATCH
COAT
CAVITY VENEERED WALL
TYPICAL
WALL
THIN
VENEERED
SECTIONS
GeorgeM. Whiteside,lll, AIA and James D. Lloyd: KennettSquare,Pennsylvanaa BuildingSton€ Instilute: New York, New York AlexanderKeyes;RippeleauArchitects.PC;Washington,D C
STONE
WALL
(INTERIOR
ONLY)
StoneCornicer, por HOLD GRour
---__1
-
Fnov
I 1lr" Dta HoLEs
gXoJJu!?roDSrN
d euoins /.
/-
3t4- Dta cALv
sieic oo;rLs /./
24g
otA. GALV. srEEL
-3ta
;A"EADEDRoDs
\
METAL FUSHING FOR GUNER BALUSTER
l-
II
BALUSTRADE
5' HOLE FOR RAIN LEADER
CORNICE tlz'
t"
WITH BUILT-IN GUTTER
ELEVATION
GROUT AROUND ROD HOLE INBALUSTRADE
IN 3" DIA BASE
- FusHtNG
( ,.o"rK rNREGLET
!ft
SECTION CORNICE
AT JOINT SECTION
STONE MtrAL FUSHING OVER STONE JOTNTS -=\
BALUSTRADE
CORNICE WITH SEPARATE PARAPET CAULK IN REGLET\
METAL FUSHING
SECTION
WEDGE
STONE STEPS AND CUR
.lo" oln. eorr-{ MffAL FUSHING OVER JOINTS
BOLT FLASHING DETAIL
v N OTE Dow^el between stone pieces allows flat interrupted flash: ng. Dowel set vertically is typicdt for stepped ftashing (mrn. z oowels oer stone) GOTHIC-TYPE STONE COPINGS, INSTDEWASH
l t/2" MlN
PARAPET
STONE
AS
CORNICE
PARAPET
STAGGERED
DETATLS
PATTERN
STONE QUOIN
CENTER DOWEL
2 VERTICAL DOWELS PER
DRIPS
STEPPEO
EACH
SIDE
ALTERNATING PATTERN
IN BRICK WALL
PLAIN
STONE
STONE
FUSHING COPING
COPINGS
RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsviile. Maryland
STONE
StoneDoorond WindowSurrounds
250
lRoN 1t r"' x 31e" wRouGHT AND ANCHOR GALVANIZED SET INTO HORIZONTAL sTONE JOINT
-sroNEWALL /ll/'ANcHoR
-
1
I
-
/-MFaal (3PERJAMb
l/
\tl
GROUT CAVITY
HOLLOW
DOOR
METAL FRAME FRAME
THAN
METAL FRAME
/
sToNE WALL METAL
ANCHOR
GROUT
HINGE DETAIL SHOWING
CONTINUOUS CAULK
METAL DOOR FASTENER
STONE ANCHOR
METAL FRAME
I l/e" x 3/e" GALVANIZED WROUGHT IRON ANCHOR SET INTO HORIZONTAL DETAILS
HEAD ANO JAMS
ELEVATTOTWOOD
WALL
AT STONE
DOOR IN STONE WALL 'i,sTONE
\' TRIM
wooD SCRff STEEL ANCHOR EXPANSION
AOLT
wooo SIDELIGHI
HEAD (AND JAMB) AT SIDELIGHT
HEAD (ANO JAMB) AT DOOR
\,VOOD FRAME STONE
WALL
STONE
ARCH
STRIKE DETAIL SHOWING
CONCEALED
DETAILS
ANCHOR
STONE ANCHOR
DOOR DETAILS
HEAD AND JAMB DETAILS AT CAVITY WALL
METAL FRAME
ALTERNATE
DETAILS
STONE LINTEL
LIMESTONE
TRACING
GUSS 3/e'DtA. GALVANIZED BARS. 12- TO I o.c. To REINFORCE GUSS
LEADEO ART STONE
LUG
SILL
ANO
DETAIL
LINTEL
Z-
sToNE St[
\
SILL
ELEVATION-\^r'INDOv\/
IN STONE
VI/ALL
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsville,Maryland
STONE
STONE
DETAIL
SECTION
A_WINDOW
IN STONE
WALL
SLIP
ALTERNATE
SILL
--
STONE SLIP SILL
LINE
OF
OETAIL
STONE TRIM DETAILS
StonePonelson SteelFromingond SfoneCornices
251
N OTES Use of the steel stud supporl system as shown requires an archilect o. engrneer to develop adequate and real.strcper lormance criteria. including thorough consideration o{ the long-term durability and corrosion resistance of light gauge members. mechanical fasteners, and other svstem comoc nents: provisions for adequale thermal movementj devel opment of adequate system strength and stillness; recognition of the structural interaction between the stone support system; and consideration of vapor retarders and flashing to control moisture migration. lt also is important that adequate provisions be developed to ensure qualitv workmanship necessa.y to implement the system and to achieve the expected quality and durability. The stone thickness depicted is a minimum oI 111, in. '| hrcker stone malerials can use the same type of support system; however, engineering analyses ot the system will be necessary to ensure proper performance and compliance with recommended design practices. Design criteria for stone anchorage must include consider ation of the panicuiar stone's average as well as lowest strength values for safety, particularly at ancho.age pojnts. The proposed stone should be tested for adequate design propenaes and values. Stone anchorage size and location depend on establ;shing the particular stone's strength val ues, natural faults, and other properties; the stone's thickness and supported area; the expected lateral as well as gravity loadjng; and the amouot ol thermal movement 10 be accommodated.
STONE DOWEL
HARD
STONE
CANT
PANEL
RAKE JOINT TO RELIEVE POSSIALE COMPRESSIVE
SENING
MEMBRANE
TREATED NAILER
WOOD
STEEL SPLIT,TAIL ANCHOR IN VERTICAL JOINT (SHIM AS REQUIRED)
CONCRETE FILLED STEEL OECK
RIGID
CONCRETE ROOF STRUCTURE
ANCHOR
ANCHOR BOLTS ANO PUTES SHOULD BE INSTALLEO AT VERTICAL
LIMESTONE ARCHITRAVE LIMESTONE FACING
WALL
INSUUTION
INSULATION
SPANDREL
FUSHING
STEEL SHELF ANGLE WITH DOWEL WELD OR BOLT TO CLIP ANGLE
CEILING
LINE
NOTE Required steel fireprooling has been omitted for clarity.
SECTION THROUGH
ROOF PARAPET AT HARD STONE PANEL
WINDOW MULLION (SHIM AS REQUIRED)
REVEAL GYPSUM BOARD
I 5{ FELT OVER GYPSUM BOARD SHEATHING {TYP )
PADS
STRIP
FIRESAFING CONTAINED IN STEEL CLOSURE
SEALANT WITH BACKER ROD
STANOARD STRAP
STEEL
ROOFING
SEAUNT WITH BACKER ROO AND WEEPS
ROOFING AND ROOF FILL )
CAP WITH ANCHORS
FUSHING
STE€L
SPLIT.TAIL
ANCHOR
AUNKET INSUUTION STEEL ANGLE WELD TO EMBEDDEO STEEL ANGLE FIRESAFING
FLOOR
CONTAINED
IN STEEL CLOSURE EMBEODED WITH POST
STEEL ANCHOR
SPANOREL
FUSHING
CONCRETE FILLED STEEL DECK
SECTION
Shown here is the most common method of anchorino a co.nice, which has a projectron large enough to be balanc;d in the wall. The bed ioint immediately below the heaw cornice is open far enough back to remove anv compresstve stress that would have a tendency to break off stone below.
PUSTIC
SHIMS
AS REQUIRED SEAUNT WITH BACKER ROO WITH WEEPS
PROVIOE SLEEVE WITHIN STUD SYSTEM FOR VERTICAL EXPANSION
STEEL SHELF ANGLE WITH OOWEL WELD OR BOLT TO CLIP ANGLE STEEL SPLIT-TAIL ANCHOR IN VERTICAL
(SHIM AS REOUIRED)
N OTE JOINT
SECTION THROUGH
Required steel fireproofing been omitted for clarity.
has
HARD STONE PANEL AT WTNDOW WALL I 5f, FELT OVER GYPSUM BOARD SHEATHING
t1--1--:
N OTE Shown are live possible cornice desagns. Indiana limestone can be fabricated easily and economically to almost any profile. See examples.
TRADITIONAL
CORNICES
SPACER SLEEVE BOLTS THROUGH GYPSUM BOARD
SECTIONAL
FOR
STEEL SHELF ANGLE ON A STRESSLESS DISC OVER A BED OF EPOXY, DEAO BOLT TO REAR FACE OF STONE
AT VERTICAL JOINT
STONE
PANEL
SEAUNT
WITH
STEEL ON A OVER DEAD FACE
SHELF ANGLE STRESSLESS DISC A BED OF EPOXY, BOLT TO REAR OF STONE
SECTION AT VERTICAL JOINT
The SpecterGroup;North Hills,New York
STONE
StonePonelson SteelFroming
252
CONTINUOUS COPING STONE SEALANT WITH BACKER
ROD
STEEL STAINLESS ANCHOR SPLIT.TAIL IN VERTICAL JOINT (SHIM AS REOUIREO)
FLASHING r/4 RouNo DR|P STEEL STUD BUILT.UP HEAOER
KERF IN STONE CONTINUOUS TO BE FILLED WITH SEAUNT IS PUCED ANCHOR AflER
ORIP
TEEL STUD AUILT.UP HEADER ROOFINGMEMBRANE 3/a'' EXTERioR PLYwooD ON STEEL STUDS TREATEO WOOD NAILER
GRIO
CLIP
SYSTEM
t 5I BUILDING FELT OVER GYPSUM BOARO SHEATHING
RIGID INSUUTION
PANEL
STEEL
STAINLESS
FUSHING
ANGLE WITH DOWEL CHANNEL
TREATED WOOO NAILER
CONTAINED
STEEL CLOSURE STONE
STEEL STAINLESS WITH STRAP ANCHOR DOWEL AT JOINT
HEAVYGAUGE SLIDING AOLT SEAUNT OVER OOWELED CONNECTION
ROOFING MEMBRANE 3/4" EXTERTORPLYWOOD ON STEEL STUOS
I 5I FELT OVER GYPSUM BOARO SHEATHING FIRESAFING IN STAINLESS
CONTINUOUS COPING STONE
STEEL STRAP 2 STAINLESS WITH OOWEL AT JOINT ANCHORS
RIGIO INSUUTION
FIRESAFING CONTAINED IN STEEL CLOSURE
INSUUTION
STONE PANEL PROVIOE SLEEVE WITHIN STUD SYSTEM FOR VERTICAL EXPANSION
AS REOUIREO
BRACING
STAINLESS STEEL ANGLE ON SH€LF
A
A BED OF EPOXY. DEAD BOLT TO STONE PANEL STAINLESS STEEL SHELF ANGLE BOLTED TO STEEL STUD THROUGH GYPSUM BOARO SHEATHING WITH
Required steel fireproofing been omitted for clarity.
AND WINDOVVLESS
has
SEALANT WITH BACKER ROO STONE
STEEL CHANNEL BOLTED TO STEEL STUDS THROUGH GYPSUM BOARD WITH SPACER
SPLIT.TAIL STAINLESS STEEL ANCHOR IN VERTICAL JOINT (SHIM AS
I 5' FELT OVER GYPSUM AOARO SHEATHING (TYP.) PANEL CONTAINED STEEL
STAINLESS STEEL SHELF ANGLE ON A DISC OVER STRESSLESS A BED OF EPOXY. DEAD
GYPSUM BOARO
SEAUNT OVER OOWELED CONNECTION
CONTINUOUS KERF IN STONE TO BE FILLED WITH SEAUNT ANER ANCHOR IS PUCED
INSUUTION
STAINLESS STEEL SHELF CLIP ANGLE AND DOWEL
GYPSUM BOARD
FLOOR STAINLESS STEEL SHELF ANGLE BOLTED TO STEEL STUD THOUGH GYPSUM AOARO SHEATHING WITH SPACER SLEEVE
EPOXY.FASTENED STONE RETURN WITH OOWEL (FACTORY FABRICATED) STEEL STUD BUILT.UP HEADER
SEAUNT WITH BACKER ROO AND WEEPS
CEILING
H€AD
FLASHING
WINMW
HAD
MULLION
SPANDREL
INSULATION I5* BUILDING FEL
FLOOR
SHELF STEEL STAINLESS CLIP ANGLE ANO DOWEL
STAINLESS STEEL CLIP ANGLE WITH THREAOED T PIN AT VERTICAL JOINTS
INSUUTION
STEEL STAINLESS ANCHOR SPLIT.TAIL JOINT IN VERTICAL (SHIM AS REOUIREI
WINMW
FLASHING
CONTINUOUS KERF IN STONE TO AE ALLED WITH SEAUNT ANER ANCHOR IS PUCED
PUSTTC SHTMS
BRACING
AS
REOUIRED
WINDOW HEAD FUSHING INSULATION
EPOXY.FASTENED STONE RETURN WITH CONTINUOUS DOW€L (FACTORY FABRICATEO)
BUILT-UP
HEADER
LINE CEILING
LINE
WINDOW
HEAD
N OTE Required steel fireproofing been omitted for clarity.
AT \^/INDOW
HEAD AND SILL
has
SEAUNT
WITH AACKER
ROD
WEEP
ANO
STONE
HOLE
SPANOREL
AT \MINOOV\/ HEAD ANO SILL
HEAVY GAUGE SLIOING BOLT
STONE PANEL
CHANNEL
15I FELT OVER G
STONE
GRID
SYSTEM
PANEL
INSUT.ATION
SHEATHING
STEEL SPLIT.TAIL STATNLESS IN VERTICAL JOINT ANCHOR (SHIM AS REOUIRE
FUSHING CONCRffE
WALL
BRACING AS REOUIRED
BOLT TO STONE PANEL
OVER SUB
FELT OVER I 5I BUILDING AOARD SHEATHING GYPSUM
STEEL STUDS
STEEL STRAP STAINLESS WITH DOWEL ANCHOR (SHIM AS
FLOOR
OVER SUB
FUSHING CONCRETE
WEEP HOLE THROUGH PUSTIC
AND \/vINDOWLESS
has
STAINLESS STEEL STRAP ANCHOR WITH 2 DOWELS AT JOINT
PROVIDE SLEEVE WITHIN STUO SYSTEM FOR VERTICAL EXPANSION
CLOSURE
BOARO
AT ROOF PARAPET
Required steel firepr@fing been omitted for clarity.
STONE STOOL (SHIM AT OOWEL AS REOUIRED)
STRAP
SEAUNT WITH BACKER ROO
STONE
BOARD
N OTE
SEALANT WITH BACKER ROD
FUSHING
FIRESAFING IN STAINLESS
FOR EXPANSION
GYPSUM
SILL
STAINLESS STEEL ANCHOR WTTH 2 AT JOINT @WELS
STONE
VERTICAL
SHIMS
SECTION
WALL
HIN STUO
STEEL STAINLESS ON A SHELF ANGLE OISC OVER STRESSLESS A BED OF EPOXY. OEAO BOLT TO STONE PANEL PUSTIC
N OTE
AT ROOF PARAPET
SECTION
INSULATION
WEEP PUSTIC
SHIMS
HOLE
THROUGH
SHIMS
AS REOUIRED
AS REOUIRED
STONE SPANDREL
AT GRAOE
The SpectorGroup; North Hills, New York
STONE
STONE SPANDREL
AT GRADE
GYPSUMBOARD
MULLION
3 in. StoneVeneer
253
NOTES
CRAMP
l.Throughout this section, flashing, sealants, and other ancillary materials necessary for sound weatherproof constructron sometimes have been omitted for clarity. See flashing and sealant details elsewhere. 2.Allow lor tolerances by including correct shimming to prevent installation problems or performance failure 3. All stone anchors embedded in or in contact with stone shall be slainless steel lype 300 sefies. 4 Stone support or anchor systems should be designed by an a.chitect or engineer experienced in stone claddina desrgn and construction.
ANCHOR
DOWELS BACKUP WALL
DRIP EDGE ,
,^:::'^.'"".-sr COPING
FASCIA
PANFL
CO PI NG BACKUP
WALL
CLIP ANGLE WITH WELDED BAR TO RETAIN STONE
DISC AND
ROD
SUPPORT
ANGLE
EYE ROD AND DOWEL TWISTEO
DOWEL
STRAP
VERTICAL SELF.SUPPORTING STONE LINTEL
CLIP
ANGLE
FIN
WITH
WELDED BAR SUN SCREEN
WINDOW HEAD
WINDOW
HEAD
STONE VENEER CRAMP ANCHOR
ROD ANCHOR EYE ROD AND DOWEL STONE VENEER
JAMB SHOULD ANCHOR TO WALL NOT TO ADJACENT STONE VENEER
STONE VENEER
BACKUP WALL
WINDOW JAMB
ADJUSTABLE
WI NDOWS ILL
INSERT
ANGLE WITH WELDED BAR CRAMP ANCHOR
CONCRETE WEDGE INSERT CLIP
ANGLE
WITH
WELDED BAR
CLIP ANGLE WITH WELDED BAR
BONO
WALL
ANO
HOOK HOOK
BASE
STONE VENEER
DOWEL
NO. 4 REBAR
ANGLE
DETATLS: OPT|ONS
ROD
SENING SOFFIT
ROD
SOFFIT
HOOK ROD ANCHOR
ROD CRAMP
STRAP
ANGLE WITH WELDED BAR
PLATE WITH WELDED TIE.BACK ROD
-
ANCHOR
ANCHOR
COLUMN
WITH
r\t\
ANCHOR
STONE VENEER
l,i .1r' "o*tt
j PLATE WITH WELDED SAR
STONE VENEER ON CONCRETE MASONRY BACKUP
f\f
| ;/1 I.f 1
TURNED INTO STONE BOTH WAYSi WELO TO COLUMN
METAL ANCHOR
COLUMN
CLIP OR CONTINUOUS ANGLE
T , SUPPORT
ON STEEL FRAME
t sxtv
OOWEL PI N CONNECTION
BASE DETAILS
George M. Whiteside. lll, AlA, and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square, pennsyrvanra Building Stone Institute: New York, New york Alexander Keyes; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
SIONE
I r/oin. lo 2t/ain. SfoneVeneer
254
SEAUNT FOAM
hhm
ANO
ffiffiffi
ROD
SENING
DIMENSIONS '/., ir Standard flat stck anchors are made of strap 1 md I wjde by'/s, 3/,6,andr/4 in. thick. Lengths vary up to6, 8, 10. an(l r/a in. overall with 3 '/, in 12 in. Dovetail anchoG are usually 4 prciection for fa@ o{ mncrete. Bends are %, 1, ard 1 r/. in. ANCHORAGE
STEEL STAINLESS DOWEL WITH HOOK ANCHOR
BEO
FLASHING
STONE VENEER
HORIZONTAL CONNECTION: DOWEL ANO CRAMP
DOWEL CONNECTION
ANCHOR
Round stock anchors are made f.om stock ot any diametef '/e in. (#11 ga l '/. and % in. are most common for rods: '/r and through 3/16in. (#6 ga.) for wire anchors; and % in are most common tor dowels. Dowel lengths re usually 2 to 6 in. BOLT
NOTES 1. Refer to page on 3 in. stone veneer for additioal anchor age information. 2. Allow for tolerances by including correct shimming to lail prevent installation {itting problems or perfmnce ure. 3. Stone anchorage systems should be desigrEd by a pro tessional engineer experienced in stone claddng design
COPINGS oowELs
RIGID INSULATION
SUPPORT ANGLE AND
MORTAR
4. Sizes may ditfer widely lrom the standard sizes listed n€re.
SUPPORT ANGLE AND
MORTAR
5. Soecifv stainlass steel.
CRAMP AND SEAUNT AT
SLOTTED CLIP
JOINT
HEAD (JAMB SIMIUR)
(JAMB
HEAO
SIMII.AR)
USE DOWEL TO CONNECT SEVERAL PIECES
STRAP AND DOWEL METAL INSERT
RIGID INSULATION
STRIP UNER WITH OOWEL
STONE VENEER
SILL
SI LL
WINDOr/v
ASKS BOLT AND WEDGE INSERT
ASKEW BOLT AND WEDGE INSERT
SUPPORT ANGLE WITH
SILL DETAIL
DETAILS
*4 REBAR
BARS WELDED IO ANGLE
MORTAR
SEAUNT
WEEP VENT AT TOP OF CAVITY
STAINLESS STEEL CLIP ANGLE WITH BARS WELDED
WIRE ANCHOR
SLOT ANCHOR
SEAUNT
RIGID INSUUTION
SLOT
RELIEFANGLE
WITH LINER
RELIEF ANGLE
ANCHOR
EXPANSION JOINT DETAIL
ANGLE SUPPORT WITH SHEAR RESISTANCE
SUPPORTS N OTE
FLASHING
It is recommend€d that water repellent treatment be provided at the sidewalk.
MORTAR
WEEP VENT IN JOINT
GRADE
CONCRETE
CORNER
DETAILS
BASE DETAILS
GeorgeM. Whheside,lll, AlA. and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square,Pennsylvania BuildingStone Institute;New York, New York AlexanderKeyes;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
STONE
WEEP HOLES IN VERTICAL JOINTS
I r/oin. to 2tlt in. StoneVeneerGrid StrutSystem
255
DOWEL FUSHING MORTAR METAL
CONCRETE INSERT
JOINT
STRIP LINING
CLIP
MflAL
STRUT STRIP
AND
STRUT
STRUTS
CLIP
LiNER
METAL STONE VENEER
COPI
COPING,
FASCIA.
ANO
HEAD
CLIP
STONE VENEER
NG
STONE VENEER AND
LINER
METAL STRUT FASCIA AND WINDOW HEAO SOFFIT
ANCHOREO EXISTING BUILDING FACING
TO
EXISTING
STRUT ANCHORED TO
FLOOR
CONNECTION
TO EXISTING FACING
EXPANSION SPACE BETWEEN STRUTS
SHEAR WALL SUPPORT
STRUTS
RETENTION ANGLES
ANCHOR SLOT FILLED WITH
SEAUNT SEALANT BACKER
BASE
OR
AND ROD
SHEAR
STARTER
SUPPORT
WALL
SIOE
(PLAN)
RETENTION
GRID STRUT SYSTEM . METAL FRAME GRID ANCHOR STRUT SIZE -
SPACING MARBLE
COLUMN
RETURN
AND N OTES
WIDTH, DEPTH AND SHAPE
1. Engrneering design of all supports for this type of con struction is essential. 2. Grid strut spacing is subject to engineering design.
NOT ES CLIP
ANCHORING
GRID STRUT FRAME
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
. CONCRETE
1- "X" = dimension between strut and outside face of stone 2. "X" = 1 5/"" lor 1/"" marble. 3. "X" = 1 3/a" for I '/a" marble.
George M. Whiteside, lll, AlA. and James D. Llovd; Kennett Square, Pennsylvania Euilding Stone Institute; New York, New York Alexander Keyesj Rippeteau Archirects, PC: Washington. D.C.
STONE
PreossembledStonePonels
256
ELEVATION SPANDREL,
AND AND
- SILL, SECTION SOFFIT UNIT
+Ew-Lr --\d.-l ffi\'.l
l--+-*.;.1,/ 5.,i!S:.i€
STONE TRIM UNIT ON
COLUMN
I
VIEW OF BUILDING
PREASSEMBLED
ELEVATION AND SECTION _
FACADE
STONE
UNIT WITH
PLAN -
PARAPET UNIT
COLUMN
,/-
-sEAuNTAND BAcKER RoD
\-.-
Outnrf O CORNER
TRIM UNIT
EPOXY ON STEEL FRAME PREASSEMBLED
PANELS
Preassembledstone panel technologyotfers savingsin onsite laborand accuratecomponontstone unit ioining. +
i ;
+
METAL SUPPORT SYSTEM: ANGLE CLIP WELDED TO METAL PLATE ANO STUO CAST IN CONCRETE
.+
ll j t
i
+
t
+
Shippingand erection stresses on the stone panels and stone anchoragesyst€m to the preassembledunits should be evaluated. Design of sealant joints between preassembled units should include at least the following: thermal movement, fabrication and erection tolerances, irreversible material groMh or shrinkage,and sealantmovementpotential. STONE ON STEEL FRAME WITH EPOXY J O IN T S Stone units are mounted in a steel frame plus expansion anchors and dowel pins (as recommendedby manufac turer). Joints in stone are epoxied and held to approxi mately 1/sin. when finished for delivery.All stones in the assembly are anchored as a unit to the structure. Preas plumbleveling, sembledunit installation reducesindividual ing, and aligning,and on-site joint sealing is not as extensiveas with individualstone oanels.
UNIT ELEVATION
COMPOSITE ASSEMBLIES OF STONE ANO CONCRETE VIEW OF BUILDING
STONE
Stone units are bonded to reinforcedorecastconcreteDan els with bent stainlesssteel anchors.A moisturebarrierand a bonding agent are installedbetween the stone and concrete in conditions where @ncrete alkali slats mav stain stoneunits.
FACADE
UNIT PRECAST
V\/ITH CONCRETE
BACKUP
STONE ANO STEEL ASSEMBLIES WITH SEALANT JOINTS WALL UNIT B (SIMILAR TO UNIT A)
Stone units are shimmed and anchoredto a steel frame using standardstone connecting hardware.Joints may be sealedon site, along with joints betweenassemblies.
UNIT A MAXIMUMPANEL lo'-o"x20'-o'
STAINLESS
VIEW OF BUILDING FACADE
PREASSEMBLED
ELEVATION _
UNIT A
STONE UNIT ON STEEL FRAME
GeorgeM. Whileside, lll, AlA, and James D. Lloyd; Kennett Square,Pennsytvania BuildingStone Institute; New York, New York AlexanderKeyes;BippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
STONE
SECTION _
UNIT A
CONNECTION
OETAILS
STEEL THREADED ANCHOR
StoneDetoils-Residentiol
ryre w-;l F *.. t'p,ffi I 7
w-, l'=-...1
E "....ilrF€|
, "ryr //zlt t.:,7
f'*#--€
o..
ROCK PITCH
W
OR
SAWED
FACE
I, l--=l ,:,,2.
I fiil/ll/lll/llll/ii/ll P-
iliiiillillillillliiili E--,-,.,-..j p:::r:=:=.:.:
l lllillllllllllillllllll tll/iittlltillll/llt/tE i 1 : - - - .-:r-- ' - - : . 1
1
SHOT SAWEO (R O U G H )
FINISH
"n
1--..
illp'fliflilflilt, -l llllrlllllllrllllrrll ry E : -...-:l
E" E, s"" E E 1 ' 72 "'/,2l;:r4
257
MACHINE ( PLANER
FINISH
POINTED
FINISH
)
[]ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi SLIP
SILL
4'' FOR
BUSH HAMMERED
PATENT BUSH HAMMER
DROVE OR BOASTEO
RANOOM+PARALLEL
PEAN
HAMMERED
-l [I$,,ffi ffitrffiffiWffi illl]llIlll1Tll1llllll EE=EE=EEI tr*" [.:'i:.i,:l$,',i,:,1 il|Jffiillillf,ilmilffifi|il lllllllllllllllllllllll E===E===l I ;J;: I HANO
TOOLED
LUG
SILL
Nffi ffiffiilffiffiilffifril il]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]]1| EEEEEEEEJ [11 STONE
PARALLEL+RANOOM CRANDALLED
PLUCKER FINISH
MACHINE TOOLED
TOOTH CHISEL
N OTE Consult stone fabricators about which {inishes are appropriate for which type of stone.
SILL
TYPES
SMOOTH-RUBBED (WET FINISH} OR VERY SMOOTH (CARBORUNDUM, HONEO, ANO POLTSHEO)
TYPICAL STONE FINISHES
;t r+l
SECTION
'-l
-f"-MORTAR
RUBBLE ASHLAR OF GRANITE
SQUARED STONE MASONRY
GRANITE. SANOSTONE. AND LIMESTONE (GENERAL USE)
LIMESTONE (FINE WORK)
SPECIAL INTERIOR WORK
TYPICAL STONE JOINT SPACING
lti tl
-r-
(
aaa t--
lll RUSTICATED JOINTS
I+ L_
s+ [TYPICAL
JOINT
l,
I
r--
f-
GROOVE
PROFILES
I
+_ I
::::??"
ELEVATION
STONE
LUG
SECTION
SILL
PROFILES
STONE
BRICX
StoneDetoils-Residenliql
258 GENERAL
A traditional structural stone wall typically consists of two independent laces {interior and exterior) of. closely fitted stones with a code-drescribed p€rcentage of bonding unit stones that extend the full thickness of the wall. Together, these two stone faces create a massivelv thick wall, rarelv less than 24 in. thick. An interior finish backup stud or furred wall with a vapor barrier and insulation typically completes the wall system.
FACE STONE ON BOTH SIDES STEEL REBAR sET 3 -O O.C. AND PUCED 3'-O" MtN.|NTO STONEWORK,
For structural stone walls. it is best to lay the stone In regu'l lar courses, 2 to 15 in. high per course. Limiting the heighl trom the top of one level course to the top of the next level course ensures that the wall joints will be consistently bridged, thereby avoiding long continuous vertical joints both perpendicular to and parallel to the plane ol the wall face. This will help prevent long cracks lrom developing, which can cause large sections of the wall 1o split and tall off. Control joints should be built into masonry construction in wall sections up to 30 ft long to account {or expansion and contraction of the stone.
STONE OR CONCRETE FOUNDATION
STRUCTURAL STONE WALL
N OTES
RIGID INSULATION
for masonry construction is to 1- A simple rule{f-thumb rely on gravity, not the bond of mortar, as the predominant "bonding agent" lor stone.
FUSHING
2. Consult codes to determine the minimum percentage of bonding units per structural stone wall. Some codes require that 15% of the face area be composed of bondIng unrts. € -l
r-1-
il
I
/
L_-JL-'Jc----l I
tr
,l
I
I I
BONOING UNIT TYPE 2
STUD
STONE OR CONCRSE FOUNDATION
lt
a TOP OF LEVEL STONE COURSE
I
RIGID INSUUTION
WALL
BACKING
STRUCTURAL STONE WALL FUSHING STRUCTURAL SHEATHING STUD WALL
STONE WALL
COURSES
STONE OR CONCRETE FOUNDATION
ri. STRUCTURAL
SHEATHING
BACKING STRUCTURAL STONE WALL FUSHING
BONDING UNIT TYPE I
I
''
AIRSPACE
N OTE STUD WALL
Some building codes require full span bonding units and some permit a minimum 6 in. overlap between adjacent stones,
STONEWORK JOINTS-NOT RECOMMENDED
STONE WALL
BONDING
STONE OR CONCRETE FOUNDATION
UNITS
I
,'
AIR VENT
STONE TYP.-
VENTEO
INSUUTEO AACKUP
FLASHING
METAL TIE 16" o.c., VERTICAL
TYP SOLID STONE LINTEL FUSHING
STONE
STONE VENEER
REINFORCED CONCRETE BACKING
A' CMU FUSHING RIGID INSUUTION
SEAUNT
wtNDow UNIT
SOLID
STONE OR CONCRETE FOUNDATION
STONE
LINTEL
STONE
ARCH
CONCRETE
STONE
WALL
LINTELS
STONE
WITH BACKING
REINFORCED
STEEL
LINTEL STONE
VENEER
TYPICAL
WITH
CMU
BACKING
\ilr'ALL SECTIONS
260
Propertiesof MetqG
PROPERTIES
OF METALS
in two broadcatBasicmetalsandtheiralloysare ciassified egories.Ierrous and nonferrous.Ferrousmetals are marnly iron,andnonferrousmetalalloysnormallycmtain no iron. FERROUS METALS lron. stel. and their alloys are usuallythe most cost-eftective metal choiceslor structuralapplications. lron that contains no trace of carbon is soft, ductile, and easilywqked. but it rusts in a relativelyshort time and is susceptibleto corrosionby most acids. The characteristicsof the many types of cast iron vary widely arcng six basic groups: gray, malleable,ductile, wiite, mpacted graphite, and high alloy iron. All cast irons haw high compressive strengths, but tensile and yield strengthsvary widely dependingon basic type. Cast iron is relativelv corrosion-resistantbut cannot be hammeredor beateninto shaoes. Gray irons are rather brittle becausethey have a high carbon and silicon content. Castings of gray iron possess excellent tor damping {absorbingvibrations)and are prc duced io eight ASTM classes or grades with tensilestrength ratings lrom 20,000 to 60,000 psi. Applications includedecorativeshapes, such as fences and posts, gratings, and stair components,as well as utility uses such as mnhole @vers and fireplugs. Malleableiron.which is more expensiv€than gray iron, has been usgd for decad€s in applicationsthat r€quire greal toughress and high ductility. This lowcrbon white iron is €st. reheated,and slowly cooled,or annealed,to improve its wtrkabilitv. Ductile irm is rude by adding magnesiumto molten iron shortlybetore the metal is poured-intomolds. The magne sium alte6 the surface-tensionmechanismof the molten iron and brsipitates the carbon out as small spheres insteadof flakes,which make the iron castingmore ductile. Ductileirm is less brittle. stitter, stronger,and more shockresistant than gray iron. Ouctile iron castings are more exp€nsiw than gray iron but usually less than mall€able iron. Ductile iron is the fastest growing segment ot the m€tal €sting industry. Ductileirons are produced in strength ratings from 55,000 to 130,0@psi. Ductilecastingsusing a specialaustempering heat-treating process offer much higher lensile strengths.rangingfrom 125,000to 230,000psi. CalledADI €stings, tEy rivalor surpasscenain alloyst€€l castingsin t€nsileand yiold strengths. \A/hiteiron castings,which are extremely hard and brittle, are used primarilyin industrialmachineryparts that experiene high wear and requireabrasionresistance. The characteristics of compactedgraphiteiron fall between those of gray and ductile iron- The propertiesot this metal are so difficult to control during productionthat very few retal Gsters manulactureit. Highalloyironsare gray,ductile.or white irons with an alloy mntent of 3 to more than 30yo. Their propedes are signiti6ntly differenl from those ol unalloyedirons. Wrought irm or steel is relatively soft. corrosion- and fatigussistant, and machinable.lt is easily worked, making it id€altQr Eilings. grilles, fenes, $reens, and €rious types of marental work. lt is commerciallyavailablein bars.rods,tubing, sheets,and plates. Carbonst€l is iron lhat contains low to medium amounls of €6on. A higher carbon content increases metal strength and hardress but reduces its ductility and weldability. The @rosion resistance of carbon steels is improv€d by galEnizing, vvhich is a hot zinc dipping prG @ss, q applying an organic coating. Some architectural uses includestructuralshapes such as welded fabri€tions or €stings, retal studs and joists, lasteners. wall grilles, and ceilingsuspensiongrids. Highstrength,low alloy{HSLA)steels havebetter corrosion resistancothan €rbon steels, and th€y are chosen when weight is a considerationand higher strength is specified. Low allov stels are seldom used in exterior architectural appli€tions that involve water runoff because adjacent materialscould become stainedwith rust.
Eobert C. Rodgers,P.E.;RichmondHeights,Ohio
r=
rh\
tl/
METAL MATERIALS
Tvpicalelements used to modity steel include the following: 1.Aluminumlor surtacehardening. 2. Ch.omiumfor corrosionresistance. 3. Copperfor atmosphericcorrosionresistance. 4. Manganesein smallamountslor additionalhardening, In largeramountsfor betterwear resistance 5. Molybdenum, combined with other metals such as chromium and nickel, to increasecorrosionresistance and raiset€nsilestrengthwithout reducingductility. 6. Nickel to increase tensile strength without reducang ductility;in high concentrations,nickel improvescorrc sronresrstance. 7. Siliconto strengthenlow alloysteelsand improveoxF dation resistance;larger amounts produce hard, brittle castingsthat are resistantto corrosivechemicals. 8. Sulferfor free machining,esp€cially. 9. Titaniumto prevent intergranularcorrosaonof stainless steels. 10. Tungsten,vanadium,and cobaltfor hardnessand corro sronresrstance'1.5% chromium.Nickelis Stainlesssteels are at least 1 addedto boost atmosphericcorrosionresistance;molybdenum is added when maximum corrosion resistance is needed,such as lvhsn iron will come into contact with sea water. Stainlesssteel is used in constructionfor flashing, coping,fasciae.wall panels.flmr plales,gratings.handrails. hardware.lasteners,and anchors. Decorativeshapes and statuarycan be cast in stainlessstee.. NONFERROUS
METALS
Nonferrousmetals and their alloyscan be categorizedinto seven major groups for architecturalapplications:those based on aluminum, mpper (pure copper. brasses, and bronzes).lead, zinc, tin, nick€|, and magnesium. Another approachis to divide nonterrous alloys into tlvo groups: heaw metals {copper-,zinc-. lead-,and nickelSased and light metals(aluminum-and rugnesium- bas€d). ALUMINUM The nonterrousmetal workhorse {or architecturalapplications is aluminum.lt has g@d forming and €sting characteristics and offe6 good--conosion rgsistance. When exposed to air, aluminum dcs not oxidize progressively becausea hard,thin oxide ceting lorms on the surfaceand sealsthe metal from its environment. Aluminum and its alloys, numbering in the hundreds,are widely availablein common commrcial forms. Aluminum alloy sheets can be formed, draM, stamped, or spun. Many wrought or cast aluminum alloys can be welded, brazed,or soldered,and aluminumsurfacesreadilyac@pta wide varietyof finishes.both mechanicaland chemical. Althoughit is light in weight, commerciallypure aluminum hasa tensileslrengihof about13,000psi. Most aluminum alloys lose strength at elevated temperatures.At subzero temperatures,on the other hand, aluminum is stronger than at room temperaturebut no less ductile.Cold-working the metal may nearlydouble its tensilestrength.Aluminum can be further strengthenedby alloying it with elements such as manganese,silicon, copper. magnesium.zinc, or lithium.Th€ manganes+basedaluminumalloy3003 is usd for roofing,sheet metal, siding,and electricalconduit. BRASS, COPPER, AND BRONZE G@d thermal and elst.i€l @nductivity,corrosion resistance,and easy tormingand joiningall make copperand its alloysusefulin construction.However.copperand rony ot its alloys have relativelylow strength-teweight ratios,and their strengthis even further reducedat elevatedtempera tures. These metals are ofter€d in rod, plate, strip, sheet. and tube shapes:Iorgings;€stings; and electricalWr6. These metals can be groupedaccordingto compositionin severalgeneralcategories:copper,high{opper alloys,and many types oI brass and bronze.Monel metal is a coppernickel allov that offers excellentcorrosionresistance;it is fasteners. often used for corrosion-resistant Bronzeoriginallywas a copper-tinalloy,but today there are aluminum bronzes,silicon bronzes.and leaded phosphor bronzes,among others. Phosphorbronze is a copp€r-tanphosphorus alloy; and leaded phosphor bronze is composed of copper,lead.tin, and phosphorus.
alloyingelement.lr Brassis copperwith zincas its principal is importantto know that some brassalloysmay be called bronzeseven though they have little or no tin in theri Some common nonbronze brass alloys are commercia bronze (9070copper, 10yo zinc), navalbrass (60% copper, 29Vozinc.and.17otin). Muntz metal (60% copper,40% zinc),and manganesebronze(587ocopper,39%zinc,anc 1yotin and iron).When a metal is identifiedas bronze,the alloy cannot contain zinc or nickel; if it d@s, il is probabiy brass. Architectural brasses and bronzes are actuallv al brasses;they are used for doors, windows, d@r and win dow frames, railings,trim and grilles. and finish hardware Muntz metal,also calledmalleablebrass,is a bronzealloy resemblingextrudedarchitecturalbronzein cold. lt is avail able in sheet and strip and is used in flat surfa@sin archi tectural comoositions in connection with extruded architecturalbronze. Copperbased alloys characteristicallyform adherentfilms that are relativelyimpervious to corrosionand protect the base metal from further attack. Cenain alloy systems darkenrather rapidlyfrom brown to blackoutd&rs. Under most outdoor weather conditions. however, @pper sur faces, such as roofs or statuary, develop a blue€reen patina. Lacquercoatings €n help retain the qiginal alloy color. LEAD An extremelv dense metal, lead is corrosion{esistantand easilyworked. Alloys are added to it to improveproperties such as hardnessand strength.Typicalapplicationsof lead include waterproofing, sound and vibration isolation,and radiationshielding.lt can be combinedwith tin alloyto plate iron or steel, which is commonly called "terneplate." Care should be taken how and where lead is used becauselead vaporsand leaddust are toxic if ingested. ztNc Although it is corrosion-resistantin water and air, zinc is brittle and low in strength. lts major use is in galvanizing (dippinghot iron or steel in molten zinc), althoughzinc is also used to create sandtast or die{ast components. Major building industry uses are roofing, flashing, nails, plumbing hardware, structural parts, and decorative shaoes. TIN Key propeniesof tin are its low melting point (45O'F), rela' tive softness, good formability. and readiness to form alloys.Principaluses for tin are as a constituentof solder,a @ating for st€el (tinplate. terneplate),and an alloy with other metalsthat can be cast. rolled,extruded.or atomized. Tin is most popularas an alloy for copper,antimony,lead, bismuth. silver, and zinc. PeMer alloys contain 1 to 8% antimonyand 0.5 to 3% copper.Alloy metal in tin solders rangesfrom 40% lead to no lead and 3.57osilver, NICKEL Whitishin color,nickelis usedfor platingothermetalsor as a basefor chromiumplating.Nickelpolisheswell and does not tarnish. lt is also widely appliedas an additivein iron and steel alloys as well as other metal alloys. Nickeljron castingsare more ductile and more resistantto corrosion than conventional cast iron. Adding nickel makes steel more resrstantto rmoact. CHROMIUM A hard, steel€ray metal, chromium is commonly used to plate other metals, includingiron, steel, brass,and bronze. Platedcast shapescan be brightly polishedand do not tarnish. Severalsteel alloys,such as stainlessplate,containas much as 189ochromium.Chromiumd@s not rust,which makeschromiumalloysexcellentfor exterioruses. MAGNESIUM Lightest of all metals used in construction.pure magnesium is not strong enough lor generalstructuralfunctions. (For comparison,if a block of steel weighs 1,000lb, equal volumesof aluminumand magnesiumweigh 230 lb and '186lb respectively.) Combiningothermetalssuchas alumi num with magnesiumresultsin lightweightalloymateraals used in ladders,lurniture,hospitalequipment,and wheels lor automobiles.
Propertiesof Metols METAL
CORROSION
Corrosion. which is caused by galvanic action, occurs between dissimilar metals or between metals and other material when sufficient moisture is present to carry an electrical. current. The galvanic series shown in the table below is'a useful andicator of corrosion su$eptibility caused by galvanic action. The metals listed are arranged in order from the ieast noble (most reactive to corrosionl to the most noble (least reactive to corrosion). The farther apart two metals on the list are, the greater the deterioration of lhe less noble one will be it thev come in contact under adverse conditions. Metal deterioration also occurs when metals come in contact wath chemically active mate.ials, panicularly when moisture is present. For example, aluminum corrodes when in direct contact with concrete or mortar, and steel corrodes when in contact with certain treated woods. Pitting and concentralion cell corrosion are other types ot metal deterioration. Pitting takes place when particles or bubbles of gas are deposited on a metal surface. Oxygen deficiency under these deposits sets up anodic areas, which cause pitting. Concentration cell corrosion is sim;lar to galvanic corrosion; the difference is in the electrolytes. Concentration cell corrosion can be Droduced bv differences in ion concentration, oxygen concentration, or toreign matter adhering to the surface.
SHAPING AND FABRICATION
OF
METALS
Many different manutacturing pr&esses are applied to metal to produce structural forms and shapes required in the construction and ornamentation of buildings. Rolling hot or cold metal belween pressurized rollers prG duces mosl ot the readilv available. standard construction material shapes. Baked enamel{oated aluminum is cold rolled to make srding and gutters. In the extruding process, heated metal ingots or bars are pushed through a die orifice to produce a wide variety oI simpl€ and complex shapes. Sizes are limited only by the size or capacity of the die.
THE GALVANIC
Casting rs a process in which molten metal is poured into molds or torced into dtes and allowed to solidifv in the shape of the mold or die. The castjng process is used with vlrlually all metals; however, surface qualrry and physlcal characteflstrcs are greatly atfected by the metal alloy aod casting process selected. Almost all metals can be cast in sand molds. Only aluminum, zinc, and magnesium are ord! narily cast In metal dies in what is called either a dierasnng or permanent'mold process. Round, hollow building products such as cast-iron pipe {or plumbing and sewer applica, tions are made by centrilugal casting machines. ln the drawing process, either hot or cold metal is pulled through dies that alter or reduce its cross-sectional shape to p.oduce archatectural product configurations. Common drawn products are sheets, tubes, pipes, rods, bars, and wires. Drawing can be used with all metals except iron. Forging is hammering hot metal or pressing cold metal to a desired shape in dies of a harder metal. The process usually rmproves the strength and surface characteristics of the metal. Alum'num, copper, and steel can be forged Machining is used to finish areas of castings or forgings requiring highly precise fits or contours. Shapes can also be machined from heavy plate or solid blocks of metal Eending produces curved shapes in tubing, pipe. and extrusions.
Piercing punches holes through metal without removino any of the metal Fusron welding is used to ioin metat pieces by melting filler metal (welding rod) and the adjacent edges brjellv with a torch and then allowing the molten metal to solidify. Two common types of fusion welding are electric-arc and gas. Electric-arc or metallic-arc welding normally uses metal welding rods as electrodes in the welding tool Gas welding is also known as oxyacetylene welding because it uses a mrxture of oxygen and acetylene to fuel the flames produced by the bloMorch. Oxvacetylene blow torches are widely used in construction work to cut through metal structural beams and metal plates. Soldering is a metal joining process that uses either hard or soft solder. The metal pieces being joined together do not melt as they do in the welding process because solders melt at much lower temperatures. Sott soiders consist of lin with a high percentage ot lead and melt at temperatures of 360'ro 370'F. Hard solders are comoosed o{ tin and a low content ol antimony or silver and melt at temperatures ranging from 430 to 460'F. Erazing, which is sometimes called hard soldering, also ioins two pieces of metal togeth€r by torch melting a filler rod material between them. The filler has a high content of coooer and melts between 800 and 900"F.
Brake forming of metal plate o. sheet metal is a process of successive pressings to achieve shapes with straight-line angles. MELTING In the spinning process, ductile types of sheet metal {usually copper or aluminum) are shaped wirh tools while being spun on an axis.
TEMPERATURES
OF METALS
Embossing and coining are stamp€d metal with textured or rarsed patterns. Blanking is shearing, sawing, or cutting metal sheets with a punch press to achieve a desired configuration. Perforating is punching or drilling holes through flat plate or sheet metal.
SERIES WEIGHTS OF METALS FOR BUILDINGS
Electric current flows from posative {+) to negative (-)
TYPES.AND
PROPERTIES
NAME
OF
BRASS
ARCH ITECTURAL. BRONZE
Copper(Cu) Zinc (Znl Lead(Pb)
261
COMMERCIAL
BRONZE
MUNTZ
METAL
600 400 Light yelJow
workabrlrtY
Hot workabilily (and soldering and polishing)
propertres free-machiniog
Robert C. Rodgers, P.E.; Richmond Heights, Ohio
METALMATERIALS
Finisheson Metols
262 GENERAL
metals tall The finishescommonlvused on architectural into three categories, . changMECHANICAL FINISHES are rhe resultof physically ing the surfaceof the metal throughmechanicalmeans:the lorming process itself or a subsequent pr@edure perlormed either before or after the melal is fabri€ted into an end{se product. CHEMICALFINISHES are achievedby meansof chemicals, which may or may not have a physicaleffect on the surface ol the metal.
FINISHES areproducedby makDIRECTIONAL TEXTURED ing tiny parallelscratcheson the metal surfaceusinga belt or wheel and fine abrasive,or by hand rubbingwith steel wool. Metal treatedthis way has a smooth.satinysheen. are achievedby firinga streamot small PEENEDFINISHES steel shot at a metal surfaceat high velocity.The primary peening is increasingthe fatiguestrengthot the aim of shot component; the deorative finish is a byfroduct. Oth€r nondirectionaltextured finishes are produced by blasting metal, under controlledconditions,with silica sand, glass beads,andaluminumoxide. CHEMICAL FINISHES
COATINGSare appliedas finishes.either to the metal stock or the fabricatedproduct.Thesecoatingseither changethe metal itself, througha prmess of chemicl or electrochemical conversion,or they ar6 simply appliedto the metal surlace.
CHEMICALCLEANINGcleans the metal surface without affecting it in any other way. This finish is achievedwith chlorinatedand hydr@arbonsolventsand inhibitedchemical cleanersor solvents(for aluminumand copper)and pickling, chlorinated,and alkalinesolutions{Ior iron and stoell.
Applicationenvironments,seMce requirements,and aesthetics together determine lvhich metal finish or coatingis best to specify. Finishes are usually selected tor both appearanceand function: Chromiumplatingon metal bathroom water faucets and handlesor baked enamelon sheet metal lighting fixtures, for 6xample, m6t be attractiveas well as functionallyprotective.
ETCHEDFINISHESproducea matte, frosted surfacewith varyingdegreesol roughnessby treatingthe metal with an acid (sulfuricand nitric acid)or alkalisolution.
For structuraland exterior metal buildingprodrcts. such as steel lraming products. metal siding, and outd@r lighling fixtures, function and operating environments are more imponant dteria. From a designstandpoint.it is important to recognizehow variousfinishesand cctings r€sist rear, corrosion.and erosion. To chms€ the right @ting or finish, architectsmust know which materialor prcess is best suited for a specificappli€tion.
COATINGis typicallycategorizedas a chemCONVERSION ical finish, but since a layer or coating is produced by a chemicalreaction,it muld be considereda coatingas well. Conversionmatings typicallypreparethe surfaceof a retal for painting or for rmeiving another type of finish but aro also used to producea patina or statuaryfinish. A mmpc nent is treated with a dilute solutionof phosphoricacid or sulfuricacidand other chemicalsthat convertthe surfac€of th€ m6tal to an integral.mildly protectiv€layerof insoluble crystallinephosphateor sulphateor the lik6. Such mtings can b€ applied by either spray or immersion and provide temporary resistance to a mildly corrosive environment. Th€y can be specifiedfor gray, ductile, and.malleabloiron castingsas well as steel castings,forgings,or weldments, such as railingsand outd@r furniture.
MECHANICAL FINISHES AS-FABRICATEDFINISHESare the texture and surface appearane given to a metal by the fabri@tionprocess. BUFFEDFINISHESare produ€d by successivepolishing and buffing operationsusing fire abrasives,lubricants,and soft fabric wheels. Polishingand bufiing improveedge and surfacefinishesand render many types of est pans more durable,efticient.and safe. PATTERNEDFINISHESare availablein varioustexturesand designs. They are produced by passing an as-fabricated sheet betweon two rotchsd{esign rollers,embossingpattems on both sides of the sh€et. or b€tween a sm@th roll and a design roll, embossingor coining on one side of the sheet onlv.
COMPARATIVE
APPLICABILITY
FINISHES
NOTE For more information,see the "Metal FinishesManualfor Architecturaland Metal Products,"publishedby the Archil€ctural Metal ProductsDivisionof the NationalAss@iation of ArchitecturalMetal Manutacturers
Robert C. Rodgers, P.E.; Richmond Heights. Ohio
r=
o
COATINGS ORGANICCOATINGSon metal €n provideprotectiononly or seru€ both Drotectivoand decorativs functions. Th6 former categoryincludesprimersor underffits, pigm€nted topcoats in hidden areas,and clear finishes.OrganiccGtings seruingdoubleduty includepigrented coatingsin visible areas,clear finishes used for gloss, and transparentor translucentcloarfinisheswith dves add6d.
OF VARIOUS
TYPE OF FINISH OR TREATMENT MECHANICAL
The BRIGHT FINISH process. not used widely, involves chemicalor electrolyticbrighteningof a metal surface,typicallvaluminum.
METAL MATERIALS
FINISHES
FOR ARCHITECTURAL
Organiccoatingsusuallyfallunderthe generalcategories of paints,varnishes, enamels,lacquers,plastisols, organisols. powders. and Literallyhundredsof differentorganiccoalrn! formulationsofler an almost unllmited range of prop€rties Many organiccoatingsare appliedwith brushesand rollers. but dipping and sprayingof paints account for most indus trialand commercialbuildingprolects.Dippingis usefulfor coatingcomplex metal parts,but sprayingis used for most architecturalapplications.Sprayingis fast and inexpensive. and new computertontrolled guns can lollow even com' plex curyatures.Conventionalspraying,however, has two disadvantages.For one thing, there is no easy, inexpensive way to collect and re-use the coating material.And when solvent-basedpaints are used, there is the addedproblem of meeting environmentalrestrictions. popularalternative ELECTRODEPOSITION. an increasingly to spraying,is similar to electroplating,except that organic resins are d€positedinstead oJ metal. Electrodepositionis basedon the principlesof electrophoresis-the movement of charged particles in a liquid under the influenceof an appliedvoltage. Electrodepositionoffers several advantages:The coating buildsup to a uniformthicknesswithoutruns or sags;very little paint is wasted; low levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCS)are emitted; and coatingscan be deposited even into deeply recessedareasof a complex shape.Electrodepositionalso has disadvantages.Coatingthicknessis limited,and becauseonly one coat can be appliedthis way, subsequentcoats must be sprayed. POWDERCOATING is perhaps the best known environmentally acceptable painting process. Powder coatings otfer several advantages.Beeuse the paints are solventless, they are safer and "greener." In addition,the paints cost less and last a long time. Powderedpaints are formulatedin much the same way as solvent-basedpaints, with the same pigments, tillers,and extenders,but are dry at r@m temperatures.Heat{eactive or "heatiatent" hardeners.catalysts, or cross]inkers are useo as cunng agenrs. Powdercoatingsare either thermoplasticor thermosetting. As the term impli€s,thermoplasticcoatings,which include vinyl, poly€thylene,and certain polyesters,are melted by heat during appli€tion. Before such coatings are applied, tho surfacemust be primedto ensuregood adhesion,Thermosetting paints undergo a chemicalchange; they cannot be remelted by heat. The thermosets do nol require a primer. Coating powders include epoxies, polyurethanes, acrylics.and polyesters.
APPLICATIONS
METAL CARBON
STEEL AND
IRON
Finishes on Metols GENERAL The two most common methods of applying powdered finrsnes to metat are spraying?nd dipping, the same as those used ror-solvent-based paint. Electrostatic sprayrng is used tq apply powder litms from 't to 5 mjt thick. A mixt:re of air and powder moves from a hopper lo a spray gun. ihe mixrure rs cnarged. etectrostatically as rt passes tl.rough lhe spray,gun. ca.usingit to stick to any grounded metal;bject. Powder lhat talls to the floor is recvcreo. For cortings thjcker than 5 mit. ftuidized_bed dipping is used. The powder is placed in a special tank into wircli air rs blown, turning the powder into a fluidlike mass. parts are dipped in the "fluid" and baked to cure the finish. ANODIC
COATINGS
Anodic oxides are widely used to protect aluminum and many of its alloys from corrosion. When the metal is anod_ rzed in one of a vafletv of acids, a protectrve oxide rs formed on the,surtace. Dependtng on lhe acid, the oxide may range irom thin and nonporous to thick and porous. three typ6s of anodizing are used for aluminum: ctrromic, sutturic,'inO nardcoat. CHROMIC ANODIZING results in a retativety soft coaring and is the least used of the three types, but it does offei several advantages. lt has excellent corrosion resistance, so rinsing is_not as important. lt is suitable for complex casi pans and offers a coating of the most consrstently uniform thickns55 366 tha rost endulng tatigue strength. SULFURIC ANODIZING. the most widely used method, produces a harder coating than chromic inoaizing, but ii can.be scratched. lt offers a pleasing appearance ind can oe dyed In several colors. Corrosion reststance is good. HARDCOAT ANODIZING produces a relatively thick, extremely hard coating that can be dyed in a range ol selors,.Corrosion resistance is g@d. Hardcoats poroui, makrng them suitable as a base for paints and adhesives. "rj
REPRESENTA
IVE ARCHJTECTURAL
Since alJanodrc processes produce porous alumrnum{xtde coalngs, seatrng rs usuallv destrdble Ihe coat,no rs rmmersect In hot water, the oxide ls hydrated, and the p;res swell shut. Several manufacturers claim that their sealino agents do the same lhrng through catalylrc action at lowei Iemperatures. Chroric and SUlfuric-anodtzed coatings nearry atways are sealed, but hardcoats are not. VITREOUS COATINGS are composed ol Inoroanic qlossv mateflats {glass). porcelain enamels are the most com'_ monly used vitreous coating for architectural applications. Arrnougn one ol the hardest and most durable finishes, they are brittle. Deformation of metal surfaces cir.e cracktng and spltlting. porcelain enamel coattngs ""n come in a woe range ol cotors and finrshes and are typically applied to steel and alumrnum {bathtubs, srnKs, corumn covers]. Emoossed palterns and textures may be apphed bv alterrno the metal backing surtace or the coaiing itselt. HOT DIPPING of ferrous metal objects consisls of immers_ Ing crean parts Into a molten bath of the desired coatino metal- In general, molten aluminum, lead, zinc, and som6 ailoys can b_e app|ed as hotdrp coatrngs to rrons. Lach orrers specrflc advantages. Hot_dip coatings are particularlv surtabte tor rntflcately shaped cast ter.ous ilems such as merar rooirng components and natls and other fasteners. METALLIC PLAI ING rs done by either electrodeposition or erectrootatrno In electrodeposition, an electrical current is carried across an eleclrolyte and an organic resrn substance depostled on an erectrode {rhe metal oblect berng painted}. In electroolat_ -substance" Ing, the rs a melal, such as chromium, in an erect.otyte Water usually seryes as the solvent in the elec_ trotyte. Although chromium is commonly used for olatino_ many metals can be deposited on the substrate. Similarly. a wide range of plating qualty is available. For exampte, a thtn coating of zrnc wll protect a metal compo
USES AND COMPARATTVE PROPERTIES
263
nent trom rust or co(osion for a short ltme chromrum olar -' ing, on the other hand, protects longer and tqet | 6p11.-rMaterials widely used to plate complex metal components Inctuoe Oronze, brass, chromium, cadmtum. cbromates copper, lead, lead-tjn, nickel, phosphates, silver, tin nickel and tin-zinc. Not all of these matenals can O" o.oos,tea on all metal substrates. For example, ,inc erect,opriJlJn" 6f used on steel but not on cast iron. Therefore. coat,nc/sutl strate compatibiltty is a crucial constderation,r maichno coatrng performance to application requrrements. IVOicaj applcatons ror ptatrng include food servrcrng areas, plumb Ing txlures, extenor metal, and architecturat products. LAMINATED
COATINGS
Lamination involves bonding preformed plastic lilms to metats wath adhesives. Laminated coatings provide finrshei for products such as interior paneling, pJrtliions, and exte_ rior metalwork..Three-types ot ptastli tit_iO"fv u!"i, potwjnyl chloride lpVC). polyvinyl fluoride (pVf), "ru anU acrviic. PVC films provide excellent stain and abrasion resrstance. Available in five or six colors, these ta.,n"r"s -uv Jo,i."" wilh.grarning o, embossrng to simulat" *ooa gr",n, i""if,ei orraoilc I ttm thrcknesses range from 0.004 i.. lo 0 04t In, but most common and most economical are those from 0.008 and 0.014 in. PVF iilms are usually laminated in a thickness of 0 OO2 in and have a sm@th, medium gloss surface. Despite their thlnness.,.they are very strong, tough, and weather resis_ tant, making them panicularly suited to exterior apolications such as.siding materials. Their color range as li;ited, bui -well. they resist staining and chemiel damage Acrylic films are low cost products that sland up well to weather and are widely used for exterror melalwor*. Thev restst UV radiation and yellowing and,etarn their fleribtltv wrrn agrng I hey are usually applied in a thickness ot 0.00i In. and are reasonably priced.
OF COATINGS
BINDER T
WELDABLE AS PRIMER
Solvent,reducible yes2
Water-reducible: air dried baked
yes2 ye52
polyethylene
formaldehyde
chloride
s 0norganrcl
modified polymers
(aliphatic{ured)
L-low; M-moderate; H-high; VH-very hrgh; NA{ot apDll cabte or not available: p-pmr; F_fair; Ggmd; t+xcellent
I AII coatings may be shop applied; all may be lield applied except sotvenl reducible acrylics, baked acrylic, celluiose, ano tuorocarbons
2 For light nonstructural welding only
Robert C. Rodgers. P.E.; Richmond Heights, Ohio
METALMATERIALS
StructurqlWelds
264
STRUCTURAL
JOINT
\^/ELDING
welds can be made with hundredsot-different Structural The most common are lorms ol welding processes. 'metat arc and oxyfuel gas welding These pro "tieiaei designed tor the speci{ic welding conditions: *.!"i metal, siructural requirements weld position' and Wpe of "t" Normally,however,the designerdoes l6inrsoeciticaiions. hJ-s-i."itv the process whrch rs lo be used to make a Ga,Io i"iirt. ihii designer specifies the tYpe.andsiz-eof reld neededfor the specificioint and leavesthe detausor how the joint is to be made up to the fabricator. The two most important types of structuralwelds are fillet welds and groovewelds. They are the most useful in structural aoplicitions.Back welds are used in conjunctionwith iinot"'itooue welds to complete the weld penetration FG, rr6t, ino tr"re *elds are ot secondaryimponanceand are limited in application.
PREQUALIFICATION
Welded ioints that contorm to all American Welding Society code ani specrficatron provistons tor design matellal and workmanshio are prequalified joints There are a variety of specific fillet and groove welded joints that meet most siructural work requirements and are recommended lor oeneral use in buildings and bridges. Joints that are not quali ;requalrtied under the AWS code are required to be iied bv tests as orescribed by the code CONCAVE
coNvEx
FILLET WELD NOMENCI-ATURE The model cross section of a fillet weld is a right triangle with eoual leqs. The leg size designatesthe effective stze oi inii.r"ro. ihe length-ofa fillet weld is the distancefrom en+t@nd of the fulisize tillet, measuredparallelto its root fillet welds the effective length is equal to iin". Foi length,measuredalonga line bisectingthe throat ihe thrcat"uruea
For ouick reference and more advanced considetation, the preqr]alilied joints are shown in AWS "Structural Welding cod+Steel. " FLARE .V. GROOVE EFFECTIVE THROAT = R/2 FLARE .BEVELGROOVE EFFECTIVE THROAT -(5R)/16
INCLUDEO ANGLE
FILLET u,ELO JOINTS vvith a triangular cross section, fillet w€lds ioin two surfaes appr6ximatelyat right anglesto each other in lap, ts. and corner ioints. They are also used with gr@ve @lds as reinlorcementsin cornerjointsFILLET
The cross section of a fillet weld nBy diff€r irom the -right trianqle model in severalways The includedangle ot the *eid".av u"rv tto.60'to 135', ot unequalleg welds may be emoloved.When unequalleg welds are used' the use ot the no;ru| throat sizeas the effectiw size in weld str€ngth calculationswill, in most cases,be conseryativeHowever' -hln tn" included angle of weld deposit is substantially oreater than 90 ", the etfectivethroat size shouldbe oeter;ined lrom the actualdimensionsof the weld acmrding to AmericanWeldingSocietysp€cifi€tims.
FLAREWELD NOMENCUTURL Flarewelds are sp€cialcasesof groove welds in which the qr;ove surlaceoione or both partsot a,oint is convex This ionvexity may be the result of edge preparation.but more offen one or both components conslsts of a round rod ol Co.plete penetrationin a flare weld is usurcunaed "ttap". tb acnieveand the qualityof the weld is difficult attvaitticutt iJ'"ont.t: therefore, design vaiuesshould be appliedconseruativelvand special considerationsneed to be taken In certaininstances. FLARE
\/vELDS
WELDS
Gr@w welds are welds made in a groove betwe€n adl& cent €nds, 6dges, or surfaces of two parts to be lorneo In a butt. teo. or corner lolnl. The edqe d ends of pans to be gr@ve welded are usually planing oremrdd bv flare cutting, arc air gouging' or edg€ gr@ves lhat io orwide square. vee, bevel, U-' or J-shaped ird straight dnd true to dimension. The preparation is.done to ensure that the base metal is welded evenly comp€tely rhrouoh the ioint. With thicker metal it is also done to open up thiioint drea for welding. RelatrvelY thin rolerial may be gr@ve welded with square cut edges JOINT VEE CORNER SINGLE ' FILLtr WITH REINFORCING
DOUBLE VEE gUfr JOINT WITH SPACER SINGLE SOUARE BUfr JOINT WITH BACKING BAR
GROOVE ANGLE
WED THROATWELO SlZE
ROOT OPENING FULL PENETRATION NOMENCLATURE
GROOVE WELD
Except where backrng bars are employed, speci{ications reouire that lhe weld roots generally must be chipped.or lo sound metal before mking lhe second weld oouoed -ourooses of stress computation. the throat dlmenston For full oia iutt'p"n"ttarion groove weld is @nsidered to b€ the tnl"tneis of the lhinner part joined, exclusive of weld reinforcement, such as backing bars.
PLUG AND SLOT I\,ELDS Pluo and slot welds are used in lap joints to transmitshear loais. oreventbuckling of lappedparts' or join component mrts of built{p mehbers. Round holes or slots are Lun"trea or oth!ruise forred in one component of th€ With pans in position.weld metal is LiniO"io* 'deposited or com. the openings,which may be pa-rtially in"""".01v. on the thicknessot the puncneo tilled, depending oletelv lrateriat.aWS "structuiatWeldingCode-Steel'shouldbe consultedfor atlowableproportionand spacingof holesand slots and the depth of welds. It is necessaryto distinguishbetween plug or slot welds and fillet welds placed aroundthe inside of a hole or slot Filletwelds in a slot are easierto make and inspectand are uiuatty preterea ouer fillet welds in round holesor plug and slot wdds. PLUG AND SLOT \,vELOS ROOT
GROOVE SIZE
SOUARE BUT
EFFECTIVE . THROAT ROOT
T JOINT WITH REINFORCING FILLET SINGLE U CORNER JOINT WITH REINFORCING FILLET OF COMPLETE EXAMPLES WELDS GROOVE
SINGLE BEVEL BUTT JOINT WITH BACKING BEAO J BUN JOINT WITH BACKING BEAD PENETRATION
The two types of groov€ welds are complete penetrallon and mrtial Denetratlon. A complete perettation weld is one that;chieves fusion of weld and base metal throughout the d"ottr ol th" ioint. lt is made by we ding {rom both srdes of th; ioint. from one side to a backing bar, or back welding the iirst weld.
GROOVE
EFFECTIVE THROAT
VI/ELDS
METALFASTENINGS
WELD
PARTIAL PENETRATION NOMENCUTURE EXAMPLES OF PARTIAL PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS Partial penetration groove welds are employed -when to b" tt"n.ferred do not require full penetration, or .ti""sej wirLn wetaing must be done from on€ side of a ioint only and it is not p.-ossibleto use backing bars or to gouge weld penetration ioors to, Oait welds. The applcation ot partiai qr@ve welds is governed by specrfications and may lmlt the mateof thickness the or thickness throit ihe effective rial on which theY are to be used.
OPENING
GROOVE WELD
peneiration Edoe oreoaration of base materral for partial we-lds is simrlar to that for tull penetration groove welds less than the {ull thickness. The etfecOut it uiuittv "ou"t. and, hence, the weld strength ot par riu" tf,ro"t thickness iiai oenetration groove welds is normally limited to less than the lull ioint thickness. The use of partial penetration welds is subiect to AWS code and other specilication provisions. These are more restnctive in bridgb specifications than in building codes'
BASIC
\n/ELDING SYMBOLS
BASIC
The three basic parts needed to form a welding symbol are: an arrow pointlng to the joint, a (elerence line upon which the dimensional data are placed, and a weld device symbol indicatjng the weld type required. The tail of the welding symbol is only necessary to indicate addttional data, such as specification, process, or detail references. The atrow indicates the joint where the weld is to be made. The basic weld device symbol or device indacates the type of weld to be made. for example: fillet, U€roove, bevel, or plug. The position ol the basic weld symbol or device indicates which side of the joint is to be welded. The boftom side of the reference line is designated as the arrow side, meaning any welding operation shown on this side of the reterence line is to be performed on the same side of the loint as the arrow. When an operation is shown on the top side ot the reference line it is to be oerJormed on the ioint side ooDosite the arrow.
BACK \^/E LD
FILLET
WELDS
lf the length of a fillet weld is omitted, it is understood to mean that the weld is to extend the full distance between abrupt changes in the part of the joint outline specified by the weld symbolarrow. lf the same size fillet is required lor the full length of all sides of a particular joint. regardless of abrupt changes in its direction, the weld-all-around symbol can be used to simplify the drawing.
DEVICE PLUG OR
FI LLET \/1/E LD
NoTE:
V Y
I WE LD-ALL.A.ROU
ND
V
I
FIELD - WELD
o
-fI-
FLARE BEVEL
tr
)
il
FLUSH
CO NVEX
F
For additional basic and supplementary weld symbols, see the American Welding Society A2.4,79
FINISH CONTOUR
SYMBOL
GROOVE ANGLE OR INCLUDED ANGLE OF COUNTERSINK FOR PLUG WELDS
SYMAOL
ROOT OPENING, DEPTH OF FILLING FOR PLUG AND SLOT WELDS
DEPTH
FLARE
U
BEVEL
\^/ELD SYMBOLS
SPACER
FI
OR BUTT JOI NTS
GROOVE
tf
SUPPLEMENTARY BACKING
SYMBOLS
SQ UAR E
\
The weld dimensions, size. length, pitch, etc.. are placed on the reference line next to the weld device. These dimensions read from left to right regardless of which side the arrow is on.
The dimensions needed for fillet welds are weld size and length and, for inremittenr fillet welds, pitch. The weld size is equal to the weld leg size, Gsuming that the legs are equal. In the rare instance that ihe legs arc not equal, the sire is not given in the welding symbol but instead the weld legs re dimensioned iD the drawing to avoid confusion- Iftherc is a typical weld size for a paniculd dnwing, the sirc may be nored in the notcs ad left off of the symbol. If the joint is to b€ welded on both sides, thcn both sides must be dimensioned, even it they ile the same.
WELD
LENGTH
OF WELD
IN INCHES
PITCH (C TO C, SPACING) WELDS IN INCHES FIELD
OF PREPARATION OR SIZE IN INCHES
WELO
OF
SYMBOL
/.-
WELD-ALL-AROUND SYMBOL SPECIFICATION, PROCESS OR OTHER REFERENCE TAIL tOMlnED
,_--\;
WHEN
REFERENCE IS NOT USED) REFERENCE LINE BASIC WELD DEVICE SYMBOL OR DETAIL THESE PARTS OF WELD SYMBOL ALWAYS READ THE SAME DIRECTION REGARDLESS OF WHiCH OIRECTION THE ARROW IS POINTTNG-/
ARROW CONNECTS REFERENCE LINE TO ARROWSIOE OF JOINT. USE BROKEN LINES SHOWN TO SIGNIFY THAT ARROW IS POINTiNG TO THE GROOVED MEMBER IN BEVEL OR J.GROOVED JOINTS
,/
N OTES 1. Size, weld symbol. length of weld, and spacing must read in that order from left to right along the reference line. Neither orien tation of reference line nor location of the arrow alters this rule. 2. The perpendicular leg ot \, / P lf weld symbols must be at left. 3. Arrow and other side welds are of the same size unless otheMise shown. Dimensions of fillet welds must be shown on bolh the arrow side and the other side symbol. 4. The point ot the lield weld symbol must point toward the tail
--7-l
/
'/o\ zoo ' t 4 v 2 @6
#
5. Symbols apply between dimensioned.
abrupt changes in direction of welding unless governed by the "all-around"
symbol or otherwise
6 These symbols do not explicitly provide for the case that frequently @curs in structural work, where duplicate material {such as stiffeners) occurs on the far side of a web or gusset plate. The fabricating industry has adopted the following conventroni when the billing ot the detail material discloses the existence of a member on the far side as well as on the near side. the wetdino shown for the near side shall be duplicated on the tar side.
STAGGERED INTERMITTENT
FILLET WELDS
Pitch is used with intermittent fillet welds to give the center to center dimensions between welded sections. When using pitch, length is the dimension ol the individual weld sections. COMPLETE
PENETRATION
GROOVE
STANDARD
LOCATION
OF ELEMENTS
OF A WELDING
taces ot the device and above the root opening The angle is understood to be the total. or included. angle of the groove_
V\/ELDS
When detailing complete penetration groove welds the dimensions usually include the weld size. root opening, the groove angle for vee, bevel, J, and U welds. and the groove radii for J and U welds. The length ot groove welds is not given, because the welds are amepted to go from end to end of pieces welded. Any deviation from lhis requires additional detailino.
There is no provision for dimensioning radii of U and J gr@ve welds in the AWS welding symbol. This is usually covered by the fab{icator's standard weld proportions, with reference to AWS prequalified ioints. lf not, it must be shown by note or sketch in the drawing. PARTIAL
PENETRATION
GROOVE
WELDS
Partial penetralion groove welds require all of the same dimensions as complete penetration groove welds, plus two additional dimensions: effective throat and weld size. With partial penetration groove welds, the weld preparation usually is less than the thickness of the material being welded. Because of this the weld size must always be given. The effective throat must also be given because it
UNSYMMETRICAL
GROOVE WELD CALLOUT
Normally the weld size ol a complete joint penetration groove weld is understood to be the full thickness of the thinner metal connected, and its dimension need not be shown on the welding symbol. However. it the preparation of a double groove weld is not symmetrical, the size of each side of the weld must be shown. The root opening is shown near the root of the gr@ve device The g.oove angle is to be shown within the groove
SYMBOL
can vary from the weld size due to welding process, welding position, or the groove angle used. Depending on these factors, the depth of weld deposit, or the ef{ective throat, can be less than the depth of the groove, or weld size. Panial penetration groove welds can be used as intermif tent welds. Consideration must be given to the transition at the beginning and end of the weld. Therefore, contract design drawings should only specify the etJective weld length and the required effective throat. The shop drawings should then show the groove depth and geometry that will grovide for the reouired effective throat. PLUG
ANO
CONTOUR
PARTIAL PENETRATION CALLOUT
GROOVE WELD
SLOT
\^/ELDS
The saze for plug welds specifies the diameter of the punched hole. For slot welds the size includes the width and length of the slot. Plug and slot welds will be com, pletely filled unless the depth of the filling is shown inside the weld symbol. Slot welds are noted by detail references in the tail that refer to dimensioned sketches of the slot for clarity. The arrow and other side indicates which side of the joint is to be punched. The flush weld symbol is used if the top of the weld is to be leveled off. SYMBOLS
The flush and convex symbols are used to modity the shape of the weld face. The contour symbols are placed over the weld device. Almost all of the basic weld symbols can be combined with each other and with the spacer, backing bar, back weld, and contour symbols to create many di{ferent welds.
METALFASTENINGS
266
SteelBeqmsond Columns:LoodToble
SAFE TOTAL UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (KIPS) FOR BEAMS A 572 GRADE 50 STEEL, ALLOWABLE LATERALLY s;UPPORTED-ASTM
I For capacityof beams not shown see AISC Manual of Steel Construction,2d ed. (load and resistance factor design)and gth ed. (allowablestress design). 2 Depth = steel designation(in.);weight = lb/lt; kip = 1000 tb.
STRESS DESIGN'
NOTES
ALLOWABLE LoAD aPPLrtrD rN PUNE
1. Consultstrucluralengineerto verify lateralsupport . 2. Multiply lffids by 1.5 to obtain approximatecapacitiesto( , loadand resistancefactor designmethod.
MUST BE oF Y Y ars
Y i
+l /
COLUMN
-I\\EN
./ PAmtAL
BOLED PLATE CONNECTION 1' REruRN END \aCH
SH@ WELDED TAA FIELD HGH STRENGTH EOLTED
T€ FIELD SHOP ffiLDED HIGH STRENGTH BOLED
SHOP reDED TAB TO COLUMN reB ND fuTES FIELD H.S. BOLED
WEB.FIELD H.S- BOLED FUNGE_PARTIAL PENETRATION
SHEAR BEAM
NONMOMENT CONNECTION BEAM TO COLUMN FLANGE
NONMOMENT CONNECTION E'EAM TO COLUMN WEE}
COLUMN FI.-ANGE
CONNECTION TO GIRDER
SPLICE AND WEB
CONNECTIONSAND SPLICES 5AFE TOTAL CONCENTRIC LOAD (KIPS) FOR COLUMNS_ASTM A 572 GRADE 50 STEEL (w SHAPES) AND ASTM A sOO STEEL (TS-SHAPES AND PIPE, 46 KSt), ALLOWABLE STRESS DESTGN * DESIGNATION
' For addirionalcolumns and actual dimensions see AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 2d ed. (load and
resistancefactor design) and gth ed. {allowablestress design).
** Weight per ft for W columns. Wall thickness for tubing. kip = 1999 lb: K = effective length factor (verify with structural engineering consultant).
Arerican Institule of Steel Construction;Chicago,lllinois
STRUCTURAL METALFRAMING
N OTE Multiply loads by 1.5 to obtain approximatecapacitieslor load and resistancefactor design method-
W qnd M Steelshopes W SHAPESDIMENSIONS FOR DETAILTNG NATI O N
T H rcKNE ilN
.)
NATIO N
WEB
NATION
THICK. NESS tN.)
M SHAPES_ DIMENSTONS
FOR
DETAILING
American Institute of Steel Construction: Chicago, lllinois
STRUCTURAL METALFRAMING
267
S, HP,C, MC, qnd L SteelShopes
268
ANGLES DIMENSTONS
FOR
CHANNELSMISCELLANEOUS FOR DETAILING DIMENSIONS
DETAILING
S SHAPESDIMENSIONS
*+q-b ill
'-tll-ill'1-----------.)
tr = flange thickness tw = web thickn€ss
. oxltx .
DETAILING
d=deprh tl
n l ttl
FOR
lrl
-/trL * -o: lll
{
b, = width t, = llangethrckness t* = web thickness
- { " At I+
|
SIZE AND TH ICKNESS
(r N . )
D E5IG. NATION
AMERICAN STANDARD DIMENSIONS
CHANNELSFOR DETAILING d = depth
9.4
br = width tr = flange thickness t* = web thickness
HP SHAPESDIMENSIONS
FOR
DETAILING DESIGNATION
D ESIG. NATION
Ameri@n Instituteot Steel Construction:Chicago,lllinois
METALFRAMING STRUCTURAL
HICK ESS
StructurolTees Cutlrom W ond S Shopes STRUCTURAL TEES CUT FROM W SHAPESDIMENSIONS FOR DETATLING
THICK NATION
d = depth
IN.)
NATION
STEM DESIGNATION
tcKNE ilN
.)
STRUCTURAL TEES CUT FROM S SHAPES_ DIMENSIONS FOR DETAILING
American Institute of Steel Construction: Chicago, lllinois
STRUCTURAL METALFRAMING
269
270
SteelFromeSYstems
FRAME MOMENT-RESISTING {rame'slateralslabrlityand resrstance A moment-resislinq to wnd and seismri lorces dependon a fixed connecttonot ls beams and columns. A moment-resistingconnecllon *tt"n the lop and bottom flanges ot each beam "inieu"J welded to the llanges of the connectingcolumns wrth ire tulldeothwelds. By ditectlyweldingthe beamweb to the column flange, the beam's holizontalreactronto wlno torces is transferred to the column. (A connection uslng *"0 inslu" and high-strengthbolts is also permined ) The ouitdinb;sttoors ae designed to act as draphragmsthal aff of the columni and beams, enablingthe build "."."it ing to reactas a unit. Momentiesisting frames are uneconomi€l in tall steel L'uitiinqsO"""ut-" ttte largerlaleral lorces in such buildings cin Oe'tranateOmore efficiently by compressionand teniion aiagonalmemuers. as found in braced{rames To save co"ts, oiien the upper stories of a braced lrame building beafrcolumn connectionsto resist i."'.omtnt-resi"ilng wind loads. -...-,.-----STEELWIDEFUNGE BEAM
STEEL WIOEFUNGE COLUMN
'
RIGID FRAME Rioid frame construction combines columns and a beam or Such a oirier welded toaether -venicalto make a rigid connection loads and resist horizontal forces' ir"-e c"n carry sinusuallv are *inO o, d"i"-ic. Rigid frame buildings "irtr"i qle story and are available with provisions lor cranes, balce sloped' mez?anrnes. The r@fs are generally ii"". permits the use of combined r@{ decks and waterwhich ",io 1 piooini systems: the slope varies but is usually at least
STIFFENER
i^ 12. Because thev span fairly long distances relatively cheaply t*idths ,"nq" between 30 and 130 ft), rigid frame struclrgnt tures are us;d for recreational buildings: warehousesi Industrial burldingsj and commercial buildings, such as ga'age-ssuoermarkets, auiomobile dealer showrooms, and 30 eii ;i."; ai" lsuaty 20 to 24 ft but mav be exiended to ft. the roof protile is most often configured as a symmerts necessrty cal oable. but such a profile is not a structural i'0. *"rt" aie usually covered with 26-gauge coln.oii "^o siding; insulation options vary. Some manufactutr orld steel tsreers offer precast concrete and masonrY sldlng roor engineered buildings most often use rigid frames lor and wall suPports.
-.-..-._MOMENT' RESISTING CONNEC' TION (TYP.)
PURLINS
RIGID FRAME RAFTER EAVE STRUT
ANCHOR BOLT (DEPTH AS NECESSARY, 2 PER COLUMN) Sff INTO CONCRffE FOUNDATION TYPICAL
SEISMIC
FOUNOATION
CONNECTION
EMBOSSMENTS IN STEEL DECK PROVIDE KEYING EFFECT TO
STEEL OECK WELDEO TO STEEL BEAM (SPAN 6.TO
GIRT
ROD BRACING . ENO COLUMN RIGID
MOMENT.RESISTING
STEEL
BEARING FRAME RANER
FRAME
PURUN TIES (2 PER BAY AT THIRD POINTS FOR SRHI 60' THROUGH I 20' WIDE)
FRAME
STIFFENERS WELDED TO COLUMN AT POINTS OPPOSITE BEAM FLANGES COLUMN WELD WEB CUT AWAY AT JOINT WITH COLUMN TO ALLOW CONTINUOUS WED AT UNDERSIOE OF TOP FUNGE
NOTES 1. For nonlire-ratedceilingsituations 2. Typicellyused for heavy loads; noncompositefloor sys tem for light loads C O M P O S I T EF L O O R A N D B E A M S Y S T E M
BEAM
WELD
CONCRETE FILL
WELD
STEEL DECK WELDEO TO BAR JOIST
BEAM ANO WELDED TO BEAM IN FIELE MOMENT-REgISTING COLUMN-TO-BEAM CONNECTION
COLUMN STEEL ANGLE SHOP WELDEO OR BOLTED IN PLACE (WITH ANCHOR BOLT) FOR HIGH.RISE CON. STRUCTION (MORE THAN IO STORIES) WELD ALL AROUND
SPAN
GIR
ROD ARACE FLANGE
CONTINUOUS SPAN GIRT
COLUMN
BASE PUTE
ANCHOR BOLT
l ! .-:=-i' . . . i i
ii li I: :i
--nNcHoR BoLT sET lNTo coNcRffE FOUNDATION (2 MtN. PER PLATE) COLUMN BASE PLATE OETAIL FOR LOW.RISE CONSTRUCTION
MOMENT.RESISTING
FRAME
BEARING PUTE
SECONDARY BEAM STEEL NONCOMPOSITE
RIGID FRAME
Maryland DonaldJ- N€ubauer.P-E.;Neubauer- Sohn.ConsultingEngineers;Potomc' RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Cromsville, Maryland
METALFRAMING STRUCTURAL
TYPICAL
FLOOR
FLOOR
SYSTEMS
BAR JOIS] {SPAN t5'TO 20'TYP.)
SteelFrqmeSystems FRAMED TUBE FLOOR BEAM
GUSSET PUTE WELDED TO BONOM FLANGE
DIAGONAL BRACE AOLTED TO GUSSET PUTE
lr the framed tlbe system. slruclural steel members {orm rne roaO Deanng extenor perimeter wall, thrs wall rs OesrgneoSo the ertrre building becomes, in effect, a structurat steel tube. The tubular strength is achieved in two ways the,exteflOr Columns are spaced closely rogelher oernaps b ll on center, and connected to Spandrel beams; the slructure is stittened by the fl@rs to foim a tors,onalij lgro tuDe. the spandrel beams are generally very deep. in units of teet as opposed to inches. ihe columns and sfan_ drel beams are welded together to c.eate a moment{esist. Ing connection. Often thrs system is referred to as a prerced tube, the pierced areas being lhe window oDen_ ings. The framejl tube system is most economical for very tall buildings. The World Trade Center Towers in New yori and
DIAGONAL BRACE CONNECTION AT FLOOR BEAM-INTERMEDTATE (MIDSPAN)
lhe Sears Tower In Chtcago are the most conspicuous examples. Syslems lte rhat;l rne Sea,s fo*er, a fJm6i"# tron of njne framed tubcs jn a 3 by 3 array a,. ,o-"t,il"-, caileo 0undted tubes BRACED
CORE
ln the braced core system, walls around elevator shafts and starrweils are designed to act as vertical trusses that canti_ lever up from the foundation. The chords of each truss are building columns; the tloor beams act as ties. Diagonals placed In a-K pattern (occasronallyin an X pattern) coriplete the truss A system employrng knee braces rs used in sersmrc. areas beca^Lseof its greater abtlrty to dtssrpate earth. quaKe energy. brdced core systems can be used effrcrently In srngte-storybuildings as well as in buildings over b0 stories.
LOAO BEARING EXTERNAL WALL CORE
271
BRACED CORE
BOX
KNEE BRACE AT LONGITUOINAL SIDE
-COLUMN
A,BRACE AT SHORT SIDE OIAGONAL BRACE BOLTED TO T-STUA GUSSET
T.STUB GUSSET BOLTEO TO COLUMN
SPANDREL
TYPICAL SHEAR CONNECTION
BRACED CORE
COLUMN
N OTE Bracing design to be determined by based on specific loading configurations FLOOR FUNGE
BEAM (TOP CUT OUT
englneer
COLUMN WELD TOP (AND BOTTOM) FUNGE TO COLUMN IF MOMENT RESISTANCE ALSO NEEDED
FOR T.STUB) DIAGONAL AT FLOOR
struCtural
BRACE CONNECTION BEAM_END
STEEL GUSSET PUTE BOLTED TO CROSS ARACES
STEEL
ANGLE
WELD (IN SHOP)
OIAGONAL CROSS BRACE.
Externalwall units typicallystaggeredin one-storyheights
COLUMN.TO.BEAM
P E R I M E T E RW A L L D E T A T L
COLUMN
CROSS BRACING CONNECTIONINTERMEDIATE
SHEAR CONNECTION GUSSET PUTE WELDED TO COLUMN ANO BEAM
STEFL PUTE BOLTED TO OIAGONAL STRUT
SPANOREL FUNGE CUT OUT TO RECEIVE COLUMN SPANDREL WEB BEYOND SPANDREL
BEAM
CONTINUOUS WELD BMEEN FUNGE AND BACK OF SPANDREL WEB -SHEAR PUTE WELDED TO SPANOREL; BOLTED IN FIELD TO ADJACENT SPANOREL AEAM
DIAGONAL STRUT
TIFFENER DIAGONAL CROSS BRACE BOLTED TO GUSSET PUTES CROSS
BRACING
VERTICAL
CONNECTION_ENO
BRACING
DETAILS
WELDED TO SPANDREL, {OPTIONAL)
COLUMN-TO. COLUMN WELD
SPANDREL
AND
COLUMN
FRAMED TUBE
OETAILS
SHEAR CONNECTOR
TYPICAL DIAGONAL BRACE CONNECTION OETAIL
BRACED CORE
DonaldJ. Neubauer,P.E.;Neubauer- Sohn,ConsultingEngineers: potomac,Marytand RichardJ. Vitullo,AtA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville. Marytind
SIRUCTURAL METALFRAMING
Spoce Flomes
272 GENERAL
A soace frame is a three-dimensionaltruss with lnear -.-fiGis ttt"t tot. a series ol triangulatedpolyhedrons lt can be seen as a plane of constant depth that can sustaln iiirly long spansand variedconfigurationsof-shape
ROOFS
FOR RATIO SPAN DLPTH-TO 1 1A IF COLUMN-SUPPORfED
---.--
MODULES: ryPIGL 4 ' , 5 , e ' , .1 2 ' ,
1 :2O lF WALL-SUPrcRTED
N OTES 1''. The Drime attributesof spaco frame structural systems arJ thelr light weight; inherentrigidity:their wide variety of form. size. and span; and compatibleInteractlonwlm otner uultoindsuppdrtsystems, primarilyHVAC' 2. Most svstemsare d€sigred for sp@ificapplications,and -'a stru&uraf engineer with space frame experience should always be consulted.Manulacturerscan provlde the full rangeot capabiliti€s-loadingspans,shapes,spq cific details-for their products Standardizedsyslems In 4- and s-ft modulesare available 3. - Metal space frames ars classified as noncombustible *ntttuition and can usually be exposed when 20 ft abovethe fl@r. However,an automaticfire extinguishrng svstem or a rated ceiling may be requir€d.Consultapplts cablebuildingand fire codes. 4. The finishes commonly availableare paint, thermoset polyester,gaivanizing,stainlesssteel, or metal plating'
15% CANTTLEWR 3@ OF SPAN
N OTE the Select a space frame module that is compatible with buildinq planning module in shap€ (e.9.' a square module plannrng (a the multiple ot with orthogonal plan) and size
module);is consistentwith th€ limitationsof the interfacing svsieml 1".g.,the maximum span of the rgoj degk ollYll ri6n'ip""'itlii in" glazingsystim); and satisliesthe spatia and aestheticetf€cts in scaleand torm.
AND CHARACTERISTICS
MODTJLE SELECTION
=T
UTOLITI NOTE Squaretubes or angles within their span range are often the most economical. MEMBER
TO
4sft HEXAGONAL
TETRAHEDFTON
GRID SHAPES
SHAPES
,r{
K *V
SUPPORT
TYPES
ffi
ffi
ffi \,,W
MvM
OFFSET 1/2 MODULE
DIRECT
xxffi
ffi
WXDOOK
ffi
res4 W
ffi KXXD0(
reCIoe'eK
\izl\ro
MULTIFACETED FIJAT
PTJATE
BENT
A FULL NOTE
ffi
ffi \W
WAI\A/
ffi
M
ffi AJS#A#A \izlv\,w
ElOX SEOON offi GORD
V_VV__V
DIRECT FOR OF UDDING
r= LA\ el/
ANACHMEM OR GL€NG-
PARTIAL
SPHERE
SPHERE
Space frame supports are at panel joints only, not along membersNODE CONNECTIONS WOOD RATEO BLOCKING. WP.
MTTAL
PTJATE
SPACE FRAME SAFEil
ftP
COANG.
1'-
-\
DOME
..f7--x
re
N
HYPERBOLIC
FORM TYPES
GUSS
GTJZING ruME sEqroN
ANGLE
FI.AHING
SPHERICAL NODE
META FLISHING,
SEMM
STEEL
JOIST
STMP,
WP
SAl.AT UPPER MEMBER GLAZNG
ruRLIN
GLAZING
AT
LOWER METAL AOSURE,
FRNE SPACE STRUCruRE
SUrcRT
WP. CONCRETE 6LUMN BRACKET/
E}OTTOM SUPPORT
SLOPED
Ass@iates:New York. New York
FRAMING METAL STRUCTURAL
MEMBER
OR
-
Many proprietarynode systems are availablefor spectftc aoplicationsand budgets.Keep {ield connectionsto a mrnF mum: welded connectionsoften eliminatejoint pieces. PATTERNS
Y l\
FOLDED
ffiffiQ# SHAPE CHANGE
OFFSET iA MODULE
Severud
a-\
OFFSET SKE\n/EO
DIRECT SKE\^/ED
COMMON
PLATE
GI-AZING
BEARING
PUTE
ANCHOR
BOLTS
ROOF AND FLOOR CONNECTIONS
Open-WebSteelJoists PRELIMINARY
JOIST
NOTES 'l.Total
SELECTION
The accompanying tables are not to be used for final iojst design bul are Intended as an ard In selectrng steel lorsl; lor preliminary design and planning. Determining the final design must be a separate and thorough process. involvino a complete Investrgatron of penrne.t condrltons; thrs pag; is not intended to support that etfort Consult a structuial engrreer.
safe load = live load + dead toad. Dead toad Includes the weight of the joists. For dead loads and rec ommended hve loads, see pages on weights of materi_ als. Local codes will govern
2. Span should not exceed a depth 24 times that of a nomi, nal joist.
JOIST
2116" FILLET WELDS 1 " LONG OR j/2' BOLTS ruO -
IN FLOOR
AND ROOF TO SIEEL BEARING PurE wtrH ANcHoRS rveeodao INTO WALL
:
HORIZONTAL BRIDGING ANGLES WELDED TO CHORDS
2" MIN, CONCRETE OVER STEEL FL@R DECK
t[lil Til f lil lil
t[
JOIST THROUGH
L-
Chord K-series Nominat depth (in.l
FLOOR CONSTRUCTION: Joists are usually covered by 21l, to 3 in. of concrete on steel decking. Concrete thicknesa may be increased to accommodate electrical conduit or electrical/communications raceways. Precast concrele, gypsum planks, or plywood can also be used for the floor sysrem.
JOIST BEARING
CONTINUOUS DECK BEARING ANGLE ANCHOR BOLTED TO MASONRY
SECTION
I I
CEILINGS: Ceiling supports can be suspended from or mounted directly to the bottom chords of ioists, although suspended systems are recommended because of dimen, sional variations in actual joist depths.
2.b' MIN,
SECTION THROUGH
]
ROOF CONSTRUCTION: Joists are usuallv covered with steel decfrng lopped with erther rigrd insutatron board or lightweight concrete fill and either a roof of built-uo felt and gravel or single ply roofing with ballast. plywood, ooured gypsum, or structural wood fiber deck systems can also be used with a built-up roof.
BEARING
EVERY
JOISTDESIGNATION: 25 K 10
FOr greater economy, the K-series joist replaced lhe Hseries Joist in 1986.
-4
AfrACH
NOTE The followinginformationappliesto both open-weband long-span steeljoists.
i t l
3. For more information, refer to the standard specifications and load tables adopted by the Steel Joist Institute.
An example of how to use the informatjon presented here follos: Assume a particular clear span. By assuming a lorst spacing and estimating the total load, a joast can immediately be selected trom the table. Then proceed with preliminary design studies.
-
VIBRATION: Objectionabte vrbrations can occur rn open web joist and 2112in. concrete slab designs for open floor areas at spans between 20 and 40 ft, especiallv at 28 tt. When a floor area cannot have partitions, objeclionable vibrations can be prevented or reduced by increasing slab thickness or modifying lhe ioist span. Attention should also be given to suppon for framing beams, which can magnify a vibration problem when unsupported. OPENINGS lN FLOOR OR ROOF SYSTEMS: Smail openings betwe€n ioists are framed with angles or channel supported on the adjoining two joists. Larger openings necessitating interruption ot ioists are framed with steel angle o. channel headers spanning the two adlornrngjoists. I he Interrupted lo'sts bear on the headers. ROOF DRAINAGE: On level or near tevel roofs, especially those with parapet walls, roof drainage should be carefullV considered. Roof rnsulatroncan be sloped, and toists can be sloped or obtained with top chords that slope in one or both directions. Overflow scuppe.s should be provided in para pet walls. lf roof slope is less than r/4 in. per ft, the roof svs, tem should be jnvestigated to ensure stability under ponding conditions.
PROFILES
JOISTS
SELECTED LOAD TABLES: K SERTES-TOTAL SAFE UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD (LB/FT) SPAN
tAll
273
NUMBER OF ROWS OF BRIDGING
(FT)
ioists 40 ft or longer require a row of bolted bridging in place before hoisting lines are slackened. , Where the designed joist span is equal to or greater than this span, the row of bridging nearest th€ midspan of the joist shall be installed as bolted diagonal bridging. Hoisting iables shall not be released until this bolted daagonalbridging is completely inatalted.
' Last digit(s)of joist designation shown in accompanying load table. , Check maximum joist span for required midspan bolted diagonal bridging N OTE Distances are clear span dimensions {ft).
Kenneth D. Franch, P.E., AIA; Aguirre, lnc.; Dallas, Texas
METALJOISTS
Long-SponSteelJoists
274
6' MrN BEARING
/--
/
/
BRACING AT DIAGONAI PROVIDE WfiH BONOM CHORD BIARINC
trNDS
5'(a1h' DLH ND
1A 19)
SOUARE END FOR SONOM CHORD BEARING INTERIOR (CRIMreD
MEMBER VERTICAL ANGLE) STEEL
STEEL BEARING PGTE WITH EMBEODED ANCHORS AT TOP OF MASONRY WALL; ANCHOR JOISTS WTH ruO '/.. FILLET WELDS 2, LONG
NOTE Web member type depends on span and load characteristiG
SECTION THROUGH
JOIST BEARING BOTTOM CHORD SQUARE END
DECK BARING CONTINUOUS BOLTED TO ANGLE ANGOR ryPICALLY PARALLEMASONRY, TO JOISTS
BEARING AT
-
DIAGON& E]RIOGING BOLED AT MIDSPAN AND TG*ER TO CLIP ANGLES AT JOIST CHORDS
BRIreING HORIZOMI AT SIST CLOSE TO WALL OR PAIRED JOISTS
SECTION
THROUGH
JOISTS
FIRE
RESISTANCE
RATING
TIME (HR)
FLOOR/CEILI
NG ASSEMBLIES
TIME (HR)
ROOF/CEILING
2'l2 In. rerntdc€d mrete, lrsteo"/. In. gypsumplasteron retal lath attachedto bottom chordof ,oist
Built{p r@ting on listed l'16an.wood wrth cement btndorfioerboardover 1'l2 in. gypsum plasterceilingon metal lath attached to furring channelssupportedfrom joist
2
2'l2 In. rernlorcs oncrele. lrsteo "/s In. type X wallboard attached to furring channels ti€d to bottom chord of joist
metal deck with listed % in. gypsum plaster ceiling on metal lath attached to turring channels supported lrom joist
2rl2in. reanforced @ncrete.lrstedi/! In. rcod fiber gypsum plasterover metal lath on channelsseored to joist
Built-uproofingon listed 1 in. expandedp€rliteboardover 1'/2In. plasteron metal metal deck with listed7s in. gypsum-vermiculite lath attachedto runnerchannelssuooortedfrom ioist
NOTE These are abbreviatedassemblydescriptions.Table7{ ol the Uoiform Euilding Code gives complete descriptions. LOAD
sERIES-TOTAL
TABLES:
LH
AND
SAFE UNIFORMLY
UndeMriters Laboratoriesand FactoryMutual Drovideadditional system, material,and approvalguidelines-
DLH
DISTRIBUTED CLEAR
JOIST
LOAD (LBIFT)
SPAN
(FT)
DESIGNATION
BOTTOM
Charles
r= r.R\
el/
M. Ault; Setter, Lsach & Lindstrom,Architects& Engineers;Minneapolis,Minnesota
METALJOISTS
CHORD
EXTENSION
DETAIL
Determiningthe tinal design must be a separate,thorough process. involving a complete investigation of pertinenl conditions;this page is not to be used for that purpose Consulta structuralengineer. An exampleof how to use the informationpresentedhere follows: Assume a particularclearspan. By assuminga joist spacingand estimating the total load, a ioist can immedi ately be selectedfrom th€ table.Then proceedwith preliminarydesign studies. NOTES l.Total saf€ load = live load + dead load. D€ad load includesthe wsight of the joist. For dead loads and recomrended live loads, see pages on weights o{ materi als. Lmal codes will govem. 2. Spanshould not exceed 24 tires the depth ol a nominal ioist for r@fs, 20 tihes the depth ot a nominaljoist for floors. 3. For more information, refer to standard specifications and load tablesadoptedby the SteelJoist Institute. AND
BRIDGING
NOTE
MEMBER ANGLE)
JOIST SELECTION PRELIMINARY The accompanyingtables should not be used lor final ioist design but are intended to speed selection of stel joists for preliminarydesignand planning.
LH
Number preceding letter is ioist depth (32LH10 is 32 in. deep)
WRICAL SEEL
IffiRIOR (CRIMED
ASSEMBLIES
Euilt{p r@ting on lrsted 1 In. wood wth cement btndernoerboardover 1rl2in. metal deck with listed% in. gypsum plast€r ceilingon metal lath attach€dto furring channolshung lrom ioist Bualt-uprootingon lrsted1 In. wood ttben]oardover 1'/aIn. deck with listed % in. gypsum plasterceilingon metal lath attachedto furing channelssupportedfrom joist
|6ted "/sIn. 2'l2 In. rerntorc€dffiet€, gypsumplasteron metal lath attachedto boftom chord of ioist 2 In. rerntor€d concrete.lrsted"/sIn. cement olasterover retal lath attach€d to bottm chord of joist
SELECTED
WELD OR BOLT
DLH
BRIDGING
SPACING
(FT)
N OTE Welded horizontalbridging is used for typical ioist spans Checkioist bridgingrequirementswhen joist spans require midspan bolted diagonalbridging.For spans of more than 60 ft, all bridgingshouldbe bolted diagonalbridging.
Metql Floorqnd Roof Decking METAL
DECKING
Some of the many types of metal decktng avarlableare 1 . Roof deck 2. Floor deck (noncomposite) 3. Composite floor deck interacting with concrete 4. Permanent forms for self-supporting concrete slabs 5. Cellular deck (composite or noncomposite) 6. Acoustical rmf deck 7. Acouslical cellular deck (composite or noncomposite) 8. Electric raceway ellular deck 9. Prevented rof deck (used with lightweight insulating concrete fill) INSTALLATION
AND
Floor deck loadrngs are vrftuallv unlmited In scope, rangrng lrom lrgnt resrdentral and insl[ulronal loads to heaw-dutv industrial floors utilizing composite deck with slabs up to 24 in. thick. Designers can setect the deck type.. depth, and gauge most suitable for the application. Roof-mounted mechanical equipment should not be placed directly on a metal roof deck Equipment on built-up or pre tabricated curbs should be supported directly on marn and supplementary structural members and the deck must be supported along all free edges. Heavy items such as cooltng towers that must be elevated should be supported by posts extending through pitch pockets directly onto structural members below the deck. Openings through the deck may be handled as discussed above. FIRE RESISTANCE
OESIGN
All metal fl@r and .oof decks must be secured to all suppons, generally by means of puddle welds made lhrough the deck to supporting steel. Steel sheet lighter than 22 gauge (0.0295 in. thick) should be secured by use of weld ing washers. Shear studs welded through the floor deck also serye to secure the deck to supporting steel.
3 A vanety of depths and rib patterns is availabte. 4 Acoustical treatment is possible 5 Metal roof decks can serve as the base for insulation and rcofing. 6. Fire ratings can be obtained with standard assemblies. 7. Metal roof decks can provide a lateral dlaphragm 8. Metal roof decks can be erected quickly and economi carly 9. Metal roof decks make it easy to create roof slopes for drarnage.
RATTNGS
'o'1. ."1
Fire resistance ratings {or roof deck assemblies are published by UndeMriters Laboratories and Factory Mutual. Ratings ot 1 to 2 hr are achieved with sprav{n insulation a 1-hr rating with a suspended acoustical ceiling and a 2-hr ratrng with a metal lath and-piaster ceiling.
Side laps between adjacent sheets of deck must be secured by bunonfunching standing seams, welding, or screws, an accordance with the manufacturer's recommenoalrons. Decks used as lateral diaphragms must be welded to steel suppons around their entire perimeter to ensure development ot diaphragm action. More stringent requirements may govern the size and/or spacing of attachments to supports and side lap fasteners or welds.
Consult the manufacturer's literature and technical representatives for additional information. Consult the Steei Deck lnstitute Design Manual for Floot Decks and Roof Decks and the Tentative Recommendations for the Design of Steel Deck Diaphragms by the Steel Deck Institute,
Roof deck selection must consider construction and maintenance loads, as well as the capacity to suppon unilormly disrributed live l@ds. Consult Steel Deck lnstitute recom, mendations and Factory Mutual requjrements.
AOVANTAGES
OF METAL
Rc}OF
DECKS
1. A high strength-to-weight ratio reduces r@f dead load. 2. Metal roof decks can be erected in most weather conditions.
T
--l CANT
Floor deck assembly fire resistive ratings are available both with and without spray-appliedfireproofing and with regular weight or lightweight concrete fill. Ratings from 1 to 3 hr are possible using only concrete till; consult UndeMriters Laboratories Fire Resistance Index for assembly ratings.
275
END CLOSURE
STRIP
FILLER
PLATE
ROOF
DECK
RIDGE/VALLEY PUTE ACCESSORIES
REINFORCING
ROOF DECK TYPES TYPE
REMARKS
,
1
'"fi& Narrow (l in. wide)
6t
*_-* , , , " t . r t - t r [ - - -l fJ: "'FU 6
6"
l+-+
,r,"]-t/-r 't,--l- t--/
.t+ u
insulation; max. surface area on top for adhering insulation
N OTES 1. Small openings (up to 6 x 6 in. or 6 in. in diameter) usually may be cut in a root or lloor deck without reinforcino the deck.
44" to 11{"
13to'
,*+n,r,"f-L-!ntr (2 r/, in. wide)
t
1)
z1tz"
I r-i LJ
d
\---
2. Openings up to l0 x 1O in. or 10 in. in diameter reoui.e rernlorcing of the deck eithe. by weldrng a reintorcrng plate to the deck all around the openings or providino channel-shaped headers and/or supplementarv reinforc-, ing parallel to the deck span. Fleinforcing plates should be 14{auge sheets with a minimum oroiection of 6 in. beyond all sides of the opening, and they shoutd be welded to each cell of the deck. 3. Larger openings should be framed with supplementary steel members so that all tree edges of the deck are suF ooneo.
OPENINGS
ror useas electricalrace
'2'b' tto
J-+
way or as acous, tacalceiling; bottom plate is perforated for sound aDsorplron
",,'Fffi | 2sla' I
,fr' .1.--_
3,
I
i_&_;uL_+
IN DECK
lrJ "-},r +3 +
to 30 {"
NOTE Preformed recessed sump pans are available from deck manufacturers for use at roof drains. RECESSED
SUMP
PAN
Donald Neubauer, P.E.; Neubauer Consulting Engineers: potomac, Maryland Walter D. Shapiro, P.E.; Tor, Shapiro & Associates: New york, New yoik
METALDECKING
Melol FloorDecking
276
COMPOSITE
FLOOR
DECK
WITH
CONCRETE
REMARKS
PROFI LE oecK
PRESET INSERTS
FILL
LOnVeXemoossments bond with concrete fill: reverse deck for concave embossments
r 2'l''
tonvex embossments
oecK
embossmenls F
;PAN FT.IN.)
\^r'IDTH (lN.)
9{ lo 12'4"
36'
MAX. LENGTH (FT-lN.)
ACCESS HOLES
to 13'{"
JO
or
7',4" to t4'4"
or 36"
SEPARATE TROUGH FOR P O W E RL I N E S
TRENCH DUCT CELLULAR METAL DECK NOTE
o
Electric raceways may be built into floor slabs by using cel lular deck or special units that are blended with plain deck Twcway distribution is achieved by using trench ducts that sit astride the c€llular units at right angles.
NONCOMPOSITE
FILL
FLOOR DECK WITH CONCRETE
TYPE
R EMA,R KS
PROFILE
\^/IDTH fl N.)
SPAN FT-tN.)
MAX. LENGTH (FT-rN.)
Narrow nb
35" 36"
to 5'€'
Using trench ducts with composite lloor deck may reduce or eliminate entirely the effectiveness ol composile action at the trench duct- This is also true for composite action b€twen steel floor beams and concrete fill. Trench duct locations must be taken into account in deciding whether commsite action is possible.
DUCT
ELECTRICALTRENCH
f7
f A-"/i
t='-r^]...A,Jf
3"
POUR STOP Narrow nb
to
r0'-o"
6Z JJ
f; Narrow tb
Intermedrate deck
3l
424'
to
ffi $u/ U li'^l""lxil;"'
?' Narrow nb deck
4{to 11'-O"
36"
oecK to 14',4"
COMPOSITE AND NONCOMPOSITE CELLULAR FLOOR DECK WITH CONCRETE
36"
INTEGRAL HANGER TAB
FOUR AND
STOPS CLOSURES
N OTE A convenient, economical means of supporting lightweighi acoustical ceilings is attaching a suspension system to hanger tabs at side laps. piercing tabs driven through the deck, or pre{unched tabs in the roof deck. Do not use this ta$and-metal deck arrangement to support plasler ceilings, piping. ductwork, electrical equipment, or other heavy loads. Such elements must b€ susoended directlv from structural members or supplementary sublraming.
FILL S.SECTIONAL
FLOOR
DECK ACCESSORIES
TYPE sq (35 sq in./sheet)
x
deck {for stel Jramesrequiring studs)
JXUrn.CeilUtar (not suitable for
I /.4 sq In./cell
sq in./sheet)
structuralstudsl
sq In
io 8',-o"
rre
Donald Neubauer,P.E.; NeubauerConsultingEngineers;Potomac,Maryland Walter D. Shapiro,P.E.:Tor, Shapiro& Associales;New York, New York
METALDECKING
30' 36"
(24 sq in./sheet)
METAL
FLOOR
DECKING
Two items to keep in mind when designing with metal decking: 1- Vvhen lightweight concrete is used in the construction, use galwnizeddeck material. 2. In a fireproofassembv. retal componentsshouldbe un onmeq. ADVANTAGES DECKS
OF
METAL
FLOOR
1. Metalfloordecksprovidea workingplatform.eliminating temporarywood plankingin high-riseuse. 2. Compositedecks providepositivereinforcementfor con crete slabs. 3. Both noncomoositeand comoositedecks serve as forms tq concrete,eliminatingthe need for lorming and strip pang. 4. Consultthe UndeMriters Laboratoriesdirectorvfor spe' cific fire ratingrequirements5. Acousticaltreatment is possible. 6. Electricracewaysmay be built into the floor slab. 7. Meral floor decking provides economical floor assemblies.
Cold-FormedSteelFromingMqteriols ALLOWABLE NOMINAL JOTST StZE (WtTH MIL TH ICKNESS)
SPANS
FOR
I O PSF DEAD
SINGLE-SPAN
FLOOR
LOAD + 30 PSF LIVE LoAD
JOISTS
1O PSF DEAD LOAD + 40 PSF LIVE LOAD
SPACtNG O.C. (|N.
SPACTNG O.C. (
l2 10 tt 7 rn
x6x
ll it6rn.
2tt8rn.
2 tl4 tn.
3ft nbrn.
Stlzrn l4 ll 7 in.
x8x
6tt1 in. 5ft8in.
xdx
nltn
xBx54
18ft4in
xBx68
19tt8in
xdx
ltI
tuln.
9tt I In
ult/rn
9tt/rn
l1 ft6in
lull5rn
12 ft 4 In.
1 1f t 2 i n
1 3t t 3 i n . 15tt6in 1 6f t 8 i n . 1 7t t 1 I i n . 1 9t t 1 0 i n .
8tllUrn
4lturn.
12tt0rn 3lt3rn ott/rn
ttlrn
b tt ti rn.
14 tt 1 In-
1l tt6rn
3lt2rn
l2 tt I rn.
4n110
Tt / In_ 15lt / rn_ tt 4 rn.
ti ft I rn.
tn It ti rn l
ln
lrn
t9n luIn
'16 tt B in
22 tl 1 tn.
20tt I In
17tl6rn
20 tt 1 In.
18 tt 3 in
23nErn. zti tt 4 rn
2l lt tt In
18 tt l0 In.
21tt 6 rn.
1 9t t 7 i n .
23n l'l rn
2A tl
23 tt 1l In
2l lt9rn
tn
17
:13 tt b In.
ZUtt3rn
14 tl
tn
20tt ll rn.
l6 lt l0 rn
25n9rr
lJlt4rn
t9 il
tn
23 lt4 In
2 1t t 3 r n
tn-
xllx
/l nE tn.
l5nl
25ll lIn
22 ll ltJ tn
Irn
tn
tn
tbrn
4;-
l2tn
x12x
2l tl
"iL4"
ENUIN
18 tt 8 in.
rn
./4
7l
tn
titt3rn
15tt3in.
In.
In.
blt2rn.
t/ttlttn
18 tt 8 In
2tJ tt ti rn
)
t6
l0ft0in urtYrn,
1l rn.
tn
ll tt3rn
tn.
f4 "12<
+ .'.,.1 | -Zo.zt "l atl-4' +Y+ B
ALLOWABLE NOMINAL JOrST StZE (wtTH MtL TH ICKNESS)
SPANS FOR MULTIPLE-SPAN I O PSF DEAD
LOAD + 30 PSF LIVE LOAD
SPACING
'f I
({ B
FLOOR JOISTS I O PSF DEAD
LOAD
+ 40 PSF LIVE LOAO FURRI NG CHANNEL
SPACTNG O.C. (rN.)
O.C. ilN.)
277
2x6x43
2x10x43 2 x 10 x 54
2 x 1 2x 6 8
NOTES l. The tables above provide maximum joist spans, in feet and inches. For multiple spans, span is either to the right or lett of the interior suooort. 2. lnterior b€aring supports for multiple span joists should consist of structural {bearing)walls or beams. 3. Bearing stiffeners should be installed at all suppo.t points and concentrated loads. End bearing stiffene.s are not required for floor joists 54 mil or thicker, spanning 14 ft o. less, {or one-story houses (walls and roof only} in areas with maximum ground snow load of 30 psf or less-
MO
EOUAL
4. Joists supporting a roof and single wall only may cantilever up to a maximum of 24 in. measured from the centerline of the bearing point, provided that bearing stiffeners are installed at the end of the cantilever and the bearing point and no punchouts are allowed in the cantilevered section. Hole reinforcements may be used to cover up notes.
RUNNER CHANNEL
5. Deflection criteriar U4B0 for live loads: U24O for total roaos
SPANS
NOTE Members available an dimensions of 33 through 97 mil
LIGHT.GAUGE FRAMING
MEMBERS
American lron and Steel Institute; Washington, D.C
COLD-FORMED METALFRAMING
278
Cold-FormedSteelFromingMoteilols
COLD-FORMED STEEL-MINIMUM
MATERIAL THICKNESS
' 1 mil = 1/1000in. cEtLtNG
JOISTS
WITHOUT
x4N
lUn6rn
x4r
tt n / rn tzntsrn 1 4f t 1 1 i n , 1 1f t 2 i n
UNJIN
lln4rn
10ft4in
9TI | | rn
8 lt l0,n
12tt4an
11h2rn
13ft2in.
1 2t t 0 r n . 12n 10 In.
l0 tt 4 rn.
'14 tt 1 rn.
tJ[/ln.
12 tt I In.
15 nb In
l0ftbrn.
n2rn ztt0rn.
Ynorn
9n5rn.
x.o x
l2 tt'l rn 13 tt 0 rn.
xtix
Iti n J tn.
xux
t2 tt / tn
xur
tJnbrn
XUI
t4Tt4rn
x6x x6x
t5n5rn 17ft8in
x tu x
14ft5rn.
13n4rn
x l0x
l5 tt 4 rn.
l4ftzrn-
fi9tn
x l0 x
l5nzrn
x lUx
16n5rn. 18n/rn.
3ft7in Snzrn
x l2 x
15tt2rr
x12x
iti tt I In.
xf2x
t/n Jtn
x llx
tYn5tn
14nl rn lSnurn 1 5f t 1 1 i n . 1 7f t 1 0 i n .
ttll
In.
4n1l
!n.
nurn. nbrn. 13 ft 4 in. l4ft3in. 16 tt 2 in.
I/nl
STORAGE BRACING THIRD.POINT SPACING (IN.)
12
t6
9tt2rn
'10 ft 8 in. l1ft7in.
t4ttutn
ATTIC
MID.SPAN BRACING SPACING (IN.)
t6
l2 I tt l0 In.
x4x
SPANS,
UNBRACED SPACING (IN.)
NOMI NAL JOTST StZE
X4X
SPANS-SINGLE
ALLOWABLE
In
uil
l In.
Un9rn n/rn 3ft2in 0ftOin. 1ft3in. ',1't 1 ft in 2it9in. 4tt5rn. 2nl rn.
znurn 3n5rn 4ft4in. 5 ft
't'l
in
10n4rn.
12ft4tn
ll nzrn
l0 n ti In.
13ltztn
li fizrn.
l4n
tznurn zn tutn ft 1 in. tt8 5
JOTSTS
ALLO\^/ABLE
SPANS-SINGLE
14 tt i rn.
l2fi4rn.
t5nbrn
14fi5rr
bnlurn
t5n / rn
lunurn. 13ft10in
/nllrn
t.bn / In
t4nvtn_
9nzrn ztnbrn. 7ft8in. l8ft10an
t/nurn 1 9f t 1 0 i n . 16tt5in lTttOin
5 t t l0 in l7 tt 8 in. '14tt 9 in. l 5 n l0 rn
16ft2an 1 1t r 7 a n '18tt 1 tn. 0 20tt2n 22n4n. 21 tt b rn.
ZU TI U IN.
18tt7in
21 tt 3 in. 23ftErn. zu tt 2 rn. zt n4rn. 22ft8in. z5n trn. zl n4rn. zzn I tn. 23ft11in 26 tt 4 in.
l9ft8rn.
l6ft9rn. 'llftErn.
SPANS,
2l tt lU In
9n6rn.
lutt9tn
bntl
tv n tu In_
7 n l0 in
2l ftOin 2 3t l 2 i n l 9 f t 1 0i n . 2 0 f t 1 1i n . zz\ztn
18ft ll in
20ft9in. 17ft11in 1 8 f t 1 1i n
24ft4t^.
WITH
ATTIG
rn
* Bearing stiffeners shall be installed at all suppon points and concentrated loads. NOTES '1. The tables above provide the maximum ceiling joist span in teet and inches. 2. Detlection criteria: L./240 for total loads. 3. Ceiling dead load = 5 psf (0.24 kPa) 4. I in. = 25.4 mm, 1 ft = 304.8 mm, 1 psf = 48 Pa.
Areracan lron and Steel lnstitute; Washington,D.C.
r= e/
COLD_FORMED METALFRAMING
In.
tn
2
nll rn lrn
18ft4rn. ln-
23 tt 0In.
20 tt 3 rn. l9nbrn. 2 1f t z n .
24lt4tn
2:1ft I n.
ln.
25 tt I rn.
2JttlI
ztsn4rn 24ft8in 26 tt 0 in. 27 tt 6 rn. 30 tt 2 rn. 26tt I in
zbnJrn.
ln tn_
22ft11 in 24112 in. 2b tt 6 ln.
2/ltll rn. 24 tt 3 rn. zcn
19ft11in
29tt0rn
2ltt10tn.
3l tt 8In.
21 nO tn. 29n4rn.
(2O PSF)
In.
In
27 t16 tn.
STORAGE
MID.SPAN BRACING SPACING (IN.) NOMINAL JOTST StZE
I rn
btt9rn.
* Bearingstifteners shall be installedat all support points and oncentrated loads. cElLtNG
24
l6
ll ft4rn
9ft0in. 9tt9rn
/ In.
I
tn. tn. 4rn tn.
Cold-FormedSteelFroming-Open TOP
,Z-
TRACK DOORJAME
HEADER BEAM -
-.
TRACK TRACK
METAL STUD
-.
MNAL STUD CRIPPLE STUD
FASTENERS AS REOUIRED AT EACH JAMB STUD
CRlPPLE STUD CLOSURE TRACK EXTENDED AAOVE AND BELOW AS OPENING. REOUIRED FOR STRENGTH
STIFFENER
AOSURE TRACK EXTENDED ABOVE OPENING AS REOUIRED FOR STRENGTH
AS
REOUIRID MULTIPLE STUDS. BACK-TO'BACK, AS REOUIRED
MULTIPLE STUDS, BACK-TO-BACK.
:r
SHEATHING
-
BOfrOM TRACK SILL
TRACK
CRIPPLE STUD
AS REOUIRED THROUGH BOTOM TRACK AT EACH JAMB STUD
BONOM TRACK
WINDOW
OPENING
DOORJAMB
BASE AT FLOOR FRAMING
CLIP ANGLE OR SECNON
DOOR OPENING
SPTI!"J
OF]RCK. FASENERS AS REOUIRED
DOWN FASTEN JAMB\
AND TO
\\'r / It \ li l il /
HEADER BEAM
\
rtW
MULNPLE MEMBERS
SUPPORT MEMBER
Z CUT TRACK AND BEND TO ALLOW ENENSION OF FGNGES FOR CONNECTION
AS REOUIRED AT JAME -
SECTION OF STUD
FUNGES TO ALLOW COE MENSION OF THE WEB FOR
"'4 TRACK
J
ll J "MULTIPLE MEMBERS AS REOUIRED
\
FASTENERS AS REOUIRED ffEND CLOSURE TRACK AS REOUIRED FOR HEAD CONNECTION AND JAMB STRENGTH
SECTION
CLIP ANGLE NO LESS 'zz' THAN LESS THAN
NO T E Detailmay be applicableto largeropeningsin interiorpartitions.Fornonaxialloads. HEAOER BEAMS FOR WIOE OPENINGS
HEAD AT OPENING LESS THAN (LOAD-BEARING WALL)
TOP RACK MULTIPLE MEMBERS AS REOUIRED -AT JAMB
SECNON OF MACK
SCREWS AS REOUIRED
AT JAMB FASENERS AS REOUIRED
MEMAER
SECTION OF SruD FASTENERS AS REOUIRED
METAL
AS AT
MULTIruE MEMBERS AS REOUIRED AT HEAD
STUD HAD TRACK -
ESEND CLOSURE TRACK AS REOUIRED FOR HEAD AND JAME STRENGTH
REQUIRED AT EACH SIDE OF JAMB N OTE
N OTE
For nonaxial loads.
For axial loads.
OPENING GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO 4 FEET(LOAD-BEARING WALL)
TOP TRACK OR DISNIBUTION
ENEND CLOSURE TRACK AS REOUIRED FOR SILL CONNECTION AND JAMB STRENGTH
EIEND CLOSURE RACK AS REOUIRED FOR HEAD CONNECTTON ANO JAMB STRENGTH MULTIPLE MEMBERS REOUIRED JAMB
SILL CONNECTIONS
SECTION OF STUD
SECTION OF STUD
CRIPfuE STUD
4 FEET
JAMB ANO SILL AT OPENING THAN 4 FEET
LESS
OPENINGS GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO 4 FEET(LOAD.BEARING WALL)
Americanlron and Steellnstitute;Washington, D.C.
METALFRAMING COLD-FORMED
Cold-FormedSleelFromingqnd BrqcingDetqils
280
STEEL
.-
GENERAL
STUDS
-
Lightweight steel traming is coldJormed, which means the by brake-forming and components are manufactured punching galvanized coil and sheet stock. Steel framing members consist ol two basic types of components that are C-shaped in section: one type has '/cin. flanges foided inward and the other has no flanges. Studs, ioists, and rafters are made with flanges to stitfen them so they will more readily stand vertically, Components without fiaoges, called tracks. have unpunched solid webs. For added strenglh, tracks are sized slightly larger than the flanged members so the tracks wili fit snugly inside them as sill or top plates or as pan of posts or head€rs. Steel framing is strong and versatile. The strength (and load{arrying capacity) of a membet can be increased simply by increasing the thickness, or gauge, ol the metal; the dimensions of the member, or the spacing. do not necessarily have to be increased. There is little limitation on the length ot steel framing members; joists or studs may be fabricated in lengths up to 40 ft. lf handled with care, steel framing is straight and consistent; also, it is not affected by morsture content.
AT rWELD CLIP ANGLE (OPTIONAL) 2' X 2' X 16 GAUGE CLIP %' ANGLE THAN LESS WIDTH STUD
4 FRAMING SCR&S REOUIRED AS SHOM
\NELD ATTACHMENT (FOR 3ela'OR STTJDS: SMALLER OR 16-GAIJGE HEAVIER)
LIMITING HEIGHT TABLES FOR INTERIOR PARTITIONS AND CHASE WALL PARTITIONS PARTITION TWO LAYERS
WIDTH
LIMITING HEIGHT IA MIL STEEL STUD ASSEMBLIES
SCREW ATTACHMENT (FOR 3q6' TO A'STUDS)
N OTE Channels to be spaced as required by design.
LATERAL
BRACING
ATTACHMENT AS SGEW REOUIRED AT ACH STUD
Disadvantages of steel lraming include lack of insulating qualities, difficulty in cutting compared to wood, and dangerously sharp edges. Consult the American lron and Steel lnstitute (AlSl) for further information. BRACING Buildings must be properiy braced to resist racking under wind and seismic loads. Diagonal strap bracing is sloped to resist racking lorces in tension and tastened by screws or welds to studs and plates. Prop€dy spaced lateral steel bracing resists stud rotation and minor ais bending under wind, seismic. and axial loads; it is especially critical during construction. before sheathing or finishes are installed.
FUT SRAPS. NOTGED CHANNEL. X.E}RIDGING, OR ROMIflARY BRIreING (EACH SIDE): SPLICE UP 4' STRAPS MtN- (102 MM)
SCREWS AS REOUIRED (EACH SIDE) J
33 MIL STEEL
STUO ASSEMBLIES
NOTE Number of rows of bridging as required by design. FUT STRAPS
WALL
BRIDGING
UERAL STABIUry STRAP OR NOTCHED AS REQUIRED ANGLE (EACH SIDE) BY DESIGN
STEEL ANCHOR CHANNEL
MEMBERS MULTIPLE AS REOUIRED
CONCRETE
AT ENDS
SUB
LIMITING HEIGHT I A MIL CHASE WALL
ANCHOR
PARTITIONS
N OTE The top detail is for one-to-two story buildings and the bottom d€tail tor buildings greater than two stories. Steel channel, plate, and anchor size d€pend on applied uplift and horizonta! shear torces.
RACK, BOfrOM AS GAUGE REOUIRED TO TPANSFER LO€S
DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING ANCHORAGE DETAILS
SGEWS
AS REOUIRED
NOTE SOLID
NCrcR BRIreING TO SOUD BLOCXING
BL(:gIre
mx-BRrretre: FIT BEMEN
5'O'Mg (FOR 1%' MEMBERS)
FIRST VO AND UST MO JOISTS OR
MU
RAffiR SPAGS (REPEAT AS REOUIRED) \
Strap forces may requireadditionalstilfeningof the bottom track or structuralangle. DIAGONAL STABILITY ANCHORAGE SCREW TO EACH STUD
'
BOfrOM ANAG FUT SMAP. NOTCHED CHANNEL. X-BRIDGING, OR PRORIETARY BRIreING TO ACH €IST
\\ TRANSFER BRIDGING FORCES UTERAL STABILry SYSTEM
\ \ I
|NTO
TRACK
AS REOUIRED TO TRANSER
BRACING UTERAL STAAILfr SMAP OR NOTCHED ANGLE AS REOIRED (AG BY OESIGN SIDE)
MULNfuE MEMBERS REOUIRED AT ENDS
AS
N OTE
ADDINONAL STIFFENER ADJACENT
Limiting height lo( 112o( sls in- thick panels and 5 psf uni form load perpendicular to partition or furrjng. Use onelayer heights for unbalanced assemblies. Consult local code f-bending authority for limiting criteria (d--deflection, stress).
FASENERS AS REOUIRED
I -/
./
STRUfrURAL ANGLE BELOW
X.BRIOGING
N OTE
N OTE
lf sheathing is not installed on members, bridging is requiredon both flanges.
Strap forces may require additionalstiffening of top and bottom track or structuralangle.
JOIST OR RAFTER BRIDGING
DIAGONAL STABILITY BRACING INTERMEDIATE FLOOR
Americanlron and SteelInstitute;Washington, D.C.
r=
L'i\
\l/
t 33 mil chase wall partitions.
SHATHtre\
COLD-FORMED METAL FRAMING
AT
, JOIST
Cold_FormedSl.elFr@
,
2gl
OR CLIP
ANGLE
HEADER -
CLIP ANGLE, r/.' LESS THAN JOIST DEPTB OR HANGER JOIST
\
wPrcaL 6tsT oR J RAflER TYPICAL
Jotsr aND TRACK HEADER AS REQUIRED BY DESIGN
./ _-/
OPENING
.-
IN JOISTS,/RAFTERS
JO|ST
JOIST.TO.JOIST
STEEL BEAM (OR BUILT.UP COLD.FORMED MEMAER OR
-
FASTENER AS REOUIRED
STUD
HEADER NOTES WEB STIFFENER AS REOUIRED cfHrs srDE oR FrT BEruEEN JOIST FCNGES)
l.Continuous bridging is required between each joist above a beam. Solid blocking in every other space may be used in lieu of bridging. 2 When a bearing wall is above, studs must align wrth Joists below.
FLOOR JOISTS SUPPORTED BY BEAM OR BEARING WALL (OVERLAPPED) -
STEEL BEAM (OR BUILT-UP COLD-FORMED MEMBER. OR STUD BEARING
\.
\ -
\
WALL)
615T
FASTENER AS REOUIRED
\ -i
NOTES DOUE}LE DETAIL
l.Continuous bridgingis required between each joist above a beam. Solid blocking in every other space may be usedin lieuof bridging. 2. When a bearingwall is above,the studs must alignwith the joistsbelow. 3. Web stiffeners are not requiredwhen continuous solid blockingis used.
TFIACK
RIM JOIST DETAILS
JOISTS OVER BEAM OR BEARING WALL (CONTTNUOUS SPAN) SruD--\ MO SREWS AT EACH STUD
JOIST AND TRACK AS REOUIRED BY
J()IST
HEADER
HEADER DESIGN
TO BUILT.UP
JOISTS
STUD
\
MO SCREWS AT EACH STUD
-\
./'-*ot*
JOISTS JOIST TRACK
CONCREE FASTENERS AS REOUIRED
SHEATHTNG
aii<;ue as REAUIRED
NO LESS THAN CLIP ANGLE. JOIST '/"' (ANACN MINUS Df4H CI IP aND TRACK To coNcRETE wrrH E'PANSION OR ANCHOR BOLTS)
FLOOR JOISTS PAR^LLEL TO \ /ALL
]
L^
r crrur SHEATHING
/
\:*. waLL sruD
Provide solid blocking and bridging as required
SHEATHING WE8 STIFFENER AS REOUIRED SIOE G cfHIS FT BEMEEN JOIST FUNGE)
NOTE Provide soljd blocking and bridging as required
V\/ALL
FLOOR JOISTS EXTERIOR
ALIGN SruOS WTH .'OISTS BELOW
SHEATH'NG
lr 1i
BOLT
-
N OTE
AT CONTINUOUS
ii
/,
FLOOR JOIST SUPPORT
FLOOR JOISTS
SCREW AT EACH FUNGE
--\
PARALLEL
.\
BELOW
(FAR
SIDE)
ANACH TRACK IO JOIST WITH AT EACH SCREWS (NOT FDNGE REOUIRED WEB STIFFENER IS USED)
JOIST
.-
FLOOR JOISTS FOUNDATION
WALL
rc SCREWS AT EACH STUD TO JOIST -
TO
PARALLEL
TO
STUD ({IGN wtfr FLooR JO|ST BELOW)
TRACK
IF -
TRACK
WEB STIFFENER AS REOUIRED C|HIS SIDE OR FIT BEruEEN JOIST FLANGE)
SCREW TRACK TO TRACK ADJACENT TO SUPPORTS
STUD JOIST WALL
(ALIGN STUD
\ rotsr
WITH BELOU4
=rao-*,aa
SHEATHING
JOISTS SUPPORTED BEARING WALL
BY BEAM OR
FLOOR FRAMING AT EXTERIOR WALL
FLOOR JOISTS FOUNDATION
BEARING
ON
Americanlronand SteelInstitute;Washington, D.C
COLD-FORMED METALFRAMING
] /
Cold-FormedSleelFromingDetoils
282
BL@K W@D SLCUREO TO S]UD volD TO I ILL sluo
-.-,/
DIMENSONAL LUMBER AS REQUIRED SECURED TO STUDS WITH SCREWS AS REOUIRED
WMD BASE PUTE NAILED TO WOOD
REINFORCEMENT REOUIRED FOR PENTTRATIONS
,,|iPl
IECS[=.,L
RUNNEF-
TO RUNNER
llql ..D
tw
SECURED
.
WITH
AOHTSIW
'\oceNtNe
CEMERED IN WEB
GYPSUM BOARD
NAIL TO W@D BL@K AS REOUIRED
HEAVY FIXTURE
-
PENETRATION
NO REINFORCEMENT REOUIRED FOR PENETRATIONS < PUNCHOU DEffi, AS NOTED ryCEff
ATTACHMENT
OR
JOISTS
WOOD RUNNER NOTE This detail is optional depending on contractor preference
NAII-ABLE
BASE
PLATE
RAFTERS
N OTES
TOP TRACK
1 . Do not notch or cut flanges. 2. Capacity verification by design is required for any openings located at concentrated loads and bearing €nds. 3. For unpunched members, consult the manufacturer.
JOIST, STUD, OR RAFTER WEB PENETRATIONS
INTERSECTION WALL FRAMING CLIP WITH AT EACH SGEWS AS SHOWN TUCK
SGSS AS REOUIREO (acH srDE) STUD RUNNER
TOP AND
BOTTOM
TRACK
SPLICE TOP PLATE INTERSECTION A'v" ilt-n ll lll 1,4 ll I ll l.,g
20 GA- frr()< STUP WIH 2 SCREWS AT EACH SruD
MECHANTCAL FASTENERS
NOTES '1. Where blocking material thickness allows, notch and bend track 90 degreesfor connection. 2- Where provisionsare made for transfer of flange forces to solid blockjng,blockingneed not be in the lull depth of the member.
Dimensional lumber may also be used for backing, BACKING
FOR
CABINETS
STUD (ALIGN WIH FL@R 615T BELOW)
/-].Re GA AS
SNFFENER REOUIRED
- CLIP
ANGLE
Load-bearing studs must be s€ated tight to track web.
JOIST TRACK
PUNKING
STUDS (BELOW AND ABOW) ALGN WIH ruOOR JOIST rRACK //-
JOIST AS
u3[.o"]?^"" FUNGE
N OTE
STUD-TO.TRACK wooD
SOLID BLOCKING
sruD RUNNER/GaCK
WELDS. AS REOUIRED
SOLID BLOCKING
SHAGING MULNRE MEMBERS
-
2)r <'v :-
SOLID BLOCKING
20 GA. frrCK SruD COPE fuNGES AS AND SECURE SHOM WITH 2 SCREWS AT ACH SruD
N OTE
StuD
CON NECTION
2 ROWS OF SOLID BLOCKING
2 SCR€WS
BE]reEN
AP ANGLE AT EACH END OF BL@KING
CLIP ANGLE AT EACH END FOR BLGKING SHEATHING
2
€IST (ALIGN
SHEAfrING
SruD E}tLOw)
t^"_
STUD
1-
COMNUOUS JOISTS PARALLEL TO SEP IN rcWN BALCONY (OR PROVDE HEADER)
SruD (AUGN
wmD rcIST, P.T.
JOrST) MULTIPLE .,OIST MEMBERS AS REOUIRED JOIST HANGER OR CLIP ANGLES
SCREWS AS REOUIRED
NOTES
3. Where axial load-bearing members do not align venically, provide top track distribution members at wall below.
1. Balconiesrequirespecialdetailingand protectionagainsl moistureand thermalbridging. 2. Where axialload-bearingmembersdo not alignvertically, providetop track distributionrembers at wall below.
N OTES 'l . Balconiesr€quir€specialdetailingand protectionagainst moistureand thermal bridging. 2. Where axialloadS€aringmembers do not alignvertically, provide top track distribution members at top of wall oelow-
FLOOR
BALCONY
\MOOD DECK BALCONY
1. Provide continuous lower wall.
bridging between
each joist at the
2. Solid blocking in every other space may be used in lieu of bridging.
CANTILEVER
NOTES
Amencan lron and Steel Institutej Washington, D.C.
r=
ti\
e1/
COLD-FORMED METALFRAMING
\,VITH STEP DOWN
Cold-FormedSteelFromingDetqils JOIST AND TRACK AS RIDGEBOARD
283
SHEATHING
T6FE5.'"8
----[--;----
SCREWS REOUIRED
AS
RAffER ROOF
GAE}LE
CLIP ANGLE, LESS HAN DEPTH --
END
1Z' RAilER
\/
SHEATHING
-
.
RA-ERS OR TOP CHORD 2 TRACKS ONE STUD
-.,
WALL
INTERSECTION
FRAMING
RIDGEBOARD
(PROVIOE RA-ER CONTTNUOUS BRIDGING OVER WALL OR SOLID BLOCKING AT EVERY OTHER SPACE)
.- SCREWS AS REOUTRED RE. /,/
STUD, WP. -
WITH
SCREWS AS REOUIRED
CANTILEVERED CLIP
NGLE
ROOF
GAE}LE
END
N OTE Provide bridging at ceiling joists and r@l rafters and continuous bridging between rafters at wall.
ROOF END DETAILS ANGLE AS REOUIRED FOR EAVE AOARD WALL
SruO
DISMIBUTION MEMBER WHERE JOISTS DO NOT ALIGN WTH SruDS BELOW
CORNER
FRAMING MASONRY
ROOF EAVE AT CATHEDRAL OR
TOP CHORD
WAI
CONCREE
GYPSUM WALLAOARD .
CEILING
SCREWS, AS REOUIRED
@NTINUOUS BRIreING AS REOUIRED
Z FURRING
COLLAR
cLrP aNGLE
.=-
INSUUTION
BONOM
WALL CLIP
TIE DETAIL
CHORD
TRACK ANGLE
WALL
STUD
MEMBER
RIBWON
WHERE JOISTS rc NOT 4IGN WITH STUDS BELOW
FURRING CHANNELS
Z ;J'-'-.
CONCRETE - \--
HAT
OR
ROOF TRUSS
MASONRY
cHANNEL
WALL
€IST OR BOfrOM CHORD CONNECED TO RAMER
FURRTNG
TOP OF NON-LOAD
EAVE DETAIL
PARALLEL
RA|TR OR TOP CHORD
. --
COMNUOUS AS REOUIRED
BRIDGING
ALIGN AND JOIST RATER OWR WALL STUD BELOW WALL CLIP
TO
BEARING WALL
JOISTS
MUBLE JOIST SECTIONS AS REOUIRED 8Y DESIGN WHEN DO NOT STUDS ALIGN WIH JOISTS BELOW: AT EnERIOR WALLS. CONTINUOUS JOIST TRACK MAY BE SUBSTITUTED FOR ONE JOIST SECTION -
ABOVE .SruDS
SCREWS REOUIRED
TRACK
.
ANGLE
CONTINUOUS FASTEN ANGLES, MH SCREWS AT EACH MEMBER
DISTR!BUTION MEMBER WHERE JOISTS DO NOT ALIGN WTH STUDS BELOW
FURRING CHANNELS
SOFFIT FRAMING AS REOUIRED (oflroNAL)
i\-warr
ROOF EAVE OETAIL
JOIST
sruo SHEATHING
AS
STUDS BELOW
ALTERNATE DETAIL FOR FILLER STUD
TR'EUTION MEMBER AS REOUIRED 8Y DESIGN WHERE JOISTS AND/OR STUOS DO NOT ALIGN WTH STUDS BELOW
TOP TRACK DISTRIBUTION
MEMBER
Americanlron and Steellnstitute;Washington, D.C-
COLD-FORMED METALFRAMING
Miscellqneous MetolAngles,Tees,Zees,qnd Chonnels
284 NOTE
should be checked for availabilitvol sizesother than those in the* tables. Where nsessrv, and where extra cost is warranted, other sectionsmav be produced by welding,cutting, or other methods. STEEL AN6LE6 UNEQUAL LEOA
6TEEL EQUAL
-l|n
ANGLEE LEGS
STEEL ANGLES _EQUAL LEGS_BAR slzEx t
StzE x t
STEEL CHANNELS_BAR
S|ZE (IN.)
STEEL ANGLES _UNEQUAL LEGS_BAR
SIZE (IN.)
IL_ SIZE flN.) stzE x t
t/a x 1t/a x./rc
2x2x3lrc
1/z x 11/zx3/ra
2x2x3le
xs/e x le
2 x2 x./t 2xelrc 3la x3/a x1/e
2t/2 x 1t/2 x3,$
x3/rc
lllz xrlz x1/a 2x1xl/e
11/z x'|.1/z x3/rc 13/t x1/z x3/rc g/ro
1xlx3/ro
3/ax13/exlle
txlx'/4
3/a x 13/a x3/rc
11/2x1t/ax3h6
2 x 1ltz x3trc
l1rxlrlaxl/s
2x1'/2xl/a
2'h x 2 x3ta
NOTE: For siructural channel sizes ( d = 3 i n . ano larger) see Dimensions of Channer Shapes in t h i s
21tzx2x3e
NOTE: For structural anqlesizes{3 x 2 x 3/'o'in. and larger)seeDimensionsof AngleShapesin this chapter.
/olI -JF' -.1.- u
STEEL TEES_BAR
2r/t x21/t xl/a
2rlz x21h xrlt
STRUCTURAL
21lz x21/z xs/ ra
3x2rr/ro x21rlrcxt/a
lt/a x 11/ax3/rs
21/z x21/z x3/e
3x2r1/rc
x2rt/ra
41/a x33/rc x 33/ro x 3/e
x3/d
5x31/a x31/a x1/z
4 x 3 1 / r c x 3 1 1 r cx l l t
Srlre x 35/ro x35/rc x3/a
4rlre x3r/e x31/e x5/ro
6x31/z x3rh x3/a
s r z Ex t
s r z Ex t
tlz xlxrla
x2 x 1la
3x3xt/e 4x1rlz xlle
13lax1x1/e
5x2x3/ts
ANctLE ALUMINUM CORNERA AOUARE
lxlxr/8
2xl
ALUMINUM ANGLES_SQUARE CORNERS_EQUAL LEGS (IN.)
11lax5/e xlla
stzE x I
sizes and Aluminum Assaiation Standard sizes.se Dimensionsof ChannelShaDesin this chaoter.
stzE x I
stzE x I
1/2x1/2xt/j6 1/2x1/2xt/B
5/ex5,'sxl/s
lxlx3/ro
2x2x5/ro
31lz x3'/z x 1/z
3/a
lxlxr/r
2x2x3/a
4x4xtlt
txtx,3
lth
21/z x21lz xl/e
4x4x5/rc
I x I x-16
2x2xtte
lllt x 11/ax3ls
21/z x21/z x3l s
|X
2x2x3.'rs
11ltx1lltx1/a
21/z x2r/z xlla
4x4x3la 4x 4x rlz
3r,rx31.!x3,h 3t /2 x 31,2x t/2
lr,ex1lex3ro
2x2xtie,t
4x4xlta.3ta,1'z
2ttzx2ltzxtb
I
|X
a6.
2r/c x'la xrla
+
2t/2 x 2ti2 x3h6
J'l2xJ't2x,t4
x3/a x
xtle
2x2 xt/e
31/z x31/z x3le
t/z
12x /A
2 3/e
.
7t/z x 11/z xt/a
Ztlz x21lz x5/ra
4 x 4x3/t
11i. x 11/4x1/s
2r/z x21/z x3la
5X5x'/B
UNEQUAL
11lz x11/z x1/a
3x3x3/ro
5x5xr/z
13lt x 13h x1/e
3x3xr/r
6x6x3/E
13/t x 13/t x 3/ rc
3x3x5/re
6x6xr/z
lt/tx13/txt/t
3x3x3/s
8x8xr/z
2x2x1/e
3x3xr/z
3x3x',b JXJX"r5,-b,
rc,xia
'l | r -JII tl
2
ALUMINUM TEES_ SQUARE CORNERS (IN.)
3rr:x31rzxr.r
x3;a,
bxdxt
6x6x3/s,12 I x3la x1/e
LEGS.(IN.}
3/a x3te x3b2
-+-----.1r-
ALUMINUM TEE6 SQUARE CORNERB
'/2 x
t,s
ltlz x lrlz x3lto
lxlxr/e
2x3ta xlia
2x1x'e 3r,2x3x'ze
ALUMINUM TEES SQUARE CORNERS
2\1t/2x1,6
STRUCTURAL
UNEQUAL LEGS (IN.)
2 1 l zx 2 x 5 / r s 5X
I X
t
Strax2jtaxtie
(IN.)
2x2x1la
l3x3x3/e
STAINLTSS ANGLES
STEEL
I
l3rx1r'zxre 3 x2 x3/te
l3/t x11/a x1/e 5 x3t/z 3 x21/z x 1/t
x3/a
5x31/z xt/z
3x21lz x3/t 2x11/z x3/rc
5/ex1x1/e
2xr/z x1/e
2 x 2 xlra,'ta
lllz x11/a x1/a
x1/z x1/e
3x 1 x r/a
5/e xsle x 1/e
1 x3/a x 1ls
2x2x1/a
11/zx11/a x3/te
rlz x2tlz xr/e
l xrlz xlle
1 x l x1/e.rlre,
l1/z x'lt/q xt/t
rlz xllz x1/a 1lz x5/a x t/a
4 1 l zx 2 x r / a
3/rx3/ox1/a,1/rc
x11/a xlle
llzx1r/zxl/a
13/t x3lc xtla
I Sx3'/axrlz
stzE x t
x3/lxl
'lt x 11/< xlla
rlz x1llz x1/a
3x2111* x21r/rs x1/z
ALUMINUM ANGLES_STRUCTURAL _EQUAL LEGS (tN.)
dxbxt
dxbxt
5x31la x31/e x5/ta
STRUCTURAL
ANGLE
t--'lt
-l ll -+-a
llc x3/t xr/e
1/z xllz xtlzz
11lex11/ax1/a
ALUMINUM 6TRUCTURAL
Tnn
3lg x3ls xllaa
1 3 l t x 1 1/ a T z f t x 3 f r 5
11/
| 4x3x3/e
11/t xl1la x1/a 2x2x1/a 21/z xZt/z x1/z NOTE: NU I t: For l-or structural anglesizes(3 x 3 x 3/ro inin. and ar larger)seeDimensionsof Angle Shapesin this chapter
dxbxt dxaxbxt
3x3x5/ro
21/z x21lz x5/ta
ALUMTNUMCHANNELS +I. _SQUARE CORNERS (IN.)
SIZE (tN.)
3t2'l.ffi
21/z x21lz x1/a
21/z x21/z x3/a
aLUMTN'M .HANNEL souaRE coRNERs
H _+_' ---)
TIES
z'12x z'12x rl 16
t2 x 11/2 x3/6
11/ax11/e xl/e
l3,rxllrx3'rs
x 3/ro
chapter. 6TEEL
lx1xr/s
2xlrrxra.3ro 2x1"2xl/e
11/z x3/t x1/a
1 r/e x
2x1'ax3ro
ALUMINUM
ZEES
seuaRE coRNERs ALUMTNUMZEES-
31/z x2tlz x t/a
6x31lz x1/z
J',t2XZt2X.ta
6x4x3/e
dxaxbxt
6x4xr/z
t/z x1/z x1/z x3/zz 3/a x3/a xz/t x1/e
8xOx3,'r
7/a x3/a x3la x1/s
2tlz x11/z xlla 21lz x2 x3/ ta
HMC Group;Ontario,California
METALFABRICATIONS
-+-t+ I
-----1i
STAINLESS
:L_L. lo dxaxbxt I x'11/gx 11/ex l/e I x5/e x1/e x1/e
I
STEEL
ANGLES
(tN.)
2t/z x21/z x 1/<
3x3x1/r 3x3x5/ro
MetolTubingond Pipes RECTANGULAR TUBING - STEEL T = WALL THICKNESS (B\^/ GAUGE OR IN.)
285
ROUND PIPE . STEEL
RECTANGULAR ALUMINUM TUBING (IN.)
srzE (lN.)
INSIDE DIAMETER (BW GAUGE)
NOMINAL INSIDE D IA.
SQUARE ALUMINUM TUBING (IN.)
Rectangular and squaretubingwith sharpcornersis usually usedfor miscellaneous architectural metalwork.
ROUND
TUBING
- COPPER
N OTE Round pipe is made primarily in three weights: standard, extra strong (or extra heavy), and double extra strong (or double extra heavy). Outside diameters of the three weights of pip€ in each size are always the same: extra wall thickness is always on the inside and therefore reduces the inside diameter of the heavier pipe. All sizes are specified by what is known as the "nominal inside diameter." Round pipe is also available in aluminum and stainless steel. lndividual manufacturers'cataloqs should be consulted for sizes.
NOTES Round tubing, usually manufactured for mechanical pur poses, is used for architectural metalwork to supplemenl round pipe. Round tubing is measured by the outside diameter and the wall thickness by gauge, fractions, or decimals of an inch. Round tubing is used where a high grade finish is required and exact diameters are necessary. Round tubing is available in steel, aluminum, copper, stainless steel, and other metals. lndividual manufacturers' cata' logs should be consulted for availability of materials and srzes.
","=_.,...oo@
"""oooo
TUBING.
COPPER
ROUND TUBING AND PIPE
SQUARE TUBING. WALL
STEEL THICKNESS
(B\|r'GAUGE OR IN.)
DDnn STEEL
RECTANGULAR
ALUMINUM
AND SQUARE TUBING
HMC Group; Ontario, Californra
METALFABRICATIONS
286
PrefobricqtedFireproofedSteelColumns CONCRETE
GENERAL Lallv columns are orefabricated structural units that consist of a load-bearing steel column, filled with concrete. This creates a column with increased loadbearing capacity in a space no larger than a standard column. Firepbof lally col.umns have a thin steelFirell and a layer oI insilating material between the shell. and the structural steel..Fire ratings range trom two to lour hours depending on thqthickness ot the insulating material. The protective steel shell allows fireproof lally columns to be left exposed in either interior or exterio. applications.
STEEL
FILLED
TUBING LOADS
SAFE
ALLOWABLE
U.L. RATED/ FIREPROOFED COLUMN
IN KIPS
EFFECTIVE LENGTH IN FEET KL WITH RESPECT TO RADIUS OF GYRATION
OUTER otM ENStOt THICKOF TUBING N ESS oz
a 53 6E
x
ov 119
2a
12 18
7x7
297 369
90 98
357 MO
t8
20
3 HR.
4 HR
7x j
8x8
9x9
8x8
9xg
1 0x 1 0
2 HR. oxo bxb bxb
85
a2
tla t05
243 301
lol 177 l 5 l rcu t s 128 221 208 1 8 9 t 0 6 279 255 230 2M
346 334 321 306 427 412 395 371
291 272 2U 236 355 334 3 1 1 286
245 273 259 354 337 320
183 226 204
zcl
x8
l6
4Q
102
241 224 215 200 299 283 267 244
55 60
xo
l4
185 172 1 5 8 t41 124 1 0 3 '194 173 r 5 0 229
40 44
x5
10 | 12 40 42
SQUARE SHELL stzEs ilN.)
ttl
146
9x9
10x101lx11
215 l 0 x 1 0 1 1 x 1 1 1 2 \ 1 2 259
J@
1 0 xl 0
482 592
tJz 142
471 460 579
M8 435 4 1 9 404 550 533 5 1 5 495
388 474
369 350 1 2 x 12 1 3x 1 3 1 4 x 1 4 424
N OTE Load table based on Fy = 46 ksi
TYPICAL
LALLY COLUMN
CONCRETE
SHAPES
FILLED STEEL PIPE ALLOWABLE
DIAMETER OF PI PE (lN.)
SAFE
LOADS
U.L.-RATED
IN KIPS
EFFECTIVE LENGTH IN FEET KL WITH RESPECT TO RADIUS OF GYRATION THICKNESS
to
PER FT
l2
l4
t6
22
24
SQUARE
26
17 23
58 94
.318
22
75
56
.674
21 36
93 r55
76 86 '122 139 102
.zaa
JO
.375 .750 ,z6u .432 .864
39 52
oo 1 3 9 1 3 0 120 1 1 0 98 84 230 215 1 9 8 174 1 5 6 132
.500 .875
56
314 475 460 423
.500 178
ztv
415 406
SHELL
SIZES (IN.)
3 HR.
8xB
6%
6%
YXY
o '/.
d ./s
9x9
6 'le
8 sle
10x10
8Y"
8 5/a
8%
10 3l^
1 03 1 "
12 3l^
t2 3l^
4 HR.
6x6
7x7
52
8x8
4HR
$
8x8
ol r 4 0 125 'r09 225 r 9 8 1 6 9
9x9
68
9xg
10x10
11x11
11x1l
12x12
13x13
1031e
1 4x 1 4
lbxl
14
IYU
295 283 270 257 242 226 209 1 9 1 171 444 425 404 359 334 307 274 244
534
COLUMNS
46
tzJ I t4 1 9 7 'r88 1 7 8 t @ 327 293 272 249
zac
91 111
ROUND 2 HR.
3 HR.
bxb
6%
FIREPROOFED
SIZES (IN.)
2 HR.
39 60
4{' 79
.300 .600
SHELL
394
383 370
356 342
326
309
507
496
470
442
'426 409
444
457
291 t5x t5
to x to
o
NOTE Load table based on F, = 46 ksi
wooD NAILER CONCRtrE
SANDARD 5@
ONE WAY THRU PUTE
PSI CONCRETE
STEEL PIPE COLUMN
STIFFENER
STRUqURAL STEELTUBE
(OPTIONAL)
5m PSI CONCRETE (OPTIONAL)
INSUUTING MATERIAL
FIREPROOF ULLY COLUMN
|'-
STRUCTURAL STEEL TUBE PARTITION INSUUTING MAT€RIAL
MASONRY ANCHOR WELDED TO
DOOR FRAME SCREWED TO SHELL STEEL SHEI
STANOARD STEEL BASE
STEEL
FIREPROOF COLUMNS
TYPICAL
LALLY COLUMN
TYPICAL COLUMN
ASSEMBLIES
Eric Gastier;Alexandria,Virginia
METALFABRICATIONS
BASE ANO CAP
ATTACHMENTS
TO STEEL SHELL
BEAM CONNECTIONS
8% 10 3lo
SteelStoirs
287
d. Bails should be arranged to discourage climbing
GUIDELINES 1. Width of stair: a. Dwelling stairs: minimum 36 in. treads. b. Public exit stairs: minimum 44 in. treads. c. Rescue assistance a.ea (ADA):48 in- between handrarls. 2. Treads: a. Dwellings:9 in. minimum (nosing to nosing). b. Olher (ADAI: l1 in minimum (nosing to nosing). c. Uniform width wirhin one Ilight.
e. Concentrated load nonconcur,ently applied at the top rail shall be 200 lb per ft in vertical downward and horizontal direction. The test loads are applicable for railjngs with supports not more than 8 tt apart. 6. Handrails: a. Dwellings: on one side only, required. b. Other (ADA): required on both sides. c. Height:34 to 38 in. d. Grip surface: 1'/ato 11lri^. e. Clearance at wall: 1rl, in.
3. Risers:
f. Projecting or recessed.
a. Dwellings: 81/zin. maximum. b. Other (ADA): minimum 4 in., maximum 7 in c. Uniform height within one flight. 4. Nosing: maximum 1rl2 in. with 60" under nosing: maximum r/, in. radius al edge. 5. Stair rails:
1ST
g. Extension at top of run: 12 in. h. Extension at bottom of run: 1 2 in. plus width of tread. i. When a guardrail more than 38 in. high is used, a separate handrail should be installed (ASTM). j. Nothing should interrupt the continuous sliding of nanos.
STAIR
SECTION
7. Regulators and standards; building codes, ADA, ASTM, ANSI. NFPA. and OSHA.
a. Height in dwellings:36 In. b Herghr In evit stairs: 42 in c. Rails should be arranged so that a sphere 4 in. in diameter cannot be passed through. 12' ENENSION
MUST NOT
4" SPHERE
-.
ANY POINT
,".4qi'i:'"^" 5.
;
REQUIRED PT-AN DIMENSIONS (ADA) ASSISTANCE FOR RESCUE
5' TO
; ;
1'/1'
5' 5'
FIELD MLD
CONCRETE FILLED PAN
PIAN SHO\^/ING E)
STAIR RAILS
STEEL
r-ru
ME T_
HANGER
tr:lN il tH
FffTT| AND BARS fuTES
PUTE
TUBE
--l
|f"-
FROM HEAW BACK BEARING AND BAR END
:$,,j-aw-
PDTE FLOOR NOSING, BAR PLAiES END
NOSING OF ANGLE AND ABRASIW STRIP AND ENOS BAR
STEEL
suPPoRr :i:.=* STRINGER
10'MINSMINGER
WPE
CHANNEL
CffiRIER PI ATE
\ ---
-=.-.-
\
\
/
BEARING -J' PLATE
\
'-
.t ..-l:
\
'n"' o,o. to..= IN STRINGER
-
'^
FURR,NG
1'7.' x 1v^" x ik" ANGLE STEEL SUPrcRTS
t- ltflFs .H
Fll ll I lu-,llr+E
o*.,. =[]-Elfl -!El---s Fr33*'o*r1-
NOTE This stair is not suitable for persons with disabilities.
INDUSTRIAL
AND SERVICE STAIRS
\
FURRING
\
t
-
2". cRoss
OWRGP
MINUM)
\RW
='ffi t**'*o,
CHANNEL
\--,v"'(steeu) 2ra'(aLU-
\
Hffi --w
TREADS STRINGER
F=fl
f-xF=-H L/ltl ff
f-.m_n
NTffi
-___^
WELDED To r.rrrSTRTNGER_=l--i{
PLATE CHECKER NOSING, BAR PUTES END
NOSING OF SPACED CLOSELY ENOS BARS. ANGLE
OOO
RS33E=-wffi
PAN.TYPE
STAIR CONSTRUCTION
D.C. AIA;Washington. CharlesA. Szoradi,
METALFABRICATIONS
FixedMetol lqdders
288 GENERAL
HANDRAIL (IF WALL
NOTES
1. Materials {or ladders and supports include galvanized steel and aluminum. Galvanized steel ladders are fastened to the wall with galvanized steel lasleners; alumi num ladders are Iastened with stainless steel fasteners.
ENENSION AT TOP,
1%' DIAMETER HANDRAIL \
2. All Iixed wall ladders must conform to OSHAy'ANSI A14.3 standards. Also consult l@al codes tor design require" ments.
il-+ l''-' I
I
lMrN.
:l
I
lao'
lll'1'* lJll ooz
12'
.-->. il-"1'-+--
Mq.
91h'
-->
STEEL ANGLE SUPPORT BRACKETS
METAL CHANNEL AT SIDES SMINGER H@PS, CAGE 3" X %' BARS
FLOOR GRATING
FL@R MOUNNNG
The maximum rise between treads dependson exact ladder heightandangle.
N OTE Cagesand rest platforms are requiredfor climbing heights of more than 50 ft.
SHIP'S
REST PLATFORM
NOTE 50'-o' 2' X %' MtN. BAR FG CAGE VERTICALS
fuRED E}ONOM
s'-,"
LADDER
CAGE
IA'DAMffiR GIVAN|zED THROUGH BOLTS (RECOMMENDED). MIN.
X %' MOUMNG BRACKT, FASENED STFINGER
7 -' MtN. a'o'MA
METAL
TO
1' X 21h' STRINGER
MET{
UOOER
(FOR FASTEN€RS ALUMINUM. USE RIWTS; FOR STEEL. WELDS)
N OTE Cagesshouldbe used on laddersat hazardousleations or on short laddersat high loctions.
*"HrEg:Jb"," ""ffi'p
FIXED VERTICAL LADDER (5O FEET OR LESS)
:,:I::"""""
EruRL AS
RUNG
(N //(N{
€Lts"+!l*-;;"
ROUND SERRATED RUNG
CHANNEL SIDE SUPrcRT
60'o.c.,
STEEL LADDER
SHIP'S Mff& MOUMING BUCKfl
TREAD
ANGLE
ANGLE
TREAD
TREADS AND RUNGS
SIDE RAIL MOUNTING DETAILS
BRACKET
.-n 1'
RUNG METAL CHANNEL
i| 1 il
'/"--------rRl
llflN.N.l
<{P r
+--
ll
[_= I
IAI'
Ft.AED CAGE AT BONOM
FIXED VERTICAL (UP TO 24 FEET'
Richard J.
r= L\ e/
LADDER
Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville,Maryland
METALFABRICATIONS
SAFETY
CAGE
FLOOR-MOUNTING
BRACKET
DETAIL
FireEscopesond EscopeLodders i\
DOOR ACCESS
18
289
MrN
_
MOUNTING BRACKETS
ROOF UDDER LOCATED TO MEET CONDITIONS OF BUILDING
HANDLE FOR UDDER RETRACTION AT EACH ACCESS POINT
. \
CHECK LocaL
\ CIDES
ANGLE OF STAIR NOT MORE THAN 60.
|ru
3 -O
MAX
TYP- FLOOR LEVEL
l.
CLOSED
]-K
RETRACTABLE
OPEN
POSITION
ESCAPE
LADDER FIRE ESCAPE
N OTE
POSITION
NOTES
FIRE ESCAPE
1 In general, exterior {ire escapes are not permttted as any part of the required means of egress for new buildings, but may be continued as a component in the means of egress in existing buildings. New fire escapes for existing buildings are permitted only where exterior statrs cannot be ulilized due to lot lines that limit stair size or due to sidewalks, alleys, or str€ets at grade level. Access by windows is generally not permitted.
2" xz"
2. For other soecilic requirements, national and local building codes.
COUNT€R BAUNCE STAIR
)\,tr-\<
or other public ways without any obstruction
7 to 12 tr from landingto gradeat front ot building(12 It minimum at alleysor thoroughfares less than 30 ft wide).
x3tra"
aT4',O
refer
to
applicable
3. For standards for firo escapes as well as for stairs and 'l means of egress, consult ANSI 17.1, OSHA, and NFPA 1010 (Life Safety Code).
O.C
4. Since fire escapes are mounted outside of the building envelope, consideration must be given to exterior lighting provided on the building itself or general street lighting that would illuminate it. 5. Standard fire escapes are typically designed to support a live load of 100 lb/sq ft: stair treads shall be desagned to suoport a concenlrated live load of 250 lb at any point.
FLOOR GRATING
ESCAPE
ST€EL BAR FUT
PLAN - FIRE ESCAPE '/,
STEEL CHANNEL
cHEcKERED
STEEL BOLT (MIN. I PER BRACKET) PLATE ANGLE STAIR STEEL CHANNEL (FASTENED WITH STRINGERS r/2" BoLTS wELD) oR coNTrNuous
ELEVATION
- FIRE
LADDER
NOTES
1. Located adiacent to windows or balconies, the retractabie aluminum escaoe ladder is used solely for emergency exit, rescue, or supplemental escape route. Also provides access to mechanical equipment or other secured spaces. Not to be used as any component tn the means ot egress. 2. Consult manufacturer for mounting details. Refe. to national and local building codes lor specific requirements concerning access opening types, sill heights, clearances, and maximum installation heights allowed. In some instances, a balcony maY be used at anv level to access the ladder
BRICK
ESCAPE
TYPICAL
STAIR TREADS
RachardJ. Vitullo. AIA: Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvland Jomy Safety Ladder Company, Inc.; Boulder. Colorado
METALFABRICATIONS
Grotings
290
0f0f000000 0000000f00 STANOARD DOUBLE-SLOT
W I T H S P A C E R B A R S W E L D E O4 - O . c : . NOTE
WITH SPACER SARS WELDEO 2.,O.C.
Constructedof flat bearingbarso{ steel or aluminuml-bars, with spacebars at right angles.Spacebars may be square, rectangular,or of anothershap€.Spacerbars are connected to bearingbars by pressingthem into preparedslots or by
welding. They have open ends or ends banded with flat bars about the sam€ size as welded bearinq bars. Standard bar spacings ar€ 1546and 13/16in.
BAR GRATING (WELDED
RECTANGULAR
OR PRESSURE
GRATING
ltlllll||t
LOCKED)
STANDARD SINGLE-SLOT
GRATING
w r T H S P A C E R B A R S R T V E T E O3 ' / : - O R 4 " USEDFORHAVY TRAFFICAND WHEREWHEELED EOUIPMENT IS USED
WITH SPACER BARS RIVETED APPROX. T'O.C. USEO FOR AVERAGE INSiTALUTION NOTE
25l,6in. Many bar gratingscannot be used in areasof public pedestriantraffic (op€ningsare too big for crutches,canqs, pogo sticks,women's shoes, etc.). Close mesh grating('/a in.) is availablein steel and aluminumlor use in pedestrian traffic areas.
Flat bearing bars are made of steel or aluminum, and continuous bent spacer or reticulate bars are riveted to the bearing bars. Usually they have open ends or ends that are banded with flat bars of the same size as bearing bars, welded across the ends. Normal spacing of bars: %, 1tls, or
RETICULATED '
l"
ffi nIrTrl
GRATING 3"
,
TRIPLE-SLOT GRATING SLOTS PARALLEL TO FRAME
(RIVETED) ,
l"
,
6'' PANEL
nIr-Ir.]
\\S\\S
I mr-----_l -
N ilil[ililil[ililil ilil[ililil[[il[il
----lmmr----------.---mmrt--
-
__J
rilr ilrr LL.l Lll r
llll lllll I Lll uJ tJ
WH EELC HAI R/BICYCLE
PUN
SECTION
NOTE Grating is extruded from aluminum alloy in one piece with integral l-beam ribs and can have a natural tinish or be anod-
ALUMINUM
ized. Top ot surface may be solid or punched. Standard oanelwidth is 6 in.
PLANK GRATING
GR.A,TING
PEDESTRIAN GRATING N OTE Grates made ol gray cast iron. ductile €st minum
FLANGE BLOCK (ALUMINUM I-BAR)
N-\ _n
STANDARD
l--',----_^.* w USUALLY AfrACHED
L
iron, or 6st
GRATE DESIGNS
TYPELFRA*a
---"
BY WELDING, WHERE SUPPORT AND GRAT€ ARE CONSTRUCTED AS A UNIT
FIXED OR LOOSE
GRATINGS-TYPICAL
DETAILS
,, SIZES
OF ANGLES
H I NGED
SUPPORTING
GRATING
G RATI NGS_TYPICAL
DEPEND
ON OEPTH
DETAILS
CharlesF- D. Egben,AIA; Washington,D.C. VicenteCordero,AIA; Arlington,Virgrn€
METALFABRICATIONS
OF GRATING
BARS
TRENCH
GRATINGS-FRAME
DETAIL
alu-
OrnomentollronworkDeloils produce custom work today; a smaller proportion of their work is restoration.
GENERAL Wrought iron is a commercial form of iron with a relativ€ly sofl and malleable fibrous structure. The term literally means "tashioned" or "tormed" iron and is widely associated with ironwork details. ASTM A 186 defines wrought iron as iron with a carbon content between 0.03 and 0.0570, a material prevalent up to the 19th century. lron with such a low carbon content is scarce today, so most {abricators use steels containing combinations of iron with a higher percentage of carbon tor ornamental details. Low carbon steel or mild steel is the most desirable of these. NOTES l. Steel and iron are the metals most freouentlv used for ornamental structures. Other ooDular metals are aluminum (favored for its light weight and rust resistance), polished bronze, brass, and copper. Blacksmiths primarily
2. Working with iron is a cratt not readily mastered by gen eralists; low bidders may not be qualifjed to deliver a high-quality product. Check references for similar types of jobs performed or jobs at similar costs. Consult rhe National Ornamental and Miscellaneous Metal Association (NOMMA) and the Artists-Blacksmiths Association of North America lor more information on references and lists of blacksmith shops in the United States. 3. NOMMA publishes voluntary guidelines lor joint finishes in ornamental work. They are Finish #1 (no evidence of a welded,oint); Finish #2 (completely sanded joint. some undercutting and pinholes); Finish #3 (parlially dressed weld with splatter removed); and Finish #4 (good quality, uniform undressed weld with minimal solatted.
291
SFmy'*.*\1x wELD-STEEL BAR sql lfro
N /
\U
/ ,/
TYPICAL SIZES AND WE]GHTS (LB PER FT) FOR SOLID IRON AND CARBON STEEL BARS DIAMETER OR THICKNESS (IN
EXPANSION
ROUNDS (DIAMETER IN.)
METAL GRILL\/VORK INSTALLATION_ DETAILS FOR MASONRY OPENINGS
$::::$ Wrb
mm00$$Dn Ytr$ $=*n***='*'qg-HH=.ft*-W rcX'W 65*"Y,-*F-{*"6> K=M*'4 m*."#*
BAR ENDS
INTERSECTING
MEMBERS
-WELD
CORNER CONDITIONS
.
WELD
-
WELD
EDGE CONDITIONS
RIVETS (OR BOLTS)
MISCELLANEOUS
CONNECTIONS
Maryland RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
METAL ORNAMENTAL
292
PerforotedMetqls
GENERAL Pe.forated metals were initiallv created to fulfill industrial needs such as minimizing the weight of a particularcomponent or controlling the passage ot fluids or gasses. As an architectural component, perforated metals can be used as control devices or simply as decoration. They can serve as sound suppression acoustical devices in ceilings, walls, and grilles; when incorporated into light lixtures. grilles, or ceiling and wall components, they can filter light and obscure views. Since perlorated metals retain a great deai of their strength and al$ ventilate well, they are otten employed in furniture and other designs. Because they can bend and interrupt wavelengths of many types, perforated metals are used to contain microwave radiation and the EMI/RFl radiation emitted by electrical devices.
6. Nonstandard end patterns may require special dies. Unoerforated borders mav cause distonions of the finished sheet. Roller leveling may be used to correct some of these distortions but may not always work. To calculate the (round) holes per square inch:
Y.-9p9!-{9q 78.54xDxD
METAL SHEET
(SECIry
THICKNESS. G G METAL THICKNESS, METAL. WIDfr) AND WIDfr) AND LENGTH, LENGTH, LENGTH
I
OF
SHEET
NOTES perlorated l. Metal is typically with hole-punching machines, which work best on sheets .008 in. to rL in. rhick. Specialized equipment is available for thicker metal. 2. The intended use of the perforated metal sheet determines the size, shape, and pattern of the holes punched. The strength and stiffness required vary according to use. Since oerforated materials can be used in different applications involving a wide range of geometries, materials. and loading conditions. design data are given in very general form. 3. The enormous number of perforating patterns possible with round holes, squares, slots, and other special perfc rations make it impractical to list every pattern combination. The numbered perforations listed by the lndustrial Perforators Association (lPA) are considered standard. 4. For design and tol€rances of perforated metals, consult the lPA. 5. Round holes trom.020 in. to more than 6 in. in diameter make up the majority of all perforated metal sheets produced. This is because round holes can be produced with greater efficiency and less expense and are generally stronger than other hole shapes.
SIDE MffiGIN
'.aLdtoooooooo.
F u
oooooooooooooa aooooooooooooo ooooooooood\o. .oooooooooopool ooooooooq".s4
TT
o,, ;b .H WIDTH OF -ORANON PERFORANONS
ERFORATI ERFORI AND SE ARRANGEMEM ANGEMET s.lrocffi,dcffi. OF ofi
\t / l /1-
1
l
I
sl \r:==:l DrREcrroN / TfON (SEClry -,t S SHAPE [
(sEctry (OftER
STaGGERED. PANERNS) -
ffi-
MACHINE MAC DARK HOLES REMESEM TOOL ruNCH ARRANG€MEM THE SHEET FOR ERFORATING
"-*-*{
N OTE Spacing€n be specifiedas a center-trenter dimension.a p€rc€ntag6ol op€n ar€a,or holesper squareinch. TYPICAL TERMS FOR SPECIFYING PERFORATED METAL
ROUND HOLES S*/S, STRENGTH IPA NUMBERS
C H E C K L I S T O F P E R F O R A T I N GC O S T INFLUENCES materialmay nol l.Material type: The least expensave save mon€y; a higher strength alloy may allow thickness to be reduced. 2. Materialthickness:Thinnermaterialscan b€ p€rforated easierandfaster. 3. Hole shaoe and oattern:Roundholes are the most eco nomical;the 60x" staggoredround hole pattern is the strongest,most versatile,and most common. 4. flole size:Do not go belowa l-to-l ratioof holeto size to sheet thickness;stay with a 2-to-1 ratio or larger if possible. 5. Bar size:Do not use barswith less than a l-tel ratio with sheetthickness. 6. Center distance:This controls the teed rate and thus the conductionrate. It possible,choose a patternwith longercenter distance7. Open areas: Extreme open area proportions tend to increasedistonion;if possible,stay under 70 percent. B. Margans:Keepside marginsto a minimumto reduce ' distortion.Use standardunfinishedend marginsif pos sible. 9. Blankareas:Considerthe die patternwhen determining blankareas;consultthe metalsupplier. l0.Standardization: Specifystandardhole patterns,material dimensions,and toleranceswhen possible.Before specityinga "special," ask the perforatorwhat can be donewith existingtooling. 11.Accept normal commercial burrs unless otheMise sp€cified.
LENGTH OI R ECTIO N
NorE
*l 2-l
'
I
This standardIPA option is stronger than straight row pattems but not as strong as a 60x'staggered arrangement.lt is also not as versatile in providingcompact hole spacing and high open areasas the 60xo arGngement. 45" STAGGERED PATTERN
RoUND
cE,*Rs
f !Rt'*t' --
SIDE MARGINS
HoLE
f;l l$;dl frJ$:3:q4".**.
OPEN
PUNCH u CENTERS
++ l-t6;cpl-*^-.
---1....oj1-''''"-loooooS CLOSED N OTE
PUNCH
A straight line pattern of holes is weaker than a staggered arrangerent and can stretch th€ material more. Dark holes in the drawings above indicto the punch patterns.
STRAIGHT LINE ROUND HOLE PATTERN D' X S.69
(d6'46'6) '\ooaof
@EN AREA
)a-P-sf l-_-x. STAGGERED
,c, tooool
,
b-€^r-e)+
D' X S.69 OPEN AREA
STRAIGHT D
-157.08 D'
S*= yield strengrhof perforatedmaterial S = yield strengthol unperforatedmaterial(strengrhlor 60" standardstaggeredpattern)
Lengthdirection= parallelto straightrow of holes Width directim = directionof stagger
45'
STAGGIRED
ROUND IndustrialPerforatorsAssociation;Milwaukee,Wisconsin McKey PerforatingCompany;New Berlin,Wisconsin
ORNAMENTAL METAL
PATTERN
(SPECIAL)
HOLE OPEN AREAS
OPEN
Perforqted ond Sheet Metqls cFNrr ps
I
*
rz-Y::$) til
au^ra*=
//
-''
il
II
F:----l
-I r H 'I riir
.-lf_-lr-1T.lr
SQUARE PERFORATIONS STAGGERED
| F_1nf_1nJ---1j
293
a tLil
-'-':z\
\ nUAU-UAU 2
'l
HE)
|
SQUARE PERFORATIONS STRAIGHT LINES
Tlilil'-_
)r7tVu=ilY TztYlrYrxvzxT r///. \rLz\\i/\!/
_\Lzlrarrz\r/-\
@
SQUARES NO rO5. O45 otA..37% OPEN AREA
NO 200 1t5^ - 64v. OPEN AREA
OCTAGONAL CANE
GRECIAN
NOTE
A broadassonmentof nonstandard hole shaoesand oatterns is available; consultmetal perforator.AIso available are indentedholes,collaredholes.and louveredholes. MISCELLANEOUS NONSTANDARD PERFORATION PATTERNS NOTE Thesethree types of slots are IPA standardtypes. Non standardsquare€ndslotsare alsoavailable. Consultmanu facturersfor other open areacalculationsfor slots. SLoT wtDrH
:
SQUARE HOLE OPEN AREAS
/.
SIDL
'
No. log,5/e" DtA.,36% OPEN AREA
S'X
1M
c'
-
%
No 2ot , '/4 OPENING
OPEN AREA
SLOTS SIDE STAGGER
N OTE
SLOT WDrfr SIDL
+*-+*.to*
SLOTS END STAGGER
/ ,/ '
M ISCELLAN PATTERNS
SQUARE HOLES AND
No. r 20, ,a" orA..58% OPEN AREA
WEIGHTS
OF
SHEET
SLOTS
METALS*
GALVANIZED
STEEL
USS GAUGE REV.
STAINLESS-USS
SIDF
SLOTS STRAIGHT LINES
No. 2og, r/s" x I OPENING,43% OPEN AREA
EOUS PERFORATION
SLOT WIDTH
,* l*to*
SLOTS
Square holes, principallyused for grilles and machine guards,offer optimal visibilityand throughput.Typically punchedin a straightline, in either straightor staggered patterns,squareholesmake{or weakerperforatedsheets thanroundholepatternsandare generallymoreexpensive. Sharpcornersmake squarehole toolingwear out faster thanroundholet@ling.
GA.UGES
*r ,r*?oo lllr,'
/ / '
GAUGE
USS GAUGE
*Gauges and weights have been computed subject to standard commercial tolerances.
Industrial Perforators Associataon;Milwaukee, Wisconsin McKey Perforating Company; New Berlin, Wisconsin
METAL ORNAMENTAL
Coils,qnd Plotes SteelSheets,
294 GUIDE
FOR
SELECTING
CARBON
STEEL
FOR
PERFORATING
RECOMMENDED
APPLICATIONS
TYPICAL
SIZE
M ECHANICAL
cotLs DESCRIPTION
PE HOT-ROLLEO
% ELONG CAR BO N CONTENT
TH
TH
PROPERTIES
APPROXIMATE R ELATIVE COST ( r o-GA. H.R. STEEL = IOO)
YIELD, PSI
) rr.r.
HARD. N ESS
45,UUU to 60.000
JU,UUU
28 to 38
55 to /0
to 60,000
to 40.000
mtn
min'
0
b5,UW lo 70.000
>sl
;HEETS
A IOwrOSlSneetsleet wrtn mooerale drawingand lorming qualitiesfor use when finish is unimportant.Forbest perfo ratingresultsspecifypickledand oiled for removalof oxides I hts oualrtvrs tntendedlor use when torm(SAEorAlSl1008: ing requirementsare too severefor commercialquality.Picklingand oilingto ASTMA 621) removeoxides is recommended.In-stock availabilityis not as greatas commercial oua!rw-
{SAEor ASI 1008; ASTM A 569)
Good formabilitv because of low carbon
3lloy(USSCotrTen content in combination with relatively high Yield and Tensile properties permit these )r equivalenl; ASTMA 375} steels to be used in lighter gauges to
/to '16ga.
llo uP to up to 60 in. 1 M i n . 1 6 g a .
up ro 60 in.
u.l u max-
/ro 1 6g a .
7to up ro up ro 60 in. 144 in. 1 6 g a .
up to 60 in.
O . 1 0m a x
7to 1 6g a .
up ro up Io 60 in. 144 in
ll to '14 ga.
up to 60 in.
o.l2 max
tto '16 ga.
up Io 60 in.
N.A.
N.A.
35 tO .5U
pickled and oiled104
IO
40.000 za to 3u
5b to /u
zz mtn
80 to 90
l0to20
21Oto 225 {Bhn.)
30 to 40
45 to 6U
3E to 40
40 to 50
38 to 40
40 to 50
32
reducc weight in applications in which strength in important. Readily available. Hrgh manganese content In combrnatron
(C.3$.50;Mn 1.5G with intermediate carbon greatly enhances 2.00; P .050 max.; S resistance to abrasion; can imorove oart .055max.;Si .1t life 2 to 10 times. Moderate formabilitv. .35) COLO.ROLLED
(SAEor AlSl 1008: ASTMA366}
(ASTM A
sp€cialmilled (ASTMA 620)
CORROSION-R
up ro 14/in
IO
'il8
120,OO 0
STEELS
Coldrolled steels have rmprovedsurface finishesand tighter sizetolerancesthan hor rolledsteels. They are awilable in two classes:Class 1 is intendedfor exoosed applications;Class2 is tor unexposeduse. Threefinishescan be specified:Matte is the standardfinish. lt is uniformlydull and suitablefor painting.Commercialbright tinish is a r€lativelybright.intermediate finish. Lusterfinish is sm@th and brighi and most suitablefor plating.Becauseperforatingalterssurfaceappearance, surface preparationafter perforatingmay b€ requiredbefore applicationof the final finish. Hecommendedtor us€ when lormrng requirementsare t@ severetor @mmercial quality.Can be supplied(Class1) free of fluting or stretcherstrainingwhen intendedfor use in a reasonablvshon time. Availableanmill ouantities. l-or use when the materaalmust be free ot surfacedisturbanceswithout roller leveling immediatelybeforeuse andessentially freefrom significant changesin mechanical propertiesover an extendedperiodof time.AvailableIn millorderouantities. ESISTANT
7to 28 ga.
up to 60 in
up to 18ft
1',Ito 28 ga.
up ro 60 in.
0 . 1 0m a x
110 28 ga
up to up to 60 in. 1 8 f t
Il to 29ga
up to 60 in.
u . ] um a x
7lo 28 ga
up to up to 60 in. 1 8 f t
'll to 28 ga
up to 60 in.
U.IUMAX
to 50.000
IO
to 50,000
to 30,000
to 50.000
zu,wv to 30.000
( 1 6g a . )
35.000
tzc
(16 ga.)
tz/ ( 1 6g a . )
STEELS
(ASTM 525)
steel watha zinc coatingappliedin a continuous hotdip process.Availablein cofr mercial,drawing,and other qualities.
galmized
bonderizedphosphatefor immediate paintingwilhout flakingor pe€ling.
(clating (bsignation without spangleswith a roughtexturewell A 60) suited to painting.Canwithstandtemperatures to 750" without tlaking.Less ductile than regulargalvanizedcGting. (ASIM A 591)
'l4ti
A thin zinc coatinq is applied to
(20sa.)
steel by electroplatingso as not to appre ciatively affect the weight-thickness relationship. Smmth, without spangles, it is recommended as an undercoat for painted finishes. Available in commercial and steel Coated on
{ASTM 463)
minum combinesthe propeniesof both metals.Type 1 is providedin two weights. regularand light, and is availablein commercialanddrawingqualrties. lf the heaviest Type 2 alumjnizedcoatingis desired, consultwith a suoglieror the steel manufacturer.
IndustrialPerforators Association: Milwaukee. Wisconsin
rh\
\J/
cotLs
STEELS
ORNAMENTAL METAL
26 ga
up 60 in.
up ro 1 8f t
lo
26 ga.
up ro 60 in.
to 60,000
IO
45,000
(20 qa.)
99
29s
Hondroilsond Rqils NOTES
METAL
1. Follow all local code requirements for ramp design, raii diameter, and rail clearances; also see ASTM, ANSI. ADA. and OSHA reouirements.
METAL SUBRAIL
2. Verify allowable design stresses of rails, posts, and panels.
METAL BALUSTER
3. Verify the structural value of fasteners and anchorage to building structure for both vertical and lateral forces.
METAL
4. ASTM E-985 requirements: GUAFDRAILS , Protect occupants at or near the outer edge of a ramp. landing, platform. balcony, or accessible roo{. Railing systems usually are not provided where the vertical distance between adjacent levels is 24 in. or less. Railing members should be arranged to discourage climbing. Provide 4 in. high toeboards where tools or other objects could be dislodged. Concentrated load nonconcurrently applied at the top rail shall be 200 lb t in the horizontal and vertical direction. The test loads are aoolicabte for railings wrlh supports not more than 8 fi apart. HANDBAiLS - Corridors, ramps, and walkways having a slope at least 1 in 20 shall have handrails. When a guardrail o{ more than 38 in. height is used, a separate handrail shall be installed. Nothing should interrupt the continuous sliding of hands. The ends of the handrail shall be returned to walls or arranged to avoid projecting rail ends.
TOP
RAIL
STANOARD STEEL P1?E RATLING STEEL
GLASS PANEL INSET INTO POSTS MAAL LOWER
POST
STEEL AND PUSTIC COMPOSITE TUBINGS PANEL
POST
COMPRESSION
RAIL
CUMP (2 PER SIDE METAL COVER PUTE WITH SET SCREWS
CODE METAL COVER PUTE WITH SET SCREW METAL SLEEVE CAST IN PUCE
EM BEDOEO POST
METAL POST AND RAIL
PIPE RAILING
METAL POST
METAL COVER PLATE
EXPANSION BOLTS LIGHTED
RAIL
SURFACE MOUNTED GUSS POST
PANEL
METAL
AND
STEEL
ANGLES 'WOOD
FLOOR
FLEXIALE INSERT
FASTENER
RAIL
GUSS
ffs;
FINISH FINISH
wooD BLOCKING
STEEL / BRONZE WOOD
NAILING
BLOCK MOUNTING BRACKET CAST IN PUCE STEEL
STEEL "*ar,a
MtN STEEL PLATE CAST IN PSCg
GYPSUM BOARD SIOE MOUNTED
ANCHOR
FLUSH MOUNTEO
GLASS RAIL SYSTEM
POST MOUNTING
TOP
33b"/+
BOLT CONNECTION
PANEL
GLASS
coNNECTtNG
'lz"
)''
RAILS
2 1 t 2 '- 3
I
METAL COVER MOUNTING ARACKET CAST IN PUCE r/2 ' MtN. srEEL PUTE EXPANSION
BOLTS NYLON WITH STEEL COR E
SIDE MOUNTED GUSS
GLASS PANEL
WALL
STAINLESS
STEEL
BRACKETS
PANEL
LIGHT
FIXTURE OPT
METAL
ALUMINUM
3l/2- MAX. ENCROACHMENT INTO REQ'D STAIR OR RAMP WIDTH
4-
SPHERE
CANNOT
PASS
= :
COVER
g GYP. BOARD HANDRAIL
42'AT GUARDRAILS 34" TO 36" AT
MOUNTING BRACKtr
HANDRAILS FOR STAIRS ANO RAMPS
CAST IN P4CE STEEL ANCHOR
FINISH RECESSED
SURFACE MOUNTED
GLASS PANEL
HANORAIL
ACCESSIBLE
FLOOR LEVEL WALL-MOUNTED
HANDRAILS/GUARDRAILS
CANNOT PASS THROUGH HANORAIL
RAILING
AT
STAIR
GUARDRAIL AT LEVEL SURFACE OR RAM P
DIMENSIONS
BichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsville. Marvland
ORNAMENTAL METAL
296
ExponsionJoint Covers:Interior
N OTES
SPRING LOADED CLIP ASSEMBLY
1. A large selection of prefabricated assemblies to covef anteriorexpansion joints is available from various manulacturers to satisfy most joint and finish conditions. 2. Fie-nled barriertype inserts are avajlable and applicable to mosl assemblies. 3. Expansion joint covers that will respond lo diflerential rcvement. both laterally and horizontally, should be pre vided at joints in structures located where seismic action {earth tremors and quakes) may be expected or where differential seftlement is anticioated.
EXTRUDEO METAL COVER
AT WALL OR CEILING
AT SUSPENOED CEILING
USABLE WITH VARIOUS FLOOR
EUSTOMERIC (REMOVABLE)
COVERINGS
JOINT COVER SUSPENOED
ACOUSTICAL
CEILING
FACE OF WALL EXTRUDED METAL COVER ASSEMBLY COMPRESSIBLE MATERIAL VINYL
EXTRUDED METAL COVER ASSEMBLY COMPRESSIBLE MATERIAL FINISH
FLOOR
ANCHOR BOLT ANCHOR BOLT VINYL GUNER SEISMIC FLOOR FOR JOINTS UP
JOINT TO 24
COVER IN.
AT FLOOR
SEISMIC FLOOR JOINT COVER FOR JOINTS UP TO 8 IN.
PREFABRICATED
INTERIOR
AT F L O O R A N O W A L L
AT WALL (CORNER)
EXPANSION
JOINT
COVERS
Paul Bonsalland Roben D. Abernathy:J. N. peaseAss@iates:Charlotte,North Carotina
EXPANSION CONTROL
CHAPTER
SIX
AND PLASTICS lntroduction
29A
Wood
Design Load Tables Wood Treatment
Decking
Sheathing
3OO
355
Wood Trusses
314
Wood and Plastic Fastenings 317
37a
323 Architectural
Structural Panels
361
Glued-Laminated Construction Finish Carpentry
Rough Carpentry
352
339
Heavy Timber Construction
341
Woodrnrork
380
373
298
Designingwith Wood Naturalfire retardantqualitiesand ac FIREBETARDANCE: ceptability of treatment vary with species. Flame Sprea| Classificationis the gen€rally accepted measurementlo tire rating of materials.Fire{etardanttreatmentsand build up of members can be used to improve the fire rating of wood materaals
\^/OOD AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL Approximatelynine of every ten buildingsconstructed in the United States each year are tramed with wood, including most single-familyand multifamily res1dencesand a large percentageo{ commercial,institutioml,and public buildings.Wood is {avoredas both a structuralmaterialand a finish materialfor its economy,architecturalflexibility,and visualqualities.Many contractorsknow how to buildwith it. Smallwork crews can handlemost wood membetswithout special lifting equipment; cutting and fastening can be accomplishedon site with hand or ponable power tools; and the skills needed tor w@d construction are easilv learned.Y€t wood is one of the most difficult materialslor the designerto master,becauseit is virtuallythe only building materialthat is vegetableratherthan mineral.With this vegetableorigin comes a host of idiosyncrasiesrelatingto directional properties, strength, stiffness, grain patterns, shrinkage,distortion,decay. insect damage,and tire resisGnce.
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENTS: Certainspeciesused fo architecturalw@dwork can be treated with preservativE compounds to extend their life when exposedto the ele menIs. LUMBER
Today most wood comes from youngerforests. wilh trees typicallysmallerthan those haryesteda few decadesago. Large solid timbers are increasinglyhard to obtain,and the generalqualityof lumber is declining.As a result architects and buildersmust dependmore and more on manufactured wood productssuch as laminatedwood. laminatedveneer lumber, parallelstrand lumber, and manufacturedwood ljoists and trusses. These products tend to be straighter, stronger. stiffer. less prone to distortion, and more ece nomical of trees than conventionalsolid lumber, but they are not alwys suitablefor displayin a building.
Seen unde| a lowfower magnifier,wood is made up pri marilyof hollowtubularcellsof cellulosethat run parallelto the long axisof the tree trunk.Whenthe tree is harvested both the hollows and the walls of these tubes are full oJ watery sap, The tree is sawed into rough lumber while in this saturatedor'green'condition. Finishlumberis sea soned (dried oI much of its moisture),either by stacking I in the ooen air for a period of months or, more commonly, by heatingit in a kiln Jora periodof days. Duringseasoning, moisture evaporatesfirst from the hollows of the tubes. and then trom the cellulosewalls of the tubes, causingthe lumber to shrink. By tho rime the lumber leavesthe kiln, lt is considerablysmaller. Further shrinkageusually occurs after the lumber has been incorporatedinto a building,as the moisture content in the wood comes graduallyto equi librium with the moisture content of the surroundingair Wood absorbs moisture during damp weather and gives rt ofl during dry weather in a never€nding cycle of swelling and shrinking,a fact that must be taken into accountwhen detailingw@d componentsof buildingi.
TYPES OF u/OOO CONSTRUCTION Buildingcldes €tegorize wood constructioninto two distinct types--6eavy-timb€rand light w@df rame. Heavy-timberconstruction.consistingof exposedcolumns, girders, beams, and decking large enough to be slow to catch {ire and burn, is permitted tor use in relativelylarge buildingsacrossa bred spectrum of uses. Becauseof its large member dim€nsions and spans, heaw-timber constructim is best suited to buildingswith regular,repetitivg bays. Heavy-timberbuildingsare engineeredin accordance with th€ NationalDasign Specificationtor Wood Construction. publishedby the AmericanWood Council. Lighl woo+fram€ constructionis made up of nominal2 in(38 mm) framing members spaced closely together and normallyconcealedby interiorfinish materialssuch as plaster. qwsum board, or w@d paneling.Light w@d-frame construction,with its small members and close member spacings,adapts readilyto even the most intricatespaces and architecturalforms. However, becausesuch construction is less resistantto fire than heaw-timbersnstruction, buildingcodes severelylimit the heighls and areasof light woo+fram buildings.The maximum height generallyper mitted in residentiallight wood-framebuildingsis three stories, althoughfour stories8re possibleif an approvedsprinkler system is installed.Most light wood-Irameengineering can be dore lollowing values from tablesin the CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code. which has been widely adoptedby states and municipalities. WOOD
AS A STRUCTURAL
MATERIAL
On the basis ol performancep€r unit weight. typical construction lumbg is at least as strong and stiff as structural st@|. B@use of its microstructureo{ longitudinalcells, wood has dafferentstructuralpropertiesin its lwo principal directions. Parallelto the grain, wood is strong and stiff; perpendicularto the grain, it is weak and deformable.Fasteners that act in a dir€ctionF€rall€lto the graincan transmit mnsiderabty more lorce than those that act perpendicularto ths grain. Th€ strength of wood varies with the durationof the load: For short-termloadssuch as those trom snow. wind, and impact, atlowablestress values are 15 to 1ooy. higher than those allowed for normalterm loads. Under very long term loading,however. wood has a tendencyto creep, and reducedstress values must be used. WOOD
AS A FINISH
MATERIAL
Wood is used as a finish materialin buildingsof every kind. Limited quantitiesof wood finish may be used even in the most fire{esistant types of construction.With proper pre tection from water and sunlight,wood can serye as a durable exteriormalerialfor cladding.trim. and even roling. For interior finishes, despite recenl concerns regarding the depletion of rare or old€roMh species, w@ds ot many types remain commonly availablein solid or veneer form, exhibitinggreat varietyin hardness,grainfigure,color, suitability for different finishes, and cost. Finish woods are readily availablein many preformed shapes and are also easilyshapedand cut in the field. Wood and w@d products EdwardAllen, AIA; South Natick, Massachusetts Joseph lano, Architect;Mercer lsland.Washington Greg Heuer;ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia
INTRODUCTION
PRODUCTION
mark€tedlumberincludestreesol dozenso' Commercially speciesroughlydividedinto sollwoods, which are the ever green species, and hardwoods, those species that drop their leaves in the fall. Nearly all lraming lumber comes from the @mparatively plentiful softwoods. Hardwoods, with thsir greaterrangeof colorsand grainfigures,are used primarilyfor interiorfinishes,Ilmring, cabinets,and furni ture.
Most lumb€r is surfacedafter seasoningto reduceit to its final dimensions and give it smooth faces. Edges are roundedto make the lumber gasierand saferto handle. VERNCAL
HEAVY TIMBER
GRAIN
PUIN-SAWN BOARO
LIGHT \,vOOD.FRAME
CONSTRUCTION
may be finished with transparentor opaque coatings or serye as a base for appliedplasticlaminates. SELECTION OF INTERIOR FINISH WOOO M A T E R IA L S Followingare the major factorsthat influ€ncelumberselection for finish wood applicationsas specifiedby the AtchitecturalW@dmrk lnstitute:
TYPICAL
SAWING
OF A LARGE LOG
NOMINAL (ROUGH)
Different sp€cies exhibit AESTHETICCHARACTERISTICS: a variety of colors.grains (openor close grain).and ligures {grainpattems)that are further distinguishedby the swing method (plainsawn, quarter sawn, rift sam) and finishing characteristics(receptivityto finish processes,such as fillers. starns,etc-). AVAILABILITY:The availabilityof padcular species varies by seasonand popularity. SIZE LIMITATIONS:Some species produce longer and/or wider rembers. The abilityof seHARDNESS. AND DENSITY: STRENGTH, lected lumber to sustain stress; resist indentation,abuse, and wear; and carry its anticipatedload contributesto its suitabilityfor partjcularuses. Swellingand shrinkingdue to DIMENSIONAL STABILITY: relative humidity and moisture content changes varies accordingto the speciesand producttype. ADAPTABILITY FOR EXTERIOR USE:Cenainspeciesare more durable when used in exterior applications.Heartmore resistant to damag€by the elewood of all speciesis ments than sapwood. The lollowing species are rot resistant and acceotable tor exterior use: Eastern and Western red cedar;redwood: mahogany,and teak.
LUMBER
THICKNESS
Designingwith Wood LUMBER GRADING Wood is a natural product and thus varies greatly in appear, ance and structural properties. Consequently, elaborate systems ot grading have been established to indicate the quality of each piece of lumber. Within each species of wood there are two grading systems, one based on structural strength and stiffness, the other on aopearance. Appearance is graded visually. Structural grading is based either on visual inspection, the sizes and positions of knots and other defects, or structural properties as measured by machines that flex each piece of lumber. Strength and stiffness values for wood are tabulated else, where in this chapter of AGS. They vary considerably lrom one spectes and grade to another. When engineering a wood structu(e, it is necessary to know what species and grade wall be specified. lt in doubt, base structural calculations on the weakest species and grade locally available.
JOINING
WOOD
Nailing is the most common method o, ioining light structural irembers. Nails are inexpensive to buy and install and may be driven by hand or with a pneumatic gun. When applied in proper size, number, and spacing, they form a strong, resilient joint. Sheet metal straps, anchors, and brackets can be nailed to connections where greater resistance to tension or shear is necessary_ Detailed nailinq requirements for light wood-frame construclron ar; included in bualding codes. HeaW-timber construction typts cally relies on bolts and lag screws, together with fabricated metal connecting devices. ln finish wood construction. nearlv headless finish nails are used for improved appearance. Screws, concealed or embedded fasteners, splines, and fitted and glued joints provrde greater mechanical stiffness and optimal appearance. The Architectural Woodwork Institute has established standards for tinish ioinery based on appearance and cost.
MOISTURE MOVEMENT IN \^/OOD Theshrinkage of woodas it driesis not uniform.Wood shrinksverylittlealongthelengthol thegrain,somewhat in the radial direction of a cylindrical log, and more in the tangential direction of the log, as shown in the accompanying graph. One consequence ol the difference between the radial and tangential shrinkage is that radial splits called checks form during seasoning, especially in lumber ol large
dimension. ln addition, pieces of tumber distort noticeabty In accordance with their original posjtions in the tree trunk For pieces of lumber that must stay flat, such as flooring, outdoor decking, baseboards, casings, and paneling, verti, cal{rain Iumber. which is sawed so the annual growth rings are more or less perpendicular to the troad face of the board, is often specified One particular sawing pattern that produces vertical-grainlumber is called ouarter,sawina. For ordinary tramrng, seasoning disto.ltons are of lrttle c;nsequence, so praln-sawn boards are used. A number of accepted wood detailing practices have been developed in response to the great moisture movement that occurs in wood and the distortions that result from the differing rates of shrinkage along the three axes ol the grain. In applying wood siding, it is recessary to use nailing patterns that do not restrain the cross-Orain seasonal shrinking and swelting of the wood Horizonial bevel srdrna is nailed so that each board is fastened by one row of naiti only, creating a sliding joint at each overlapping edge to allow for movement. Tongue-andgroove siding boardl are naaled at the tongue edge only, the other edge being restrained by the tongue of the adjacent board sliding freely in its groove. Venical board and-batten sidjng is nailed onlv at the centers of the boards and battens, allowino lor free expansron and contractton of the wood. Because wood shrinkage is so much greater in the tangen, tial direction than in the radial, plain-sawn boards tend to cup noticeably in a direction opposite to the curyature of tho annual rings. Plain sawn decking and flooring should be 'bark laid with the side' of each board facinq down to reduce the raising of edges. On outdoor decks, tirs practrce willalso minimize puddling of water on the boards. Venicalgrain flooring and deck boards sre preferable to plain-sawn boards, not only because they minimize cupping but because their tighter grain pattern wears better underfoot. 'Broad interior finish pieces are frequently given a relieved back, a hidden groove or grooves that reduce the effective thickness of the piece and thus the tendency ot the oiece to cup. Many stock millwork patterns include relieved backs. Boards may be relieved on site by cutting multiple gr@ves with a tabl€ saw. Cupping €n also be minimized by back priming, painting the back surface of each piece a day or more belore installation. After the oiece has been installed and the exposed side has been painted or varnished, the back priming causes the back side to absorb and giv€ off moisture at about the same rate as the exposed side, mrntm,zing drstortrons.
DECAY
2 q o z
:
o z UU
9H YO
1t co
ile
MOISTURE soFTwooD
/
EXPANSION AIR
WOOO
SIDING
SIDI NG
SHAKE
NAILING TONGUE
VERTICAL
WOOD
SIDING
Wood burns easily, giving otf highly toxic combustion prod ucts, so it is important to design wooden buildjngs for fire satety. The first step is to follow the height and area restrictions of the building codes, along with code provisions for easy egress from wooden buildings. Smoke and heat alarms are essentials in w@den residential buildinos. Heaw-timber buildrngs have a nalural resistance to ire because their massive timbers are slow to ignite and burn in comparison to the smaller framing members in light w@d-frame construction. Light wood-frame buildings have internal hollow passages that encourage the spreadof fire; these must be closed olf at each floor by wood blocking or the floor platform framing. Light wood-frame buildings are generally finished with interior surfaces of gypsum plaster or gypsum wallboard. which are highly resistant to tire
t| _ \
BOARO
SLIDING
AND
BATTEN
JOINTS
SIOING
IN \^r'OOD SIDING
JAMB
IN THE
THICKNESS (RAOIAL)
OUARTER,SAWN LUMAER
--
-----\-
fr +
Length: .1 to.2yo shrinkage; thickness:2 to syo shrinkagej width: 5 to1 07o shrinkage.
SHRINKAGE DUE TO DRYING FOR QUARTER-SA\,YN LUMBER BARK SIOE DOWN IS CORRECT ORIENTATION
SHRINKAGE DISTORTION SAWN DECKING
OF PLAIN-
ANGENTIAL
RADIAL DIRECTION
DIRECTION
PUIN.SAWN
I -REL|EVEO
MOLDTNG
SLIDING JOINT
DUE TO MOISTURE
INSECTS
FIRE
ANGLED INTO END OF BOARO
OF A TYPICAL
WIDTH
NOTE HORIZONTAL
SHRINKAGE
25% RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Wood provides food and habitat to various insects and decay{ausing fungi. For the most part, decay and insect attack can be avoided by detailing a building in a way that keeps wood dry at all times. Wood components should be kept at least 6 in. ('150mm) away from the soil. Details thai trap and hold moisture, such as connections in exterior decks and railings, should be avoided unless preseNativetreated wood or decay,resistant species such as redwood. ceoar. or cypress are used.
\-.. SLIDING lotNT/
AND
299
-
CHECKS
BACK
RELIEVED BACK
N OTE 8y reducing the ef{ective thickness of the woodwork relieved backs reduce the tendency of the w@d to cup.
RELIEVED
BACKS
IN \^/OODWORK
AOARD
SHRINKAGE DTSTORTIONS BY POSITION IN LOG
Edward Allen, AIA: South Natick, Massachusetts Joseph lano, Architect; Mercer lsland, Washington
INTRODUCTION
-
FloorJoists:30 qnd 40 lb LiveLoqd
300
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A STRENGTH: Live toad of 30 psl plus dead load ol 10 psl determins the required liber stressvilue, DEFLECTION: For 30 psl live load. Lirnited to span in inchesdivided by 360.
FLOOR
JOISTS_3o
LB LIvE LOAD
ALL ROOMSUSED FOR SLEEPINGAREAS AND ATTIC FLOORS J O r S T( r N . l SIZE SPACING
2x8
2x 10
0.8
8-6 570
8 - 11 640
9-4 700
v-v 750
lGt 810
6-2
9.2 890 8-0 1020
0.9
320
11 - 4 1360
9-4 1390
9-7 1450
9-9 15 1 0
9 - 11 I 560
4 , 11
| 9-J
15-7
1r00
5.10 150
r 200
1G6 1240
1060
3-6 110
1060 13-10 11 6 0
14-2 1220
4-5 270
4,8 320
l5-0 1360
11 - 6 1210
1-10 270
12-'l 1330
12.4 1390
450
r 3-1 1560
r9-5 1060
19,10 1100
20,3 I t5u
2.10 510 20-a 1200
21-O 1240
17-8 11 6 0
18-0 1220
18-5 1270
18-9 1320
19,1 1360
16-5 1000 14-4 11 5 0
t6-10 t060 t4.8 |210
15-l 1270
15-5 1330
15-9 1390
16-l 1450
16-5
1 9 - 11 750
21-4 860
21-11 910
23-1 1010
23.7 1060
24.8 11 5 0
za- |
11 0 0
17-5 770
18-1 830
18-9 890
19.4 950
21-O 1t10
21-6 11 6 0
21.11 1220
22-5 1270
1200 22.10 1320
15-2 880
15-10 o6n
165 't020
1 6 . 1I 1080
22-6 960 20.6 r060 t7-11 t210
18-4 1270
18-9 1330
l9-2 t390
19-7 1450
1 9 - 11 1510
t.o
8.5 640
8 - 11 720
9-4 800
9-10 880
tJ.o
14.4 570
15 - 1 640
15-9 700
75Q
13 . 0 630 11 . 4 720
13.8 700
14-4 170
1 4 - 11 830
11-ll
13-0 950
18 - 4 640
12-6 880 19.2 700
16-8 700
1 3 . 1 0 14-7 800 720 ex$eme stress
OJU
1 0 - 11 1270
15.11 950 1 3 . 1I 1080
;
'l3.0 640
14-6 960
1240
10.6 I 160 9-2 1330
010 0.3 110
15-5 890 13-6 1020 20-8 810
11 . 1 3 770
;
14.2 910 2-10 000 -3
2-3 200
19-0 101 0 17-3 1110
tu-y 700
14-11 560
R-q
I D-C
RN
9-11 ocl0 7-5 150
1.9
12-O 11 5 0
18-6 960
lu-z 630
16
8-6 11 5 0
1.8
1't.10 11 0 0 10-9 1220
18-0 910
J-t 560
I l-a
10.0 1060
11.7 1060
'1.7
l7-6 860
16
570 15 - 1 0
9.9 1m0
t.J
1.6
17.O 810
11 . 1 0 640
l?
11 . 0 960
t.5
1 0 - 11 1080
11-3 b/u
8m
1G9 910
PSI
1.4
ro-7 1020
10-7 510
24
oou
1.3
Iz-o 950
12
510 l2-3 560 10-8 640 r6.5 5r0
10-5
1.2
12-1 890
6-4 640
800
1.1
13 - 4 810
24
7m
1.0
9-6 950 8-3 1080 13-9 860
8-t0 830 7-9 950 12-10 750 1r - 8 830 10-2 950
I
2x12
o-7
u-b 170 7-5 880 12-4 700
s60
MOOULUS OF ELASTICITY. E. IN
u.o
7-9 630 6.9 720
t-J
I
2x6
0.5 8-0 510
12 1 0
8 . 11 1270
0r0
tStu
tz-o
to-o
1560 25-7 1240 23-3 1360 20.3 1560
rn p! is shown below each soan.
DESIGNCRITERIA S T R E N G T H :L i v e l o a d o f 4 0 p s f p l u s d e a d l m d o f 1 0 psf determins the required fiber stressvalue. DEFLECTION; For 40 psf live l@d. Limited to span in inchesdivided by 360.
FLOOR
JOISTS_40
LB LIVE LOAD
ALL ROOMSEXCEPT THOSE USED FOR SLEEPINGAREAS ANO ATTIC FLOORS MoDULUS oF El.Asrrctry. JOIST (IN.I SIZE SPACING
12
-:2xE
I 24 12
2xB
16
;
7-3 520 6-7 580 5-9 660 9-7 520 8-9 580 7-7 660
16 24
: 2x 12
16 24
0.7 8-2 660 7-5 720
12-6 890
1r - 0 920 9-7 r 050
11 - 4 980
11 . 8 1040
12-O 1090
9-l I
r 120
10.2 11 9 0
10-6 1250
8-6 720
8.10 780
8.0 860 7.0 980
8-4 920 t-s 1050
9-6 890 8-7 980 7-6 1120
11 - 8 780
12-1 830
59U
10-9 660
9-J 650
9-v 720
tu-a 790
8-l 750
8'6 830
8 . 11 900
10-7 850 9-3 980
r 3.0
6.6 830
1.3 1G0 990 9-1 1090
0.9
7-9 790 6-9 900 11-3 720
E. rN 1,000,000Psl
1.2 9-9 940 8-10 1040 7-9 11 9 0 12.10 940
1.0 9-2 830
0.8
1.1
6-Z
13-2 990
13.6 1040
590
13-8 oou
14.4 720
1 4 - 11 780
15-5 830
15-11 890
16-5 940
16 - 1 0 990
11-1
11 - 1 0 650
12-5 720
13.0 790
13-6 850
14 - 0 920
14-6 980
1 4 - 11 1040
15-3 1090 13-4 1250 20-6 990
56U
660
10 - 4 750
10.10 830
1 4 - 11 azv
15-10 590
16-8 660
13.6 580
14.4 650
15.2
Y.Y
11 . 1 0 660
12-7 750
13-3 830
I t-4 900
11 . 1 0 980
12-3 | 050
t2-a 1120
I r-a
18.1
18-9 830
19-4 890
13.0 11 9 0 1 9 -1 940
11-0 920
17-7 980
18-1 1040
l8-7 1090
15-10 | 190
1A-?
780 120 1 5 - 1 0 to-9 oou 790 1 3 - 1 0 14-4 980 900
The reouiredextremefiber str6s in bendinq. Am€ri€n Forost and Pap€rAssociation;Washington,D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
14-11 I 050
15-4 1120
is shown below sch span.
I 250
1.7 10-1 11 9 0
11-2 1230
11 - 4 1280
1200
'10-9 11 4 0 9-9 1250
9 - 11 1310
10-2 1360
1G4 14 1 0
8-4 1380
8-6 11140
8-8 1500
8.10
14.2 '| 140
14,5 11 9 0
14-8 1230
12-10 1250
13 - 1 13 1 0
13,4 1360
9-0 16 1 0 't5-0 1280 13-7 1410
11 . 3 1440
1t - 5 1500
r1.8
18-0 11 4 0
l8-5 r 190
18,9 1230
|9-1 | 280
I o-J
l6-9 1310
17-O 1360
17-4 1410
14-7 1500
l4-lI 1550
15-2 1610
zz-a
22.10 1230 20-9 1360
23-3 r 280
1 9 - ' 1t 1250
11 9 0 20-4 1310
1440
17.9 1500
18.1 1550
18.5 1610
t.0
10.3 r 040 9-4 11 5 0
7-'l1 1250
520
I z-J
2x 10
0.6 7-9 590 7-O 650 6-2 750 10-2
1310
2-3 150 0.9 310 7-3 040 5-8 150 ?,R
310
10.6 1090 Y.O
3-10 090 200 1.0 380 7-8 090 6.0 200 4-O 380
21-O 1040
z t-o
9-1 150
9-b
6-8 310
1090 200 7-O 380
1250 I c-4
1440 21-11 11 4 0
1.8
| 35U
I ERN
I
11tl 16 1 0
21.1 141(
FloorJoists:50 lb live Lood GENERAL DESIGN INFORMATION For floor construction where live loading is heavier than customarily found in residentialoccupancies, tabulardata are orovided. The tabulated spans are basd on bending strength usingthe live load indicatedin eachtable headingplus a dead load of l0 psl. In calculatingthe required modulus of elasticity for the tabulatedspan, the live lcd only was used, since this is in acordance wirh practicefor dsign of fl@r joisrs. established
srzes,but calculationsto determinethe allowablespan and requiredmodulusof elasticity are ba*d on rciual srzes.
SPAN While the effstive span length for an isolatedbeam is customarilylaken as the distancefrom face to face
DESIGN STRESSES Unit.designvaluesfor desiSnof wood joistsare givenin the National DesignSpecificationfor Wood Co-nsrruc-
FLOOR
JOISTS_50
or suppons plus one hall lhe required lenqth of bearinq aI each end, tt is the practice in designing joists spaceJ over.24 in. apart to consider the- spjn'as the cleai lot orslance oetween supDorts.
SIZE.
16 24
r100 9-7 1.437
l 200 10,0 1.637
10-5 1.846
o.924
7-11 r.083
8-4 1.249
8.8 1.423
91 1.605
o-l
oD
6-9 1.005
12.7 1.437
t-o
o.744
0.871 12.1
7-11 r.600
3.3 .63r
13-9 1.846
143 2.063
14,9 2.249
z.3z
I z-a
13.3 2 . 19 1 10.9 1.762 19.5
20-7 3.007
l-o
1800 12.3 3.007
12.1
l0-7 2.614
8-7
9,1
r0-5 1.083
11 . 0 1.249
l't,6 1.423
11,11
24
8.1 o.744
8.6 0.871
8 - 11 1.005
9-4 1.144
9-8 1.291
to-z
1.437
16.10 'r.637
t-b .846
1A-2 2.063
12.10 r.989 l0-5 1.600 r8,10 2.289
14.0 1.249
14.7 1.423
5-3 .605 2-4 291
1 5 -1 0 1.794
t6-4 r.989
I 6-10 2.191
17.11 2.614
18-l
13.3 r.600 22.11
l3-9 1.762
14.7 2.'t03
5-4
23-A
za- |
z.z6Y
26-6
z.az
1 9 -0 1 1.989
20.6 2.191 r 6,7
21-9
23.O
17.8 2.103
'18-10
29-7 3.007
1.2
25-7 2.614
27-O
l6
1.063 12.7 0.924 l0-3 o.744 t7-9 1.063
I
15,5 o.924
24
12.6 o.744
1.246
'| 3-4 1.083 10,10 0.871 18.9 1.246
r.083 13.2 0.871 22-1 1.246
12
20-11 1.063
16
18.2 o.924
19-2 r.083
;
14,9 o.744
r 9-o
| |
3 24
16
l6 24
1-4 .846
1.249
|7-r0 1.423
18-6 1.605
19.2 1.794
13-10 'r.005
l4-5 1.144
zJ.z
24,2 1.637 20-11 1.423
r5 - 0 1.291 25-2 r.846 21.9 1.605
1.437 20-1 't.249 6-3 .005 2-5
17.O 1.144 '| 2..11 2.113
| |
17,8 1.291
ta-r
to-2
1.443
|.600 21.0 2.249
26.1 2.063
7-1
3.007 14.O 2.614
4.1
I l-5 2 . 10 3
12-O
I
1.989
27,11 2.521 24-2 2.191
18,4 1.443
19.0 r.600
l9-7 |.762
20.10
1 40 2.663
2.9s3
14.11 3_254
r5-t0 3.882
r 6.9
13,9 3.374
l4-6
227 1.794
I
|
23.s
1.11 0.960
8,4 1.124
14-9
r.373
15-7 r.608
12.10 r.193
r3-6 r.397
14.2 1.612
14 , 1 0 r.836
l0-5 0.960
11 . 0 1.124
l t.6 t.zgj
12-0 1.418
18-10 1.373
19-10 r.608
20.10 t.o55
?1-9 2.113
2.383
16 . 4 1.193
r7.3 1.397
18.1 1.612
r8.r0 t.836
19.7 2.O71
1?-?
I 4.0 1.124
t 4-8 1.297
15-4 1.418
r6 , 0 L666
16,7 1.862
25-4 r.855
26-5 2.113
27.6 2.383
30-7 3.254
21.11
22-11 r.836
23.11 2.O71
25-8 2.561
26.6 2.821
28 1 3.314
29-7
18-8 1.478
19-5 |,ooo
28-7 2.663 24-10 2_314 20-2 1.862
17-2 2.065 29-7 2.953
3.374 r 8-9 2.714 32-5 3.482
20,10 2.065 34,10
216 2.275
22-10 2 . 7t 4 38-2 3.882
24.1
0.960
1 9 . 11 1.193
24
16.2 0.960
17,0 1.124
tz
21.O
28-5 1.608
r.373
24
1.005 r9-7 |.437
r2.10 1.443 22-2 2.063
to-z I
a-o I 10?
l6
NOTE: The reouired
10.1 1.443
a. tvJ
0 . 8 7r 1t - 1 0 1.608 r0-3 1.397
24.2 r.608 20-11 1.397
16
1.794
I .OUf,
' rl - 1 0 t . 14 4 20.6 1.637
to-J
11-2 1.373
3xl4
1.144
1600 | 1.7 2.521 10-0 2.191 8.2 1.762
r500 I t.J
9-11 0.924
12
J X tZ
2.289 9-9 1.989
7-4 1. 2 9 1
1400 r0 - 1 0 2.063 9,5 1.794 7-7 1.443
16
24
3x l0
'1300
1000 9-2 't.246
r 't-5 1.063
: 2x l0
3x8
For limit ol Q/300:0.833 For limit of Q/240:0.667 For limitof e/i80: 0.50O
t2 ZxB
3x6
The modulus of elasticiry values listed in the span tables for joists are those required for the tabulated spans if deflection under the live load is limited to t/360. Where other deflrction limits are eceptable, the tabul"r E valuesmay be adjusted by multiplying them by the following factors:
EXTREME FISER STRESSIN BENOI
900
SPACING
2xG
2x14
ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
LB LIVE LOAD
8,8 1.063
z x tz
l r o n , a v a t l a b l el r o m t h e A m e r j c a n F o r e s t & p a D e r A s s o Cratron.
NET SIZES OF LUMBER Joists. are customarily sptrified in termsof nominal
J O r S T{ t N . l
301
t.3tJ
r0-9 1.612
8-9 1.297 r6.4
t.ot2
r7-10 1.291 29-10 r.855
1 .t 9 3
24-A 1.397
25-11
0.960
20.0 1.124
21.O 1.291
tJ-5
o{ elar e l a s t i c i t yE, ,
t.6t2
r1.3 r.836 9-2 1.478 11.1 2.113
2.113 2 ' 17. -813 6 22.O 1.478
2.383 lr8 2.O71 9-6 r.666 17,9 2.383 |5 5
2.O71 I z-b r.ooo
32-5 2.383 28.2 2.O71 2 2 . '1t | .ooo
12.2 2.314 9-t0 1.862 r8-5
12.7 10.2 2.065
r0-6
11-2 2.714
l-9
z.ooJ
2.953
| 9,9 3.254
20-1l
2.1
16.0 2.314
16.7 2.567
17.1 2.827
r8 . 1 ? at1
19.1
I3-0 r.862 23.6
13-5 2.65
13.r0 2.275
14,8 2 . 7t 4
c-o
z,ooJ
24.4 2.953
3.254
20-5 2.314
21-1 2.567
2.827
33-8
za.l
17,8 z.zt5
36.0
Z.YCJ
2.314 23-9 1.862
30-3 2.561 2.065
3.882 zJ-l
28-'l 24.5 19.1 34.2 4.547
40
31,3 2.821
33-r 3.374
34-t1 3.9s2
25-5
2 6 . 11 2.714
28-4 3.r79
,0o0,000psiisshownbe|oweachspan,ifdef|ection,nffi
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation; Washington. D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
FloorJoisls:60 lb LiveLood
302
DESIGN INFORMATION GENERAL For tlmr construction where live loading is heavier than customarilv found in residentialoccupancies, tabula, data are provided. : The tabulated spans are based on bending strength using the live load indicatedin eachtable headingplus a dead lcd of 10 psf. In calculatingthe required modulus of elasticity for the tabulated span. the live load only was used, since this is in rccordance with establishedpractice for daign of floor ioists.
ol supportsplus one-halfrhe requiredlenglhof bearing at each end, it is the practicein designingjoistsspaced not over 24 in. apart to considerthe span as the clear distance betreen supports.
SPAN while the effetive span length for an isolated beam is customarily taken as the distarce from tace to face
OESIGN STRESSES Unit dsign valu6 for dcign of wood ioistsare givenin the National Design Spcification for Wood Construc-
FLOOR
JOISTS_60
ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY The modulus of elasticity values listed in the span tables lor joists are those required for the tabulated eans if deflrction under the live load is limited to [/360. Where other d€flstion limits are acceptable, the tabular E valuesmay be adiustedby multiplyinq them by the following factors: For limit of !/300: 0.833 For f imit of e/24O:0.667 For limit of e/180: 0.500
LB LIVE LOAD EXTREME FIAER STRE55 IN BENDING, Fb {PSII
JOrST {rN.} SIZE.
OF LUMBER Joists are customarily spcified in terms ot nominal sizes,but calculationsto determinethe allowablespan and required modulus of elasticity are ba$d on 4lual sizes. NET SIZES
tidn, availablelrom the AmericanForest& PaperAssocralon.
SPACING
lxo
12
12 3.353
to
10,5 2.915 8-5 2.345
2x8
12
15-10 3.353
16
2.9t5 2.345
12 2i 10
| /-o
2.9r5 't4.3 2.345
to
24
24-6 3.353
21-3 2.915
2x12 24
17-5 2.345
12
2A-11 3.353 25-1 2.915
2x14
24
20.4 2.345
12
15 , 6 4.329 tJ-9
3x6
3.762 24 20-5 4.329
3x10
17-8 3.762
11 - 1 0 1.136
3x8
24
14-4 3.026
12
26.1 4-329
22-7
to
J. IOZ
l8-4 J.UZO
3x12
12
31-7 4.329
to
3.762
24
3.036 37-4 4.329 32-4 3.762
12 2 8 - 1r 2.691
3x 14
3.026 NOTE; The requiredmodulusof elasticity.E, in AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington.D.C
DESIGNLOADTABLES
shown beloweachspan.if deflction under the live lcd is limited to Q/360.
FloorJoists:70 lb LiveLoqd DESIGN INFORMATION GENERAL For floor construction where live loading is heavier than. customarily found in rsidential occupancies, tabulardata are Drovided. The tabulated spans are ba€d on bending strength usingthe live lGd indicatedin eachtable heiding pius a dead load of 10 psf. In calculating the required modulus of elasticity for the tabulated span,the live load only was usd. since this is in trcordance with establishedpractice for d6ign of floor ioists. SPAN While the effctive span length for an isolatedbeam ascustomarily taken as the distance from face to face
FL9OR JOISTS J O r S T{ t N . l SIZE.
12 2x10
to
;
v ?x12
2x14
19-1 1 .r 3 3
tb
15-9 0.840
12.9 u.o/o
12
12.10 1.248
to
t1,1 1.084
1300
I 4-0
14.7 r.488
15.2 1.674
12.7 1.294 10-3 1.040 |7.9 r.488
13.2 1.459
1400 r 5-9 1.875 r 3.8 1.631
10-8 1.174
't 1.1 1.312
1.678
15.5 1.294
16 - 0 r.459
12-6 1.040
r3.0
20.11 1.488
21-9 't.678
18,2 1.294
8 - 11 .459
4-9 .040
5-4 .174
I.JW t2-l
1.r35
9.r0 0.914 17-0 1.306 14.9 t. lJ5
12.0 0.914 20.0 1.306
I J.D
o.792 J-O
.462 t-8 270 9-6 1.O22
19-2 r.875 16-7 t.oJ I tJ.o
1600
| 800
16-10 2.292
'17-11
1.808
4-7 .992
15 - 6 2.376
l,t1 ,ouz
1.912
I t-b
1.454
19.10 2.081 7-3 .808 4-0 .454
20-6
2000 18.10 3.201 l6-4 z,t6J
r3-3
2.733
22.11 3.201
7.10 .992
18.10 z,Jto
1 9 , 11 2.783
4-5 .602
15.4 1.912
14-9 1.921
1 5 -4 2 . 16 6
12-3 1.465 100 1.179
12.10 1.669
13,4 1.883
1.312 22-? 1.875 r9-7 1.631 ' r 5 -1t 1.312 ' 1 5 .r1 2.421 13-10 2.r03
15,8 3.067
J.f,Vl
10.5 1.344
1010 1.514
11 - 3 r.693
| 1,8 1.877
12.O 2.068
12-9 2.467
2.900
l8-1
I 9.7 2 . 16 6
20.4 2.421
21.1 2.684
z3- |
1C_?
| /-5
0.984
td.o
| 500 16-4 2.081
r.135 14-2 0.914 14.2 t.o6b
1.174
16-6 r.454
24-2 2.292 20.11 1.992 17-0 1.602
r 6-6 2.684
17-1 2.958
14.4 2.333
14,10 2.570
zJ.5
2.M1
20-3 1.808
25-1
27.O 3.201
22-3
23-5
z.Jto
z,t6J
18-1 1.512
19-1
t8-1
r9 . 1 16.7
1.462
t.odo
l8-10 t.921
16
14-2 1.084
t4-l I 1.270
15-8 1.465
16-4 1.669
7.O .883
17-a 2.103
Z.JJJ
21-9 2.958 'r8,11 2.470
I t-o
12-2 1.O22 20-11 1.462
12-9
3-3 .344
l4-4 r.693
14.10 1.877
15.4 2.068
2.461
11-2 2.900
21-11 1.686
r3 , 1 0 |.514 23,10
921
24.9 2.421
25.8 2.684
28-1 3.529
r9.t r.465
29-1 4 . 13 3
r.084
r8.2 1.270
26-6 2.958
9-l1 .669
2 .1 0 3
22-3 2.333
23.0 2.570
24.4
14-0 0.873
14-9 1.022
25.8 3.592
| 5.O
1.179
o-z .344
17.6
18-1 1.877
18-7 2.068
23.4 1.244 20-3 1.084
19,9 2.461
24-7 't.462
25.10
20-10 2.900
29-2 2.421
31-2 2.958 27-O 2.570 22-O 2.068 20-3
33-1
'l 34,1
21-4 1.270
30-2 2.684 26,2 2.333 21.3 1.877
28-8 3.067
30-3 3.592
23-4 2.467
24-1 2.9m
0.873
tb
16 24 12 16 24
t 9 - 11 1.248 I T.J
tb
v
I t.J
r.r79
z. too
20-9 1.883 16.r0 1. 5 1 4
27-O 1.921
28-1
22-s
z5-a
1.465
1.669
24-5 1.883
25-4
0.873 5-2 .490 3-2 .300
17-4 1-O22
18-7 't.179
19.0 1.344
'rt9. -591 4
16 , 0 1.745
16.10 z . ul 5
17-1 2.295
18-3 2.588
20-6 r.693 r8,11 2.891
1 3 . 1I 1.533
14.1 1.757
15.3 2.N2
r5-11 2.257
l0-9 1.054
r1-4 1.234
ll-11 1.425
12-5 |,oz5
12-11 r.831
z t-a
.490
2Va 1.145
2.O15
22-5 2.295
6,10 .300
17-9 1.533
t8-7 1.757
19-5 2.OO2
3.8 .054
14.5 1,234
15-2 1.425
15-10
22-4 2.588 20-3 2.257 r6 " 6 1.831
1.490
24-10 r.745 21.7
28-4 2.588
I o.o
Q.E
4x12
l2m
16.4 1.244
12
'10
14.1 0.984
1100
12
24
4x
For limit of !/300: 0.833 For limit of Q/240:0.667 For timit of Q/180:0.500
9-0 0.873
tz
4x8
0.792 16-3 1.133
18.2 0.963
;
3x 14
DESIGN STRESSES Unit.designvaluesfo. designof w@d ioistsare givenin the Narional DesignSpeitication for Wood Cdnstruc.
;
3x 10
3x 12
8,11 0.676
11-1 0.984
12
24
3x8
12.8 0.963 '| 1.1 0.840
11 - 5 o.792
24
ADJUSTMENT OF MODULUS OF ELASTICITY The modulus ot elasticity values listed in the span tables for joists are thos required for the tabulated spans if deflstion under the live load is limited to l/360. Where other deflmtion limits are rcceptabte, the tabular E values may be adjustedby muttiplying them by the followinq factors:
EXTREME FTBER STRESS IN BENDING, Fb (PSt
1m0 't3-4 1.133
r3.4 0.840 10-10 0.676
I
NET SIZES OF LUMBER Joists are customarily spcified in terms of nominal sizes.but calculationsto determinethe allowablesoan and requiredmodulus of elasticityare basd on actual stzes.
tion, avajlablefrom the AmericanForest& paperAsso_ cratton.
70 LB LIVE LOAD
900
SPACING
of supports.plusone-halfthe requiredlengthol bearing at each end, it is the practicein designin!joistsspacej not over.24 in. apart to considerthe span as the clear distancebetweensupports.
303
16
20.6 1.300
24
16-8 1.054
I.'JJ
17.7 1.?34
r.@o
z. tbb
2.r03
to- o
2.522
3.207
? q?l
3.529 20-1 3.067 I o-J
? q?a
4.217
17-1 2.799
17-7 3.082
J.O/O
1 3 . r1
18-7
3.592
22-7 4.939 r9 . 7 4.306
z.z06
14.4 2.500
15.2 2.922
16.0
25-O 3.207
za tu
3.533
27.5 4.217
28-9 4.939
21-O 2.522
2t-s 2.799
3.082
25.1 4.306
17.1 2.046 29-5 2.891
r7 . 8 2.268 30-5 3.207
30-6
3.533
22-7 1.751
23-7 2.OO2
24-7
25,6 2.522
26,5 2.799
27.4 3.082
28-5 3.676
td-5
19.3
20-1 1.83'l
zv-tv 2.046
z t-o z. to6
22.2 2.500
23-6 2.922
1.425 |,oza psi is shownbelow eachspan, deflection under I
24-4 4 . 13 3
2.046 24.2 2.891
I J.5
23,10 3.676 19,3 2.922 33-4 4.217
2.O15
I J-5
18-3 2.500 J t-5
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington,D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
205 3.492 J5-l
3.492
-
304
FloorJoisfs:80 lb Liveloqd
GENERAL
DESIGN
o l s u p p o r t sp l u so n e ' h a l lt h e r e q u i r e dl e n g t ho f b e a r i n g
INFORMATION
is heavier Fornoorconstruction whereriveroadins than customarily found in residential dcupancies, tabulardata are provided. The tabulated spans are bared on bending strength usingthe live load indicated i" l]:: "::f-l:-b].1":d_i-! ,:3:i,t:! a dead load of 10 psl. In calculatin_g 9"_ the live modulus of elasticity {or the tabulated span, load only was used, since this is in ecordance with practicefor designof floor ioists. established SPAN While the effective span length for an isolated beam is customarilytaken as the distancefrom face to face FLOOR
JOISTS_80LB
:::Xi:?t
NET SIZES OF LUMBER Joisrs are customarity speified in rerms o{ nominal iii.r, ort catcutataons to determinerh;;1;";i;;;;; anl iequireOmodulus oJ etarticity ar"Giij';;;.-i;i ;i;;r. DESIGN
STRESSES Unit designvaluesfor designof wood joists are givenin the National DesignSpecificationfor Wood Construc-
3x 12
3x 14
r 400
1500
1600
r800
4 - 11 .795
t5-5 r.988
15.1| 2.191
16 - 1 0 2.617
2-5 .395
2-11
13.4 1.730
10-10 1.390 r8.9 r.988
3-9 .903 t.2 533
11-11 t.zJo
24
3-5 ).646
8.10 0.758
)-3 ).873
9-8 0.995
10 - 1 1.124
u-o .254
12
14,6 0.926
r.250
1.423
17-5 1.604
8-1 .795
to
12,1 0.803
15.4 1.084 '13-3
I 4-6
t5-I
5-8
16
10,3 0.646 17-1 0.926
to- |
o.941
3-11 .089
10.9 0.758
11 - 3 0.873
11 - 9 0.995
12-3 1.124
r8-0
18.10 1.250
tq-q
2G6 1.604
21.4
zz- |
t./95
1.988
td-o
1.084
.5b I
|,230
1.423
2-9 .254
14 . 1 0 0.803
l6-4 L086
17-1 1-236
17 , 1 0
0.941
12-O 0.646
12-8 0.758
13,4 0.873
13-11 0.995
14,5 1.124
5-0 -254
la-
I
t.50 |
I o.J
1.730 13-2 1.390
14.7
2000 17.9 J.UOZ
2.273
15-5 z.ooz
11 - 1 0 1.829
12-6 2.143
19.4 2.191
20-6 2.611
r 6-9 1.903
17-9 2.273
13-7 1.533
14.5 1.829
22-9 2.191
21-7 3.062 r8-9 2.662 r 5-5 2.'t43 25.5 3.062
1.730 r5 - 6 1.390
r9-9 1.903
24.2 2.617 20.1 2.273
l6-0 1.533
I 7.0 1.429
2-OO2
18,0
Iz-v 1.195
z-6 ?oa
l3-4 1.614
1 3 - 11 r.838
14-6 2.073
15-1 2.317
15-7 2.50Y
16-l 2.831
3.377
l8-0 3.956
10.6 1.038
1-0
11.7 1.402
12.1 1.597
13 - 1 2.013
13-6 2.233
1 3 - 11 2.459
14-9 2.935
J.4Jd
24
8-6 0.835
9-0 0.978
9-5 1. 1 2 8
12-7 1.802 10-3 1.449
10.7 1.620
11 - 0 1.791
1.979
z.Jo
't2
I R.E
16.3
r.399
t7-9 r.838
18-6
1.195
7.O .614
19-2 2.317
22-11 3.956
r 4-1
4,9 .402
t5-5 t.597
16 , 0 1.802
20-6 2.831 17.9 2.459
21-A 3.377 18-10 2.935
l 9 - 11 3.438
24
3-4 .038 10-10 0.835
r9 . 1 0 2.569 17-3 2.233
11 - 5 0.978
14-0 1.197
14-5 1.979
15 - 4 z.Jo
to-z z. Ioo
12
8-9 .195
9-9 .399
2-O .'t28 20-8 1.614
z-!ov
2.831
26-5 3.377
27.11 3.956
7-11 .402
22-11
.z ta
24.2 3.438
18-1 2.361
19-7
1.979 29-5 2.831
31-2 3.377
32-10
20-1 1.797
2.459 20-9 1.979
2.935 22-O
18.5 3.068
r9,0 J.J/Y
ZU.J 4.O34
:
to
to
;
.038 13-2 0.835
12
1.195
to
,zta
l.z t5
b.J
9-2
n?a
'| 5-6 0.835 4.4 -426
13.1 0.978 23-3 1.399 20.2 1.215 16 . 4 0.978 t3-l
24
10-2 r.009
12
8-3 .426
1.670 3-1 .451 0-8 .r 8 0 9,3 .670
16
5 -1 0 .243
6.8 .457
to
2-5
.009 12 4x12
300 4-4 .604
11 , 5 1.086
v 4x10
1200 13-9 1.423
1 0 - 11 0.941
;
4x8
11 0 0 13-2 1.250
10-4 0.803
12
3x 10
1000 12,7 '1.084
tb
;
3x8
F o r l i m i t o f e / 3 0 0 :0 . 8 3 3 For limit of !/240: 0.667 For limit ot Q/180:0.500
EXTREME FIBER STRESSIN BENDING, Fb (PSII
ll11 0.926
2x14
oF MoDULUS oF
ELASTICITY The modulus of elasticity values listed in the span tables.for joists are those required for the tabulated sp€ns i{ detlrction under the live load is limited to Q/36^0,..Whreother de{lation limits are acceptable, the tabular E values may be adjustedby multiplying them by the following factors:
LIVE LOAO
900
SIZE, SPACING
2x12
t i o n ,a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e A m e r i c a nF o r e s t& P a p e rA s s o
l"J].r=r"r*r
jirtun"u b",*""n ,uppo^r.
JO|ST ilN.l
2x 10
';.':Jl;?;'::::[::n:i'J#:fi'.'jffi:?
zz-J
1.426
I
1.243
24
r.009
requ I reo
3-7 .180 23-5 r.670 20-4 1.457 1.r80
| 5-9
elasl
9.10
838
13 - 0 1.446 22-6 2.O73
8-9 .597
9-6 .802
23-4 2.317 20,3 2.013
5-10 .449
r6-5 r.620
Iz-o
1.286
4-7 .128 24-4 1.614
21-2 1.402 -2 128 5-10 .928
3-9 .681 .lbJ
25-5 1.838
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
tJ-o 't.620
I
2.459
2A-6 2.569
17-2 2.475
14.4 1.915
1 4 . 11 2 . 15 9
15 . 6 2.413
16-1 2.677
2.948
17.7 3.516
|r-8
12.2
12.6 1.957
13-l 2.170
13-6 2.391
14-4 2.795
23-7 3.068 20-6
24-4 3.379
25-'lO 4.O34
?1-2 2.948 17-2
22-5
1.597 17-11 1.286
'r 6.6
26-6 2.073
23-0 't.802 18-8 1.449
1.554
20-2 1.928
21.1 2 . 19 6
21.11 2.415
22.9 2.766
7,6 681
r8.4 L 9 15
19-1 z. ta9
19-1 0 2.413
15 , 6 1.554
|,taz
26-8 2.475
1. 6 8 1
25.7 2.196 22-3 r . 91 5
17.4 r.363
18-1 1.554
18 - 1 0 1.752
24.6 1.928
20-11 2.233 17 - 0 1.797
I
27-6 2.317 23-10 2.013 9.5 .620 17,10 2.766
ity, E, in 1.000.0O0 1,000,000psi osi is shown below each
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washington.D.C
to./
2.013
12-O
16,1 1.957
27-A 2.766
tJ-z
r .1 5 9
2.413 19.7 1.957
24-8 2.233
16.8 2.170 26.6
3.068 24.11 2.677
20-3 2.170
def lrction under the live load is limited to Q/360.
29-7 3.379 25-9 2.944 ?0-11 2.391
z.Jo I
15-7 12-A z,too
28-6 3.438
23-2 2.766 4.725 r8.6 4 . 11 9 3.340 27.3 4.725 4 . 11 9
14.2 2.795
3r . 5 4.034 27-3 2.795
19-3 3.340 J3-t
4.725 2A-9 4 . 1l 9
23.5 3.340
Wood Columns
305
U N t T A X T A L S T R E S S E S : S t M p L E S O L T O C O L U M N S _ e / d F R o M1 1 r o 3 0 E
F.
1.800.000
1,700,000
1,600,000
'1,500.000
1500 1400 1300 1200 I 50U 1400 1300 1200 | 500 t400 t300 r200 | 100 t000 900 1400 1300 1200 1100 r000 900 800 700 600 lzw
1100 1,400,0@ 1000 900 800 ?m 1100 1000 1,300,000 900 800 700
lrm
1ofi) 900 r,200,000 8m 700 600 500 €0 900 800 1,100,0@ 700 600 500 400 700 600 1,000,000 500 400 300
l1+ 475 380 244 187
1472 1377 1282 | 186 1468 1374 't279 1184 1087 991 893 13 7 1 1276 11 8 1 1086 989 892 795 696 598 I t/Y
1084 988 .891 794 696 t081 986 890 793 695 1078 983 888 791 694 596 498 399 885 790 693 596 498 399 692 595 497 398 299
12 1464 1 3 71 1271 11 8 2 1460 1368 1274 | 180
I J
451 360 zo6 175
r 166
I t30
445
14:/6
J55
1340 1252 1162 1417 1332 1246 11 5 7 1067 975
1403 1321 1237 11 5 0 1390 1311 1228 1l4/. 1057
264 172
1 4 5 5 1438 IJOJ 1350 1271 1260 1 1 7 7 1168 1082 1076 oa7 982 887 890 I JCO 1343 1267 1254 1 1 7 4 1164 1080 1072 oar 979 889 885 789 b95 693 597 595 tltv
t o 7 7 1068 983 887 791 694
t073 980 885 790 693 1068 976 883 788 692 595 497 398 879 /do
690 594 496 398 688 593 496 398 299
t5 16 1434 1 4 1 3 1388 I 346 1329 r309 1257 1243 1227 14
976 883 748 692 1063 972 880 786 690 057 967 876 783 689 EOa
496 ?oq
872 780
662
1323 1238 11 5 1 1063 972 880 /oo
690 594 1 14 4 1057 968 876 783 689
r050 OA?
873 781 687 to42 956 868 778 685 591 495 397
592 495 398
862 773 682 589 493 397
684 qon 494
678 586 492 JVb
299
298
vo/ 876
1142 374 294 214 l?t
1358 1284 1207 1127 lo44 Y3d
869
17 357 284 207 127 269
I z5J
1182 11 0 7 1029 946 dol
1 2 6 8 1232 1219 11 9 5 1166 11 3 6 1 1 1 7 1094 1051 t w o 1019 YOJ 952 939 873 855 781 775 687 684 679 aJz 561 590 1127 1r 0 5 1 U/ 9 1043 l o 2 7 1007 957 945 930 869 860 849 778 172 764 685 681 676 1034 1 0 1 5 992 951 936 919 864 853 841 775 758 683 678 o7? r023 1000 942 925 905 8s8 845 830 770 762 751 680 674 667 Eqe 584 579 493 491 488 396 395 394 atE 850 817 765 754 742 669 581 489 394
671 582 490 395 298
ooJ
577 487 393 297
COLUMNS_Vd
ool
575 486 ?o?
653 570 483 391 296
21
t226 1 1 6 7 1 1 7 7 1129 112'l 1083 r060 1029
298
1249 11 9 6 11 3 7 1072
fi92 |150 | 100 t043
1 2 7 2 1217 1215 11 7 0 t t52 1116 1083 1 0 5 5 10 1 0 988 933 916 839 11 8 9 r138 11 3 1 I 0 9 1 1067 r 035 998 923 844 761
JIJ on6
830 751 ob/
583 I u46 oa? 912 836 755 670 964 898 825 748 665
140 380 I
e/d 20
1277 1218 11 5 5 1086
169 097
I t6
10
320 254 183 108 zJo
1 31 9
I zJ6
o/o 585 491 396
td
tJ
739 )by
t74 185 tJz
727 651 569 442 391 641 563 478 389
579 1 0 11 9t4 891 820 744 662 o?r
873 807 735 656 902 851 791 724 649 568 €1 390 771 709 478 389
1126 1096 1057 1009
23
24
r020 938 1 0 1 09 3 7
1098 1073 r 039 994 1050 1034 1007
988 954
930 909
vbc 963 950 925
885 885 873
d65
11 5 3 1078 1 1 1 8 1057 '1074 tuza 1022 984 963 934 897 6 t a 6Za 809
992 987 969 940 900 849 790
907 907 905 889 861 820
IU/Y
I UI U
9JU
1043 998 944 883 815 740 660 575
u5l
987 954 911 858 796 727 651 569
vbd
v td
921
883 837 781 716 u4
doo
802 731 654 893 844 .786 720 647
848 811 to2
703 635 804 778 738 686 624 552 472 386 707
857 817 767 706 637 s60 477 388 741 689
oo5
OZf,
609
553 473 386
54J
467
/oY
9ZJ
o3l
904 872 829 775 7'12 641
846 828 795 751 695 630 556
JOJ
ubu 838 803 757 699 633 796 734 683 622 744 732 /u5 663 608 542 467 383 668 637 591 531 460 380
833 R??
ot/
M
548 729 729 721 697 657 6(X 677 677 604 635 589
6 8 1 625 680 625 667 624 636 606 590 570 531 5 1 8 460 453 380 376
622 573 605 6Aq 569 545 5 1 8 AA? 444
3 7 6 371
o tu
554 473 386 294
543 467 JOJ
293
q?1
460 380 291
517 452 290
501 442 371 288
26 799 799 799 799
741 741 741 741
689 689 689 689
612 642 642 642
30 600 600 600 600
816 816 816 oto
754 754 754 754
700 700 700 700
6! 6! 65 65
bub 606 606 606
567 567 ab/ 567
168 768
710 710 710 710 710
658 658 658 658 658
571 571 533 5 7 1 533 5 7 1 5J5
odo
651
6 6 o o o 6 6
ooo ooo
olt
tod
831 816 787 744
781 781 781 777 757 723 676
787 765 729 680 619 737 727 10'l 660 607
25 864 864 864 857
482 432 365 265
/06 /oo
749 717 720 720 720 714 692 654 602 E2a
otz 672 672 ool
632 587 624 624 623 605 569 576
o36
Eal
53s 500 535 500
5J5
546 Fnl
488
621 621 620 604 568
5Jb
617 ot/ 617 617
3/O 3/O
571 47
521 487 435 367
494 494 494 492 469 424 361
488 488 487 466 422 360
453 453 453 444 410 354
438 406
12 'll 31 t4
280
536
576
533 494 533
(?R
601
577 q ? E 577 517 572 535 g 7 522
Ja2
243
533 533
I
585 528 5 1 6 621 576
obb ooo oob 656 o2Y
E?I
547 504 444 371 528 528 518 €5 434 366 479 461 420
571 Jt
574 574 574 574 574 574
674
576
zd
536 cJo 523
497 497 497 497 495 45( 45( 45{ 45( 45( 44t 421 421 421 419 ?oq
346
az3
499 499 499 499 499 496 4U 4U 464 464 4U 428 428 428 428 428 425 399 3€
392 392
461 467 467 467 467 467
433 433 433 433 433 400 400 400 400 400 400 384 341 ?q7 ?47
397 392 397 380 362 338 329 JJ2
357 354 325
FROM 30 TO 50
NOTES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
500 500 500 500 500 497 47?
Obtain daign valuc for E and Fc from the National DesignSprcification {or Wood Construction. Modify Fc for different load duration, if applicable. CalculateQ/dwhere [ = unsupported length of column (in.) and d = applieble leastactual dimension of column crosssction. Determinevalueof Fg' from table. Total designload on column = cross-srctionalarea (sq in.) x Fc' value.
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation:Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
306
Floorond RoofBeoms:20lb LiveLoqd T A B L E s2 0 p o u r u o s
FLOOR AND ROOF BEAMS-oesrcN
REQUIREO VALUES FOR FIBER STRESS IN BENDING (') AND MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E) FOR THE SIZES SHOWN TO SUPPORT SAFELY A LIVE LOAD OF 20 POUNDS PER SOUARE FOOT WITH A DEFLECTION LIMITATIoN OF 1/roo 1 = SPAN lN INCHES'T 'E PSI FOR MINIMUM &'E'IN MtNTMUM "f" & tN Pst FoR BEAMS SPACEO: BEAMS SPACEOI NOMINAL SPAN OF BEAM
NOMINAL SIZE OF AEAM
.0'
6',-0" I
E
10'
2-3x6 1 - 3x 8 2 - 2x B 1 - 4x 8 3'2x8 2 - 3x B 2 - 2x 1 0
630
130m00 1133000 949000 808000 633000 566000 455000
I 545 1715 1480 985 890 755 910
1682000 1800 1469000 2070 r 225000 1725 t050000 1480 816000 1 1 5 0 735000 1035 604000 880 590000 1060
1963000 2060 1 7 1 4 0 0 0 2370 1429000 1 9 7 0 1225W0 1 6 9 0 952000 1 3 1 5 858000 11 8 5 705m0 1005 688m0 1210
22420W 1958000 1633000 1400000 1088000 980000 805000 786000
1 - 3x 8 2-2xB 1 . 4x 8 J-lx6 2-3x8 1 - 6x 8 ?-2x 1O 1 - 3x 1 0 1 - 4x 1 0
2085 1 14 0 1490 11 6 0 1045 885 1070 1280 915
r 867000 2430 1556000 2025 r 334000 | / J f 1037000 1350 934000 1215 767000 1040 750000 1245 899000 1 4 9 5 642000 1 0 7 0
2179000 2780 1816000 2 J t 5 1557000 1 9 8 5 1210000 1545 1090000 r ?on 895m0 11 8 5 875000 1420 1049000 17 1 0 749000 1220
2489000 2074000 1778000 1382000 1245000 1022000 '1000000 11980m 856000
3-2x8 2-3x8 l-6xB 1 - 3x 1 0 ? - 2x 1 0 1 - 4x 1 0 3 - 2x 1 0 2 - 3x 1 0 1 - 6x 1 0 4-2x 1O
1340 1210 r025 1485 1235 1060 825 740 640 620
1296000 | 166000 957000 r 124000 936000 802000 624000 561000 471000 468000 520000
1 5 1 2 m 0 '1790 13610001 6 1 0 1 1 1 7 0 0 01370 1 3 1 2 m 0 1980 1092m0 1650 936m0 1 4 1 5 728000 11 0 0 655000 oon 550000 850 546000 825 607000 11 1 5
172700o 1554000 1276000 1498000 1248000 1069000 832000 748000 628000 624000 693000
1540 1390 1t80 1705 1420 1220 950 850 735 7r0 960 825
1594000 1800 1435000 1620 1179000 1 3 8 1 0 0 01990 11 5 1 0 0 0 1660 986000 1420 767000 11 0 5 69r000 995 580000 855 576000 830 640000 1120 99000 960
1860@0 zu55 1675000 1850 1376m0 r 570 1612000 2210 1343m0 1 8 9 5 115r000 I oz5 895000 I l o J 806m0 1 1 3 5 677000 980 672000 945 7470oO 12AO '| 641000 100
2125000 1913000 1572000 1841000 1534000 r 314000 1022000 921000 773000 768000 853000 732000
1580
r 7 4 1 0 0 0 1840 1397000 r890 r 197000 t o t S 9 3 1 0 m 1260 '1 839000 130 704000 975 699000 945 5160@ / t 5 932000 r 530 776000 1275 666000 1090 518000 850
2032m0 1630000 1397000 1086000 979000 821000 8r6m0 602000 1087000 905000 777m0 604000
2321000 1862000 15960@ 124r000 1118000 938000 932000 688000 1242000 1034000 888000 690000
2 - 2x 8 l-4x8 3-2x8 2 - 3x B 2 - 2x l Q
z-zx tz
3 - 2x B 2-SX6
1 - 6x 1 - 3x 2-2x l-4 x 3-2x 2 - 3x 1 - 6x 4-2x 2-2x 1 - 4x
8 10 10 l0 10 10 10 10 12 12
z-3x8 2 - 2x 1 0 1 - 4x 1 0 3 - 2x 1 0 2 - 3x 1 0 to
r430 t 645 1370 11 7 5 915 820 840
17270@ 15080m 1256000 1078000 838000 754000 605000
2 - 2x 8 l - 4x I 3-2x8 2-3x8 1 - 6x 8 2 - 2x 1 0
to
1250 1138000 1440 992000 1200 831000 1030 707000 800 554000 720 496000 735 398000
15',I20001730 1320000 1 9 9 0 1099000 I oou 944000 1420 734000 1r 0 5 660000 995 530000 1 0 2 0
t-5 x 6
14'
o t9
9?5000 850000 712000 606000 475000 425000 3410m
r 296000 | 5 1 0 1 1 3 1 0 0 01 14 0 942000 1 4 5 0 809000 1245 629000 970 566000 870 4540m 890
2-3x6
13',
I zJ1
t - ox 4 - 2x 1 - 8x 1 - 3x
tu 10 10 12
1 - 4x 1 2 J-ZX
tZ
tolt
1385 1075 970 835 810 o tc
t3l0 1090 935 730
1570 1410 120f) 1730 1445 1240 YOJ
865 745 720 975
American Forest and Paper Association; Washington, D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
2105 2r55 1845 1435 1290 11 3 0 1080 815 1750 1455 1250 970
BE AM
SIZE
OF
.0'
.0
AEAM
E
E
1295 r 490 1245 I 065 830 745 765
z-5xo t-J x 6
t1'
r070 1030 880 685
8',-0" I
l7'
18'
2-2x 0 1-4x 0 3-2x 0 z.J x 0 1 - 6x 0 4 - 2x 0 1 - 8x 1 - 3x 2-2 x 'l-4 x 3-2 x
a
2 2 2 2 l'4 x 0 3-Z X 0 z-3 x 0 t-o x 0 q-z x 0 t-6x 0 t-J x
a
?-2 x 1 - 4x 3-2 x 2-3 x 2 1 - 6x 3-2 x
19'
z-J x 'l-6 x 4-2 x 2-4 x 1 - 8x
0 0 0 0
t.J x
2-2 x 2 1 - 4x z J-2
X
2-5 X t-b x
20'
3-2 x 0 2.5 X 0 1'6x 0 4-2 x 0 2-4 x 0 '1-8 x 0 2-2 x 2 1 - 4x 2 3-2 x 2 l.J x 2 1 - 6x t 4-2 x 2
21'
2 - 3x 1 - 6x 4-2 x 2 . 4x 1 - 8x 2 - 2x 1 - 4x
10 10 10 10 10 12 12
1825 1565 1215 1095 945 910 690 1480 1235 r060 820 140
17 5 5 1365 1270 1060 1020 780 1660 1380 I t63
920 830 720 1520 1365 11 7 0 11 4 0 975 860 1850 1540 1320 r025 925 805 1685 tctc
i 300 1260 r 080 r'1465 705 11 4 0 1025 970 855 r 670 r 430 1390 11 9 5 1050 1880 1 6 r5 I zJa
z-3x tz t-oxtz 4-2 x 12 2 - 4x 1 2 4-2 x 0 2-4 x 0 1 - 8x 0 1 ' 4x J.Z X
22'
x 2-3 't-6 x 4-2 x 2-4 x 5-2 x J.J
X
2 2 2 2 2
11 3 0 970 940 805 1525 1310 r 160 1770 '1t327450 1080 1030 885 825 825
f
8',,0"
E
1676000 Z I J U 1956000 2435 l'r437000 1 8 2 5 16770002085 1915000 117000 1420 1303000 t o z a r 489000 r 005000 1280 1173000 1460 1340000 844000 11 0 0 985000 1260 I 125000 837000 1065 977000 t z t a 1 1 1 6 0 0 0 619000 805 722000 9 1 0 825000 1 1 1 7 0 0 0 1725 '1086000 1303000 19 7 5 14890@ 1 i l s 1241000 931000 1440 799000 1230 932000 1 4 1 0 1065000 621000 960 725000 1095 828000 5590@ 6 0 t 652000 990 745000 1705000 zv45 19900002340 1326000 1590 1 5 4 7 m 0 1 8 15 1767000 1194000 1480 13930001695 1592000 1168000 1 4 1 1001000 I z J J 5 r 334000 995000 11 9 5 1 1 6 r 0 0 01365 1326000 735000 9 1 0 858000 1040 98m00 1327000 1 0 ? 6 1549000 2210 1769000 1106000 t o t 5 I 291000 1 8 4 5 1474000 947000 I J U I 1105000 1580 1262000 737000 1 0 7 5 860000 1230 982000 664000 970 775000 11 0 5 885000 565000 840 659000 960 753000 1560000 1775 18200002025 2079000 1404000 1595 1638000 1825 1 8 7 1 0 0 0 1179000 1 3 6 5 13760001560 1572000 1 1 7 m 0 0 1330 13650001520 15600m 1002000 11 4 0 1169000 1 't300 1336000 864000 i005 1008000 145 1152000 1561000 2 1 5 5 18220002465 2081000 130r000 1800 15180002055 1734000 1| 15000 1540 1301000r'|760 r486000 867000 1200 1012000 370 1156000 780000 1080 910000 1230 1040000 664000 9rto 775@0 1 0 7 0 885000 1820000 t965 2124@O 2245 2426000 16370@ t770 1 9 1 0 m 0 2020 2182000 r 374000 | 6 1 E 1603000 1 7 3 5 1831000 18t 9000 13650ff) 1475 1593000 t 6 5 1170000 t z o S r365000 1445 1560000 1342000 1 280 1007000 I r 2 0 1175000 1517000 t990 1770000 2 2 7 5 2022000 1300000 t 7 1 0 1517000 1950 1733000 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 r 3 3 0 1180000 1520 1348000 9 10000 | 1 9 5 1062000 I J O 5 1213000 775000 | 1 3 0 9M000 I z J a 10030@ 759000 995 886000 I t J 5 1012000 1895000 1950 2211m0 2225 2526000 1591000 1 6 7 0 1857000 1 9 0 5 212100o 1580000 1 6 2 5 1844000 1 8 5 5 2106000 r 354000 1390 1580000 I 590 1805000 1166000 1225 1361000 1400 15540@ 1756000 2 1 9 5 2049000 2510 2341000 r 505000 1880 1756000z tav 2006000 r 1 7 1 0 0 0 1465 1366000 1 6 7 0 '|561000 1054000 1 3 2 0 1230000 '1295 1505 1405000 11940@ 896000 1 1 3 0 1046000 878000 1100 1025000 1255 1170000 752000 9lm 877000' 1 0 7 5 r002000 I 816000 1780 2119000 2035 242100o 1556000 1530 1816000 1745 2074000 1341000 1355 1565@0 1545 r7870@ 1730@0 2065 2019@0 2360 2306000 1346000 1605 15 7 1 0 0 0 I a ? r 1794000 1 2r ' r 0 0 0 1445 1 4 1 3 @ 0 1655 1614000 1031000 1260 12030001440 1374000 1010000 1205 1179000 13 7 5 1346000 865000 1 0 3 5 1009000 1 1 8 0 1153000 942000 1 1 0 5 1076000 807000 799000 965 932000 1 1 0 5 1065000
Floorond RoofBeqms:30 lb LiveLood
307
AND ROOF BEAMS-oesrcN T A B L E s3 0 p o u N D s p s F R E Q U I R E oV A L U E S F o R F I B E R s r R E s s l N B E N D T N G( f ) A N o M o D U L U S o F E L A s r r c r r y ( E ) F o R T H E s r z E s s H o w N T o s u p p o R r s A F E L y A L t v E L o A D o F 3 0 P O U N D SP E R S O U A R EF O O T W I T H A D E F L E C T I O NL T M T T A T I O N O F I / : O O1 = S P A N I N I N C H E S . urruruuia "1" & "E" tN pst FoR M T N T M U M" f " & " E " t N p s t F o R BEAMS
SPAN OF BEAM
SPACED:
-0
BEAMS SPACED:
.o"
NOMINAL SIZE OF BEAM
I
SPAN OF BE AM
E
2-3x6 1 - 3x 8 1-4x8 3-2x8 2 - 3x 8 2 - 4x 8 2-2 x 1O
1 4 3 0 1462000 1670 1645 1275000 r 9 2 0 ltta 909000 r 370 915 712000 1 0 7 0 420 637000 955 455000 690 590 840 51r000 980
1 - 3x 8 1-4x8 J-ZX6 2-3xB 24 x8 2 - 2x 1 0 t - Jx t u
I Oqn 2320 r979000 2655 2261000 't420 1696000 1212000 r660 1 4 1 4 @ 0 r 895 1615000 11 0 5 942000 1 2 9 0 1099000 1475 1255000 995 849000 I 1 6 0 991000 I J Z J r I 32000 7 1 0 606000 830 707000 945 808000 1020 680000 ' 1 1 9 0 793000 1360 906000 1220 817000 1425 953000 1625 1089000
1z',
1'4x8 3 - 2x B 2-3x8 2 - 4x 8 'l-6 x8 2 - 2x 1 0 3-2x 10 2-3x 10
1690 1575000 1 3 1 5 1224WO I 1 8 5 1102000 845 787000 1005 905000 1210 885000 810 590000 125 530000
r3'
l-4x8 3-2x8 ,2'3x8 24xB 1-6xB 2-2x 1O 3 - 2x l 0 2 - 3x 1 0 1 - 4x 1 0
10'
l1'
14'
t5
16',
3-2x8 2-3x8 24 xB 1.6x8 2-2x 1O 3-2x 10 2 - 3x 1 0 1 - 4x 1 0 1 - 6x 1 0 2-4x 10
1706000 1488000 1061000 831000 743000 531000 596000
1970 1838000 r 5 3 5 1428000 1385 1286m0 985 9 1 8 m 0 ttta r056000 1 4 1 0 r0$m0 945 688000 845 618000
1985 2@@00 2315 2334000 1545 1556000 r805 1 8 1 6 m 0 1390 1400000 1620 r634m0 qm 1001000 1 1 5 5 1168000 't375 1 180 11 5 1 0 0 0 1343000 1425 1125000 1 6 6 5 1 3 1 3 m 0 950 750000 l 1 t 0 875000 855 675000 1000 788000 1220 1 | 54000 1425 1347m0 '1790
915 705
r 944000 1750000 1250000 1436000 1404000 935000 841000 1204000 I 179000 601000
24 x8 1 - 6x 8 2-2x 10 3-2x 10 2-3x 10 14x10 1 - 6 x1 0 24x10 4-Zx 10 l-8 x l0 2-2x-12 14x12
1320 1570 1895 1260 11 3 5 r620 980 810 945 720 r280 1095
1537000 1767000 i 726000 11 5 1 0 m 1036000 1479000 870000 740000 86,4000 637000 960000 8220@
2-2x 10 3-2x 10 2-3 x 10 l{x10 t-6 x 10 24x10 4-2x 10 1 - 8x 1 0 2-2 x'12 1 - 4x 1 2 3-2 x 12
2155 r435 r 290 t845 ll15 925 1075 815 1455 1250 970 875
2096000 1396000 1257000 1796000 1055000 899000 r047000 774000 r 164000 999000 776000 699000
1610 r 150 1370 1650 1 100 990 '1415
2090 1880 1340
r6m
1925 1285 11 5 5 1650 1070 825
1540 1830 2210 1470 1 1?6
1890 11 4 5 945 t 105 840 1495 1280
1905 1948000 2 1 9 5 1699000 | 505 1212000 122Q 949000 1095 849000 785 606000 1 120 681000
2255 2099000 t r33 1631000 1580 1469000' 11 2 5 1049000 1340 r 206000 1 6 1 5 | 180000 r 080 786000 965 706000 2645 2060 1855 1320
26660@ 2074000 1866000 1334000 tara l 534000 1900 r 500000 I zol 100@00 11 4 0 900000 1625 1538000
2268@0 2385 2042mO 2145 1459000 1535 1676000 t 6 2 5 1638000 2200 1091000 1465 981000 1 3 2 0 r405000 1885 1376000 1220 701000 940
2591000 2333000 1666000 1914000 1871000 12460@ 11 2 1 0 0 0 1605000 1572000 80r000
1794000 1760 2062000 2095 2014000 't680 zaza 1343000 1209000 t 5 t 5 1726@0 2 1 6 0 1015000 1305 863000 1080 1008m0 1260 743m0 G N fi20m0 1705 959000 1460
2049000 2355000 2301000 1534000 1381000 1971000 1160000 986000 1152000 849000 1280000 1096000
17',
3 - 2x 1 0 2 - 3x 1 0 1 - 6x 1 0 2 - 4x 1 O 4-2x 10 1 - 8x 1 0 2 - 2x 1 2 1 - 4x 1 2 3-2x 12 2-3x 1? 4-2x 12 2 - 4x 1 2
r8'
2-3 x 10 1 - 6x 1 0 24x10 4-2x 1O 1 - 8x 1 0 2 - 2x 1 2 1 - 4x 1 2 3-2 x 12 2 - 3x 1 2 4-2x 12 2-4 x 12 5-2 x 12
to'
l-6 x 10 2-4 x 1O 4-2 x 10 1 . 8x 1 0 .14x12 3-2 x 12 2-3 x 12 4-2x 12 24x12 5-2 x 12 1 - 6x 1 2 3 - 3x 1 2
20'
l'8 x 10 3-2 x 12 2-3 x 12 4.2 x 12 24x12 5-2 x 12 1 - 6x 1 2 3.3x 12 1 - 8x 1 2 1 - 1 0x 1 2 4-3 x 12 2-3 x 14
21
3-2 x 12 2-3 x 12 4-2x 12 2 - 4x 1 2 5-2 x 12 l-6 x 12 3 - 3x 1 2 1-8x12 'l-10 x 12 4-3 x 12 2-3 x 14 l-6 x 14
22'
4-2 x'12 24x12 5-2 x 12 1 - 6x 1 2 3 - 3x 1 2 1 - 8x 1 2 l - 1 0x 1 2 4-3 x 12 2-3 x 14 1 - 6x 1 4 3-3x 14 2-4 x 14
2 5 1 5 2446000 2875 r 6 7 5 1629000 1 9 1 5 1505 1467000 1720 2 15 5 2096000 2460
r300 000 't080 1231 r049000 I zaa
950 1700 1460 I 130 r020
1222m,0 903000 1358m0 1166000 905000 816000
2794000 1861000 1675000 2394000 12185 14060@ 1235 1r 98000 1 4 3 5 1395000 '1085 1032000 1 9 4 0 1552000 I oo5 1332000 1295 r 034000 I to5 932000
NOMI NA L SIZE OF BEAM
6',-0"
8',-0
t 676000 1890 1956000 z lou 2234000 507000 I 705 r 759000 1945 2009000 1255 265000 1465 1476000 I 675 1686000 1040 077000 r 2 1 5 1257000 t 385 r 435000 tzla 256000 1420 1466m0 1620 1674000 920 927000 't075 't082000 1225 1236000 r 645 396000 1920 1629000 2 1 9 5 1 8 6 1 0 0 0 1 4 ' t 0 r97000 1 6 4 5 1397@0 1880 1596000 1095 93r000 r 280 1086000 1460 1241000 985 839000 11 5 0 979000 t J t 5 1',il8000 820 699000 8r6000 1095 932000 705 599000 820 699000 940 799000 toY5 I 790000 1980 2089000 2260 2386000 1 4 1 5 1501000 1650 1 7 5 2 m 0 1885 2000000 11 7 0 1279@0 1365 1492000 1560 r 705000 1360 1492000 1590 1 7 4 1 0 0 0 ' t 8 r5 1989000 1040 1102000 t 2 1 5 'r286000 1 3 8 5 1469000 1 8 4 0 1659000 2150 1936000 2455 2211000 1580 1 4 2 r 0 0 0 1 8 4 5 1658000 2105 1894000 1230 1106000 I 435 l29tooo 1640 1474000 11 0 5 995000 | 290 l 1 6 t @ 0 1475 1326000 920 829000 1 0 7 5 967000 1225 r 105000 790 711000 920 830000 1 0 5 5 948000 664000 860 775000 980 885000 I 570 1767000 1830 20620n0 2095 2355000 I 300 1504000 t c t S 1755m0 I 735 2005000 | 5ZU 1755000 1775 2048000 2025 2339000 1 4 5 1295000 I J J 5 1 5 11 0 0 0 1525 r 726000 '|1760 1672000 2055 1951000 Z J l J 2229000 1 3 7 0 r 301000 r600 1 5 1 8 0 0 0 1825 r 734000 I 230 1170000 1 4 3 5 1365000 1640 1560000 1 0 2 5 975000 11 9 5 113t,000 I J b 5 1300000 880 836000 r 0 2 5 976000 1 1 1 5 1114000 820 780000 Y 5 5 910000 1095 1040000 1070 995000 1250 1 1 6 1 0 0 01425 1326000 820 771000 955 900@0 1095 1028000 r 280 r 5 11 0 0 0 1495 r763000 1705 20'r4000 l 520 1516000 1775 1769000 2025 2021000 I JO5 1365000 1 5 9 5 1593000 r 820 r 819000 1 0 2 5 1137000 I 195 1327000 '|365 r 516000 9 7 5 975000 1 1 4 0 '1138@0 1300 1300000 9 1 0 910000 1060 1062000 1215 1213000 I zva 1162000 1 5 1 0 1356000 1725 1549000 910 900000 1060 1050000 1 2 1 5 1200000 870 852000 r 0 1 5 994m0 I t o u 1136000 690 672000 805 784000 920 896000 680 682000 t35 796000 905 909000 985 836000 1 1 5 0 976000 1 3 1 5 1 1 1 4 0 0 0 1 6 7 0 1756000 1950 2049000 2225 234r000 1505 1580000 17 5 5 1844000 2005 2 106000 1317000 | 9 0 J 1537000 16 7 5 r 755000 1075 1 129000 I z a a 1 3 1 7 0 0 0 1435 r 505000 1005 '1054000 1 1 1 5 1230000 1340 r405000 1295 1344000 1 5 1 0 1568000 t l z a 1791000 r005 r0410oo I 1 7 5 1215000 1340 1388000 960 986000 1120 1 1 5 1 @ 0 1280 1314000 760 779000 885 9@@0 1 0 15 1038000 750 790000 875 922000 1000 1053000 1085 967000 r 2 6 5 | 128000 1445 r 2890@ 950 832000 u 1 0 971000 1265 | 109000 1515000 1605 1768000 1835 2019000 1 1 8 0 1297000 1380 1513000 1575 1729000 1 1 0 0 r 2 11 0 0 0 r 285 1 4 1 3 m 0 1465 16r4000 1440 15460@ 1680 1804000 1 9 2 0 2061000 't 100 1197000 1285 1397m0 1596000 1 0 5 5 1134000 1 2 3 0 1323000 1 4 0 5 1 5 1 1 0 0 0 830 895000 970 1044000 1 1 0 5 r r93000 az5 909000 965 106r000 1 1 0 0 r 212000 11 9 0 1 1 1 2 0 0 01390 1298000 r 585 1482000 1045 956000 1220 1',t't6000 13 9 5 't274000 795 736000 930 859000 '|060 981000 820 751000 Y3t I 114000 '1095 l00r000 1620 '1460
Amerien Forestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
308
Floor ond Roof Beoms: 40 lb Live loqd
A N D R O O F B E A M S - o E s r c N T A B L E S4 0 p o u N D s p s F R E a U t R E D v A L U E s F o R F T B E RS T R E S St N B E N D T N G{ f ) A N D M o D U L U s O F E L A s T I c t T Y { E ) F o R T H E S I z E Ss H O w N T O S U P P o R TS A F E L Y A L l v E L O A D O F 1 = S P A NI N I N C H E S . 4 0 P O U N D SP E RS Q U A R EF O O T W I T H I N A D S F L E C T I O NL I M T T A T I O NO F I / 3 O O FLOOR
MINtMUM "1" & "E" tN Pst FoR BEAMS SPACED:
M T N T M U M" f " & " E " t N P s t F o R BEAMS SPACEO: SPAN OF BEAM
NOMINAL SIZE OF BEAM I.J X 6
2 -2x8 '1-4 xI 10'
t-b x 6
2 - 2x 1 0 1 - 3x l 0 1 - 4x 1 0
810"
t E E zu55 1700000 24W '1984000 '.740 2266000 17 1 0 1417000 1995 1654000 '.280 18890@ 1470 12 11 0 0 0 1715 1 4 r 3 0 0 0 960 1614000 929000 8 7 5 697000 1 0 2 0 813000 t o 3 1050 681000 1225 795000 400 908000 1260 819000 1470 956000 680 r 092000 900 585000 1050 683000 200 780000
SPAN OF BE AM
n 2-4 x 3-3x l - 8x 3-2 x 2 4-2 x 2 5-2 x IJX
z.J x
1 ' 3x 1 0 1 - 4x l 0 3 - 2x 1 0
l 886000 2415 1 6 1 6 0 0 0 2070 1 0 5 5 929000 1230 906000 1490 taza 1090000 1780 r090 779000 1270 d5u 605000 990
1-6xB 3-2x8 2 - 2x l Q 1 - 3x 1 0 1 . 4x 1 0 3 - 2x 1 0 ZUX IU 1 - 6x 1 0 24x10
1255 1645 1510 1820 1300 1010 905 785 650
z-zx6 1 . 4x 8 1 - 6 . xI 11',
12'
t3'
14',
1s',
1 - 6x I 2 - 3x B 2 - 4x B 3 - 2x 1 0 2 - 2x 1 0 1 . 3x 1 0 2 - 3x 1 0 1 - 4x 1 0 2-4 x 1Q
1475 1735 1235 11 8 5 1780 2130 '1070 taza
760
1206000 1631000 1180000 1415000 1010000 786000 706000 594000 505000
1407000 1670 1903000 2 1 9 0 1377000 2010 1651000 2425 5 1 5 r 179000 | / J 5 180 9 17000 1345 055 824000 1205 915 693000 1045 760 589000 d o 3
r 607000 2174000 1573000 18860m 13460m 1048000 941000 792000 6730m
1535000 18660@ 1335000 100@00 1500000 1799000 900000 1537000 642000
465 920 760 't25
't720 2025 1440 1380 2075 2485 1250 1780 Rqo
't675
1791000 1965 2178000 2 3 15 1558000 1645 1167000 1580 1750000 23tO 2099000 28/.O 1050000 1425 1794000 Z U J J 749000 1 0 1 5
2046000 24870@ 1779000 1333000 2000000 23980C[) 1200000 2049000 8s60@
I 435 1666000 12aE 1246000 t o u a 11 2 1 0 0 0 1440 't770 160s000 2065 880 801000 1 0 2 5 825 749000 960 11 4 5 1 5 7 1 0 0 0 I J J 5 780 691000 9 r 0 1030 936000 1200 1395 1040000 1630
r944000 t 9 t5 1454000 | 830 I 308000 | 645 r873000 I J O U 935000 | | / D 874000 | 1 0 0 1833000 t525 806000 t 0 4 0 1092000 | 375 1214000 1860
22210oO 1661000 1494000 2139000 1068000 9980@ 2094000 921000 1248000 1386000
3 - 2x 1 0 2 - 3x l 0 24x10
1575 1420 '1010 945 1225 900 11 8 0 1600 1065 1920 800 960
'r791000 2 1 0 0 1612000 | 890 1 r 5 1 0 0 0 | 345 1075000 | 260 1354000 I OJf, 992000 t200 1343000 I 575 1494000 t 1 3 0 997000 1420 1792000 1560 747000 t u o 5 895000 I 280
2046000 1841000 1314000 1228000 1546000 1133000 r 534000 1706000 11380@ 2047000 853000 1022000
J.J X t.bx 1-8x 4-2 x
IU tu 10 10
2-3x 12 s-z x tu
Ameri€n
2514000 2154000 1238000 1208000 1453000 1038000 806000
2 - 4x 8 3-2 x 10 2 - 3x 1 0 1 - 4x 1 0 2-4 x'lO 3 - 3x l 0 1 - 6x 1 0 1 ' 8x l 0 4-2x 10 2 - 2x 1 2
J-Z X tZ 1-3x 12 4-Z x 12
16'
22010f0 2760 1886000 z J o c 1084000 1405 1057000 1700 1272000 2030 909000 14 5 5 706000
2070
2 - 3x 2 - 4x 3.3 x t - ox 1 - 8x 4 - 2x 2 - 2x 3 - 2x 4 - 2x a - zx )-3 x
10 10 l0 tu 10 10 12 12 12 tz 12
1535000 1381000 986000 921000 1160000 850000 1151000 1280000 8s4000 1536000 640000 767000
1840 tb55 tttJ
11 0 0 1430 1050 lJl5 I d03
1240 2240 1120
1795 1 8 6 1 0 0 02095 16 1 0 1676000 1880 1199000 r 350 r075 1 117000 '1406000 16 2 5 1 0 2 0 1031000 11 9 0 1345 r 396000 1570 1820 1551000 2120 1210 1035000 14 1 0 9 1 0 776oOOr060 7 3 0 621000 850
21720oO r395 2481000 1956000 l t 4 5 2234000 1399000 | 540 1598000 1303000 | 435 1489000 1 6 4 1 0 0 0 | 860 1874000 r 203000 | 360 r 374000 1629000 | 790 r 8 6 1 0 0 0 1 8 1 0 0 0 0 t425 2067000 1208000 t 6 l 0 r 380000 905000 t215 1034000 725000 975 828000 1 ) A O I nFAmn | 460 12 4 l O m
Forest and Paper Association: Washangton, D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
3-3 x 2-4 x 't,6 x 1 - 8x
2 2 0 3-3x 0 't
18'
8x 3-2 x 4-2 x 5-2 x 2-3 x 3-3x 2-4 x 1 - 6x 1 - 8x 3-4 x
2 2
3-3 x 0
t9'
4-2 x 5-2 x z-5x 3-3x 2-4 x 1 - 6x l-8 x 3-4x 4-3 x 2-d x
2
2
3-2x 4-2x a-2 x
20'
3-3 x 2-4 x 1 - 6x 2 t-6 x
a
3-4 x 4-3 x 2-6 x l - 1 0x
2 2 2
zJx
21
22',
4-2 x 5-2 x 3-3x 2-4 x l-8 x 3-4 x 4-3 x 2-6 x 1 - 1 0x 2-3 x 1 - 6x 2-4 x 4-2 x 5-2 x 3-3 x 34x 4-3x 2-6 x
r-'r0x 2-3 x 'l'6
E
2010000 2 3 r 0 1436000 1520 13 4 1 0 0 0 1420 1236000 1340 1241000 1 ' l600 931000 1 9 5 745000 9 5 5 1 1 1 9 0 0 01 4 3 5 737000 955 799000 1025 951000 1250 697000 9 1 5 '1705 1460 1705000 13 6 5 1 5 9 1 0 0 0 1595 1470000 1 5 1 5 1300 1540 1475000 1800 |1 50 1105000 1340 920 885000 1 0 7 5 1380 1326000 1 6 r 0 920 875000 1 0 7 5 990 949000 I t f , a r200 1129000 1400 829000 1025 880 632000 7 7 0 660
770 670 1900 1280 1r35 11 3 5 1220 r620 1085 810 850 740 860 r 230
2 2
1570
2 2
1345 1200 895
2 4 4 4
2 2
4 x 24x 4 3-3 x 4 3.4 x
f
1825 1300 1215 1150 1370 r 025 820 1230 820 880 1070 185
t azu 1710 1280 1025 1540 1025 1100 1335 980
vJ5
820 9s0 1355 11 9 0 930
8'-0" t 2345000 2430 2679000 1676000 | / J 5 19 9 11 4 0 m 1565000 1620 1787000 1442000 1535 1647000 1448000 t 6 z a 1654000 1086000 I J O C 1 2 4 ' 1 0 0 0 869000 I U Y 5 993000 1306000 1640 1492000 860000 1095 982000 932000 11 7 5 10650m 1110000 1425 1268000 8 13000 1 0 4 5 929000 1990000 1945 2273000 r857000 r 820 2121000 1 7 1 5 0 0 0 17 3 0 1959000 1721000 2050 1966000 r 289000 1530 1473000 1180000 1033000 I z z c 1547000 1840 r 767000 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 1225 1166000 r 107000 1320 1265000 r317000 1600 1505000 967000 | | / 5 1r05000 737000 880 8420m
7'-O"
610"
NOMINAL SIZS OF BEAM
1872000 1 7 7 5 2l 84000 zuza 1735000 1 9 9 5 2025000 22AO 1300000 1 4 9 5 1 5 1 7 0 0 0 1705 1040000 1 1 9 5 1 2 1 4 0 0 0 1365 1560000 1795 1820000 2050 1029000 1 1 9 5 1201000 r 365 1 1 1 5 0 0 01280 1301000 1 4 6 5 1326000 1560 r't547000 1780 973000 1 1 4 5 135@0 1305 744000 860 868000 980 780000 900 910000 t u 2 a 1329000 780 1551000 895 2021000 2220 2358000 t530 1516000 1 4 9 5 1 7 6 9 m 0 705 1214000 1325 1 4 1 7 0 0 0 5 1 5 1200000 1325 1400m0 5 1 5 1300000 1425 1 5 1 7 0 0 0 625 1550000 1890 18G000 r160 1326000 445 1136000 I z d a 866000 9 4 5 1 0 11 0 0 0 080 9'10000 990 1062000 t J t 775000 8 6 5 904000 896000 1005 1046000 145 1 1 1 4 0 0 01435 1300000 640 1756000 1 8 3 0 2049000 Ino( 1405000 1 4 6 5 1640000 6 7 5 1389000 t q o 5 1621000 675 15050@ 1570 1756000 795 1315000 1400 1535000 600 1004000 1 0 4 5 1172000 1 9 5 r 054000 1090 1230000 245 896000 955 1046000 095 1039000 1 1 1 0 1 2 1 2 m 0 265 1290000 1580 1505000 805 1109000 1390 1294000 585 871000 1 0 8 5 1016000 240
1720 2020000 2005 13 7 5 1 6 1 5 0 0 0 1605 tJ/5 1596000 1605 1154000 t t N 1 0 3 0 r 2 r 1 0 0 0 1200 900 r 031000 1 0 5 0 1 0 3 5 1194000 1205 I 485 1484000 1730 I 305 r 275000 1525 r 025 t 001000 11 9 5 995 9 8 1 0 0 0 11 6 0 Aen AATnnn
2357000 1885000 r862000 1347000 1413000 1203000 1393000 1732000 1488000 r 168000 1145000 778mO
t295 830 830 315 375 200
249s0@ 2313000 1733000 1386000 2079000 13720@ 1486000 1767000 1297000 9920m 10400m 17 7 1 0 m 2694000 2021000 1618000 1600000 1733000 2066000 1514000 1154000 1213000 1033000 1194000 1485000 2341000 1873000 18s1000 2006000 1753000 13380@ 1405000 'I 194000 1385000 1719000 1478000 11610@
2693000 2r 53000 212700o 1538000 1614000 1374000 JdU 1592000 980 1978000 740 1 '|700000 334000 325 1308000 qnq
CeilingJoistond RotterSizes CEILING JOISTS| o L a l s e F T L t v EL o A o ( G y p s u M w A L L a o A R o c E t L t N G ) No attic storageand roof slopenot steeperthan 3 lN .12. MAXIMUM JOIST
stzE {NOMINAL) ( I N .J
ALLOWAALE
TE'O'"
JOIST SPACING (NOMINALJ
r.000.0@
{tN.)
F
'16 2x4
L F
24 12
L
l6
24
BY OEFLECTION STRESS
10,7 830
u-5 r040
8-t 1 Ir70
r6-8 830
17-8 930
t5-2 910
1030
L
IJ-J
L
21-11
F
1 9 - tI 9r0 1 7- 5 t040
F
28-0 830 25-5 9t0
L
t2 to
2x l0
930
9r0
830
16
I t- J
l0-3 r030
24
AND
r.400.0m ' tl - r 0 't030
1,200,000
1040
2xB
CEILING JOISTS-ao r e l s e F r L r v EL o A o ( c y p s u M w A L L B o A R o c E T L T N G ) Limited attic storagewheredwelopment of future rooms is not possible. MAXIMUM
SPAN L LTMITED EXTREME.FIBER
Fb IS
1,6m,@0
r 0-9 r 140
ALLOWAALE
JOIST slzE INOMINALI {il.|.1
11 1 0
| 300
1240
8-1 I 290
8-7 r430
8-l I I 570
7-6 1640 l4-9 t300
7-10 I 790 15-6 1420
1430
t4-1 I 570
ll-9 1640
| 790
| 130
21-2 1C30
22-4 I 140
23-4 1240
2x4
24 L F
16
1420
I 040 NOTE: L in let and inch6; E and Fb in poundspe;rq,* l."L;rlhrrr," D E S I G NC R I T E R T A 1. Maximum alfowabte defltrtion = 1124OoI span length. 2. Live load of l0 tblsq ft ptus dead load of 5 lb/so tt determinerequiredfiber stres value.
Y
1040
L
r 5',t40 -10 1
24
L
't3l0 1310
l6
2x1O
26-0 1420
24 rrv I c:
12 480
22-3 r040
i"
20-2 | 140 t 7- 8 1310
L
L F"
8,6 170 l 6 -1 0 r 290 i 4-8 r 480 23-8 I 170
1300 r 7-9 r430 r5-6 1640 24-tO r300
16-2 I 790 26-0 1420
2l-6 r 290
22-7 t430
| 570
'r9-9 1640
r8-9 r480
COLLAR WITHIN UPPER
BEAM THE I/
For raJterc,dsign valus in Fo may be greaterthan lhe d6ign valuesfor normal dura uon or roaotby the tollowinq amounts: l5% for 2 months'duration, as (or snow. 25% lor 7 days'duration, as lor constructionloadino. SPAN G RAFTER
ROOF OVER 5 IN 12'
GABLE IALOPE
ROOF UNOER ! IN 12I
LEAN-TO OR EHEO ROOF
SECTION MOOULUS L U M B ER stzEs (NOMTNAL)
2x3
{ rN . ' ) L56
2x4 2xG NOTE 2x l0 (Applicable to this pageand the followingpageson joisl and raftersizes.) SPANSLIMITEDBY DEFLECTTON: The weight ot ptas_ ter itself was igno.edin the assumedloadslor the de_ flection computations, because the initial deflection from the deadloadoccursbeforeplastersets.The influ_ ence of live loads, rather than dead loads, when the ratio ol live to dead loads is relativelyhigh, is the principal factor to be considered.Also withloisted floors, tlooringand bridgingserveto distributemovingor con, centratedloadsto adjoiningmembers.The omlssionof the plasterweight in loadassumptionappliesto deflec_ tion computationsonly; the full dead and live load is consideredwhen computinglor strength.
l 790
L In rer ano Incnes; t and Fb In pounds per square inch as shown above.
SPAN OF RAFTER
GABLE (6LOPE
I 570
l. Maximum allmable dellrction = l /24e ol soan length. 2. Live lcd of 20 lblsq ft plus dead load of 10 tb/sq fr ddtermine required fiber stres value. NOTE
I
(iAMBREL
1420
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A
SPAN OF RAFTER .
l
F to
t2
I 130
&-ill
1480 14 - 1 11 7 0 12,9 r 290
t2
1420
29-9 1240
1040 12-O 11 4 0 1 ' t 30160
24
'19-6
24-10 13@
9 -1 0 1420
8 - rr
7-8 11 4 0 6-8 r3 1 0
24-7 r 030
23-a 1t 7 0
IS
't,600.@o
8-5 r040
1300
31-4 1030 28-6 ',t40 I
F^
L F
23-4 930
r300
AND
1,400,000
L F
14-1 I t70
r E-ti I 170 29-9 930 27-1 I 030
BY DEFLECTION STRESS
12-5 r 130
1240
't4-9
SUPPORTS
r,000,000 1,200.m0
I 9,6 | 130
1r 4 0
L BETWEEN
SPAN L LIMITED €XTREME FIBER
{tN.)
l6-l I
to- |
LENGTHS
JOIST SPACING (NOMTNAL)
9 - 10 1420
r 300 r8-8 | 030
309
3t.64 r2.60 21.90
JXb
E = m o d u l u so t e l a s t i c i t y = extremeliber stressin bending F = span lengthbetweensupports LIV€ LOAD ASSUMPTTONS: Uniformtv distribured. PARTITTONS: Spans shown are comouted for the gavenlive load plus the dead load and do not provide tor additional loadssuch as partitions.Whereconcen, trated loads are imposed the spansshould be rrcomputed to providefor them.
J X
tl
SECTION MOOULUS
s'? {tN.'}
az. tJ
3x 14 4x4
/.t5
t/.o5 9X6
30.66
t" 1o 73.83
r-
l-r-r "lll tll
J-I
I
b ANo d ARE ACTUAL DIM EN SIONS
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation;Washangton. D.C.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
310
Rottersond RoofJoists
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A STRENGTH: 15 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load determinesrequiredfiber stres.
RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal projrction, and loads are consideredas applied on the horizontalproitrtion.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s f l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a n in inchesdividedby 240. LB LIVE LOAD FLAT OR SLOPEO RAFTERS_2O F L A T R O O F O R C A T H E D R A L C E I L I N G W I T H N O A T T I C S P A C E _ S U P P O R T I NGGY P S U MW A L L B O A R DC E I L I N G EXTREME
RAFTER 5IZE. SPACING {rN.)
2xG
9-4 0.35
10-9 0.54
11 - 5 0.64
16
7-4 0.23 b-u 0.19
8-1 0.30
8-8 0.38
9-4 0.46
Y -r u u.55
0.65
7-7 0.38
8-1 0.45
d-b
14-2 0.54
0.64
12 2x8
= to
;
1 1- 2 0.26
9-8 o.23
600
6-1 0.25 I z-J
0.35 10-7 0.30
G u
11 - 6 0.38
0.46
10-0 0.38
| 2-J
r 5-0 13-0 0.55 10-7 0.45
I u-c
0.53 1 5 -l 0 0.75 13-8 u.o5
0.19
o.25
14-3 o.26
15-8 0.35
1 6 - 11 o.44
0.54
19-2 0.64
0.53 20-2 0.75
12-4 o.23
13-6 0.30
I 4-8 0.38
15-8 0.46
r6-7 0.55
17-6 0.65
10-1
1t-1 0.25
rJ-o
0.3r
0.38
u.J5
20-6 o.44
21-1 1 0.54
16-6 0.30
17 - 9 0.38
19-0 0.46
r 4-3 0.53 24-7 0.75 21-3 0.65
0.r9 1 7- 4
-76
o.26
_;
o.23
2xQ
0.31 13-3 0.44
12-O u ./ 5
9-4 0.31
8-8
12 2x10
1000
900
8-6 0.26
700 10-0 o.44
800
12
500
15-O
19-0
t6- |
i ?_q
0.45 23-3 0.64 20-2 0.55
FIBER
11 0 0 0.86 1 0 - 11 0.75
13-5 o.25
14-6 0.31
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A STRENGTH: 15 pst dead load plus 30 pst live load dete.mines required fiber st.es.
IN BENOING.
1200 13-2 0.98 I t-5
to-/ 0.86
0.85 9-4 0.70 17-4 0.98
14-4 0.75
|5-U 0.85
8-11 0.61
Fb {PSI)
1300
1400
1500
13-8 1.11
14-2 1.24
4-8 .37
11 - 1 0 0.96
9-8 0.78 1 8-0 'l.lI
2-9 .19
1600 5-2 .51 3-2 .31
1.07 10-0 0.88
10 - 5 0.97
r8-9 t.24
9-5 .37
20-o
I o-J
6-9
7-4
15-1 0.96
r.07 13-3 0.88
13-8 0.97
n-q
.07 1.51 .J
I
1700
1.96
13-7 1.44
1 3 - 11 1.56
14-4 1.70
11-1 1.17
I l-5 1.28
11 . 8 t?o
20-8 1.66 t7-10 t.44
21-3 't.81
2 1 -1 0 1.96
r 8-5 1.56
t 8 - 11
l4-7 1.17
I 5-0 1.28
27-1 r.81 23-5
1s-5 1.39 27.10 1.96
0.70 0.98
23-0 1.11
tJ-tl
0.86
1.24
24-9 1.37
25-6 l.5l
26-4 1.66
t8-4 u ./ 5
19-2 0.85
1 9 - 11 0.96
20-8 1.07
21-5 1.19
1.31
22-10 1.44
15-0
15-8 0.70
16-l 1 0.88
17-6 0.97
8-1 .07
1.17
29-1 't.24
30-r 1.37
t-l
25-2 1.07
26-O 1.19
0.88
0.97
2'l-11 1.07
| 500 I 3-0 I.41
1600
17@
13-5 1.56
r3- 10
0.6r 25-9 0.86 22-4 0.75 1A-2 0.61
to-J
zo-t
I
0.98 zJ-5 0.85
19-0 0.70
0.78 28-0 1.11 24-3 0.96 19-10 0.78
z t-J
.07
5l
16-11 -Jl
1900
to- | 1.81
12-9 0.78
I l-3
I 800
15-8 1.66
11 - 9 0.61
16-6 17-4 15-6 0.53 0.38 0.45 NOTE: The requiredmodulusot elasticity,E. in 1,000,000psi is shownbelow eachspan. I z-3
0.19
STRESS
t6-t
| _f,o
19-2 1.28
32-O 1.66
J2-t
27-9 't.44
28.6 1.56
2?-A 1.17
I
1.81
ZJ.J
1.28
r.70
24.1 1.70
r9-8 t.39 33-r0 1.96 29-4 r.70 23-11 1.39
RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal projtrtion, and loads are considered as applied on the horizontal proiection.
OEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span in inch6 dividedby 240.
LB LIVE LOAO FLAT OR SLOPED RAFTERS_3O F L A T R O O FO R C A T H E D R A LC E I L I N G W I T H N O A T T I C S P A C E _ S U P P O R T I NGGY P S U MW A L L B O A R DC E I L I N G RAFTER SIZE, SPACING (tN.l tz
x6
'-16
500 7-6 o.27 b-b
o.24
600 oa
0.36 7-1 0.31
2X6
16
; =
to
't2
0.55 6-Z 0.48
6-8
FIBER
900 10-o 0.66
1000 10-7 o.77
11 - 1 0.89
6-d
J-Z
0.57 7-1 0.46
0.67 7-6 0.54
11 0 0
9-7 o.77
STRESS
IN BENDING.
1200 1't-7 1.01 10-0 0.88
1.35
t1-11 t.48
8-10 0.90
g-2 1.00
9-6 L10
9-9 1.21
IU-U 1.31
1.43
t.14
l6-6 1.28
17-1 r.41
I 7-8 1.56
t6-z 1.71
1.86
l9-3 2.O2
14-4 1.10
1 4 -1 0 1.22
15-3 L35
15-9 1.48 |2-10
1.10
| 400 I z-o
1.14
'l.28 lu- lu 1.10
tu-5 0.99
7-10 0.63
v2 o.72
0.66
l3-l I o.77
| 4-U 0.89
15-3 1.01
1r-6 0.57
12-1 0.67
12-A 0.77
13-9 0.99 0.81
0.90
6-O
'I
l-3
o.32
0.27 8-7 o.24
0.36
1l-8 0.45
9-4 0.31
10-l 0.39
't2-6 0.55 1 0 - 10 0.48
7-O 0.19
1-8 o.25
0.32
8-10 0.39
9-4 0.46
9-10 0.54
10 - 4 0.63
13-3 0.88 1 0 -1 0 o.72
15-11 0.55 '13-9
r 6 - 11 0.66 r4-8 0.57
17-10 0.77 15 - 5 0.67
18-8 0.89
19-6 t.0l
20-4 1.14
21-1 1.28
to-z
o.77
16-11 0.88
1 7- 1 0.99
1.10
L00 2 1 -1 0 1.41 18-1r 1.22
0.63
13-9 0.72
14-4 0.81
1 4 - 11 0.90
0.27 10-r1 o.24 8 - 1r 0.19
U.JY
13-9 0.36
't4-'t1 0.45
0.31
12-11 0.39
9-9 0.25
r0-6 0.32
0.39
16-9 U-JO
18-1 0.45
1 9 -4 0.55
14-6 0.31
15,8 0.39
0.48
0.48 I t- J
IJ-J
11-11 0.46
0.54
0.81 t3-t
I
I t-J
o.77
0.89
1.01
24-A 1.14
17-9 0.57 't4-6
18-9 0.67
19-8 o.17
20-6 0.88
21-5 0.99
16-1 15 - 4 13-8 0.63 0.46 0.54 0.39 NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000.000psi is shom below eachspan.
16-9 0.72
17-5 0.81
15 - 4 0.27 I J-J
o.24 10-10 0.19
1l - 1 0 0.25
12-10
AmericanForestand PaperAssociation; Washington, D.C.
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
21-8
ZJ-J
r900
1800 t4-2 r.86 t2-4 t.6l
| 300
0.66
G -
Fb {PSII
o.25
12 2x10
800
7-8 0.39 o-J
J-q
0.r9
700 8-10 0.45
EXTREME
I l-t
I t-o
| 6-J
|,26
22-2 1.10 18-r 0.90
1.71
16-3 1.61 I J.J t . J
I
| .50
23-3 1.71
l9-6 1.35
2Q-1 1.48
I 5-5 1.00
l 5 - r1 r .r 0
16-5 1.21
23-11 1.86 20-8 1.61 1 6 - r1 1.31
26-6 't.41
2 1- 5 1.56
28-3 1.71
29-1 1.86
23-O 1.22
zJ-9
24-5 1.48
za-z 1.61
18-9 1.00
19-4 1.10
20-0
20-6 1.31
22-6
t.zl
14-7 2.O2 12-8, t.l a
to-o
1.75 13-7 1.43 24-6 2.O2
29-10 2.O2 25-10
1.75 1 1- 4 1.43
t.tJ
12-1 1.43
Roftersqnd RoofJoists D E S I G NC R I T E R I A STRENGTH; 10 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load determinc requiredfi&r stress. ). DEFLECTION: For 20 psf live load. Limited to spSn in inchesdividedbv 240. FLAT OR LOW SLOPE RAFTERS-2o N O C E I L I N GL O A D - S L O P E3 I N 1 2 O R L E S S
RAFTEBS: Spansare measuredalonq the horizontal projrction, and loadsare consideredai appliedon the hotizontalproirction'
LB LrvE LoAD
EXTREME
RAFTER 5IZE, SPACING (rN.)
500 9-2 0.33
600 10-0 0.44
7-11 0.29
8-8 0.38
A
6-6 o.24
7-1 0.31
12
t2-1 0.33
12 2x6
to
16
/x6
14-4 0.55
| 5-J
0.67
11 - 6 0.38
0.48
8-7 o.24 15-5 0.33
9-4 0_31
10-1 039
0.58 1 0 - 10 0.48
16-1I 0.44
18-3 0.55
19-6 0.67
16
l3-4 0.29
14-8 0.38
1 5 - 1 0 1 6 - 11 0.48 0.58
u
t 0 - 11 o.24
tz
12
=t o
2x12
700 800 1 0 - 1 0 1 1-7 0.55 0.67 9-5 10-0 0.48 0.58 7-8 8-2 0.39 0.48
10-6 0.29
u
2x10
13-3 o.44
i
18-9 0.33 to-J
0.29 13-3 o.24
1 ?-q
0.31 20-6 o.44
12-11 n?o
0.48
0.55
0.67
I 7-9 0.38
r 9-3 0.48
0.58
14-6 0.31
0.39
ll-il
3l I
ZJ-J
'15-8
I o-9
0.48
900
FIBER
STRESS
12-4 0.80
1000 13-0 0.94
r.09
10-8 0.70
1l - 3 0.82
11 - 9 0.94
8-8 0.57
9-2 0.67
9-7 o.77
10-0 0.88
1 7- 1 0.94
17-11 r.09
I 8-9 1.24
to-J
0.80 14-0 0.70
11 - 6 o.57 20-8 0.80 l7-11 0.70 14-8
r 100
IN BENOING,
1200
tJ-l
.24
't4-10 0.82
0.94
o.67 21-10 0.94 18-1 o.82
12-8 o.77 22-10 1.09 19-10 0.94
| 3-O
15 - 5 0.67
o.77
25-2 0.80
26-6 0.94
27-10 1.09
21-9 0.70
23-O o.82
24-1 0.94
17-9 0.57
18-9 0.67
19-8 o.77
6-3 .o7 13-3 0.88 23-11 1.24 20-8 1.07 1 6 - 11 0.88
to-z
29-1 1.24 25-2 1.07 20-€ 0.88
1300 4-9 .40 2-10 .21 10-5 0.99 't9-6 t.40
Fb (PSI)
1400
r 500
15-4 1.56
t 5 - 1I
r.73
I J-J
3-9
t.Jc
_5U
10-10 r .r 0 ZU-J 1.56
1600 6-5 .91 .65
22 20-11
| 700
1800
2.09
17 - 5 2.28
4-8 .81
1.97
1-11 48
LO
to-t
I
22-3 2.O9
1900 17-10 2.47 15-6
tf,-l
I
2.28 9-r0 .97 6-3
23-7 2.47 20-5 2.14
16-10 't.21
17-6 1.35
18-2 1.50
I B-9 1.65
I 9-4 t.81
13-9 o.99 24-10 1.40 21-6 1.21 17-7 0.99 30-3 1.40
14-4 1.10 2 5 - 10 1.56
l4-10 1.22
| 5-J 1.35
|5-v 1.48
26-A 1.73
27-1 1.9'l 23-11 1.65
2A-5 2.O9
29-3 2.24
30-l
24-7 1.81 20-1 1.48 34-7 2.09
25-4
26-0 2.14
1.21
2't-5 0.99
1.35 l8-3 1.10 3 1- 4 t.Do
t.Jt
22-2 't.10
23-2 1.50 't8-1
1 1.22
32-6 1.73 28-2 1.50 23-0 1.22
IY-O t_J5
33-6 1.91 29-1 t.o5
23-S
29-11 1.81 24-5 1.48
20-8 r.6l
16-8 1.75
z t-J
1.75
J5-/
2.28 30-10 1.97 25-2 1.61
2.47 31-8 2.14
25-10 1.75
N O T E :T h e r e q u i r e d m o d u l u s oefl a s t i c i t y , E , i n1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 p si si s h o w n b e l o w e a c h s p a n .
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A STRENGTH: l0 psf dead load ptus 30 psf live load determinB required fiber stress. DEFLECTION: For 30 ost live load. Limited to soan in inchm divided by 240. FLAT OR LOW SLOPE RAFTERS-3o N O C E I L I N G L O A O _ S L O P E3 I N 1 2 O R L E S S
RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal proiection, and loads are considered ai applied on the horizontalprojection
LB LtvE LoAD
EXTREME
SIZE, SPACING (lN.)
12 zxo
2x8
700 v-5 0.54
800 10-0 0.66
6-l l o.28
24
5-7 0.23
12
10-6
1 l-6 0.43
I z-a
I ?_?
0.54
0.66
9-t 0.28 7-5 o.23
9 - 11 0.37
l0-9 o.47
11 - 6 0.57
16
tz 16
_;
o.32
12 16
a
7-6 0.37 6-2 0.30
8-1 0.30 't4-8
13-4 o.32
0.43
11-7 0.28
0.37
o.23
2x12
600 8-8 0.43
l6
il 2x 10
500 7 - 11 o.32
tz-o
10 - 4 0.30
14-1 0.28
17-9 0.43 r 5-5 0.37
11 - 6 0.23
n?o
16-3 0.32
o.47
8-8 u . at
6-8 0.38
7-1 0.46
6-Z
8-9 0.38
9-4 0.46
900 10€ 0.78 9-3 0.68
| 200
1300
Fb (PSII
r 400
'12-4 1.21
.36
.52
9-9 0.80
10-2 o.92
r0-8 1.05
1-1
1-6 .32
0.s5 t4-0 0.78
7-11 0.65
8-4 u ./ 5
8-8 0.85
1 4 - 10 0.92
15-6 1.06
0.68
12-10 0.80
9-1',| 0.55
't0-6 0.65
17-11 0.78
13-8 o.47
14-8 0.57
15-6 0.68
16 - 4 0.80
1 1-2 0.38
0.46
0.54
u.oo
12-a 0.55 21-9 0.78
0.57
1 8 -1 0 0.68
't3-4 0.65 o.92 19-11 0.80
J.J
o-J
.21 4-0 .05
.r8 9-l 0.96
l 500
3-9
10-11 1.70
18-2
18-9 1.86
1 9 -4 2.M
| 6-3 l . 6r
6-9 .76 3-8
19-r0 2.22 l7-2 1.92
20-5 2.41 r 7-8 2.O8
14-0
14-5 1.70
25-4 2.22
26-O 2.41
21-4
21-11 r.92
zz-o
11-t1 0.96
t2-5 r.08
21-6 1.36
1.52
12-10 1 r. 9 23-2 1.69 20-0 't.46
24-1 1.06
25-2 1.21
26-2
20-10 0.92 17-0 0.75
?1 _A
't.05
22-8 1.18
1 7- 9 0.85
18-6 0.96
t.Jo
2.41
10-8 1.57
r.69
14-8 o.85
r900 I c-o
10-4 1.44
15-8
14-0 0.75
1800 15 - 1 2.22
1.76
t.Jz
9-4 .32
-ol
I 700
10-0 1.3',|
46
15-2 1.32
r 8-8 1.18
14-8 2.O4
9-9 1 .t 9
4-7 .18
0.92
r 600 4-2 .86 2-4
'|3-l 1.92
t-t I
.JO
20-8 1.21 17-'t1 r.05
I t-o
0.85
9-5 l.o8
6-10
I ',t-0 0.75 r9-10 r.06
t4-6 I c-5 to-J 0.46 0.65 NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,@0,000 psi is shownbelow eachspan. o?a
IN BENDING,
11 - 9 1.06
1 6 - l1 0.66
Io-b
| 100
I 000
1 5 -1 0 o.54
o.47
STRESS
11 - 3 0.92
'r8-11 o.92
20-6
FIBER
t.co
I J-J
1.31
23-11 r.86 20-8 r.61
I z-d
44
2.O4
tJ-f,
2.O8
2.08
5 - 10 .08
16-4 1. 1 9
1 6 - 11 't.3 r
r 7-5 1.44
11-11 1.57
18 - 5 |.70
27-2
28-2 1.69
29-1 1.86
2 9 - 11 2.O4
30-10 2.22
23-6 1.32
24-4 1.46
za-tl t.ol
1.76
26-8 1.92
19 - 3 r.08
l 9 - r1 |. 1 9
20-6 1.31
1.44
3t - 8 2.41 27-5 2.08 22-5 1.70
t.az
21-9 t.aI
Ameri€n Forestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
312
Rottersond RoofJoisls
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A '15 S T R E N G T H : p s f d e a dl o a d p l u s2 0 p s f l i v el o a dd e ' terminesrequiredfiber stress.
RAFTERS: Spans are measuredalong the horizontal projection,and loadsare consideredas applied on the horizontalproiection.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s l l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a n in inchesdivided by 180.
M E O I U M O R H I G H S L O P E R A F T E R S - 2 o L B L r v EL o A D H E A V YR o o F c o V E R I N G _ N o c E I L t N GL O A D - S L o P o EV E R3 I N 1 2 EXTREME
RAFTER SIZE, SPACING (tN.l
500
600
o.20
5-lI o.26
12 2x4
16
4-8 0 . 17
u
3-r0 0.t4
12 zxo
G 12
2xB
16 A 12
2x 10
-t o 24
4-',I0 0.28
5-'l 0.34
5-5 0.40
10-9 0_40 9-4
11 - 5 0.48
12-O
9-10 0.41
7-7 0.28 14-2 0.40
b- tu
0.40
0.23
0.33 5-6 0.28
0.18
4-6 o.23
r0-0
3-l
9-4
7-4 0 . 17 6-0 0.14 11-12 0.20 9-8
o- |
14-3
0.35
6-3 0.4r
1000 1-a 0.56 6-7 0.49
800
o-J
8-6 0.20
7- 1 1 0.14
700
U.IJ
8-8 0.28 1-1
0.r8
o.23
n?6
0.33
I J.J
10-7 0.23 6-6
0.18 15-8 0.26
1 6 - 11
12-4 0 . 17
0.23
'r4-8 0.28
1 0 -1 o.14
I l-t 0.18
1 1 - 11 o.23
n22
I
t -J 0.48
STRESS
11 0 0 d-u 0.65
IN BENOING,
1200 8-4 o.74
9-l 1 1.24
8-7 1.08 7-0 0.88 | 5-8 t_24 13-7 1.08
0.93
r4-8 1.03
15-2 '1.14
11 - 1 0 o.12
12-4 0.80
12-9 0.89
9-8 0.59
10-0 0.66
r0-5 0.73
17-4 o.74
18-0 0.83
18-9 0.93
t9-5 r.03
13-2 0.98 10-9 0.80 20-0 1.14
14-4 0.56
15-0 0.64
15-7 0.72
16 - 3 0.80
11 - 9 0.46
12-9 0.59
0.66
8-1 0.34
8-6 0.40
8 - 11 0.46
15-0 0.48
15-10 0.56
0.65
13-8 0.49
10-0 0.28
13-0 0.41 10-7 0.34
18-1 0.40
19-2 0.48
c-t I
tJ-z
t0-t
15-8 0.35
I 6-7 0.41
I 7-6 0.49
0.56
12-3 o.52 22-1 o.74 19-2 0.64
12-9 o.28
13-6 0.34
14-3 0.40
15-O 0.46
15-8 o.52
u-o5
'18-4
23-0 0.83 1 9 - 11 o.72 to-J
0.59
I J-J
23-11 0.93 20-8 0.80 16-11 u.oo
6-l
1700
9-8 1. 1 4
6- 10 0.80
1 0 - 11 0.56
0.40 20-2 0.56
7 - 10 0.80
9-4 1.03
1600
6-7 0.73
10-5 0.49
I z-5
7-6 o.72 6-2 0.59 13-8 0.83
| 500
0.89
o.74 11 - 5 0.64 9-4 o.52
u.J5
8-8 0.83
1400 9-0 0.93
6-5 0.66
0.52
n aR
1300
Fb (PS!)
8-4 0.98
6-11 0.56 5-8 0.46
I t-o
o.28 9-4 o.23
o.20
tJ-o
5-t
900
FIBER
I l-1 0.88
'r800 10-3 1.36 8-r0 1.17 7,3 0.96
13-11 1.1 7
14- 4 1.27
0.96
1l-8 1.04
21-3 1.36
2 1 -1 0 1.47
I 8-5 1.17
18-11 1.27 15-5 1.04
0.98
13-8 o.73
14-2 0.80
14-7 0.88
15-0 0.96
24-9 1.03
25-6 l. t4
26-4 1.24
1.36
0.89
0.98
1.08
| /-o
18-l 0.80
18-7 0.88
0.73
7-5 1.04 16-7 1.41
to-l
16-9 0.89
tJ-a
z t-a
1.47 o-1 1.27
1.36
20-8 1.24 t7-10 r.08
' t 7- 4
1900
1.17 19-2 0.96
27-10 1.47 24-1 1.27
r9-8 1.04
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,@0psi is shown below eachspan
D E S I G NC R I T E R I A STRENGTH: 15 psf dead load plus 30 psf live load determines required fiber stress.
RAFTERS: Spansare memured along the horizontal proitrtion, and loads are consideredas applied on the horizontalprojection.
DEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span '180. in inch6 divided by LB LIVE LOAD MEDIUM OR HIGH SLOPE RAFTERS_3O H E A V Y R O O FC O V E R T N G N O C E T L I N GL O A D _ S L O P EO V E R 3 I N 1 2 EXTREME FIBER STRESSIN BENDING RA FTE R SIZE, SPACING {tN.}
1900 1.51
2x4 24
2xG 10 - 4 1.07
19-3 1.51 't6-8
2x8
1.31
24
13-7 1.07 24-6 1.51
2x1O
r6
21-3 t . J
I
11-4 1.07 NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,000psi is shown below eachspan. Ameri€n Forestand PaperAssociation; Washington, D.C
DESIGNLOAD TABLES
Rqtlersqnd RoofJoists D E S I G NC R I T E R I A STRENGTH: 7 psf dead load plus 20 psf live load detetmines required fiber stress. ..
313
RAFTERS: Spansare measuredalong the horizontal projrction, and loads are considered as applied on the horizontalprojection.
D E F L E C T I O N :F o r 2 0 p s f l i v e l o a d . L i m i t e dt o s p a r i in inchesdividedbv 180. MEDIUM OR HlcH SLOPE RAFTERS-zo LB LrvE LoAD LIGHT RooF covERING_NocEILING LoAD_sLoPE oVER 3 IN 12 EXTREME FIBER sTRESs IN BENOING. Fb (PSI) RAFTER SIZE, SPACING ilN.)
12 16
2x4
2x6
^
4-4 o.21
12
9-8 0.29
16
8-4
a 12
--::zx6
500 6-2 0.29 5-4 0.2s
Ib
12-9 0.29 '11-0
16
a
7o0
6-4 0.42
800 7-9 0.59 6-9 0.51
0.61
5-2 0.34
5-6 0.42
0.49
900
1000
11 0 0
9-r 0.96
8-8 0.83
I 400 10-3 1.31
0.94
8-7 1.06
8-11 1.19
7-Q 0.87
0.97
6-5 0.68
0.49
12-3 0.59
13-0 0.71
13-8 0.83
14-4 0.96
9 - 11 o.42
I 0-7 0.51
11 - 3 0.61
11 - 1 0 0.72
0.83
8-1 0.34
8-8 o.42
9-2 0.50
9-A 0.59
10-2 0.68
0.77 15-0 1.09 13-0 0.94 10-7 o.77
t3- |
17-1
1 8 - ll 0.96
r9-9 r.09
16-4 0.83
17-1 0.94
r3-4
r3-'t1 o.77 25-2 1.09 21-10 0.94 17-10 o.77
I t-5
0.83
0.49
o.71
12-1 0.33
13-l o.42
l 3 - 11 0.51
14-10 0.61
15-7 0.72
10-8 0.34
I t-5
o.29
9-10 o.27 17-10 0.38
12-1 0.50 21-10 0.7'l
12-9 0.59 23-0 0.83
24-1 0.96
14-1 o.25
15-5 0.33
1 8 - 11 0.61
1 9 - 11 o.72
20-10 0.83
0.49 to-d
o.4? 13-7 n?,
o.42 20-7 0.59 17-10 0.51
o-Y
I z-a
18-0 0.83
0.68
12-7 14-6 15-5 I o-J 17-1 o.27 o.42 0.50 0.59 0.68 NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,0@,000psi is shownbelow eachspan. I l-6 0.21
t.w
9-1I 1.23
5 - 10 0.50
16 - 1 0.59
9-0 o.21
1200
7-6 o.12 6-2 0.59
l3-1 1 0.38
to-J
2x10
5-'t0 0.33 4-9 0.27 10-7 0.38 9-2 0.33
6-10 o.21
0.25
24
600 6-9 0.38
O E S I G NC R I T E R I A STRENGTH: 7 psf dead load plus 30 psf live |oad determins required fiber stre$.
1300
l5-7 1.23
I 500 10-8 t.az
1600 't 1-0 r.68 9-6 1.45
1700
1800
1900
11-4 144
I 1-8 2.00
12-O 2.17
10-1 1.73
10-5 r.88
d-J
1.41
8-6 1.53
l8-4 2.00
18-r0 2.17 16-4 1.88
7-6 1.08
i-9 r. 1 9
o-z
16-9
.37 4-0
14-6
17-3 1.68 15-0 1.45
9-10 1.59 8-0 1.30 t7-10 t.84 15-5 1.59
1t - o 0.87 20-6 1.23 7-9 .06
11 - 5 0.97
11 - 1 0 1.08
12-3 1.19
12-7 't.30
21-4
22-1 1.52 r9-l
22-9
t -Jz
1.45
23-6 1.84 20-4 1.59
1 5 - t1 1.73 13-0 t.41 24-2 2.00 20-11 1.73
tqt
15 - 1 0.97
ta-r
t6-1 1.19
l6-7 1.30
17-1 1.41
17-7 1.53
29-1 1.68 25-2 1.45 20-7 1.19
30-0 1.84
30-10 2.00
31-8 2.17
zJ-t
1.59
26.8 1.73
27-5 1.88
21-2 1.30
2 l - 10 1.41
zz-a
1700
1800 t0-0 1.87
1900 10-3 2.03
8-8 1.62
8- 10 1.76
I J-O
1.06
0.87 26-2 1.23 22-8 1.06 18-6 o.87
t-JI
8-5 .19
1.08
27-2 1.37 23-7 1.19
2A-2 1.52 24-5 1.32
19-3 0.97
1 9 - 11 1.08
t.od
't9-9
I
1 3 -4 1E?
24-10 2.17 21-6 1.88
1.53
RAFTERS: Spansare mecured along the horizontal proirction, and loads are considered 6 applied on the horizontalprojection.
DEFLECTION: For 30 psf live load. Limited to span in inchesdividedby 180. MEDIUM OR HIGH SLOPE RAFTERS-3o LB LtvE LoAo L I G H T R O O F C O V E R I N G * N OC E I L I N GL O A D - S L O P EO V E R 3 I N 1 2 EXTREME
stzE, sPActNc ( tN . l
12 2x4
800
5-9 0.48
6-l 0.57
6-5 0.67
5-0 0.47
E_?
0.55
0.63
10-5 0.55
11-1 0.66
11 - 8 o.77
9-7 0.57
6 - 11 o.32
9-1 0.48 7-5 0.39
7 -1 0 o.47
0.67 8-3 0.55
U.OJ
9-l o.72
0.36
12-10 0.45
13-9 0.55
14-7 0.66
I 5-5 o.77
r 6-2 0.89
t 6 - 10 1.O2
10-4 0.31
1 1-2 0.39
1t-t'l 0.48
12-8 0.57
14-0 0.77
14-7 0.88
0.99
0.32
9-9 0.39
't0-4 o.47
13 - 4 o.67 l0-11 0.55
1l-5 0.63
11-11 o.72
0.8r
12,10 0.91
0.45
17-1 0.55
18-7 0.66
19-8 o.77
1. 1 5
1.24
t5-z n 6?
to-2
17-O o.74
20-7 0.89 1 7 - '0t 0.85
21-6 1.O2
I 4-3 0.43
18-7 0.97
Y-5
.09
20-1 |.22
1 3 - 1I 0.55
14-7 0.63
0.72
15-10 0.81
0.9r
9-9 0.45
7 -10 0.31
q-E
6-5 o.25
1 0 - 11 o.27
9-5 o.24
i
7-8 0.19
8-5
12
1 3 - 11 0.27
15-2 0.36
to
'12 to
2xIO 24
124 0.26 9-10 n lo
r300
Fb (PSI)
4-8 0.39
4-5 o.32
U.Jb
I J-Z
0.34 l0-9 0.25
0.39
I o-J
1t - 7 o.32
900
IN BENOING.
0.66
5-5 0.39
16
Ti
2x8
5-10 0.19
700 6-3 0.45
STRESS
1000 7-5 o.77
6@
5-9 0.36 5-0 0.31 4-'l 0.25 9-l
6-8 0.55
12 zxo
500 5-3 o.27 4-7 o.24 3-9 0.19 8-3 0.27 7-2 o.24
FIBER
0.63 13-2 0.47
1100
8-6 1.15
8-9 1.28
9-',| 1.42
Y-5
0.89
1200 8-2 1.O2
r.57
9-8 1.72
6-9 o.77
0.88
7-4 0.99
7-l t 1.23
8-2 1.36
8-5 1.49
f,-o
5-9
7-7 1.11 6-3 0.9r
6-5 1.01
b-d
6-10 1.21
I z-J
0.89 10-7 o.77 8-8
o.72
6-0 0.81
12-9 1.02
l3-4 1.15
t1-1 0.88
I t-o
tJ-2
I 400
3-r0 .28
0.99 9-5 0.81 t 7- 7 t.t3 t5-z
I z-a
1500
5-9 .lI
I 6-5
l.l I
14-4 1.42
4-9
I z-a
2-9
1.23 9-9 0.91 82 .28
1600
1 0 -1 't.01
8-r0 .42
.JO
.72 3-2 .49
1.32 r 5-8 1.87
l3-11 I 1-5 r.43
r.62
IU-V 1.21
I l-1
r9-6 r.57
20-1 1.72
20-8 1.87
6-4 .23
6-10 .36
3-4 .01
3-9 .11
t.2l
1 6 -I 2.03
13-7
l0-5 1 . 1I
1 7- 4 t.49
7-3 r.43
r.32 r-11 62
z t-5
2.03 18-4 1.76
r 5-0 1.43
24-1 1.42
24-10
25-7 1.72
20-10 1.35 r 7-0 1.01
2't.49 t-6
22-2 | .oJ
1.78
't.11
18-1 1.?1
r 8-7 r.32
26-4 1.87
2 7- 1 2.O3 zJ-a
NOTE: The requiredmodulusof elasticity,E, in 1,000,000psi is shownbetow eachspan. AmericanForestand PaperAss@iation;Washington,D.C.
DESIGNLOADTABLES
1.93 19-2 1.43
314
Wood Preservqlives
RELATIVE TREATABILITY H EA RT\^/OO D LEAST DI FFIC U LT TO PENETRATE prne. prnyon prne, redwood
DOMESTIC
SPECTES
H EARTWOOD DIFFICULT TO PENETRATE
WOOD TO PROTECTED
HEARTWOOO VERY DIFFICULT TO PENETRATE
OR VERY RESISTAN
mannspruce,grandlir, lodgepolepine,nobletir, sitkaspruce,Western larch,white fir, White spruce
DECAY RESISTANCE MODERATELY
glastir (RockyMountain), Northernwhite cedar,tama, rack.Western red cedar /
OF NATURALLY
RESISTANT
SLIGHTLY
BE
METAL TERMITE SHIELD AT 45'ANGLE FROM WALL
arocYpress, Douglas fir (coast). Eastern white pine, jack pine, loblolly prne, longleaf pine, ponderosa pine, red pine, shortleaf pine, sugar pine, Western hemlock
RELATIVE HEARTWOOD UNTREATED \/vOODS* RESISTANT
OF SELECTED
H EA RTWOOO MODERATELY DIFFICULT TO PEN ETRATE
RESISTANT
OR NONRESISTANT
.FOUNDATION WALLTO BE 1A' HIGH ABOVE SOIL TO UNTREATEf, LUMBER ABOVT c)R USF ONLY TREATE WOOD WTH N 18" OF SOIL
cypress {old growlh), Cedar, whrte
oak, redwood
fir,Westernlarch,Easternwhite pine
Easternwhite, spruces,true firs
CRIMPED
CORNER
MASONRY FOUNDATION
* Source: U.S. Forest Products Laboratory Wood Handbook
GENERAL Wood may be destroyedby decaylungi; by insectslike car penter ants and termitesj and by marineborersin saltwater exposures.Fourconditionsmust exist before these organisms can destroy wood: (1) a lree oxygen supply; (2) a moasturelevel in the wood above the fiber saturationooint QOV.I:l3l a temperature in the rangeof 50 to gOoF;{41the presenceof a f@d source,in this case,lhe wood. In most indoor environments,where moisture levels are geneclly low, w@d will last for a very long time. In certain indoor environments,however, and in manv exterior environments,wood cannot be kept dry or out of the proximiv of moisture. Most building codes recognizethis by requiring the use of pressure-treatedwood or naturallyresistant wood species where building componentscome into contact wrth concrete,masonry,or exposedsoil. This requirement also covers floor joists and crawl space suppon remb€rs within 12 to 18 in. of exposedsoil. DECAY-RESISTANT WOOD When specifyinga wood that will resistdecav.the choiceis betwe€n naturallydecay-resistantwood or wood treated with preservatives.The first requiresuse ot the heanwood of naturally decay-resistantwoods such as Western red cedar,bald cypress,redwood,and othersthat containnatural poisons called extractives,which are not oalatableto decay{ausingorganisms.However,lot all gradesor species ol these woods are suitabletor some structuralsituations. Treatingwood with preseruativesis a process that impregnates wood with chemicals thtough a pressuretreatment process.Use of nonpressuretreatmentssuch as spraying,dipping,and brushingis mostly limitedto field treatment of wood during constructionor remedial treatment of existingwood in place. PRESSURE-TREATED \/vOOD There are two processes commonly used .for pressure treatingwood. the full cell and modifiedfull ceilDr@esses. In both, the wood is placed in a large,cylindricaltank and the preseryativeforced under pressureinto its cells. In the moclifiedfull-cellprocess the preservativecoats the walls of the wood cells and is absorbedwhen the Drocess is finished the wood cell cavities are empty of preservatives- Most over-the{ounter pressure-treatedwood is treatedwith this process.In the fullrell pr@ess,a vacuum is introduced at lhe begrnningto force the air out of the w@d cell cavities,which then remainfilled with Dreservative after treatment. The full{ell process is used in most creosote and pentachlorophenoltreatingtor wood used in severeenvironments, includingapplications such as ulility poles,.railroadties, saltwaterpiles, and timber bridges. Regardlessof which pr@ess is used, the wood is geneially dried to a 2O7omoisture content prior to treatmentto promote maxrmumpenetrationof the preseruative. PENETRATION AND OF PRESERVATIVES
RETENTION
Penetrationand retentionare the two measuresthat define the effectiveness of preservation methods. penetration dependson the speciesol wood and the sizeof the lumber member being treated. Some speciesthat resist preservatrve penetratron,such as Douglasfir, are incisedwith small slatsto make treatment more effective. Others, such as Southernyellow pine, are easily treated without incisions. While the sapwood of some specjes is readilypenetrated, the heartwood of most resists penetration(althoughthe
RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsviile. Maryland AmericanPlywoodAssoc;atron; lacoma,Washinqton
WOOD TREATMENT
heartwoodof all speciesnaturallyresists decay).While the penetrationof preseruativesis hard to determine without damagangthe wood, retention of the preservativecan be measur€ddirectlyby weighingthe wood, stated in terms of pounds (of the chemical retained) per cubic toot (pcf). Retenlion standardsare set by the American Wood Preseryers' Assmiation and enforcedthrough chemicalanalysis of treated wood by an independentthird-partyagency approved by the Am€rican Lumber StandardCommittee {ALSC).A quality mark outlining peninent informationcan be found on complyingw@d st@k. PRESERVATIVE TYPES Three classesof preseryativesare in use today: creosote, oilborne (organic),and waterborne{inorganic). CREOSOTEis a cGl-tar product that is dissolvedin a distilled solutionor petroleumoil. lt is an €ffective preseruative in applicationswith extreme exposureto decay or insect attack (marineborers in saltwater environments,such as marinepiles or bridgetimbers).W@d treated with the fulf cell processis more €ffective in these applications,but the creosotemay bleed into the surroundings,causingcontamination.Most utility poles,freshwaterpiles,and fenceposts are treated with the empty{ell process, which yields a clean,nonbleedingsurface.Creosot+treatedproductscannot be painted, but epoxy shellac and coaltar pitch are acceptablesealants.This type of preservativecan last from thiny to sixty years. Cleanair standardsprohibit the use of creosotein many areas. ORGANICOIL-BORNEPRESERVATIVES are carried in organicsolvents such as liquefiedisbutane and are used to treat most softwoods and hardwoods.These oreserva(penta),coppernaphthen tives includepentachlorophenol ate. tributyltinoxide(TBTO).and copper8-quinolinotate. Pentaextends the seryice life of wood by twenty to forty years and is used to treat utility poles, fenceposts, and highwaytimbers. Tinted light to dark brown, penta-treated wood acceptsadhesivesand finishesreasonablvwell once the oil mediumhas evaporated. Polyurethane, shellac,varnish, and latex enamelare effective as sealants.Pentacan migrateto the surfaceof w@d. leach into the surroundinq soil, and contaminate groundwater. Only slowly does it breakdoM into biodegradablecompounds.. Plywoodand other wood treatedwith copper€{uinolinilale can be used in applicationswhere food is harvested,transported, or stored. The chemicalis dissolvedin liquid Detroleum gas or light hydrocarbonsolvents so the surface is clean and free of solvent odor. Consultwith the treatment companyregardingapplicableFDAand USDAacceptances. INORGANICWATERBORNEPRESERVATTVES are the most popularand commonly availabletypes used for treating wood. They include chromatedcopper arsenate(CCA), ammoniacalcopper arsenale (ACA),and ammoniacalcoppe. zioc arsenate(ACZA).These preseryativesare related chemically and havea lot in common.Chromiumholdsthe other components in the wood and prevents leaching; ammon,ahelps carry copper, zinc, and arsenicdeeper into the wood: arsenic guards against attack by termites and {ungi. Southernyellow pine is usually treated with CCA, and Douglasfir and other western w@ds with ACA and ACZA.The variousformulations of CCAvarv in the amount of chromium,copper,and arsenicthey contain.The oride form of CCA,type C, is widely preferredfor most construc, tion. During the treatment prcess, CCA is water soluble. but aardrying for a few days renders it insoluble.This is
TERMITE
PROTECTION
DETAILS
becausethe chromium reacts chemicallywith lhe wood permanentlybondingitseltand the copperand arsenictc the cell walls, preventingleachingduringits seruiceftfe CcA-treat€dwood can last up to forty years. Anolher waterbornepreservativ€is borax,which has promise due to its effectivenessagainstfungi and insectsand its low-toxicityto psople and animals.However.it leachesout when the wood gets wetFINISHING TREATED
OF PRESERVATIVE\/vOOD Waterborne preseryativesare recommendedwhen clean, odorless.and paintablewood productsare required.Wood treated with such preseryativesmay be used indoors rf sawdustand constructiondebrisare cleanedup. Painting wood treated with creosoteor oil-borneoentachloroohenol is not recommended,as it is difficultto use, requiring extensive care and an aluminum-basedoaint. Paintable waterbornepentachlorophenol treatmentsareavailable. Fo certain inlerior applicationsin commercial. industriai, or farm buildings, creosote- or penta-treatedw@d may be used if exposed surfacesare sealedwith two coats of ure thaneor epoxypaintor shellac.Guidelines for precautions In these cases are outlined in an EPA-aoproved consumer informationsheet lor each preseruativetreatmentFASTENERS CCA,ACA, and ACC are corrosiveto uncoatedmetals, For abovegroundconstruction,hot-dippedor hot-tumbled gal. vanrzedsteel and stainlesssteel fastenersare recom mended.Joist hangersandtraminganchorsshouldalsobe corrosionresistant.For below-gradeconstruction,such as treatedwood loundationsystems,types 304 and 316 stain less steel Type H silicon bronze, ETP copper, and monel fasteners are required. Adhesives work well with CCAtreated wood. Phenolresorcinol, resorcinol,and melemineformaldehyde structural adhesives are used in glulam beams made lrom treated w@d members. On iob sites. use adhesivesrecommendedfor use with treated'wood. PRECAUTIONS HANDLING
FOR
USE
AND
The chemicalformulationsused for preseryativetreatment of wood are registeredwith the EPA,which has approved guidelinesfor the use of pressure,treatedwood to ensure safe handlingand avoidenvtronmental or other healthha/ ards.Someguidelines for use andhandlingfollow: 1. Disposeot treatedwood by ordinarytrashcollectionor burial.Treatedwood shouldnever be burned in open firesor in stoves,fireplaces, or residential boilers. 2. Avoidfrequentinhalation of sawdustfrom treatedwood Wheneverpossible,sawing and machiningof treated wood should be done outdoors. 3. Avoidfrequentor prolongedskin contactwith penta-or creosote-treatedwood. 4. After handling treated wood products, wash exposed areasthoroughlybeforeeatingor drinking.
Wood Preservotives SOUTHERN
PINE
PRESERVATIVE
RETENTIONS
AND
APPLICABLE RETENTION
WATERBORNE
AWPA. ASSAY
3t5
STANDARDSI
OF TREATED
PRESERVATIVEST
WOOD-LB/CU CRESOTE
FT
AND OILBORNE
PRESERVATTVES P E NTACHLORO. PHENOL (PENTA)
wooD USES
TIMBERS, AND PLYWOOD
construcuon: guide,sign, and sight
* NR = not re@mmended I Areri€n W@d Preseryers'Association IAWPA) Standards detail plant operating procedures for pressure treatrent of wood. These standardsinclude minimum vacuum. pressure, and penetrataonrequirements and maxrmumsteamingparameters.AWPA alsodetailsminimum retenttonrequtrements,sampling zones for assay and maximum redryingtemperatureallowancesfor each preseryative.commodity,and wood species.For a copy of the AWPA standardsbooklet, write to the American
Wood Preseryers'Associatim, P.O. Box 286, Woodst@k, MD 2l 163{286. For other wood sgecies.contact the relevantorganization. , ACA, ACZA, and CCA are tho most commonlv available wa,terborne preseryatives. Ammoniacal copper quat (ACO)is also approvedby AWPA as a waterborne preservativefor Southernpine,Westernhemlck, Hem-frr, and Douglastir as lumber, timbers. plyw@d, and fenceDOStS.
3 Coppernaphthenateis also approvedby AWPA as an oilborne preservativelor specilic wood speciesand applica tronsexcludingsaltwateruse_ a Assay retentions are based on two assav zones--{ to 0.5 in. and 0 to 2 0 in. 5 Not recommendedwhere cleanlinessand freedom from odor are necessary.
USE PRECAUTTONS FOR PRESSURE-TREATED c\
/
ORGANIC
zc
n99A'.. ^_'il993GRoUND I r
n-r - - lN\ilirzir.lT
'KDAT-\
I
D_,-__*_-=*eoAre H
-
INORGAN IC PRESERVATIVES ARSENICALS
A!rh, rnrenorcomponents are tn groundcontactand subject to decy or insectattack (alsosee #5 below)
%49
-=-1 "q0.--.
*AECTREAT1NGCO" E
the treatedwood
ANnOi[,t, u-sA A: Trademarkof inspectionagencycertrtiedby the American Lumber StandardCommittee (ALSC):contactthe SouthernPine Council(SPC)or ALSCfor a list of cenj, tied inspectionagencies. B:Applicable American Wmd Preseryers' Associatjon (AWPA)standard C: Yearof treatment D: Presemtive used for treatment E: Retentionlevel F: Dry or KDAT{kilndriedafrer treatment),if apolicable G:Properexposureconditions H:Treatingcompanyand l@ation TYPICAL LUMBER
APP LI CATIO N S
WOODI PRESERVATIVES
QUALITY
MARK
FOR
ln wh€h O.eseryalives mav a component of food or animalfeed, such as structuresor container for storingsilageor food trng boards or countertops prepann9 s, patros, free from residues beehrves that may come into contacl tn whrch treated wood €n
come into direct or
indirectcontactwith drinkingwater for publicor animalconsumption 1 Basedon EPA-approved consurer informationsheets , Must be paintedwith two c@ts ot recommendedsealer 3 Okayfor incidentalcontactsuch as bridgesor docks
TREATED
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marytand Southern Pine Council; Kenner. Loursrana American Plywood Assciation; Tacoma, Washinoton
WOOD TREATMENT
316
TreotedWood Fire-Retordont UL
GENERAL Building constructron materials are testod for four criteria related to performance during a fire: frre resistance, flame spread, {uel contributed, and smoke developed. Fire resistance is the material's ability to resist burning whrle retaining its structural integrity- Flame spread measures the rate at which flames travel along the surface of a material. Fuel contributed is a measure of how much combustible matter a material furnishes to a fire. Smoke developed is a measure of the surface burning characteristics of a material. How lire spreads through w@d structures depends on the size and arrangement of wood members and the details that restrict or encourage air movement around them. Larger cross sections take longer to burn. As wood burns, it develoos an outer laver of charcoal, which Insulates the wood beneath and slows butning. This "char" Iayer proceeds through the burning wood at an average rate of 1rl, in. per hour. Various design strategaes can be used to resist fire damage to a wood structure and its spread to adjacent areas. but the most imponant is to protect the wood membersby means of coverings, coatings, or tre?tmentsFI RE.RETARDANT
TREATMENT
Modern lirer€tardant treatmenl (FRT) of wood conststs of Dressure treatment with aqueous solulions of various organic and inorganic chemicals, followed by kiln drying to 'l reduce moisture content to 9yo or less for lumber under 2 in. thick and 1 57o or less for plywood. All proprietary FRTS must conform to UL classilications. FRT wood is commonly used in plywood sheathing, roof trusses, rafters, floor joists, studs, staging, and shingles and shakes. Fire- retardant chemical combinations include zinc chloride, ammonium sulfates, borax or boric acid, and lesser amounts of sodium dichromate. Ammonaum phosphates are no longer used because they cause rapid disintegralion of wood. Fire retardants work when lire-retardant chemicals react with the tars and gases normally produced by burning wood. The resultant carbon char acts as thermal insulation (greater than on untreated wood), slowing the rate ot burning. Gases releas€d from the FRT wood are diluted with carbon dioxide and water vapor, lessening the chance of flashover, in which wood gases are ignited by high temperatures and then explode. FRT STANDARDS ANO CLASSIFICATIONS Interior lire retardants meet Class I ratings, which are required by code tor venical exit ways and special areas. Class ll ratings ar€ required for horizontal exit ways, but this rating is rarely reached with untreated w@d. FRT lumber and plywood ar€ recognized substitutes lor noncombustible materials tor insurance purposes. Many codes accept FRT wood products lor a variety of applications.
CLASSIFICATION
TREATER'S
NAME
PROPRIETARY BRAND NAME (ALL FRT IS PROPRIETARY) AMERICAN
--
NUMBER
CONTROL
--
-..
INDICATES FLAMF SPREAD TEST ACCORDING TO ASTM E.& (STANDARD DURATION OF TEST rS 1O MrN.)
-.\
W@D
ASS@ANON STANDARD MOISTURE C'2O FOR 19% M.c. PLWMD NATIONAL REPORT NUMBER
--
OR
(REOUIRED)
FG (M C ); CONTENT IS LUMBER C-27 FOR ,/ IS 15% M.C. EVALUATION CUSSIFICATION (NOT REOUIRED)
.KILN
DRIED (SOMETIMES
REOUIRED TEST RESULTS IF NOT
_
..-
\
AMER TREATMENT" PRODUCT IS AIR DRIED)
INDICATES RESULTS
TBAT TEST ARE 25 OR
LESS
(SOME DATE OF TREATMENT THIS) CODES REOUIRE
NOTE as classB Wood shakesand shinglesare furtherclassified or C. Ratherthan stamp each piece.each bundle is tagged with an identilicationmark. TYPICAL
FIRE-RETARDANT
TREATED
\ivOOD IDENTIFICATION
ting use of untreatedwood in about l0% of the combined wall and ceiling surlace area. Sizes and species currently being lreat€d (flamespreadindex less than 25) includered oak and Western red cedar up to 4/4 and y€llow poplarup to 8/4. Colorand finishesare affected by FRTS. F I N I S H I N GA N D F I N I S H E S FRTlumberand plywoodcan be lightlysandedfor cosmetic cleaningaftsr treatment. Paintingand stainingare possible but not always sumessful, particularlytransparentfinishes. Test finishesfor compatibilitybefore application. Treated lumber may be end cut, but ripping and extensive surfacingwill normallyvoid the UL label.To the extent possible, materialsshould be precut beforo treatment, olherwise a wood tr€atershould be consulted.Treatedplywood can b€ cut in either directionwithout loss of tire orotection. Intumescentcoatingsare sometimes used to reduceflammability of wood surfacesin both opaqueand transparent finishes. Under high heat, these coatingsexpand or foam, creating an insulating etfect that reduces flame spread.
FLAME
SPREAD
INDEX
MARK
Check local codes belore specifying these coatings becausethey tend to be less durable,softer,and more hygroscopicthan standardIinishes. NOTES 1. These standardsapply to FRTwood: ASTM E-84,ASTM D.2898, ASTM D-3201, ASTM E-108, AWPA C-20, AWPA C-27, and ULI Building Materials Directory {cur rent edition).For more information,contact the American Wood Preservers'Ass@iation(AWPA).AmericanWood Preservers' lnstitute, USDA Forest Service. Southern Forest ProductsAssociation,Western W@d Preseryers lnstitute,and AmericanForestand PaperAssociation. 2. FRTwood has increasedweight and decreasedstrength; consult a structural engine€r and the wood treater for actualdesign valuestor structuralapplications. 3. FRTwood faslenersmust be hotdipped, zinc{oated galvanized stainlesssteel, silicon bronze, or copper; other materialsdeteriorateupon contactwith FRTchemicals. 4. The smokeieveloped indexfor the productslistedin the flame spread index remained below 450, the limiting valueused in most buildingcodes. FLAME SPREAD INDEX OF FACTORY-FIN ISH ED PRODUCTS
Both the flame spread index and smoke-developed index give numerical scales for a material's fire classification. The flame spread index is the primary test for lire performance. according to ASTM E€4, which mandates a flame spread rating of 25 or less. In the Model Buiiding Codes. flame spread ratings are classilied as 0-25 (Class I or A), 26-75 (Class ll or B). and 76-200 (Class lll or C). index of 450 or less is permitted for A smokedeveloped FRT wood. The UL FR-S listing applies only to treated products with a UL-723 {ASTM E€41 flame and smoke classification not exceeding 25 in a 3Gmin. test. The classitication applies to the species tested and does not p€rtain to the structures in which the materials are installed. Fire retardants come in interior and exterior types. Interior fire retardants are used on wood trusses and studs: exterior retardants protect exterior lumber, siding, r@f shakes and shingles. and scaffold planking. The latter type oflers durable, nonleachable. long-term fire protection in outdoor or moist (relative humidity oI 959o or greater) conditions. Some codes count Class C or Class B FRT shingles and shakes as noncombustible materials. Fo. w@d exposed to the weather, specity exteriortype retardants that retain their protective properlies under the standard rain test. lnterior Type A wood is appropriate for interior and weatherprotected applications with less than 95% relative humidity. ln rare instances, when relative humidity is less than 75%, Type I can be specified. Interior Type A is used when a wood with low hygroscopicity {the rate at Mich the chemical draws moisture from the air) is required. FRT INTERIOR
WOOD\n/ORK
Instead of solid lumber, it is often desrrable to build memb€rs ot treated cores clad with untreated veneersl/2s in. thick or less. Most codes discount this narrow finishing in determining the flame spread index of the wood, permit-
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA: Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Marvland
WOOD TREATMENT
' Unlessindicated, thicknessof materialis 1 in. nominal. , Sources:APA-American Plywood Association;CRACaliforniaRedwoodAssociation;Cwc-Canadian Wood Council; FPL-USDA Forest Products Laboratory; HPMA-Hardwood Plwood Manufacturers Associa-
tion; NBs-National Bureau o{ Standards; UL-Unde. wr,ters Laboratories. 3 Average of I 8 tests was 154 with three values over 200. o Hardwood Plywood Association tesl Manufacturers records
Wood Adhesives /
/
.'B.S' APPLIED FRAMING
317
SINGLE RIBBON ON TNTERMEDTATE MEMBERS
?J6" OIAMETER RIBBON WIDTH, RECOMMENDED.
ADHESIVE
GUN
-ADHESIW COVERAGE DETERMINED BY NOTCH SZE
NOTCHED ADHESIVE
TROWEL CTO SPREAD OVER I.ARGE AREAS)
ADHESIVE
APPLICATIONS
ADHESIVES
NOT E Adhesive is applied to one surface only.
RECOMMENDED
ADHESIVE
BEAD PATTERNs
SUMMARY
CLASS
TYPICAL
USES
lnteflor use and
with melamineor other resins
resrn phenol-resorcinol resins
underdamp conditions;moderateto low rosistanceto temperatures above120"F;white or tan color nrgn suengln unoer Dotnwet and dry con( ture and damp conditions:dark red in color Hrgh Strength under both wet and dry co veryresrstantto mors. ture and damp conditions: dark red color
hrghstrengthIn dry conditions;low r€sistanceto moisture elevatedtemperatures;ioints tend to yield under continuedstressj white or Yellowcolor
acerate
emulsrons
interiorparticleboard;tlush doors;furnitu.ecore stock aonesrve and llakeboard adhesive s 3no assembly joints to withstand severe seryice conditrons
lamrnates.archatectural woodworking
to polwrnyl acetateresrnemul. acetateresin emulsions
tural woodworking an elastomer base In organrc Sol-
Initral ioint strength develops immediately upon pressing, increases slowly over a period of weeks; dry strength generally lower than thos€ ot conven-
rativelaminatesto substrates.Usefulfor lowtionalw@dworking glues;water resistahe and resistanceto severecon- strengthmetal and some plastic bonding. ditionsvariable:color varies (elastomeric (jap trllrng: develops strength slowly over several weeks: water rests'tance Lumberand plywood to joists and studs;gypsum constructionadhesives) elastomerbase,usuallyin organicsolvents and resistance lor severe conditions vary: color varies boa.d;stvrene and urethanefoams syft thetic resins {hot melts}
adhesrves: mrnimal o€netration; moislure resistant; white to tan color
polymers,usuallyIn two pans, manencein wood joints not adequatelyestablished;
Used In combrnatron wrth other resrns lor bondrng metals, plastics, and materials other than wood: fabrication of cold-molded wood panels lamrnalng
(casein and hide)
'Most typesusedin the U.S.are alkaline{atalyzed. The gereralstatements referto thistype.
Data: Adapted from Table 1OGG-12,kchitetural W@dwo* OualityStandards(6th ed.. version 1.1. 1994)
GENERAL
CONSTRUCTION
ADH ESIVES
Adhesives haw been used for bonding wood for centuries, but until the 1930s they ${ere limited to only a few naturally derived substancos-those based on animal or vegetable proteins, gums, or resins. Stepp€d{p materials research effons during World W8r ll spurred the development of synthetic adhesives for bonding metals, concrete, glass, rubber, plastics. and wood.
intended application.this base is made of natural rubber (isoprene)or synthetic rubbers srch as neopren€, buM, polyurethane, polysulfide, nitrile. styrene-butadiene,or buladiensacrylonitrile.Additivesincludetackifiers,flow and extrusionmodi{iers.curingagents.antioxidants,and fillers. Together.the base and th€ additivesare dispersed(or dissolved)in a liquid,typicallyan organicsolventor water.
Construction adhesives are defined as elastomer-based extrudable mastics. which reans thal the main adhBsive component is elastic and will continue to maintain some of ils flexibility indefinitely. Mastics are a type of adhesive with high viscosity, or resistance to flow. A construction adhesive is a substance capable of holding materials together by surface attachment.
Many of these synthetic adhesives are used to manufacture products such as ph/w@d, oriente+strand board (OSB), and laminated timbers. They can also be used during construction to attach plywood subfloors to floor loists, adhere ceramac tiles to fl@rs or walls. attach drywall. and the like. In addition to their structural use, adhesives also can be used to eliminate squeaks in floors and tor some mechanical fastening.
Cu(ently, most adhesivesuse organicsolv€nts,but waterbasedadhesivesare gainingin popularitybecausethey do not emit harmful vapors,are easy to clean up, and can be discardedas regulartrash.Duringthe specificationprocess, disposalof the containersfrom organicsolvents must be considered. Many jurisdictions are enactingcleanair statutesin whichorganicsolventsaretargetedas airpollutants. ln addition,organic solvents can have adverse aflects on the workers who apply them as well 6 tuture building occuoants.One drawbackto most water$ased adhesives is that they tend only to resist water, while the solventbasedadhesivesare waterproof.
Adhesives used for building have been formulated to tolerate many of the often adverse conditions that exist at mosl Job sites, such as extreme temperatures and temperature tluctuations. They are excellent for filling gaps. and thus work on both smooth and rough surfaces. Because they form bond lines up to'/. in. thick, they can bridge gaps between illfitting pieces. The degree of adhesion depends on the surtace conditions of the materials; ice, dirt, grease, or other contaminants will all have a negative ellect.
Adhesives are composed of a base component, dispersion medium, and various additives that impart specific propel ties. The elasloreric base of a construction-tvoe adhesive accounts for 30 to 507o of its weight. Depending on its
Many of the characteristics of modern adhesives are described an the table. Note that most adhere to wood, but performance depends on careful consideration of physical and chemical compalibility of glue and wood, processing requirements. mechanical properties, and durability under des,gn conditions.
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA;Oak LeatStudio:Crownsville. Marvland
WOOD AND PLASTIC FASTENINGS
318 GENERAL
Nqils NOTES
1. Nails are made of many materials for diverse uses When selecting nails, follow the recommendation of the manufacturer of the material to be fastened, as well as buildIng codes when applicable. 2. Select nails so as to avoid galvanrc action between the nail and the nailed material.
ROUGH
CONSTRUCTION
NAME
SHAPE
COMMON
or@
ANNULAR
3. Select nail head size according to the strength and area of the material to be held. 4. In wood framing the correct size and number of nails must be used at any given point to withstand stress. Pre cedures for €lculating nailed conoections can be lound in National Design Specifications for Wood Construction (Washington: National Forest Products Association {American Forest and Paper Associationl). 5. Base nail selection on the type(s) of wood or other materials to be assembled, joined, or connected. 6. Nails with serrated or helically threaded shanks have increased holding power. Such nails are ditficult, if not jmpossible, to remove without destroying the surroundIng matenat. 7- Where nails are exposed to moisture or weather, for example, in exterior stucco lath, use nonferrous (alumi, num or zinc{oated} nails. L Choose nails for automatic nailing equipment specificallv tor the equipment used. See ANSI "Safety Requirements lor Power Actuated Faslening Systems" and OSHA regulations.
HELICAL
ot@
C O M M O NC U TS T R I K E
n u --
MATERIAL
FINISH
Steel or alumrnum
Smooth
Steel,hardened steel, copper, brass,bronze, siliconbronze, nickelsilver, aluminum,monel, or stainlesssteel
Bright, hardened
Steel or iron
Bright or zinc{oated
Steel
Bright or zinc{oated
Aluminum
Bright
DOUBLE-HEADED
SOUARE
I
n
D 0 fronif_TTTTm.0]TToonaTIir Steel
Smooth.bright, zrnc{oateo
Aluminum
Bright or hard
R O U N DW I R E ANNULAR
C
ROOFING NAM
SIDING & SHINGLE (BARBED) ROOFING ROOFING NONLEAKING ROOFING SHINGLN E AIL CUTSLATING (NONFERROUS) GUTTERSPIKE (ROUND) GUTTERSPIKE (ANNULAR)
SHAPE
or|-
MATERIAL
copper,or aluminum
c rF:.
o ltr*
Steel or aluminum
FINISH
Smooth. bright, zjnc- or cementroated
Steel
o$I
ft-r-
Steel or cut iron
o
fl:
Copper.munu metal, or zrnc
o[ o /^\
]l
v/
\l
Plain or zincroated
Steel
Bright or zanc{oated
Copper
Bright
FINISH WORK NAM E
WALLBOARD F I N EN A I L
MATERIAL
o
Steel or alumanum
O|l--.
FINISH blued, or cement coated Bright
Steel
COMMON
NAIL SIZES
LATH LATH CASINGOR BRAD
Or--. @
Elued or cement{oated
Steel or alumlnum
o
INISHING
Steel
Smooth, bright, blued, or cement{oated Bright or cement{oated Smooth
MISCELLANEOUS NAM E
CEMENT
SHAPE
M A T E R IA L
(f thnn t \_-/
CEMENT (FLUTED HELICAL)
Hardened
OFFSET (LATH) HOOKED {LATH) TAPLE
Charles F. D. Egbert, AIA; Architect; Washington, D.C
WOODAND PLASTIC FASTENINGS
FINISH Smooth, bright, or oil-quenched
0
I
Steel
Bright,btued,or zinc{oated
G
319
StructurqlWood Fqsteners WOOD
.
STUD
METAL HOLDSTPAP
DOWN
L-a'-
1A"
- 24'
2X PRESSURE TREATED WOOD SILL PLATE -\,
NOTE: For tying unnotched 2x rafters to top wall plates; for uDlitt and lateral load resislance. RAFTEFT
TWO.SIDED
TIE NOTCHED
dation wall
NOTE: Provides tension for wood-to-wood or wood-tomasonryconnectionsfor wood trusses and joists. TRUSS ANCHORS
METAL
UG
'--;;';;^;-' BOLTq
OR ]HROUGH
d.;:;:
BASE-\
*- "t i^ *\
BOLT CONNEfrION (onoNAL
STRAP
HOLD.DOWN/UPLIFT
\/
rcST (aPPROX.)
TOP PUTES
il\g ,o=,)fen;;s-v*/
NOTE:Ties one or two top platesto notchedrafterstor tension cord snnections. RAFTER TIES ONE-SIDED
AND
NOTE:Providestloor-tefl@r tension connection;for nailed or bolted connections. FLOOR TIE ANCHOR
NOTCHED RA-ER
W@D
E}ASE
COLUMN
COLUMN
CAPS AND BASES
STUD OR POST UG BOLT OR THROUGH BOLT
TOP |uTES WASHER (offroNAL)
IN-LINE SruD NOTE: Ties notched rafter to stud on same plane as rafter for tension load connection. TIE
RAFTER-TO-STUD
E}ASE
POSTCAP/BASE:For variedpost cap or base connectaons. COLUMN BASE:Attachesw@d post to concrete embedment to resist high uplift lGds.
SILL fuE
ROO HRADED THROUGH FLG SRUflRE OR ANCHOR BOLT INTO FOUNMTION
METAI HOLD.DO\m OR UFLIff
tcds o"**" NorE:rransfers tension
o"illl?T,roo
TOP FI,ANGE FACE-MOUNT NOTE: Joist connector (in wide variety of sizes). JOIST
HANGERS
poststo foundation. METAL
METI SII ANCHOR-
stud to bottompratefor tensionroad
ANCHOR
HOLD-DOWN/IJPLIFT
-WOOD
ALTERNATE INSTALUTION OF ANCHOR
STUD
@NCREE OR CMU FOUNDATION
IuE -
TREA (APPROX.)
:ffg{? 1'/1'
-
6"
Y*
]<<7'
Hr
- 16'
NOTE:Anchors sill olate to concrete or CMU foundation wall and/orstuds. SILL PLATE ANCHORS/SIDE INSTALI.-ATION
\-*-|,*,,
f'l|
|.fl
o"...,." f:ll'-.-*,.S - ' i 6-: .|' ff .l1 il .i STRAP
-1-
\\
1 ; l ' , . ', , . '
AND
ALTERNATE INSTAI.LANON OF ANCHOR -
L-STRAPS:
For
varied
vertical
to
e.9.,
horizontal
TIES
NOTE:Anchors sill Olateto concrete wail.
21h'
1/2'-21h.
|
11/4'
'#'-*r( '";_1',l1[[ {-F*
Itrd
*e
:' coNcRETE OR CMU FOUNDATION
\N
-
{
Z.CLIP
^__. ^lil1."..,..
L-STRAP
STRAP: For tying varied tension load connections, joists at ridge, wall-tcfloor connections, etc. T-
NCHOR
11h'
2X PRESSUREREAED wooD sr[ PUTE
n\Y
f.:tlb l . . li
^__ -_tJ I
METAL SII PGTE
BACK.UP CLIP FRAMING ANCHOFT two wav FRAMING ANCHOR: For varied wood-tewood connections; optional bendable extensions allow threeway connections. BACK-UP CLIP: To provide back{p support for gypsum board in lieu of wood framing; can save wood material.
METAL ANGLE
ROOF CLIP
TRTJSS
Z-CLIP Secures 2x blockrng between joists and/or trusses.
CMU foundation
METAL ANGLE: Provides varied wood-tqw@d concrete anchorage.
or wood-tq
SILL PT-.ATE ANCHORS/CENTERLINE INSTALT.ATION
ROOF TRUSS CLIP: Provid€s alignment control belween roof truss and nonbearing walls; slot permits loadinduced truss movemenr-
ANCHORS
VARIOUS
CLIPS
AND
ANCHORS
NOTES 1. For utmosl rigidity, strength, and service, each type of lastener requires ioint designs adapted to wood strength along and across the grain and to dimensional changes that mav @cur with variations in moisture content. 2. For lorces such as wind uplift and lateral loads (wind and eanhquake), the toundation, flootrtqfloor, and roof connections are the main areas of concern, although, in varying degrees, all connections taken together will resist
these forcas. ln some joints, the fastener or connector is the only resistor to the applied load. 3. Most fasteners used lo ioin wood framing or to attach retal connectors to traming are made of steel, with a hotdipped galvanized coating the most typical linish used. Stainless steel, or finishes such as a corrosionresistant primer or a copolymer coating. can also be used. In the oresence of moisture, metals used for nails
and other fasteners may corrode when in contact with material treated with cenain preseruatives. Fasteners galvanized steel. copper, silicon made of hotdipped bronze, and 304 and 316 stainless steel have performed well in wood treated with ammonaacal cooper arsenate (ACA) and chromated copp€r arsenate (CCA), the most common preseryatives lor wood. Of course, provision should always be made to avoid galvanic action between dissimilar metals.
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvland
FASTENINGS WOOD AND PLASTIC
320
Shieldsond Anchors
MACHINE BOLT ANCHORS AND SHIELDS (IN.)
s rrzre-
t" -
f tl
TO INSERT i scREw-
---f
AD
ltl
m-l-I
kh-r
g1
H-l_,
I
NHI
dJ'l N=l
gr7 xl
-l#
ntt l-Nt
| I
SELF-DRILLING SION ANCHOR (SNAP.OFF TYPE)
ffi
lr-rL-
rrr'SINGLE EXPANDING ANCHOR (cAULKtNGI
so
t4i,-
o.o
| I
1/d
DIA. OF BOLT EXPAN-
NOTE S IN G L E EXPANDING ANCHOR (NoNcAULKING
M U LTI PLE EXPANDING ANCHOR IPLAIN STYLE)
F J
MULTIPLE EXPANDING ANCHOR (THREADEO STYLEI
l. Refer to manufactu.ers for size varia tions within the limits shown, and tor different types of bolts.
DOUBLE ACTING SHIELD
2. The anchor i5 made of caE hardened steel and drawn carburazing steel_
a
HOLLOW WALL ANCHORS
E=T_T tll Bfl
llEHl,l
2t/a
31/z
'Use of three units in th*
4 1 /a
diameiersis rmommended.
NOTE l. Extensronsrse lor dep sning.
3. Many are threaded for use wtth the head of the rcrew outsade, sme with the head inside and $me types re quire setting tools to install. 4. In light construction plastic expansion shields are used freauentlv.
2. Expansion$ietds and anchorsstrown are represtative of many typ6, eme ot which mav b€ usd in singleo. mulriple units.
SHIELDS FOR LAG BOLTS AND WOOD SCREWS 0N.)
-
3 o ! U t
(J o
o J
o u
N. o
t
u c o o o o o 3
o
]
d
-t16
z
B J
SHORT
164
3/a -11 /z
,z5u
.190
16
,zo6
18
.294
20 24
.320 Jtz
u
N o
o U z
2
FJl tEtI E| F| -w-.
E
t o E
r"?,5
ie OR
J
U q o
| - 1 1 /z
L
13/a
STUO ANCFIOR
MIN, HOLE DEPTH o 31/a
1 3/ e
L
lx/a
-31 /a
MIN. HOLE DEPTH o
ikt"?"t" L
13/a
MIN. HOLE DEPTH D
HEAD STYLE
t/z-11/s
Acorn nut
|-l1lz
I
1t/z
JZL
1-11/z
5/a
13/a
13/a
1 3 /a
21/z
13/a
a
.ozt
z
.50( 23/a -7
11/z
1 1 /a
3t/z
I
r.00 25
1 s/a
1 ) l s- 3
33/a-7
23/e
21/a-6
41/a -81/t
2t/e
2t/z-8
21/.6 21le
.624 31/z -8t /: .875
3t /z
1r/a 211a-5
lt/z 3/e
.500 750
o z
LONG 3/a-11/z
l4
E
Z-\ LEAD SHIELO FOR LAG BOLT OR wooD scREw
r38
.z to
o c o o z
il
J
tl
o u o
l0 t2
N a J
H
LAG BOLT EXPANSION SHIELO
F1 I
z
l-E "ltlI
I
f,Fl 'l uM g ,tt +I tr' UEI
/FHI I| l"-/
ONE PIECE ANCHORS (IN.)
tj-f i'!-+ )lE
I
11ES\ II \EEI/
1 \/ z
lt /a -1O
3 1 /a
b-tu
33/a
o
4 1 /z
9-
5t/z
23/a -51 /a
21!1 -4
Hex nut
1 1/ e
21/a -51 /z
Sleve anchorsavailablein acorn nut, hex nut, flat head,round head, phillips round head,and tie wire headstvles.
WOODAND PLASTIC FASTENINGS
32r
Screwsond Bolts M A C H I N EE S SC CRREEW W ANO 3
5 TOVE
(lNS.l
SCREW ANO BOLT LENGTHS {INS.I
o
:,; =,
=
u :j
IJ Y1 a1 oo
>o
FLAT HEAD
FILLISTER
Ya)/e 40 N.C.
/e-lfz
Ye-1Yz
36
Ve-1Vt
C.
t/,a-3
%o-3
v,-3
y4-3
6-
O
%-6
FLAT H EAD
HEXAGON H EAO
Ye-6
3/a-3
y4-6
%-8
| -o
Vz-23/,
Vz-3Vz
'A-33/,
Yz-8
v,-8
l-10
%-3 3h-3
,/t-4
1/,-3Yz
3h-4
3/,-3Y, 3h-4
xh-4,h
l-4
1-4y,
7A
1-4
t-5
,/e
2-6
3h-12
|-20 l-20
1Ve-4Vz
| -30 |-30
1-20
| 72- tO
1'/z-4'/z
|-30
r -20
11/z-16
1Vz-30
13/,-5
ROUNO
(r(|)\ \ /\-\
V
,N\
L e n g t h i n t e r v a l s = % i n . LengthinteF increments up to 6 in., % vals = % in. in. increments from 6% in Inctemenlsup to l2 in., I in. increments t o 8 i n . , 1 i n . 'l increments over 2 in. ov
YU
I
r\
-t\
@))
__Jt+]ir,tIKllI
w\l7
-m
,vY
D
\,/ Selt-lockingnuts havea pin that acts as a rachet, sliding down the thread as the bolt is tightened,to prevenl l@sening lfom shock and vibration.
V7
TOOTH LOCK ( INTERNAL )
\-/
FIBERGLASS
couNrERsu SUNK
.lR.ln l€19
lr\ ln\ l{()tt{()l +\7 r\\7
( EXTERNAL
}
@
_l-+ +_-9_+ ilE88bl FJ5.Ri'#ts
The bolt's clamping force causes protrusrons on the washer to llalten partially, closing the gap belween the washe. and the bolt head. Measurement of the gap indicates whether the bolt has been tightened adequately.
/\
rd)
v
+ E) -,ttI
Fiberglass nuts and bolts are noncorrosive and nonBolts conductive. ate available in 3/sin.. '/2 in., s/s 3/. in., in., and 1 in. slandard diameters.
NUTS
AND BOLTS
Highiension.stainlesssteel helicalinsertsare held in place by spring-likepressure, and they are used to salvagedamagedth.eads. They also eliminatethread failuredue to stressconditrons. HELICAL
INSERTS
it u. +
NOTES
Interle.encebody bollsaredriven into reamedor drilledholes lo createa joint in lull bearing.
+-+r:
+--+ l-
=
|
-=
-a
R [] +Y/ Ir_iJJ EgiisB |t |t
tl t l llltl
/ l
33,!f'
+----9Jq1-
+5 I
tt
+
+-f, tl t4 ll
,lt iIl l l. Eent bolts are specialty items made to order. 2 . D = b o l t d i a m e t e r ;C = i n s i d e o p e n . ing width; T = thread length; L = inside length of bolt; A = inside deprh.
=> =:
l-1a ,ln n ,I |t ll l=rl
l\\
ffil
\^/ASHER
++
+ets
\/
,:?:f".,
@
HEX
TRUSS
(^\ n\ I+= fi= \w \v/ l+- l+i:i
WASHERS
a
FILLISTER
,/-\
@rc))r
ffiA CASTELLATE
FLAT
T
2- to
1Yz-30
'/2-)
HEAO
| -12
3A-24
Lengthintervals= % in. increments up to 1 in., % in. incrementstrom 1t/t io. to 4 in., \/, in. incrementslrom 4t/z in Incremenls to 6 in.
v, v7 Lengthintervals= %Gin. increments up to % in.. % in. increments from % io. to 1% in., % in. incrementshon l'/z in. to 3 in.. % in. incrementsfrom 3% in. to 6 in. NOTE:N.C. = Cou.sethread
LAG BOLT
Vz-8
2-5
416-J
CARRIAGE SOLT
%-3
v,
3/'a-2
MACHINE BO LT
H EAO
fz-3'/z
3/,-4
Vz
FILLISTER
Vz-2'/.
'/16
Va-3/, '/a-1
Z
'/r6-O
'/1
% t/r
Va-1Yz
'/6-
OVEN HE A O
Var/e
6
10 12
OVAL HEAD
HEAD
YrYa
6 '/32
BUTTON HEAO
V, ROUNO HEAD '/er/a
3
-/16
BOLTS
CAP SCREWS U.
U 6 U
I
titl tttl
if-
E8SB"
F % , + _#: _ + %-
+-+e_ ltt-:ttt-
I r 'l= | | fri ltattu
| ;'l = I t1-t-l
n ,l I n,l I R tt |tr ll tl )
:':::1?:
|
Il
a \--l
aEND
|t
ll]=Nl 8PHe".
tl
sPEcraL
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C
WOODAND PLASTIC FASTENINGS
322
Rivefs,Screws,ond MiscelloneousFosteners
WITH
r^)
STUB
ENOS
/A
FIR
e
H
\"/
aa
.250
t/z
ttl
375
4 '/z
4
625
.750
6" 9"
12" 1 1/tz
1 '/t
1 2t/tz
o
B
12"
12
OIAreT€RS
ffR
f'
2-4
E
1,
'/"
,2
ryALA4E,
NOT
4WAYS
164 1.875 .500
2-4 2 t/t 1 . 2 5 0 2.000
WING
6"
9" 12"
B
't.00
875
,/t t/,
r38 r.438
EOUIV
,/e
.500
INCHES) 5/t
DECIMAL
t/,
DI AMETER
( IN
TOGGLE
( tN INeHES)
TURNEIUCKLES
OECI. EQUIV
/A
tu I V\/
\u/ tl
'(/
1 1/e
.500 2'/z 2.000
1," r90 1.875 500
2-6 2.000
RIVITEO
TUMBLE
13 2.750
2.875 l.txx)
688 2'/z -
,6/5
2.250
2.150 2.150
.688
415
.875
2.750 .625
2.750 .688 3-6
500 3-6 2.000
2.250
3-6
500 3-6
B
STOCKEO
t, .250
-6
3-6
.500 4.625 1.250
J_D
3-6
1
rrn-, -dh:,t F1fi> 6fr1 6D f?, .41.{h fillt? -+H
j qlil'ttdY ilfi -lFW tllFLillliU 6
Ttr'EAC)EO
PULL
TS
m
FoR
UgE
IN A JoINT
MANOREL
THAT
ORIVE
Is ACCEGSIBLE
FRoM
oNLY
H?
LJ
wrrH
STEELi
IN
@ [J PAry
soLTo,TUBULAR aNo GpLrr sHNKs
sTAINLESS
CHTMICALLY
FIN
OIAMETER€
OF
oF 6TEEL, BRAss, copr'ER,
I/e..
7/16'' ANo
To
/-1r\
IP tr \N\\\'N", r_, ffu* \l_|
|
ffiT
Self-drilling,astenefs: used to attach metal to metal, wood, and concrete.Consult manufaclurerfor sizesand drillingcapabiiities.
o
o
POTNT
Sheet metal gimlet point: hardened, self-tapping. Used in 28 gauge to 6 g€uge sheet metal; aluminum, plaslic, slate, etc. Usual head tvoes.
sLorrEo
vU
6HET
METAL
BLUNT
tl
POINT
Sheet metal bluot point: hardened, selttapping. Used in 28 to 1 8 gauge sheet metal. Made in sizes 4 ro 14 ln usual head tvoes.
F.1
"x v
rA\ \/
rTr w
LJ
FREARSON
=
a
= 9.-
=
a
THruM
BeuaRe HE .
.,LorrEo
EBI*=t
Set Screws: headless with socket or slotled toD; made in s i z e s4 h . t o r 2 i o . , a n d I n l e n g l h s 1 / I n . t o 5 i n . S q u a r e headsizesr. In. tO 1 in., and lengthsrr h. to 5 rn.
SET
METALGIMLET
SCREWS
CUTTING.
CUTTING
6LOT
Thread cuttiog, cutting slot: hardened. Used in m e t a l s u p t o r . i n . t h i c k i n s i z e s4 i n . t o 5 r o i n . i n usual head tvoes.
SHEET METALA THREADING SCRE\^/S
TimolhyB. McDonald;Washington,D.C
WOOD AND PLASTIC FASTENINGS
ov{HeAo
LENGTHS
/^\
Etssss\rus-e
EXPANOTO
SIoE
\7
TJ
ETANOARO RIVETS AVAILABLE ALWINUM,MONEL METAL AND OF 3/16" TO 4lN.
oNE
DRIVE TYPES
r-\smsw
Western or PlqtformFroming HIP
RAFTER
323
RAFTER
HEAOER HIP ROOF+ SHEATHING
JACK
TAIL
RAFTER
RAFTER
OOUBLE VALLEY
TRIMMER
RAFTER
NAILER
RIOGE
OORMER
HEAOER DORMER
RAFTER
FASCIA
OOUALE HEAOER
wooo STTEL
CAP TWO
PLATE 2X4'S
oR STUO
BRACING
HEAOER
SHORT
PLYWOOD SUBFLOORING
2)<4
JOIST
SOLE PLATE
HEAOER OOUBLE JOIST
PLATE
TWO
2 X 4'S
LEDGER CARRIAGE
HEAOER
DOUBLE
OOUBLE HEADER
YWOOD SUBFLOORING
2X4 SILL PLATE
JOIST FIRESTOP SILL STEEL
HEAOER
STEEL rcOO
t/2"
tANCHOR
BOLT
BEAM OR BRACING
a'-o" MAx- o.c. oR MIN. TWO PTR SILL
FOUNDATION CONC RETE
OR
MASONRY
AT YWOOD SHEATHING FRAME, BRACES CORNER MAY OTHER SHEATHING AE NON-STRUCTURAL
PLATFORM
FRAMING
NOTES STUO
WALL
SOLE
PLATE
HEAOER
WESTERN OR PLATFORM FRAMING
BRACING EXTERIOR WALLS
Eefore any of the superstructure is erected, the first lloor subflooring is put down making a platform on which the walls and panhions can be assembled and tilted into place. The process is r€peated lor each story of the building. This traming system is used trequently .
Because floor lraming and wall frames do not interlock. adequale sheathing must acl as bracing and provide the necessary late.al resistance. Where required lor additional stiffness or bracing, 1 x 4's may be let into outer face of studs at 45o angle secu.ed at top, bottom, and lo studs.
FIRESTOPPING
BRIOGING FOR FLOOR JOISTS May be omitted when tlooring is oailed adequately to joisl; however, where nominal depth-to-thickness tatio ol ioists exceeds 6, bridging would be installed at 8 lt.0 in. ioter vals. Building codes may allow omission of btidging under certain conditions,
JOIST TOP
PLATE
All concealed spaces in framing, with the exception of areas around llues and chimneys, are to be lined with 2 in, blocking arranged to prevenl drafts between spaces.
PLATE
SOLE
SUBFLOORING HEAOER
EXTERIOR WALL FRAMING FLOOR
JOIST
SILL
PLATE
r,!" o
aNcHoR
FOUNOATION
BoLT WALL
One story buildings: 2 x 4's, 16 in. or 24 in. o.c.; 2 x 6's, 24 in. o.c. Two and three stories: 2 x 4's, l6 in. o.c.; 2 x 6's, 24 in. o.c.
Steel bridging is available.Some typesdo not.equire nails.
Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
324
TreotedWood Foundotions
2X
FIELD
APPLIED
TOP
PLATE
TOP
PLATE
PRESSURE-TREATED
-
PRESSURE-REATED PLWOOD COVER PDE POLYETHYLENE WAER DreRTER
INSUGNON VArcR BARRIER
WALLBOARD
MID.WALL BL@KING
SOD AND TOPSOIL AT =_-
PRESSURE.TREATED AT SHEATHING
PLWOOD
PLWOOD
LOW.POROSIry MATERIAL BACKFILL (12' MIN. DEPTH)
POLYETHYLENE
JOINTS
.--
RYWO|C)D JOIM FILLED WITH SEAUNT
/-
TREATED STUD WALL TREATED
.---._
TREATED
RESSURE-TREATED PL.fr@A SHATHING
FILLER
CRAWL
TREATED
rcLYETHYLENE
rcLYETHYLENE
MOISTURE
1. Geotextilematerialmay be used under aod arounddrainage layersand backfillit soil conditionswarrant. 2. Stud size and spacingvary with materialgrade and backBASEMENT
STUD
PLWOOD
- MrN. 4' SO|L COWR TO PREVENT EROSION OR MECHANICAL DISTURBANCE
PUTE)
filldepth.ln general,42in. back{illrequircs2x4at12in. '16 o.c.,il in. requires2 x 6 at in.o.c.,and84 in.,equires 2 x 6 at 12 in. o.c.
WALL
TREATED
E}ARRIER
GRANUUR DRAINAGE UYER, 5' MIN. DEPTH (ACTS AS GRANUUR FOOTING UNDER FOC)NNG
LINE
SPACE WALL
CONCRETE
-
PGTE
-BELOW FROST
HIGH-rcROSIW BACKFILL MAERIAL
PRESSURE.REATED FOOTING PUTE
TYPICAL
FOOTING
GRAVEL OR CRUSHID STONE FOOTING
STRIP -
COMPRESSIBLE
GRADE
-
PRESSURT.TREAEO tuTE BOfrOM ',. TRATED
FINISH GRADE !4' PER SLOPE F@T MIN. 6'
POLYffHYLENE VArcR BARRIER
,-.----
GYPSUM
JOIST
SEAGNT
2X PRESSURE-TREATED STUD WALL AAN WITH
FLOOR
PLWOOD
SHEATHING
FBSHING
2X
GRAVEL OR CRUSHED STONE
F@TING
- ,.,-.---BELOW FROST
LINE
MINIMUM SOIL COVER ON SHALLOW FOOTINGS
l,vALL 2X W@D BUILT.UP PERIMETER BEAM GLUED AND BOLTED
BLGTNG TEN FOR SCHEDULE)
AT 24' NAILING
OR
4A.
(SEE '
FASEN STUDS TO TOP IuTE BEAM FLMR FRAMING
TREATED PUTE
(2) 1b' DtA. CARRIAGE AOLTS AT 6' O.C.
TOP
PERIMETER
KNEE WALL TREATED
BONOM
PUTE
FASEN STUDS TO TOP PUTE BEAM WTH JOIST HANGER
BUILT.UP
TOP
BEAM AT STAIRS
For less than 48 in. backfill,use standardlraming methods 'lod and fasten staiMell headerto too olate with three toenaals. STAIR
OPENING
AT
PERIMETER
N OTES
The constructionof treated w@d foundationsis similar to the constructionof standardwood light-framewalls except for two tactors:(1)the wood used is pressuretrebted with wood preseruatives,and {2) the extra loading and stress requirementscaused by below{rade conditions must be accommodatedin the designand detailingof the tasteners, connections,blocking.wall corners,and the like.
1 . Characteristics of a treated wood foundation svstem:
As with standardmasonryor concreteloundationsystems, treated wood foundationsrequire a good drainagesystem anorder to ruintain dry basementsand crawl spaces.However. the drainagesystem typicaliyused with treated wood foundationsis different trom that used with masonry or concrete systems. The components of a drainag€system suitablefor use with a treatedwood loundationare
2.Trcated wood foundations are not appropriate for all sites. Selection of the proper foundation system for a project depends on site conditions, including soil types. drainage conditions. ground water, and other facto.s. Wet sites In low areas, especially areas with coarsegrained soil, should be avoided i{ a full basement is desired, although a crawl space-type foundation can be used in these cases. Consult a soils engineer to determine the viability of any loundation system. 3. Lumber and plywood used in treated wood toundations must be grade-stamped for foundation use and are typically pressure tr€ated with chromated copper arsenate. Treated wood oroducts used in {oundation @nst.uction are required to contatn more preseryative than treated w@d used in applications such as fencing and decking. Codes generally call for hot-dipped galvaniz€d fasteners above grade and stainless steel lasteners below grad€.
a. All framing is standard 2x construction. b. Can be erected in any weather and when sit€ access for concrete or masonry is a Droblem. c. Deep wall cavities allow use ot high R-value insulation without loss of interior space. d. Wiring and finishing are easily achieved.
RichardJ, Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvitte. Maryland AmericanForest& PaperAssociation; Washington, DC
ROUGHCARPENTRY
WALL
WITH
EXTERIOR
WALL
INTRODUCTION
1. A highly porous backfill material. which directs water down to a granulardrainagelayer. 2. A porousgranulardrainagelayer under the entire founda, tion and flmr system to collect and dischargewater. 3. Positivedischargeof water by means of a sump system designedfor th€ soil type. This drainagesystem, devel oped tor tr€ated w@d foundations,takes the place of the typicalporousbacktillover a perimeterdraintile.
BASEMENT KNEE WALI-
4. Avoid skin contact and prolonged or frequent inhalation of sawdust when handling or rcrking with any pressure treated wood product. 5. Consult applicable building codes and the American For, est & Paper Association's "Permanent Wood Foundation Syste|]FDesign, Fabrication, Installation Manual" for requarements and design guidelines. In the early stages of a project. consult with the building code ofticials for the area or jurisdiction to assess their lamiliarity with and willingness to approve this type of system. 6. The vertical and horizontal edge-to€dge ioints ot all plywood panels used in these systems should be sealed with a suitable sealant. Consult the American Plywood Association Source List "Caulks and Adhesives for Petr manent W@d Foundation System, Form H405" for a list oi high-perf ormance caulking compounds. 7. Correct materials and details of construction are very amportant tor treated wood foundations. lf the contractor to be used for the installation is unfamiliar with this foundation system, the design should include the use of prefabricated foundation panels. Most problems with treated wood foundations can be traced to imorooer installation bv inex@rienced workers8. Since this tyF€ ot toundation system depends especially on the first floor deck to absorb and distribute any backfill loads, backfilling cannot occur until the first floor deck is complete.
TreotedWoodFoundolions 325 , PRISSURE-TREATED 11 /.' GAP BTMEEN
TREATED W6D RESSURE FOUNDATION SIDE WALL
PRESSURE.TREATED FOUNDATION WALL STUD
PRESSURE-TRATED FLOOR JOISTS UNDER BEARING
PRESSURE.TREATED WALL FOUNDATION SBEATHING
BEARING
PRESSURE TREATED PLATE BONOM
PRESSURE MEATED FOOTING
SPACED
SHEATHING PLWOOD AND STUDS)
PRESSURE.TREATED HEADER CONTINUOUS WITH JOISTS BUfrING HEAOER AND END NAILED
WALL ALIGN rcISTS
STUDS FL@R
FLMR PLW@D
-'.--- PRESSURE TREATED W@D FOUNDATION END WALL
WITH
BEARING
PRESSURE TRAED wooD SLEEERS
WALL
FOR BACKFILL HEIGHTS 5' O' NAIL OR LESS, JOISTS TO STUDS: 5 €" OR MORE. THE IS JOIST AND DOUBLED NAILED TO STUDS
STUD
SEALANT CAULKED
€INT =-
SHEATHING
\'a'GAe BEruEEN ENDS OF SLEEPERS OR FOONNG PUTES AND WALL PUTE
NOTES tendto forcethe wall 1. At an outsidecorner,soilpressures sectionstogether,makingreinforcementunnecessary. 2. Threestudsshouldbe usedat the cornerto supponinterior finishes. OUTSIDE CORNER
AND
FLOOR
GRANUUR DRANAGE
JOISTS BUfrED END TO END TIGHTLY WITH SOLID BL€KING JOIST TWISTING FINED TO PREVEM
JOISTS
UYER
d
DETAILS
PRtrSSURL
REATED
FOOTING
PG]E
FLOOR JOISTS
PRESSURE.TREATED NOTES
l.Joists to be butted end to end over pressure-treated wmo sl€pers. WOOD
FLOOR
SLEEPER
2. Floor stiffness will be increased by blocking between every ioast above each sleeper.
SYSTEM
PRESSURE-REATED FLMR
4WOOD
SHAfrING PRESSURE.RAED
BL@KING
BL€K|M-
PRESSURE.MAED IN LINE BLMKING WTH STUDS MESSURE.TREAED FOUNDANON WALL SruOS BOfiOM
!
3' NATLS aT i2'O.c.
DETAIL
aT 6' O.C
1
tuwooD
BEARING
SHATHING SruD UPS AND IS TO NAILED FACE SruD
PRESSURE RAED MUALED .,OISTS
|uTE-
PRESSURE-RATED FOONNG fu@R JOISTS DOUBLE BEARING |uTE WTLTOP
SUSPENDED FLMR JOIST (oR BLOCKTNG AT END WALL IN LINE WM
WU
BARING PUTE
BOfrOM
PRESSURE.TRAED
WTL
STUDS
FOOTING fuE
r/vOOD FLOOR PLruOOD SUBFL@R NAILED SECURELY TO BLOCKING (AND NAfLS
WITH JOISTS) MlN. ----+__/.
FOUR
GEATED
2" ASSEMBLY NALS
SruDS) PRESSURE TREATED
GALVANZED RIM JOIST FIELDAPPLIED TOP 3I'' aT
6'
Mil{
FRAMING
PUTE JOINS FLOOR JOIST TO TOP P4TE FOR
DEEF
PUE
NAILS O.C.
RESSURETOP UE NAILS JOIN T@ fuE TO TOP' PUTE SAUNT
AT
2X STUD -
GALVANED MESSURE. TREATED BOfrOM tuE-
NAIL 8' ANCHOR PRIOR DRIWN TO ASTING FLOOR SLAB
CONCRE SGB
>
AT SEAUNT BOARO JOINT, BEFORE ASSEMBLY
3
NOTES
1. At inside corners,soil pressurestend to lorce the wall panels apan. making additionalstructuralreinlorc€ment nece5sary. 2. Detail no. 1 orovides the reouired additionalreinforcement with a treated plywood splice plate and additional nailingbelow grade. INSIDE
BARRIER
TE
FOOTING PUTE DETAIL
COMINUOUS AT SFqNT MIOPOIM OF frP BONDS,
CORNER
DETAILS
N OTES '1. Fasteners and connector plates transfer soil pressure thrust from wall sheathing and studs to fl@r system; type and amount of {asteners and connectors depend on height of backfill, 2. Wind uplift anchor straps and anchor naals spaced as required bv code.
WALL ANCHORAGE
DETAIL
F@TING
OUTSIDE DETAIL
PUTE-
CORNER
PROTECTION
NOTE All wood members within bottom treated.
l8 in. of the ground should be
Richard J. Vitullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland American Forest & Paper Association; Washington, D.C.
ROUGHCARPENTRY
326
TreotedWood Foundotions /
BEAM
POCK€T
GYPSUM (ON ONE
TREATED CRIPPLE STUDS
WOOD 2X HEADER
WOOD
BOARD SIDE. MIN.)
AS
STUDS.
FIELD.APPLIED TOP PUTE .
BUILT-UP
-. -
\
TREATED TOP PI AAF
wooD
a lo"wrr
F -
BAM
SYSTEM PLWOOD SHEATHING, BOTH SIOES
2X STUD BEARING BUILT-UP wmD COLUMN
/
BL@KING (omroNAL)
-/
MIO-WALL BL@KING PLYWOOD JOINT
wooD rcLY. ffiYLENE VArcR BARRIER
@LUMN FOOTING
END WALL wooD FOOTING
STEEL ANCHOR BOLT. AS NECESSARY
TREATED rcUBLE 2X BOTTOM PGTES
PUTE
MAIN BEAMS AND COLUMNS AP PUTE TOP PUTE FRAMING
REATED FOOTING GRANUUR DRAINAGE UYER
CLIPS BOTH SIDES
FOR2X6' LIMEL USE SIX 3' NALS ACH END: FOR2X8' LINTEL USE EIGff 3' NALS ACH END
LIl.ftL MEMBTRS
BEARING
WALL
AT CONCRETE
SLAB
BONOM
CONCRETE SLAB\\ TREAED SPACER
rcLYMYLENE VArcR BARRIER
$;z'-ggt*== \
GRAWL FILL -
DRAINAGE
INTERIOR
SHEAR
WALL
TRAED SII PUTE
FULL. LENGTH
RilED BONOM IuTE METAL JOIST HANGERS OR FRNING CLIPS
RATED GIPRE STUDS
SruDS
cnaruuran
sPLtcE (MrN. 1'X a'X 32',)
DETATL W@D JOIST
FLOOR
WOOD aT 24'
E]LMKNG O.C. Md.
THREE 3%' NAILS. MIN. BLOCK IMO TOP |uTE
NOTES 1. For backfillheightsup to 4 ft 6 in. and it width of opening is 4 ft 0 in. ro 5 ft 6 in., use double siil Dlatesand double tull-lengthwall studs. 2- For backfillheightsup to 4 ft 6 in. and if width ot opening is 6 ft 0 in. to I ft 0 in., use triple sill platesand triple fula length wll studs3. For backfillheightsof 48 in- or less, nailingand fastening can conformto the appropriatebuildingcode. 4. For backfill heights greater than 4 ft 6 in. or openings wider than 9 ft 0 in., contactengineerfor design. WINDOW
FRAMING
WOOD PUTES
ruo
BEARING
SHEAR
|uE BARING TOP fuE BEARING WALL SruDS
INTERIOR BEARING JOIST SUPPORT
PAR,ALLEL JOIST OETAIL
'
w@D BLOCKING BEruEEN EACH FL@R JOIST STEEL FRAMING ANCHOR.
SHEAR
PERPENDICULAR SPLICE (2X4X24.MtN.) BARING
(::s fuTE
FOOTING
DETATL
TREAED SHUTHING MID-HEIGHT ALOCKING
/BaRNG PLW@D
fuTE
2X FIELD-APPLIED TOP fuTE 2X TRAED TOP fuTE 2X STUD @NSTRUCTION 2X CRIPPLE STUDS (2 MtN.) BONOM PUTE FOOTING PUTE
-2X4JOIST SUPrcRT SECURELY NAILED TO ACH SIDE OF BEARING WALL
SPANNING BEAM
, --8HF€[ -
BACKF|LL .
, ffiNOED
SPANNING
BEAM
WALL
BARING W&L TOP |uTE
Y' SUPPOffi FRAME MAOE f OF 2X MEMBERS \mH PUTE BEARTNG J-, BOnOM ON MNOEO FOONNG FRAME , fuTE; SHAHED (^tOT SHOWN) rN PLW@D
STEPPED
ONE
PUTE fuTE
oF GRAWL BACkFII
-LtNe
-'a
NAILS
PUTE
F@NNG BONOM
WALL
1 6d TOE ryPICAL
2X SruO CONSMUCNON BONOM
TOP
FLruOOD SHEAftING BOG SIDES
WALL_FLOOR
BEARING WIL CAP PUTE
PLWMD TOP PUTE TOP PUTE
PER
GYPSUM BOARD FINISH (omroNAL)
WAI
DETAIL
REATED SHAfrING 2X FIELD-APPLIED 2X TRATEO
UYER
NOTE Interior shear wall malerial does not need to be treated with wood preservatives.
TED RIMMER
3' NAILS aT 12. O.C.
A]
2X WC)OD SruDS
COLUMN
WOOD
INTERIOR SHEAR
>
BEARING PAD (G CONCRETE) FOOTING fuTE
DETAIL
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland American Forest & Paper Ass@iation: Washrngton, D C.
ROUGHCARPENTRY
.JOIST END.NAILING JOIST TOENAILING
CAP
INTERIOR BEARING WALL-FLOOR JOIST SUPPORT (ALTERNATIVES)
JOTST
I)ETAIL
SHEAR WALL ANCHORAGE SHEAR \/VALLS AS RACKING RESISTANCE Foundation wallsmaybe subjectto rackingloads,which occur parallel to a wall and can cause shearing forces along the plane of the wall. Racking loads are caused by soil pres: sure and other lateral forces such as earthquake and wind. Walls. connections. and tasteners must be desioned to resist these torces. Generally, soil pressure comes i-ntoplay for backfill greater than 24 in. in height: check anticipated wind and earthquake forces to determine how best to accommodate them. Check long shear walls or those with a length-tewidth ratjo greater than 2:1 for diaphragm detlection, particularly if the structure is built on a slope. The unequal heights of the backfill on a slope apply unequal loads to the end walls or walls parallel to the tloor joist system. These walls. having received these loads by the diaphragm action of the floor system, then act as shear walls. Internal shear walls, accommodated within interior partitions, also may be n€eded.
PUE
I he strength of a draphragm or shear wall depends on care ful nailing ol the plywrcd to the structural members. ply wood ioints should be staggered to increase stiffness.
FromingDetoilsfor Openings TOP
gZ7
PLATE
USE SINGLE HEAOER ALONG SIDE WOOO JOIST FOR FULL =FRAMING
LAMINATED
wooo
(
OOU BLE H EADER 2-2"X4"ON EDGE EXCEPT FOR OPENINGS ovER 3'- O"; usE 2- 2" X 6"
JolsT
0 0
NOTE, OOUBLE TRII ADEQUATE BI LARGER THA
@
TOP
PLATE
-o r o
L AM I NATED
L
-: o
DOOR
BOLTS DOUBLE
AT 2'-O" AT EACH
STEEL PLATE
FLITCH
O.C END
OPENING
\^/INDO\^/
OPENING
NOTES 1. Steel lintels a.e selected lrom steel beam design tables on lhe basis of floor, wall, and roof openings. 2. Wood lintels over openings in bearing walls may be engtneered as beams_ 3. Composate beams, such as glued laminated beams, also are approprrate in some applications. plywood box beams are used lor garage doors. Steei llrrch plates can add strength without adding extra width to a composrte beam. 4. Check wirh local codes and staodards lor fire resis, tance reeuirements. LINTELS
FOR
\MIOE
OPENTNGS TRIMMER
SMALL
rcUB€ FLUSH INTERIOR OF TOP
OPENING
HEADER WITH FACE PLATE
OOU BLE HEADER \
\
rcUBLE HEAOER (SECONO HEAOER SHOWN CUT AWAY) DOUBLE
\ \
TRIMMER
l*'."FA1oH'H,". -/ oF
JOIST OOUBLE TRIMMER ( SECOND JOIST TRIMMER SHOWN CUT AWAY) 16 d aT 6" STAGGERED
O-C -
LARGE
ecate,
/?
HANGER
DOUBLE TAIL
TOP
HEAOER
gST
STAIR
OPENING
AT
EXTERIOR
\^/ALL
JosephA. Wilkes,FAIA Wilkesand Fautknerj Washington. D.C.
ROUGHCARPENTRY
328
FromingDetqilsfor Stoirs SUBFLOORI
BEAM OOUELE
(OOUALE
N G
TRIMMERI
TRTMMER
FINISHED
TREAO
HEAOER DOUBLE HEADER JOIST ( DOUELE BEAM TRIMMER }
CANTILEVEREO
LANDING
OOUALE HEAOER CONTINUOUS
KICKPLATE
DOUBLE HEAOER
DOUBLE
JOIST
HANGER
FLOOR
CONTINUOUS
JOIST
STAIR
LEOGER
OETAILS
PLYWOOD SUBFLOORING CARRIAGE
LBasEvENr NOTES I,
A
WALL
: CARRIAGE
IS
FoR RrcrDrry. rr rs Nor
ORAWING 2
ABOVE
FOR
THE FIRS|T FLOG BqrLT gTatR. THE MENT sratRs aRE
STA.IR
FRAMING
TECOMMENDEO
sHowN
SAKE
OF
lru r-sE
FLAT STEEL PLATE FLUSH WTH JOIST ANO ANCHOREO TO BLOCKING ELOW
CLARTTY
STAIR SHC'WS A SHOPsEcoND aNo eadE--' caRpENTEn-eurut.
DETAIL
TimothyB McDonald;Washington.D.C.
rA v/
\ \
CENTER
ROUGHCARPENTRY
KICK PLATE
ANCHORS
AT
END
OF
SOLID
RAIL
FromingDefqilsfor Roofs HEAOER RAFTER
OMMON
RIDGE BOARD BEAM
COLLAR
OOUELE RAFTER
TIE BEAMS (SERVE AS
DOUBLE
CEILING
PLATE
GABLE
ROOF
JOISTS
GAMBREL
)
ROOF
HIP
ROOF
RAFTER
OOUBLE
MANSARO
SHED
ROOF
ROOF
FLAT
VALLEY RIOGE
RAFTER
COMMON
ROOF
RAFTER BOARD RAFTER
COLLAR
OOUALE
GABLE
ROOF BOARD
\^r'ITH OVERHANO OOUBLE
HIP GABLE
ROOF
INTERSECTING
HEAOER
DOUBLE RAFTER
ROOF
CEiLING FIST
TRIMMER RAFTER
RAFTER
OOUELE VALLEY RAFTER
SOLE
OOUBLE HTAOEF
JACK
PLATE
SIOE STUD
DORMER
PLATE
HEADEF
SMALL
SHEO
DORMER
E|AY \^/INDO\^/
Timothy B. McDonald:Washington,D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
329
FromingDetoilsfor Rqttersond posts
330 HIP
RAFTER
T\
FIRST RAFTER OF PAIR NAILEO WITH TWO NAIS (IO d FOR T' RIDGE 16d FoR 2"R|OGE)
JACK RAFTER
FOUR
RAF
EACH RAFTER AFFOROS MORE RESIS_ TANCE
TER JOIST
ATTIC FLOOF
THREE 16 d TOENAiLEO
OR
TWO
COLLAR 8d
NAILEO EACH
AT
stoE JACK
RAFTERS
NOTE:
d:
ROOF
PEAI< AEVELEO NOTCHED
PENNY
BEVELTO
TWO t6d TOENAILS EACH SIOE
RAFTERS BACKOVER PLATE
RAFTER
NOTCHED RAFTER \
-
PARTITION
PLATE
oNE 16 d TOENAILID
TWO r6d TOENAILEO EACH SIOE
NOTCHEO
TAL
EACH
STRAP
PROVIDES
ADDITIONAL SECURITY AGAINST UPLIFT- REFER TO LOC)AL CODES
FOUR E d
RAFTERA REeTIN€
AND CEILINO !,OISTS ON WALL PLATEE
FILLER
TWO 16 d TOENAILEO EACH SIDE AND ONE AT FRONT
ON
SIDE
16d 4"oc aNo OVER EACH JOTST
NOTCHEO OR BEVELEO RESTING ON PLATE
BRACINO OF ROOF ARE AT RTANGLES
BLOCK
TWO-gd
TWO
16 d
16 d IX4
oR
T\ ,!) NAIL-S SUFFICIENT
MIN.
rr- wtoE
Rrsfr
16 GAUGE STEEL STRAP BRACE AT 45. OR PLYWOOD PANELS WILL ALSO SUFFICE t6d STAGGEREO 12 0.c.
r6d 12" o.c. TO SPACER STUD
PLYW@D S@FL@R
JOISTE
rN EACH IF FULL
BEARING
r6d 12" o.c. STAGGERED
ro d ToENAILEO
IOd
COFINER
POC'T
TOENAILED
SAME NAtUrc ASSTUD E TOP
PLATE
JosephA. Wilkes. FAIA;Wilkes and Faulkner;Washingron,D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
ANO
BRACING
PARTITION CONNECTION
TO
WALL
JOIST STORY
ON
ffiE €OVE
RIBBON
PREFAB SKYLIGHT UNIT FITS TO CURB FLASHING REQUIRED
SOLE
STUOA TO HAVE rc FILLER BLOq
RAFTERE TO ..,OISTS
RAFTERE
I
THREE rc FILLER ALOCK
FLOOR
CURB FOR SKYLIGHT
t6d
FromingDefoilsfor Joistsond Sills THREAD ROD WELDED TO BEAM
2-8d JOIST
331
IN EACH
PREDRILLED
AS EXTERIOR SNE SILL TO EQIJALIZE SHRINKAG
LAPPEO OVER wooo stLL \^/OOD
JOI6T6
ON
ON
SUPPOR-TED
FLANGE
LOIdER
6TEEL
ON
\A/OOO
ON
BLOCKING
ANoLES
STEEL
G'IRC'ERS
TWO to d
3-20 d NEAR EACH JOIST/
JOIET NOTCHEO OVER LEOGTR STRIP NOTCHING OVER BEARING NOT RECOMMTNI)ED
\^/OOD
JOIETS
OVERLAPPING JOIETE NOTCHEO OVER oIROER AEARING ONLY ON LEOGER, NOT ON TOP OF GIRDER
JOIST IN JOIST HAN<'ER IRON ALSO CALED STIRRUP qBRIOLE IM
SUPPORTED
ON
WOOO
NOTCHEO JOISTS OVER GIROER BEARING ONLY ON NOT ON TOP LEDGER. OF GIRDER
GIROERS
2 - 16d EACH
ruO IOd EACH ENO d dE SIOE. OTHERS STAGGER 16"APART
TOENA|I-S END
IO d TGNAIL TO rcST EACH SIOE
T\^/O PIECE GIRDER GIRDER JOINTS ONLY SUPPORTS AT STAGGER JOINTS
THREE
PIECE GIRDER FOR FOUR PIECE GIRER NAILS
STEeL
. ADO
SOME TEETH. NArLs
ERIDGING HAVE BUILT. NEEDS NO
t" x IN
3'CROSS
AR|DG|NG
NOT LOWER ENOS UNTIL SUBFLOORING tS LAYEO
NAILEO
BRIOGINo
SOLIO 6EO FOR
UNDER PARTITIONS HEAVY LqOING FOR STAGGER rcARDS NAILING EASE OF
ANCrcR
3X6.4X6 S|LL HALVEO AT CGNERS
T
GROUT t/a"
-
t/2"
OIROER SHRI NKAGE SELECT JOIST.GRDER APPROXIMATE SAME SILL D€TAIL USED
OETAIL SHRINKAGE
),. THAT HAS ''A" AS
THE
5ffi ilb )N $& 4X6 DOUBLE SILL ALONG NAILS STAGGERED SILL 24'' ON CENTER
OU - AL. METAL
CLIP
FRAMING
PLATFORM FRAMING TOENAIL TO SILL NOT REOUIREO IF OIAGONAL SHEATHING USEO
TY-OOWN
OEVICES
ANCHOR
TYPTS ANCHOR
TRIP.
ZINC
L-
OF
SILL BOLTS
GRIP
COATED
STEEL
JosephA, Wilkes, FAIA;Wilkes and Faulkner;Washington.D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
332 soue
FromingDetqilsfor Wollsond Ftoors -..---i
PLATE
-STUO
i
---
-J
i=T'
-=f-
II I BRIOGNG
II
I I
PARTITIC,NS
BEARING
PERPENOIC)ULAR
INTERTOR
TO
JOI6T€
PARTITIONS
I
PARALLEL
TO
--1
zt+
BLOCKING aT t6'. oc.
PARTITION
PARTITIONE
ABOVE
NI<) PARTITIG)N
PERPENOICULAR
NONBEARINO
I
JOISTS
EALLOON
ANO
BRACEO
PARTITION€ BEARTNG
_-PARTITIONS l
NO
2r2i
INTERIOR
TO
BELOI'
JG)I€,TS
NO
PARTITION
PARTITI<)NE
ABOVE PARALLEL
NO
PARTITION
Tc|
JOI6TS
BETweEN .
JOTSTS t
E'ELO\'
PARTITIONg
\--
BLOCKING 5-2 r 4't
PLYWOOD
PLANS
OF
SHEATHNG
OUTEIOE
2 x .+ WALL
WALL
FINISH
CORNERS
PLANS
OF
INTEREECTING
PARTITIONE
FRAMINo DOUBLE
J.OIST
t-,=,
,t'
"'1 Y*':>-,--:3iZ-,4
2 x Ct CORNER WALL rAaVnO
HEADER 20
d NAIL
TYPES OF CUTS IN BLOCKING, SEE NOTE
HEAOER
FOUNOATION 20
- ' ' i ! ,
NOTE: lF SPACE ABOVE IS TO BE HEATED. INSULATE BETWEEN JOTSTS aNo PRovrDE cuTs IN BLOCKING AS SHOWN
PERPENOICULAR
CERAMIC
TILE
FLOOR
John Ray Hoke, Jr., FAIA Washington D.C
ROUGHCARPENTRY
FLOOR
TO
JOI6T
CANTILEVERE
d NA|L
*aNY ExTENstoN GREATER THAN 2'-O" MUST BE ENGINEEREO PARALLEL
TO
JOIsTE
FromingDeloils
2 X 6 2X
CRIPPLE
STUD
-
TRIMMER
2X3W@O . BLGKING
STUD KING SruD
NOTE
STUD
Providesmaximum nailingsur{aceon interiorand exterior wails.
KING SruD
WALL-HEADER
2X6 BEARING
DETAIL
K'NG STUD CRIPPLE
\ivALL_HEADER
2X4 BEARING
DETAIL
ruO 2X TOP |:uTES STUD GIPPLE
2X TOP fuTES
MO
SruD
2X HEADER
Z HADER |uTE FOR IMERIOR RrM/FrNrSH NAIUNG g
MIMMER
2X BUILT-UP
2X BEARING
WALL_HEADER
DETAIL
NOTCHED RAKE STUDS (ALIGNED STUDS BELOW CEILING JOIST
END
T , I
RIMMER
SruD
STUD
HEADEF
TOP PLATE FRAMING RAFER
2X DOUBLE HEADER WTH %. SPACE ON INTERIOR WOOD BLOCKING FOR AOOMONAL NAILING SURFACE (omoNAL)
ruO
AT
DOUBLE 2X HEAOER WITH '4. PLruOOD BETre€N
FOR SPACE INSULATION
TRIMMER
OWR4P WALLS
CRIPPLE STUDS CONTINUE COMMON WALL STUD SPACING
HEADERS
W@D
PUTES 2X TOP L@KING CORNER TOGETHER
NO2X4 TOP PGTES
ruo2xeroP|,uTES---
KING SruD
DETAIL
vt/ALL_HEADER
2X BEARING
MO2X4TOPPUTES UNreRRUffiD THROUGH OPENING CRIPPLE
2X TOP PUTES
DETAIL
RAKE WALL FRAMING
DETAIL_PLATFORM
RAKE WALL FRAMING
DETAIL-BALLOON
-
CONTINUE @MMON WALL STUD SPAONG
2X CRIPPLE NOTCHED STUD FOR BEADER
INSUUTON
%. MIN. CDX PLWOOD ANO GLUED TO NAILED ONE OR BOTH SIDES FMMING OF
INTERIOR SIDE -__> HEADER oF
FASTENERS. STAGGERED
2X
HEADER
'/2.
2X HEADER
NOTE TRIMMER SruD KING SruD
2X BEARING ruO
Interior plywood gypsum b€rd.
WALL_HEADER
DETAIL
2X TOP PSES
CRIPPLE CONTINUE coMMoN
fac€ must be sm@th
for finishing with
2X4 BEARING WALL-OPEN BOX PLYVVOOD_HEADER DETAIL MO2X4TOPluTES
STUDS
ruo 2 x 10 HADERS WN 12. tuW@D
./
STUD SPACING
MO FUT HEADERS PROVIDE
2X f I
2X4 SABBED TO BOfrOM
NAILTNG SURFACE trOR FRAME ANO TRIM
TRIMMER STUD KING SruD
TRIMMER
NOTE
STUD
This detail eliminates cripple studs above opening.
KING STUO
2X PARTITION
WALL_HEADER
DETAIL
2X BEARING
WALL-HEADER
DETAIL
GREEK RETURN
Maryland BichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville,
ROUGHCARPENTRY
333
334
FromingDetoils UPPER FLMR WALL STUDS ALIGNED ERTIALLY WITH FL@R JOISTS AND LOWER FL@R STUDS AELOW MID-HEIGHT BL@KING STIFFNESS
FOR 1 X BAND JOIST
METAL BACK.UP CLIPS FOR GYPSUM BOARD
2X SINGLE TOP PUTE \-
o"o
COMMON STUDS IN
SILL "too BLOCKING FOR WNDOWS
CONTINUOUS SOLE PGTE AELOW
.41 ll L-.]-l-'-\ .,/l\ SECoNDARY INTERSECTING WALL
| ;;'"
\
\
INTERSECTING WALI-S \^/ITH GYPSUM E]OARO CT-|PS
STRAP ROOF
\
//-
SHEATHING
NAILING
!eEEEi,"." _ )
IF WND LOADS ryCESSI€
] ^-"^
\
UPLIFT
2X4's;AT 2'{' O.C. OR2X6'5AT
|
-'.<
\-*am.* RIDGE
I
'
,.' \,-V
RIDGE BAM/BOARD
] I I FMETAL
CEILING JOIST STUDS ND JOISTS EIGNED SINGLE TOP fuTE
COMMON SruDS IN
OPEN-BOX HUDER: 1/2' AC
ruw@D GLUED AND
UP SfuICE TOP IuTE TO RESIST TENSION AND 'COMPRESSION
OruNAL EXTERIOR PLWOOD mB)
ROOF
CONTINUOUS
NAILED ON INERIOR
AELOW
END SruD SECONDARY
OF
WINrcW OPENING ALIGNS WtrH 24' siruD SPACING
SECONDARY INERSEMNG
MIMMER INTERSECTING E}LOCKING
\NALL.S
DIAPHRAGM
METAL HOLD.DOWN CONNECTOR
' t 7
z.
WIDE
OPENING
(MAY BE TRIM JOIST 1X W@D MATERTAL W|TH tN-LtNE FRAMTNG; MAY BE ELIMINAFD IF BLOCKING IS USED) z
FL@R
RIM
RIM
ANCHOR SRf NAILED IO PRESSURE.NEATED SILL PUTE SILL
PLATE
AND
RtM
JOTST
NOTES 1. Some framing details rely on technaques that reduce the amount of lumber in wood construction. Amonq these are In-line framing detarls and corner details witi metal f.aming clips for gypsum board. These tyoes of details were developed to conserye wood resources. reduce matenal cost and iob site waste, and enhance energy etficiency by reducing thermal bridging across wall syi'tems and ancreasinginsulation cavities. When wmd levels are to be reduced, a structural engineer should first be consulted.
CORNER
BLOCKING
INSULATED
WALL
DETAIL
DETAILS
RichardJ. Virullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.Maryland
ROUGHCARPENTRY
2. Gypsum board installed at inside corners with metal clios or wood backers does not get fastened to either. The sheet resting against the backer or clips is installed first so the second sheet {which is nailed to the stud) will lock the first sheet in place. The "floating joint,' that results is recommended to reduce cracks in the corner.
REDUCED WOOD
FRAMING
FLOOR.TO METAL TIE
FLOOR
JOIST
SILL PUTE MAY BE ELIMINATED IF FOUNDATON IS LEWL AND A€URATE
REDUCED DETAII-.S
JOIST
THREADED ROD FROM TOP TO BONOM HOLD DOWNS
JOIST
NAIL ANCHOR STRAPS DIRECLY TO EACH FLOOR JOIST
WALL CORNER WITH METAL GYPSUM E}OARD CLIPS
WOOD MEMBER FOR HOLD.DOWN cnryo 2x oR 4X.
NAILING AS REOUIRED TO RESIST SHEAR OR INTERNAL
STUD
\NITH WITH
PERIMETER
DETAILS
TIES
EIETWEEN
NAL JOISTS (OR BLOCKING) TO TOP PUTES TO AVOID UTERAL DISPLACEMENT FLOORS
NOTE It is essential to provide a continuous path of resistance trom r@t to foundation in order to drssipate both lateral and uplift forces. Conneclions along this load path will guarantee unrnterrupted resistance. Seismic and wind torces are transferred from the r@f diaphragm to shear walls and through the walls into the ground at the foundation. Shear walls resist horizontal forces in the roof and floor diaphragms and so must be connected to them. lt is imoonant to apply wall sheathing to the full walt herght nartrng rt to the top plate, blocking, or rim loist and also to the mud sill or bottom plate. Shear wall heighvwidth ratios are an rmportant consideration; consult a structural eneineer for their design. The details illustrated show several c-onnectron paths; for each specific design, a structural engineer familiar with seismic and wind resistant construction should be consulted. Many of the requirements for high wind situations apply to seismic loading as well, except in shear wall desrgn. Ties between floors: Wood members (sluds) must be sized tor the load{arrying capacity at the critical net section.
WIND AND SEISMIC CONNECTOR FRAMING
Eoves,Overhongs,ond Foundotions SHINGLES
,z AAFFLE ' FUSHING
/
./
BUILDING
VENTED AIRSPACE
AND
OF FASCIA
ROOFING
AND
AT RAKE
WITHOUT OVERHANG \
SHEATHING
RAtrERS
SHEATHING BLOCKING OR DRILLED AND NOTCHEO WITH COVERED
LINE PAPER\
335
ROOFING
BAFFLE FUSHING
RAtrER FUSHING
RETARDER INSUUTION
wooD TRIM
-
BLOCKING
VENTED AIRSPACE
END RAfrER (SUPPORTED BY BEAMS, OUTRIGGERS
CONTINUOUS
VENTED AIRSPACE
VENT
NAILER, NOTCHED OR DRTLLED
OR BRACKilS)
SHEATHING
SIOING
stDtNG,-\i\
INSUUTION BUILDING
SHEATHING
I N T E R I O RF I N S H
PAPER
BLOCKING
SHED WALL
ROOF / PEAK INTERSECTION
RAKE OVERHANG
VENTEO EAVE
AND
RIOGE BOARD ' NOTCHED OR DRILLED FOR CROSS VENTIUTION
m".|.v-v-l
CEILING
ROOFING BUILT'UP WITH GRAVEL TOPPING
WOOD SHAKES
VENTED
ROOF
VENTED SOFFIT
EXPOSED RAFTERS
EOGE
EAVE AND OVERHANG
SECTIONS N OTE
MflAL SHIELO (OPTIONAL)
Concrete unit masonry walls vary widely. Check local codes. RIM JOIST
FRONT VIEW OF BLOCKING SHOWING NOTCHED (OR DRILLED) VENT
FINISH
FLOOR
SUBFLOOR
SILL
BUILDING PAPER
BLOCKING OR RIM JOIS
PRESSURE TREATED SILL
JOIST
VENTED AIRSPACE ANCHOR
SILL
RIGID INSULATION TO FOOTING
-
SEAL
ANCHOR BOLT IN CONCRETE FILLEO VOID
BOLT
CONCRETE MASONRY
CONCRETE SKIM COAT
SET
UNIT
FURRING TREATED) RffARDER
DAMPPROOFING RIGID INSUUTION
DAMPPROOFING
STEPPED DETAIUCRAWL FOUNOATION
WALL
SPACE
TYPICAL
OETAIIJFINISHED
BASEMENT
BRICK VENEERryENTED CRAWL SPACE OR UNFINISHED BASEMENT (UNHEATEO)
SECTIONS
Ted Cameron, AIA; The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle, Washington
ROUGHCARPENTRY
336
HistoricEqvesond Overhongs An e_avets lhe iower edge ol a slopl
#|;-;a]ie"i.,,:'-";i?f$: fifl Its::ril#t,tl*t"fu 1:nh =*;?: :#rilili::.i:Jfii::ii "::t
DRILLED VENT HOLES IN EAVE WITH INSERT
the water away from the wall (and I
protect the wall below from precipitation Ov
ROOF
SLOPE
BUILDING PAPER ON SHEATHING METAL
wooo
tf,io*lno
"if,",
SOLDEREO METAL OR MEMBRANE FUSHING TO FORM VALLEY WATERPROOFING
> 3: I2. < 3: I2,
SHINGLES ROLL OR MEMARAN ROOFING
FUSHING
FASCtA
wooo LooKouT CONTINUOUS SCREEN VENT WOOD TRIM METAL DOWNSPOUT
EXPOSED
RAFTER
END
WOOD SHINGLES OR SHAKES ON BUILDING PAPERSHEATHING
REVERSE
SLOPE
OVENrrIrug
WOOD SHAKES OR SHINGLES oN BUILDING PAPER SHEATHING
RAFTER
RAtrER FUSHING
CEILING
JOIST
M ETAL FLASHING
SOLDERED COPPER.LINED
OOWNSPOUT
wooD GUNER BOX
WOOD TRIM WOOO FASCIA CONTiNUOUS SCREEN VENT wooo
TRIM
WOOD SIDING BUILOING PAPER ON SHEATHING
EAVE AT \/VOOD SIDING
WOOD LOOKOUT (SEE DETAIL AT RIGHT} CONTINUOUS SCREEN VENT WOOD SIDING BUILDING PAPER ON SHEATHING
EAVE WITH
BUILT-IN
GUTTER
CORNICE
SUPPORT
RANER WOOD SHAKES, SUTE OR SHINGLES ON BUILDING SHEATHING
WOOD STRUT
SILL PUTE WITH ANCHOR BOLTS Sff IN CONCRffE-FILLED VOID WOOO
BLOCKING
AT 16' FUSHING
a LoNG WOOO BLOCKING AT
WOOD
SIOING
ON
CONTINUOUS SCREEN VENT
EAVE AT BRICK VENEER
Richa.d J. Vituilo. AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marytand
ROUGHCARPENIRY
PROJECTED
EAVE \^r'ITH SHALLOW
SLOPE
MANSARD
ROOF
DETAIL
HolfTimber BUILDING
ON
wooD
WEEP HOLES (2 PER INFILL PANEL)
TRIM
DOUBLE END RANER
wooD TIMBER
SHELF
PAPER
ROOF
SUTE
METAL FUSHING
337
wooD TIMBER
ANGLE BRICK
SEAUNT
GABLE
EDGE DETAIL
CUSTOM WOOD WINOOW FRAME
MflAL
WINOOW
VERTICAL TIMBER
wooD BRACKET wooo FASCIA
METAL CASEMENT
TIMBER
wNoow
GENERAL ln the 16th and 17th centurieshalf timber structureswsre built with strong timbsr foundations,supports.and studs. The spaes between the framework were filled in wilh either stone. brick, plaster. or boarding laid horizontally. Today the primary struclure is wood stud or masonry backup, and the half timber construction is attached as veneer. Half timber is an inh€rentlyleakytype of wll @nstruction in which the timbers are subject to premature oecav.
METAL FLASHING
MffAL FUSHING
WEEP HOLE
wooD TIMBER
BUILDING PAPER ON SHEATHING
NOTE Shown are some of many brick intill paneldesigntypes. ELEVATION - BRICK AND TIMBER
DETAIL
CUSTOM wooo stLL
wooo TIMBE BUILOING PAPER ON SHEATHING
ANGLE
BRICK
WINDOV\/SILL
CANTILEVE
DETAIL
FLOOR
JOIST
wooo
STUCCO UTH
ARACKfl
wooD TIMBER
ROUGH.FACED FALSE TIMBER
AUILDING PAPER ON SHEATHING
FALSE TIMBER
DETAIL
TIMBER SHELF DETAIL SUTE
STUCCO BRACKET BRICK N OTE To preserye historical character of hall-timber construction a ridge vent is recommended for attic venting.
ELEVATION
- STUCCO
AND TIMBER
ROOF
BUILDING PAPER ON SHEATHING
wooo BRACKET FASTENEO TO WOOD STUD -
srucco
-/
BRICK VENEER ---
OVERHANG
_
DETAIL
OOUBLE.ENO
BARGEBOARD
DETAIL
RichardJ. Vtullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,Maryland
ROUGHCARPENTRY
338
PollodionWindowond Doorwoy FLASHING
WOOD HALF
CIRCLE
TRIM
FAN BLOCKING
ENTABUTURE
HALF.CIRCLE
OR WINDOW
FAN
BUILDING PAPER ON SHEATHING \
FUSHING
ALTERNATE ELEVATION CIRCLE WINDOW
- HALF-
F I
I I
= o o z
t F
I! ENTABLATURE
SECTION
TRANSOM WINDOW
v\/INDOW
ELEVATION - PALLAOIAN AND DOORWAY
WTNDOW
Richard J. Vituilo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand
ROUGHCARPENTRY
PLAN
SIDELIGHT AND ENTRANCE PLAN
DOOR
VERTICAL
SECTION
SlructurolBuildingPonels RIGID FOAM INSUUTION,
2X STUD - ----
8'-O"
-PLW@D OR ORIEMEDSMAND (OSB) BOARD
MAX.,
FIELD'ORILLED HOLE IN PUTE
RP
-
-*:--
339
=-*ratuRAL
STRUCTURAL EUILDING PANEL. 4 0'xa-o"
BUTLDTNG
PANEL
swtTcH WIRE CHASE--R@F RAFERS (oR RmF MUSSES)
FACTORY ffiOVIDED ELECTRICAL CHASE
OU[ET WIRE CHASE.
BASEBOARO WRE CHASE APUIED OVER WALL FINISH
2X SruDS NOTE
Consult local codes for all electrical installations
ROOF FRAMING WITH RAFTERS AND TRUSSES STRUCruRAL BUILDING
RIreE -
PANEL /
.
BEAM INTERMEDIATE MAY BE BEAM NEEDED PANEL BELOW REINFORCED FOR RIreE BAM LOAD
PLWMD OR OSB SfuINES
TYPICAL PANELS
WIRE CHASE
SPECIAL NONSTRUCTUUL HEADER SEOION MAY FOR NEEDEO CERTAIN UNSUPPORTED SPANS (NOT FOR APPLIED LOADS)
LOCATIONS
IN
BE
2X TOP
SPLINE 2X NAILERS.
MA
fuE
ZBONOM
ROOF FRAMING
vt/ITH RIDGE BEAM
PNEL-TO-PNEL FASENERS
N
TYPICAL
\,vINDO\iv
DETAILS 2X TOP |uTE
SGEW 24'O-C-
2X wooD SPLINE
N OTE Studs and splines are screwed (and usually glued) to panels from both sides. Consult mnufacturer's specifi€tions. Joints are typically sealed with expanding foam.
TYPICAL INTERMEDIATE SPLINE DETAILS
PANEL
aT
6'
2X BONOM
O.C.
TYPICAL
CORNER
DETAIL
GENERAL Structuralbuildingpanelsare factory€ssembledcomposite panelsreadyfor installationas a completestructuraland/or insulatingwall section.The materialof each componentof the panel system is very importantwhen selectinga panel manulacturer. Components include the skin, foam core, adhesive,and optionalexterior or intoriortinish. The application for which the panelis intendeddeterminesthe mta rials used. Consultmanutacturerstor sosifi€tions. Sizesvary from 4 by I ft pan€lsweighingabout 100 lb to I by 28 ft panelsthat must be installedusinga crane. PANEL
TYPES
There are two main types of structural building paneF stresgskin panelsand loam core pan€ls: STRESS-SKIN PANELSare manufacturedby gluingand nailing plywood skins to both sides of a wood frare, resulting in a unit that performslike an l5eam. Stress-skinpanelsare not necessarilyinsulated. STRUCTURALFOAM CORE PANELSfall into two groups: sndwich panelsand unfacedpanels.Sandwichpanelsare rigid-foam panels faced with two structural{rade skins, usually made of oriented-strandboard (OSB)or plyw@d. Dependingon the applicationand the manufacturer,these loam core panelsmay or may not includeframingmembers within the core. Unfacedstructuralfoam core panels l@k like panels oI stick-framingwith rigid toam between the members insteadof tiberglassbatt insulation.Interiorand exteriortinishesare appliedto these parels in the tield. The skins of structuralbuildingpanels(like l6eam fhnges) resist tension and compression,while the w@d frame or core (like an l$eam web) resists shearand preventsbucklingof the skins.
BUILDING
STRUflRA PANEL
PANEL-TO. SfuINE NAL .FASENERS
All structuralfoam core oanelsare insulatedwith a core of expandedpolystyrene(EPS),extruded polystyrene,or urethane f€m, Irom 31/,to 11]L in. thick. Urethanepanelsare either glw]aminated like polystyreneor toamed in place (either in the factory or in the field). Urethane has an Rvalueof 6 or 7 per inch versus R-5for extrudedpolystyrene and R4 for EPSfoam. Urethaneis about twice as strong in compressionas polystyren€and has a F€rm rating of less than one, which technicallyqualifies it as a vapor barrier. EPS has a pem rating ol from 1 to 3 and may require a vaporbarier. EPS.howev6r,is inert, nontoxic(if ingested), and resili€nt;it d@sn't teed micrmrganismsand is g€nerally cheaperthan urethane.Consultmanufacturerson CFC and formaldehydemntent in the foam core and skin mate rial as it variesamong manulacturers.Regardingflammability of both f@m core types, consult with the manufacturer aboutthe individualproduct.
TYPICAL REINFORCED DETAIL
|uE
DOOR OPENING
CHARACTERISTICS Using structuralbuildingpanels generallyenhancesthe speed of constructionbecausethe panelsreplacethree dif ferent steps in standardconstruction:traming, sheathing. and insulation.Panelsystems offer superiorenergy performancecomparedto a stick-framehouse of similarcost and standardof construction.This is largelybe€use the rigid insulationhas higher R-values,there are {ewer seams to seal. and conductiv€heal is not lost through air infiltration around the framing. Structural building pamls also offer g@d resistanceto laterallGds. Panelscan be susceptibleto infostationby insectssuch as carpenterants and temites, lvhich €at thrdugh wood and tunnel through the foam core material.reducinginsulation value and even compromisingstructural integrity. Use of termite shields,foam mres treated with insect repellent, and other strategiesshouldbe considered. NOTES
APPLICATIONS In abovegrade applications,the most common materials Ior exteriorfacingsare plywood OSB or finish materialslike TJ11 plywood. tongue-and{roove pine, and other wood siding material. For below{rade situations, pressuretreated plywood skins and splines are used. Generally, structuralbuildingpanelsshould not be used for plumbing walls, as the spacesneeded{or plumbingruns would compromisethe insulationand structuralintegrityof the panel. For roof aoolicationsit is best to use a vented structural foam panel, either integralor fiel+installed. Many asphaltshingle manufacturerswill not warrant lheir product v\hen it is installedon unventedpanelsbecauseof overheating, which acceleratesdeterioration.
1. Sincestructuralbuildingpanelsare a relativelynew building system. code officialsshould be consultedearly and often to preventany misunderstandingsor delaysin the code approvalprocess.Also. check with manufacturers to determinewhether their product has receivedcomplts with BOCA,lcBo, SBcCl,or HUD. anceaporoval 2. The seams are the part of a structuralbuildingpanel system most orone to infiltrationand weakness and most likely to show the results ot expansionand contraction. Tight spline connectionswith sealant at all edges-top, bottom, and sides{an greatly increase thermal efficiencv.
RichardJ. Vituilo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville,Maryland
PANELS STRUCTURAL
340
StructurqlBuildingponels
SCREW FASTENERS. SEE MANUFACTURER'S SPECIFICATIONS
\
FASTENER SEE MANUFACTURER SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPACING
\
:
SCREW trASTENERS. MANUFACTURER'S
S
ROOF (OR
TRUSS)
STRUCTURAL BUILDlNG PANEL
RIDGE
---_1
-
wooD
tNtEnron rtrursr
FACTORY OR FIELD APPLIED
ROOF EAVE DETAIL CEILING
WITH
AT 6' O.C PANEL PIATE
PANEL
/ soFFrr MATERTaL--
\
I
ROOF EAVE DETATL WITH CEILING
1& NAILS THROUGH BONOM PUTE INTO PUTE AS REOUIRED
.
I
& NAILS aT 6. O.C. EACH SIDE THROUGH PANEL INTO
FASCIA BOARDS FINISH
8d NAILS THROUGH INTO TOP
VENT
VENT SLOTS CUT INTO ROOF PANELS AND TOP SHEATHING Fc)R
STRUCTIJRAL SUILDING PANEL (FOR CEILINGS)
!-
SEE SPECIFICATIONS
ad NA|LS Al 6' O.C EACH SIDE THROUGH PANEL tNTo EreE SPLINE _
STRUCTURAL
SLOPED
BUTLDING
PANEL AT RIDGE CONNECTION -
PANEL
1fu NAILS THROUGH BONOM PUTE AND SUBFLOOR IMO TOP FUE OF PANEL BELOW
SILL
8d NAILS AT 6' O.C. EACH SIDE GROUGH PANEL IMO PUTE
SCREW FASTENTRS. MANUFACTURER'S SPECIFICATIONS-_
SEE
\
\
SUBFLOOR, ENENDED TO OUTSIDE OF WALL PANEL UPPER FLOOR JOIST
Ad NAILS AT 6'O.C. ACH SIDE GROUGH PANEL IMO PUTE, WP, JOIST HANGER WIH NAIUBLE TOP FUNGE
CONTINUOUS .-
SPACER BOARD WHERE REQUIRED FOR STANDARD A'-O' GYPS;UM BOARD APPLICATION
FLMR
PANEL
DETAIL AT ROOF
JOIST STRUCruRAL BUILDING PANEL (FOR ROOF)
PANEL AT UPPER FLOOR CONNECTION \MITH FLOOR JOIST BETWEEN STRUCTURAL BU|LD|NG =.-WALL FIN|SH TINTERIOR
UPPER
PANEL AT UPPER FLOOR CONNECTION \^/ITH FLOC)R Jc)IST ADJACENT
PANEL
SFUCTURAL 4
INTERIOR
j-
exrenroc
AUILDING WALL
PANEL
r F\-! |
FINISH
FINISH FLOOR OVER SUBFLOOR
4'.€'MA..
GABLE PANEL
INSUUTION FLOOR €IST
RIM JOIST
RIM
FL@R JOIST
JOIST
8d NAILS aT 6" O.C EACH END TBRoUGH PANEL INTO TOP
I ] i
srorNe
WP
END OVERHANG DETAIL
AT ROOF
STRUCTURAL EUILDING PANEL 1fu NAILS REQUIRED
AS BY
Ad NAILS aT 6'OC. EACH SIDE THROUGH PANEL INTO BOTOM PLATE 2X PRESSURE-TREATED SILL fuTI WIH ANCHOR BOLTS AT a €' o.c. MAX.
TREATED TERM[E
Richard J. Vitutlo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studioj Crownsville, Marvland
STRUCTURAL PANELS
2X
W|TH
PLATE
CONCRETE
-.'--
P4ltEL AT StLL CONNECTTON FLOOR JOIST ADJACENT
SILL
SHIELD
Check perm rating of foam core insulationto determine whetheradditionalvapor barrieris required.Consultlocal codes. P^ryEL AT StLL WITH FLOOR JOrST BELOW CONNECTION
CODE
PANEL
4"
GRAVEL
AT SILL ON SLAB-ON-GRADE
Plonkond BeqmConsfruclion
34r
S I M P L E F R A M T N G :T h i s i i l u s t r a r o ns h o w st h e "positive" or downward bending that occurs in conventionallramingwith simplespans.
CANTILEVERED FRAMTNG:This iilustration shows_ the combin€tionof ,,positive.'(downward) and "negative" (upward) bending that mcuri with beams spliced at quarterpoint producino supported beam and cantilevered beam. The two typ€s of bending counterbatance ercn ottrerl which_ produces more uniform strsses and ure; material.more efficiently. In-line joists simplify Plywood subfloorino-
MOMENT SPLICE:CompressionstressrstakenIn bearIng on the wood througha steelcompresionplate.Tensron ts taken across.thesplice by meansof iteel straps and sheerptates,Sideplatesand strapsare usd to hoid sidesand tops of membersin position. Shearis taken by shearplatesin end grain. Bolts and shearplatesare usd asdesignand constructionconsiderations reauire.
SIMPLE
aNo
caI.IT]IEVERED-RA;]FE
GROOVEO PLANK MOLOEO SPLINE
JOINT TYPES CEILINGS
OEAIGN
TAELE
REQ-UIRED
VALUES
IN EXPOSED
FOR
20. 30, oR 40 Le/se
FOR
PLANK
NOMINAL FIBE€
2 IN. PLANK
gTRESS
IN
BENOING
FT wrTHrN a oeauidiioii TYPE
(t)
LlJ,ior
ANO
A
ro suPPoRT saFELY a LrvE Loao oF
roN %?"Yrtt"."".oi556.=5!"'I:A:l TYPE
B
TYPE
C
n?a
z
SPAN (FT)
LIVE LOAO (PSF )
6
40
30
4O
20
a
30
4O
ffi
ffi )#+
Ft{l =
U: JJ L U
THREE t IPSI)
o
E (PSI}
2/24o 2/3oo t /360
360 360 360
576,000 720,@O 864,0m
t/24o t/300 t/36o
480 480 rt80
l/z4o f /3oo .t / 360
6m
{PSI)
E (PSI)
t (PSI)
TYPE
H
COMBINATION
SPAN
E PS I)
{PSII
O
SINGLE
(PSI)
ffi
(PSI)
(PSI)
360 360
239,000 299,000 3s9.000
288 288 288
30s,000 381,000 457,000
360 360 360
408,000 509,000 611,000
360 360 360
M2,O@ 5s3,000 664.000
864,000 1,080,000 1,296,000
480 480 480
359,000 448,0m 538.0@
384 384 384
457,000 571,000 685,@0
480 480 480
611,000 764,000 917.0@
480 480 480
664,0@ 829,0@ 995,000
6@ 6@
1,152,ffi 1,440,m0 r,728,W
6m 60Q 6m
478,0@ 598,0m 717,O@
,180 480 480
609.000 762,@0 914,m0
6m 600 6m
815,000 1,019,0@ 1,223,On
6m 600 6oo
885,000 r,106,000 1,327,000
//24o t/too t/360
490 rt90 490
915,000 1,r43,000 t,372,W
490 490 490
380,O00 475.0m 570.0m
392 392 392
484.@O 605,000 726,m0
490 490 490
047.000 809,0@ 971.000
490 490 490
878,000 1,054,000
//24o l/ 3oo ,f/ 360
653 653 6s3
1,372,W 1,71s.0@ 2,058.0@
653 653
570,000 712,On 854,000
522 522 a2z
726,@0 907,000 1,088.000
653 653 653
971,000 1,213,0@ 1,456.000
653 653 653
1,05i1,000 1,317,000 1,581,0@
l/240 | /3oo f/ 360
817 417 817
1,829,0@ 1,187,0@ 2,744,W
817 817 817
759,0m 949,000 1,139.000
653
968,0o0 1,209,000 r,45r,000
817 817 817
1,294,O@ 1,618.0m 1,941,000
417 417 817
't.405,000 1,756,000 2,107.0@
t/24O .l/3oo l/36c'
640 640 040
1.365,000 1,707,O@ 2,048,m0
640 640 640
567,000 708.0@ 850,0@
512 512
722,@0 903,000 1.083,000
640 640
&0
966,0@ t.208,000 1,rt49,000
640 6,40 640
1,049,000 r,311,000 r,573,0@
2/24o t/ 3oo t/36o
853
2,O48,W 2,560,0m 3,O72,W
85:l 853 853
850,0@ 1,063,000 1,275,000
1,083,@0 1.345,000 1.625.000
853 o$ 853
853
1,573,0@ 1,966,000 2,359,000
f/24o ,/aoo t/360
1,m7 1,067 1.m7
2,731,0@ 3,413,0@ 4,096.0@
'1,067 t,m7 r,067
1,449,0m 1,811,000 2,174,W
8s3
853
l, I 34,000 1,417,O@ 1,700,0@
1,67 I,067 1.067
1,932,0@ ?,145,000 2,898.0@
1,067 1.067 1,067
2,097,W 2,621,000 3,146.m0
JOU
ON
653 ocJ
clz
682 062
682
853 69J
853
1,t44.000 t,805,000 2,i66,000
qt?
)oz,ooo
Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
Plonkqnd Beqm Froming
342
SPACE
E'EAM
AND
C;OLUMN
CONNECTION
WITH
BEAM
HANGER
SPACEO
BEAM
AT FC)UNDATION
SPACEO BEAM BEARING INTERIOR COLUMN
ON
CONCEALEO
CONNECTTON
SPACED BEAM BEARING EXTERIOR \^/ALL
AT
CORNER
CONNECTION
4Xe'PLYWOOO SHEATHING
METAL STRAP (OPTIONAL FOR CONCEALEO CONNECTION)
2X4
16"O.C
INSULA
so,-ro *ie RAFTERS NOTCHED
RIOGE
INTO
BE
ROOF OECKING
BUILT. UP INSULATEO PANEL
2XB RAFTER 4X4
RooF
POST
BEAM AT coLUMN
aNontocE
2 X rO'S
RAFTER
Timothy B. McDonald; Washington, D.C
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
ANO PLATE
OETAIL
SPACED COLUMN
ROOF
BEAM
AT EXTERIOR
TimberFromeConstruclion
343
COLLAR
TIE
ALIGNS
WTH
PURLIN /-/---RooF
OUEEN PRINC1PAL CONNECTS
POST CONNECTING GIRTr
RAITR TO PUE
COMMON RA-ER
---\
PLATE
POST
GIRT
/ PRINCIPAL
PRINCIPAL A.ND COMMON RAFTER (ON \^/ITH PURLINS
POST
PTATE)
OPEN MORTISE AND TENON JOINT COLUR
TIE
i.'...--COMMON BENT
RAffER
GIRT
COLLAR
FLMR
€IST
KNEE
BRACE
rcSTS
TIE
NEED
UNDER ffiINCIPAL
rcST
WALL ruRLIN SUMMER
BEAM
COMMON
FTAFTER
(ON
PT-ATE) RIreEPOLE
RINCIPAL RAffiR CONNECTS TO PRINOPAL POST TIME]ER
...-2xesrLL -\
TIMBER FRAME FL@R ryPE (PREFERRED FG UPPER
FLOOR
DESS)
PRINCIPAL
BENT GIRT
COMMON PURLIN
SILL RATER JOINS DIRECTLY TO TOP OF
POST
DTaGoNAL srRUT 2 X 12 SjLL CfO SUPrcRT WALL SYSTEM)
POST
AS
BENT 615T FOR
MASONRY FOUNDATTON WALL (MUST BE DETAILED FOR HEAW POINT LOADS FROM POSTS)
POCKS FL(:m JOIST
STANDARD 2X CONSMUCTION FLOOR ryPE EREFER4}LE FOR FIRST FLOOR DECK) --./
1A- DAMEER
CONCRETE
TYPICAL
TIMBER
FRAME
ANCHOR
FOUNDATION
(SHOMr'ING TWO ROOF AND FLOOR
BOLT
AT
6'O'O.C.
WALL
PRINCIPAL
TYPES)
TIMBER FRAME ROOF TYPES
One ot the reasons tirter frare @nstruction faded from popularatyaround 1900.after enturies of dominance,was the cost of its labor-intensive buildingrethods. Duringthe past twenty years, tecttniqueshave ben developedthat oftset this drawback: the frame €n be Drefabri€ted in shops with heavy tools, and structural,insulatedwall panels can be used to build the walls. Connectiondetails in true timber frame constructionare still r@ted in th€ ancient wood-pegged,mortiseand-tenonjoint. More modernwood connectorsof steel Gn be used. dependingon budgetand aesthetacs,but many would say the resulting structure would not be a true timberframe. Typically,posts in timbeFframedbuildingsare spacedin a grid, 8 to 16 ft apan. These relativelylarge posts suppon beams, girts, connectors.plates, and principal rafters. In turn, those members support rafters, purlins, summer beams. and ioists, which are soaced at 2 to 6 tt centers. The relativelylargetimbersmaketimber frame construction inherentlylire resistant,qualifyingas ClasslV construction under most buildingcodes. The walls and r@l in a timber frame, freed of the task of supportinggreat loads,can be made oI materialsthat need to function only as a rain screen and cunain walls. These materials are attachedto the outside of the lar@r. struc-
ROOF tural members,enclosingthe spacewhile exposingthe timbers to the interior and protecting the frame from deterioration. Nonstructuralfoam-core panels with an exterior layer of wood sheathing,a foam core, and an interiordrywallfinish layer are extremely energy efficient and cost€ffective for 6e in wall and root constructionin a timber frame. Sometimes it is preferableto use slructural loam{ore panels, with oriented-strandboard {OSB)or plywood sheathingon bo(h sides. as they bette. resist warping and lateralforces and provide a better nailing surface for attaching interior lrim. €binets, anwork, etc. Thesestructuralpanelsare typicallyinstalledoutsidea layerof gypsum boardthat is backscrewed to the inner OSB skin. ANATOMY OF A TIMBER FRAME BUILDING In the design process. the general layout of timbers is delerminedfirst, basedon the rough programand layouto{ spaces. Once the wood species has been selected,each timberis sizedindividually. Next,the connection details,or andfinishesaredesigned. ioinery,andthe embellishments A typical timber frame can be divided into four maior systems: walls, fl@rs, roof, and bents. Walls, in the terminology of timber framing.are planarcompositionsof timbers parallelto the .idge. Bents run perpendicular to the walls and are often the primary preassembledsections of the building.Usually.bents includ€the principalstructuralposts ot the frame and the major supportingra{ters.The space between two bents is calleda bay and is generallybetween 10 and 16 ft wide. lf the roof structureis not includedin the bent system, a large timber plate is set at the top of the bent or wall for the roof framingto rest on.
BENT
WALL
CONNECTING GIRT
PRINCIPAL
MA
GENERAL Timber frame buildingsare characterizedby large.exposed timber structuralmembers.The distinctionbetween timber framing and other types ot heaw timber construction is somewhat subjective.but in a true timber frame. the posts, beams, and bracesare @nnectedto one anotherwith eleganl, largely all-woodioints based on very old traditions. Soundtimber frare constructionrequireshigh standardsof design,engineering,and workmaNhip. lt can be compared to the craftsmanshipof €binetmaking, ratherthan to conventionalwood frame @nstruction.
ilP.
LryP. KNEE BRACE
BENT METAL STRAP TO SECURE NME]ER SILL
RAFTER
AND
rcST
PTJRLIN
SYSTEMS
More than any other factor. the arrangementof timbers in the roof determineswhether the walls or the bents will be the principalstructuralunit. Framesare often definedby the type of r@f they suppon, since the roof is usuallythe most difficultaspectof the frame to design,detail.and erect. The choiceof roof system most appropriateto a particularbuild, ing dependson the shapeand pitch of the roof, the loading. w@d species,availabletimb€r length, floor plan, and per sonalaestheticpref6r€nces. NOTES '1. W@d shrinks@nsiderablyacrossthe grainbut very little along the grain, and all dimensions based on sections through plates and sills must accOuntfor this shrinkage. Bents that connect principalrafters directly to the posts and are not interruptedby plates will have negligibledjlferentialmov€ment b€twe€n r@l and wall joints. 2, Timbersystems that rely on full.]engthplates,sills, ridgepoles, or tie beams tend to require timbers of consider, able length, which are scarce. Therefore, these lonq lengthsmust be assembledfrom shortermemberstreJ together with scarf ioints. Since most sawmills cannot obtaintimbers longerthan 30 ft, it is imponant to consult with a structuralengineerand localsawmill to determine the most practicaldimensionstor the timbers before the designis completed. 3. Dependingon budgetor aestheticpriorities,hybridsystems can be devised, such as timber trame walls with conventionalrool framingor convenlionalstud walls with a timber frame roof. Consult a structuralenqineerabout the design,detailing. and Integration of thes; systems
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Marvland Tedd Benson and Ben Brungraber. Ph.D., PEj Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead. New Hampshire
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
TimberFromeConstruction
344
\
\\
N
,/
Trf
UPPEP
,
AEAM
BEAM SUPPORTING '\LUIRAL AXIS SHII I5 BLLOW CENTERLINE BECAUSE OF WOOD REMOVAL 1. CENTERLTNE
oF
BEAM
WOOD
'
.
HIGH LOW
..-
KNEE
POST
SPLINE SPL]NE
BRACE
CONNECTING BENT GIRT POST
OR TO
FOUR,WAY
SPLINE
JOINT HARDWOOD SPLINE FLUSts TO BONOM OF BEAM
{
ro*t'a--o.oTENON -
JOINT
FULLY HOUSED TUSK ENON FULLY
KNEE
HoUSED
soFFtr
rENoN
BEAM
_/
BRACE
TUSK
AND
SOFFIT
TENON
JOINTS SINGLE N OTE
PRINCIPAL POST TENON LOCKS MORTISE AT CORNERS OF SILL
NOTE For basic structural rigidity within a timber frame, the knee brace is a critical component. lt is typi€lly used between the upper ends of vertical posts and horizontal beams, but may also be used at the base of a oost or to brace an Inclined member, such as a rafter. Rigrdrty in a frame can be achiev€d by using a few welltlaced long braces or several shorter braces. Braces typically should not be shorter than half the length of the beam-to$eam span of the post.
DOVETAIL MORTISE
KNEE BRACE
TIMBER
DOWTAIL
TENON
JOINT
SPLINE JOINTS PRINCIPAL RAffiR IENON IMc) TIE
MORTISE
AND
/
TENON
,_
RAFTER
JOINT
DOVETAIL
N OTE
UP
DOVETAIL
MORTISE
FURED OR JOWLED rcST Tc> PROVIDE GRATER BEARING SURFACE FOR BAM NOT E
MORTISE.AND-TENON
HOUSED
MVETAIL
1" SHOULDER TO INCREASE BENING AREA
k"".\"
OPEN
WE BAM
SILL
IN
a
SPLINE
Using through-splines made of hardwood leaves all the pegs loaded parallel to the grain, with plenty'of available end{rain distance, and avoids loaded edges in the posts Spline edges often are left prominent to achieve a decora, tive effect.
=-
o
DOVETAIL MC)RTISE rcST
WOOD
TAPERED PEGS. WP
/
JOINTS
WEDGES NGHTEN JOINT TO REDUCE EFFECTS OF SHRINKAGE, PREVENTTNG WITHORAWAL 1
A tying joint is a combinationof joints used to connectseveral members.The intersectionof a principalpost, a plate,a tre beam,and a rafter is known as a tying joint. TYING JOINT
The basic mortise-and-tenon joint can be very effective in resrsting both tension and compression forces. To increase tensrle strength, increase the depth and thickness of the tenon and use additional pegs il the width and length of the tenon allow_
BASIC MORTISE-AND.TENON
JOTNT
ELEVATION NOTE
Scarfjoints are lapjoints used to splicetwo or more shorter timbers into one long timber.Althoughthere are many variations,scarfjoints are used primarilyfor plates and sills that demandlongcontinuoustimber.
LAP JOINTS
SCARF
JOINT
WOOD JOINERY
NOTE A beveled shoulder or housed ioint is used to connect all load-bearing beams, such as bent and connecting girts and summer beams, to posts. Angled valations can be used when principal rafters join to posts or for diagonal braces. The depth of the shoulder depends on loaaing, torsion. other joinery In the area, and wood species
SHOULDERED JOINTS
MORTISE-AND.TENON
Most timber lraming joints are variations on the mortise and tenon. in which a tongue on one timber is received by a slot in the other and locked with rounded pegs driven through holes drilled through both parts of the ioint. The simplest verston of this jotnt is useo in compression situations or for situations with minimal loadinq. Knee braces and collar ties generally use an angled varrat-ion Spline joints are similar to a mortrse and tenon, exceot that a third member, called a spltne or "tree tenon" (usually hardwood), is introduced to connect b€tween monised tifr bers and to serye as the tie. Spline joints are an effective way to achieve minimum end and edge distances without being dependent on the size and capacity of the receiving oost or beam.
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Tedd Benson and Ben Brungraber, Ph.D., pE; Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead, New Hampshire
HEAVYTIMBERCONSTRUCTION
Lap joints, such as simple overlaps or dovetails, constitute the other broad category of joints used in timber frames. Scarfs, used to splice timbers along their length, are va.ia tions of the lao ioint. Joints are chosen on the basis of the tasks they are to fulfill, including locking the frame together, bearing weight, and translerring forces and building loads from one timber to another. Compound joinery, such as where two timber valley rafters meet at a purlin, is one ol the difficult aspects of timber framing. The complex geometry and the precision required demand master-level craft smanshio.
TimberFromeConstruction -
PLW@D SHEATHING 2X4W@DSLEEPERS AT 24" O.C. FASTENED TO DECK TAPED SEAM RIGID INSUUTION VAPOR
BARRER
BRACE OFFSET ON BY AMOUNT EOUAL THICKNESS OF FRAMEO WALL PLUS INTERIOR FINISH
POST TO
TIMBER POST
FIBERGLASS INSULATION BARRIER O/ArcR OMINED FOR CGRIW)
2 X 4 PERIMETER
1'4' RtGrD FOAM
-
tuwooD SUBFLOOR -
BOX
TONGUE.AND-GR@VE (aLso wooD DECK FTNTSH) cErLlNG RMF 4LO.
FJRLINS O.C.
AT
\^/OOD SLEEPERS AND TONGUE-AND. GROOVE CEILING ON ROOF PURLINS F
PLWOOD
FoUNDATIoN
ANCHOR a'o' o.c.
SHEATHING
RIGID FOAM INSUUTION WITH 1 JA' MIN, AIR AE}OVE SPACE
o.c.
BOLT MAX.
@NNECTNG VAPOR
RAKE BOARD AND TRIM
L 2 X
N OTE
FOUNDATIoN
WALL
2XASILL 12 SILL
FOAM CORE FOAM CORE PANEL-\
PANEL TIMBER ROfED RECEIVE
TIMBER SILL =-
IN\
WALL
SYSTEM TONGUE AND. GROOVE wooD
SILL TO STRAF I
I
I
FLOOR
-
BMN SPIKES AT 4' INTERV&S INTO IMBERS
//pLwOOD , SHaTHTNG
24' O.C %wooD SUBFLOOR
_-}
2X a SILL 2X1 SILL-
GIRT
SfuNES NEEED TO JOIN PNELS NOT FAIING ON ruRLINS. AP4Y AT TOP FACE
FASCIA BOARD. FASEN TO NAILER
INSUUTION BOX BAM
@NSRUCTION ADHESre
TIMBER GIRDER
2XASILL 2 X
L
EXTERIOR
TIMBER €IST
SILL
waLL
BOLT AT A'{"
O.C. MA
vt/OOD STUD SYSTEM
DRWALL AND VArcR BARRIER (oMmED FOR CLARIT.4 APfuIED TO OUTSIDE OF FRAME BEFORE NAILERS 2 X 4 NAILERS 24' O.C. FASTENED PLWC)OD SUBFLOOR .a
12
gouNoaroN
ANCHOR
TIMBER SILL AND JOIST SYSTEM
TIMBER POST
3' RtGtO FOAM AIR SPACE BEruEEN FOAM AND PLruOOD SHEATHING
\
CORE
PANEL
rcST
2XAWOODCAP U€OUND rcST TO RE€NT UTERAL MOWMENT ANCHOR aT a!o,
BOLT o.c. MA.
PLWOOD SHEATHING
-
3'
x 3 SPACER 2 X 12 S|LL \ -FouruoaroN warr ANCHOR AT A'€' BOLT OC
GIRT
HORIZONTAL
r.to.
2XASILL
-BOXBEAM
\ \\>-1
rcNSTRUCTURAL FOAM (CEILING CGE PANEL FINISH ANAGED AT UNOERSIOE)
\
HOLDDOWN STRAP FASTENED TO rcST
2 LAYERS OF 1 ' RIGID FOAM (omroNAL)
2XA SILL .
ruE}ER
FON
NMBER
JOIST
R@F ruRLINS aT 4'-' O.C.
CONNECTNG
PANEL SPLINE (HIDDEN)
aT 8 -O' o.c. Mg
INFILL WOOO STUD SYSTEM
E}ARRIER
ON ROOF PURLINS
NONSTRUCTURAL FOAM CORE PANELS ON ROOF PURLINS
ANCHOR WALL
AT
TIMAER POST --DRWALL AND VArcR BARRIER (oMrnED FOR CURIT/) APPUED TO OUTSIDE OF FRAME BEFORE
GYPSUM BOARD CELING FINISH, APFLIED HRST. AfrAGED TO NALERS
vl/OOD NAILERS
2X4 SPLINE (HiDOEN)
PLWOOO SUBFLMR\
Structural ioam core panels (with w@d sheathing on both sides ol the foam core) may b€ needed at areas that may have excess stress or loading with interior tinish attached to the frame before the panels are attached.
2X4SruDS
2X4W@D NALER
SPLINE
This system reducesthe exposureof the timber frame by paniallyconcealingthe frame in the wall system. It allows air infiltration due to shrinkage and movementand requires an exteriorrigid toam insulationlayerto minimizethe potentialfor air movementandcondensation.
NATLERS
ROOF PURLINS aT 4'O'
POST
BEAM
2XESILL L
GIRT
TIMBER
PLW@D SHEATHING
.,
2 X 4 STUDS 16' TO 24', O.C
TIMBER
345
NAILER
WALL
rcST
MA.
SYSTEM LIGHMEIGHT WOOD TRUSSES AT 2'{' O.C.
DRWALL AND VAPOR BARRIER (OMreD FOR C4RIT\4 APPLIED TO OUTSIDE OF
FIBERGCSS INSUUTION
STANDARD
2X LUMBER
PLWOOD NMBER FOR
rcST
BAND
METAL S.ruP
SILL
SUBFLOOR NOTCHED
JOIST
HOLD-MW AT ACH
rcST
2 X 10 BLOCKING ON THREE SIDES. TIGHT TO rcST --
2 \
PLWMD
AAND
-
PLWOOD 2XASILL
JOIST,
ts N OTE
FoUNDATION ANCHOR a'€'o.c.
BASE
waLL
EOLTS MM.
HEAD DE ER RSS .
EXTERIOR LIGHTWEIGHT TRUSS SYSTEM
I/VOOD
JOIST
2\a UNMATED UPPER SILL CONCREE FOUNDATION
AT
This system allows a great deal ot insulationto be packed into the nonstructuralwall cavity between trusses. The foundationwall mav be offset to the outside of the truss system {with pilastersadded on the inside to suppon timber postsl to avoidthe app€aranceof excessoverhang. R O (OJ F F R A M MIIN NG G
12
2 X 10S aT 1 6' O.C 2 X 12 PRESSURE TREATED SILL, ENENDEO TO ENERIOR TO RECEIW WALL @NSTRUCTION
STICK FRAME SILL AND FLOOR DECK
RichardJ. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leat Studio;Crownsville.Marvland TeddBensonand Ben Brungraber, Ph.D.,PE: BensonWoodworkingCo.,Inc.;Alstead,New Hampshire
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
346
TimberFromeConstruction SPACE FOR WtRtNG AEruEEN NAILERS
TONGUE ANO GROOVE WOOD FLOORING
.,
EMBELLISHMENTS AT STOP FROM DISTANCE ALL JOINTS \--
--
gNo couNoeo TREATMENT WITH CHAMFER T H R O U G S ' AT MORTISE WITH ENENDED ENON
PENDANT END EMBELLISHMENT
--
TIMBER /
/'4'
_
2X4NAILER aT 24" O.C -1/2, X 3"
\
NAILER
'/a' RUBBERIZED SOUND. DEADENING MAT --
TIMBER POST OR RAFTER AT FOAM CORE PANEL WIRE CHASE DETAIL
UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE
END AND EDGE EMBELLISHMENTS TONGUE-ANDGR@VE FLOORING GLUED AND BLIND NAILED
GYPSUM BOARD
POST
BATHROOM
WIDTH CHASI AND DIRECTION RESTRICTED BY IM€RSECTING TIMBERS \
SUBFLOOR
NOTCH DEEP IN POST TO CUT FL@RING ACCEM FROM GAPS CIO HIDE FLOOR SHRINKAGE)
TIMBER
POST
TONGUE-AND-GROOW FINISH
FLMRING
TIMBER JOIST
5X TIMEER SILL-.---
2XA SILL -
--CONSTRUCTION ADHESIVE \ - FL@R
N OTE Maintain % in. gap between exoansion and contraction-
JOIST
CHASE
DRWALL CEILING il. "
.!5x7€tsr
flooring edge and wall for
S T . A . ND A R D T O N G U E - A N D . G FLOOR
\2
x 12 SILL
ANCHOR BOLT AT A'{'OC. MA
UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE BETWEEN TIMBER JOISTS
ROOVE
AREA,
TIMBER.SILL
ADD IIC''THICK SHEET METAL PROTECTOR OWR WIRE CHASE
DETAIL
WIRE CHASE
----
POST
2Xa BATHRMM
SUBFLOOR
SMALLER JOISTS. AOSER
GYPSUM BOARO FINISH SPACE BEruEEN 2X4'S FOR POST TENON ANO WIRING
4"\
AEAM / COVER ruO"PIECE BASEBOARD ALMKING SOLID TO SUPPORT POST
2\A SILL 2X'S FORM CHASE AND SUPPORT DRWALL
.\
SOUND-RESISTANT
FLOOR DETAIL
2 X
12 SILL CONCRETE
WALL
CONffiETE SGB ON
onwaLL
GRADE
cerLrruG
UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE WITH DROPPED CEILING DETAIL
BOX BEAM
PUNX CEILING AT NORMAL
FURRING
SILL v\/IRE CHASE
STRIPS
HEIGHT
/
WRE IN WALL CHASE ETENDS
SUBFLMR
DETAIL
WAINSCOT
FROM UNDER-fuOOR SERVCE CHASE OR TIMBER.SILL CHASE -
,rtMt
BASEBOARD. WOOD
CAR
FURRING STRIPS\ Y! ORWALL -_
-. \ --
GYPSUM SPACERS
BOARD
CEILING
JOIST FL@RING DAM
,zn'auegenzro SOUND. DTADENING MAT (OffTONAL)
.!
DROPPED TONGUE AND€ROOVE CEILING PGNKS
coNsnucTtoN ADHESIW WITH
2X'S SUPPORT SUBFLOOR
UNDER FLOOR SERVICE CHASE WITH DROPPED FLOOR DETAIL
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Tedd Eenson and Ben Brungraber. Ph.D., PE; Benson Woodworking Co., Inc.; Alstead, New Hampshire
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
PANEL
E}ASE:E}OARD CHASE
\^/AINSCOT
SURFACE-MOUNTED FOAM CORE PANEL
CHASE
\ffIRE CHASES AT
PoleConstruction NOTES
RIGIO INSULATION TONGUE ANO GROOVE DECKING
1. Poleembedmentdepth dependson sdl, slopeand seismtc zone. 2. Cross-bracing betweeil polesmay be requiredto ieiisi lateralloads il shallow embedment.T.eat all exposed surfaceswith app.ovedp.essurelreatment. 3. Pole nolching tor major beams can help align besms and walls that otherwisewould be out of ptu;b due to pole warp. Notchingimprovesbearingof majorbeams but weakenspples. 4. R6fs, walls andtloors shold be insutatedto suit lftal climatic conditioos.Wall and sotfit insulationshould meetcontinuouslyat the ioint. penetrafionof insulation shouldbe minimal. 5. Varioussidingtypes can be used. 6. Dapping.is a U.S. carpentryterm lor clning wood to receivetimb€r connectors.
\\\ STANOINGi SEAM METAL ROOF
OAPPED POLE CONNECTIONS
tffi
lffi-\":fl
lffi'1 -x\^-+ t7 \r:::
tE/==--=l
ir---J EEIN ol[-J rl|-'-l
KNEE
KNEE
ERACINO
CONCRITE BACKFILL
ffIsfl8%g+',s""
ffi
HURRICNE cLrPS
wooo
J/ |
I |
GRAVEL
DECK JOIST
CONCRgTE FOOTING SPACEO BEAMS DAPPED CONNECTION ,TNOTE' LUMBER MORE THAN 2" THICK CAN ALSO BE USEO FOR DIAGONAL ARACING
TREATEO wooo POLE
'"iz-r?,/,)
IEOMETRIC SPIKEO GRIO WITH. CURVEO FACE \ To accEPT PoLE
TAMPEO
TAMPEO FILL
TREATEO wooo POLE
2',-O"
OF
POLE
HOUSE
TAMPEO FILL
)
H/ I l/
I -z
TREAT€O wooo POLE
GALANIZEO METAL STRAP MIN.
-^r-aw
CONCRETE FOOTING
3?i-J1?'S.?'" POLE
CONCR€TE FOOTING
LAG
BOLTS
FOR USE IN TEMPERATE ( FROST CLIMATES LINE NO DEEPER THAN 2'.O'} REINFORCEO CONC;RETE
COLLAR
CONCRETE FOOTING
CONCRET€ FOOTING
CONCRETE FOOIING \^/ITH EFIKEO ANCHORAGI
CONC:RETE FOOTTNO STR P ANCHOR
WITH
CONSTRUCTION
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington,D.C
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
347
Log Construcfionqnd Defoils
348
GENERAL
RAFTERS
Residential log buildings have become a significant pan of the home construction industry. The log house industry comprises two main segments: manufactured. or milled houses built ffom kits and custom'built log houses House. built from kits use logs that have been machined or milled to a uniform shape in a variety ol profiles. Although kit-built houses can be put together quickly and with few construc tion skills, the finished product tends to look artilicial. Custom-built log houses are produced from hand-peeled, handnotched logs in their natural prolile. These houses more closely resemble a traditional log structure. Kits for handhewn houses are also avaalable, but their reconstruction on site is often complicated because ot longer log lengths and the heavier weight ot the logs. A hydraulic crane is usually required. Many building otticials require a structural engineer's approval to accompany the plans, whether the log house company generates these plans or an architect hired by the owner.
ROOFING rrX4ORrX6)
PURLINS. SET INTO NOTCHED
NOTES
PUNK FLOORTNG
WALL
1- Hewing logs square removes most of the sapwood, which reduces the weight of the log and its susceptibility to insect damage and rot- The flat surfaces of square logs are also easy to work with. 2. Damage {rom rot (fungal decay} can be prevedted or controlled in several ways: remove sapwood, which is high in cellulose and lignum on which fungi teed; reduce the log's moisture content to 207o or less by air or kiln dying; or provide proper air circulation under tloors and around foundations. Generous root overhangs and properly maintained gutters help keep water oft the sides ol the building.
LOGS
FLOOR
3. Insect damage from termites. beetles, and carpenter ants can be prevented by properly seasoning the wood (kiln or air drying) and by providing continuous vapor barriers under ground floors. Also, good air circulation can help prevent intestations.
FLOOR JOISTS PUCED IN MORTISE CUT IN SILL LOG ANO FLOOR GIRDER
4. Exposed interior logs must be coordinated carefully with placement of plumbing, electrical wiring, and mechanical eouioment.
STONE AND CONCRflE FOUNOATION
5. Good drainage around the building is important, since log buildings are susceptible to rot. 6. Manufacturers of prefabricated log structures offer milled log details to reduce air leakage and improve weatherability of the wall. Such details include tongueand€roove joints, dovetailing use of steep splines. and butyl gaskets.
FOUNDATION SILL
LOGS
7. Spaces between individual logs (chink area) are filled with chinking, which can vary trom less than an inch to three or more inches in width. CHECKS IN UPPER SURFACE OF LOG (AT EXTERIOR ONLY) R E O U I R ES E A L I N G AGAINST WATER PENETRATION
MORTAR CHINKING
-
WALL
SEAUNT WITH BACKER ROD
GAPS CAUSED BY LOG SHRINKAGE
SHOULDER OF UTERAL GROOVE MUST FIT SNUGLY ALONG ITS ENTIRE LENGTH
SELF.DRAINING CHECKS IN LOWER SURFACE OF LOG NEED NO SEAUNT PRESERVATIVE SOLUTION OF WATER REPELLENT AND MILDEWCIDE TO LOG SURFACE
UTERAL GROOVE SCRIBED AND COPEO TO FIT LOWER LOG
v\/OOD PRESERVATION-DETAIL
RECOMMENDEO
(I'SYNTHETIC''
SCRIBED OR CHINKLESS
oR wooo
@ ix\
CHINKING MATERIAL URETHANE FOAM (APPLtED FROM INSIDE)
RECOMMENOED
CHINKING
(WOOO
K@' M
(@ 2-5|DEO SAWN OR HEWN. STACKED WITH CHINKING
TYPICAL
LOG
Arthur Thiede: Log Homes Connecr: Hailey, ldaho
A
(A' \v
ROUNO WITH
LOG CHINKING
CHINKING)
DETAILS
LOG JOINERY
@ H,
CHINKING) SYNTHETIC
SCRIBED WOOD STRIPS OR POLES AS CHINKING MATERIAL (NAIL TO FASTEN)
LOGS
CHINKING
HEAVYTIMBERCONSTRUCTION
WALL
PROFILES
ROUND LOG, CHINKLESS OR SCRIBED
2-S|DED LOG, STACKED FUT
2-StOED SAWN LOG, STACKED FUT WITH SPACERS AND CH INKING
LogConstructionond Detoils
g4g
PLYWOOO SPLINE
CORNER POST
SADOLE NOTCHES
FULL DOVETAIL
HALF DOVETAIL
V.NOTCHES
POSTEO
TYPICAL CORNERS
CORNER
LOG POST JACK POINTS r/4" srEEL PUTE REMOVABLE 2X OR WOOD LJOIST RAtrER
JACK CONCRETE FOOTING
ADJUSTABLE
PLUMB LOG ENDS
BASE USING SHIMS
GALVANIZED STEEL POST BASE (FIXED AflER ALL AOJUSTMENT IS TAKEN UP)
LOG POST PURLIN ROOF CONSTRUCTION USING CANTILEVEREO RAFTERS TO SUPPORT OVERHANG AT EAVES
ADJUSTING BRACKET ADJUSTING NUTS THREAOED ROO CONCRETE FOOTING ADJUSTABLE POST BASE IN CRAWL SPACE APPLTCATION
MITIGATION
OF SETTLING-DETAILS
STAGGERED LOG ENDS
SECTION_LOG
RAFTER CONSTRUCTION
F l-
U c F
BEAVER
B
CUT LOG ENDS SECTION_LOG
PURLIN
ROOF
CONSTRUCTION
R O O F S T R U C T U RE - D E T A I L S
ARCHEO LOG ENDS
SETTLING
The rcol system on a log house should be caretully thoughtout. Since many log houses are built rn areas oi high snow load'ng, Iog root systems are more complex tnan those In conventionally framed structures. Although log roof members are desirable from an aesthetrc stan-dpoint, engineered values for logs are difticult to obtain because the logs are not graded. tt rs theretore necessary to burld-a structural roof of engrneered materials over the rog root, resuttrng in, essentially, lwo structural rools. The engrneered r@f can be buried in the insulation or cold root space, but doing this adds considerablv to the cost of the structure. Log or timber framed trusses can be used to sur pon purlins (and produce a dramatic visual effect), but this rs also an expensive alternative_
9 I
z
I f
a E
Shrinkage varies according to the moisture content ol the logs and the humidily level at the building site.
WALL SETTLING CONSTRUCTION
ROOFS
LOG END PROFILES
F I
IN LOG
DETAILS
Log movement and senling caused by shrankagecan be a significantproblemin log construction.The problemcan be mitigatedthroughcarefuldetailing. Shrinkageproblemsare more prevalentin custombuitt houses.which use full roundlogs,than in manulactured or milled log structuresbecausethe latter use kilndried loos. Althoughcustomlog companieskeep shrinkaget9 a mm,. mum by using dead standingtrees, the moisiure content usuallyis stillhigherthanin kilniried logs.
Arthur Thiedej Log Homes Connecr;Hailey,ldaho
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
350
TimberBridges
GEOTEXTILE
FABRIC
TRAtrtrIC ,
RAIL
STEEL
ANACHED
RETAINER
- WEARTNG
rcST
TO
SURFACtr
?',*I @7,
POST
ANGLE
FOR
ASPHAL]
(ASpHALI.
ryp
TIMBER CURB STEEL DOWEL CONNECTORS -., *
s.a'-
t4
WIDTH NA,IL-t--AMIN,ATED TO 2,1 FT)
r o"-l-
GLUED-LAMINATED DEck (coNsrRUC]fD OF 2< MATERIAL ryP) LONGITUDINAL
SHORT PANEL TO PROVIDE DRAINAGE OPENING UNDER CURE
CONTINUOUS (SPANS DECK
(OPTIONAL)
aq^" oeqa
\ \ \\\
SR!i'"JJ*=,'5H'' "*
FiflEsffi::l ,
)
PANEL
MrN l TOI 16"I
BAM
-,,' *i\--\ go'-
TRANSVERSE BRACING 25'€' (LUMBER O.C. MA. BLOCKS ALSO USED) lNTf QMb DIA I ts BtrN I (IF NECESSAF I) BEAM
NOTE
ss'-){ STEEL
/
BEARING
SHOE
ON
Clear spans for glued taminated longitudinal beams are from 20 to 100 ft. For sawn lumber beams, ctear sDans can
TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL
fry
\- o"rtrr*t
SUBSRUCTURE
to 25-ft. Wood specresuseJ are generally 9e msde-.u.p DouglasfirJarchor Southernprne.
BEAM BRIDGE --TRAFFIC
Tffi LONGITUDINAL
RAIL WARING
ATACHED SURFACE
TO
(ASPHALT,
ryP
)
\{5614f
CURB
.-
STEEL
\IH DECK NMBER
RflAINER GEOENILE
FOR
DECK DETAILS
_ * - -"rr=-.* .- . ^ .
POST
(SPAN
BEARING
- STEEL PRESTRESSING ROD L CONTINUOUS STEEL CHANNEL STEEL PRESTRESSING ROT
UP
o'.*. *"
RESRESSING TO
24
ROD,
ASPHALT
FABRIC
4A'
LONGITUDINAL
DECK
GLUED.UMINATED BOX
.TTFFLNER BEAM (Nol REoUIRED FoR STRESS.UMINATED DECK) --
UP
TO
70
63
FT)
BEAM F'r}
/ ,/ T-SECTION
NOTE
CONCRETE
ABUTMENT
Clear spans for gluedlaminated decks are approxrmately 35 fl
Typrc AL Lo NG rru D I NAL D Ec K su pe nEinucr-UEE INTRODUCTION Although wood was pfobably the frrst malefial used to con. struct a bridge, in the 20th centUry concrete and steel have became lhe maior bridge constructron mateflals. Wood is slrll wrdely used for shon- and med,um-span bridges The strength. light weight, and energy absorpiion propenies ot tmber make it a desirable material for bridge construction. Timber can carry short-term overloads r,iithout adverse effects. Large wood members are tire resistive, imperyious lo.contrnuous freezing and thawtng, and resist the harmful €necb ot de-icing agents. In modern applications, the life of timber bridges is exlend€d to torty years or longer through the use of ireser_ vatrve-treated wood, which requires little or no mainte_ nance. I he sp€cifications and standards lor the preservaltve treatment of wood maintained by the Ameri_ can Wood Preseryers Association (AWPA) aie tne most widely used and comp.ehensive documents covering treatment procedures for sawn lumber, glued_laminated-trmber tgruram,,piltng. and poles used tor trmber bridoes.
CHARACTERISTICS
All timber bridges consist of two bastc comoonents_the superstructure and the subskucture lhe superslructu.e is the framework of the bridge span and includes lhe deck, I!91 sV91em,main supponing members, raihngs, and other rncrdental components. The five basic types oi superstruc_ ture are beam, deck {slab),truss, arch. and suspension. The suostructu.e ts the ponron of the bridge that ttansmits roaos trom the superstructure to the supporting roct or soil. rmoer substructutes include abutments and bents. Abut_ me,nts support the two bridge ends, while bents provide Inlermedrate suppor( f or multiple_spancrossrngs TIMBER
(SPAN
'I re.-
1
3+FE=Sf-'fi il['€BB".3u',"S^RT,--,--'
STRUCTURAL
SECTION
+
\w@D erued
| | i_l
NP
FT)
SUPERSTRUCTURES
rhetonsitude is !9ry9nU.DlNllBEAM(rnbridsedesisn. measured rn the direction of traffic flow). The simp-lesland
most common timber bridge superstructure,the longitudi_ nal.beam type consists ol a deck system supponej by a series of timber beams between two or more suppons. Beamsare constructedfrom logs, sawn lumber,gtued-tam_ Inatedtimber(glulam), or lamrnated veneertumber(LVL). LONG,TUDINAL DECK:Longitudinat deck or stab suoerstructuresare constructed ol glulam, nail_laminated sawn lumber,or stress-laminatedlumber decks ptacedlonqitudi_ nally b€twe€n supports. with rhe wrde dimensronjf the lamrnationveniel. In this type of superstructure,the deck rscesrgnedto resist all appliedloadsand deflectionwithout aodnpnat supponing members or beams. Nonetheless, transverse distributor beams are usually attached to the undersideof the deck to help distributethe load.Maximum crearspansare approximately35 ft. TRUSS:Trussesare structuralframesconsistino of straioht members connectedto form a senes ol triangles.Trusjes canspandistancesof up lo 250 ft In bridgeapplications, a ryprcar trusssuperstructure consistsot two maintrusses.a floorsystem,and bracing.Thrstype rs ctassrtied as a deck truss(rnwhich the deck is at or abovelhe levelof the top chord)or a through truss (in which the deck is nearthe boi_ tom cttordj.When the herghtof a throught,uss is insuffi_ crenttoJoverheadbracing,rt is calleda half_through or pony rruss tmDer trussesare constructedin many geometric configurations,but two of the most popular Uo*_ stnng truss and parallelchord truss. "i"-ttu ARCH: Arches lsed in clear span timber bridge construc_ tron have glued-laminatedtimbers {or the main members. This type of superstructure,calleda glulamdeck arch.prob. ably b€st shows the versatilityof gluiamIn bridgeconstruc_ uon. Ine gtutamarchesare manufactured in segmental, crrcular,or parabolicshapes.Two basicarch typesare us€d: lhe twchinge arch(forshortspansof gOft or less)and the three+tinge arch(forlong spansot betweengOand2OOft). rne roaowaytor deck arch bridges is supportedby glulam
Richard J- Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Srudio; Crownsviile. Maryland Michael A. Ritter, pE, Structural Engineer; for"it pioo"cil l"o, USDA; Madrson, Wisconsin
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
(SPAN
LJP TO
N OTE T-section may be preferable over box section for long spans because of ease of inspection and maintenance.
ry-prc4L STRESS-LAM I NATED Tt M BER SUPERSTRUCTURES post bents connected to the arches with steel gusset plales. Use ot thrs design is most practical when coiside, able height is required and wh€n foundations can be con structed to resist horizontal €nd reactions. lt is oartlcularlv suitable for deep crossings because long clear spans resuti rn suDstanltatsubstruclure @st savings. SUSPENSION: Iimbe. suspension bridges consist of a tim ber deck structure suspended from flexible steel cables or charns supported by timber towers. This suDerstructure typ-e_is capablo ol spanning clear distances oi more than 5uU tt and rs normally used only when span requirements make other bridge types impractical or when it is not feasible to use intermediate bents. TIMBER
SUBSTRUCTURES
ABUTMENIS. Abutments support the bridge ends and con_ larn roadway embankmenl material. The simplest timber abutment is a sawn_lumber or glulam spread tooting placed drrectlv on the surface of the embankment rf foundation materia,s permit. Another type is the post abutment, In wnrch lhe superstructure is supponed on sawn lumber ol gruram posts connected to a spread footing. pile abutments may be used tt soils cannot hold footings. BENTS: Bents are intermediate suppons between abut menls used lor muttiple.span bridges. They are made f.om Lmoer prtes or sawn lumber trames, depending on hetgbt requirements and soil conditions.
GENERAL
DESIGN
CRITERIA
For design criteria and specifications tor timber bridges. reter to the current edition of the American Association of State Highway and Transponation Officials (MSHTO) Stan_ dard Specrfrcations, tor Highway B.idges and ,,Trmbe, brlogeS Uesrgn, Construction, Inspection, and Maintenance, U.S Department of Agriculture, August 1992.
TimberBridges BEAM WTDTH
.-
LONGITUOINAL
GLUED,LAMINATEO DECK GMINATED LONGITUDINAL
BEAM
6 X 6
STAYS
BEHIND
EACH
PILE
35l
ON GLUED .BEAM
\
3 / '2 PRT SSUPE MUTID TIMBER BACKWALL AAUruENT PUNKING, FASTENED TO PTLES WITH MO ffi NAILS ACH -
STEEL SIDE ,uTE STEEL BASE
'-
12" X 12. TTMBER PILE ABUTMENT CAP
ANCHOR
BOLT 4'
ABUTMEM
GE
X
14'
74'X 30'LONG GALVANIZED STEEL DRIfl PIN
W|NG
-
STEEL PTATI BEARING SHOE
TYPICAL BEARING SHOE DETATLS TIMBER RAILING BOLTED 6X6TIMBERR)ST
TO
12 X 12 NMBER CURB BOLED TO DEq TIMBER ASPHALT UG
LL' ./ wtNG waLL /
POST
RETAINER
FOR
TYPICAL
PILE ABUTMENT
DETAIL
SCRry --.-' ASPHIT
-P I L
/
1a'aBow GRADE OR WATER LEEL MIN.
ry.. X 30' GALVANZED STEEL DRIFT PINS. WP
BRIDGE EDGE CONDITION MP<
rrcST
|Iv
12'
3'
ltl
:lll "lll
1 a
ztr\/ ( _^^^.^,^.,
7T' DIAMETER
TYPICAL
PILE BENT
OF FLTruRE
F9.APYI-Y ir6ir6w7v RESURFACE
MULTIRAII../VEHICLE
TIMBER
PILES
5Hh',.rG*']-qr
I Jl
=l JI
rlJTl I
MACHINE
X
1 2'
SWAY
BOLTS.
BRAC)ING
WP
DETAIL 1 %' MlN. (coMPACTED)
ASPHALT SURFACE
ilL -!TOP
DIAMflER
.t-n
LONGruDINAL UMINATED TIMBER |uNKING
GLUED. OECK
BACK
ABUTMENT PILE STAY
ASPHALT
NMBER
AS;PHALT
WALL
AT
TIMEiEFI
SURFACE
J4' DIA. SLOTED DOME, OR HEX.HEAD (PUTE BOLT 146. TO 14. URGER HOLE THAN BOLT DtA.. WP.) STEEL |uTE
CAP
c:AP
]$ll-
GLUEDUMINAruD NEOPRENE BUSHING (offroNAL) -
TTMBER PrLE AT ABUTMENT
STEEL ANGLTS BOLTS
?)
STEEL ANGLE ATTACHMENT
AT
HEAD) TIMBER
SELF.LOCKING CUT W€HER
STEEL
%. THICK STEEL PCTE NOTCHED IMO DECK
WEARING
SURFACE ON GEOTEXNLE _
TIMBER
EENT
AflACHMENT WIH THROUGH (DOME. OR HEX-
ASPHALT PAVEMENT ON GEOTENILE FABRIC
DECK
GALVANZED DOME-HEAD BOLTS fuCED THROUGH DECK AND ABUTMEM AP PIG
STEEL E}OLT ATTACHMENT
2' TO 3' (coMPAffEO)
WEARING ON GEOTENILE
PI.ATE
BOLTED
ffi 2i/wYr",'{,'2
CAST DECK uG
ON
&G'gSdhvaNzED
STEEL PI.ATE. ATTACHMENT
TYPICAL
NUT
CONNECTION
TAG
WEARING
ALUMINUM BRACKET
1 \
SCREW
SURFACES GG BOLT, ryP >
GALVANIZED STEEL ANGLE BRACKET \
c)AP
GLUED-LAMINATED
GALVANIZO STEEL C.CLIP
DECK
74' DIA. ANCHOR BOLT (IN SPANSION SLEEW OR GROUTED) 7.'THICK NEORENE PAD
STEEL BEAM
NOTE
.- GLUEO-UMINATED LONGITUDINAL
OR
LUMBER
BEAM
Deck bracketsincludesmall teeth that firmly grip rhe deck andbeam. TYPICAL
RAIL SYSTEMS
TYPICAL LONGITUDINAL ATTACHMENT DETAILS
DECK
TYPICAL GLUED.LAMINATED ATTACHMENT DETAILS
DECK
Richard J. Mtullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville. Marvtand Michael A. Ritter. PE, Structural Engineer; Forest products Lab, USDA; Madison, Wisconsin
HEAVYTIMBER CONSTRUCTION
352
Tongueond Groove Wood Decking
LAMINATED
DECK-ALLOWABLE
UNIFORMLY DOUGLAS
DISTRIBUTED TOTAL ROOF LOADS (LB/SQ FT: LIVE AND DEAD LOADS)
FIR,/LARCH
PONDEROSA
E = 1 , 8 0 0 , 0 0p 0s i F " = 2 . 5 8 5p s i F " = 1 6 5p s i
PINE
PONDEROSA
E = 1, 15 0 , 0 0 0p s i F " = 1 , 4 8 5p s i F , = 1 5 0p s i
PINE FACE
INLAND
0si E = 1,200,00p F . = 1 , 7 2 0p s i F , = 1 3 0p s i SIMPLE
RED CEDAR
FACE
0s i E = 1 , 2 5 0 , 0 0p F b= 1 , 4 8 5p s i F "= 1 3 0p s i ANOOM ENGTH ONTINUOUS
SPAN
w40 (psf)
l4 x 8 nominal
ttl
110
v'o-_}.
4l
s,4
oR 7Vs-
x 8 nominal rlrs,r__!r
"Kl Kfl -vm/7zzm -f
5,k" oaz,h"
f
I
67
NOTE must be dividedby I .15. Loadsin table are limited by deflection;Fo= extremefiber stress in bending;F, = horizontalshear.E = modulusof elasticityin millionsof psi. TOENAIL ADJACENT BOARDS AT 3O,, O-C
SPIKE ADJACENT BOARDS THROUGH ORILLED HOLES
2 NAILS PER BOARD AT SUPPORTS
\\
\
SINGLE TONGUE AND GROOVE
SOLID DECKING
CONTINUOUS RANDOM
MACHINE-SHAPED
DECKING TYPES
LAMINATED
DavidS. Collins,FAIA;AmericanForest& paperAssociation; Cincinnati, Ohio
WOOD DECKING
DECKING
WOOD
SPAN
WITH
LENG
DECKING JOINT PATTERNS
Wood Decks PIPE RAIL GALVANIZED wELDED WIRE FENCING STAPLED AT TOP. BONOM, AND POSTS
:,ttI.tt"'fl[ POST AND B.^M--,v?//, , /
6X6WOOD CAP CUT A5 SHOWN
W i'r.',
COATED STAINLESS STEEL WIRE WITH EYE HOOKS AND TURNBUCKLES. REINFORCE CORNER POSTS WITH STEEL PUTES
TRIM OVER STAPLE AT TOP. BONOM. AND POST
353
Wr,,T t"l
BOLTS
ACTURED CAP
sLoPED ,/4roP FoRDRATNAGE <.,-K) < t\/ |.J ;: I\,,1
ru;t{ffi ru ll ll'l
l"r
POST AND BEAM CONNECTIONS
SLOPEO TO SHED WATER
VENTIUTE
ruO THROUGH BOLTS AT POST
RAILINGS SLOPE TOP OF TOP OF WOOD SPACER --\ /-OECKING MffAL HANGER
.,_JOlSr
RELATIVE OF WOOD
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS QUALITIES USED IN DECK CONSTRUCTION
BLOCKING ......-........"_\
BOLTEO TO BUILOING WALL SPACER: SOLIO WOOO BLOCK OR EXTERIOR GRAOE PLWOOO -AUILDINGWALL
CONNECTIONS
AT BUILDING
WALL
PREDRILL NAIG 3/r6" sPAcER
-OECK
AT ENOS
BOAROS LAIO WITH .BARK" SIDE UP, IF FST GRAIN MATERIAL (V,G. METAL PREFERRED)
s-l,TAi r/." THlcK TEMPERED HARDBOARD
NOTE '/a spacing not recommended high heels are anticipated.
N OTES
AT4 -O'O.C.
1. Includes West Coast and eastern hemlocks.
OECK BOARDS UIO ON EOGE NAIL STAGGEREO AT SPACER
2. Includes western and northeastern pines-
4. Use pressure preseryative treated material only. All materials below deck surfaces should be pressure treated.
3. Categories refer to semitransparent oil base stain-
tor walking surfaces where
DECKING APPLICATIONS
The BumgardnerArchitects;Seattle,Washington
WOODDECKING
354
Wood Decks
STAINLESS STEEL WITH TURNBUCKLES 4'O
BANDRAILS ARE REOUIRED FOR SLOPES GREATER. CHECK LOCAL CODES
TOERAiL WITHIN 4" OF THE RAMP TO KEEP CASTER WHEELS AND WALKERS FROM SLIPPING OVER THE EDGE
-
DIA
l:20
BEAMS CONNECTED
HANDRAIL
TO
INSTALL PLANKS HAND TIGHT TO EACH OTHER
POSTS
3 JOISTS
rHAN I JOIST HANGERS
AEAMS CONNECTED TO POSTS
GRAVEL BUCK.
ALL WOOD SHOULD BE PRESSURE TREATED CONCRETE SILL AND
PERMEAALE PUSTIC
CONCRETE SLOPED TO GRAVEL'/2:1'O" 2X12 CUa aO WEOGE SHAPE
r---:cnavEu BUCK, WATER,PERMEABLE PUSTIC
FOOTING
ACCESSIBLE
WALKWAY
ACCESSIBLE
RAMP
\/VALKWAYS AND RAMPS DECK EOGE -_\
OECK
SHOP FABRICATEO
LOW DECK EDGES TREAD DECKING
ANER /SPACING Z SHRINKAGE SHOULD r/2' LEss rHAN
DECKING
JOIST
CARRIAGE
GRADE OR PAVING SURFACE
M ETAL HANGER
ANCHOR BOLT
PRESSURE TREATED
ON CONCRETE SUB OR APRON
STRINGER BOLTED TO CARRIAGE WITH SPACERS BflEEN
STEP PUTFORM
STAIR
CARRIAGE
WITH
CLEAT BOLTED TO CARRIAGE WITH SPACER BETWEEN CARRIAGE WITH CLEATS
STRINGER
PRESSURE TREATED SPACER
CONCRffE FOUNDATION
SPACING A[ER SHRINKAGE SHOULD BE LESS rHAN r/2-
STEPS AND STAIRS
//STEEL
GALVANIZED STEEL OR PRESSURE TREATED POST
POST
ltil;;; !LfF,'"'*".'* gvl
itFEt:_:
coNcRETE J\FINISH GRADE I
\l SILL
SEALgR
\ \-
\ l /
PREcasr torcnsrr TREATED POST
pLTNTH/
,--
DRTLLED HoLE
/
FILLED WITH CONCRETE
--l
POUREO TREATEO
FOOTING/ POST
FASTENERS Us€ hotdipped and staining.
FILLED
TAMPED 5OIL, GRAVEL. OR 5: I MIX OF SOIL AND CEMENT
CONCRETE FOOTING (GRAVEL OR CRUSHEO ROCK MAY BE SUBSTITUTED) NOT RECOMMENOED FOR MOIST CLIMATE
2. To reduce board splitting by nailing: blunt nail points; pre, drill F/a of nail diameterlj stagger naiting; place nails no closer to edge than one-half of board thickness_ 3. Avoid end grarn nailing and toenatltng if possrble. 4. Use flat washers under heads of lag screws €nd bolts, and under nuts. 5. Hot-dipped galvanizedcasing nails or stainless steel deck scres are best deckrng fasteners. 6. Plated ring shank or spiral groove shank nails are suatable for arid climates.
WOODDECKING
OR PAVING SURFACE
BOLT CONCRETE FOUNDATION GRAVEL BALUST ON PUSTIC MEMBRANE
PROVIDE FOR DRAINAGE OF AREA BELOW OECK
LO\,v
PROTECTION
1. All wood members should be protected from weather by pressure treatment or field application of preseryatives, slarns, or parnts. 2. All wood in direct contact with soil and concrete must be pressure treated. 3. Bottoms of posts on piers should be 6 in above grade. 4. Sterilize or cover soil with membrane to keeo olant groMh away from wood m€mbers so as to minimize morsture exchange. 5. Treat all ends, cuts, holes, etc. with pfeservative before placement. 6. Decking and flat trim boards,2 x 6 and wider, should be kerfed on the underside with % in. deep saw cuts at 1 in. o.c. to prevent cupping. 7. Avoid horizontal exposure of end grain or provide ade, quate protection by flashing or sealing. Avoid or minimize joint situations where moisture may be trapped by using spacers and/or flashing, caulking, sealant. or plastic roof, ing cement.
The Bumgardner Archfects; Seattle, Washington Mark J. Mazz, AIA; CEA, Inc.; Hyattsvile, Marytand
SILL
FOOTING
POURED OR PRECAST FOOTING/TREATED POST
MOISTURE galvanized fasteners to avoid corrosion
SILL SEALER
PRESSURE
GRADE HOLE
POSTS AND FOOTINGS '1.
BE
DECK
EDGES
CONSTRUCTION l WOOD SELECTION: Usual requirements are good decay resistance, nonsplintering, lair stiffness, strength, hardness, and warp resistance. Selection varies according to local climate and structure. 2. BRACING: On large decks, or decks where post heights exceed 5 ft, lateral stabilrtyshould be achieved with horizontal bracing (metal or wood diagonal ties on top or bottom of ioists, or diagonal application of decking) in combination w,th vertical bracing (rigid bolted or gusseted connections at tops of posts, knee bracing, or cross brac,ng between posts), and/or connection to a braced building wall. Lateral stability should be checked by a structural engineer.
plywood DesignDoto EXPOSURE DURABILITY cussrFrcaTroN
GRADE OF VENEER ON FACE PANEL
MILL
A-B.G-t
SPAN
E r T - A P A O O OP S l - 8 : l
GROUP NUMBER
PRODUCT STANDARD GOVERNING MANUFACTURE
THICKNESS
MILL
NUMBE
APARATED SHEATHING
The span ralings in the trademarkson ApA{ated Sturd-lFl@r and Siding panels appear as a single numb€r. ApArated Sturdl-Floor panels are designedspecifi€fiy tor siG gle-floor (combined subfloor underlayment)appti€tions under carpet and pad and are manufacturedwjth soan ratings of | 6, 20, 24, 32, and 48 in. The span ratingsfor ApArated Stur+l-Floorpanels,like those for APA{ated Sheathing. are based on appli€tion of the panel with the long dimensionor strengthaxisacrossthree or mors supports.
1132|NCH
3416
STD@$ACING
EXPOSURE 1 -000__ NERQrc7
SIDING
=GRADE
MP.IS
APA{ated Sidingis availablewith span ratingsot 16 and 24 in. Span-ratedpanelsand lap sidingmay be applieddirect to studs or over nonstructuralwall sheathing(Slurdl-Wallcor struction).or over nailablepanel or lumber sheathing(double wall construction).Panelsand lap siding with a span ratingof 16 in. may be applieddirect to studs spaced16 in. o.c. Panelsand lap sidingbearinga span ratingof 24 in. may be applieddirect to studs 24 in. o.c. All rated sidingpanels roy be appliedhorizontallydirect to studs 16 or 24 in. o.c.. providedhorizontaljoints are blocked.When u$d orer nailable structural sheathing,the span rating of rate.dsiding panels refers to the maximum recommendedsoacino of venicalrows ot nailsratherthanto studspacing.
APA-
FACE
RATEDS|DING ---30&i8-S,\,
itffi E; "j:::_____E
ec- ffiJF9" SZEO FOR SPACING
FHA REcocNrTroN -000__
rel$
EXTERIOR \FU{Mg
_-ryj8rc_ APA TRADEMARKS GRADE
DESIGNATIONS
Structuralpanel gradesare g€nerallyidentified in terms of the veneer grade used on th€ fa€ and back of the oanel (e.9., A-8, B-C, etc.) or €ted by a nam suggesting the panel's intendedend use (e.9,.APA{ated Sheathing,APArated Sturd-l-Floor. etc.).
GROUP
NUMBER
APA-trademarked panels may be produced in four exDosure durabiljty classifications-Exterior, Exposure 1, Exoosure 2. and Interior. Note: All-veneer ApA-rated Sheathing, Expe sure 1, commonly called "CDX" in the trade, is freouentlv mistaken as an Exterior panel and erroneously used In appti_ cations for whrch it does not possess the required resis"CDX" tance to weather. should only be used for appii€tions as outlined under Exposure I below. For sheathing grade Panels that will be expored permanently to the weather, specify APA-rated Sheathing Exterior (a-C Exterior under Product Standard PSI lor manufacturing). EXTERIOR PANELS have a futty waterpr@f bond and are designed for applications subject to permanent exposure to the weather or to moisture. EXPOSURE 1 PANELS have a fulty waterproof bond and are designed for applications where long construction time may delay permanent protection, is provtded, or where hrgh morsture condtttons may be encountered in serytce Expo sure 1 panels are made wilh the same adhesives used in Exterior panels. However, because other comDosjtional {actors may affect bond perjormance, onlv Exterior Danels should be used for permanent exposure to the wealher. EXPOSURE 2 PANELS (identified as Inrerior type with inter_ mediate glue under PS1) are intended for orotected con, struction applications where only moderate delavs in providing prolection from morstur€ may be expected INTERIOR PANELS that lack further glueline information in their trademarks are manufactured with interior olue and are intended for interior applications only.
SANDED, UNSANDED, AND TOUCH-SANDED PANELS Panels with B{rade or b€tter veneer laces are sanded smooth in manufacture to fulfill the requirements of their intended applications (€binets, shelving, furniture, buillins, etc.). APA-rated Sheathing panels are unsanded since a smooth surface is not required lor their inlended use. Other panels-Underlayment, APA rated Sturd-l-Floor, C-D Plugged, and C-C Plugged+equire only touch.sanding for ''sizing" to make the panel thickness more unrform. Unsanded and touch-sanded panels, and panels with Bgrade or better veneer on one side only, usually carry the APA trademark on the panel back. Panels with both sides of B€rade or better veneer, or with sDecial overlaid surfaces (such as Medium Density Overtay), carry the APA trademark on the Danel edoe.
Plyw@d can be manufactured from more than 70 species of wood. These species are divided, on the basis of bending strength and stiffness, inlo five groups under U.S. Prdduct Slandard PS 1€3. Strongest species are in Group 1, tht next stiongest"in Group 2..and so on. The group number that appears in the trademark on some APA trademarked' panels-primarily ;nded grades-is based on the species of face and back veneers. Where face and back veneers are not from the sme species group, the higher group number is used, except lor sanded and decorative panels 3/s in. thick or less. These are identified by face siecies because they^ ar€ chosen primarily for appearance-ild used in applications where structural integrity is not critical. Sanded panels greater than % in. are identified by face species if.C or D grade backs are at least r/Rin. and are no.more than one specres group number larger. Some species are used widely in pl)ry@d manufacture, others rarely. Check lrcal availability before jpecifyin"g if i particular soecies is desired.
VENEER GRADES Veneergradesdefine veneerappearancein terms oI natural unrepairedgrowth characteristicsand the number and size of repairsallowableduring manufacture.The highest qualatyveneergradesare N and A. The minimum grade of veneer permitted in Exteriorplywood is C{rade. D€rade veneer is used only for backs and inrer plies of panels intended lor interior use or applicationsprotected from exposureto permanentor srere misture. N- Sm@th surface -natural finish" vemer. Select, all heartw@dor all [email protected] open detects.Allows not more than 6 Epairs, wood only, per 4 x 8 panel, made parallelto gcin and w€ll mtched for grain and cobr. A- Smth. paintable.Not mre than 18 neatly made repairs,b@t. sled, or rdter typ€, parallelto grainpermitted. May be used for naturalfinish in less demanding appli€tions. Syntheticrepairsp€rmitt€d_ &- Solid surface. Shims, cirdlar repair plugs, and tight knots to I in. acrossgrainp€rmitted.Some minol splits and syntheticrepairspermitted. C- PLUGGED-lmp.ovedCgrade veneerwith splits timited ror/Bin.width, knotholesand borerholes limited to '/ r x 1/zin. Admits some broken grain.Syntheticrepairs permitted. C- Tight knotsto 1'l, in. Kmtholes to 1 in. acrossgrainand some to 1rl2in. if total width of knots and knotholesis within specifiedlimits. Syntheticor w@d repairs.Discoloration and sanding defects that do not impair strength permitted_Limired splits allowed. Stitching rermitted. D- Knotsand knotholesto 2'l, in. width acrossgrainand r/2 in. largerwithin specifiql limits. Limited splits ailowed. Stitchingpermitted.Limitedto interiorand Exposure1 paners_
EXPOSURE DURABILITY
The span ratingin APA-ratedSheathingtrademarksappears as two numbersseparatedby a slash,such as32116,4g/14. etc. {An exceptionis APA-ratedSheathingintendedfor use on walls only. The trademarksfor these contain a sinqle numbersrmrlarto the spanratrngfor ApA+atedSiding.) The lefl-handnumber denotes the maximum recommended spacingof supportswhen the panelis used for roof sheathing with the long dimension or strength axis of the panel acrossthre€ or more supports.The right-handnumber indicates the maximum recommended spacing of suppons when the panel is used for subflooringwith rhe longdimensronor streftgthaxis of the panelacrossthree or more suo. ports. A panel marked32116, for example,mav be used tor roof deckingover supports32 in. o.c. or for subfl@ringover supportsl6 in. o.c.
TONGUE ANO
ASSURANCE AGENCY APA'S PERFORMANCE RATED PANEL STANDARD /
RATINGS
APA{ated Sheathing, ApA rated Sturd-lFloor, and ApA_ ratedSidingcarrynumbersin their trademarks calledsoan ratings.These denote the maximum recommendedcenter to{enter spacing in inches of supports for the panels in constructionapplications.Exceptfor APA-ratedSidingpanels,the spanratingin the trademarkappljeswhen the long panel dimension is across supports, unless the strenEi axis is otheMise rdentrfied.The span rating in the traae markof ratedSidingpanelsapplieswhen instailed venically.
NUMBER
355
CLASSIFICATION GROUP
I
B€6ch,Amerien Birch, Sweet Yellow DouglasFir No. la Kapur Keruing Larch,Western Maple,Sugar rrne, Caribbean Ocote Pine,Southern Loblolly Longleaf Shonleaf Slash
GROUP 2 Leoar, Port Oxford Cvoress Diruglas FirNo.2a Fit, Balsam California Red Grand Noble Pacific Silver White Lauan, Almon Bagtikan Mayapis Red Tangile White
HemtGk, Western Maple, Black Menokulam Mera-nli. RedD Mersawa Pine, Pond Red Virginia Western White Spruce, Black Red Sitka Sweetgum Tamarack Yellow-Poplar
GROUP 3
Birch,Paper Cedar.Alaska Fir,Subalpine Hemlock, Eastern Maple. Bigleaf Pine, Jack Lodgepole Ponderosa Redwood Spruce, Engelmann White
GROUP
4
ASpen, Bigtooth Ouaking Cativo Cedar, Incense Western Red Cottonw@d, Eastern Black (Western Poplar) Pine, Eastern Whit€ Sugar
ROUP 5
Poplar, Balsam
N OTES a- Douglas Fir from trees grown in the states of Washing lon, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming and the Canadian provinces of Albena and British Columbia shall be classed as Douglas Fir No. 1. Douglas Fir from tre€s grown in the states of Nevada. Utah, Colq
rado, Arizona, and New Mexico shall be classed as Dou glasFirNo.2. b. Red Meranti shall be limited to species having a specific gravity of 0.4'l or more based on green volume and oven dry weight.
Bl@dg@d, Sharp,BusterArchitectsand Planners;Des Moines, lowa Amerian PlywoodAss@iation;Tacoma,Washington
SHEATHING
356
Plywood PonelTypes
APA-RATED
SIDING
PAN
ELS
For exterior siding. fencing, etc. Can be manufactured as conventional veaeered plywood, as a composrte, or as a4 overlaid orrented strand board siding Borh panel and lap srding available Special surface treatment such as V gr@ve, shallow channel groove, deep groove (such as APA Texture 1-11), kerled groove, brushed, rough-sawn, and texture€mbossed IMDO). Span Rating (stud spacing lor siding qGlified for APA Sturd-l-Wall applicationsl and face grade classification (for veneer-faced siding) indicated in trademark Exoosure Durabilitv Classilication: Exterior. Common thicknesses:,tlsz, "le,,slsz,1/u ls/zz 5le.
3O3-PLYWOOD GRADES
SIDING
APA A-C
APA B-B PLYFORM
For use where appearance of onlyone side is importantrn exteriorapplications, e.9., soffits,fences,structuraluses, boxcarand truck linings,farm buildings, tanks,trays,commercialrefrigerators. etc. ExposureDurability Classification Exterior.Commonthicknesses:
Concrete form grades with high reuse factor. Sanded both sides and mill-oiled unless otherwise sDecified. Soecial restnctr^is on specres. Class I panels are slrltest, st'ongesl, and most commonly ava,lable Also available ln HDO tor very smooth concrete finish. in Structurai I (all plies Im ited to Group 1 species), and with special overlays. Exposure Durabilitv Classification: Exterior. Common thicknesses: Bl 32,5h, n I 32,3| a.
APA A.D For use where appearanceof only one side is importantin interiorapplications, e.9.,paneling,built-ins, shelving,partitions, etc. ExposureDurabilityClassifications: Interior, Exposure1. Commonthicknesses.,Io,31e,, /2,5/e.slo.c, APA B-B Utilitypanelswith two solidsides.Exposure Durability Classilications: Interior. Exposure 1, Exterior.Common thicknesses:r/a.3/s,'I z, sla,3Io.16,
FACE SYNTHETIC PATCHES
APA B.C Utilitypanelfor farm seryiceandwork buildinqs, boxcarand trucklinings,containers, tanks,agricultural equipment,as a basefor exteriorcoatingsand other exterioruses. Exposure DurabilityClassification:Exterior.Commonthicknesses:1/.. APA B-D Utility panelfor backing,sides of builtins, industryshelving, slip sheets,separatorboards.bins,and other interioror prc tected appli€tions. ExposureDurabilityClassifi€tions:Interior. Exposure1. Commonthicknesses:,la,3/a,th, sla,31a.6, APA UNDERLAYMENT For applicationover structural subfloor. Providessmooth surfacefor applicationof carpet and pad and has high concentratedand impact load resistance.Touch-sanded.Exposure Durability Classilications: Interior, Exposure 1. 'lz, .sln, sla,23l*.31o. ,'lsz Commn thicknesses:31e,
NOTES 1. Limitations on grad€ characteristics are based on 4 x I ft panel size. Limits on other sizes vary in proponion. All panels except 303-NR allow restricted minor repairs such as shims. These and such other tace aomarance characterastics as knots, knotholes, spiits, etc.. are limited by both size and numb€r in accordance with panel grades, 303 OC being most restrictive and 303-30 being least. Multiple repairs are permitted only on 303-18 and 303-30 panels. Patch size is restricted on all panel grades. For additional inforrution, including finishing recommenda tions, see APA Product Guide:303 Plywood Siding, E300.
APA C-C PLUGGED For use as underlaymentover structuralsubfloor,refrigeraled or controlledatmosphereslorage rooms, pallet bins, tanks, truck tlmrs, linings and other exterior applications. Touch-sanded.ExposureDurabilitvClassitication:Exterior. r, Commonthicknesses:3la,,lz)sln, 'le, 231 sz;3lo, lsz
2. Check lrcal availabilitv. 3. "Clear" 4. "Overlaid" (e.9., Medium Density Overlay sidingI 5. "Natural Rustic"
Use where appearanceof both sides is imoortantfor interior applicalions suchas builtins,cabrnets,turnrture.oarlr. tions; and exteftorapplicationssuch as fences, signs. boats. shippingcontainers,tanks, ducts. etc. Smoothiur faces suitablefor painting.ExposureDurabilityClassifications:Interior,Exposure1, €xterior.Commonthicknesses: '/o, 3/",'lr. 5ls,3lo.6r APA A.B Foruse whereappearance of one side is lessimoortantbut where two solidsurfacesare necessaryExposureDurability Classitications:Interior, Exposure 1, Exierior. Common ./o,3| I 5/a,.1 thicknesses: e,' z, o.t6'
APA PERFORMANCE-RATED PANELS.',,,
APA.RATED
SHEATHING
Specially designed for subflooring and wali and rool sheath ing. Also good for broad range of other construction and industrial applications. Can be manufactured as a conventional veneered pllryood, as a composite. or as a nonvepanel. neered For special engineered applications, veneered panels conforming to PS1 may be required. Exposure Durability Classitications: Exterior, Exposure 1, Exposure 2. Common thicknesses: 5l.a,3la,1/,a, 1lz,5la,3l* 15/o
APA STRUCTURAL SHEATHING
I AND
II RATED
Unsanded all-veneer PSl plywood grades for use where strength is of maximum imponance; for box beams, gusset plates, stressed-skin panels, containers. pallet bins. Structural lis more commonly available. Exposure Durability Classifications: Exterior, Exposure 1. Common thicknesses: t] tt6,
3t ta,
1| t2,
1At t32,
t9t ,1L
at 231 rat t3),
STURD-I-FLOOR
APA OECORATIVE
For combination subfloor-underlayment on 32- and 48,inch spans and for heavy timber roof construclion. Manufactured only as conventional veneered pivwood. Available square€dged or tongue-and-g.ooved. Exposure Durability Classifications: Exposure 1. Thickness: 1'ls.
Rough-sam, brushed, grooved. or other faces. For paneling, inlerior accent walls, built-ins. counter facing, exhibit displays. Can also be made by some manufacturers in Exterior for siding, gable ends, fences, etc. Use recommendations tor exterior panels vary with the particular product: check with manufacturer. Exposure Durability Classifjcations: Interior, Exposure 1. Exterior. Common thicknesses: 5l,a,3la,'h,'le.
NOTES RATEO
APA HIGH.DENSITY
PANELs
OVERLAY
(HDO)
Has a hard semi{paque resin-fiber ov€rlay both sides. Abrasion-r€sistant. For concrete forms, cabinets, counter, tops, signs. tanks. Also available with skid-resistant screeft grid surface. Exposure Durabilitv Classification: Exterior. Common thicknesses: 3/a, \| z, 5| e, 3/ o. APA MEDIUM.DENSITY
OVERLAY
(MDO}
Smooth, opaque. resin-fiber overlay one or both sides. ldeal base for paint. indoors and outdoors. Available as a 303 Siding. Exposure Durability Ctassification: Exterior. Common thicknesses: 11 lzz, 31a,.lz,5la,31, 1.lsz,,slsz,23/tz APA MARINE ldeal lor boat hulls. Made only wath Dougtas fir or western larch. Special solid-iointed core construction. Subiect to special limitations on core gaps and tace repairs. Also available with HDO or MDO taces. Exposure Durabiljty Classification: Exterior. Common thicknesse s: . lo.3l",'/2. 5/e,3lo.
SHEATHING
Hardboard lace on both sides. Faces tempered, untem pered, smooth, or screened. For countertops, shelving, cabinet doors, flooring, etc. Exposure Durability Classifica tions: lnterior, Exposure 1, Exterior. Common thicknesses
Specially designed as combination subfl@r-underlavment. Provdes smooth surface for application of carpet and pad and possesses high concentrated and load impact resistance. Can be manutactured as a nonveneered panel. Avaif able square€dged or tongue,and{rooved. Exposure '1, Durability Classifications: Exterior, Exposure Exposure 2. u/",.r/rr,., Common thicknesses.." / o. "r, APA.RATED STURD.I.FLOOR 4A OC (2-4-l \
APA SPECIALTY
BloodgoodSharp.BusterArchitectsand planners;Des Moines,lowa American PlywoodAsseiation; Tacoma,Washinqton
APA PLYRON
APA-RATED
I-I I
APA SANDED AND TOUCH. SANDED PANELS€ii,
II
For open soffits, builtins. €ble reels.walkwavs,separator boards,and other interior or protectedapplications.Not a substitutetor underlayrent or APA{ated Stur+l-Flooras it lacks puncture resistance. Exposure Durability Classifications: lnterior,Exposure1. Commonthicknesses:%, 1/r,r%2, 5/e,23la,3lo.
Special 3o3-Siding panel with groovesl/a in. deep,3/. in. wide, spaced 4 or 8 in. o.c. Other spacings may be avail;ble on special order. Edges shiplapped. Available unsanded. textured, and other surfaces. Exposure Classitication: Exte rior. Thicknesses: r%? and % only.
I ANO
APA C-D PLUGGED
6. "Synthetic Rustic"
APA TEXTURE
CLASS
FOR SANOED PANELS
AND
PERFORMANCE-
1. Specify performance-rated panels by thickness and span .ating. Span ratings are based on panel strength and stilfness. Since these properties are a function of panel composition and configuration as well as thickness, the same span rating may appear on panels ot different thickness. Conversely, panels of the same thickness may be marled with diiferent span ratings. 2. All plies in Structural I panels are limited to Group 1 species. St.uctural ll panels are seldom available. 3. Exterior sanded panels. C-C Plugged, C-D Plugged, and Underlayment grades can also be manufactured in Structural | {all plies limited to Group 1 species). 4. Some manufacturers also produce panels with premium Ngrade veneer on one or both faces. Available onlv bv specral order. 5. Can also be manufactured in Structural | (all olies limited to Group 1 sDecres) 6. Also available in "lsz, ,5/zz,,slsz,23lsz in. thicknesses_
PlywoodUses EXTERIOR TYPE PANELS APPEARANCE'
GRADEI
INTERIOR THICKNESS
COMMON
USES
(IN.)
TYPE
PANELS
APPEARANCE?
GRADEl
357
VENEER
THICKNESS
(IN.)
3
bothsidesare visible. Smoothface; suitablefor paanting side asless importantbul two solid surfacesare neeoeo Utrlrtypanel;alsousedas base for exteriorcoatings on walls and roofs wood has a hard,semie paqueresinfiber overlayon both faces.Abrasionresistant.Use fo. concrete lorms, cabinets;suitable tor permanentexterior exposurewithout further finishing
PANELS.INT
sides;temperedsmooth or screenedfor counters ano ooots tural subfloor. Provides smooth surface for application of carpet and pad. Touch-sanded. Also available with axterior glue
ing tile backing,cable reels,walkways,separator boards.Not a substitute for UNDERLAYMENT OT STURDI-FLOOR as it lackstheirindentation resistance.Touchsanded.Also made with extenorglue
such as V{roove, channel grmve, striated,brushed. rougn sawn Specaal 303 panel having grooves 1/4 in. deep. 3E in.
wide, spaced4 or 8 in. o.c.i other spacingoptional. Edgesshiplapped.Available unsanded,textured. and medium{ensity overlay
PERFoRMANcE
RATED,,5
TH IC KN ESS
GRADE
C.C PLUGGEDETT
exteriorglue for sheathing and subflooring.Specify Exposure1 treated wood foundations
tural subfloor.Provides smooth surfacefor application of carpet and pad. Touch-sanded.
I
high reuse factor.Sanded both sides and milhiled unlessotheMise specified. Specialrestrictionson species.Also availablein HDO tor very sm@th mncrete finish. PERFORMANCE
GRADE
RATED,
COMMON
THICKNESS
USES
gradeswhere plywood strengthpropeniesare of maximumimportance. Made only with exterior glue for beams,gusset plates,and stressed-skin paners
EXP1 and2
and underlaymentunder carpetand pad. Specify Exposure1 where moisture is present.Available in tongue and gr@ve underlaymenton 32 and 48 in. spansand for heavy timber roofs-Touchsandedor tully $nded
NOTES_EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR PANELS 1Available in Grcup 1,2,3, 4, or 5 unless otheruise noted. 2 Standard 4 x 8 oanel sizesi other siz€s available.
EXT SHEATHING
EXT.
SHEATHING EXP1
underlaymenl undercarpel and pad where severe moisture conditions exist (e.9., balcony decks). Touch-sanded and tongue and groove.
3 Also available in Structural l. 1 Maximum recommended support spacing for roofs and floors is indicated in sheathing and single layer floor trademarks. Wall span ratings are included in rated siding panels 5 €xposure 2 allowed but not typically produced3 Special improved grade for structural panels. 7 Special construction to resist indentation from concentrated loads. 3 Interior type panels with exterior glue are indentified as Exposure L e Also available as nonveneer or composite panels.
David S. Collins,FAIA:American Forest & PaoerAssociation;Cincinnati,Ohio
SHEATHING
Woll qnd RoofSheothing
358 WOOO
t6
FRAMING
0.c
rlz" ntcl DENS|TY FIBERBoARD INSTALLED VERTICALLY SHEATHING (SPACE AT CORNERS FOR BRACING NAILS 6,, O C . 3,' O C. AT EDGES) HORIZONTAL ALOCKING
STRAP
SPACE STUDS l6'o.c. FoR CORNER BRACING
SPACE
ENDS
r/2 SHEET oF PLYwooo AS STARTER SHEET SPACE NAILS I2'' ' VERTICALLY IN PLYWOOD FIELD WALL
SHEATHING
FIBERBOARD
UP
FIBERBOARD SHEATHING INSTALLEO HORIZONTALLY TYP. (SPACE NAIE a" O.C.. 4 0.c. AT
(HORIZONTAL)
Lff IN I X 4 OR STEEL CORNER BRACING. IF
LONG DIMENSION JOINTS
LEAVE I/a,. GAP AT EDGES AND ENDS UNLESS O T H E R W I S ER E C O M M E N D E DB Y M A N U F A C T U R E R DOUBLE TOP PUTE
v,GROOVE JOINT
RATED SHEATHING WITH INSTALLED ACROSS VERTICAL STAGGER STUDS:
STUDS
24''
O.C,
MAX
HORIZONTAL BLOCKING
SPACE
FRAMING
WALL
O.C
SHEATH I NG
SPACE NATLS 12" O.C., 6" O.C AT ENDS
PANEL
6
RATED SHEATHING USED AS CORNER BRACING: INSTALL WITH LONG DIMENSION PARALLEL TO STUOS
SIDING MATERIAL PAPER OVER BUILOING
STRUCTURAL
NAILS
O.C
INSTALL PANEL SHEATHING WITH LONG DIMENSION ACROSS SUPPORTS STAGGER VERTICAL JOINTS
CLIPS
TONGUE,AND.GROOVED EDGES, OR BLOCKING UNDERNEATH IF REOUIREO
ROOFING
GYPSUM SHEATHING INSTALLED HORIZONTALLY (SPACE NAILS
a"o c.)
NOTE
GYPSUM SHEATHING INSTALLED VERTICALLY FOR CORNER BRACING (SPACE NAILS I 2" O.C. AND USE ADHESTVE)
FELT
ROOF FRAMING 24" O.C.
SHINGLES OR SHAKES ON ROOFING FOIOW ROOFING MANUFACTURER'S RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ROOFING FELTS
RATED SHEATHING LEAVE r/6" GAP AT ENDS AND EDGES UNLESS OTHERWISE RECOMMENDEO BY MANUFACTURER
PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE I AND 2 PANELS AGAINST EXPOSURE TO WEATHER OR USE EXTERIOR PANEL STARTER STRIPS
Nail sidingthrough gypsum board to studs; refer to manu facturer'srecommandationsfor specific installationinstruc!ons.
Cover roof sheathing as soon as possible with roofing telt for €xtra protection from moisture before rmfing is applied.
GYPSUM BOARD
STRUCTURAL
ROOF SHEATHING
SHEATHING
MATERIALS
SHEATHING
NOTE
CHA,RACTERISTI
STRUCTURAL
Nailable base
Yes
Vaporbarrier
No
No
lf asphalt-tr6ated
Yes
lnsulation R value ( 12 in. thickness)
1.2
o.7
2.6
Varieswith manufacturer
Corner bracing provided
ves
Yes (see manuOnly highdensity facturer'srecommendataons)
4x8,4x9,4x10
2 x8,4 x8, 4x10,4x12, 4x 14
rel sizes (ft, except sticin in.) Panelthickness{in.) Other remarks
INSUUTION CAN BE EXTENDED BELOW FROST LINE FOR RIGID
INSULATION
David S.
Collins,FAIA;Ameracan Forest& PaperAssociation: Cincinnati, Ohio
SHEATHTNG
/^ t( )t Y/
SHEATHING
7;i' "'!;
SHEATHING
GYPSUM No
v
"'
FIBERBOARD
Only highdensity
4x8,4x9, 4x10,4x12
t' v'2 5le23 tsz3/o
Plywoodgradescommonlyused for roof and wall sheathinghave span ratingsof 12l0, 1610,2OlO, 2410,24/16,32116,40120,and 4824; exposuredurabilityclassificationsare Exposure1 and Exterior.For unsupported edges,reter to manulacturer's recommenoalrons.
PLASTIC No
NO
16 x 96, 24 x 48, 224 x96, 48 x96, 48x108 r/, to 6 (for roof)
Fire-rated panels are available in r/, and 5/6in. thicknesses.
Also called insulation board. Can be treated or impregnatedwith asphalt. Available in regular and high{ensity panels.
Considered an eftective vaporbarrier. so walls must be well vented. Some products emit toxic fumes when burned;refer to manufacturer's specifications.
PlywoodSubflooringon Wood Froming CARPET AND PAD BLOCKING WITH SOUARE EDGE PANELS
APA RATED STURD].FLOOR 16.20,24,32 OR 4a O.C.-
3S9
UNDERLAYMENT NAILING SCHEOULE U^se3d ring shank nails lor undertaymenr up to ,/, in. thickness,4d forr%, in. and thicker. Use 16 gauge slaples, except thal 18 gauge may be used with 'L in. thick underlayment. Crown wrdth should b€ % in. for 16 gauge staptes, 3/16in. for 18 gauge. Length should be sutficient to penetrate subllooring at least % in or extend completely through. Space fasteners at 3 in. along panel edges and 6 in. each way in the panel interior, excepi for i,/3, rn. or thacker under_ layment applaedwith ring shank nails. In this case, use 6 in. spacing alongedges and g in. spac_ rng each way in the panel interior. Unless subfloor and joists are of thoroughly seasoned material and have remained dry during construction, countersink nail heads below surface of r/3, in. lf the underlayment iust prior lo laying linish floars to avoid nail popping. - Space joints thin resilient flooring is to be applied, fill and thoroughly sand joints. WOOO FLOORING OR LIGHMEIGHT
END
LEAVEr/s" sPActNG AT ALL EDGE ANO ENO
JOINTS
CONCRETE
TONGUE AND GROOVE EDGES (OR PROVIDE 2.' LUMBER BLOCKING BryEEN SUPPORTS)
JOINTS (UNLESS OTHERWISE SPECIFIEO
BY MANUFACTURER)
APA RATED STURD-I-FLOOR ILED
I N T E R ME D I A T E
L€AVE r/s" sPAcE AT ALL PANEL END AND EDGE JOiNTS (UNLESS OTHERWISE RECOMMENO€O BY PANEL MANUFACTURER)
APA PANEL SUBFLOORING' PANEL (tN.)
NOTES 1. For conditionsnot listed,see APA literature. 2. Use only APA SpecificationAFG{I adhesives,propedy applied. Use only solvent based glues on nonveneeredpanelswith sealedsurfacesand edges. 3. 8d common nails may be substitutedif ring or screw-shanknailsare not available. 4. lOd common nailsmay be substitutedwith 1 r/sin. panelsif supponsare well seasoned. 5. Spacenails6 in. for 48 in. spansand 12 in. for 32 in. spans.
TILE, CARPET, SHEET GOODS, OR OTHER NONSTRUCTURAL FLOORING
THICKNESS
NOTES 1. Appliesto APA rated sheathinggradesonty. 2. The spansassure plywmd continuousover two or more spanswith long dimensionacross suppons. 3. In sore nonrelidentialbuildings.specialconditionsmay requireconstructionin excess o{ minimum given. 4. May be 24 in.ll3L in. wood strip flooringis instatledat right anglesto joists. 5. Spansar€ limited to the wlues shown becauseol the possibleeffect of concentratedloads. SUBFLOORING NAILING SCHEOULE F o t 7 l $ i n .p a n e l , u s e 6 d c o m m o n n a i l s a t 6 i n . o . c . a t p a n e l e d g| e2 si n, . o . c . a t i n t e r m e d i a t e supports-Forr%, to % in. panels,use8d commonnailsat 6 in.o.c.at paneledges,j 2 in o.c.at intermediatesupports.For 1r/Band 1rl. in. panelsup to 48 in. span,use I 0d common nails6 in. o.c.at paneledgesand6 in. o.c.at intermediate supports.
APA PLYWOOD UNOERUYMENT SANDED FACE STAGGER END JOINTS
CARPff AND PAD
PRovlDEt/32SPACE BETWEEN UNDERUYMENT BUN JOINTS
SITE APPLIED GLUE BOTH JOIST AND TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT
APA RATED SHEATHING OR BOARD SUBFL@RING (STAGGER OPTIONAL UNOER CARPfl ONLY)
PLY\^/OOD
NO BLOCKING REOUIRED IF UNOERUYMENT JOINTS ARE OFFSET FROM SUBFLOOR JOINTS
UNDERLAYMENT
PLYWOOD GRADES SPECIES GROUP
AND
MIN. PLYWOOD THICKNESS (IN
APA RATEO STURD-FFLOOR 16.20.24_ 32. oR 4a' o LEAVE r/a" sPAcE AT ALL ENOS ANO EOGE JOINTS (UNLESS OTHERWISE RECOMMENOEO BY PANEL MANUFACTURER
TONGUE AND GROOVE EOGES (OR PROVIDE 2" LUMBER BLOCKING BryEEN SUPPORTS)
2" JOTST
INT-APA (with interior or exterior glue), ot
wide. Face grain must b€ perpendicular to boards NOTE S 1. For tile, carpeting, sheet goods, or other nonstructural flooring (consult Tile Council of America for recommendations regarding ceramic tilel. 2. Where floors may be subject to unusual moisture conditions, use panels with exterior glue (Exposure 1) or UNDERLAYMENT C{ Plugged EXT'APA. C-D Plugged is not an adequate substitute for underlayment grade, since it does not ensure equivalent dent resistance. 3. Recommended grades have a solid surface backed with a sp€cial inner ply construction that resists punch-through and dents from concentrated loads.
GLUED FLOOR SYSTEM '1. For complete information on glued floors, including joist span tables (based on building code criteria and lumber sizes), application sequence. and a list of recommended adhesives, contact the American Plywood Ass@iation. 2, Place APA STURD-I-FLOOR T&G across the joists with end joints staggered. Leave '/s in. space at all end and edge ioints. 3. Although tongue and groove is used more often, square edge may be used if 2 x 4 blocking is placed under panel edge joints between joists. 4. Based on live l@d of 40 pst, total load ot 50 psf, deflection limited to 1660 at 40 psf. 5. Glue to ioists and at tongue and groove joints. lf square edge panels are used, block panel edges and glue betreen panels and between panels and blocking. GLUEO
FLOOR
NAILING
SCHEOULE
Panels should be secured with power driven tasteners or nailed per APA STURD-I-FLOOR table, above.
Bloodgood, Sharp, Buster Architects and Planners; Des Moines, lowa American Plyw@d Ass@iation; Tacoma, Washington
SHEATHING
PlywoodSheothingfor Roofsqnd Soffils
360 APA RATEO SHEATHING
PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE 1 AND 2 SHEATHING AGAINST EXPOSURE
SHIM AT EACH RAffER FOR FLUSH JOINI AT CHANGE OF PANEL THICKNESS
LEAVE I/s'' SPACE AT ALL PANEL END AND EDGE JOINTS (UNLESS OTHERWISE R E C O M M E N D E DB Y MANUFACTURER)
APA RATED SHEATHING
TO
WEATHER ROOFING
DIRECTION OF FACE
SHINGLES OR (FOLLOW SHAKES MANUFACTURER'S RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ROOFING FELT)
GRAIN
OIRECTION OF LONG OIMENSION CONTINUOUS SCREENED VENT OR EOUALLY SPACEO LOUVERED VENTS
ANY APPROPRIATE EXTERIOR OR EXPOSURE PANEL GRADE OF ADEOUATE SPAN RATING TO CARRY OESIGN ROOF LOADS
ANY APPROPRIATE GRADE OF EXTERIOR APA PLYWOOD FOR SOFFIT
OPEN
CLOSED SOFFIT
SOFFIT
EXTERIOR COMBINED
OPEN SOFFITS/ CEILING DECKING
PANEL DESCRI PTIONS, MINIMUM RECOMMENOATIONS
r%2" APA sandedand MDO A,PAsandedand MDO APA 303 siding APA snded and MDO
MAXIMUM
EXTERIOR SOFFITS
CLOSED
APA RATED SHEATHING PROTECT EDGES OF EXPOSURE I AND 2 PANELS AGAINST EXPOSURE TO WEATHER. OR USE EXTERIOR PANEL STARTER STRIPS EXTERIOR
PLY\^/OOD
SOFFIT
APA RATED SHEATHING PANEL EDGES SHOULO HAVE BLOCKED EDGES, PANEL CLIPS- OR TONGUE ANO GROOVED EDGES
NOMINAL PLYWOOD THICKN ESS
1 , ' t , 34, 1,2,3,4
BUILT.UP ROOFING
t, z,3
1,2,3,4 1.2.3.4
EXTERIOR OR EXPOSURE PANELS AT OPEN SOFFITl
,l
r%r" APA snded and MDO '?%r" APA 303 siding '3132" APA rnded and MDO
PLYWOOD
GABLE.ROOF
'1
NOTE
1, 2 , 3 ,4 1. 2 . 3 .4
Plywoodis assum€dto be continuousacross two or more spanswith face grainacrosssupports.
LEAVE r/e" sPAcE AT ALL PANEL END AND EDGE JOINTS (UNLESS OTHERWISE RECOMMENOED BY
NAILING SCHEDULE
NOTES 1. Plvwod is assumed to be continuous across two or more spanswith face grainacrosssupports. 2. For spansof 32 or 48 in. in open soffit construction,provide adequate blocking, tongue and gr@ve edges, or other supportsuch as panel clips. Mjnimum loads are at least 30 psf live load. plus 10 psf dead load.
/
MANUFACTURER)
For closed soffits, use nonstainingbox or casing nails,6d lot t1/32in. and r5l., in. panels and 8d for 1%, in. panels. Spacenails6 in. at panel edges and 12 in. along intermediate supportsfor spansless than 48 in.; 6 in. al all supports for 48 in. soans.
FLAT LOW-PITCHED
ROOF
APA PANEL ROOF SHEATHING MAXIMUM
SPAN
(IN.)
NAIL SPACING
PANEL SPAN RATING
SELF.ORILLING SELF-TAPPING
INTERMEOIATE
DECK
scRss
BAR JOIST FUNGE
BAR JOIS
STAPLING
WEB
SPACES
(IN}
INTERMEOIATE
DECK COMMON
NAILS
2X4WOOO NAILER (MAY BE INSTALLED ACROSS JOISTS)
BAR JOIST FUNGE BAR JOIST WEB
CARRIAGE BOLT OR UG SCREW
CONNECTIONS JOIST
TO
OPEN
WEB
STEEL
Bloodg@d, Sharp, Buster Architects and Planners: Des Moines. lowa American Plywood Assoctation; Tacoma, Washrngton
SHEATHING
NAILING SCHEDULE
NOTES
Use 6d commonsm@th, ring shank,or spiralthreadnails for plywoodl/2in. thickor thinnerand 8d for plywoodto 1 in. thick.Use8d ringshankor spiralthreador 10dcommon smoothfor 24-l and 1 '/s in. panels.Spacenails6 an.at paneledges and 12 in. at intermediatesupports,except for 48 in or longerspanswh€re nailsshouldbe spaced6 in at ail suppo.ts.
1. fuplicable to APA rated panel sheathing. 2. All panels will support at least 30 psf live load plus 10 pst dead load at maximum soan. Unitorm load deflection limit is 11180 span under live load plus dead load. or 1/ 240 under live load only. 3. Special conditions may require construction in excess of the given minimums. 4. Panel is assumed to be continuous across two or more spans with long dimension across suppons.
SplitRingWood Trusses SPLICE PUTE
--=-\
GENERAL The first wood trusses were develop€d for bridge design. with the kingpost truss the earliest form. lt uses a primirv engineering principle: a triangle will hold its shaoe under a load untir rts srde members or its ioints are crushed.
SPLII RING CONNECTORS WITH 3/a ' DtA BoLTS ROOF
36r
PURLIN
VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS EXTENOEO TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS
(OR JOISTJ
CENTERPOST
WOOD BLOCKING SPLIT
RING
KINGPOST
Next came lhe queenposttruss, in which the peak of rhe krngpostwas replacedby a horizontalcrosspieceto allow a rongerDase.
SPLICE PUTE VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS EXTENDED TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS(OR JOISTS)
WOOD BLOCKING
WOOO
PURLIN
SPLIT RING CONNECTORS 3/4- DtA- BoLTs
QUEENPOST Furtheramplificationspermitted greater flexibilityto overcome different spanningchallengesand to integratevarious combinationsof inclined wood braces. wood arches. steel tension rods-etc.
WITH -
NOTES SPLICE PUTE
j in.per 40 ft spanwilt 1.A built-incamberof approximately be introducedin the top and bottom chordsduring fabrication. 2. When lumber is not adequatelyseasoned,the trusses should be inspectedperiodicallyand adjusted.if necessary,until moistureequilibriumis reached. 3. These truss designs are meant only as a guide. To develop specitic designs, including bracingand anchorage.consult a structuralengineer.
PIYCHED HOWE
WOOD
BLOCKING
6;;
WOOD PURLIN PERPENDICUUR WEB MEMBERS EXTENDED TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS
SPECIAL GROOVE CUT IN BOTH WOOD MEMBERS
OR
CONNECTORS wtrH 3/4' Dta. BOLTS
S P L I T R I N G C' O , NNECTOR 2't2' ANO 4 TNSTDE OtA
BELGIAN
SPLICE
PLATE
SPLIT RING CONNECTOR
WOOO
PURLIN
3/4- otATHREADED
PERPENDICUUR WEB MEMBERS EXTENOED TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS SPLICE
wooo TRUss MEMBER
/- NUr anotr.r.
qt (
SPECIAL CUT,OUT (DAP} FOR SHEAR PUTE SHEAR PLATE 2tl2' aND 4 " tNstoE otA. /
SUSPENDED ROD (OPTIONAL)
PLATE
FINK
Pitched trusses are very economical for spans up to 70 ft (with an average spacing of 15 ft), since the rember sizes are small, the joint details relatively simple, and the trusses easily fabricated. All pitched trusses require either knee braces to columns or some other provision for lateral restraint against wind or other forces,
PITCHED TRUSSES
SPLICE PUTE A typical span (l) / depth (d) ratio for the Pratt, Howe, or Belgian truss is 4 to 6, which gives a relatively norrul slope of 4:12 lo 6:12. Fink trusses are prelerred where the slope is steep (over 7:12). Scissors trusses and other typ€s of raised lower chord pitched roof trusses are used for sp€cial conditions where clearance or appearance requir€s an arched bottom chord. Consult with structural enoineer to check deflection.
STEEL GUSSff
PUTE
SHEAR PLATE
AOLT
N OTE Shear plate conn€ctors are commonly used to connect wood lruss members to steel gusset plates but may be used to connect wood to wood.
CONNECTORS
TECOProducts;Collier,West Virginia RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville.Maryland
WOODTRUSSES
362
SplitRingWood Trusses wooD PURLINS WOOD
PLAIE
SPLICE
3lo" Drn. tnnseoeo SUSPENSION
sreeL
ROD
VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS EXTENDED TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS (OR JOISTS)
SPLIT
RING
CONNECTORS
wtrH 3/.' otA. BoLTS
NOTE A greatercenterdepthminimizesde{lection andthrusl on walls. WOOD (OR STEEL) KNEE BRACE MAY CONNECI WITH SPLIT RINGS AT TOP ANO/OR BOTTOM CHORD
sctssoRs PITCHED TRUSSES
u-f7T-T-'-l// | \l_,-^-> ?ltl
iEo.i
i
SPLIT
CONNECTORS
ffi NOTE Kneebracesare useful wh€r6 buildingsupportsdependon truss lor stability. DETAIL-KNEE
RING
i
WOOO
SPLICE
PUTE
WOOD
PURLINS
VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS EXTENDED TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS (OR JOISTS)
wtrH 3/." DtA. BoLTS
BRACE
METAL FRAMING ANCHOR
(WHERE POSSIBLE EXTEND TRUSS WEB MEMB€R TO MAKE CONN€CTION)
SEGMENTAL
BOWSTRING
VERTICAL WEB MEMEERS EXTENDED TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS (OR JOISTS)
TRUSS TOP CHORD MEMBERS wooD JOIST (OR PURLINS)
Top chord lateral bracing is achieved by fastening roof sheathingto joistsor purlins,which are securely fastened to the truss. DETAIL-BRACE TO TRUSS
OF JOIST AND PURLIN SPLIT RING CONNECTORS 3/." DrA. BoLTs wtrH
WOOD TRUSS SEGMENTAL
BOWSTRING
wooD Jorsrs UMINATED CHORD UMINATED
TOP
OR SOLID
WEB VEMBERS
ffi SHEAR PUTES wlrH 3/a" Dta. BoLTS AT TRUSS ENDS
NOTE All members in same plane use metal gusset plates for web to chordconnections.
ONLY
VERTICAL SWAY BRACING OF STEEL RODS oR wooo rN END SECTIONS MlN. i ONE lN MID.SPAN FOR LONG SPANS
CONTINUOUS UTERAL BRACING RUNS FULL LENGTH OF BUILDING FASTENED TO AONOM CHORD OR WEB MEMBERS NEAR CHORD
DETAIL--.-LATERAL S\MAY BRACING
AND
VERTICAL
TECOProducts;Collier,West Virginia Rachard J. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudiojCrownsville, Marvland
WOODTRUSSES
STEEL
BOWSTRING
Bowstring trusses are theoretically the most efficient and economical of all wood truss types for larger spans, panicularly over 80 ft. although spans up to 250 tt are obtainable. Conneclions are simple and designed to give minimum stresses to the web members. A typical span (1)/depth {d) ratio for bowstring trusses is 6 to 8.
BO\/vSTRING
TRUSSES
SPLICE
PLATE
Connections and knee brace requirements are samalar to that of pitched trusses, since lateral load forces have a sim ilar etfect on them. The bottom chord members may also be glue laminated to eliminate splices.
SplitRingWood Trusses
363
WOOO TRUSS WOOD SPLICE PUTE
r*"""
SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS wrTH 14" DtA AOLTS\
PURLINS
STEEL THROUGH BOLT UG
VERTICAL WEB MEMBERS EXTEND TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS
BOLT
ANGLE
TOP CHORD MAY BE SLOPED SLIGHTLY TO ACCOMMOOATE DRATNAGE REOUIREMENTS
BARING
TOP PUTE
PUTE
BUILT-UP POST OF 2X
.DETAIL-STEEL WOOD PLATE
ANGLE
BRACE TO FUT
PRATT
BEARING PLATE
wooo TRUSS
wooD STRAPS
SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS WITH 9L" OIA. BOLTS ..-
WOOO PURLINS
SPLIT RING CONNECTORS wtTH 3/4" otA. BOLTS
TOP CHORO MAY BE SLOPED SLIGHTLY TO ACCOMMODATE DRAINAGE REOUIREMENTS
WEA MEMAERS EXTEND TO SUPPORT ROOF PURLINS OR JOISTS
BUILT-UP POST TO MATCH TRUSS WIDTH NOTE End grain b€aring of posts provides suppon for the truss-
DETAIL-\^|OOD COLUMN
STRAP
AT r^r'OOD
FLAT HOWE
WOOD SPLICE PLATE SPLIT^RING CONNECTORS wtTH r/4" DtA. BOLTS \
ROOF
SHEATHING
ROOF
JOISTS
TOP CHORD MAY BE SLOPEO SLIGHTLY TO ACCOMMODATE ORAINAG€ REOUIREMENTS
This detailfor uss with light wnical and horizontall@ds.
DETATL--srEeu
FRlmrNc
o
ANc HoR
o o'o,
,o. o
wooD TRUSS THROUGH AOLT ANCHOR BOLT MORTAR WARREN
CMU
WOOD BLOCKING BffiEEN WEB MEMAERS
N OTE
Flat trusses are generallyless economicalthan oitched or bowstring trusses, since connections are usuallv more complicated and higher side walls are required. But becauseof their geometry.flat trus$s allow th€ smallest rof area versuspitchedor bowstring trussesfor the same span. As in pitched trusses. the maximum soan for flat trussesis about 70 ft.
With scissor trusses, use slotted holes in steel to allow for thrust.
A typi€l span (1)/depth{d) ratio for all types of flat trusses rs generallyI to 10.
DETAIL_BEARING
FLAT TRUSSES
(GROUT
BEARING PUTE
ON MASONRY
WALL
Combinationsof flat truss types are sometimesuseful. For Instance, a t.ussmay be builthavingone-haltprattandone_ half Howe design.Warren t.usses mav have ends ol erther Pran or Howe designsincorporated,dependrngon the typ€ ot support.In general,Warren trusses are used for shoner spans. Flat trussesdo not requireknee bracessincethe uorer and lower chordstake the placeof a laterargrace.
TECOProducts;Collier,West Viroinia RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Cromsville. Marutand
WOODTRUSSES
364
Wood Trusses, Joists,ond TrussedRqfters GENERAL Monoplaner trussesare usually made up lrom 2 x 4 or 2 x 6 lumber. Spacing.normally 24 in. o.c., varies lor spmial uses, esprcially in agriculture.Camber is designed for dead load only. Bottom chord furring generallyis not required for drywall ceiling.Joints in plywood floor or roof should be staggered.Many trusses are approved by model codes, such as BOCA, I C B O .F H A , a n d S B C . cAMBER = L(FT) (USUAL) 60 FLOOR
REeIOENTIAL TYPE TRUA€ED STEEL PLATE CONNECTED
JOIET
DUCT SIZES
DEPTH OF TRUSS AND SIZE OF DUCTWORK to 20" DEPTH 12"
Ease of running electrical and mechanicalservicm through framing is a major advantageof trussedjoists. Most manufacturec provide a large rectangularopen panelat midspan;this void will generallyaccommodatea trunk line.
SHAPE
4x9
A
7x 13 12"
o x tz
r0"
Sizes given here are approximations.Becauseweb sizeand anglesvary with different brands,the designer is €utioned to verify individual sizescarefully. Note that shapeE is the duct that will tit in a flat trusswith double chords too and bottom.
WOOO TRUSSED
BRACING Adequatebracingof trussesis vital. Sufficientsupport at right anglesto plane of tru$ must be providedto hold each trus member in its designatedposition. Consider bracing during design, fabrication, and erstion. In addition, provide permanent bracing/ anchorageas an integral part of the building.Strongbacks are often used,
8x14 14"
8" n
9"
E
6"
13" t0"
17" 14"
18"
RAFTERS SPANS FOR PRELIMINARY DESIGN
3z;1'RYrcoo wEB, rrerwerer 2X3 LAMINA'EO FLANGE
RESIDENTIAL LIVE LOAOS FLOORS 55 PsF 6)
(DOUBLE cHoRDS)
ROOFS 40 PsF (A
55 PsFad
55 PsF
TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING IC TO CI
13-
12" 23-6 24-11
14"
26-4
15"
2t-7 28-7 30-6 32-4 34-0
OEPTH tz
16" 18"
20" 22" 24" 28'
35-8
16"
24"
16"
21-O
7-1
24-O
22-O 22-11 2 3 -1 0 24-9
7-11 8-8
20- 1
30-3 32-11
26-4
27-11 26-9
22-8 23-11
30-10
25-O
34-8
JO-
J
4 1- 6
JZ
44-3
36"
47-O
24"
16', 21-4
18-2
23-3
24-5
t 9 -1 0
25-O 26-9 28-0
zo-q
28-1
21-4 22-9 23-11
30-11 33-6 35-7 3 7 -1 0
35-5 37-8
28-7 30-4
40- 1
JZ-5
48" COMMERCIAL
FLOORS 80 PsF aD)
LIVE
24"
16"
3 1 -1 0 35- 1
12"
12" 19-0 ,
14"
21-4
16"
23-6 25-A
20" 24" 16".
32"'
16"
17-3 19-4 2l-5 ?3-4 24-10 27-S
27-8 31-6 27-7
za- |
Jd-u
47- 1
24" 1 5 -1
12" 17 - 3
i6-6
19-4
1 7 -1 0 19-0
t6"
38-1 43-l0 49-2 52-9 56-3 60-0
JO-
53-3
12"
16"
16-0
14-7
l2-4
14-9
r8-0
16-4
13-6
21-5
t7-7 t9-5
15-11
l9- 10
17-11
14-6
23-4
21-O
t7-o I 8-0
23-4
1 9 -t 0
25-11
20-3 22-4
19-11
29-1 JO-
28-5
J+-O
30- 1
25-1 34-6
31-4
27-4
23-2 32-0
42-9
JO-
42-9
38-10
32-3
?o_e
Top chord live load Top chord dead load Bonom chord dead load
40 psf 10 psf 5 psf
20 psf 10 psf l0 psf
Total load @ 55 psf @ 40 psf NOTES 1. Spans are clear. inside to inside, for bottom chord bearing.Valuesshom would vary very slightly for a truss with top chord loading. 2. Spansshould not exceed 24 x depth ol truss. 3. Ocigned deflection limit under total load is Q/240 for roofs, 11360 for residential flors. and l/480 for commercialfloon 4, Bmf soansincludea +15%short term stress. Michael Bengis,AIA Hopatcong,New Jersey
WOODTRUSSES
WEBS
24"
n tl !
TO
LONG
CHOROE,20
40',-AO'
GAUCE
6TEEL
19-2
22-2
|
ANO
45-7
t3- t
24-6
40'- 60'
/
l5-8
25-2
}igi"fJis#-
i
39-t1 42-9
120 PsF
24"
t-----t i-----t i----
27-10 30-7 33-1
TRUSSED RAFTERS SPACING {C TO C) DEPTH
nl illl iii-"**ii-\
HI
LOADS
100 PsF (A
T"x
t 8 -1 18-5
|
za- | zJ-a
35 psf '10psf 10 psf
60 psf 10 psf 10 psf
80 psf 10 psf 10 psf
100 psf 10psf 10 psf
@ 55 psf
@ 80 psf
@100psf
@120psf
5. Asterisk{'l indietes that tru$ has double chords, top and bottom. 6. Spansshown are for only one type of lumber; in this case-#2 Southern pine, with an fo value of 1550. Charts are availablefor other grads and sprcies. Lumber and gmdes may be mixed in the sme tru$, but chord size must be identical. Repetitive member bmding stressis u$d in this chart.
TYPES
OF
FABRICATED
TRU66EA
Wood JoistConnections
ruYWOOO
BEARING
ON
PLYWOOO
BOTTOM BEARING
OPEN
STUO
EIARING
\^/EEI TRUSS
G:HORO ON ETUO
\^/EB
WALL
(WOOO
LEOGER
CHORDS
SOTTOM
AND
(STEEL
WEB
CHORO
BEAM
FLANGES)
TOP CHORO BEARINGMASONRY WALL
WALL
TRUSS
ON
TOP STUD
CHC)RO WALL
BEARING
o'N
TOP
CHC)RO
BEARING
\^/OOO CHORD)
CONTINUOUS NAILER FOR LATERAL SUPPORT
BOTTOM BEARING
CHORO ON 6TUO
TOP CHORO BEARING MA€iC)NRY WALL
\^/ALL
WEEI TRUSS
(WOOO
CHOROS
AND
ON
WEEI. METAL
CANTILEVEREO FLOOR TRUSS
PLATE
BOTTOM BEARING
CHORO
CONNECTORSI
TimothyB. McDonald;Washington, D.C
WOODTRUSSES
365
WoodTruss Construction
366
MIN
-
SLOPE
1 75
WP
12
PLWOOD SHEATHING K|NG
rcST
CryP
MAX
SPAN
-
APPROX
37'
ROOF
)
ryP, R@F --FUSS
XX MODIFIED CryP. MA.
FINK
OUEEN SPAN.
MA.
CryP.
-
POST 47 APPROX.)
-
SPAN
27
APPROX.)
TOP AND BOfrOM CHORD SPAN - 37'APPROX.)
FINK CryP. Mu.
ruBLE
STRONGBACK
mlfu€
SPAN - 4A APPROX.)
W CryP. MA.
AMILEER
CNYP. Mg.
SPAN
-
20'
APMOX
}
PROTECTIVE FUSHING
CLERESTORY
TryP,
Mg
:
SPAN
37'
APROX.)
TNWRTEDCryP.Md. SPAN:37 APROX.) NOTES '1. The averagespacingfor light trusses {trussedrafterslis 2 ft o.c. but variesup to 4 ft. The averagecombineddead and live loads is 45 lb per sq ft. Spans are usually between 20 and 32 ft but can be as much as 50 ft. 2. Earlyin the design pr@ess, consult an engineeror truss supplierfq pre€ngineeredtruss designsto establishthe most economi€l and efticient truss proponions. The suppli€rmay providefinal truss engineeringdesign. 3. Perrunent and temporary €rection bracing must be installed as specified to pr€vent failure oI properly designedtrGses. 4. Sore locales requirean engineer's stamp when prefab trussesare used. Check localcodes. 5. Member forces in a truss rise rapidlyas the lower chord is raisedabovethe horizontal. PITCHED
CHORD
FRAMING
\
TRUSSES
|uTE T@TH ruNCHED THROUGH PSTE PARTICU4R LENGTH, SHAPE, AND ruIST: AFECT WITHDRAWAL STRENGTH CT@TH UERAL RESISTANCE) -__-_ GAUGE NET AREA OF SFUOURAL STEEL LEff rN tuTF aflfR PUNCHFD
\ \-
C'ONNECTOR
RFSSED BY
"rSUBqq &'s8ilER FXPEe",,\f. \,0,2 BoTH srDES oF TRUSS / TYPICAL
METAL
PLATE CONNECTOR
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville, Maryland
WOOD TRUSSES
l--.-CONNECTOR PUTE
HAS ALL
\
ARE FORMED: EETH RESIDUAL STRENGTH OF THIS UNruNCHED STEEL IS USED TO RANSFER FORCES IN RUSS JOIM: fuTE
FOUNDA TRUSS
TYPICAL PITCHED CHORD
ROOF TRUSS
Wood TrussConslruction RECTANGULAR {AT MIDSPAN.
OPENING TYP.) ..
+
DUCT A -.DUCT B -.
SCISSORS
BONOM CHORO STRONG BACK. IF REOUIRED
TYPICAL
PARALLEL
CHORD
FLOOR AND
\UTERAL BRACE. IF REOUIRED
roT=\ 'ryP.
MAX
:
SPAN
CETLTNCCryp
YA9LLiD
367
MA.
45'-O"
APPROX
)
_ 42.o-
SpaN
EEARING CAMILEVER
ROOF TRUSS
MONO-PrCH
Cryp. Mu
- 23€.
spaN
AppRox.)
DEPTH OF TRUSS AND SIZE OF DUCTWORK
DUAL
PITCH
CryP
ME
-32'€'
SPAN
SPAN
NOTE:The relativeease of runningelectricaland mechani_ cal componentsthough lraming is a major advantageof a truss roof system. Sizesgiven here are approximatelveritv
PARALLEL
CHORO TRUSS_SPANS
APPROX)
:
42'{"
individualsizescarefully.Duct sizesare basedon maximum pan€lsizesallowableby prior arrangement.
FOR PRELIMINARY
SCISSORED APPROX.)
DESIGN
WARREN
'NYP
MA-
SPAN
-
42'€'
T R U S S E D R A F T E R SS p A C t N G ( C T O C ) ( t N . ) - R e S t O E t t r r n r _ I O A O S ROOFS B.40
PSF
c. 55 PSF
c.55
PSF"
BOWSTRTNG CryP. MS
SPAN - S.€.
appRox.)
PITCHED TRUSSES
E
tl _,V CHORDEEB ORIENTANON
tx H
CHORDryEB ORIEMATION
PARALLEL
TRUSSES
GENERAL
TRUSSED
RAFTERS
SPACING
(C TO C)(IN.)_COMMERCIAL
Metal plate{onnected wood trusses have been used in building construction since 1953, when the metal connector plate was invented. These proprietary metal plates are available in a range of styles and tooth orientations. The metat ptates are punched with barbs that grab onto the wood truss, thus reducing the hand nailing reauired to fabri_ cate a structure. Plate size tor a given truss is based on a combination of the tooth withdrawal strength of the plate, the tensile and shear strength of the steel, and the nei sectional area of the lumber.
FLOOR LOADS F. t20
PSF
This system is primarily used tor roofs with either oitched or parallel chord trusses. lt is o6asionally employed for fl@rs with parallel chord trusses. lndividual trusses a.e cut lrcm2 x 4 in. ot 2 x 6 in. lumb€r and can be soaced 24 in. or 48 in. o.c. For typtcal residential construction, 24 in. o.c. is used. Exceptionally long spans are possible with metal plateronnected trusses, allowing the large, unencumbered Interior spaces often requjred in commercial. agricultural, and other nonresidential building types. B (PSF) Top chord dead l@d
10 10
Bottom chord dead load ' indi€tes
a doublHhorded
Camber is designed for dead load onlv: Camber fin.) = LenSth ift)/60
E ( PSF)
truss. top and bottom.
N OTES 1. Spans are clear, inside to inside. for bottom chord bear_ ing. Values shoM woutd vary only stightly for a truss wrth top chord lGding. 2. Designed deflection limit under total load is lf24j lol r@ts, ,F60 for residential floors. and //4gO for commer_ cial floors.
3. Spansshouldnot exceed24 in. x depth of truss. 4. Roofspansincludea +15% short-termstress. 5. Spans shown are for only one type of lumber; in this case--+2 Southernpine. with an fb value of I 550. Charts are availablefor other grades and species. Lumber and gradesmay be mixed in the same truss, but chord size must be identical.Repetitivemember bending stress is usedin this chan.
BRACING Providiog adequate bracing for trusses is essential, both during installation and in the overall roof desiqn. Truss members must be held in place with suppons ih"t -eet them at right angles. Truss chords and web members are placed in a venical, plumb position and maintain that position, resisting applied design loads, throughout the liie of the structure_ Permanent bracing and anchorage are expecled to be an integral pan of construction, and strongbacks are often used for this DUroose. Movement by crane can damage trusses. Crane sp.eader bars are used to avoid this "out{f-plane" buckling. Special strllenrng may be applied lo trusses during erection.
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland
WOOD TRUSSES
Wood FloorTrussDetoils
368
CODE APPROVED ANCHOR AT TRUSS EACH
\ WOOD
2X6.MIN STRONGBACK RESTRAINTD AT EACH END (SECURE WITH THREE 1@ NAILS AT IACH .VERTICAL)
.---\
BFAM
\
WOOD TRUSS CUT BELOW BTAM, IF REOUIRED GTERAL BRACING (REAUIRED)
N OTE
2 X 4 VERTICAL BLOCKING. 1Od SECURE WTH ruO NAI S A] ]OP AND BOflOM
Locate strongbacks at maximum 10 ft o.c. at free-span trusses.
TOP CHORD
SUPPORT
DETAIL AT
TOP CHORD SUPPORT DETAIL AT EXTERIOR BEARING WALL WOOD ARACING, (2X4UTDFCT). FASENED TO TRUSS ENDS
SOLID
TOP CHORD SUPPORT DETAIL AT INTERIOR BEARING WALL
EXTERIOR WALL
BEARING DETAIL
DIAGONAL
BRACING AT BEARING
END
WOOD GIRDER TRIMMER DOOR OPENING AND KING STUOS
BEARING
BEARING
2X LEreER CONTINUOUS TO SUPPORT FOUNOATION SOLID WOOD BL@KING UNDER TRIMMERS ABOVE
BOTTOM CHORD BEARING WALL
SUPPORT
AT
J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile Marvland
6
WOODTRUSSES
LEDGER
DETAIL
BLOCKING DETAIL AT INTERIOR BEARING WALL
Wood RoofTrussDetoils
JACK TRUSS GABLE
ROOF OVERHANG
DETAIL
JZ1
SYSTEM
J/z-4 K K A z ( A,z
4- #=::-:
z
"?=6
JACK TRUSS COMMON
COMPONENTS
-z?
-
.4
bA
WOOD
(HOWE
TRUSS)
END.BEARING ROOF TRUSS WITH METAL CONNECTORS
TRUSS HIP
OVERHAre
-..--
JACK
ryP
STEP.DOWN
TRUSS
STEP.DOWN
COMPONENTS
SYSTEM
WEDGE
CAMLEWR OWRHNG
AMILEWR OWRHANG
-,.
ffi_\_+ R*f*o*t LEWL
RruN
OVERHANG
--_|==-
+-
U
DETAILS
EEARING BELOW
6MMON W@D TRUSS (HOWE TRUSS) ROOF
369
INTERSECTION
WITH
VALLEY
WALL
FILL
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsviile,Marytand
WOODTRUSSES
-4/
Wood l-JoistConstructionDetqils
370
BEARING BL@KING NAILED TOP PGTE BELOW WTH Ad NAILS AT 6'OC.. ryP.
1 1/2" flP
TO
WOOD ts@IST BLOCKING NAILED TO TOP PLATE WITts AT 6' O.C 8d NAILS
WALL ilP.---
reB
J
STIFFENERS, ryP. EACH SIDE WHERE REOUIRED. J
LAMINATEDVENEER LUMBER (OR FLANGE wooD) soLrD
PLW@D WEB OSB
WOOD LJOTST.
PLWOOD OR OSB CLOSURE
OR --
TYPICAL rivooD
ffiB SNFFENER
I-JOIST
IF SIDE, NTCESSARY
DO NOT BEWL-CUT JOIST BEYONO INSIDE FACE
2'-O'MU.
EEARING
MANUFACTURER'S DETAILS)
W@D tsJOIST AS RIM JOIST. NAILED TO TOP PUTE AELOW WTH Ad NAILS AT 6' O.C.. TYP
NOTE Joist must b9 designed to carry the load-bearing wall.
TYPICAL
BEVEL-CUT
NAIL TO JOIST WEB
,,/
.
WEB STIFFENER TACH SIDE, IF NECESSARY.
JOIST
LEAVE 1/16' ' V'6" GAP, SEE MANUFAftRER'S RECOMMENDATTONS
LOAO-BEARING
CANTILEVER
DETAIL
2X SOLTD WOOO NAILED TO SIDE OF WOOD BACKER 2X SL|O WOOD RIM BOARD
BEARING
SOLID WOOD BACKER
WOOD tsJOIST
WAL MUST BE OF SUFFICIEM WIDTH TO PROVDE THE REOUIRED BARING SURFACE FOR THE JOIST WOOD I-JOIST AS RIM JOIST ABOW BEARING WTL fuT BARING AL@KS r/o'ABOE wmD TJOIST (SEE MANUFAfrRER'S RECOMMENDATIONS) 7+'tuW@D OR OSB RIM E}OARD SOLID WOOD BARING BL@KS. MtN_ z4 &CH SIDE
TIGHT -.--Fr
WEB SNFFENER wooD tsJOlST-
FILLER PANEL. IF NTCESSARY
E]EARING E}ELOW WEB
WALL
STIFFENER
rr' 6' LEAVE *€. GAP. SEE
MANUFACruRER'S RECoMMENDAT|oNS EIEARING ABOVE
/
/ ., \
BEARING
\
1/eX CANTILEER LENGTH
/
3il.,t.r.*
| -/
LENGTH
.1' WALL
DETAILS
A wood l-joist is made of a web with top and bottom flanges. lt is similar in shape and profile 10 the steel lbeam, but while the steel component is forged from a single ingot, the w@d member is a composition. Plywood or oriented strand board (OSBI is used lor the web of the w@d l-ioist. and either solid lumber or laminatedveneer lumber for the flang€s. Many manufacturers produce wood l-joists under different trade names, and each differs in its dimensions, as well as span and deflection, loading. and performance characteristics. Consult manufacturers for d€tails and oerformance cflteria.
PANELS FOR A MIN- OF 4'€' AT EACH END ND AT LEAST 4'O' FOR EWRY 25'O' OF BARING WALL LENGTH
w@D !JOIST BEARING
BELOW
GENERAL
Compared to solid lumber, w@d advantages and disadvantages:
).
CANTILEWR LENGTH. NO CONCEN' TRATED (E.G,. LOADS BEARING waLLS) tN TH|S AREA
.
E}EARING
BLOCKS BEARING
WALL
NON-LOAD.EIEAFIING CANTILEVER DETAIL
DROPPED BEARING
,/
ABOW 2 GYERS 7.'RW@D OR OSB
.-e.'
WALL PLWOOD
-wooD OF
END JOIM MUST BE AT WOOD FJOST L@ION
)
l-joists have both relative
ADVANTAGES 1 . Easier to handle and lighter weight, with about 50yo tess w@d material per ioist than an equivalent solid wood memDer. 2. Makes efficient use of a nalural resource-the lioist can be made from second and third growth timber stands, with no need for old growth trees-
reB
STIFFENERS EACH SIDE WHEN REOUIRED
W@D LJOIST
CANTILEER LENGTH, NO CONCENTRATED (E.G., LOADS BEARING WALLS) IN THIS AREA
AEARING
BELOW STANDARD
2X
RIM
JOIST
N OTE
ax caNrtrevrn LENGTH BEARING WALL
3. Available in lengths up to 60 ft, priced per linear foot. 4. Greatest strength when loaded parallel to plane of web. 5. A high degree of unitormity, with no crowns, checks, or loose knots_
Check building code for appropriate detail in areas of high lateral load.
NON-LOAD-BEARING DETAIL
STUD
CANTILEVER
6. Plumbing and HVAC can easily be run through web structure (based on the manufacturer's guidelines).
DISADVANTAGES
7. Starts with dry materials, so there is much less shrinkage than with solid lumber. 8. W@d lioists €n generally be set at wider onrenter spacang. thus reducing installation time.
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand
WOODTRUSSES
OR
osB cLosuRE PANEL -.- WOOD tsJOIST . BLOCKING
BEARING
WALL
DETAILS
1. Material costs are generally more (per linear foot) than for solid lumber (for standa.d residential floor ioist dimensaonsand spans)2. Contractors are less {amiliar with wood l-joists and can creale problems by cutting holes into webs and weakening the member.
\ 'BEARING WALL CANTILEVER
DETA,ILS
3. Less lateral stitfness than solid lumber. 4. Can be shifted by winds during construction due to light weight. 5. Some adhesives used in laminated-veneer may pose indoor air{uality problems.
components
Wood l-JoistConsfructionDetoils wooD r-otsT DOUBLE
/
METAL €tST
BACKER BLMK INSTALLED TIGHT TO BONOM OF TOP FUNGF
SOLID aLocK HEAW
wooD
\l
WOOD (usEo LOAD
FILLER wlTH ON
L-rorsT)
\
AEARING ABOVE
371
WALL (STACKED
I
BLGK
WEB STIFFENER
BACKER BLMK INSTALLED IGHT TO TOP OF BOfrOM FUNGE
(EACH WEB STIFFENER SIDEi MAY BE REQUIRED FOR JOIST STABILIW HANGER COMPATIBILry, OR JOIST REACTION)
N OTE
NOTE
Connectim between iorsts must provide adequate load translerbetween members
Conn€ction between joists must provide adequat€ load transterbetweenmembers
wooD t-JolsT coNNECT|ON I-JOIST HEADER
WOOD I.JOIST CONNECTION TO WOOD I-JOIST HEADER (HEAVY LOAD)
WOOD L.'OIST rcUBLEHADER
TO WOOD
BEARING
WALL
ABOVE
AND
BELO\/V
SOLID
wooD FILLER BLCK
a o
o J
) x
U F
)
METAL RAMING ANCHOR AT EACH SIOE
w@D STAIR (xRAGE
wooD
N OTE Connectron between joists must transter between members.
provrde adequate
load
STAIR CARRIAGE CONNECTION DETAIL BL€KNG -rorsTs \
JOIST HANGER SHU BE LOCATED ABOW NEUR{ dIS OF (SEE BAM MANUFACruRER'S sEcrFrcaToNS) W@D BAM NEUTR& AIS OF EEAM
AryEEN
Thicker wood plate over beam may be required; check hanger manufacturer's top flange nailing iequirements.
WOOD I-JOIST SUPPORTED BEAM (OR WALL)
BL(::SING HORIZC)NTAL
AT TOP OF
LATERAL v\/ALL
LOAD BLOCKING
CUT SOLID BL€KS %6" HIGHER THAN JOIST HEIGHT
FOR
W@D SDING IN LINE \ffi STUDS-
AT END
W@D
rcST
BARING SOLID BL@K AI rcSTS FROM ABOE TO BEARING BELOW
w@D fJorsT
wooo tsJOIST
NAILED TO TOP PUTE WITH Ad ffiB STIFFENER (EACH SIDE: MAY BE REOUTRED FOR JOIST STABILR, HAreER COMPATIBILW. oR JO|ST REACTTON)
JOTST HANGER
DETAIL
NAILS 6'O.C
AT -
SILL
TYPICAL WOOD BLOCKING EXTERIOR \^/ALL
AT
COLUMN
LOAO TRANSFER
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsville,Maryland
WOODTRUSSES
Wood l-JoistConstructionDetqils
372 WOOD WOOD ABOVE
WOOD I'JOIST
IJOIST ALOCKING I JOISTS BU]T RIDGE BEAV
VENTILATION HOLE CW BLOCKING
VENTILATION HOLE CUT BLOCKING
IN WEB
BACKER BLOCK BEHIND OUTRIGGER
T\
-
// IN WEB
74'PLW@D GUSSET EACH SIDE
NAILING PER MANUFACTURER'S REOUIREMENTS
(OR DOUBLE) __-srNGLE 2X OUTRTGGER
:(
VENTIUTION HOLE CUT IN BLOCKING WEB
WOOD I.JOIST RANER
.;
WEA STIFFENER EACH SIDE WHEPE REOUIRED
OOUBLE WMD
2X WOOD BLOCKING FOR SOFFIT SUPPORT. NAILED TO WOOD IJOIST WEB
PUTE; -
N OTE
RIDGE
NOTE
BEAM
Uplift connections may be required
Uplift connections may be required
WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIOGE BEAM DETAIL
WOOD I-JOIsT RAFTER AT OVERHANG wooD t-JolsT RAilER,
STEEL SRAP MAY BE REOUIRED WHERE SLOPE EXCEEDS 7 12
/.
,--
// -w@o LJOISTS BUN AT RIDGE
WOOD I-JOIST RAflER, WP. -\ RIDGE BEAM
METAL CROSS ERACING AS REOUIRED
BEVELED WEB STIFFENER EACH SIDE, WHERE REAUIRED
i
z ' o " \ >i. MAX , \^/OOD I.JOIST OUTRIGGER w@D IJOIST RAffER.
RAFTER WITH
/'
.-
NAIL OUTRIGGER
wmD r-JorsT BLrcKING
CONTINUOUS PGTE
SLOPED METAL JOIST HANGER
VENTIUTION HOLE Cfr IN BLMKING WEB
\
=".o-r,*L-l 2 X 4 L@KOUT NAILED TO W@D
AEWLED WEB STIFFENER ilCH SIDE WHERE REOUIRED-
END
1X8 FASCIA
I.JOIST NAIL
I/VOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIDGE BEAM DETAIL
.-
NAIL SHEATHING TO2X6 SUAFASCIA
>i<
INTO LOOKOUT NOTE
/
MA
(OR SINGLE rcUBLE) 2X OfRIGGER
2X CRIPPLE (WTH BL€K WEB SNFFENER AT OTHER SIDE wooD tsJotsT) oF
Uplift connectionsmay be required
Uplilt connectionsmay be required.
WOOD
r/YOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT OUTRIGGER
I-JOIST RAFTER AT'OVERHANG
W@D FJOIST BLGKING VENTIUNON HOLE CUT IN BL@KING WEB WOOD IJOIST
NOTCH OUTRIGGER AROUND WOOD LJOIST FCNGT
RA-ER, WP.-.\ BEVELED WOOD PLATE FOR SLOPES
wooD
!/2:1 2 THAN (FOR 31/2' BEARING LENGTH)i FOR SLOPES GREATER THAN 4:12. ADOITIONAL CONNECTORS MAY BE ' J REOUIRED
NorEs
I.JOIST
4..o" oR
1/3
:_
cBii:ilxl _,_- \
\y
1. Upl'tt conneclions may be required
WOOD I-JOIST RAFTER AT RIDGE BEAM DETAIL
TO
WE'.e.la.tlNgf€B
2X FLY RA|:TR 2X
2. Special sloped seat-bearingmetal connectors can be used in lieu of beveled w@d plate in some slopedapplications.see manulacturer'srecommendations.
OWRIGGER (UDDER
WOOD
FLY RAFTER
I.JOIST
RAFTER AT OVERHANG
TRUSS)
END WALL
DETAIL
WOOD tsJOIST BL€KING, EACH SIDE w@D tsJOIST
WOOD tsJOST BLrcKING WNTI4TION HOLE CUT IN BLOCKING WEB _BEWLED WEB STIFFENERS EACH SIDE
WEB STIFFENER EACH SiDE WHEN REOUIRED
METAL MOUMED JOIST HANGER
BOfr
JC)IST
MANUFAOURER'S REOUIREMEMS)
w@D LJOIST RAtrER,
WEBS
-
\nrDGE
NorE
eEav
Uplift connections may be required.
LAPPED VI/OOD I-JOIST RAFTER RIDGE BEAM
AT
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville. Maryland
WOOD TRUSSES
1 : ><
\*-o
BOnOM
FLANGE MUST BEAR FULLY ON TOP PLATE
NOTE
WOOD DETAIL
I-JOIST
SKYLIGHT
'-ro'.t HEADER
FRAMING
Uplift connections may be required
N OTE
TYPICAL BIRD'S MOUTH I.JOIST CUT DETAIL
Check code and manufacturer's requiremenls lor all ventilation hole sizes cut in blocking web.
Glued-LominotedConslruction STRUCTURAL GLUED LAMINATED TIMBER The.term"structuial gluedlminatedtrmber,refersto an
engrneered, stressJated producl made Of WOOd laminatrons bonded with adhesives. wrth lhe grarn approximatelv pa.allel lenglhwrse Laminaled preces cin be end_iorned t6 torm any tength. or glued edge_to.edg€ to make wider pre@s, Or ol bent preces curved durrng glutng
STANDARD
STRAIGHT
DOUBLE TAPERED*CURVEO /SAWN
t-l tl SI NGLE TAPEREO_STRAIGHT I
DEPTHS
Dimensional lumber sudaced to i 4 in. (38 mm) is used to lamrnate straight members and members that have a curyature within_the bending radius limitations for the spe;ie;. Boards surfaced to % in. (j9 mm) are recommended for laminating curved members when bending radius is too shon to p€rmit the use of dimension lumbe;. provided that the bending radius limitations lor lhe species are obseryed. Other lamination thicknesses may be used to ."ei reoutrements_ "peit"i
STANDARD
373
SAWN OR TAPERED -
OR
DOUBLE TAPERED_PITCHEO
OOUBLE TAPERED_STRAIGHT MAXIMUM PRACTICAL DIAMETERS RADIAL ARCH TRIANGULATED
A
2OO N 650 FT
PITCHEO
THREE-CENTEREO
A
/A\
WIDTHS
//
\\
/\ GOTH
--^t +
CAMBER Camberis curyature(circularor parabolic)made into struc_ turcl glued laminaled beams opposite the anticipated dellectron movement. The recommendedminimum camber is one and one-halftimes deadloaddeflection.After ini_ tial dead load detlectionand additionatplastic deformation (c@p) has taken place, this usually will produce a near l€vel floor or rmf beam under dead load conditions.Additioml camber or stope may insure adequate drainageof r@f b€ams. On long-spanroof beams and floor bearirsof multistory buildings,addjtionalcamber may be needed to counter the optical illusionof the beam sagging. FIRE SAFETY The self-insulatingqualitiesof heaw timber cause a slow burning. Good structuraldetails, eliminationof concealed spaces, and use of verticallire stops contributeto its fire performance.HeaW timber retains its strength under fire longerthan unprotectedmelals. Buildingcodesgeneralty classifygluedtaminatedtimberas heavytimb€rconstruction if cenainminimumdimensional requirementsare met. Codes also allow for calculationot onehour fire ratingsfor exposedgluedlaminatedtjmbers. See Councilof AmericanEuildingOffrcialsNationalEvalua. tion ServiceCommrtteeReponNo. NER-250. It is not re@mmended that firtretardant treatrents be appli€d to glued laminatedtimber as thev do not substantially increasethe fire resistanceof heaw timber conslruction. In @nsid€ringfire{etardanttreatments.the reduction ot strength related to type and penetrationof treatrent, lho mmpatibility ot treatmentand adhesive,the use of spe cial gluing preeddres, the difficultyof apptication,and ihe efttrt on wd color and fabricationpr@edures must be investigated. .AAco LlLrl
r
rrrll
IC
;ifi+&<'
* 3, 5, 8t/,, and | 0'/2 in.for southernpin€
r|l
'l
rrtll A-SINGLE CANTILEVER LSUSPENOEO HOUBLE CANTILEVER TSINGLE END SUSPENDED
CANTILEVERED AND CONTINUOUS SPAN Cantilever beam systems may be composed of any ol the various types and combinations ol beams shown above. Canlilever systems generally permit longer spans or larger loads p€r size member than do simple span systems. For economy, the negative bending moment at the support ot a cantilevered beam should be equat in magnitude to the posrtrve moment_
LAMINATEO DOME STRUCTURAL NOTES
GLUED
PARABOLIC
LAMINATED
TIMBER
1. Beam nam€s describe top and bottom surfaces of the beam. Sloped or pitched surfaes should be used on the tension side of the beam. 2. The three hinged arches and frames shown above oro_ duceiorizontal reactions r€quiring honzontal ties or mod_ rtred loundations. 3. The triangulated and the radial arch are the two basic types of stuctural glued laminated wood dome svstems available. Both systems require a tenston ring at the dome sping hne to conven axial thrusts to venrcal loads.
CONNECTION
END CONNECTIONS
Eeam end connections shoutd be designed to carry both anduced horizontal and verti€l lGds. Bolts or fastenings at the end of the beam should be l€ated toward the boitom of the b€am so that the effed ot shrinkage between lhe bottom of the beam and the tastening is mimimized. Bolts or connectors lGted near or above the beam.s neutral axis should not be used on large glued laminated beams or girders srnce the concentration of the tension perpendicular to grain due to restralnt of shrinkage. and shear stresses actrng at tasteners localed in these beam areas tend lo cause splitting of the member. SUSPENDEO
Consideration must be given to the perimeter bond beam design since wind torces will produce loads in this member. The length of main members ol the radil arch system, whjch must span a distance greater than hall the dome diameter, limit the maximum practical dome diam, eter. The tar smaller members of the triangulated dome result in the greater diameters. The triangulated system can be designed for five or more segments with an equal number of peripheral supports at each segment. 4. More complicated shapes may be fabricated. Contact the American Institute oI Timber Construction (AITC) and the American Plywood Association (ApA.
DESIGN
The design of connections for glued laminated timbers is srmrlar to the design of connections for sawn lumber. Since glued laminated timbers often are much larger than sawn lmber and the loads transferred also are larger, the effect of increased size should be taken into accouni in the design of connections. In addition to being designed for streng'ih to transter toads, connections also should be designed to avoid splining of the member and to accommodate swell ing and shrinking of the w@d. BEAM
SHAPES
ON SHAPES
LOADS
In cases where it is not possible for lhe suspending system to be carried on top of the beam, it is g@d practice toplace the fastener above the neutral axis. particularly when other than light loading is involved or when a number of loads are to be suspended lrom the member. For heaw loads. a saddle detail placing loads directly on top ot the beam is .ecommenoed. Very light loads may be suspended near the bottom of a glued laminated timber. The distance above the beam bor tom must exceed the specified edge distance of the fas_ Iener used_
PURLIN
TO BEAM
CONNECTIONS
Th€ preferred purlin to beam connection method is to transfer the end reacton by bearing pe.pendicular to grain in a saddle lype conneclion extendrng over the beam top. When the end reactio oi the beam or purlin is relatjvelv small, the hanger can be fastened to the fae of the girdei. The bolts or connectors in the main €rrying beam or-girder should be placed above the neutral axis of the membe; and In the supponed member should be place rear the bottom to avoid potential splitting. SPLICE At beam important the beam to reduce ment.
CONNECTIONS splice connections occurring over columns, it is to allow for movement in the upper portions oI due to end rotation. Slotted connections will helo the problem by allowing for some beam moave_
CONCEALED ANO PARTIALLY PURLIN HANGERS
CONCEALEO
Panially concealed purlin hangers are used for normal loads. Concealed hangers are appropriate fo. retatively light roads, as weil as connections where the support plate at the base is notched into the beam, should be desiqned as notched beam reactions. It rs recommended that the suppon for the purtn be close to the bottom of the member to utilize the maximum effeclrve area for shear. End fastentngs should not include rows ot bolts or other fasteners perpendicular to the grain. Glued lamrnated ttmbe.s, although relatrvely dry at the time of manutacture, may shrink when the members reach eouilibrium moisture content in place. lhis mav cause tension per pendicular to the grain and result in splitting.
Roger W' Kipp. AIA; Thomas Hodne Architects, Inc.; Minneaoolis, Minnesora
GLUED-LAM INATEDCONSTRUCTION
374
Glued-LqminotedConstrucfion
ALLOWABLE LOADING
UNIT
STRESS
RANGES
EXTREME FIBER IN 1 BENDING'
FOR
STRUCTURAL
TENSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN
GLUED
TIMBERI-NORMAL
LAMINATED
COM PRESSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN
DURATION
COMPRESSION PERPENDICULAR TO GRAIN
HORIZONTAL SHEAR
OF
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
NOTES 1. Multiply dry{ondition{f-use stress rangesby the above factorsfor correspondingwet{onditionsofrse value. 2. Values given are for members loaded perpendicularto
wide faces ot laminations, For ranges of allowable stressesfor members loadedprimarilyas axialmembers or loaded parallelto the wide {ace of laminations,see
LAMINATED FLOOR, ROOF BEAM, AND PURLIN DESIGN CHART TYPICAL SINGLE.SPAN. SIMPLY SUPPORTED. GLUED LAMINATED TOTAL SPAN
(FT) 12
SPAC I NG ( FT)
30 PSF
CARRYING
BEAMS
CAPACITY
40 PSF
(MEMBER
SIZES
45 PSF 3 1 l s x - 7l l z
31lex7ih 311"x7112 3r/"x9 3'/ax9
31lex7 1lz 31lox71l, 3i/sxg 3rl"x9
8 t2 t4
31/sx9 3 llax 10 1/, 311"x12 3 ' l sx 1 2
31/"x1O11, 3tlax12 31lsx13tl, 3r/sx 13r/,
31/ex101l2 31lax12 3tl"x13'lz 3rlsx 15
8
3tlsx 12 3 tl"x 13 1lt 3r/8x15 3]/sx16]L 3 1l"x 13 tl, 3 1/6x 16 '/,
311"x10112 31lsx12 31lsx12 3'/sx'13'/, 3 llsx 12 3 1/"x13 tl, 311"x16112 3rlsx18
31|sx131/2 3r/.x15 311"x16112 5'/sx15
3)lsx131l1 3'/sx'15 3r/Bx'18 51/"x16r/,
3'/sx15 3t6x16'/, 5tl"x161lz S t l s x1 61 1 2
3r/sx15 3'/sx18 911"x16112 brlsx.tB
3 i l B x1 6 1 1 2 5'/8x15 5 r l sx 1 8 g1/rx19'/2
5'/sx18 5'/sx18
3rlsx16r/, 5'/sx16'/, 5]/sx18 g1/"x19'/,
3r/sx18 51/sx18 5'/sx19r/, 51/sx21
3r/sx18 '18 5 J/sx 5 \/ax21 51{sx2211,
J',/sxlu 5r/sx18 5 tlsx 19 112 51lsx21 5 'lsx 22 tl| 5 1lax24
5'lsx16'J2 51/"x1911, 51/sx21 5tlsx221l, 5 ]/s x 24 5 1lsx27
5'lsxl8 511"x19112 511sx2211, 511ax2511,
'18 5 r/sx 51lsx21 51lsx24 5 1/"x27
51lsx24 5 1 1 "x 2 8 1 1 2 g3lox28t/,
5'/8x30 63/ax30
5tlax27 631tx 281l2 63lox31 11, g3lox34 1/,
63lax28tlz 63la\31 112 63/.x36 83/ax3411,
63lax28tlz 63/ax3411, 8 3 / . x3 3 831ax3711,
!r/"x 18 5 r/e x 16 r/2
tt
3tlsxl6tl2 3r/sx18
e
10
12 16 20 12 to
5 11"x27 5'/"x30
20 24 12 16 20 24
5t/sx21
5'lsx30 63lax2811, 63lax31t/,
5r/sx30 63/ax 28\ l, b'lsx2E'12 63/ax28 11, 63lax31 112 63/ox 341/,
3'l"x9 3,/ex9 3'/sx9
5 1lBx25 tl2
63/ox30 5'/s x 30 6{ox30 63/ax34 1/2 83[ x 33
FLOO R BEAMS 50 PSF
50 PSF
3'laxl'lz 31ls\7 \1, 3'lax71l2 3r/sxg
8 12 16 20
IN IN.)
(PSI}-ROOF
tt 8 10 12
20
u
LOAD
current American Instilute of Timber ConstructionPubli cationAITC 117-Design (Table2). 3. Valuesshownare for the tensionzonesof the member
31lsx7tl2 3'lex9 3,/ex9 31lsx191l2
31/ax7.lz 3'l"x9 3rlsx10r/, J1/"x1O1/2
3r/sx9 31/6x1o1lz 3'lsx111l2 31/"x12
3116x12 311sx131/, 3l/sx 15 3r/sx 15 3 t l ex 1 3 1 1 2
!11"x12 3 l l s\ 1 3 t 1 2 3rl€x15 3 r/sx 16 r/, 3'lsx15 5'/sx131/2 5 r/sx 16r/2 grl"x18
311"x'l31lz 3 ' / s x1 5 3r/sx15 3 l l a x1 6 1 1 ,
3 1 l ax 1 6 1 1 2 5r/6x15 5'lBx 16 112
3 ' 7 " x1 6 r / z 5 ' / 6 x1 6 r / , 5 ' / s x f8 5'lax21 5 1 l s x1 6 1 1 2 5 r / 8 x1 8 5 r/" x 19 r/, 51lsx21 5rlsx18 5 tlsx21 g rl"x25 112 5 1 1 " x 2 8t 1 2
311"x1611, 511"x1611, 5'lrx19\12 5\lox21 5 t/sx 16'/, 5 '/s x 19 r/, 51|sx22112 51{sx2511, 5rAx19r/, 511"x2211, 5 1lBx 25 112 5'lsx30 6JlAx25,l, 63lax28tl, 6%x33 6%x 36 6%x 30 63/ax36 8%x 36 8%x39
3 1 1 " x 1 61 1 2 5rlsx15 g 1 l "x 1 6 1 1 2 5r/"x 18 5 1/"x 1611, '18 5 '/s x 5ilsx21 ' l e 5 x 22 11,
5 '/s i 19 % 5 tlsx21 5tlex24 51|sx251/, 5 1lsx21 5 ) l s x2 4 5'/e x 27 6 3 / o x2 7 e1"' 28 V, 63/ox311/z 6%x33 6 3 l a x 3 71 1 , 63/0x33 63/ox37 \1, Sfox 36 8 3 /a x 4 0 |l ,
NOTES l.Total load carying weight capacity includes beam weight. Floor beams are designed for uniform loads of 40 ps{ liv€ load and l0 psf dead toad. 2. Allowabli stresses: Fb = 2,400 psi (modified volume fac'165 psi, E = 1.800,000 psr. tor). F" =
APPEARANCE
GRADES
Structural glued laminated timber is oroduced in three appearance grades that do not modity desrgn st.esses, fabflcatron controls, grades of lumber used. or other provisions of the applicable standards. A textured (rough sawn) surface may be called for instead of the surfacing described. ln all grades, laminations will possess the natural growth char, acteristics of the lumber grade. INDUSTRIAL
APPEARANCE
GRADE
Void filling on lamination edg€s is not required. The wide face of laminations exposed to view will be lree of loose knots and open knotholes. Edge joints on the wide face will not be filled. Members will be surfaced on two sides onlv. an occasional miss being permitted.
3. Deflection limits: roof = 1/rm,floor = r/3@ 4. Values are for preliminary design purposes only. For complete information see the American Instituto of Tifr ber Construction Timbe( Consttrction Manuat.
ARCHITECTURAL
APPEARANCE
GRAOE
On exposed surfaces, knotholes and other voids wider than % in. (19 mm) will be dressed with clear w@d inserts or a w@d-tone colored filler. Inserts will be selected for similarity of the grain and color to the adiacent wood. The wide face ol laminations exposed to view will be free of loose knots and open knotholesj all voids greater than '/16in. {2 mm) wide in edge joints on thrs face will be filled. Exposed faces must be surface smooth. Misses are not permitted. The corners on the wide face of laminations exposed to view will be eased. The current practice for eased edges is tor a radius between ]/s tn. (3 mm) and r/, in. {13 mm). PREMIUM
APPEARANCE
GRADE
Similar to architectural grade except that all knotholes and other voids on exposed surfaces will be replaced with wood Inserts or a wood-tone colored filler. Remaininq knots will be hmrted in size to 2oyo of lhe net face width of the lamination, with no more than two maximum size knots @curring in a 6 ft (1.8 m) length.
Roger W. Kipp, AIA; Thomas Hodne Architects. lnc.; Minneaoolis, Minnesora
GLUED-LAMINATED CONSTRUCTION
5. AITC tables extend to members up to 40 leet in span. Ameri€n PlywoodAssociation(APA)tablesextend up to 48 feet in span. The design of members of far greater span is possibleusing good engineeringpractice.
FINISHES Gluedlaminatedtimber finishesincludesealers.stains.and paints. End sealers retard moisturetransmissionand minimize checkingand normallyare appliedto the ends of all mem bers. Two types of sealersprotect againstsoiling, control grain raising,mrnrmizechecking,and seryeas a motstureretdt dant.Penetrating sealersprovidelimiledprotectionand are usedwhen the finallinishrequiresstainingor a naturalfrn ish. Primerand sealercoats providemaximumprotection by sealingthe surfaceof the w@d but should not be sDeci fied for a naturalor stainedfinalfrnish.Wood coloris modi. fied by any sealer application;theretore, wood sealers followed by staining will look different from stajned, untreatedwood.
Glued-LominqtedConstruction:Connections
375
BENT STEEL PUTE TO CARRY SUSPENOED LOADS BOLTED TO BEAM ABOVE
N OTE Very light loads may be placed near bottom of beam; however, the heavier the load the higher on the beam th€ suspensaon points should be located.
SUSPENDED LOAD-BENT ATTACHED TO SIDE
PLATE
GLUED UMINATED BEAM
wooo COLUMN
N OTE This detail is recommended SUSPENDED
LOAD
for use with heavy loads. -SAODLE
RAFTER TO COLUMN
CONOITION
BEAM CANTILEVER
SIDE PUTE WELDED TO STEEL
RAFTER TO BEARING
N OTE
WALL
An abrupt notch in the end of a w@d member reduces the effective shear strength of the member and mav permit a more rapid migration ot moisture in the lower portion of the member causing potential splitting. The shear strength of the end of the member is reduced and the exposed end grqr.n may also result in splitting b€cause of drying. At rnclrned beams, the taper cut should be loaded in bearing.
STEEL COMPRESSION
BOX
CONNECTION DESIGN The design of connectionstor glued laminatedtimber and sawn timber is similar. Gl@d laminatedlimbers and their loads, however, often are much larger than sawn lumber, so the effect of increasedsizeshouldbe takeninto account in the design. Used to add strengthto transfer loads,connectionsshould be design€dto avoid splitting and to accomrcdate swelling and shrinking. GLUED
The detail above is just one ot a large variety of special con, nectrons and connection assemblies possible using struc, tural glued laminated timber. lt is c.itical that connections be designed carefully in accordance with good engineering practice.
SPECIAL CONNECTION
GLUED LAMINATED
COLUMNS
LAMINATED COLUMNS Structural glued laminated timber columns otler higher allowablestresses,controlledappearance,and the abilityto fabricatevariablesections.For simple rectangularcolumns. the slendernessratio (the ratio of the unsupportedlength between points of lateral support to the least column dimension) may not exceed 50. The least dimension for tapered columns is the sum of the smallerdimensionand one-third the diflerence between the smaller and qreater dimensions Spacedcolumnsconsrstof two or morJmembers with longitudinalaxes parallel.separatedat the ends and at the midpoint by blocking,and joined at the ends by shearfastenings.The membersact togetherto ca.ry the total column load; becauseof the end fixity developed.a greater slendernessratio than allowed for elid columns is permitted.
Roger W. Kipp, AIA: Thomas Hodne Architects, Inc.; Minneaoolis. Minnesora
GLUED-LAM INATEDCONSTRUCTION
376
Connections Glued-lominoiedConstruction: ,e" MtN. CLEARANCE LAMINATE:O BEAM
CLIP BOTH
ANGLE, SIOES
TO PROVIOE LATERAL SUPPORT i OO NOT FASTEN TO BEAM ANCHOR
BEAM
HAN€ER
FIXEE)
ARCH
BEAM
ANCHORAOE
ANCHOR
TRUE HINGE FOR ARCHES
ANCHORAGE
BEAM
ANCHOR
ARCH
PEAK
wooD
wooo
COLUMN
COLUMN
wooo COLUMN
GALVANIZEO CARRIAGE BOLTS WELOED STEEL AASEPLATE
ANCHOR E'OLTS
CONNECTION
EIOLTS CEMENT WASH
BEARING PLATE
CONCRETE BASE
GALVANIZEO oR ztNc coATto STEEL ANCHOR
\^/ET POBT CONCRETE
ANCHORAGE BABE
TO
\|VOOD STEEL
COUUMN ANCHORED BASEPLATE
This detail is r€commendedfor herw duty us where moisture protection is d$ired. Anchor is *t and leveledin ret concrete after scre€dino. TimorhyB. McDonald;Washington,D.C.
GLUED-LAM INATEDCONSTRUCTION
WITH
U-ETRAP COLUMN ANCHORAGE TO CONCRETE BABE This derail is rmmmended for indurtrial buil4 ings 8nd warehds to r6i't both horizontal tq6 rnd uplifL Moisture bsricr is |'mfr mended. lt may b€ usd with shear plat6
Glued-LominoledConstruction:Connections SUPPORTED
BEAM
AEARING PLATE TOP SURFACS FLUSH WITH
V ",,i .);> t\
\i CONCEALEO PURLIN HANGER
NAILS
OR
LAGE}OL]-S
seavroffi
aeavffi
TOP F*
BEAM
EPLICINO
CLIP ANGLE LATERAL
SUPPORT; DO NOT FASTEN
BATS THROreH BEAM U-PLATE
BEAM
TO
COLUMN
CONNECTION
BEAM
TO
SLOTTED .rOP IN WILL BUT
METAL BEAM
COLUMN 6EAT6
CAP
\^/ITH
BEAM
COLUMN
CONNECTTON
BEAM
SPLICINO
HOLES PLATES
RESIST MOMENT NOT EPLIT SEAM.
CONNECTION
MOMENT
GPLICING
Timothy B. McDonald;Washington.D.C.
GLUED-LAMINATEDCONSTRUCTION
378
WoodSiding
SIDING
LAP
BEVEL
VERTICAL
SIOING
BUILOING
PAPER
SH
STRIP*
STARTER AEVEL CONTINUOUS TERMITE (OPTIONAL
APPLY SEALANT OURING INSTALLATION EXCESS REMOVE
APPLY SEALANT OURING INSTALLATION. REMOVE EXCESS
NG
SHEATHI
EOARDS
BAROS
CORNER
PAPER
BUILOING
€QUAL
USUALLY
SHIELO )
CORNER
VERTICAL SIOING
OR
BOARO
i,OINT
BOARO
CORNER
A
JOINT
OIAGONAL
SHEATHING
SHTATHI
A SIMILAR NOTE: OETAIL WOULD WITH SQUARE CUTS JOINTS APPLY TO VERTICAL IN BEVEL LAP SIOING
APPLY SEALANT OURTNG INSTALLATION. REMOVE EXCESS
BUILOING
PAPIR
BUILDING
CORNER
JOINT
BOARO
JOINT
PAER
APPLY SEALANT OURING INSTALLAT!ON. REMOVE EXCESS
CORNER
JOINT
EOARO
SIOING
PAPER OVER BUILOING FLASHING SHEATHING
O
VERTICAL
SIOING
BUILOING FLASHING
PAPER
JOISTS
F@OR
OVER
ING
SH EATH
'BLOCKING
OPTIONAL
BOARO
SIOING
C
VERTICAL
SIDING
HORIZONTAL CORNER
VERTICAL
FOR NAILING ANY SIOING
I NO
SHEATH
NG
BEVEL JOINT. APPLY SEALANT OURING INSTALLATION. REMOVE EXCESS AT JOINT SOLIO BLOCKING
B
STUOS EXTRA MOPER ENO WHEN USING HORIZONTAL
PROVIOE HORIZON T& ROWS OF SOL|O AT 24" BLOCKING FOR ALL O.C VERTICAL OR NEARLY VERTICAL EIOARO SIO I NG APPLICATIONS
PAPER
BUILOING
SUTT
ING
JOISTS
FLOOR
BEVEL
PAPER
EUILOING SH EATH
ING
EATH
OR SIOING
HORIZONTAL DIAGONAL
EXTENOEO
LTLINE
CORROSIVE
NON-CORROStVt METAL FLASHING
BELTLINE
NON. CORROSIVE METAL FLASHING
ORI P
JOI NT
BELTLINE
FLOOR
JOISTS
BUILOING UNDER
PAPER FLASHING
A
SH
JOINT
BELTLINI
B
I.'
BUILDING
PAPER
OVERLAP
USI WHEN NAIL BLOW
wooo
CAUTION
TIP NAIL CLEARS OF UNOERCOURSE
ORIVING HEAVY HOME. MAY SPLIT
lrl2" MlN. PgNETRATIONTYP.
ouE To
NONSUPPOffi IN CAVITY
FACE
( HORIZ.
E|EVEL
SHEATHI
PAPER
FACE NAIL OF
TIP NAIL CLEAF?S OF UNOERCOURSE
NAILEO
TIP CLEARS UNOERCOURSE
NAILEO
RABBETEO
I
SHEATH
NG
STUO OR Bt.OCKING EUILOING
PAPER
BUILOING
( HC)RIZ.I
BEVEL
ING
BLOCKING 24" O.C.
AT
NAILEO
FACE
rzz" SPACE
NAIL
ANO
AT PAPER
BUILOING
FACE NAILEO
r/."
EXPANSION CLEARANCE
BOAROS €I" OR wtotR. ruo NA|LS PER BEARING
TON<}UE
OR HORIZ,
ING
BLOCKING 24- O. C.
PAPER
( VERT.
V
6HIFLAP SHEATH
NAIL
BOAROS 6'OR LES. ONE NAIL PER BEARING FACE
NG
NAILIO
PLAIN
BLINO
C
r/6" ExPANSroN CLTARANCE
FACE
OROOVE
I VERT. OR HORIZ.I
Gerald D. Graham; CTA Architects Enginee.s; Billings, Montana
FINISH CARPENTRY
UNOER
STUO OR BLOCKING
STU O AUILOING
JOINT
SHEATHI
NG
EATHI
PAPER
BUILDING FUSHING
PAPER BUILOING UNDER RASHING E'ELTLINE
NG
SHEATHI
TLINE
JOISTS
FLOOR
CHANNEL
(VEffi.
I/2..
I
OVERLAP
BOARO
ANO
BATTEN
(VERT.I
}
37s ' , 't r r " . r t r " . t . t z z " , , tz,,,,nttr,. ata.,_
-r:,
z----------------___-_--F
ft nTtttl,l I I l-il1I ii#-
I I I l l lz I----1l lr-r-lt"-
TEXTURE I.II
REVERSED BOARO AND BATTEN
ROUGH
4" OC
SAWN
6
0R{
a- o.c OPTIONAL
CHANNEL
PLYWOOD
SIDING 3O3 A N D
NO OIAGONAL WALL BRACING OR SHEATHING REOUIRED WITH STANDARD THICKNESS PANEL SIOING
Tt-t
| (3O3
GROOVE
MD-O (MEDIUM DENSITY ovERuIo} V-GRoOVE SHOWN; OTHERS AVATLABLE
HOR IZONTAL-qPFEO MDO AND ROUGH SAWN
SPECIAL)
BLOCKING REOUIRED AT END JOINTS
AS R€OUIRED
Medium donsity overlay (MDO) ptywood lap siding: standard thickness is 3/, in. in '16 l€ngths to ft on dder; standard ;idths are 12 or 16 in. SHINGLE WEDGE UNOER VERTICAL JOINTS
r/e" SPACING PANELEDGES
AT ALL --
CAULK VERTTCAL JOINTS OR BACK WITH BUILDING PAPER 2 X 4 BLOCKING AT HORIZONTAL JOINTS
INSULATION AS REOUIRED BUILDING PAPER
7j-" ,/\
STAGGER AUTT JOINTS OVER STUDS
6- MrN I CLEARANCE I ABovE GRADE/
RATED SIDING LEAVE I/s,, sPAcE AT END AND EDGE JOINTS UNLESS OTHERWISE RECOMMENOED BY MANUFACTURER
PANEL SIDING VERTICAL APPLICATION CAULK oR BACK
fi-7
w r r HB U T L D T N G "or." llyl
sg VERTICAL
,r",,wroe
LAP SIDING APPLICATION
PANEL SIDI NG HORIZONTAL
N7
PANEL SIDING DESCRIPTION (ALL SPECIES GROUPS)
MAX. STUD SPACING
(IN.)
NAIL SIZE (USE NONSTAINING BOX, SIDING.
(SIDI NG DI RECT NAIL SPACING
(IN.)
txl
thick or less 8d for thicker r€nels
I
BA
SHIPLAP
VERTICAL
MAY USE BANENS TO CONCUL BUTT JOINTS
CON-STR UCTION O M M E N DATIO N - S T o s r u D s A N D o v E R N o r q s r R u c r r i nReEi C iHearnrNG)
,--
\
N OTE Nailable panel or lumber sheathing required
APA STURD-I-WALL
L1[f---r
BUTT ANo cauLK
STARTER STRIP ,-
JOINTS
NOTES '1. lf siding is applied over sheathing thicker than r/, in., use next regular nail size. Use nonstaining box nails for stdino installed over foam insulation sheathing. 2. Hotdipped or hot-tumbled gatvanized steel nails are recommended for most siding applications. For best perlormance, stainless steel nails or aluminum nails should be consid€red. APA tests also show that electricallv or mechanically galvanized steel nails appear satisfaitoru w-hgl-11lating meets or exceeds thickness requirementl of AS-TM 464l Ctass 2 coatings and is further'prorJcreJ DV yelow chromate coatino 3. Only- panels 1V,r.in. and thi-cker that have certain groove depths and spacing quality fo( 24 in. o.c. Span Rating. iift2 in. or 4. For.braced. wall % in. siding .seclions with applied horizontally over studs 24 n. o.c, space narls 3 In. o.c. atong panel edges-
FFF
AUTT AND FUSH
SHIPUP
HORTZONTAL
JOINTS
OVER UP
MINIMUM BENDING RADII FOR PLYWOOD PANELS PANEL
THICKNESS
(IN.)
NOTE The types of pl! rood recommended for exterior siding are APA grade trademarked medium density overlay (UbOi Typ€.303 siding or lexlure 1-1 I [rt-t I speciat 303 sidrngi' I,l-11 plywood srding is manufactured with 3/" in. wrde pJr allel gr@ves and shiplapped edges. MDO is recommended Ior parnt trntshes and is available in a variety of surfaces. 303 plywood panels are also available in a wide variety;f surfaces. The most common ApA plywmd siding pinel drmensions are 4 x I fl but the panels are also availa-ble in 9 and 10 ft lengths, lap srdrng to 16 ft.
Bl@dgood, Sharp, Euster Architects and planners; Des Moines, lom American Plywood Association; Tacoma. Washinqion
FINISHCARPENTRY
380
Wood Joints
END JOINTS_TO
INCREASE
LENG
.A '/ll ll
-a\
,#l /'ll
".ffi
BACK BATTEN
"")^
'l I I
(._t4- | TONGUE ANO GROOVE
EDGE JOINTS_TO
INCREASE
.C.t
1l
SPLINE
;A ' "'tr I
BUTTERFLY WEDGE
WIDTH
-'-Y"-./
\tr "v "V\-l
IV
\,
s-z --V-
!,j--
KEYEO JOINT
STOPPEO OADO
RTGHT ANGLE JOINTS
v---S-WOOD SPLINE
---lr-
*
SHOULDER MITER
JOINTS
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Vitullo Architecture Studio; Washington, D.C
RALWOODWOR K ARCHITECTU
TONGUE AND GROOVE
I
FOXTAIL WEDGE
WEDGED JOINTS
BUTTERFLY SPLINE
Wood Joints
\\,
VI
\\\t -\Y,a l \"/\ ->2 OOVETAIL
DOVETAIL
HALFUP
SECRET (MITER
z g €
DOVETAIL
LAP OOVETATL (HALF BLIND)
DOVETAIL)
THROUGH (COMMON
MULTIPLE DOVETAIL)
JOINTS
V >rt
v ;
-,-
<*-7 -iY-/
MITERED HALF LAP
CROSS
LAP
LAP JOINTS
w THROUGH TENON
HALF
BLINO
PINNEO
ALIND
HAUNCH
BLIND
HAUNCH
MORTISE AND TENON JOINTS
RichardJ. Vituilo.AlAj Vituilo ArchitectureStudio;Washington,D.C
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
38r
382
CobinetDetqils BUTT JOINT. SET NAILEO.PUNIED AND SANDEO HARDWOOD EDGE MAY 8E MOLDED TO PROFILE OF WEB FRAME WOOD SPLINE MITER SHOWN (TONGUE AND GROOVE ALSO USED)
3to" uor OR PBI
GENERAL The Architectural Woodwork Instatute's Ouality Standards classify custom-manufactured cabinets in three categories: premium, custom, and economy. The materials, toinery, and finish quality are delineated in the specifications for cabinet shops to follow. Premrum is the highest grade, with close tolerances reserved for only the finest cabinets. Custom€rade cabinets, the most common, are made lrom very good materials with durable joinery. Economy-grade cabinets are used for utilitarian and inexrensive residential caDrners. The AWI Ouality Standards classify cabinet parts as exposed, semiexposed, and concealed. 3nd specify a mini mum grade for each. The finish to be used is specified as paint grade or stain grade or whether plastic laminate or other material will be used.
LINE OF WEB FRAME
To prevent movement caused by wood shrinkage, use only kilndried solid lumber or panel product for base supports.
PUSTIC UMINATE oN 3/4" MDF oR PBI
ABBREVIATIONS
illl--
ulrWALL CABINET
PUSTIC UMINATE COUNTERTOP ON
The following abbreviations are used on the three AGS pages on cabinet details: MDF{ediumdensity libeF board: PBI;ndustrial oarticleboard.
LINE OF WEB FRAME ' /
SOLID CORE oN 3/o" MoF
UMINATE oR PBI
NUI l\\)L l,\: L\\17-7771
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EDGE OETAILS
ltl
1I lll
ll
HARDBOARD// BAcKING-
lll_
AACKSPLASH
POST FORMED PUSTIC UMINATE ON MDF OR PBI
Flush overlay construction oflers a clean, contemporary designbecauseonly the doors and drawerlronts are visible in elevation-The grain between doors and drawer lronts can be matched by cutting all pieces from the same panel. Thiscabinetstylelendsitselfwell to the use ot plasticlaminate tor exposed surfaces. Conventionaland concealed hinges are availablefor a varietyof door thicknesses.Door and drawer joinery and materialsmay vary from the selection shownin the details. FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION
lL__llr-Tl[ BASE suPPoRT
ll \/ |
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\
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FLUSH OVERLAY CONSTRUCTIONVERTICAL SECTION A.A
-TII-
HARDBOARD BACKING
POST-FORMED LAMINATE COUNTERTOP
SCRIBE TO
U
MEUMINE, WOOD VENEER, OR PLASTIC UMINATE SURFACE ON MOF OR PBI. TYP.
BACKSPLASH
-:-tE
SOLID SURFACE. SOAPSTONE. GRANITE MARBLE. OR OTHER STONE ON THIN,SET BED WALL CABINET_SECTION
]TIE
A-B
3/a" PLYwooD SOLID
STONE COUNTERTOP
COUNTER
AND BACKSPLASH
AASE CABINET-SECTION
DETAILS
FLUSH
Greg Heuer;ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
OVERLAY
HARDWOOD
FACE
PANEL
C-C
CONSTRUCTTON-HORIZONTAL
SECTIONS
----]
U
Cobinet Detoils
383
HARDBOARD BACKING, TYP
MEUMINE. WOOD VENEER OR PLASTIC UMINATE SURFACE ON MDF OR PBI, NP
l1 ll
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REVEAL
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WALL CABINET SECTION B.B
li llN
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REVEAL
S€CTION
OVERLAY
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CONSTRUCTION_HORIZONTAL
CABINfr
-DRAWERFRoNT DOOR
TYPICAL
SECTIONS
CABINET
ELEVATION
REVEAL OVERLAY CONSTRUCTTON In this style of cabinet construction, the separation between d@rs and drawerlronts is accentedby the reveal. The style is suited equallyto €ither wood or pla;tic laminate construction.The detailsshown at left show a revealat all venicaland horizontaljoints. but th€ designermay vary this arrangement. A revealgreaterlhan h inch would requirethe additionof a face trame,whichwould changethe hinge requrrements. Wrth or without a face tram6. this sMe allows the use of conventionalor concealedhinges.Door/drawerjoinery and materialsmay vary from selectionsshom in the drawinos.
WALL
CAAINET
SECTION
FLUSH INSET CONSTRUCTION WITHOUT FACE FRAME
A-A
In this style of construction,all dmr and drawer faces are flush with the face of the Gbinet. This swle allows the use of door and drawerfronts with differentthicknesses.
HMWH UMgUM l
BASE CABINET SECTION A-B
FLUS H I N SET CONSTR UCTION
(WITHOUT
rACC
Conventionalas well as concealedhingesare availablefor a variety oI door thicknesses.The material chosen for the case and doors and drawers influences lhe choice of hinges Avoid conventionalbutt hingeswhen hinge screws would be attachedto the edgegrain of panel products.
L
CABINff
Flushinset constructionwithout any face frame is generally an expensrvestyle becauseincreased€re is necessaryto fit and align the doors and drawers.The design featurei of this case-workstyle are the same as for conventionalflush constructionwith lace frame except that here the lace trare has b€en eliminated.
DOOR
FNATTE;_HORIZOI.ITAL=ECT,ON5
HARDBOARD BACKING. TYP
This style does not lend itself to the economicaluse of Dlastic laminate cov€ring finish€s. Dor/drawer joinery and materialsmay vary from s€l€ctionsshown in details.
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WALL CABINET SECTION B.B
utirl illl KZZ
WJ FACE
BASE
CASINET
FLUSH
FRAME.
SECTTON
TYP
ln this style ol construction,all dmr and drawer faces are flush with the face of the €binet. This style allows the use of differentthicknessesfor dor and drawer fronts. Conventronal as well as concealed hingesare avatlable for a varietyof door thicknesses.The hingeschosen dependon the case and door/drawermaterialchosen. Avoid conventionalbutt hingeswhen hinge screws would be attachedto the edge!rainot panelproducts.
SOLIO WOOD FACE FRAME, TYP
u
FLUSH INSET CONSTRUCTION WITH FACE FRAME
Flush inset constructionwith face frame is generallythe most expensiveof the lour cabinetdoor styles because,in additionto the cost of providingthe face frame, there is the cost of the increasedcare n€ededto fit and align the doors ano orawers. This style does not lend itself well to the €conomicaluse oI plasticlaminatesurfaces.D@r/drawerjoineryand materials may vary from the selectionsshown.
C.C
I NSET CONSTRUCTION
(VI/ITH FACE PU].A EI-gOCIZOFITAL=
ECT'ONS
Greg Heuer:ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Reston,Virginia
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
Cobinei Detoilsond Hqrdwore
384
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REVEAL OVERLAY CONSTRUCTION VERTICAL SECTION A-A
FLUSH INSET CONSTRUCTION (WITHOUT FACE FRAME) VERTICAL SECTION A.A
(WITH FLUSH INSET qONSTRUCTION FACE FRAME) VERTICAL SECTION A-A
HARDWARE
MINIMUM NOMINAL THICKNESS AND MATERIAL FOR CABINET COMPONENTS
HINGES
COMPONENTS
MIN. NOMINAL THICKNESS
s
without face frame, revealover lay, flush oveday
and rail cabinet doors
n. up heighl 1 Consulta woodworkingprofessionaltor shelf specificationsto carryanticipatedloads. , Givespecialconsiderationto buildingvery wide and/orvery tall doors of this thickness;con, for guidelines. sultmanufactur€r 3 Thicknessof glassfor doors shouldmeet localcode. a Use like materialsand thicknessestor face of cabinetdoors and drawerfronts. Veneer core doorscannotbe guaranteedagainstwarping,telegraphing,or delamination.
openrn9;no catcn requiredon self, closing styles
Greg Heuer; Architectural Woodwork Institute; Restm, Virginia Architectural Woodwork lnstitute, Architectural Woodwork Auaity Standards, Tth ed. (version
ARCHITECTU RALWOODWORK
1).
',t997
Wood Shelving 8 MM DIA METAL STANDARDS SURFACE MOUNTED
WOOD
38s
DOWELS
GENERALLY
NOTE All dimensions and spacing are based on a 32 mm module
2"Ml
BOX FRAME
STANDARDS
AND
BRACKETS
SYSTEM
32 MM BOX FRAME
SYSTEM
BLTND DADO METAL CAM INSERTED INTO FRAME WALL THROUGH
OADO
SUPPORT
STANDARDS
DETAILS
FIXED SHELF
AND CLIP
AT
SIOE
SYSTEM WOOD VENEER OR PUSTIC UMINATE ,r'PLYWOOO MEOIUM DENSITY PARTICLEBOARO OR FIBERBOARO
NOTE
WOOO EOGE BANO
This system can b€ hand mounted or machineinserted.A half turn of the cam screw tightens connection and prevents disassemblv. SEMI-FIXED
FRAME/SHELF
DETAIL \\
PLUGS INTO TWO
\F
{'"*"""
HANGING
CLEAT
HANGING
\F \tr
BRACKET
NOTE
N OTE
All details except hanging bracket and rail must also be floor supported.
This system can be used for horizontal shelf attachment or vertical divider suppon.
BULLNOSE
BOOKSHELF
REMOVABLE
SHELF
vt/ALL
ATTACHMENT
GROOVED
SHELF DETAIL
EDGE DETAIL
Richard J. Vtullo. AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Helmut Guenschel, lnc.; Baltimore, Maryland
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
_-<
386
InteriorWollPonelingDetoils COVE
caowir MOLDING
MOLDING
WAINSCOT CAP
9 z E o
wooD lRrM MEOIUM DENSITY FIBEREOARD RAIL ANO STILE WITH WOOO VENEER a
CORONA
L
\
BED
\
PLYWOOD BACK UP
E l F
MOLDING
soLrD wooo RAIL (AND STILE)
5 @
oEruttL ropr.r
F
LIP MOLDING
z
FLUSH PANEL MOLDING RAISED
PANEL
,.
P
PLYWOOD BACK,UP
/
RAISED
FLAT PLYWOOD PANEL WITH WOOD VENEER
PANEL
PLYWOOD
BACKUP
AASE CAP BASE CAP BASEBOARD BASEBOARD BLOCKING ALOCKING BASE SHOE
SECTION - WAINSCOT WITH RAISED PANEL AND FLUSH MOLDING
SECTION - WAINSCOT \ivITH FLUSH PANEL AND RAISED MOLDING
BLOCKING
RAISEO
MEDIUM OENSITY FIBERBOARO FOR PAINT FINISH ONLY
PANEL
BASE CAP AASEBOARD BASE SHOE
1. Becauseof its stability,plywood is prelerableto solid lumberor other mat€rialsas backup. 2. To join stile to rail, monise and tenon or dowelled ioints are used.Stte to stitejointsal outsidecornersare ipline lorntsor lockm;ters;insidecornersare bun iointed. SECTION _ FULL HETGHT WALL PANEL
INTERIOR
\^/ALL PANEL
DETAILS
Architectural interior paneling consists of a series of thin sheets ot wood (panels) lramed together by means of stouter strrps of wood, vertical (stiles) and horizontal (rails), to lorm erther a d@r, screen. or lining for internal walls. Paneling was first used as a wall coveri;g in England in the 13th century. Up to the l6th century. the lriming was almost as massive as half,timber constiuction. Then it was prcgressively lighrened until by the middle of thal cenrury when lhe thrckness of the framing was reduced to an Inch. loday, Inch thick or less panels are made from veneers over plywood or composrtion boards, which €n be treated for fire proteclion The strles and rarls are made lrom solid wood or veneered boards. Rim and lip moldings and other tflms are almost exclusivelv made from solid wi@d.
SOLIO STILF/RAIL
STILE/RAIL
Richard J. Vituilo, AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Architectural W@dwork Institute; Arlington, Virginia
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
WOOD VENEER ON PLYWOOD OR MEDIUM OENSITY FIBERBOARD
TO PANEL JOINERY
TYPES
SECTION - WAINSCOT WITH RAISED PANEL AND RAISED MOLDTNG
I
Wood Stoirs GUIDELINES Conslruction details on thrs page are for shop-built stairs using Premium Grade Standards of the Architectural Woodwork Institute. W@d stairs used in private, residentialapplr cations usually are not governed by the ADA; however. wood stairs in commercial lacilities and olaces of oublic accommodatron must conlorm to ADA accessibrlrtygutdelines (ADMG). Details on these lwo pages depict both alternattves. 1. Check current l@l building codes and regulations lor requirements that may differ from the general recommendations provided here. 2. Interior stair width: 36 in. minimunr. 3. Minimum headroom is 6 ft 8 in. as measured verticallv from a dragonal line connecting lread nosings to the underside of the finished ceiling or stair landing directly above the stair run. Recommended headr@m is 7 ft.
required width of a stair Handrail projection: 3,/2 in. maximum. Stringer projectionr 1'12in. maximum. For a stair to comply with ADMG, no proiections are allowed Into the mrnrmum requrred starr wrdth. 5. The width of a landing or platform should be at least as wide as the stair. 6. The maximum vertical rise of a stair between landinqs is 12 tI7. Biser height: 4 in. min. and 7 in. max. '11 Tread width: in. min.. measured from riser to riser. Variation in adiacent treads or rjsers should not exceed 3/ 16in. The maximum difference allowed the tread width or riser height within a ftight of stairs is % in. ADAAG requires unrform treads and risers. Nosings project 1rl2 in. max. Check codes and ADAAG for other restrictions.
387
L Height of handrail above stair nosings: 30 to 34 an.;34 to 38 in. per ADMG. Guardrail height at landings: 36 or 42 in.; check lo€lcode. 9. Design handrails that can be gripped easily and fit the hand. Recommend€d diameter is 1,/a to t,/, in. for round handfails and a similar srze for an eilrblrcal or rounded square edge section. Handrails should be structurally designed so that both downward {vertical} and lateral (horizontal) thrust loads are considered. 10. Exlensions ot handrail at top and bottom ot stair may aflect total length ot required run. Verify extensions required by local codes or ADAAG when designing a stair. 1 1 . Refe. to related stair topics in chapters 1, 3, 4, 5, and 9.
4. Only handrails and stair stringers may prcject into the
NEWEL POST
TREAD RtrURN MITERED AT END
SHOE
AALUSTER
RAIL
HOUSED STRINGER
FILLER BETWEEN BALUSTERS
ffi['fJ,"\]: NffEL POST ROUTED FOR ALL INTERSECTING TREAOS ANO BLOCKING FLOOR LEVEL
NffEL POST SHOWN FOR LANDING. POST STOPS AT FLOOR LEVEL AT BONOM OF STAIR
BALUSTERS STRINGER
AND TRIM AT FACE
NEWEL
POST
SECTION A
FINISH
HANORAIL (INSTALL ON BOTH SIOES WHEN DESIGNING FOR PERSONS WITH
OISABILITIES)
HOUSED WALL STRINGER
FILLER BETWEEN BALUSTERS AALUSTER BALUSTER DOVETAILEO TO TREAD
ACCESSIBLE NOSINGS FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
TREAO RffURN BLOCKING . CARRIAGE FACE STRINGER WALL OR SOLID RAIL
BLOCKING BEruEEN CARRIAGES
Center carriage is recommended TREADS AND STRINGER
RISERS
AT
HOUSED
ACCESSIBLE
NOSINGS
SECTION B
The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle. Washington Janet B. Rankin, AIA; Rippeteau Architects; Washington. D,C.
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
388
Wood Stoirs
HOUSED STRINGER AT
NOTE Open riser stairs do not comply with Americans with DisabilitiesAct AccessibilityGuidelines. OPEN RISER STAIR
OPEN OPEN
ELEVATION I l/2" lttt
CLOSED STRINGER/ SOLID RAIL
STRINGER/ RAIL
CLOSED STRINGER/ OPEN RAIL
OF FACE STRINGER HANDRAIL DOES NOT coMPLY W|TH AOAAG
,',a'rrrl@
MtN
- 11t2':
Itto'
A
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)
ffi
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eRrcrEr \-BLocKrNG
/
st
Handrail complies with
RISER STAIR/CARPET
FINISH
$,'sH^IffS
HB
]
NOTE
CLOSED
\ DowEL LET
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watr\
Itta':--'aQ
ADMG if dimensions are maintained.
BLOCKING
FLUSH TRANSITION
l/2" RADtus TRtM Typ. TREAD
WALL OR SOLID RAIL
=
CARRIAGE 9PACER
wooo BLocK CUT TO FIT
WOOD
FINISH
-S
NO STRINGER ADAAG ACCEPTABLE NOSTNG
BASE AT WAL|_
CARRIAGE
CLOSED
NOTCHED
RISER STAIRS AT \^/ALLS AND SOLTD RAILING
vi/ALLS
FLOORING
PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR AT TREAD ANO RISER
RADtus'/2"
STEEL ANGLE WITH UG OR THROUGH BOLTS TO BEAM AND CARRIAGE
60'MtN
FULL STRINGER
ST€EL ANGLE BEYOND
NOTCHED STRINGER
ADAAG ACCEPTABLE NOSING TREADS AND (2 X MrN.)
RISERS
TREAD
BEAM
CARRIAGE
ROUGH HORSE
CARRIAGE
CHAMFER CARRIAGE
ROUGH HORSE STEEL ANGLE WITH UG BOLTS TO CARRIAGE AND FLOOR
CLOSED
RISER
STRINGER
STAIR/\MOOD
FTNISH
HEAVY TIMBER
The Bumgardner Architects; Seattle, Washington Janet B. Rankin, AIA; Rippeteau Architects; Washington, D.C.
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
STAIR
SECTION A
Wood Ornomenls
CYMA
MOLDING
CORONA MOLDING)
(DRIP --
389
-
--
DENTILS SCROLL GEE MOLDING
AAY.LEAF FRILZE ORNAMENT
l
OGEE MOLDING WITH TALON ORNAMENT _ FRIZE
DOOR
OVERDOOR
------__\
DETAILS
wooD CORBEL (BRACKET) ] "o**,.-
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lirliffiear
] ORNAMENTS
IaRCHTTRAVE
PUSTER
APITAL
FLfED
PIUSTER
V \ / O O DC O R B E L S GENERAL W@dwork is considered an ornament when it has a sEcial or uniq@ design that does not tall within the standard cate gories ol architectural woodwork as defined bv the Archit€ctural Woodwork Institute. Some typical uses for ornamental wood include pediment heads, mantels. ornamental gfllles, fluted pilasters, cupe las, finials, medalltons, corbels, balusters, posts, and columns. Wrthrn the classificatrcn of ornarental wood are combinations of flat or molded solid lumber, or cored lumber components with wood veneer {aces with. or wilhout_ the addition of moldings. All joinings between ornamental members should be designed lor lunctional as well as decorative ourmses. Wood ornamentation is an art that can take shaoe in an almost infinire number ol lorms and designs, limited only by the mechanical production constraints of woodworking shops. "Wood" ornarents can also be produced in largei quantities (in molds) with the synthetic material polyurethane. Once cured, the polyurethane @n be painted and substituted for the wood ornaments.
.STOP'
FLUTING
WAINSCOT
FLUTING
FTEVERSE
FLUTING
FLUTING SECTIONS
ORNAMENTAL
V\/OOD PILASTER
Richard J. Vatullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland
ARCHITECTU RALWOODWORK
Wood Ornoments
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PIUSTER CAPIT& FIREPUCE SURROUND (NON-
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u
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PLINTH
FIREPLACE
MANTEL
ORNAMENTS
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MISCELIANEOUS
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studioj Crownsville,Maryland
ARCHITECTU RALWOODWORK
ORNAMENTS
FINIALS
ACORN
ACOR,N
GENERAL
N OTES
Intenor trim ts a generally decorative treatment -applied atter mll. floor, and ceiling finishes have been installed. lt can be made of flat or molded wood from single pieces of wood or built-up pieces that give a more complex ind deco_ ratrve appearance_ lnterior trim conceals joints between dif_ ferent materials and blocks air infiltration through wails, which typically is greatest at material joinrs. Int;rior vim also- frames wall and ceiling openings idor and window/ skylrght trim). defines planar edges (crown and base mold_ Ingl, and acts as a visual divider between dissimilar materi_ als (chair rail).
The Architectural Woodwork Institute differentiates wood trim €ccording to its length. Standing wood trim is trim that can be accommodated easily wilh s,ngle lenglhs ol wood l@penorng on specres). such as crown moldings, fasc;as, soffits, chair.rails. baseboa.ds, ana sfroe motOing's.'nunnn! tflm. is usually made up of frnger jointed woodto achievJ rne rengths customarily needed tor thrs tvoe ot trim.
DOOR
CASING
BUILT.UP MOLDING
wrNDow casrre
CORNTCE
1. Blockrng that recerves moldings shoutd be set olumb tevet, true. and straight, with no distortion, and should be provided for full surface contact. Attach blocking to iubslrales wrth nails, screws. or bolts. 2. Woodwork should be stored in a dry, ventilated space. tf this is oot possible, seal the ends ot all pieces as ioon as possible- Moldings should be at optimum moisture cm tent at the time of installation and should be allowed to acclimate to project conditions before installation. 3. Joints In adjacent and related members should be staq_ gered. Cope at inside corners and miter at outsiae coi. ners to produce tighlJitting ioints with full surface contact lhroughoul lhe length of the jornt, use scarf Jornts{face mitered) for end-to€nd joints in trim. 4. Blind nail where possible, and use finishing nails in exposed areas.. Predrill as required to eliminat; splitting; set exposed nail heads for filling. 5. Most flat rrim like baseboards and casing has a ploughed or retieved back, whjch gives wide trim a degree of itexi orrry, alowtng tt to frt snugly against a wall surface 6. The molding profiles illustrated are a small sampling of those available from most millwork shops. Custom "pro_ liles should be shown on drawings full size. Dimensrins grven are tor typical Stock molding profrles.
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WOOO TRIM AND MOLDINGS WINrcW F%ME
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BLIND STOP
JAMB
PAffiING
PARTNTG
G PffiNG STOP
OR PARTING
SIDE
t
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NOTE INSIDE CORNERS OF SHAPED MOLDINGS ARE (CUT WTH COPED @PING SAW TO FT OVER COMOURS OF ADJOINING MIM
Casings are used to tinish the joint b€tween the window or d@r h€ad and side jambs and wall finish. Often a casing used at windows is also used as apron material, wtth th; wde stde toward the stool
CASINGS
JAMB
WINDOW ASING SASH.
WP.
INSIOE
STOP
-t/
r
STOOL MTERED AT CORNERS ARON MMERED AT CORNERS
LEMON E}ISCUIT
SCARF
TYPICAL
WINDOW
TRtM
MOLDING
W@D BL@KING AS NECESSARY,
AP
WP
CROWN MODING USED CryPICALLY TOWARO TOP OF CORNICE ASSEMBL).)
CONNECTTON
S;PLINE JOTNT
OR
DETAILS
sTooLs
MOLDING
(MreRED @NER)\
AT
MOLDED MOLDING AT TOP CORNERS MOLDED D@R ASING ONE.PIECE BASEBOARD
\
NOTE St@ls are used as interiorcaps on windowsillsand recetve ca$ng fiom above and apron below. They are specifiedby width of rabbetand degreeof bevel.
ovouo SHOE
tfr-" N W'?'*Ew ll N N N P-=o='=oo*o :l N N t.i N
ts S S M'Fhiq:: NOTE
PLINTH
DENNLS
\ PICTURE MOLDING
aase
BASE
MoDING BASE
TYPICAL CORNICE TRIM
CAP
BASEBOARD
BED MOLDING
TYPICAL
SHG
DOOR AND
BASE TRIM
BLOCK
Baseboards and base moldings are used at the juncture of wall and floor exclusively. Baseboard may be one piece {with integral.base cap) or flat with optional base cap. Separate caps and sh@s are flexible and tacilitate a close fit to uneven wall and lloor surfaces.
BASEBOARD
AND BASE MOLDINGS
Richard J. Vitullo, AtA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsvjlle. Maryland
ARCHITECTU RALWOODWORK
392
InteriorWoodTrimond Moldings ,\';
\"
,r4
-tf
/ o"/ I
/t,
ffv
N OTE
Crown moldingsare appliedalone at the joint betweenwall and ceilingor togetherwith other moldingsin a built-upcornic€,typicallytoward the top of the corniceassemblyjmeae' 'r6a
oi^6
r^
CROWN
odd6
MOLDINGS
NOTE
NOTE
Cove moldingsare used at insidecorners,such as wall-towall or ceiling-to-wall.
Bed moldings are used at the bottom of built-up cornices and at other vertical-tehorizontaliunctures.
COVE MOLDINGS
BED MOLDINGS 1/2'
t "*Fffi i l\\r- F
fiI
Y^-,
w \rm
((p
i|u/ N
-
rVTtxl
ROUNDS
11h6'frP.
Mwn
V
t-
r*-n
a
l> :l/\r I A uh* rx R ,.e I V2^ li/lll.! W,hr F\ }F)*L1Z -T-U_p/ U.I_ly Ey
BASE CAPS N OTES
This molding is used on outside corners
Often integratedwith cornices,picture moldings are used as continuousprcjecting supportslor picture hooks. Customflade h@ks are availableto fit th€se orofiles.
1. HalJ-roundsare used to conceal vertical and horizontal joints. Ouarter-roundsare used at inside corners and as base shoe. 2. Base caps are appliedat the top of the basebcrd, flush againstthe wall.
CORNERS
PICTURE
BASE CAPS AND
NOTE NOTE
MOLDINGS
%W
T1
ROUNDS
td* aR a ,lu = a s n ilW u) II-EYVN WWMW NOTE Stops are used at iambs to guide windorc
and stop doors.
STOPS |
BATTENS.
| r:r
; F\trSSN lf-J
NOTE These moldings are used in panelsto concealjoints, over window jamb edges in a multiple{pening window, and as astragalsat middlejoints oI doubleleal d@rs. PANEL STRIPS, ASTRAGALS
---
._-l_fI
rf R. rl -2
AND
ll..-l
N OTE Backbands are applied as trim at the outer edg6 of door jamb and head, among oth€r uses.
BACKBANDS
---T
1 th. - 21b". wP.
1--
t
N
|:'
SIS:
N\v-
*t\z
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a
N S F
+!,
|
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a.
%:
%-,-,
II E*WWF t,7 ?b F-a
NOTE
NOTE
Cap or rake moldings are used at head of door and window trim and at top of wainscots.
Panel moldings are typically used as door and wainscol trim, mitered together and arranged in rectangles.
CAP OR RAKE MOLDINGS
CHAIR RAILS
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LeatStudio;Crownsville, Maryland
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
PANEL MOLDTNGS
PonelProductsqnd Wood Veneers FACE
VENEER
/ -
PARTICLEBOARD
WNEER
PLYWOOD
'Gffu.*
HARDWOODPLYWOODpanelsare made from hardwood or decoratiw softwood veneers ov€r a core materialsuch as mediumdensity panicleboard, mediumiensity liberboard.or lowdensity lumb€r.
@='GFF..^
SOFTWOODPLYWOODpanels are made with soltwood face veneers and are seldom incorporatedinto finished architecturalwoodworkingprojectsbecauseof the instability of the corematerialandcorevords.
VENEER
MEDIUM.DENSITY FIBERBOARQ
PLYWOOD
CORE TYPES
GENERAL Architecturalwood panels are made from wood material that is cut or formed into sheel Droductsthat are reterredto as the "panel core.- These sheets are used alone (with or without a finish) or laminatedtogether with other veneer products to make plywood. A great variety of panels are manufacturedusing differentcore materialsand adhesives or binders and various torming t€chniques and surfaco treatments. The characteristicsof the panels vary with these differencesin materialand construction_ PANEL
CORE
TYPES
Panelcores,which sere as the substratefor laminat€sand veneers on the outer surfae, are classifiedby ingredients and methods of runufacture. The following types of panel cores are suitabletor architecturaluse: INDUSTRIAL GRADE P A R T I C L E B O A R OC O R E This core type is made by using heat and pressureto bond together synth€ticresinor binderand wmd particlesot various sizes- Employed in a wide variety ot architectufal woodwork applications,industrial grade particleboardis especially well suited as a substrate for higlFquality veneers and de@rative laminates.When used as mnels without any surface layqs, the product is called panicleboard. When used with wood vener on the surface.the panels are referred to as particl€ore plywood. Particleboard core classifiedby density or weight per cubic ft falls into three categories: 1. Low density---lessthan 40 lb per cubic ft (640 kg per dbic meter) 2. Medium density--4o to 50 lb per cubic ft (640 to 800 kg oer cubic meter) 3. High density-more than 50 lb per cubic ft {80Okg per cubic meter) MOISTURE.RESISTANT P A R T I C L E B O A R DC O R E Some mediumdensity industrial particleboardis bonded with phenolic resins, which makes it more resistant to swellingwhen exposedto moisture.Phenolicresins,unlike urea resins, do not emit significantquantitiesof tomalde hyde. The most common gradesare type 2-M-2 (M-2exterior glue)and 2-M-3 (M-3exteriorglue).
CHARACTERISTICS PANEL
OF CORE MATERIAL
TYPE
F I R E - R E T A R D A N T P A R T I C L E B O A R OC O R E Mediumdensity industrialpanicleboardmay be treateddutr ing manufactureto carry a UL Class'l frre ratingstamp (flame spread20, smoke developed25). This materialcan be used as substratefor panelingrequiringa Class'l rating. MEDIUM-OENSITY FIBERBOARD (MDF) CORE MDF is made from wood particles reduced to fib€rs in a moderate?ressur€steam vessel,combinedwith resin.and bonded together under heat and pressur€.The surface is flat, smmth. uniform.dense,and free of knots or grainpattern. MDF is useful as a substrate for paint, thin overlay materials,veneers,and decorativelaminates.The homoo€neous edge allos machiningand paint finishes. MDi is ono of the most stable mat-forred panel productsand is widely us€d as an architecturalparel.
W
A THEDru PANERN
This is the slicing method most often used lo produce veneers for high{uality architecturalwoodworking. Slicing is done parallelto a line through the center of the log. A combinationof Gthedral and straight-grainpatternsresults, with a naturalprogrsssionof patternfrom leaf to leaf. VENEER
VENEER CORE (PLYWOOD) This panel product is made up of alternatinglayersof thin veneer and is commonly known as plywood. Adhesive is placedb€tween the layers,and th€ panelsa.e presseduntil th€ adhesiveis set; heat is often used to sp€ed the cure. The two outside layers, often sel€cted for species,grain, and appearance,are calledthe face venesrs. HARDBOARD CORE Hardb@rdis made of interfeltedfibers consolidatedunder heat and pressureto a densityof 31 Ib per cubicft or more. Availablewith either one side (S'lS) or two sides (S2S) smooth, hardboard is often used for €sework backs. drawer bottoms, and divider panels. Architecturalwoodworkerstypicallyuse two types of hardboardcore:standard (untempered)and tempered. which is standardhardboard that has been subjected to a curing treatment to increase its stiffness,hardness,and weight.
NARROW SNIED PAreRN N OTE
Ouarterslicing,roughlyparallelto a radiusline through the log segment, simulates th€ quarter-swing process used with solid lumber,In many speciesthe individualleavesare narcw as a result. A series ot stripes is produced,varying in density and thicknessamong species. "Flake" is a characteristicof this slicingmethod in red and white oak. QUARTER-SLICED
VENEER KNIFE LOG
PATTERN N OTE
PERFORMANCE ABILITY
core (MDF)
Rift verers are producedmost often in red and white oak. rarelyin other species.Note that rift veneersand rift-sawn solid lumber are produced so diff€rently that a "match' between them is highlyunlikely.In both casesthe cutting is done slightly off the radius lines. minimizing the "flake" ass@iatedwith quarterslicing. RIFT-SL|CED
(R!FT-CUT)
\/ENEER
ffi
or
board core
VERY BROAD PAfrERN
N OTE Characteristicsof core materialoerforrunce are infl@nced by the gradeand thicknessof the core and specificgravity of the cor€ species. Visual edge quality is rated belore treatment with edge bands or fillers and, for lumber 6re, assumesthe use of 'clear edge" grade.Surfaceunilormity
(FLAT-SLICED)
PLAIN.SLICED
M O I S T U R E - R E S I S T A N TM O F C O R E Some MDF is bonded with an exterior resin to oroduc€a highlywater-resistantproduct.
(mediumdensity)
Lumber core-hardw@d softwood
TYPES
The term "plywood"meansa panelproductmadeof three or more layers{plies)of w@d or wood products(veneersor overlays and/or core materials)that have been laminated into a single sheet (panel).Plywood falls into two groups according to materialsand manufacturing:
VENEER CORE
PARTIC)LEBOARD
HARDV\/OOD
FACE /-
393
rs drrectlyrelatedto the performanceof fine veneersplaced over the surface. Dimensionalstabilityis usuallvrelatedto exposure to wide variations in relative humidiv. Screw holding and bending strength are influencedby proper designandengineering.
To create rotary{ut veneers,the log is center mounted on a lathe and "peeled' along the path ot the growth rings, like unwindinga roll of paper.This providesa bold, random appearance.Rotary{ut veneersvary in width, and matching at veneerjoints is extrerely difficult. Almost all softwood veneers are cut this way. Rotarytut veneers are the least useful in fine architecturalwoodwork. ROTARY.CUT
VENEER
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvitte.Marvland ArchitecturalWoodwork lnstitute; Centreville,Virginia
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
PonelProductsond Wood Veneers
394
ffiffi WIVVIW WIVIW NfMTm hl/Ah mmffiffiffi
SLIP
BOOK
MATCH
MATC:H
RANDOM
MATCH
RUNNING
MATCH
W
1234135/ PANEL END MATCH
VENEER
MATCH
GENERAL
ARCHITECTURAL
END
MATCH
E}AI-ANCE
AND
CENTER
MATCH
BAT-ANC:E
MATCH
TYPES
CHARACTERISTTCS
OF \,VOOD VENEER
SPECIES
MATCHING LEAVES
BETWEEN
ADJACENT
VENEER
It is possible to achieve cenain visual effects bv ths manne( in which the leaves are arranged, Botary cut veneers are difficult lo match, therefore most matching is done with sliced veneers. Matching of adjacent veneer leaves must be specified. Consult your AWI woodworker for choices. BOOK
MATCHING
Book matching is the most commonly used match in the industry. In it, every other piece ol veneer is reversed so ad,acent pieces (leaves) are "opened" hke the pages of a 'tight" book. Because the and "loose" faces jlte-rnate in adjacent leaves, they reflect light and accept stain differ ently. The veneer joints match, creating a symmetrical pat, tern that yields maximum continuity of grain. SLIP
MATCHING
Adtoining leaves are placed (slipped out) in sequence without being turned, thus all the same face sides are exposed. The grain figure repeats but toints do not show grain match All faces have some light refraction. END
MATCHING
End matching is often used to extend the apparent length of available veneers lor high wall panels and long con{er ence tables. End matching occurs in two types: ARCHITECTURAL END MATCH: Leaves are individuallv book or shp matched, alternating end-to€nd and side-to side. Architectural end matching yields the best continuous grain patterns for l€ngth as well as width. PANEL END MATCH: Leaves are book or sliD matched on panel subassemblies, with sequenced subassemblies end matched, resulting in some modest cost savings on projects where applicable. For most species, panel end matching yields a pleasing. blended appearance and grain conlnu[y. RANOOM
MATCHING
Veneer ieaves are placed next to each other in a random order and orientation, producing a casual board$y-board effect in many species. Conscious effort is made to mismatch the grain at joints. RUNNING
MATCHING
Each panel face is assembled from as manv veneer leaves as necessary. This often resulls in an asymmetrical appearance, with some veneer leaves of unequal width. BALANCE rCost retlects raw veneer costs weighted for waste or yield characteristics and degree of labor drlfrculty '?Seasonalfactors may affect availability 3Availability ot blond teak is very rare.
N OTE When quanered or plain sliced are listed on the same line, the widrh dimensions are listed with quartered lirst and plain sliced second.
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studaoj Crownsville. Maryland Archrtectural Wmdwork lnstitute; Cenrrevrlle.Virqinta
ARCHITECTU RALWOODWORK
MATCHING
Each panel lace is assembled from an odd or even number of veneer leaves of uniform width before edge trimming. BALANCE
AND
CENTER
MATCHING
Each panel face is assembled from an even number of veneer leaves of uniform width before edge trimming. Thus, there is a veneer joint in the center of the panel, producing horizontal symmetry.
PonelProductsqnd Wood Veneers FACING
MATERIAL
395
TYPES
Wmd product substratesare classifiedin two main facinq material categories:decoratrvelaminates/overlavs ana wood veneers. DECORATIVELAMINATES/OVERLAYS This finish surface category can b€ broken down into the tollowingbroadgroups:
A.PIECE
SUNE}URST
BO)<
MATCH
PARAUET
HIGH-PRESSURE DECORATIVELAMINATESare formed under heat and pressure from resin-impregnatedkraft paper substrateswith decorativeplasticface materialsand a clear protective top sheet. This assembly, commonly €lled plastictaminate,offers r€sistanceto wear and manv stains and chemicals.Common uses include casework exterto.s,countertops,and wall paneling.
MATCH
IHERMALLY FUSED DECORATIVEPANELS are ftat pressed lrom a thermoset polyester or melamine resinimpregnatedweb. and most have been prelaminatedto industrialparticleboardor mediumdensiry fiberboardsubstrates when they arrive at the woodwork fabricator.Performance is similar to that of high-pressuredecoralive laminates.Common uses includecasework interiors,furniture, shelving,displaymat€rials,and decorativepaneling. MEDIUM-DENSITY OVERLAYSare made from oressed paperoverlaysand ar€ highlyresistantto resin-impregnated moisture. They are availableapplied to cores suitable for both interior and €xtorior uses. Tho seaml€ss oanel face and uniformdensityoffer a soundbasefor opaquefinishes ano parnr.
REVERSE c)R GRAIN BO)<
END
HERRINGE}ONE
S\^/ING
VINYLFILMS,FOILS,AND LOW BASISWEIGHTPAPERS are decorativefacingmaterialsthat, althoughth€y have limited use in custom architecturalw@dworking, are suitable for sore installations.
MATCH
WOOD VENEERS W@d veneers are produced in a variety of industry standard thicknesses.The slicing process is controlled by a numberof variables,but the thickn€ssof the veneerhas little bearingon the qualityof the 6nd product. There are two types of veneers, hardwd and softwood. Haldwood vene€rs are available in many domestic and imported w@d sp€cies and are nomally plain sliced. but certain sp€cies can be rift sliced, quansr sliced. or rotary cut. Softwood veneersare usualtysliced from Douglasfir, but pine and other softrcods are available.Most soltwood vene€r is rotary cut, but plairsliced and rift-sliced(vertical grain)softw@ds can be obtainedwith a specialorder. DIAMC)ND
REVERSE
DIAMOND
SKETCH
Most veneers are tak6n from largs tre€s, but some are sliced from fast{rowing trees, dyed, and regluedin molds to create "grain" patterns.Th€ color of these reconstituted veneers is establishedduring manufactur€ because the high percenlageof glue line resists later staining.
FAC:E
NOTE During specitication,use both names and illustrationsto define the desiredeffect, as nares vary by regionlor these matchingtechniques. SPECIAL COMMON
V\/OOD VENEER FACE
PRIMARY COM M ERC IAL HAROWOOD SPEC
MATCHING
VENEER
OPTIONS
PATTERNS
OF SELECTED FACE VENEER
COMMERCIAL
SPECIES
PATTERN
Pr.-AtN SLTCEO (FLAT CUT)
ROTARY
CUT
The manner in which a log segment is cut with relationto the annualrings of the tree detemines the appearanceof the veneer. Individualpieces of veneer, refered to as "leaves," are kept in the order in which they were sliced{or referenceduringinstallation.The group ot leavesfrom one slicingis €lled a "flitch" and is identifiedby a number and th€ gross squarefeet it @nt8ins. Th€ faces ot the leaves with relationto their positionin the log are identifiedas the "tight tace" (toMrd the outside of the logl and rhe "loose face" (towardthe insideor hoart of the log). NOTES
Yellow poplar methods ol
I The headings above reter to the face vener pattern, not to the rethod of cutting. Fa@ ven@r panerns other than those listed are obtainable by special order. 'zThe method of cutting lor a given face wneer pattern shall be at mill option unless otheMise
buyer in an explicitmannerto avoidthe possibiliryo{ misunderstanding.Fo( example,plain-slic€dveneercut on a venical slicer or Dlain-slicedveneer cut on a half-round rotary lathe could be specified.
specified by the
1. To achiew balancedconstruction.panelproductsshould be absolutelysymmetri€l from the c€nter line. Materials used on either side should@ntract and expandor exhibit moisturepermeabilityat the sme rat€ as the veneer. 2. In parel construction,the thinnerthe facing matedal,the less torce it can generateto cause warping.The thicker th€ subslrate, the more it can r€sist a warping movemenl or rorce. 3. Wood veneer standards: For hardwood plwood, the face veneer characteristicsof the Hardwood Plwood and Veneer Association (HPVA) have generally been adapted for use. These tace grades apply to custom architecturalw@dwork. 4. Flamespreadfactors:The fire rating of the core material determinesthe ratingof rhe assembledpanel.Fire-retardant veneered oanels must have a tirHetardant core. Particleboardcore is availablewith a Class| (ClassA rating, but MDF is not currentlyavailablewith a lire rating. Existingbuildingcodes. ex@pt where locallyamended, providethat facingmaterialsr/a in. or thinnerare not consideredin determiningth€ flame spreadratingof the panel. For more information, refer to the Architectural Woodwork lnstitute guide 'Fire Code Summary."
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak Leaf Studio;Crwnsville, Marvland ArchitecturalWoodwork Institute;Centreville,Virginia Chan reprintedwith permissionfrom the Hardwmd Plvwoodand VeoeerAss@iation
ARCHITECTURAL WOODWORK
Screens,Blinds,ond Shutters
396
I RAISED PANEL
FI.AT PANEL
SHUTTER
ROUTED
LOUVERED PANEL
LOUVER
TYPES
MORTISE SLOT AND TENON JOINT
HAUNCBED MORTISE AND TENON JOINT,
DADOED
SI.-A
SCREEN
PIN
MOVABLE
SI.ATS
MATERIALS
WORKMANSHIP LEVEL
--
PIVOT
5LATS
TYPES
ECONOMY
PREM IUM
TRANSPARENT FINISH
,APPLIEO FINISH
otneryrse specified, same as transparent
parts.any ot the listedspecies unlessotheM,se specafied
JOINT
the listedmaterials unlessotherwise specified
TYPE WOOD WIRE
FRAME
W@D
bronzewrre ( 1 8x 1 4 m e s h )
STAPLES
aT 3'O.C. Ms
TERIALS WIRE
INSTALLATION
CLOTH
CUSTOM v\/ORKMANSHIP SCREEN DETAILS HAUNCHED AND TENON
MATERIALS
CUSTOM WORKMANSHIP
BEAD
METAL
DETAIL
GRADE
grade tumoer
Strles.rarls, slats and mullions Applied rcldings
MORTISE
TRANSPARENT FINISH
OPAQUE FINISH
PREM IUM WORKMANSHIP TRANSPARENT FINISH
OPAQUE FINISH
JOINT
TYPE
KERF CUT INTO WMD TO HOLD WRE CLOTH W@D ffiGILE INTO
not permrtted
or fiberboard {veneeronly by direct sp€cilication)
fiberbGrd recomrenoeo (veneer permitted)
race: veneer gradetor transparentfinish and mate rialtor opaque finish
"A" face plus compatibility of mlor between veneer and lumDer
"B'veneer, Plarn fiberboard,or medrumdensityoverlay
BES WITH TO LMK
CLC)TH
PREMIUM SCREEN
-
INSTALTATION
WORKMANSHIP DETAILS
DETAIL GRADE
NOTES 1. For additional information, refer to Architectural Woodwork Ouality Standards, 6th edition (version 1.1), 1994, Architectural Woodwork Institute {AWl}. 2. Lumber grades indjcated in the charts on this page are according to AWI quality standards: Grade l: Pieces are selected for uniform grain and color on exposed laces and edges. Grade ll: Pieces are selected tor uniform grain on exposed taces and edges. Grade lll: No matching lor grain or color is required. 3. AWI recognizes three levels ol workmanship screens, blinds, and shutters: CUSTOM woodwork
for wood
GRADE: Most conventional architectural falls within this grade. High{uality workmar
panel products
usedto rim panelproduct centersandpermittedfor panelslessthan 14 in. acfossrne grarn panrcteooaro particleboardor or fiberboard fiberboard rec(veneeronry ommenoeo (veneer by direct specification) permitted)
panercor€
KERF
METAL STAPLES AT 3' O.C, MAX.
WIRE
Veneered stiles.rails, andmullions
stilesand rails Flat panels
ARCHITECTU RAL WOODWORK
used to rim panelproducr cenrers
usedto rim panel product centers
panicleboard or fiberboard (veneer only by direct specification) panrcleDoard or lDerboard (veneer only by orrecl specilication) "AA face prus comparF bility of grain and color between veneer ano lumber
OPAQUE FINISH
tl permittedfor panelsin anydimension tl permittedfor paneisin anVdimension
not
panrcteDoaro or fiberboard recommenoeq (veneer permitted)
"A veneer. b race prarn veneer tiberbeard. medrumor oensrlyover tay
7 , ' ( 1 9m m )
r / , " ( 1 9m m )
/z (l3 mm)
/2 (l3 mm)
ship,materials, andinstallation are requiredfor workwith this designation. PREMIUMGRADE:This specificationrequirescareful oversightto guaranteethe highest qualityworkmanship, materials.installation, and executionof designintent-lt is typically reserved for special projects or project features. ECONOMYGRADE:This gradeindicatesthe minimum expectationsfor quality,materials,and installationwithin the scope ot AW standards.
Richard J. Vitullo, dlA: Oak Leaf Studioj C.ownsville, Marvland
TRAN SPARENT FINISH
w[n no selectionfor grarnor cotor
prus compatibility of grain and color between vereer and lumoer
permitted for panels less than l4 in. across the grain harseo panels
ECONOMY WORKMANSHIP
tl
plus compatibility of color between veneer and lumber
rtat panets
products
Nylonor tab€rglass mesh
{ 1 8x l 4 m e s h )
BLIND AND SHUTTER
CLOTH
OPAQUE FINISH
panrcleboard, fiber board, or veneer
"B vene€r, prarn fiberboard, or medrumqensrryoverlay ' L " ( 1 3m m )
4. All exlerior screens and shutters must be treated with a wood preservative in accordance wilh AWI Ouality Stan dards, Section 100. 5. Pivot oins for use in damo or coastal areas must be manufactured of nylon. stainless steel, or brass. for 6. Exterior grade panel products are recommended blinds and shutters because once installed they are typically kept open. with one face constantly exposed to the sun and other weathering (and drying) conditions, while the other face is Iikely to retain moisture.
CHAPTER
SEVEN
THERMALAND MOISTIJREPROTECTION Waterproofing Dampproofing
Membrane
and 398
Roofing
415
Flashing and Sheet Metal Thermal
Protection
4O2 Sheet Metal Roofing
Exterior Insulation and Finish 4O4 Systems Vapor Retarders
429
438
Roof Specialties and Accessories 45O
4O5
Shingles, Roof Tiles, and Roof 4o,6 Coverings Roofing and Siding Panels
Flashing
434
413
Gutters and Dornrnspouts
459
Woterproofingof Foundotions
398
SUMP PUMP (OPTIONAL) BFLOW REMOVAELL COVER SAND
NOTES 1 Consult a soils engineer to determine sorl types anil groundwater levels and their effect on drainage ancl waterproofing methods. Consult a waterproofing special. ist 10 determine a specific design approach for problenr soils and conditaons.
FILL
BENTONITE CUY WATERPROOFING MATERIAL (PANEL ,," PLYWOOO OTHER RIGID PROTECTION
OR
TIMBER UGGING PUCEO TIGHTLY TOGETHER
SHEET PILING
COMPOSITE DRAINAGE MATERIAL OR OTHER PROTECTION
BENTONITE cuY WATER STOP AT KEY JOINT
BOARO
BENTONITE OR OTHER WATER STOP MATERIAL
DRAIN TILE TO SUMP {OPTIONAL) COMPACTED OR UNDISTURBED EARTH GRAVEL BED NONREINFORCED THIN CONCRETE
2'' MIN. (MUD
SLAB
BENTONITE CUY WATERPROOFING MATERIAL (PANELS) PROTECTION BOARO (OPT,)
a. Composite drainage material: Recommended when water is frequently present in soils surrounding foun dations. Usually made up of a rigid open-weave material, approximately % in. thick, covered on both sides by a geotextile tiltor fabric preventing small stones or other materials from clogging the drainage route of water inside- Typically terminated at drain tiles at the bottom of the foundation. Higher in cost than other protection board materials.
BENTONITE OR OTHER WATER STOP MATERIAL AT SUBilALL JOINT
I " HIGH,
MIN.
WATER STOP AT KEY JOINT
RIGID
NONAIOOEGRADABLE
LIQUID MEMBRANE COATING AT TOP SURFACE WATERPROOFING
MEMBRANE
VI/ATERPROOFING
OR COATING
APPLICATIONS
AT CONCRETE
FOUNDATION
b. Rigid insularion boards: Used above trostline or if ground temperatures are low. Usually made of expanded polystyrene. Minimum thickness is'/4 in. (when used as protection board only), up to 114 in. thick (or greater. if desired) which gives an R-8 insulat Ing value.
CONDITIONS GRAOE
MIN
MIN
SEAUNT AND BACKER ROD AT EXPANSION
- AENTONITE CUY OR OTHER WATER STOP
JOINT
SEAUNT AND BACKER ROO AT EXPANSION JOINT
BENTONITE CLAY OR OTHER WATER STOP COMPOSITE ORAINAGE MATERIAL (ACTS AS PROTECTION BOARD) WATERPROOFING M E M B R A N EO R COATING
RIGID INSUUTION OR OTHER PROTECTION AOARD MATERIAL WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE OR COATING
BENTONITE cuY WATERSTOP
GRAVEL
f
MIN
FILL
FILTER FABRIC OVER 4'' DRAIN
I " HIGH, MIN. RIGID NONBIODEGRADABLE
SHAPE SOIL TO FORM GUNER
CANT WITH LIOUID MEMBRANE COATING AT TOP SURFACE
CONCRETE
GRAVEL
MIN
FLOOR
PROTECTION
,' I HIGH, MIN. RIGID NONBIODEGRADAALE
SHAPE SOIL TO FORM GUNER
BOARD
(OPT.)
BED
COMPACTEO OR UNDISTURBED SOIL CONCRETE
FLOOR
PROTECTION
FOOTING
IN WET SOILS
SUB
6 MIL POLYNHYLENE VAPOR BARRIER
BENTONITE CUY WATER STOP WRAPPED AROUND PIPE BEFORE GROUT REPACKED AROUND PIPE
SEALANT AND BACKER ROD AT INTERIOR GROUT
THICKEN LIQUID WATERPROOFING COATING AROUND PIPETO I-THICK AND/OR ADD COLLAR SEAL (SEE MFR, DETAILS)
JOINT
SLAB
BOARO
(OPT.)
BENTONITE CUY WATERPROOFING (PANELS) MATERIAL
WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE OR COATING
NONREINFORCED THIN CONCRETE SUB,2'' MIN, 6 MIL POLYETHYLENE VAPOR AARRIER GRAVEL
BED
PROTECTION AOARD GROUT WITH IRON OXIDE ADMIXTURE PACKED AROUND PIPE
BLOCKOUT OF CONCRETE
COMPACTED OR UNOISTURBED SOIL
UNDER
FILL
FILTER FAARIC OVER 4,' ORAIN TILE
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
GRAVEL
BENTONITE cuY WATERSTOP
CANT WITH LIOUID MEMBRANE COATING AT TOP SURFACE
FOOTING
WATERPROOFING
3. Bentonite clay waterproofing is usually manufactured r. the form of corrugated cardboard panels with bentonite clay material filling the co(ugation voids. When morst ened, the clay swells and takes on a gellike consistency. forming an impermeable barrier when confined Bentonite panels may be placed over a substrate of com pacted eanh, sand, and pea gravel (or mud slab, for rein forced slabs greater than 6 in. thick). Since the panels ' swell when hydrated, pressure is exerted on adjacent construction. For slabs less than 6 in. thick, which may be adversely affected by bentonile swelling, special panels, made to accommodate the swelling, are required. A 6-mil polyethylene vapor barrier between the mud slab and gravel base will provide additional p.otection against water penetration. Consult with a structural engineer and the manulacturer to assure proper use and structural adeouacv. 4. Protect membrane waterproofing or coatings during con struction and backfjlling. Protection materials include the following {select according to soil, climate, and cost requrremenlSr:
CONCRETE SUB
BENTONITE CUY
2. Most waterproofing materials require a stable, rigad,anr level subslrate. Generally, a mud slab (subslab that rs nonreinforced and nonstructural) is used when the waterproofing material is placed below the structural slab and/or when a solid working surface is needed on unsta ble soils. When waterproofing materials are placed on top of the structural slab, a protective cover, such as another concrete slab, is required.
SLAB
PIPE
PENETRATION
AT
vt/ALL
Krommenhoek/McKeown& Associates;San Diego, California RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA: Oak leaf Studio;Crownsviile. Maryland; in consultation with James B. Thompson Co.; San Marino, Calilornia
WATERPROOFING AND DAMPPROOFING
c. Protection board: Used only to protect waterproofing; does not drain or insulate. Usually mad€ of r/s in. asphalt-impregnated fiberboard or, as mentioned above, r/. in. extruded polystyrene. Least expensive. 5. Footing drains are recommended when groundwater level may rise above top ol floor slab or when the founda tion is subject to hydrostatic pressure after heavy rain. Composite drainage material conveys water to the drain tile, thus reducing hydrostatic pressure. 6. Special negative-side coating on interior face of founda tion wall is only recommended when exterior is not accessible7. Bentonite ciay water stop should be placed on top of footing, at vertical concrete keyed joints, and along inside edge of outermost verti€l rebars before pouring the con crete wall. 8. Grout, packed around pipes penetrating the loundation, should have a mixture of iron oxide. lron oxide chemically alters lhe grout to be more water-resistant.
fems over Occupied Spoce WEARING SURFACE wEARING COURSE
\)&-.\ +.ORAINAGE
&a o
PRorEcrroN
^O-
0
WORKING
'(
6, .d
COURSE
oR
SLAB
NSULATION DRAINAGE COURSE
WATERPROOFING MEMBRANE
o d
to surface drarns and to allow a minor portron to tnlil trate to the membrane. A drainage course of washed, round gravel or prelabri. cated drainage composite should be provided above the protection board, over the membrane. This permiti water to filter to the drain and provides a place where rt can collect and treeze without damaging the wearing couase.
Penetrations should be avoided wherever possible. For protectton at such critical locations, pipe sleeves should be cast into.the structural slab against which the mem. or-are can be terminated by flashing onto the pipe sleeve-
INSULATION When required, insulation should be located above the membfan€, but not in direct contact with it.
Treatment at reinforced and nonreinforced joints de_ pends on the membrane used. See following pages.
PROTECTION BOARD
C}
When the membrane is lurned up on a wall, il is prel erable.to terminate it above the wearing surface to !lim, Inate the possibility ol ponded surface water Denetratino tne wail above the membrane and running down behinj it into the building.
" " r ,G--BERg?Effg.^-
EIASIC COMPONENTS OF WATERPROOFING SYSTEMS
GENERAL The basiccomponents,subsystems,and featuresfor a Durtdrngdeck waterproofingsystem are the structural Durtdrng deck or substrateto be waterproofed,water proofingmembrane.protectionof membaane,drainage, insulation,and wearingcourse.See followingpagesioi genelc membrane applications. SUSSTRATE The substrate referred to is reinforced cast-in-olace structural concrete. Pr*ast concrete slabs pose more technicalpfoblemsthan €st-in-place concreteand the probabiliryot lasting watertightnessis greatly dimin_ rshedand difficult to achievebecauseof the multitude of ioints which have the capability ot movercnt and must be treated acco.dingly. The concrete used lor the substrate should have a minimum density of 1762 kg/m3 1110 lb/ft3) and have a maxrmummotsturecontentof 8% when cured. SLOPE FOR DRAINAGE A monolithic concrete subst,ate slope of a minimum I l mm/m {% in./ft| should be maintained. Stooe is besr achievedwith a monolilhicsl.ucturalslab and not with a separateconcrete fill layer. MEMBRANE Oetectionof leakagecan be a signiticantproblemwhen the membrane is not bonded to the structural slab or when additionallayersof materialsseparateit trom the structuralslab. Therefore,only membranesthal can be bondedto the substrateshouldbe used. The.membraneshould be appliedmder dry, frost-free conditionson the surfaceas well as throughoutthe deprh of the concreteslab.
Two.concepts can be considered in the detailing of ex_ pansion joints at the membrane tevet: ttre posirive seat concepl directly at the membrane level and the watershed concept with rhe seal at a higher tevet than th; membrane. Where additional safeguards are desired, a drain€ge gutter under the joint could be considered. Frexrbte upward suppon of the membrane is required in each case to provide watershed_type arainage. expin_ sion joint details should be considered and ur=sed in acco.dance with their movement capability. The positive seal concept entails a greater risk than the watershed concept, since it relies tully on positive seal joinery of materials at the membrane levei, where the membrane is mosl vulnerable to water penelration. Since the precision requi.ed is not always attainable. this con_ cepl ts best avoided. Th€.watershed concept, allhough requiring a g.eate, nergnr and more costly concrete forming, is superior in sareguardtng against leakage. having the advantage of provrotng a monoltthic concrele water dam at the mem_ brane level. However, it a head of water rises to the height of the materials joinery, thrs concepr becomes atmost as vulnerable as the positive seal concept. nererore, dratnage is recommended at the membrane .r levelPROTECTION SOARO Tie mmbrane should be protected frcjm damage th.oughout construction. protection board shoul{ 6e applied atter the membrane is installed. The properi;6ing of application after placement of the membrane is mponant and varies with the type of membrane used. tsoilow the manufacture.,s printed Insrructtons. ORAINAGE SYSTEM Drainage should be considered as a total system t.om the w€afing surface down to the membrane, including use o, multilevel d.ains. Drainage at the wearing surface rs gene.aily accom_ pxsneo In one ol two ways: {11 by an open jornt and pedestal. system permitting the rainwater to penelrate raproly down to the membrane level and subsurface drainage system; and (2) by a closed-joinr sy"te. ae_ srgned to remove most of the rainwater rapidly by slooe
PROTECTION OR WORKING SLAB A concrete slab could be placed soon after lhe membrane, protection board, drainage course, and insulation, rl requrred, have been installed. lt would serve as pro_ tection for the permanent waterprogfing materials and Insulation below, provide a working platform for con_ st.uction traflic and storage of materials (within weiohr limitsl, and prcvide a substantial substrate for the plaie_ ment ot the finish wearing course materials. WEARING COURSE The major requirements for the wearing course are a sta_ blesuppon of sufficient strength, resistance against lai_ eral lhrust, adequate drainage to avoid ponding of water, and proper treatment of ioints. Under a thick-set mortar bed supponing masonry units, a prefabricated drainaoe composite helps resist freeze-thaw damage to tie wearing course by expediting water flow down to rhe subsurface drainage system. Joints in which movement is anticipated should be treated as expansion ioints. Various compression seals are available that can be inserted into a formed ioint under compression. lvlost of these, however, are not flush at the top surface and could fill up with sand or din. Wet sealants are the materials most commonly used in movaog joints at the wearing su.face level. Dimension A is the design width dimension o. the dimension at which the joint will be formed. The criterion normally used for determining this dimension with sealants capable of movement is to mulliply the maxtmum exgected l25 movement in one di.€ction by 4. Generally, this is ex. pected to be about three-fourths of lhe rotal anticipated joinr movement, but il there is any doubt, mulripiy the total anticipated ioint movemenl by 4. lt is better io have lhe joint too wide than too narrow. Dimension B (sealant depth) is related to dimension A and is best established by the sealant manufacturer_ Generally, B is equal to A f o r w i d t h s u p l o ' 1 3 m m ( % i n . l , I 5 m m l e l r ei n . ) f o r a 1 6 mm l7B in.l width. and 16 mm {% in.) tor '19 mm (3/orn.l and greater widths. This allows some tole.ance Ior selfleveling sealants. Reference: ASTM C 898 and C 981. Highlights of text and figures are reprinted with permission fro,-mCommit. tee C-24 ot the American Society for Testing Materials.
/zsuPPoRT\
_WEARING
f-f
tl r_i-l
WEARING SURFACE
\gAB
(
SURFACE
6
SEALANT
MEMBRANE LEVEL
POSITIVE €EAL CONCEPT {MOST VULNTRASLEI
OPEN
JOIN? -
WEARING SURFACE
FOR
JOINTS
UP
TO
l/2"
W|OE WEARING SURFACE SEALANT EONO BREAKER ANO JOINT FILLER
MEMBRANE LEVEL
WATERSHED
CONCEPT
SLIOING
(PREFERREO)
SUPPORT\ /
---v,ll --,Jl \dA
PLATE
NN
WEARING
FOR
JOTNTS
Up
TO
tt/2',
wtOE ./
EXPAN6ION MEMBRANE
JOINT LEVEL
CONCEPTS
AT
NWNN .\\\S\\\\ r,\\Wr\\\ "WET"
WEARING SURFACE SEALANT BOND
-
COMAINATION POSITIVE OR WATERSHEO pLUs EXpaNsoN SAL@TTER (sHowN) coruCeei {PROV|OES AOOITIONAL SAFEGUARO)
BREAKER
SLIOTNG SUPPORT
a\\\W\\
SEALANTS
JoINT coNcEPTS EXP-AIIS|oN WEARING SURFACE LEVEL
aT
3gg
FOR
JoINTS
wtDER
SEE OTHER OIMENSIONS
PAGES
THAN FOR
METAL
t,2., JOINT
WET SEALANT OETAILS WEARING SURFACE
OESTGN
AT
CharlesJ. Parise,FAIA,FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& crylls Assmiates. Inc.; Detroit. Michioan
WATERPROOFING AND DAMPPROOFING
400
PlqzoBuilt-upBituminousMembroneWoterproofingSystems
The structural slab should have a tinish of suilicientlv rough texlure to provide a mechanical bond lor the membrane, but not so rough lo preclude achievrng contrnurty of the membrane across the surface.
J ZL_ V --
:__b_ @
o\
oD
.
t"
'
The concrete should be cured a minimum of 7 days and aged a minimum of 28 days, including curing time, betore applicalion of the bituminous membrane. Curing is accomDlished chemically with moislure and should not be construed as drying. Liquid or chemical curing compounds should not be used unless approved by the manulacturer of the buill-uD bituminous membrane as the malerial mav interfere with the bond of the membrane to the structural slab.
MEMBRANE A builr-upbituminouswaterproolingmembraneconsists ot componentsjoined togetherand bondedto its substrateat the site. The major membranecomponentsinclude primers,bilumcns, reintorcements,and flashing materials. Surfacesto receivewaterproofingmust be clean. dry, reasonably smooth,and free ot dust. dirt, voids,cracks, laitance, or sharp projections before applicationol msterisls.
AT
CONCRETE
JOINT OPTIONAL
f
ON CONCONDITIONS TERMINAL FINISH \^/ALL BELOW CRETE SURFACE AT GRAOE \^/EARING
WOOO ION
NAILER
BOARO
TRIPPING
"Q
BITUMINOUS EULT-UP MEMERANE CONCRETE SUBSTRATE
:oo'
ABOVE WALL
TERMINAL CONOITION GRAOE ON CONCRETE
Oo
FINI€iH
MASONRY METAL COUNTER. FLASHING WITH LAPPEO ANO SEALEO JOINT WEEP HOLES JONT SEAL FNISH WEARING SURFACE AT GRAOE CONCRETE SUEISTRATE TAL COUNTER_ ASHING
0
r BUILT-UP BITU-
BOARO
4 EoLT aNcHoRS MIN.4LONG-
TERMINATION
--ll::===== "
O.
AT PIPE PENETRATIONS
\^/ITH CONDITI()N ABOVE FINISH \^/EARING AT GRADE
TERMINAL MASONRY SURFACE
JOINT
joints should receivea bead ol compatNonreinforced ible sealanrin a recessedjoint beforeapplicationof the memDrane.
SEAL
WEARiNG FINISH AT GRAOE SURFACE PROTECT'ON
At expansionjoints, gaskets and tlexible preformed sheetsare requiredinasmuchas bituminousmembranes have little or no movementcapability.Since such matedalsmust be ioinedlo the bituminousmembrane,the watershed conceot should be used
RIGIO NSULATION STAINLESS SCREEN
R160
SPONCE RU6€ER PROT€CAON BAC(€O M€MBR NE ^IIACHEO wrTH ^oHEgrvE ro
6L
MEVARAN€
INSULATON
6FLICE
STEEL
inorecrror BOARD
Reinlorceall intersectionswith walls and cornerswith two layersot woven fabric embeddedin hot bitumen. Flashingmembranesshould extend above the wearing surtaceand the highest possiblewater level and not less than I 50 mm (6 in.l onto the deck membran€.
TREATEO WOOO NAILER WITH LEAD FLASHING CAST IN CONCRETE EUILT-UP BITUMINOUS MEMBRANE PROTECTION AOARO
MtN.
TRTATEO
The numberol pliesol membranereinforcement tequired is dependentupon the head of water and strengthrequked by the design tunction ol the wearing surface. Plazadeck membranesshouldbe comoosedof not less than three plies. The composition ol the membrane is normallyol a "shingle" or "ply-on-ply" {phasedl conslruction.
Over.einforcedstructuralslab joinrs. one ply of 6-in.wide membranereinfo.cement should be applied belore applicationol the bituminous membrane.
COUNTERFLASHING NAILER WOOO
SEALED VERTICAL JOINTS IN CONCRETE
Concretesudaces should be unilormly primed to enhance the bond between the membrane 8nd the subStrate,so as to inhibit{atefalmovementof water.
For applicationtemperatures, lollow the recommendatims of the manulactu.ersof the membranematerials.
SURFACE
JOINT
JOINTS
REINFORCED
VERTICAL JOINTS
SEAL
-4 LB LEAD NAILEO TO
CRACK
RENFORCED CONSTRUCTION
TREATMENT
JOINT
O\- nEtruronctruc REINFORCEO
IN
SE:ALANT CONCRETE
TYPE I FELT ASTM O MEETING 226 OR ASTM D 227 deR AtavPLASTIC MINOUS CEMENT I/EETINIG FEDERAL SPEC TYPE ss-c-ls5c'
SUBSTRATE The building deck or substrate referred to is reinforced casl-rn-place struclural coocrele.
ORAINAGE COURSE
CLAMPING RING--
STRIPPING
The flashingshould extend over the wall dampproofing or membranewaterproofing not less than 100 mm l4 in.). Dfainsmu$ be providedwith a wide metal flange or base and sel slightlybelow the drainagelevel.Metatftashing fo, the drain,if required,and the clampingring shouli be set on the membranein bituminousolasticcement. The metalllashingshouldbe slrippedin with a minimum ol two pliesof membranereinforcementand three aoplicationsof biluminousplasticcemenr.
METAL FLASHING, IF REQUIREO
? 6
@
o
o
TERMINATION
\BUTLT-ue BrTUMrNous MEMBRANE -^\' - - " t " T " T U R A L S L A B
\^r'ATERSHEO JOINT
CC)NCEPT
EXPANBION
AT DRAIN oQ
Penetrations th.oughthe membranesuchas conduitsand pipes should be avoided wheneverpossible.Penetrations must be flashedto a heightabovethe anticipated water tablethat may extendabovethe wearingsurface.
REINFORCE CORN€R WIfH TWO LAYEre OF WOVEN RENFORCEMENT FABRIC EMBEOOEO IN HOT BITUMEN OR FIA€HINO CEMENT CARRY FSRTC ONTO ECK ANO UP WALL TO FULL HEI4T OF FLAeHING 5" X S" FIEERrcARO CANT ETRIP REQUFEO WITH M€M6RANE REINFORCEMENT OTHER THAN WOVEN FABRIC
The built-upbituminousmembraneshouldbe protected fiom damage.Protectionboardshouldbe placedon the wate.prooting membranewhen the finalmoppingis being placed.lt will then be adheredro the membrane. Reference: ASTM C 98 1. Highlightsol text and tigures a,e reprintedwith permissionfrom ASTM Commitlee C-24 of the AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Materials.
-"
BIiUMINOU6 TIBLE
MEMBRANE
EEALANA
6IRU'ruRAL 6LAE NONREIN|:GCEO 6INT
TREATMENT JOINTS
AT
NONREINFORCED
CharlesJ. Parise.FAIA, FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& GryllsAssociates,lnc.; Detroit, Michigan
WATERPROOFING AND DAMPPROOFING
\^/ATER€HEO JOINT
CONCTPT
EXPANAION
PlqzoLiquid-AppliedElostomericMembronewqlerproofingsystems SUBSTRATE
r
The building deck or subslrate relerred to is rerntorced cast-in,place structural concrete_ Polymeric, latex, or other organic chemacal_based admix. lures or modifiers can coat the concrele partrctes and teduce lhe abilitv ol lhe membrane to bond to ths sub. strate. Admixtures should not be used in the concrete unless determined that theV are acceptable for use wrth lne membrane The underside of the concrete deck should not have an rmpermeable barrier. A metal liner or coaling that forms a vapor barrier on the underside traps moisture in the concrete and destroys or prevents the adhesrve bond ol Ine membrane to lhe upper surtace of the concrete.
ooueLc
THrc
MEMSRANE BONOFO . J TOGLTHER
+i$lQEt
-E% QE'NFoRCED .(.E .II G " o srEEL coNT o lL
rsnouGt - - o cnac
ANO
JOINTS
IN
-L
SLAB
LIQU-IO-APPLIED MEMBRANE -\sEauarur
\---
\JOINT
\
FILLER
JOINT
IN CONCRETE
TREATMENT OF NONREINFORCEO etUT-FED JotN-r tN coruCae-re slae
WEEP
HOLES
JOINT
SEAL
FINISH WEARING SURFACE f GRADE LIQUIO-APPLIEO MEMARANE
.TERMINAL
CONDITION
WITH
goF_xt+r.*P 3E=o5S'.*wEaRrNG SEAL
DETAILS
AT REINFORCEO
22A. t d 3Bi,:+-,J,5-,,CI3'"' 'r\ IEfrfil /-rotNr=EAL----\ il --
MASONRY
TERMINATION AT DRAINS Drains should be designedwith a wide flange or base as an Integralpan. The drain base should be sat flush with the structuralslab. Vehicularsupportingdrainsgener axy requrreaddttronat weep holesdrilledinto them (see detaill.
i l z l l l l'iF l / , r n r s r
FOi:
I
wEARTNG
SURFACE
I / /
".i.1
AT
\g
I
""""' .8!r Ii*f ['E?E"r^i.'::= x Y\i;$ PE. lLffi 3i$ '.m-93" WITHOUT
REGLET
WITH
TERMTNAL coruorrroNs
REGLET
oru
CO_NCRETE WALL BELOW FINISH \MEARING SURFACE AT GRAOE OPTIONAL LIFTABLE ESCUTCHEONPIPT
SYSTEM
JOINT
SEAL
SEAL
INSULATION DRAINAGE
COURSE
PROTECTION
AOARD
STAINLESS SCREEN t/2 DlA. wzEF€OLES,
o
o
JOINT FILLER
PIPE SLEEVE tN coNcRETE
TERMINATION
AN
EXPANSION JONT AT (SEE WEARING COURSE OTHER PAGES FOR CONCEPTS ANO OETATLSI
/
nrCO
rlSuUaltOl,
_
O,
o
q)
SPONGI RUBBER AACKED PROTECTION ATIACHEO MEMERANE wrTH ^oHesrvE ro ELASTOMERTC MEMgRANE SPLICF
WEARNG
C@RSE
AT
\
/ / a__) J fu
CONCREIE PROIECTION LAP RIGIO
:;E!A?:?MERrc
CAST -
TERMINATION PENETRATIONS
ONAIN
EXPANSION
Gasketsand tlexibleprefo.medsheetslend themselves better to absorbinglarg€amountsof movement.Srnce sucn matenals,when used at an expansion ioint, must be joinedto the liquid-applied membrane,the watershed conceplshouldbe used.
TURNUP JOINT
co^srnuct,o^
rcNT
AT
. . /. )!oHl ? N
walL
PROTECTTON BOARO ecrxroa.Eo =re..\ coNTrNUouS rHRouGH JorNT----\b'
/
\
TERMINATION
TREATMENT JOINTS
MEMBRANE BOARO
r-rro r.r-eE6VE rrr.r'iGH I_Ei!,tN {loN c_o_No coNcRETe
GRADE
coNsTRUcrroN
The.membrane should be applied under dry, trost_tree condttrons on the surface as well as th.oughout the deprh of the concrete slab. Use manufacturer,s ,equirements for the particular membrane.
TREATJi.I ENT Ai NONREIN FORCED JOINTS Srnc€the joints are not held togetherwilh,einforcinq steet,somemovement,howeverslight,shoutdbe antic: rpatedand providedror, since the liquid_applied memb.ane has limited ability lo take movement.
LIQUIO.APPLIED PROTECTION
NSTRUCTIONS
METAL COUNTERFLASHING WITH LAPPEO ANO SEALED JOINTS
TREATMENT AT REINFORCED JOINTS One recommendedtreatment of reinforcedconcrete joints in rhe structuralslab is to apply a douOte layeroi membraneover the crack. This rype of detail is quire limited and implicitlyrelieson the memb.ane.scrackbridgrngability.An alternarive approacnts lo preventthe memD.anetrom adheringto the subst.atetor a linite wrdth centeredon the joint o. crackby meansol a propefly 0esrgned compatiblebond.breaker taoe.
_-
BONOED
G)ONCRETE
SEAL
J-''.,t
MEMBRANE -s
MEMBRANE
ON WALLS A liquid-applied memb.ane, because ot its inherent ad. hesive properties, may be terminated flush on the wall wrthout the use of a reglet. Howeve., the use of a realet In a concrete wall has the advantage of providing grei'ter depth protection at lhe terminal.
JOINT
gt-ffi,o-o"".,.o THRoUGHJoi\T]:\ --.- . -f r-
P.F3.oi%xu.+I'"aL JorNTs
--
H A | R L T N Ec F a c K
.
JOINT
toPTroNAL) o^
a----JJ3""'.'lit"1 _ FACTURER.S J
-
ts
The sur{ace should be ot sufficiently rough texture to provrde a mechanical bond for the memb.ane, but not so rough as to preclude achreving contrnuity of the mem brane ot the specified thickness across the surface. The concrete should be cured a minamum of 7 days and aged a mrnimum of 28 days, rncluding curing time. berore apprrcalron ot the liquid_applied membrane. Curing rs accomplished chemically with moisture and should noi De construed as drying_ Liquid or chemical curing com_ pounds should not be used unless approved by thi manutacturer of the laquid,applaedmembrane as the material may anterfere with the bond of the membrane to rhe struclural slab.
L,QUID-APPLIED ME-MBRANE-
MEMBR^NE
-
6.-
\-
--
THtCKNeS6
/oousLe
l*-
CONCRETE
IN6iRUCTO€
-,--
40t
EXP^NSTON JOrNt AT WE'RING (sEE couRs€ OTdER PAGES FOR coNc€Prs aNo OET ILSI SIE
TEFMINAL
SLAB
OPTIONAL
LIqUIO.APPLIEO
NSOLATON
suPPoRr
erostowec,i SUPPOR-
PROTECTION BOARD The liquid-applied membraneshouldbe p.otectedfrom damagepriorto and durng lhe remarnderof deck con_ srrucrron.the proper timing of lhe applicationof the Doarots lmportantand the manufacturer,sprinted in_ structionsshouldbe followed. ASTM C 898_ Hightighlsof rexl and,igures l"-tu1:1"": Ae rep-nntedwith permissionfrom ASTM COmrn'ittee u 24 ot the AmericanSocietyfor Testingand Matenals.
METAL
GASK€f REIAINER
r/16' ELASTOMERTC SHE€T MEMaRANE WATERMOOFING
tttd' u,* Lreuro-appLrEo vewecirue rcrcLrlHtc STFUCi SLAS NO CURB -
WATERSHED JOINT
CONCEPT
AONOEO LAP JOINTS ^NO 60NOEO TO L IOUIO - ^PPLIEO MEMBRANE AS PER MANUFACTURER'S INSTRUCTIONS
EXPAI\ISION
CharlesJ. Parise.FAIA. FASTM;Smith, Hinchman& GMts Associates,lnc.; Detroit, Michjoan
WATERPROOFING AND DAMPPROOFING
402
BuildingInsulotion
INSULATION
DEFINED
The word insulate comes from the Latin "insula. " meanino island, i.e.. an isolated and/or separated Filace or condition: An insulating material is one that isolates sources of electncitv, heat, or sound energy. Building insulation should effectively isolate heat, sound or both
Nature seeks consonance. This explains why heat {energyl moves toward cold (lack of energy). A balance and harmony is being sought. The primary concept of insulators is to resist the natural tendency of energy to ilow from the source and affect the surroundings. By this definition, any material that effectrvely blocks, absorbs, slows down, or reflects heat and sound is a building insulator.
VAPOR
AND
MOISTURE
In conjunctron wilh thermdl insulators ts the necessary concern tor vapor retarders and barners. Although heat energy moves an a variety of ways such as direct radiation, convection, and conduction, one primary vehicle tor heat transfer is air. Air expands when it is heated and gains the capacity to hold more water vapor. When warm and moist air is c@led, it condenses and loses the caoacitv to hold the same amount ol vapor. The water vapor condenses, dewpoant is reached. and the water vapor becomes liquid in the same manner that moisturo occurs oo the warm side (outer surface) oJ a cold glass of iced tea on a hot and humid day. Since an insuiator is normally placed on th€ warm side of the building, closest to the interior to r€sist the flow of heat to cold, it follows that this is also wher€ the greatest potential for moisture and moisture daruge may occur inside the building section.
FIBERS
CELLULOSE
FIBERS HEAT FLOW PARALLEL
The fibers of glass fiber insulationhave firm and cylindrical cross sectionsthat only touch at tangentpoints.Therefore, there is little heat transmitted by conduction.In addition, glassfibers trap a largeamountof air, which increasesinsulationootential. The tibers of cellulose and other blown or hand Dacked rnsulators are softerftbersthat havewider contactooints. This permitsmore heat transterthroughconducttonthan glass fibers. These fibers also trap a large quantity of air that Increasesinsulationvalue.
f;A-FFi4h,:S=''*---- ----v -,^, fl\\r/
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o f2a^--coNVEcTloN M''EMENT a(! ( i1 /) i\\v u wr NouoveuErutY
^,O f,--,U GRANULAR
CELLUUR
BUILDING
fn /:t
l{ there are many smallfibers of insulationmaterialwithin a given space, they provide more surface area than larger fibers in the same ar€a. Since thickness o{ air films sur roundingany fiber is essentiallythe sare understill air conditions, smaller libers provide more surlac€ and more air. Largerfibers may leavelargergaps and paths that allow air to flow by means oI convection.Granularand cellularinsulation also possess air films. lf the cell or space between granulesis too large,convectioncurents €n occur that will transmit heat acrossthe soace.
Extrudod,molded, and foamed plasticinsulationsare cellular or honeycombed.Walls of the cells conductheat around the c€lls. Cells contain a large volume of air that greatly increasesinsulationvalue.
OF COMMON
HEAT FLOW PERPENDICULAR
lf fibrous insulation is used, the direction ol the fibers in relation to the direction of the heat flow will affect the rate of heat movement. Under equal @nditions, fibers perpen dicular to heat flow transmit heat slower than fibers oaralle to heat flow.
Vermiculiteand perlite insulationare composed of small, rock-like,rounded granulesthat have small contact points that limit h6at conduction. Spacesbetween the granules containinsulalingair.
It is virtually impossible to construct a perfect vapor barrier. 'bader" The word is us6d in common buildino terminology Construction vapor barriers are actually vef effectrve vapor retarders made of such materials as polyethylene and various facings on insulation that do not totally stop moisture vapor transmission. When a retarder reduces the transmission of moisture to one perm or less, it may be referred to as a vamr barrier.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
GUSS
INSULATION
o o DEGRADATION
iU
^;z tr(DY trtlt i
zl
v,0ola urU 83tr
BUILDING INSULATION
n>
5L
ii" >z=
fr3; igil >:
lL
F
z
99 FU
**, U^>
S.ix
bans and blankets rigid boards
(rigid boards)
Vermiculite (loose
or ngid b@rds)
1 . By volume 2. Aged unfaced or spay applied
David F. Hill: Burt Hill Kosar Rittelmann Associates; Butler, pennsylvania Donald Bosserman. AIA; Saunders, Cheng & Appleton; Alexandria, Virginia
THERMALPROTECTION
J
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t 9 x F
o-i I! ID
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BuildingInsulotion THERMAL INSULATTON Thermal insulation@ntrols heat flow under tempera. tures ranging from abslute zero to 3000oF. This broad range can be gbdivided into four generaltemperature regimesthat classifyapplicationsfor vaious tvpesof insulation: 1. LOW TEMPERATUBES: lnsulation for vm*ls containing cryogmic materials, ruch as liquefied natuiel gas. 2. AMBIENT TEMPERATURES:Insutationfor buitdIng structures. 3. MEDIUM TEMPERATURES:Insutationfor tanks, pip6, and equipment in industrial prces heai apDlications. 4. HIGH TEMPERATURES: Refractory or other speialized insulation materials used in foundrv work, nuclear porcr facitities, te aercspi! industry, and $ on. Architects and buildec are generally concerned with rne.d6rgn and material performance of buildino Insutataons that opecte within ambient temperaturi limits. As tempectuG range much above or below ambrent conditions, d6ign and per{ormane reouire_ ments_change and flust be matched with insulation materials that withstand the stress introduced by extreme temperaturG, large temperature differentials, and themal cyclinO. BUILDING INSULATION_THERMAL FUNCTIONS The. -two maior furctiom of building insulations are to- (l) control tef,peraturB of inside surfeE that altrct the comf6t ot Gupants and aid or deter condenstion and (21 consrve enerqv bv reducino heat transmision through buitding'sctions ttrai oer€rmtn€ the_en€rgy.requirements for both heating and cooting. E@mmics in fuel consumption en bi calculated- with reGonable *cur*y and balanced againsl initial ccts of insulation and the costs for heating and cooling with equipment (seefigurey.-'-
BASIC MATERIALS Thermal insulationis made from the following basic materials:
E
CURVE (c)
U
fNsuLATroN THrcKNEss wtrH LOwEST CoSa
U 0
\
|
/ .//
/ /+_3 LAYERS
INSULATION CURVE
J J
o o
LOST/ ENERGY
<
l. LOOSE FILL: Dry granulc, nodules, or fibers pouredor blown into place. 2 . F L E X T B L E O R S E M | R t G t D ; B t a n k e ba n d b a t t s of wool-likematerial. 3 . R I G t D : B o a r d sa n d b t c k s . 4. MEMBRANE: Reflrctiveinsutation. 5. SPRAY APPLIED: Mineral fiber or insutating concrete. 6. POURED-lN-PLACE I n: s u l a t i ncgo n c r e t e . 7. FOAMED-lN-PLACE: polyurethane,urea formaldehvdeMECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER Heat flos through materialsand sprceby conduction. conv_trtion, and radiation. Convmiion .na are functions of the roughnss ot ,urt.""s,lii.o"'"1 "onOr"iiori ment, and the temperaturedifferencebetweenthe air ano sudrce. Mas insulatioos.by their low densitiB. are oestgned to suppre$ conduction and convction acrossthelr.sectionsby the entrapment of air molftules wrlnrn ther structure. Convective air cg1lgn1r ar" b" surounding marrix of fib;;; ;;-;e-ilt :,:1{, .the and the chancesof heat transfer by the collision oi air.moleculesis reduced. Radiant t transts Uet*el oolcts.operates independentlyof"ai air currents and is conrroiled by the characterof the surfacs (emisivitv) and the.temperature difference uetween'warm oijlffis.emrtttng radiation and cooler objects absorbing raotatlon-
-//
a
ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS Thermal inrulatioN may also perform *veral other functions: 1. Add. structural strtrgth to a wall, ceiling. or flmr s*tron2. Providesupport ttr a srfae finish. 3. I mpedewater vapor transmission, 4. Preve_ntor reducedamageto equipment and struc_ ture trom exposG to fire and freezingconditions. 5. Reducenoie and vibration.
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE AND FORM Thermalinsulationis availablein the followingphysiel forms:
l . M I N E R A L F T B R O U SM : a t e r i asl u c ha s g l a s sr,m k . slag, or asbestosrhar is melted .pri inio it iri fibers. "no 2. MINERAL CELLULAR: Materiatsuch as foamed glass,calcium silicate,perlite, vermicutite, ioamJj concrete,or ceramic. 3. ORGANTCFIBROUS: Materiatsuchasrcod, cane_ cotton, hair, celluloe, or syntheticfibers. 4 . O R G A N I C C E L L U L A R : M a t e r i a l$ c h a s c o r k , foamed rubDer,polystyrene, or potyurethane. 5. METALLIC: Aluminum or other foils, or metallized orga,nic reflective membranB that must face air, 96 filled. or evacuatedsoac6.
Jo;r6L:3osT
403
2
(B'
LAYERS
- I LAYER INSULATIc)N
8FIFBUU+r,5o^i oF EcoNoMrc THTCKNE6G
The rmistanc€ of thse modes of heat transfer mav be retardedby the elementsof a buildingwall sction. 1. OUTSID.E_ SURFACE FTLMS:The outsidesrfrce lraps a thin film of air, which raists heat flow. Thii nrm vafl6 with wind veleity and surfrce roughnes. _ 2. MATERIAL LAyERS; Erch tayerof material contributs to the rsistance ot ieat flo-. uiuati" mording to its density. A tayer of suitaUielns]ia1 Uon.ts normally many times more effective in reststtngheat.transfer than the combination of all other materials in the fftion 3. AIRSPACE: Each meaurable ainpae also adds to the owrall rBigtance. Foil faced iurfrcc of low emissiviti6 that form the boundariesot ttrc ii^o*" can funher reduce the rate of radiani i;;f;;,; the space. 4. lNS|DE. .SURFACE FtLM: The Insrdesurraceo, ne outtdrngstion also traps a thin film of air. I ne arr trtm thus formed is usuallythicker bcause or mucn tower air velocities_
RECOMMENDED MINIMUM THERMAL RESISTANCES (R) OF INSULATION ZONE
,|
HAWAI
REC&MEWO
TNSULATION
WALL
to
ll
zo
13
FLOOR
l1 l1
't3
26 30
19
r9
19
JJ
19
22
38 19 NOTE: The minimum insulationR valu6 recommended for variousparts of the United Statesas delineatedon the map of insulationzones.
I
ALASKA NOTE:
CE ILING
ZONES
FOF|
EATING
ANO
COOLTNG
David F. Hill; Eurt Hill Ko$r Rittelmann Ass@iates; gutler, pennsylvania Donald Bosserman, AIA; Saunders, Cheng & Appteton; lfexanOrial Viiqinia
THERMAL PROTECTION
ExletiorInsulotionond FinishSyslems
404
' --x
///
FOR HEAVY DUTY USE ARE THICKENED AND BASE UYERS HEAVY DUTY MESH lNsrEAo ovER aRE usED FASTENERS rNTo PANEL
FINISH MECHANTCAL -oF RICESSED
-\\HEN ->
EXTERIOR
-
GYPSUM
SUBSTRATE
OR PLYWOOD
BOARD
GENERAL Exterior insulation and finish systems provide a uninter rupted layer of rigid insulation that is attached by adhesives ormechanical faateners directly onto the building substrate A continuous tiberglass mesh layer is then applied and attached bv adhesives oi mechanical tasteners A finis' coat covers and seals the entlre system. NOTES
INTERWOVEN FIBERGLASS MESH RETNFORCEMENTLAYER
POLYSTYRENE INSUUTION PANEL
2. For areas likely to t€ceive abuse by high impct or.high layer traffic, a heavy duty fiberglass mesh reinforcerent is used in addition to, or in place of, the standad mesh layer fnish Also, zinc casing beads are frequently used at edges. 3. When mechanical lasteners are used they should be installed tlush with oI, preferablY,recessed into the insu When lation Danel to orevent "bubbles" on the surfce recessed, some manufacturers provide an insdation plug layer otinsulation over the lastener to leave a continuous at the surface belore the finish is applied
ADHESIVE
CMU SUBSTRATE
PLASTIC FASTENER DISK INSUUTION
PLUG
EXTERIOR
NOTE
CORROSION RESISTANT MECHANICAL FASTENER
SYNTHETIC STUCCO FINISH UYER
GROUND COAT ADHESIVE ANACHES TO INSUUTION BOARD
AND FINISH
INSULATION
Extend mechanical fasteners into studs.
MESH
I lnsulalron panels are made in varyrng thrckness from l to a in., depending on the wall U-tactor reqriremenls Thev come in varying sizes, generally 2 x 2 11'2x 4 ll, ol 2 x'8 ft, depending on manufacturer or sysEm used Exoanded polvstvrene (l to 2 lb/cu ft) is genslly usPd above qrade; extruded polystyrene (2 to 3 lb/cu tt) is gen erallv used below grade or in high lrallic areas
4. For walls with damaged or brittle subslrates, a mechanl callv fastened track ststem is used bY some mnutactur ers io fasten the insulaion panels to the substrale' 5. The svnthetic-stucco finish layer is generallY weather resistmt. crack resistant. and vapor p€rmeable and ls troweled, rolled, or sprayed onto the surface over the ground coat adhesive. lt is generally made fnm acrylic polymers with an aggregate or silica sand, quru chrps. br marble chips to glve it the desired texture Color is achieved bv either tinting the finish coat with ligment or painting the surface.
SYSTEM INSUUTION PANEL
INSUUTION PANEL
FIBEFIGLASS MESH
SUBSTRATE
FIBERGUSS MESH
5/a" MtN.
CMU SUBSTRATE INSUUTION
FINISH
UYER
ROUTER CUT DRIP
PANEL
BACKER ROO
EXPANSION
JOINT
AT
SUBSTRATES
DISSIMILAR
CMU PARAPET DETAIL
INSULATION PANEL
ROD BACKER ANO SEAUNT
ROUTER CUT DECORATIVE V-JOINT
3la" MtN FINISH
UYER
,r
FIBERGUSS MESH 3L" MtN.
MESH INSUUTION PANFL
{
FINISH UYER
SUBSTRATE
JOINT
DETAIL
AT
FLOOR
CMU
LEVEL
SULATION PANEL
SUBSTRATE'
FIBERGUSS MESH
INSUUTION PANEL FIB€RGUS5 MESH
ROD BACKER AND SEALANT
FINISH LAYER CMU
\^/OOD FRAME
EXTRUDED POLYSTYRENE INSUUTION BOARD CMU
OECORATIVE JOINT
EXPANSION
EXPANOED POLYSTYRENE INSULATId BOARD
DETAILS
BRING GROUND COAT, FIBERGLASS MESH, AND FINISH DOWN UYER ONTO WALL
SIDEWALK
DETAIL AT SIDEWALK
DETAIL BELOW GRADE
MA,SONRY DETAILS
MISCELLANEOUS
Maryland RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio:Crownsville,
SYSTEMS AND FINISH INSULATION EXI'ERIOR
DETAILS
WoterVopor Migrotion WATER
VAPOR
MIGRATION
Water is presentas vapor in indoor and outdoor air and as absorbedmoisture in many building materials.Within the rangeot temperaturesencounteredin buildings,water may existin the liquid,vapor,or solid states.Moisture'relateA problemsmay arise from changesIn motsturecontenl, lrom the presenceof excessivemoislure,or from the effects ot changesof state, such as freezingwithin walls or deteriorationof materialsdue to rouing or corrosion. ln the designand constructionof the thermal envelooeof buildings(lhe enclosureof desired temgeraturesand humidities),the behaviorof moisture must 6e considered, particularlythe change of state from vapor to liquid (con densation). Problemsa.isewhen morsturecomesinto con tact with a relativelycold surface {temperaturebelow the dew point),such as a window, or within outdoor walls or undeHoof ceilings. Excessivecondensationwithin indoor walls that enclosecold spacesmust be considered. While moisture moves in still air by vapor pressure differ ences, it is important to recognizethat mojsture in air is moved by the air. Consequentlv,tne causes of ajr motion must be considered,especiallythe infiltrationand exfiltration at undesirableleakagerates at windows, doors, and other penetrationsthrough the thermal envelope of the building. Moisture problems in residencesgenerallyoccur in seasonswhen the outdoortemperatureand vaporpressureare low and there are many rnd@r vapor sources.These may includecooking,laundering,bathing,breathing,and perspiratlonlor the @cuF€nts,as well as automaticwashers and dryers,dishwashers,and humidifiers-All of these sources combine to cause vapor pressure ind@rs to be much higher than outdoors, so that the vapor tends to migrate outward through the buildingenvelop€.Vapor cannot permeate glazed windows or retal dmrs. but most other buildingmaterialsare pemeable to some extent. Walls are panicularlysusceptible to this phenomemn, and such migrationmust b€ prevent€dor at least minimized bv the use ot ow pemeance membranes, alled vaDot retarders lfomerly, vapor bailersl. fh6/ arc now called retarders, nol barriers, because they do rct stop moisture flow coG pletely.A vaporretarderis a materialthat has a flow ratino of one perm or less. ('l pem = 1 gcin/hr ft - in. Hg vapoi pressuredifference;there is no metric perm.) Vaporretardersshould be installedas close as possibleto the side of the wall through which moisture enters. Estab. lish the side of moisture entrance in walls of controlled r@ms wilhin buildings.Howswr. the beneficialeffects of g@d vaporretardersar€ lost without adequateair barriers. Moisture in building materialsusuallyincreasestheir ther mal conductancesignificantlyand unpredictably.porous materialsthat become saturatedwith moisture lose most of their insulatingcapabilityand may not regain it when they dry out. Dust, which usuallysettles in airspaces,may become permanentlyaffixed to originally reflective suc faces. Moisture migrationby evaporation,vapor flow, and condensationcan transpon significantquantities of latent heat.panicularlythroughfibrous insulalingmaterials.
grven, setecl an average value or use judgment in assign. Ing a value based on the character and potential installa_ tion method of the material prooosed td use. . Start at the top of the list and note any material that has less permeance than the materials above it on the list. At thatpoint the possibilrtyelrsts that vapor leaking through lne rrsl mdtenal may condense on the second, provided the dew point (condensation point) is reached and the mvement is considerable. In that €se, provide ventila_ t,on through the cold-side material or modify the design to eliminate or change the material to one of greater p;r meance.
Any buildingsection my be analyzedwith simple calculations to determine where condensationmight @cur and what might be done in selectingmaterialsor their method of assemblyto eliminatethat possibility.The section may or may not containa vaporretarder.or it may containan inadequateone; the bualdingsectionmay includecold-sidematerials of comparativelyhigh resistance to the passage of vapor (which is highly undesirablel.With tew exceptions, the vaporresistanceat or near th€ warm surfaceshouldbe tive times that of any components. The table gives peF meance and permeabilityof building and vapor retarder materials.These values can be used in analyzingbuilding sectionsby the lollowing simple method: . List the materials,without surface lilms or airsoaces.in the order of their appearancein the building sectron. beginningwith th€ insidesurtacematerialand working to the outside. . Againsteach malerial list the permeance(or permeabitity) valuefrom the table or a more accuratevalue if available from tests or manulacturers'data.Where a rangeis
PLASTIC AND
%Mffi GWts(% ) vapor retarder Insulalion Wood sheathing 4" brick veneer
50.0
0.6 (lowest) 29.0 2.9
1.1 {next}
EX.A,MPLE ln this examplethe vaporretardertransmits I grainot moisture per square toot per hour for each unit of vaoor oressure diflerence,or one perm. and nothingelse iranjmits less. However.since the cold brick veneer is nearlvas low In permeance.it is advisableto make certainthat the vapor retarderis €xpertlyinstalled,with alt openingsa pipes ind with outlet boxes or ioints carefullyfittod or sealed.Altermtively, the brick veneer mav have open mortar joints near the top and bottom to serve both as reep holes and as vaporreleaseopenings.Theywill also ventilatethe mltand help reduceheat gain in summer.
ESTIMATED PERMEANCE
cwETmFurred space 8- CMU 4" brick veneer
50.0 2.4 1.1 (lowest)
EXAMPLE Vapor(underpressure)would easilypass throughthe interior finish,be slowed by the concreiemasonryrinit, and be neadystopped by the cold brick veneer.Unlessthis design is radicallyimproved, the masonrywill become saturated and may cause seraouswater stainsor apparent"leaks" in cold weather.In addition,alternating treezingand thawing of condensationwithin the masonry wall can physicallt damagethe construction.
PERMEANCE AND PERMEABTLITY OF MATERIALS TO WATER VAPOR MATE R IAL MATERIALS
PERM IN.' USED
PERM IN-] INSULATIONS
Luilular glass Mineral wool, unprotected Expanded polyurethane (R-11 blown) Expanded polystyrene - €xtruded Expanded polystyrene - bead
ESTIMATED PERMEANCE
Positive steps should be taken to prevent migration of moisturein the torm of vaporand acumulation in the form ol water or ice within buildingclmponents. Vapor retarders. corectly l@ated near th€ source ol the moisture, are an effective reans of preventingsuch migration.Venting of moistureladon air frem bathrooms,laundryrmms, and kitchenswill reduceind@r vaporpressure.as will the rntrq ductionol outd@r air with low rcisture content. BUILDING SECTION ANALYSIS FOR POTENTIAL CONDENSATION
MATERIAL THERMAL
405
METAL
FOILS AND
0.029.4 0 . 4- 1 . 6 5 1. 2 5 2.0 - 5.85 FILMS'
0.0 0.08 0.06 0.04 o.7 0.68 0 . 8, 1 . 4
Polyethylene (4 mil) Polyethylene (6 mil) Polyethylene (8 mil) Polyester (1 mill Polyvinylchloride,unplasticized (2 mit) Polyvinylchloride, plasticized (4 mit) BUILDING PAPER53
PAPERS,
FELTS, ROOFTNG
Duplex sheet, asphalt lamrnated,-trmum foil one side (43)a
Saturatedand coated roll roofing(326)4 Kraftpaperandasphaltlaminated. rernforced 30-12G30 (34). Asphalt-saturated, coatedvaporbarrier paper (43). Asphalt-saturated, not coatedsheathrng pape( (22)4 15-lb asphaltfelt (701! 1slb rar lelt (70)4 Singlekraft,doubleinfused(16)d LIQUID - MO
APPLIED
COATING
_0.176
0.24 18 0.6 20.2 5.6 18.2
MATERIALS
COatS
Aluminum varnishon wood Enamelson smooth plaster Primersand seal€rson interiorinsulation board Miscellaneousprimersplus one coat llat oil paint on plastic Flat paint on interiorinsulationboard Water emulsionon interiorinsulationooaro Paint- three coats Exteriorpaint,white leadand oil on wood siding Exteriorpaint.whit€ lead-zincoxideand oal on wood Styrene-butadrene latex coating.2 oy'sq fl Horwrnytac€tateIatexcoating,4 ozlsq ft Asphaltcutbackmastic l/16 in. dry 3/16in. dry Hot melt asphalt 2 ozlsq ft 3.5 oZsq ft
0 . 3- 0 . 5 0 . 5- 1 . 5 o . 9- 2 . 1 1 . 6- 3 . 0 4 30-85 0 . 3- 1 . 0 0.9 11 5.5 0.14 0.0 0.5 0l
NOTES '1. The vapor transmission rates listed will Dermit comoari sons ot ruterials, but selection of vapor retarder mateil als should be based on rates obtained from the manufacturer or from laboratory tests. The range of values shown indicates variations among mean values for materials that are similar but of different densitv. Values are Intended tor design guidance only. 2. Usually installed as vapor .etarders. lf used as exterior linish and elsewhere near cold side, special considerataons are required. 3. Low permeance sheets used as vapor retarders. High p€rmeance used els€Mere in construction. 4. Bases (weight in lb/500 sq ft). 5. Permeability (perm in.)
IN CONSTRUCTION
uoncr€te (1;2:4 mix:) Brick-masonry (4 in. thick) Concrete masonry (8 in. cored, limestone aggregate) Plaster on metal lath (3/din.) Plaster on plain gypsum lath (with stuos, Gypsum wallboard {% in. plain} Structural insulating board (sheathing quaf tIy, Structural insulating board {interior, uncoated. 1/, in.) Hardboard (r/e in. standard) Hardboard (r/s in. lempered) Built-up roofing (hot mopped) Wood, fir sheathing, % in. Plywood (Douglas fir, exterior 9lue, '4 in.) Plyw@d (Douglas fir. interior glue, 1[ in.) Acrylic, glass fib€r reinforced sheet, 56 mil Polyester, glass fiber reintorced sheet, 48 mil
3.25
0.8-1.r
Based on data lrcm ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentats, 1984 l-P section. chaoter 22.
2.4 tb
20 50 20 - 50s 50-90 11 5 0.0 2_9 o.1 1.9 o.12 0.05
DavidF. Hill; Eurt Hill KosarRittelrunn Associates;Eutler,pennsylvania Marc A. Giac€rdo; Collegeof Architecture,Texas Tech Unive.sity;Lubbock.Texas
VAPORRETARDERS
Wood Shinglesqnd Shqkes
406
] A'' WIDE 30 LB UNDERUYMENT OVER TOP PORTION OF EACH COURSE
l'lz
OF SHAKES
IO- ON 6 IN I2 SLOPES OR LESS 7" ON 6 IN I2 SLOPES OR MORE
MlN
30 LB FELT UNOERUYMENT
+it
SPACED SHEATHING {1 X40R I X6)\
7
REMOVE OLD RIOGE COVERING: REPLACE WITH CEDAR BEVEL SIOING MilAL
VALLEY
FDSHING SHOULD BE ALUMINUM OR 26 GAUGE MIN GALVANIZED IROI
30
REMOVE 6' WIDE STRIP OF OLD ROOFING;
CRIMPED
MN
vaLLEY FusHtNG
\
USE LONGER NAILS TO PENETRATE THROUGH NEW SHAKES ANO SHEATHING
r/d'
NOTES UNIFORM WIDTH SHINGLES 3" TO 5' wroE OOUBLE STARTER COURSE STNGLE
RED CEDAR HANDSPLIT
RED
CEDAR
GRAOE NO. I nandspttt and resawn
rro
AND
SHAKES
THICKNESS
DESCRIPTION
Theseshakeshave split faces and swn Orcfs.tedaiiog!;61 cut intodesiredlengths.Elanksor boardsof properlhickness aresplit andthen run diagonally lhrougha bandsawto producetwo tapered shakesfrom eachblank.
15 starter-tinish 18 x1lr" medium 18 x 3/o" heavy
No. 1 straight
(HANDSPLTT)
Produced largely bv hand, usrng a sharp bladed steel froe and a wooden mallet. The natural shinglelike taper is achieved by reversing the block, end-lor€nd, with each sDlit.
Producedin the same manneras tapersplitshakesexcept that by splittingfrom the same end of the block,the shakesacouir€the same thicknessthroughout.
srde wall
18x% 24 x 3le"
RED CEDAR SHINGLES NO. 3 BLACK MAXIMUM
EXPOSURE
Over stucco, horizontalnailingstrips are attacheddirectlyto wall- Nailsshould penetratesheathingor studs. Over wood, applyshak€sdirectlyjust as it on new sheathing. \iVOOD SHAKES ROOF GENERAL
24 x3le" 24 x t12" medium 24 x 3/.,, heary /4 x 'lz
r tapelsplr
STNGLE
SHAKES
HANDSPLIT LENGTH
(SAWN)
Shakes€n also be appliedover any existing wall or roof. Brick or other masonrv requires venical frameboardsand horizontalnailingstrips.
RECOMMENDED
LABEL
FOR ROOFS (IN.}
APPLIED
NOTES
1. Wood shingles and shakes are cut from wood species that are naturally resistant to water. sunlight, rot, and hail:i.e.. red cedar, redwood, and tidewater red cvpross. Ihey are typicallyinstalledin the naturalstate,although starns,pramers, andpaintmay be applied. 2. Nailsmust be hot dippedin zincor aluminum.Nailheads should be driven flush with the surfaceof the shinqleor shakebut neverinto the wood. 3. Underlayment and sheathingshouldbe designedto augment the protection providedby the shinglesor shakes, dependingon roof pitch and climate. A lowfitched roof subject to wind driven snow should have soljd sheathing andan additional underlayment.
AV
t--l tl
ROOFING
shangles
TYPE
r-t
tl
AND SHEATHING
SH EATHING
UNDERLAYMENT asphalt telt interlayment
NORMAL 4ta12 and up
SLOPE
slaner course; rnteilayment over entire roof
LO\^/ SLOPE Jtn to
4in12
entire r@f; anterlayment over entire r@f
":?:"*
tt (,
ffi
tt
tt tl UNDERLAYMENT
TO EXISTING
HALF-COVE
r-l
Fancy butt shingles are 5 in. wide aod 7 ltzi^. long, custom produced to individual orders.
FANCY BUTT RED CEDAR SHINGLE SHAPES
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsviile. Marytand
SHINGLES, ROOFTILES, AND ROOFCOVERING
Wood Shingtesond Shqkes ROOF
SHAKE
4O7
PANEL SHEATHING
ROOF
PANEL
ROOF
PANEL
SYSTEM
UTSIDE AND tNstDE CoRNERS EM P MO (l {R] rEECBO ENDED) PANEL NAILED DIRECTLY TO STUOS
30 LB BUILOING PAPER SINGLE COURSING APPLICATION
EXPOSURE FOR SHINGLES AND SHAKES USED FOR StDtNG (tN.) EXPOSURE SIDEWALL
OF SHINGLES
PANEL APPLTED TO STUDS PANEL STRIP
NAILED TO AT STUOS
NAILING
WOVEN OUTSIDE ANO INSIDE CORNERS (MORE ECONOMICAL)
NAILING: THtCKNESS
AND NAtLs
30 LB BUILOINC PAPER
NAILING STRIP
SHEATHING SIDEWALL
PANEL
APPLIEO
IO
NAILING
NOTES 1. Sheathing may be strip type, sotid 'l x 6 in. , and diagonal type, io plywood, fiberboard, or gypsum board. Horizonlal w@d nailing strips (1 x 2 in.) should be used over frbef_ board and gypsum sheathing. Space strips equal to shingre exposure.
STRIPS
PANEL NAILED TO SHEATHING AT STUDS
2- Many finishes can be used on red cedar shakes and shingles: solid color or semitransparent {,,weathering,,) stains, exterior latex paint with primer, wood preseria. tive, and bleaches.
30 LA BUILDING
SHEATHING
WALL PANEL: 9" - X 36" W|TH 7 EXPoSUREI 8" x 96- wtTH I4- EXPOSURE SIOEWALL
PANEL APPLIEO
TO SHEATHING
CORNER BOARDS AT OUTSIOE AND INSTDE CORN ERS WOOD
SHINGLES
ta" wtDE,30 LB ASBESTOS FELT UNOERUYMENT
AND
SHAKES
FOR
SIDING
FIRE RETARDANT RED CEDAR SHAKES OR SHINGLES
FIBERGUSS BAN INSUUTION 5/r- TYPE x GYPSUM AOARD
NOTES 1 . Vvith the panel system, shakes and shingl€s plus sh€athing go up in me operation: 8 ft rmf panels\hive 't6 hand split shakes bonded to 6 xrl, in. plywood strip, which forms a solid dtrk when the panels are mited. A 4 to i 2 or st@per roof pitch is recommended. 2. After appli€tion of starter p€nels, attach panels directly to rafters. Although designed to center on 16 in. or 24 inspacrng, they may meet between rafters. Use two 6d nails al each rafter3. 8 ft sidewall panels are ot twcply consrruclon: a. Surface layer of individual l+1 grade shingles or shakes. b. Backup of exterior grade plywood shakes or shingles is bonded under pressure with exterior type adhesives to plywood backup. 4. Lap building paper behind panels 3 in. vertically and horizontally. Stagger joints between panels. 5. Application types are determined by to€l buitding codes. 6. Matching factory-made corners for sidewall or roof Dae €ls are available.
PANEL
SYSTEMS
PLASTIC COATED SEEL FOIL
2 X 4 STUDS t 6 0R 24' O.C
RAFTER
BUILDING PAPER rlz" oR 5le GYPSUM SHEATHING BOARD
36" W|DE, 30 LB FELT STARTER STRIP WITH 2- OVERUP
ROOF
CONOITION
UNTREATEO PLY )D DECK OR I " NOMINAL AND THICKER TONGUE AND GROOVE DECKING
CEDAR SIDING SIOEWALL
CONDITION
N OTE In treating shakes, fire-retardant chemicals are pressure impregnated into the wood cells, and chemicals are then tixed in the wood to prevent leaching. Treatment does not alter appemnce. Fire{etardant red cedar shakes are classified as Class C by UL. Class I classification by UL can be met with the addition of the deck constructed of 5/" in. plywooJwith e;riJr gfue or 1 in. nom_ Inal tongue and groove boards, overlaid with a layer of approved asbestos feltlapped-2 in. on all joints andin ld in. wide strip of approved asbestos felt berween each shake and not exposed to rhe weather. Decbrative staini m;t ;;;p;[";.
FIRE RATED CONSTRUCTTON
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leal Studio: Crownsville,Maryland
SHINGLES, ROOFTILES, AND ROOFCOVERING
408
Aspholtond CompositionShingles
ECHEDULE
EAVE FLASHING
UNDERLAYMENT
OF
Single layer of 15 lblasphalt etura' ted lelr over entire rbbf
ALL LAPS SHOULD BE OUTSIDE WALL LINE
Two layers of 15 lb asphalt salura' ted telt over entire roof FELTS ||\
t5 LB ASPHALT UNOERLAYMENTT
Eave flashing is required wherever the JanuarY daily average temperature is 30oF or less ot where there is a possibiliry of ice forming along the eaves.
STRIP FLASHTNG EAVES DAMAGE PREVENTS AACKUP
SLOPE_4 IN./FT OR OVER NORMAL A course of 90 lb mineral surJacedroll roofing or a course of 50 lb smooth roll roofing is installed to t/. to 3/s overhangthe underlay and metal edgelrom in. Extend up the roof far enoughto cover a polnt at least 24 in. insidethe interior wall line of the building. When the werhang requirm flashingwider than 36 in., the horizontal lap joint is cementedand lcated on the roof deck extending beyond the exterior line of the buildinq.
,
TO 4 IN./FT LOW SLOPE_3 Cover the deck with two layersof 15# asphaltsatur ated felt. Beginwith a 19 in. startercour* laid along the eaves,followed by a 36 in. wide sheet laid even with the eavesand completely overlappingthe starter course. The starter course is covered with asphalt cement. Thereafter, 36 in. sheetsare laid in asphalt cement, erch to overlap the precedingcouree 19 in., exposing17 in. of the underlyingsheet. The plis are placed in asphaltcement to a polnt at least36 in. insidethe interior wall line of the building.
-o=raor) CEMENT/
Us only enoughnails to hold underlaymenlin placeunlrl shinglesare laid. APPLICATION LO\^r' ALOPE
ON
OF UNOERLAYMENT ROOFS
EAVE
CHIMNEY
FLAEHING
_'----------\
MASONRY
SCHEDULE OF SHINGLE TYPES (II
Fiberglass Organiclelts
I rar I r+r
Laminatedoverlav(21
Fiberglass Organicfelts
c
Randomedge cut
Fibe,glass Oroanicfelts
I r:r
Fiberglass Oroanictelts
G; fil
Three-tabsquare butl Two-tab souare butt
[J
rJ,
IT2 REGLET
stzE
WEIGHT
U.L. RATING
MATERIAL
DESIGN
DESCRIPTION
205-225 lb/sq 235-30O lb/sq
36"x1
260-325 lb/sq 300 lbi sq
36" x
300 lb/sq 330-380 lb/sq 225-260 lb/sq 250 lb/sq
36" x 14
SHEET METAL, CAP FLASHING
MINERAL-.-.SURFACED ROOFING
36" x 12
ROLL\
EMAEDOEO IN PLASTIC ASPH{T ON CEMTNT
\
NOTE: Exposure5" , edge lap 2" . NOTES 1. 2. 3. 4.
Exposure5 in., edge lap 2 in., lor all designs. Mo.e than one thickress for varying suttace texture Many rated as wind resistant. All rated as wind resistant.
TOP TE
T ORF AM EDG FELT OVER RAKE ONG
STffi
FLASG 36'MIN.
w@D DECK (VARES)
5" EXPOSURE
MET
(r(
STRIP 9'STARTER OF G COURSE INVERTEO *INEES START WTH
\START WITH MINUS
TAB
eQUARE
PLASTIC ASPHALT
FACE
OOWN
BUTT
STRIP
OECK
METHOO FLAEHINO
OF EECURINO TO CHIMNEY
SINGLE. COURSE G CEDAR SHINGLES
EX_ I2" OF
ALUMNUM. GALVANIZEO IRON OR COPPER. NAIL BFEAK SHAES,
UNDERLAYMENT
CEMENT
UNOERLAY. FACED 36" WIOE STRIP SURFACE UP MINERAL ROLL ROOFING
NAIL EXTRA OF STRIP
MENT
IN
END
HEM EDGE METAL OF
DRIP EOGE
n-SMOOTH
OPEN VALLEY .Valley width should be 6" wide at fldg€ and spreadwrder at downward to eave. Establish vallev the rate ofil""/loot .idoe to cove width uring chalkline trom .idge APPLICATION
CLOSEO
VALLEY
DIAGRAMA
Robert E. Fehlberg,FAIA: CTA Architects Engineers;Billings,Montana
AND ROOFCOVERING SHINGLES, ROOFTILES,
CAP MA€'ONRY
w
SHINGLEe
AT ROOFING ROLL 36" 55 LB OR LEAST '46 NEoPRENE SHEET TO STRIP EACH AT LEAST TEND CENTER BEYOND VALLEY
wooo IE'STRIP
FIRST COURSE FULL STRIP SECOND STAff F&L WITH C@RSE MrNs srRrP 72 TAB
THiRD FULL STRIP FIRST TA8
THREE
SHINGLES
Fry*"** n t
THREADEO scREw THREAOEO
NAIL
TYPEA
r)ETAILA
SloteRoofing
409
POINT WITH ELASTIC CEMENT
WOOO STRIP SOMETTMES OMITTEO
COMBTNG SLATE
ELASTTC CEMENT
ROOFING SLATE
a
INSULATION
SECTION
o :- J< FN
ELASTIC
oz oQ za
CEMENT
ol o{
POINT
ni
WITH
DIAGRAM SAODLE
OF PROPER
LAP
FOR
RIS|E/RUN
HIP GENERAL NOTES
POINT
WITH
MITERED
HIP
r/6" TO TAPER r'-O WIOEN TOWARO BOTTOM
,ROOF SHEATHING
'
UNOER.EAVE OR STARTER
RAFTER
SLATE INSUL
OZ
=:: O:P= E N
::::
:
VALLEY
COPFER
ATION
FLASHTNG
,4o., NEoPRENE oc SHEET ::HEET
EAVE
30'
1 . C O M M E R C T A LS T A N D A R D : T h e q u a r r y r u n of vr6 In..thtckness; includes tolerable variations aDoveand below r/r6 in. 2. TEXTURAL:.A rough textured slate roof with unwen. butts; the- slates vary in lhickne$ and size. wnrcn ts generallynot true of slatemore than 3/s inthick. 3. GRADUATED: A textural roof of large slates; more variationin thickness,size,and color, 4 . A S O U A R E O F R O O F T N GS L A T E : A n u m b e r of $ates,ol any.s-izesufficient to cover 100 ft? with a J tn._tap.wetght per square:3/re in._g0Olb; r/r in. - 9 0 O l b ; 3 / e i n . - 1 1 0 Ol b ; r / , i n . - 1 7 0 0 t b ;i / . i n . _ 2600 tb. s NOMENcLATURE FOR sLArE :I4!?A10 btue btrck, mottted sray, purpiel 9_9-!Ol ^ql*.k. green. motued purple and green,purplevarieoaied pr€^eded by the word .,Unfadins,,oi q" :,:g; 19 "weatherang." Other colors and combination-s are available. 6. PROPER JOtNTtNG FOR PITCHED ROOFS: Requirs a 3_in. minimum venicaf overfap.b-virla'p varieswith pitch; seegraphabove. 7. FELT; With CommercialStandard Slate use 30# sturared felt. With graduared ,oot, ur" !O+ t-oi '/. slate and 45#, 50#, or 65# prepared.oll .tn. r@Ing lor he&aerslate8 . N A I L F A S T E N I N G : U s l a r g eh e a d .s l a t e . s h , ard copper wtre nails, cut copper,cut bra$, or cut veltow metat stating nails. Eeh slate purched with rwo, natt hots. Use nails that are I in. longer than tnrckn6s of.slat€.Coverall exposd headsw-ithelasrrc cement. ln dry climats hot dip galvanizednails may be usd.
W
GABLE
RAKE
STANDARD SLATE DIMENSIONS'
FELT
TWO NAILS TO A SLATE
RAFTER
NSULATION
JE!'S8.3= 35"R:?"J-
5i''SR"'"?+E"sIF"
ROOFERS r" /a€ G . 6 0R
WOOO RAFTER RECEIVE SLATE
a.
1 1 , 1 2 ,1 3 , 1 4 .1 6 TO
RC)OFING
SLATE
a.e split in th6e thicknesses: rlrd, t/t,3/a, ':fhg,sfa-t6_ !3,3h, 1,11/a. and 11/z in. rl. ar.rd larger.slat6 are not often used in the* l:], srzes. Handom widths are usually used.
Domenic F. Valente,AlA, Architect& planner;Medford, Massachusetts
SHINGLES, ROOFTILES, AND ROOFCOVERING
Concrete TileRoofing
410
WEEP AROWEL 1O" MASON M MORTAR OF frPE
,' ', ,
i
FUI
L
MORTAR CoNTACT WIIH IS MADE TILts.S THREE
HOLE
TROWEL 1 O" MASON M FULL OF ryPE MORTAR
NAIL COVER HERE OryBEN REOUIRED)
(WIIEN .I
NAIL HERE REQUIRED)
BED MORTAR TO rcINT AND FINISH
NAIL HERE (WHEN REOUIRED)
a'-
FASCIA
FASCIA
WEEP HOLE: HALF
TILE
OVERUY
__OVERSP
MORTAR BED FOR COWR
PREFABRICATED
AND MORTAR BED TO FTNISH rcINT
(EPDM)
CLOSURE
EA€
MORTAR rcINT WITH ]il FINISH TO MA]CH EAVE
DRIP
ROLLED
GABLE S
SPANISH
TIT-E
FI-AT NOTE
HERE O'HEN REOUIRED)
AND E SURFACE (SPANISH
TROWEL 10" MASON M OF ryPE FULL MORTAR
S CUTS)
E}ARREL
TILE
Mortar contact is made with 3 tiles
MORTAR AND TILE
PLACEMENT
GENERAL Concrete tile is manufactured by extruding a mixture of oortland cement. sand, and water on individual molds under irioh oressure. The finish surface of the tile is covered with material that has been colored with syn a;ementitious thetic oxides. The tiles are cured to required strengths tn chambers where humiditv and temperature are controlled. Moisture absorption by concrete tiles can lead to structural r@{ problems, and particular Gre should be given to spects fying the correct corcrote til€ for a given environment
ROLL TILE When usina roll, or mrssion,tile, apply the first murse above a meial brrd-stopwith weep holes. Fit the underside of the tile with speciallyformed eave closure strrps' lastened insidethe tile cover. The headsof all remainingtiles shouldbe alignedwith the horizontalguide lines.Adiust roil tile soacinqto provideuniformexposure'with at leasta 3 in. hbadlap.Jamminginterlockingtiles together(side to side)will restrictmovementand result in brokencorners'
or flat-it is imporFor both categories of concrete tilHoll tant to adhere to minimum slope requirements as follows:
ROOF SLOPE For roof slooes5 in. in 12 and less.solid sheathingmay be used with dr without battens. Nailingis not requiredwith battens, but every tile should be nailed if battens are not used. ln eithercase, perimeternailingis requiredIor 3 ft or three courses.whichever is greater,from all €aves, rakes, ridges,hips,or valleys.{Donot nailintovalleymetal.)
'1.
be installed on roof decks with more when at least one layer of is apptied horizontally and tiles a minimum 3 in. headlap. Use of recommended. 2. Anv concrete tile can be used on solid-sheathed roof decks with slopes less than 4 in. per ft as long as two or more layers ol No. 30 or No.40 asphalt-saturated (non perforated) felt are set in hot asphalt o. mastic lo serue as the underlayment. A single layer of modafied bitumencoated roofing systems rollgood sheet with laps either torched or heat welded is acceptable. Venical lath strrngers with horizontal battens are installed over the underlayment. creating a supporting surface lor the tile, which must be installed with at least 4 in. headlap. Do not use spaced sheathing. 3. Reqardless of slope, in l@alities vvhere the January me;n temoerature is l€SS than 30oF. Stricter mrnimum requirements appv. Rofer to the National Rooling Contractors Association manualRoll tile and flat tile cn slooes of 4 in. oer ft or 3Glb felt underlayment are nailed or wired with spaced sh€athing is not
FLAT
TILE
When using ttat roof tiles, a metal eave-riser wath weep holes should be installed at the eave line. During installation, adjust tile spacing to provide uniform exposure, with a minimum 3 in. headlaD.
ATTACHMENT
PROCEDURES
lo
5:12to less 2:12andover
1 X 2 MOLDING
CARRIED UNDERUYMENT METAL BIRD-STOP OER
TYPICAL
ROLL TILES
For slopes12 in.io 12 and greater,naileverytile oversolid sheathingwith battens;perimeternailingis n*essary. TILES sET IN MORTAR The practiceof installingcementtiles with mortarover a built-up subroof evolved in hrgh-windand higtFmoisture areasof the southeasternUnitedStates ln this system. the built-uosubroofprovrdesthe moisturebarrier,and the tiles oroteci the subroof from solar ultravioletrays, high winds, ind externaldamage.This concretetil€ system €n also b€ but the minimumis 2 in. in 12. On usedon low-slopeioofs, slooes b€tween 5 in. in 12 and 7 in. in 12, additional mechanicallastening is requiredfor the lirst three courses of tile in areassubiectto high winds For r@fs with steper slooes.tile shouldbe mechanielly fastened.
FOR CONCRETE
SOLID SHEATHING WITH BATTENS
BIRD-STOP WEEP WITH HOLES
For roof slopes between 5 and 7 in. in 12. nail every other tite over soiid sheathingwith battens and every tile if battens are not used.For slopesbetween7 and 12 in. in 12, with every otherlrle shouldbe nailedover solidsheathrng battens.Perimeternalltngis requiredin all thesesituations
ROOF TILES
FIELD TILE NAILING ROOF SLOPE
._METAL
SOLID SHEATHING WITHOUT BATTENS'
AILING FOR PERIMEER TILE AND TILE ON ANTILEVERED AREAST
Not required
Everytile
Everv other tile
Every tile to 7:1 2
tte
Every tile
N/A
nre
METAL
trAW
RTSER
FIELD
INSTALLATION
OF
NAILER RIDGE OF SUFFICIENT TO MAINTAIN HEIGHT OF PUNE EVEN TILES'-\ RIDGE
\
MINIMUM ON W@D AND OWR
WRAPPED NAILER
-
trom edqes ot eaves and gable rakes ln special wind areas de-srgnaledbv lhe buildrng oflicial, additronal fas' tenings may be required. WMD
SHEATHING
HIP AND RIDGE DETAIL National Rooting Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois Grace S. Lee; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C
AND ROOFCOVERING ROOFTILES, SHINGLES,
WEEF
HOLES
This detail is for pitches 4:1 2 and greater
NOTES 1. For slopes exceeding 7:12, battens are requrred 2. Perimeter nailing areas include three tile courses but not less than 36 inches from either side of hips or ridges and
WnH
N OTE
FLAT
TILES
Miscelloneous RoofingTiles COMPOSITE
ROOFING
4tl
TILES
Fiber cement. cemenl w@d, galvanized steel with acrylic coatrng. and ceramic slate roofing tiles are popular alterna_ trves to clay or concrete roofing tGs },e.e tomposire r,tes nave_oeen desrgned to be lighter, slronger. and easier to Inslail than traditional, "natural, tiles. Thetr strength and combination of ruterials make them more lire re'tardani and wind resistant than conventional tiles. FIBER CEMENT Fiber cement tiles combine organic flber with cement, sil_ rca, water, and other additives. The resulting product is a rooJ slale thar rs tightweight, strong, versatil6, and easy to Instail. Ihe tttes can be made in a variety of dtstinctive shapes. colors, and textures that mimic natural materials such as_slate and patterned wood shingles. Fiber cement tiles resist deterioration and moisture penetration and are immune to pests and lungal growth. iley are wett_suitea ror coastat regrons and other areas with high humidity.
E}OTTOM OF FIELD
RIE}E}ED SHAKE
SIOE
CEMENT
WOOD
TILE
LAYOUT
Cf OFF UNDERUP MEN FINISHING GABLE IF I OERHANGS
Frbercement tiles should be applied to narlable decks only. l-or plywood decks with rafters spaced 20 rn or less, the plywood,should be at least '4 in. thick. lf rafters are spaced greater than 20 in., % In. plywood is recommended. io fas_ len, use standard |/, in. galvanized 1 1gauge flat_headroof_ Ing nails wrth a % in. head. Flashing should be of a noncorrosive metal not lighter than 2g gauge. CERAMIC
FUSHING
SLATE
Ceramic slate tiles the fireGin strength haw the thickness, but at a Jraction of ous to treez+thaw cence.
combine the l@k ot natural slate with and durability of ceramic tite. Such tiles texture, and appearance of older slate the weight and cost. They are imperyi_ cycles, tire. moisture, and effiores-
CW
WOOO
TILES
WEN AT GABLE
/
oFtoN{ TWO UYERS OF UNDERUYMEM/ TOP
CEMENT
OFF
OVERGP STARTING
SIOE
CEMENT
OF
FIELD
SHAKE
EAVE
/
OETAIL
WOOD TILES
Cement wood trles are lightweight tiles that €n be used for reroottng as well as for new ccnstruction. They have excellent impact resistance and ar€ easily sawn and nailed. As a richly textured, composite product. cement w@d tiles cre_ ate an aesthetic similar to that of heavy cedar shakes yet provde the fire protection ass@iated with cementitious products. Cement wood_tiles, with their composit€ of portland cement and w@d fiber, are long lasting. The poriland cement is noncombustible and allows for Class A fire ratIngs. and.the rcod fib€rs provide excellent tensile strength and a light weight when compared to standard concr;te lrles. METAL
ROOFING
TILES
The advantage of metal roofing tiles over traditional clay or concrete tiles is that they are lightweight. They are easier to nanole, qurcker to install, and, because they.equire fewer oulotng components, are less costly. Minimum recofr nrended root pitch for use of metal rooting tiles is a stofe of 'in 3 in 12. R@fs with shallower slopes re{uire sealant jtt side laDs. Metal roofing tiles usually come in sheets and have a base material of roll-formed 24- to 26gauge prepainled oalva_ nrzed or galvalume steel. A layer ot crushed and gcded stone granutes is bonded to the steel panels with an;crylic resin formula and lhon a clear acrylic overglaze is applied. )row oven cunng completes the process, and the undetr [email protected] the.ile rs protected with a final coat of polyester parnr. tsaners can b€ mstalled quickly and ar€ secured to erther wood or stsl banens, creating a strong, weatherpr@t constrwtion- Th€ panels can be installed directlv over exrstrng rmts, unlike clay or concrete tiles, and are thus ide ally surted tor .etrofitting r@fs.
2' BATTEN HEIGffi OPEN NOTE
FASOA
RAFTER
OWR as sHowN
sotlD
SHEATHING
CAM STRIP USED FOR 'DRY IN' STATE
Metal roofrng panels can be applied directly over solid oly_ wood, sheathrng or over open ratters if a self_supponing undertayment is used.
METAL
ROOFING
TtLE UNDERLAYMENf
END AP (SECURE SCREWS VERTICAL
I.AP
RIDGE
METAL ROOFING TTLES FE.LT OVER FRAMING
AT
GAE}LE
%' PLWoOD
/,/-
FRAMING
GM
-$ , N OTE
STRIP
eaneN HEIGffi ABOVE SHATHING
When an equal oumber of full courses cannot be accommo_ drted at the pitch change, a full panel can be bent to suit. vvnen lne _rmflrne changes drarutically, install a batten at rne prtch change.
The tascia_must be positioned above the root deck sheatfts Ing or rarters by the height ot the batten. The tascia becomes the first oanel batten
METAL ROOFING AT PITCH CHANGE
METAL
SOLID
SHEA]-HING
A.]- EAVE
ROOFTNG DETAILS
SOLID
SHEATHING
RIDGE
AT EAVE ANO RTDGE
Grace S. Lee; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,D.C
SHINGLES, ROOFTILES, AND ROOFCOVERING
OETAIL
Cloy TileRoofing
412
TOP
COVER
CIRCULAR R STARTE
crRcuLAR RIOGE COVEF
FTXTURE
_v_ ^T_YP^E^.Ti
aNo
OETACHEO RAKE GABLE
UN DER EAVE PIECE
FIELD
TILE
TILE MAKE PIECES ITHESE MAIN EXPANSE, THE UP ''FIELO" TILEO OF OR AREA )
TILE SPANIAH Typ FrELo rtLE ts t374" rcNG aNo 95/." wloq ..WHEN INSTALLEO. ror4; wl-DTH E,!.: - of E SQUARE oF AvEnaces ueruorx eieosEo aE Nor sLoPE'sHouLo aeouT 9oo uss.-aoor iiiis-weroxs
HIP
TOP
FLAT
4..
THAN
LESS
IN
12'
TNTERLOCKING FLAT EX POSeO TrLeS ARE 14" LoNG aND 9" W!O-E . llaSTALL.E-Or F|ELD ABoUT aoo LBS WEIGHS : a7-:' oNE sQuaRE i i-ru-crx =--f wro-H TILES wlrH aNcHoR 4"tN r2"MtN, RooF sLopE, NAILS. NONCORROSIVE
ANGLE IS HIP THE THE ANGLE THAN TYE COVER HIP €ECTION
SECTION
FIXTURE
ROOF
MEETA
SLOPE
TILES
FLASHING OVER TILE
AT
SHEO
ROOF
RIOGE
FLASHING TILE OVER
SECTION
TILE FIE@ BUILOING
VALLEY
SECTION
/ CONCRETE
ROOF
NOTE WHERE IN CLIMATES AND ICE SNOW OCCURS; BUILDUP VALLEYS SHOULD avoroEo Bt
Darrel Downing Rippeteau, Architect; Washington, D.C
AND ROOFCOVERING ROOFTILES, SHINGLES,
CUT FELT
FIT
AT
ANGLE
FLAT
OF
ROOF
VALLEY
L- 5'-O' TO 39.-O" w- 3 -6.. C)OVERAGE
POWER
SEAM
CLO9URE
L-3-O-TO 39-O' w- 3'-4- COVERAGE
STANDING
SEAM
ALUMINUM
ROOFINE
INSIOE CLOSURE
ALUMINUM FLASHING
V BEAM L- 3'-O' TO 39-ow- 5 -5'. C)OVERAGE
OUTSIOE CLOSURE
FACTNG
SHEET FACING
WALL
///
CiECTION
E AVE
PARAPET
//.[\ FLASHI
NG
COF'RUOATEO L- 3'-O. TO 39_o" w- 2'-ac-ovERAeE
EXPAN6ION
FoRMEo
ALUMINUM
RooFINc-;RD
JOINT
=,IE;TE
NOTES l. Endlapsfor roofing and sidingshallbeat teasr in. 6 ano .tastened at every rib. Two fastenersmay be *L"l designing for a negative (uptiftl I3y]l"d toaotngcondttron. 2. Minimum sidelapsshall be equar to one rib or c-orrugationand laid away from prevailingwind. tsasteners sh?ll be spaceda maximum of lj in. on centerfor all typesol rooling and siding. ^ 3. F-or rofing,_fastenerushall prerce onty th€ high corrugation..Forsiding,fastene.sshallpierceeith'er Ine htgh or low corrugation.Consult manufacturer ror proper shet metal fastenersand acc6sories. 4. Minimum slopesfor sheetroofing are as tollows: a. I in. depth corrugated_3in 12. b. 1rlz in. depth ribbed-2 in 12. c. 13h in. v-@rrugated_2 in t 2. 5. Se ,page on Metal Walls for insulation detaits and tire ratedwall assemblies.
AND OESIGN LOAD
BOLD RIB
4" Box RtB
0.032rN 0.040 tN. 0.032rN. 0.040rx. 0.032rn. 0.040 rN THICK THICK TH ICK
20
95
rzJ
77
t00 87
60
NO
BEAM THICK
THICK
THICK
SIDING
N.
coRRUGATED
I
U.UJZ IN TH ICK
0.040 rN 0 . 0 3 2r n . TH ICK
040 rN
TH ICK
100
120
131
l5'l
90
a2
98
103
r07
124
98
124
73
80
86
71
104
85
92
r07
64
69
77
qf
62
?o
92 83
83 :vatues are basedon uniform poritire 1do*n*ard1-ndliifGg OJ
96 t-ildin
singtespan onty.
John A. Schulte;Hellmuth,Obata& Kassabaum,Inc.; St. Louis,Missouri
ROOFINGAND SIDINGPANELS
lnsuloledMetol Ponels
414
OF EXTRA STRENGTH ONEN DEEP SECTION FULL PERMITS PANELS HEIGHT
INNER FACE PERFORATEO FOR SOUND CONTROL
INTERMEDIATE
INSUUTION
METAL DIVIDER (OPTIONAL FOR EXTRA CONTROL)
THERMAL INSUUTION
EXTERIOR PANEL
CUSHIONED SEAM EXTRA RIGIO
ACOUSTICAL
TYPICAL INSUUTED
FIELD-ASSEMBLED
SYSTEMS GASKETED PANEE DO NOT INTERLOCK; MAY ANY PANEL OR BE PLACED WITHOUT REMOVED
JOINT NESTED CONCEALS PANES
INTERLOCK SIMILAR TO
INSULATION CORE
FOIL SIDE MUST NOT BE EXPOSED
CLIPPED TO GIRTS (NO
ADDTTIONAL
TYPICAL INSUUTED
FACTORY.ASSEM
BLED
JAMB
OUTSIDE CORNER
FUSHING COPI
STAINLESS
NG
casKEr-.-k_rF_fH
EXTRUOED ALUMINUM FASCIA
+]+#ffitr-t-ffi .t-+-tsH
t> / ffiffi+
ffilE=Sffi1]1
CONTINUOUS NOTCHEO M ETAL CLOSUR€
COPI OUTER
| | r rft{ L_-l t ----@--.'lr-----l'm@-
SHEET
,-_r.l m!f,
GASKETED WINDOW CONCEALED GUNER
NG
PREDESIGNEO
OETAILS
SHEET
INSUUTION SUBGIRT
EAVE / COPING
NOTES
WINDOW UNIT
Shown here are basic panel designs with an assortment of connection details. A vast array of folded. ribbed, and grooved sheet configurations is available.
FUSHING
INNER
l o' MtN RADIUS
SHEATHINC
3r/4" wtDE (TYP.) INTERMEDIATE
INSULATION
INTERMEOIATE
SHEATHING CURB
Typical applied frnrshes avarlablefor ouler sheets are acryl ics, vinyls, alkyds, fluoropolymers, porcelain ehamel, and on aluminum onlv, various anodized finishes. Length ot sheets available is 40 Jt. Span and wind load must be con' sidered in the selection of panel components and spacrng of girts. Panels can span from 9 ft 6 in. to 26 ft or more if placed in multispan arrangements. Face panel configuration and wind load value vary.
OUTER METAL ANGLE
SUBGIRT
Consult manutacturers
EXTRUDED ALUMINUM CLOSURE
FOUNOATION
FIELD.ASSEMBLED WALLS
INSULATED
METAL
FIELD. FACTORY-FORMED, ASSEMBLED INSULATED METAL
Beach; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
=)
a
CONFIGURATIONS
AT DOOR
I8.26GAUGE GALVANIZED STEEL ALUMINUM OR
OUTER
JOINT
SYSTEMS
ROOFINGAND SIDINGPANELS
for thermal and acoustical ratings
4t5 VAPOR RETAROER TEMrcRARY ROOF WHEN REQUIRED
OELETE NAILABLE SECURE
I
BITUMEN ON OECKS AND WITH FASTENERS
INSULATION, APPLY INSULATTON tN A MtNtMUM TWO LAYERS. BREAKING JOINTS BOTH WAYS. WHEN INSULATION JOINTS ARE TAPED. JOI NTS MAY BE CONTINUOUS IN BOTH OIRECTIONS
STEEP BARRiER.
GRAOE ASPHALT INSULATIC)N.
SHEET: OI M ENSI ONALLY OR HEAVIER JOINTS ARE
BITUMEN PROCESS AITUMEN FELTS FELTS. ROOFING
\ SLAG BITUMEN
GRAVEL OR IN SURFACE
MAY BE STABLE FACTC)RY TAPEO
FOR FINISHING MASTIC, TAPEO
FOR RC)OF
ELIMINATEO INSULATION APPLIEO
CEMENTING TAPE, ANO
VAPOR BASE siHEET
WHERE HAS 40 BASE ANO
PLIES MAY BE COLO ASPHALT. OR COAL
OF
LB
TAR
. USE ASPHALT WITH ASPHALT COMPATIBLE AND TAR c;c)AL PITCH WITH TAR SATURATED NUMEER OF PLIES VARIES ACCOROING TO SYSTEM USED; CONSULT MANUFACTURER NOTES
INSULATION
1. Fo. smooth surface rools omit gravel or slag and add addiriooal ply using inorganic plysheets only. 2. On slopes over 1 in./lt atl felts along top edge must usually be slrapped and back-naited. 3- When vapor retarder is used, edges of feh should be turned up to a height of 2 in. above cant strio at vertical surlaces. Felrs should overlap alt roof edges a minimum ot 6 in. befo.e application ot roofing. 6 in. of felt musl be re-turned over the insulation and mopped solidlv.
20 YEAR
TYPE
BUILT.UP
ROOF
OVER
INSULATTON NOTES '1. Over nonnailable deck or insulation omit rosin paper and cement with asphalt. Nailing strips must b€ provided. 2. Minimum slope to, ofganic felt: '/, in.ttt. 3. Minimum slope for tiberglass telt: O in./ft. 4. Consult manufacturer lor spacing of nails for particular rooling system.
TAGGER
NAILS
aT
SCHEOULE OF FELT OVERLAP flNCHES)
t2" o c
OECK /NATLABLE I
{ovER WOOD, EXCEPT PLYWOODI
MINERAL SURFACE ROOFING. 2" SIDE LAPS IF SELVAGE IS UNGRANULATED: 3'' SIOE LAPS IF SELVAGE IS GRANULATEc)
STEEP
GRAOE
MINERAL
'ASPHALT
BETWEEN PLIES OF i5 FELT Lg ASPHALT TYPE II.N, II!, OR E ) DETERMINEO BY ROOF SLOPE
ASPHALT
SURFACE
BUILT-
UP
+g+ IJ
r.r
6 0 0 0 0 0
PATTERN Fc)R NAILING BA6E SHIET c)R VAPOR RETAROER NAILABLE OECK
OVER
ROOF
Kent Wong: Hewlett, Jamison,Atkinson& Luey; Portland,Oregon; Developedby AngeloJ. Forlidas.AIA; Charlotte,North Carolina;trom data furnishedby RobertM. Staflord, p.E., ConsultingEngineer;Charlotte,North Carolina
MEMBRANE ROOFING
416
Built-upRoofing . ASPHALT
DECK . .\
)/
FIRST LAYER PREFGMEO R@F INSUUTION BOARD ASPHALT
EDGE OF ROOF AGGREGATE
THREE-PLY N OTES
OVER
NAII.-AE}LE
THREE-PLY
DECK
1. lI applied over sheathing pansls, add rosimized base sh€et.
sheathing paper between
the deck and
SURFACE
BUILT.UP
NON.NAII.ABLE
LAYER
'
DECK
NOTES 1. For a more con$ryative system, specify four plies rather than three. 2. In lieu of asphalt, coal tar is an acceptable producl.
2. In lieu of asphalt, coal tar is an acceptable product.
AGGREGATE
OVTR
SECOND
ROOFING
COAL TAR TYPES SOFTENING
ASPHALT
POINT (OF)
TYPES SoFTENTNG
POTNT (.F)
KIND OF ASPHALT
EreE ONE
\^r'OOD NAILER
NAIL
BACKNAILING
OF ROOF
€R
PLY
SYSTEM
GENERAL A built-up roofing (BUR) system is composed ot a base sheet attachedto the r@f substrate,two or more reinforcing felt ply sheets, and a surfaced cap sheet. AsDhaltand coal tar are the bitumens used for built{p roofing.As the heatedmoppingbitumen fuses with the saturatingbitumen in the roofinglelts. the layersare welded together.Surfacrngs rncludeaggregate,minerals,protectiveor reflective coatings,andsmoothsu.face. Fourtypes of asphaltand two types ot coaltar are presently used as bitumensin built-uproo{ingsystems.The gradeof asphaltused for BUR systems shouldbe appropriate for the slope ot the roof. Backnailingof telts is recommended for built up roofingwhenever the roof slope exceeds '/2 in. per ft. Aggregate-surtaced built-up roofing should not be usedon slopesexceeding3 in. per ft Reinforcingtelts for BUR may b€ saturated. coated. or impregnatedwith bitumen and are manufactured{rom both organrcand inorganicmaterials.Organicfelts are manufactured from the fiber of paper.wood. or rags.Saturatedfelts are saturatedwith asphaltor coal tar bitumen. lmpregnated roofing telts are generally lighter in weight and termed impregnatedbecausetheir surface is not completelycovered (coated)with asphalt. Saturatedand coated roofing felts are generallylactory coated on both sides and surNationalRootingConlractorsAssociation;Rosemont.lllinois ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects, PC;Washington,D.C
MEMBRANE ROOFING
faced on one or both sides with fine mineral sand or other release agents to prevent adhesion inside the roll prior to aoolication. Prepared r@ling materials are saturated and mat€d felts with talc, mica, sand, or ceramic granules incorporated into the weather surface of the telts, both to provide weather protection and for decorative purposes. Reinforced flashing membrane consrsts of a glass-fiber base lelt that is laminated with cotton or glass fiber fabric and coated with asphalt. Rosin-sized sheathing paper asa rosin+oated building paper generally used in built-up roofing to separate felts from wood olank root decks-
TEMPERATURE Proper application temperatures are vital to the creation of a quality root membrane system. Temperatures that are too high can lead to incomplete coverage, voids, and a lack of waterproo{ing qualities. Temperatures that are t@ low can lead to poor adhesion, high expansion propenies, and low tensile strength. Bitumens can be heated at high temperatures for short periods of time without damage and must be heated at
high temperatures in order to achieve complete fusion and strong bonding of the plies. There is an optimum viscosity range and an optamum temp€rature range at the point of application that allow complete fusion, optimum wetting and mopping properties, and the desirable interply bitumen weight. The equiviscous temperature (EW) is defined as the temperature at which the viscosity of roofing asphalt is 125 centistokes, plus or minus 25'F, at the mop bucket or Ielt layer immediately prior to application to the substrate. A centistoke is a unit that measures the kinematic viscosity. Centistokes = IDynamic ViscosiV/Densityl x Centipoise The recommended EVT range for roofing asphalt, Types I, ll, lll, and lV, is the temperature at which a viscosity of 75 centipoise is attained, plus or minus 25"F. The recom, mended EW range for coal tar products, types I and lll, is the temperature at which a viscosity of 25 centipoise is attained, plus or minus 25"F. One consequence of a change in EW from 125 centistokes to 75 centipoise, plus or minus 25"F, is the potential need to increase the temperature at which bituren is heated in the kettle or tanker. Excessive and prolonged heating of asphalt and coal tar products may have a deleterious effect on the quality of the producl.
417 ASPHALT .
SECOND LAYER PREFORMTD ROOF INSULATION BOARD
ASPHALT
FIRST LAYER PREFORMED INSUUTION
ROOF BOARD
--\
EreE ASPHALT
ASPHALT
GUSS
OF ROOF GUSS
ASPHTT
OVER NAII-ABLE NOTE
OECK
OVER
NON-NAII.-ABLE
MINERAL-SURFACED INORGANIC CAP SHEET
DECK
lf appliedover nailabredeck sh€athingpaners,add a rosin-sizedsheathingpaper between the deck and base shet. MINERAL-SURFACED
CAP SHEET BUILT.UP
NOOTTNC NAUBLE
DECK
SECOND
UYER
iEEfoByED NSUunoN
\!-------
F|RS]
Roor BoaRD-__\
\,
UYER
cnLlonMED RooF rNsuulonaoaeo
\
NON.NAUALE
---------\ \
ROOF R@F ASPHALT ASHALT, {UMINUM
THREE-PLY
OVER
NAII,-AEILE
EMULSION, TOP COAT
OR
FTBRAED
ASHALT, EMULSION, OR FIBRATED ALUMINUM TOP COAT
DEC}<
THREE.PLY
NOTE lf applied over sheathing panels, add a rosiftsized sheathing paper between the deck and base sheet.
SMOOTH
SURFACE
BUILT.UP
BUILT-UP
ROOF
SURFACING
Surfacing protects the bitumen and felts of trom direct sunlight and weather exposure. vide other properties such as tire resistance Surfacing types include aggregale, smooth maneral cao shet. AGGREGATE
GUSS
OVER
NON.NAITABLE
DECK
NOTE ror a more Conseryattve system, specify four plies rather than three
ROOFING
a built-uo roof and may pro, or reflectivity. surfacing, ani
SURFACING
The aggregate in roofing seryes as an opaqw covering that tmproves the appearance and fire resistance ot the roof and helps resist premature aging and damag€ from weather, temperature fluctuations, and ultraviolef.ays. Aggregate also increases lhe wind uplift resistance of the oi m-em_
brane and permits much heavier pourings of bitumen than would otheMise be possible. SMOOTH
SURFACING
Built-up roof membranes may be left sm@th, surlaced with a top coating of hot asphalt. Smooth surfacing should not be confused with a built{p membrane left unsurfaced (exposed felts). Smooth surfaced buill{p roofing should b€ specified only in those circumstances where aggregate-surfaced built-up roofing is impractical. such as whln1he roof surface exceeds 3 in. per ft. where the proximity of an airIntake or exhaust equipment may cause loose aggregate, or Mere appropriate aggregate is not available.
MINERAL
SURFACED
(CAP SHEET)
Some areas of the country, particularly the far western and southern states, use mineral-surfaced cap sheets as the final surfacing for built-up roofing membranes. These specr lcalons are srmrtar to aggregate and smooth_surfaced specrlrcatrons excepl that a final layer of prepared roofing material is installed on top oI the multiply built-up rool assembly. This specification is not popular in colder climates, primarily because it requires phased construction ot the final layer of roofing material.
National R@fing Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, D.C
MEMBRANE ROOFING
'
ModifiedBifumenMembroneRoofing
4t8
"="'"'r
\ON
PFL-ORMLO TNSULATTON
NAILABLE DECK
ROO' BOARD
NAIGBLF
----
\.
\\
BASE ..-
SHEET
EDGE OF ROOF
CAP SHEET WTH SURFACED MINERAL GRANULES. METAL FOIL, OR FIELD. PPLIED COATING
TI /O-PLY
OVER
NAIL.A,EtLE
SURFACED WrH MINERAL FOIL. MET{ GUNULES, OR FIELD-APPLIED COAT1NG TWO.PLY
OECK
OVER
\MODIFIED BtrUMEN SHEET ffORCH ryELDED. HOT-MOPPED, TO BASE '!R SELF.ADHERED SHEET)
NON-NAILABLE
DECK
N OTE lf applied over-sheathing panels when the cap sheet is hot-mopped, add a rosin-sized sheath ing paper between th€ deck and base sheet.
T\,VO-PLY MODIFIED
BITUMEN
MEMBRANE NON.NAIUBLE
ASPHALT
/
AY
SHEET
EreE
OF R@F
MODIFIED BIUMEN SHET CTORCH reLDED, HOT-MOPPED, OR SELF. AOHERED TO AASE SHTM GP Wffts
THREE-PLY
(SURFACED SHEff MINERAL GRANULES.
THFTEE-PLY
OVER
OVER
NON.NAII.AEILE
DECK
N OTE lf applied ovetrsheathing panels when the cap sheet is hot,mopped, add a rosin-sized sheathing paper between the deck and base sheet.
THREE-PLY
MODIFIED BITUMEN
MODIFIED
BITUMEN
MEMBRANE
MEMBRANES
Polymermodifiedbitumen membranescouplebitumen and oolvmerswith variousreinforcementsto form a membrane system with improvedproperties.Modifiersinclude atactic polypropylene, styrene+utadiene-styrene,and styrenebutadiene-rubb€r. The modifying compounds impart jmproved flexlbility. cohesive strength, toughness, and resistanceto flow at high temperatures.The seams are sealed by torch welding or with hot asphalt. Thickness rangestrom 40 to 160mils.
NationalRoofingContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois ValerieEickelberger; Rippeteau Architects,PC:Washington. D.C.
MEMBRANE ROOFING
For some systems a base sheet is fastened to the deck as an underlayment. In the hot-mopped system, the membrane is constructed similar to a built{p roof with hot asphalt mopped between the plies. Self-adhered sheets have a factory-applied asphalt-adhesive coating on the underside. The protective sheet is peeled away to stick the membrane to the roof deck. Torch-applied membrane systems have a tactory-applied coating of modified asphalt on the underside of the sheet, which is melted with a oropane torch to make the sheet adhere.
Reinforcing materials for polymer modified bitumen membranes include plastic Iilm, polyester mat, glass fiber, felt or fabric. and metal foils. embedded within or laminated onto the moditied bitumen sheet. Memb.anes may be surlacad with liquid coatings, metallic laminates, or ceramic or min eral granules to enhance resistance to weatherang, ultraviolet rays, or fire or to improve appearance. Terminations at roof edges, parapets, and olher tlashings may be torchapplied, hot-mopped, or self-adhered. Laps are formed as the sheet is being applied.
Eg!!!-upond Modified BitumenDetqits
419
GENERAL
= -- XFJAbS,'FiEJ;'4?83'^
In. general. the details for installation of bitumen rooftnq_ whether burlt-up roofing or modifred Oltumen rootLnq'_ ail srmrrar In many respects. Details for both types of rdofrno are included where applicable. I he details strow typicat cqni gluons that occur at bitumen roofs. such as roof;dge conorrons, prptng penetrations, and equrpment suppodJ
L"J?S?|i9",3X.FJFUSHING 2'WID€
CLIP,
BruMFN
FUSHING
FASTENERS
-
APPROXIMATELY
S'
HEAW
METAL
EDGE
FUSHING
STRIP)
AffiOXIMAELY
FIB_ER GNT (OPTIC)NAL
O,C
A'
O.C
STRIP SE] IN BITUMFN FOR MC)DIFIED BIUMEN)
WOOD NAILER SECURED TO DECK WTH FASENERS AMOXMAELY 24' O.C BULT{P ROOFNG (OR MODIFIED wrH omoNAL FrLq:rEJ! MEMBUNE) suRFAcrNG oR coariNc
HEAVY METAL BASE SHEfl
N OTES 'l. This d€tail,shouldb€ used onty when the deck is sutr Ponedbv the wall. 2. The joints in the two piecesof flashingshouldnot be sot-
BASE FLASHtNG FoR wALL-supponieo
SHEET (OR MODIFIED IF REOUIRED)
ROOF EDGE
BruMEN
dered. Breaks in soldered joints could channel water behind the flashing.Clips at the bottom of the flashinq are not necessaryon tlashingsof 6 in. or less.
oecr<
MflAL REGLfl. APPROXIMATELY
FASENERS 24' O.C.
RilOVABLE COUNTERFUSHTNG UP ME:TAL AT JOIMS FLUTBLE VArcR RETAINER FASTENERS
2'WIDE
RETARDER/INSUU]
APPRC)XMATELY
A' O-C.
CLIP APPrcXIMAELY
BASE FUSHING. CC|WR VArcR RETARDER
toN
S'O.C.
SCUPPER THROUGH TOP Wfr
ROOF EDGE
3Uffi;3L3OJL"5-'E=JilERFR*=O COMPRESSIE}LE
INSUUNON
RIME
WOC)D CAM STRIP Tc) PRC)VDF STBUCTURA SmENGB; narf AND BONC)M AffiC)XMATELY 16'OC
Cc)NCRffi
CAULK WH ETASTOMERIC SAUM ANGLE CUMPNG BAR WTH SLOfrED ANCHOR HOLES
rOe
FASENERS EXPANSION
IN S;HIELOS
COMRESSIBLE EUSTOMERIC TAPE TO SPAN IRREGUURMES WOOD M[ FASTENERS
ER
SECURED TO APROXIMATELY
DECK 24'
WTH OC.
CHAMFER TO DRAIN
\ BUILT-UP BTUMEN SURFACING
NOTES '1. This detail allorc mll and deck to move independentlv. 2. This detatl should be used where there is any possibility that differential movement will occur betwdn the decl and a venical surface, such as at a penthouse wall. The
(OR MODIFIED RC)OFING MEMBRANE) WG OMONAL OR C;OAING
BASE (OR MODIFTEO SHEFT SHEET) AS REOUIRED
\
TOP
seoa roP oF sysrEM WTH FAERIC TAPE AND MASIC (Om|oNAL) FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY
A'
BTUMEN
vertical wood member should be fastened to the deck only. Thrs is one satisfactoryrethod of ioinrngthe two piece flashingsystem. Other methods miv be-used.
FIBER CANT STRIP SET IN BITUMEN
ANACH WOOD NAILER TO CONCREE Wft AFROVED MEBOD
BAsE FLAs H ING Fo R No rg_wa,r_l-sUFFoETEEEEEI
Ff*"IrLlF
rros HrNGco Nc RErE
NationalRoofing ContractorsAss@iation;Rosemont,lllinois ValerieEickelberger:RippeteauArchitect;. pC: Wa;hin;io; D.C
MEMBRANE ROOFING
O.C
420
Built-upond ModifiedBitumenDetoils 1 2'
TO 6 JOINT COVER 4 WIDE SET tN MASTIC
WLDE
STRIPPING (MODIFIED BITUMEN FLASHING STRIP)
CONTINUOUS CLEAT
FASENERS APPROXIMATELY
SET IN MASTIC: PRIME BEFORE STRIPPING
A'
PLWMD EfERIOR CLEAT OR TAPERED SLOPE TO PROVIDE
M O D I F I E DB I T U M E N M E M B R A N E
+----
UNDER
JOINT
_ OSIONAL SEAL WITH FUSHING AND MASTIC
NAILS STAGGERED 3'' O.C APPROXIMATELY METAL FUNGE
FELT
4- TO 6' JOINT COVER. IN ELASTOMERIC WIDE SET SEALANT
TO I 8" TAPERED EDGE STRIP
TOP OF FABRIC
O.C
ON BLCKING
(OR FUSHING BASE BITUMEN MODIFIED FGSHING STRIP)
AASE SHEET (OR MODIFIED BITUMEN SHEET) TURN DOWN ONE PLY OF FELT TO BELOW BLOCKING FOR AUILT.UP ROOFING
FIBER CANT STRIP SET IN BTUMEN
N OTES '1. Envelope shown is for coal tar pitch and low-slope asphalt. 2. Attach nailer to masonry wall.
MEMBRANE
5. Wood bl@king may be slotted for venting wher€ required.
GRAVEL
MoDTFTED BrruMEN
\.==-
3. This detail should be used only where the deck is supported by the outside wall. 4. This detail should be used with light{auge metals, such as 16 oz. copper, 24{auge galvanized metal, or O.O4Oin. aluminum. A iapered edge strip is used to raise the gravel stop. Frequent nailing is necessary to @ntrol thormal movement.
NOTE This detail should b€ used onlv when the deck is suppbned by the wall. An expansionioint detailshouldb€ used for a deck not supportedby a wall LIGHT METAL
STOP
PARAPET
CAP
CLAT OR DRW STANDING SEAM
SECTION
STRUCTURAL
VArcR FLEXIBLE RETARDER/INSUGTION AfrACHED RETAINER TOP OF CURB
TO J
_ --.2'_
',(
.Z
FASTENERS
1 o z
FASTENERS APMOXMAELY 1 2', O.C.
FASTENERS A' O.C, BOTH
TO PREVENT INSUUTE CONOENSATION SEALED WELDED PUTE, WATERTIGff
APPROXIMATELY SIDES
FIBER CAM STRIP IN BIUMEN SET
FuSHING
VAPOR COVER Wfr RETARDER (OR MODIFIED STRIP) BITUMEN FSSHING INSUUTION COMPRESSIBLE WOOD CANT SMIP TO PROVDE STRUCTURAL STRENGTHj NAIL TOP AND APPROXIMATELY BONOM 16', O.C. MODIFIED BITUMEN MEMBRANE NAILER EACH SIDE WOOD TO DECK WTH SECUREO AI 24' O.C, FASTENERS
T (OR
D BTUMEN
CAP
FUSHING
SET
BOLTS
STRUCruRAL
FRAME
WTH
SEAI}NT
DRAW BANO
APPROXIMATELY
WATERTIGHT OWRUPPING RAOIUS OF
REMOVABLE COUNTERFUSHING
UMBRELU JACK BY TO 4'
1/.' MlN.
CLEARANG
TO
PIPE
APPROXIMATELY
FASTENTRS
(OR BASE SHEET BruMEN SHEET)
MODIFIED
/-/ ./
BITUMEN
FIBER CANT AIUMEN
STRIP
SET
I
FUNGE TO 4' MAX 3" MIN OVER lN MASTIC SEI FUNGE PRIME R@FING (FOR BEFoR. S] RIPPINC NAIL MODIFIED EITUMEN, NAILER) TO WOOD FLANGE WELDED
IN
NOTE This detail allows for roof maintenancearoundthe equipmentsupport. Continuoussuppon is preferredin lightweight roof systems becauseequipmentweight can be spread over two o-r more supponingmembers. Clearancemust be providedfor removal and replacementof roof ing and flashingbetween parallelsupports.
ROOFING MEMBRANE
3'
ROOF MSAL SHEET MIN. A' ABOVT JACK ('/"'MIN R@FING TO UMBRELG) CLEARANCE
(OR FUSHING BASE BIruMEN MODIFIEO FCSHING STRIP)
NationalRoofingContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois ValerieEickelberger:RippeteauArchitects.PC; Washington,D.C.
EITUMEN
ROOF
MEMBER THROUGH
CAULK
PAD
FASTENERS 24' O.C.
SHEEI)
NOTE This detail illustrates one method of eliminating pitch pockets. The curbed system aliows for movement in the structural member without disturbing the rool system.
IN SfuNT
NEOPRENE
MODIFIED MEMBRANE
/-
STRUCTURAL
EXPANSION JOINT
MODIFIED MEMBRANE
A' O.C.
FUSHING BASE (oR MODTFTED FL$HING BITUMEN STRIP)
CHAMFER TOP OF BOfr WOOD CURBS TO ORAIN TO ONE SIDE BASE
AS NECESSARY
FASTENERS APffiOXIMATELY
ANCHOR
PUTE
N OTE This detail depicts site-fabricated construclion. Many manufacturers now offer prefabricated llashing piece! or permit the use ot materials lor flashing purposes other than those shown he.e- Proprietary designs vary widely: consult individual manulacturers about use.
Built-upqnd Modified BitumenDetoils WOOD
NAILIF.
2 X 4
NOMINAL METAL
421
FRAME SEAL /-
STRIP FUSHTNG '
RECEIWR
APPROXIMATELY 24' O C.
COUNTERFLASHING APPROXIMATELY
FASTENED 1A'O,C.
FASTENERS
FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY
APMOXMATELY
A'
a' o.c. ---- BASE
O.C -
1 4' STANDARD MANUFACTUREO
FUSHING
HEIGffi
COUMERFUSHING EXTENDED DOWN TO ROTEfr AGAINST FOOT OAMAGE (OffIONAL) (OR AASE FGSHING MODIFIED BITUMEN FUSHING SRIP) INSUUTON NOTE FIAER CAM SRIP. SET iNTO BIruMEN WOOD BLOCKING FASTENED TO DECK (OmONAL)
EQUIPMENT
CURB EreE
An area divider is designed simply as a raised double wood member attached to a properly flashed wood base plate that is anchored to the roof deck. Area dividers should be located between the roof's expansion joints at 150 to 200 lt intervals, depending upon climatic conditions and area practices. Thev should never restrict the flow of water.
AREA DIVIDER
OF SUMF sRrFlNG METAL
FELTS
sRtffiNG
FELTS
FGSHING SNAINER
CUMANG
RING
SET BOLTS EUSTOM€RIC
DECK CUMP
MJUSTS WRTICALLY AND HORIZONTALLY
SMIFING FELTS TAPER
IN
SEAUNT
-
INSUUNON
TO
DUIN
N OTES
1. Minimum30 in. square,2'l2to 4 lb leador 16 oz solt cop per flashingset on finishedroof Ielts set in mastic.Prime top surfacebefore stripping. 2. Membraneplies,metalflashing, andflash-inpliesextend underthe clampingring.
-
NOTE This detail allows for expansionand contractionof pipes without roof damage.
3. Stripping felts extend 4 in. and 6 in. beyond edge o.f llashingsheet, but not beyondedge of sump. 4. The use of metal deck sump pans is not recommended.
PIPE ROLLER SUPPORT ROLLED 1'OOWN
LEAD rMO
PLUMBING
FUSHTNG PIPE VEM
STACK
ROOF DRAIN INSUUTE INSIDE OF METALWORK IN COLD CLIMATES SHEff SLOPT
METAL ErcLOSURE, FOR DRAINAGE
SHEET
CRC)SS;E}REAK OR
METAL OR FLg-ruBE
FUSHING
COLI.A
RECEIWR PIPES
SLffi
AWAY
Mc)M
H@D
COUNTERFUSHINc;
FASTENERS -,
o-?:- - 't) / FASTENERS
APROXIMAELY
MIN. 4' CLEARANC)E FROM OF CURB, MIN- 2'BETWEN
- //
APPROXIMATELY
BASE
FbSHING
24' O,C PIPE TO PIES
TOP
SITE-FAE]RICATED A'
O.C.
DETAIL
PREFABRICATED PIPING BOOT (CONSULT MANUFACTURER
FoR
spEctFtcarloNs),,--1
FIBER AM STRIP _ SET IN BruMEN
N OTE
PREFABRICATED N OTES
This detail illustrates another method of eliminating pitch pockets and a stisfactory method of grouping piping that must come up above the r@f surface.
2. Minimum clearance of 12 in. from cant strips and other curDs or prpes.
MULTIPLE
SINGLE PIPE PENETRATION
PIPE PENETRATION
DETAIL
1. Sheet lead minimum of 2rl, lb per sq lt.
NationalR@fing ContractorsAssociation;Rosemont,lllinois ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
MEMBRANE ROOFING
422
EPDMSingte-Pty Roofing
EPDM SINGLE-PLY ROOFING Ethylenepropylenediene monomer (EpDM)membranes are 30 to 60 mil thick, single-sheetroofing materials.They are availableeither nonreinforcedor reinlorcedwith fabric Seamsin the membraneare splicedandcemented.EPDM membranesare highlyresistantto degradation from certain chemicals.ozone,and ultravioletradiationand have excellent resilience,tensile strength, abrasionresistance,hardness. and weatheringproperties.
agarnst wind uplift forces. Some membranes require field application of surfacings or coatings to provide weather resrslance, aesthetrcs, or other propertjes. Specifications for formulation and installation of EPDM membranes vary wth the individual manufacturer. Separation layers of asphalt-saturated organic felt or boardtype r@f insulation permit the membrane to move relative to the deck without abrasion. Membrane terminations at roof edges, parapets, and other flashings employ material id€ntical to the roof membrane material shaoed to conform to the substrate and area berng flashed. Standards for EPDM membranes are maintained bv ASTM and the Bubber Manufacturers Association.
EPDM membranes may be laid lmse, mechanicallvfastened, or fully adhered to either nailable or non-nailable decks For loose-laidsystems, ballast provides resistance
FrcM
SHEET
SEPARAION UYER
\
NAIGALE DECK \
(tF REOUIRED)
\
\\2
LOOSE.LAID
\\--
EXPANSION /.
JOINT
SEAUNT
DRAWBAND ELASTOMERIC
IN SET MASTIC
PREFABRICATED COWR ADHERED TO EPDM MEMBRANE WITH APPROPRIATE ADHESIW
SEAL EDGE OF COVER WITH UP EDGE SEAUNT z'
MLUST
ADHERED SEAMS
OVER
NAII.-AEILE
LOOSE-LAID
PREFABRICATED
DECK
OVER
NC)N.NAIL-A,E}LE
DECK
EPDM ROOFING
EPDM SHEET\
PIPE FLASHING
SMOOTH CONCRETE, ErcSED SURFACES MUST BE WATERMOOFED
/ CAULK WITH EUS;TOMERIC SEALANT / ANGLE cuMPtNG / 8AR WTH ,/ / SLONFD
COMPRESSIEILE EUSTOMERIC TAPE TO SPAN IRREGUURMES
SEPARATION UYER OF REQUIRED)
ile-vilnarue
ANCHOR HOLES
\r \/'--\ )
FASTENERS IN EXPNSION SHIELDS PRIME CONCRETE IF REOUIRED 3
CURED OR UNCURED MEMBRANE ADHERED TO WALL AND MEMgRANE WTH ADHESIVE
--
SEAL EDGES OF FUSHING EDGE
SEAUNT EPDM MEMBRANE INDIVIDUAL OR BAR.ryPE MECHANIAL FASTENER INSTALLEO UNDER UP
FASTENING OR W[L.
OVER
MECHAN.ICALLY
FASTENED
NON-NAILAE}LE
DECK
EPDM ROOFT
PARAPET
SHEET-
MLAE]LE
COUNTERFLASH
SEAL EOGES OF FUSHING WITH LF EOG€
EMM
DECK
STRIP APPLIED TO FASTENED 1 2" O.C,
SAI..N
FLUIBLE VAPOR RETARDER TO SERVE AS NSUUNON RETAINER.
I NG
CURED OR UNCURED FLASHING MEMEiRANE ADHERED TO BELLOWS AND MEMBRANE WIH APRC)PRIAT€ ADHESIVE COMPRESSIBLE INSUSTION
/
CHAMFER EACH SIDE
OVER
NAITAE}LE
FULLY ADHERED
DECK
EPDM ROOFING
National Roofing Contractors Association; Rosemont, lllinois Valerie Ejckelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, D.C
MEMBRANE ROOFING
oF wooo CURB OVER
NON-NAII-AE}LT
DECK
TO
DRAIN
EXPANSION
JOINT
DECK
ilrL"viEearue
Singte-ptypVC Roofing SINGLE-PLY
PVC
ryPE l: Unreinforced sheet ryPE ll, CLASSl: Unreinforced sheercontaining fibers ryPE ll, CLASSll: Unreinforcedsheet containingfabrics TYPElll: Reinforcedsheet conrainingfibers or fabrics
ROOFING
Polyvin-yl chloride (PVC) membranes may be nonreinforced or.rernlorce-dwith glass fibers or polyesier faOnc aS io 6d mils thrck. Seams are formed by heat or chemical weldrna and may require additional caulkrng pVC memb,anes aie resrstant to bacterial growth. industrial chemical afto, spheres, r@t penetration, and extreme weather conditions PVC membranes have excellent fire resrstance and seam_ rng capabttft€s.
SHEET\
NAIGBLE
OECK
-\
TAPER
INSUUTON
24'
DOWN
TO
DRAIN
PVCmembranesmay be laidloose,mechanically fasrened. or lullyadheredto etthernarlable or non nailable decks.For looselaidsystems,ballastprovides,esistance against;n; uplrttlorces. Some PVCmembraneshave a factory-appled coatingto provideweather resistance,aesthetics,or other properties to the membrane. Some membranes may requiretield applicationof surfacingsor c@tingsto provide these ororerties.
ASTM Standard D{434 classes pVC materials into several types and classes dependrng upon the conslruction of lhe sheet materiall ryC
.
423
3X?..- SEFeT"-o" F'S.'J^H)FF ---
ROOF DRATN
HAT-MLDED CHilIALLY
LOOSE-LAID
OR FUSED
HEAT-WELDED OR GEM&IY FUSED
UPS
UPS
PVC ROOFING
LOOSE-LAID
EXPANSION
FEXIBLE TUBING (MtN. DtA. 1 /2 TTMES WIDTH OF JOINT)
.-
HEAT-WELDED OR CHEMICALLY FUSED OVER
NAIT-ABLE
MECHANICALLY
HtaT_wEDED CHEMICALLY
UPS
DECK
FASTENED
WATER-.OR SOLWM-BAS;ED DHESW\
OVER
BAR.ryE @WRED MEMBUNE
OR FUSED
NON-NAILABLE
ryC FUSHING STRTP WELDED TO MEMBRANE ryC
MEME}RANE FASTEN AS REOUIRED
W@D NAILER EACH SIDE SECURED TO DECK WITB APPROPRIATE FASTENERS
FASTENER WIH PIECES
NSUUION
JOINT
GAMFER EACH SIDE OF WMD CURB TO DRAIN SLIP SHET (IF REQUIRED)
BOARD
UPS DECK
PVC ROOFING
*\
EXPANSION
JOINT
SMOOT CONC:RETE-UPOSED SURFACES MUST BE WAERRMFED
.\
AULK WTH EUSTOMERIC
SEAGM
ANGLE UMPING MH SLOTTED |..&ES
BAR NCHOR
@MPRESSIBLE EUSTOMERIC TAPE TO SPAN IRREGUURMES ryC FUSHING MEMBRANE ADHERED Tc) WALL AND €LDED TO MEMBRANE PRIME CONCRETE FASENING TO DECK FASTENED
STRIP APPLIED OR WALL, 1 2' O,C.
ryC OVER
FULLY ADHERED
PVC ROOFING
NON-NAII,ABLE
DEC:K
SLIP
PARAPET
SHEET
COU NTERFLASHI
MEMBRANE
(IF REOUIRED)
NG
Na-tional R@ling Contractors Assciation; Rosemont, lllinois Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, O.C
MEMBRANE ROOFING
424 NOTE
Polvvinyl chloride (PVC) is a semirigid malerial that re quires the addition of plasticizers to fabricate a flexible roofing membrane. PVC exhibils excellenl weldabilitv tor making lap joints or attaching to PVC clad metal llashrng
TYPES
'-
Single-PfyPVCRoofing
OF
MEMBRANE
Unreinforced sheet Sheel reinforced with fiberglass or polyester
METHOD OF MANUFACTURE
Contaminants to avoid: Bitumen, oils, animal fals. and coal lar pitch. See manufaclurer's chemacal resistance hsl. M i n r m u m s t a n d a r d s rA S T M h a s d e v e l o p e d s t a n d a f d t e s t methods to evaluate the materials p.operties of PVC rool membranes. These test r€sults form a useful basis for comparing various PVC membranes. ASTN''l's standard specificarion eslablish€s minamum performance ctllerla lof tensile streoglh, elongation, tear resistance, heal aging, wealhering, and waler absorplion.
Calendering Sp.ead coating Ext,uding
INSTALLATION General guidelines: lt is recommended that all roofing materials be installed on toofs with positive slope lo drainage. Check with manulaclurers regarding their specific requirements.
GENERAL
Lap ioining methods: Hot air or solvent weld
Single ply roofing sYslems are also referred to as flexible sheet rooling systems. Consult manufacturers for spe_ cilic requirements regarding mate.ials selection and installation requirements. Compatibiliry of malerials comprising tolal rooling system is essential
MATERIAL PROPERTIES 48 and60 mil;45 milminimum Typically Thickness: graY;othercolorsavailable Color:Typically
s%N \ \-'c
/
FLASHING
PARAPET
TYPICAL
vevae^rua
rr.s-'rc
Flashing methods: Membrane or PVC coated metal Types of preformed accessories available: Inside and outside cornersi pape stacks
-PVC METAL
,,.
COATED FLASHING
wELoEo MEMBRANE ..$r- pvc y' COATED METAL To Pvc
Weather restriclions during inslallalion: 0o-1 20oF tem' perature range. Substrates and welding/bonding surtaces must be dry.
FLASH
ING
FASTENEO REQUI RED
Merhod of repair: Clean surface; hot air or solvent weld of PVC patch
AS
SHEET
ALTERNATE
FLASHING
PARAPET
FIRST LAYER ROOF INSULATION BOARD
PVC
SHEE\
/
COVERED WITH PrEcE /-\
)
ME
( ri i \-/
ll,f ) =F.'i3ar.9-Rl I! \J-.{ >!!=.r-.]:f. )-l-^ Jiiinr'csAr
|\
PVCSHEET/ AT-WELOEO EMICALLY
OR FUSED
SECOND ROOF IN SULAT BOARD
HEAT-wELoEo CHEMICALLY
oRr FUSED
ll
\
---+r
THOD "A ', T WELDED
LAP
MECHANICALLY PVC ASTENEO
LAYER ION
AT-WELDEO HEMICALLY
OISK
OR FUSED
' THOD "C - TYPE FAS] ERED WITH
Membrane sheets are laid loose over.oot insulation {also laid loose) and secured at the petimetet af,d around penetrations only. The membrane is then covered with a ballast ol river-washed slones (typically l0 lb/sq ftl or appropraate pavers. This syslcm wo.ks eflicienlly with insulatioo app.oved bv the membrane manulacturer and on r@fs with a slope not exceeding 2 in 1 2.
For system with no slope limitations which secures membrane to substrate with bonding adhesive and by mechanically fastening lhe membrane to perameter and penetrations. Syslem is appropriale for conloured roots and rools that cannot withstand weight of ballasted system. Membrane can be directly applied to deck surface of concrete, wood surfaces, or be applied to compatible insulation that is mechanically lastened to the deck.
FULLY Membrane sheets are laid loose over a sloped roof deck and with the insulation on lop of it. When the roof deck is dead level. tapered rool insulation is either loose laid or mechanically altached under the membrane to achieve positive slope to drainage. In either inslance, a layer ol insulation is olaced over the membrane and held in place by one of two methods: Either a loose labric is laid over the insulation, wilh a minimum of 10 lb/sq ft of ballast laid over rh€ labric, or insulation with an integrally bonded concrele tacing is used in place of the fabric and loose ballast. Membrane manufacturers should be consulted for their approved insulation list. In this roofing svstem, the membrane is protected ftom year'round temperature extremes. direct exposure to weather. and damage from other sources. The heat gain or loss is just the same as i{ the insulation were installed under the membrane. Since lhe walerprooling membrane is placed on the warm side ol the insulation, it funclions as a vapor retarder. For high humidiry conditrons with a dead level roof deck utilizing tapered insulation, a separate vapor barrier should be placed directly beneath the lapered in' sulation to oaevent condensalion.
PROTECTED
MEMBRANE
SHEET
Billings,Montana CTAArchitectsEngineers;
ROOFING MEMBRANE
ADHERED
SHEETS
A mechanically anchored rool system is appropriate ior rools that cannot canv lhe additional load ol ballasted roof sVstems. Systems are available with lasteners that oenetrate the membrane or that requlre no membrane penelration. The membrane is anchored to the rool using metal bars or individual clips, and it may be installed over concrete, wood, metal, o. compatible insulation.
MECHAN
ICALLY
ATTACHED
SHEETS
1.T', MEMBRANE
;"'"""*')
STRIP ,INSULATION WITH INTEGRALLY BONOEO CONCRETE FACING OR STONE BALLAST OVER FABRIC M EMBR
FILTRATION FABRIC\ H-
\
ANE
TAPERED INSU LATION
I i t -eo..asr
BARRIER REQUIRED
C)EAO
LEVEL
ROOF
IF
Liquid-AppliedRoofing GENERAL Liquid-applied roofing systems are systems primarily applied as liquids at ambient tempe.atures. Most of them h?v.e som€ sort of reinforcing fabric that is applied along with the liquid component. Liquid,applied rooting applied over exasting roofs is not generally accepted as a "mem, brane" but as a coating. Acrylic latex and urethane are the two main types of liquidapplied roofing. Acrylic latex refers to a familv of products that use water,based polymers and cure by water evaooration- Liquidapplied urerhane roof coatings are chemically cured lo form an elastomeric membrane. Because these @tings are applied as liquids, installation is relatively simple, even for roofs with irregular geometries or multiple penetrations. For systems using a reinforcing tabric, a coat, ang is applied to an acceptable surface. While the coating is still wet, a layer of polyester or fjberglass is laid into it iof lwed by an additional layer ol coaling. Subsequent layers may be added as desired or necessary. Liquid-applied rooling systems are appropriate for new constructaon but are most commonly used 6 enhancements or for repairs to existing roo{s, including modified bitumen r@fs and built-up roofs. Advantages ol liquid-applied roofing are that it conforms very well to irregular surfaces, is easily applied, and comes in various colors. However. it does cause marginal ponded water performance end is best used in sloped roof situa, IOnS.
12" W|DE REINFORCING FABRIC OVER METAL FGNGE
,_ 4<-z <\_ r- -. -:-
-rJ1{..'
Lff'" }?:RBil'='
LIOUID'APPLIED ROOF BASE COAT (UNDER FLANGE)
1 'h"
.-
CONTINUOUS
CLAA
NOTES L Attach nailer to masonry wall. Refer to Factory Mutual data sheet # 1-49. 2. This detajl should be used only when the deck is supported bv th€ outside wall. 3. This detail should be used with light€auge metals such as a 16{2 copper, 24{auge galvanized metal, or O.04 in. alumanum. A tapered €dge strip is used to raise the gravel stop. Frequent nailing is necessary to control thermal movement_ GRAVEL
STOP ROOF COANNG OR SEAUM W BACKER ROD FLEXIBLE VAPOR RETMDTR TO SERW AS iNSUDTION RflAINER: AnACH TO TOp OF CURB
Roofslopeminimumis 1/oin.in 12 or 29o:no maximum RETROFIT LIQUIO-APPLIED ROOFING OVER EXISTING METAL ROOF REINFORCING
FASTENERS APFROXIMAELY goTH a' o.c.,
/-
REINFC)RCED OR UNREINFORCED LIOUID-APPLIED ROOFING
FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY
a' o.c.
-LIOUID-APPLIED R@F r' z ToTOAT(S)
SUBSMATE OR R@F DECK REFLECTIVE
COMPRESSIBLE INSUUTION REINFORC]NG
ADHERED
AALUST
TACK @AT I
//-
-F -
OR
-RETNFORCED
LIOUID-APPLIED R@F BASF
UNREINFMCED LIOUID-APPLIED ROONNG
-
ADHEREO
COVER 6" WDF
sET rN MASTTC LroutD-appLtED
NAILS APPROX 3' O.C. STAGGERED
OF W@D CURB TO DRAIN:
AGYLTC TOPCOATTNG
JOINT 4I TO
METAL SET IN MASTIC: PRIME FUNGE BEFORE STRIPPING
CHAMFER ACH SIDE
/\ffi[E
- ---
.
-
IAPER INSUUNON 24' DOWN TO DRAIN
SUBSTRATEOR OOF DECK
E}ALLAST
NOTE
1. Use minumum30-in.sq. 2rl, lb to 4 lb leadftashing.Set in mastic. Primetop surtacebefore stripping. 2. Liquid-applied roof coatings,reinforcingfabric,and metal flashing(optional) extendunderclampingring.
Liquid€pplied roofing systems may also be used under rigid insulation and ballast tor further protection. Refer to "Protected Membrane Roofing" for {urther details.
LIQUID.APPLIED
ROOFING
SYSTEMS
NONSKID TEruRE
-
EXPANSION
JOINT
ROOF DRAIN
SAND (OF|ONAL)
/.
WHTE ACRYLIC TOrcAT c)R TACK COAT FOR NONSKID SAND TEXTURE
12'WIDE MEMBRANE UNDER JOINT COWR
10'o' MU. LENGTH acH PIECE
JO|M COWR. 4. TO 6'WDE. S5 IN EUSTOMERIC SEAANT
LIOUID-APRIED ROOF COAING(S) SUBSRAE R@F DECK TJNREINFORCED
SAL
G
. -y' ' ,>-2
OF
EfERIOR PLWOOD ON CLEAT OR TAPERED BLOCKING TO PROVIDE
NONSKID SAND TEruRE (otrroNAL) WHITE TOrcOAT
TOP
FUSHING wc FABRTC AND MASTIC (offroNAL)
- , /x I ! Lrr
MEME}RANE
REINFORCING FABRIC. 4PPED
FASTENERS
ACRYL'C OR
a' o.c.
24" O.C. LIOUID APPLIED ROOF TOTOAr(S) 6', MtN. OERLAP
425
REINFORCING
-
LIOUIO-APPLIED R@F BASE FIBER
REINFC)RCED
COMINUOUS
MEME}RANE
LIQUID.APPLIED
MEMBRANE
TYPES
LIGHT
METAL
CANT
STRIP
CLAT
PARAPET
N OTE Sheet lead minimum of 2rl2 lb per sq ft.
CAP
SINGLE
PIPE
PENETRATION
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leaf Studio:Crownsviile.Marytand Rich Boon;The RoofingIndustryEducationalInstitute;Englewood,Colorado
MEMBRANE ROOFING
426
Single-PlyEPDMRoofing
NOTES
G E N E R A LN O T E S
There are three genericinstallationmethodsfor EPDM rooting:
EPDMelastomericroofingis synthesizedfrom ethylene, propvlene,and a smallamountol dienemonomer.Manufactufedsheetsrangein thickncssfrom 30 to 60 mils.
1. Fully Adhered:Membraneroofing is .olled onto the substrateand allowedto relax.Undersideis then fully coated with bonding adhesive.After both surtaces are tacky, the membraneis pressedonto the substrate with a push broom. Adioining sheets must overlap8t least3 in., with lapssplicedand cemented. Membraneis mechsnicallysecuredat perimeterand penetration edges. Flashingprotects all edges. openangs,and penetrations. 2. Loose Laid: Roofing in this appticationjs laid toose over lhe substrate,eitherdeck or rigidinsulation,and ballastedin place.lt is positionedwithout stretching, allowed to attain its natural shape, and adjacent sheets spliced with adjoiningshee$ overlapping8t least 3 in. Sheetsare cemenied8nd rolledtogether to seal seams. The membraneis mechanicallvsecured at perimeterand penetrationedges,and ilashing is installed.For ballast, a sufficientamount ot rivetrwashedgravel is laid over the membraneto provide10 lb/sq ft ol weight. As an alternate,8 precast roof paver system is applied to hold the rooting memDrane. 3: MechanicallyFastened:Membraneroof is directlvartached to the roof deck with mechanicslfasteners. The substrate is anchored to the roof deck, and the fastenerseither go through both membrane8nd insulationor only go throu0h the insulstionand d€ck, with the membrane held down by retainer and cap over the base. SealSntproiects against moisture.
Advantages:EPDMrooling exhibitsa high deg.eeol resistancelo ozone,ultraviolet,extremetemperatuteand olher elements,and degradationtrom ab.asion.lt is resilient,stfong. elastic, and less prone to crackingand tearing when comparedto other lorms ot membrane roofing. Disadvantages: Applicationmethods,specificformulas and configurationsfor adhesives,fasteners,and coatangs8re uniquewith each sVstemmanulactufed.Materials, design, and appropriateuse vary widely. Close supervisionand regularinspectionby manufacturerare a requirement.Laborcost and time allottedfor installaIron may vary.
INgULATEO ROOF APPLICATION
MEMBRANE
5E TUBING ANO FILLER EELF-CURING EPOM FLASHING RUEBER FASTENING STRIP ANO METAL FA6TENER
Many EPDM membranes 8re field surtaced to improve resastanc€ to weatheringand fire, or to enhsnce app€arance.
6PLICE
RUBBER FASTENING STRIP ANO METAL FASTENER RIGID INSULATION
ROOF
MEMBRANE
EIALLASTED
EXPANAION JOINT: FULLY ADHEREO ROOF MEMBRANE
GRAVEL COUNTERFLASHING FASTEN TO WALL AT 6" O.C. ELASTOMERIC MEMARANE FLASHING-SEAL EoGEs AS WITH OVERLAPS OF ROOFING MEMBRANd
BALLAST
JOINT
FASTENE
LAP EOG€ SEALANT
NAILER
\€r*=o o* ..r UNCUREO MEMBRANE
Z COMPRESSEO r FLEXIELE TUBINGI I/2 X WIDTH OF
FLA€iHING-AOHERE
JOINT
EPOM ROOFING S. MEMBRANE
\
FASTEN ROOFING TO rcOD NALERS
T.O MEMARANE ROOFING ANO GRAVEL sToP \EPOM MEMBRANE ROOFING TAPEREO INSULATION ROOF EDGE STRIP
SECURE NAILERS| TO FIOOF OECK USING FASTENING SYSTEM RECOMMENOEO BY RIGIO
INSULATION
ROOF OECK AND RIGID INS|ULATIC)N
OECK
FULLY ADHEREO ROOF PARAPET OR WALL
BONONG
AOHESIVE
UNCURED FLASHING
NEOPRENE -
AT
ROOF WALL
EDGE
AT NONSUPPORTING
LIGHT
METAL
TENERS 4" o'C.
EPDM MEMBRANE-TURN OOWN PAST BLOCKING SEALANT DECK ANO INSULATION
OWSIDE
FULLY
WALL
ADHERED
EDGE
RUST-RESISTANT
WATER CUTOFF MASTIC---
ROOF RIGID
ROOF
ROOF
SCUPPER
CatherineA. Broad:Washrngton, D.C
MEMBRANE ROOFING
PREMOLDED
VENT
PIPE
FLAAHING
ROOF
ORAIN
ProtectedMembrqne Roofing /?" WIDE BEMEEN
GAP PIECES
.
12'
WIOI
MEMBRANE
JOINT COWR EUSTOMERIC SEAL aND
UNDER
4" TO 6' SEALAM
TOP OF FLASHING MASTTC (Oq|ONAL)
ffiRIOR TAPERED
RW@D E]LOCKING
FASENERS APROXMAELY
StrT
WITH
c)N TO
GENERAL
JOINT
W|DE.
CLAT PROVDE
tN
FABRIC
OR SLOPE
A'O,C
BAluST
(OR
FILER
FABRIC
PAWRS)
In a typicalroofing system, the waterproof membranesvstem (burlt{p,moditiedbitumen,or single-ply) rs appliedon top of the insulation,which lies on top of the substrateand/ or structural deck. The membrane in this situation is exposedto temperatureextremes and wear and tear from peoplewalkingor working on the roof. In a protectedmembraneroof (sometimescalledthe invertedor insulatedroof membraneassembly,or IRMA),a layerot exlrudedpolystyrene insulation board protects the membrane. Extrudei :Fplystyrene is th€ only materialgenerallyapprovedlor this applicationbeeuse it does not absorb moisture.This roofing system is best used in €nreme climates,where it is importantto protect the membranefrom the elements_or wher€ the rooftop will receive heavy use (e.g., plaza or parkingdeck applications). GRAWL PAERS
ENRUDED INSUUNON DRAINAGE
-
427
rcLYSWRENE WTH CHANNELS
FILER
BT4ST OR ON EDESTAL
FABRIC
4.MIL POLY SLIP (OPTIONAL) SHEET
BUILT.UP BITUMEN
CAM
\
coMINUoUs
aEAT
NOTE
OR MODIFIED ROORNG MEMBRANE
R@F DECK
STRIP FASENERS ffiOXIMATELY
24'O.C
WAERPROOF ROC)F \ MEMBRANE (BUILT-UP. \ MODIFIED BIUMEN. OR SINGLE.PLN
Membrane may b€ built{p, modified bitumen. or singla ply. lf thermoplasticmembrane is specified, provide ilip sheet b€twoen insulationand membrane. LIGHT METAL
r/2' WDE BWEEN
PARAPET
CAP AT BUILT-UP
OR MODIFIED
GAP HECES
EITUT\,ICN ROOF-
1 2' WDE
MEMBRANE
JOIM COWR EUSTOMERIC SAL aND
UNDER
4'TO 6. WOE; SfuM
TOP G FUSHING MASIC (OtrtONAL)
JOTNT Sn
Wffi
tN
FABRIC
>
NOTES '1. Ballastweight is a minimum of 10 lb per squaref@t. 2. Refer to ANSIISPRURMA RP-4for wind designguidance. 3. ln lieu of aggregateor concreteballast,proprietaryinsulation boards with @ncrete topping are available.These boardsweigh between 4.5 lb per squaref@t and 10 lb p€r squarefoot. dependingon the productselected. TYPICAL PROTECTED ROOF SYSTEM
MEMBRANE
BALUST ffERIOR TAPERED
fuWOOD ON CLEAT OR BLC)CKING TO PROWDE SLOPE
FASTENERS APROXIMATELY
A'
FASENERS APROXIMATELY
24-
O.C.
BAI I 51 (OR STONE F€RIC UNDERNATHI
PAWR FILER flLER
WrH
FABRIC
ffiUDED INSUUNON DMNAGE
4-MIL SHEET
R@FING MEMBRANE
O.C.
|ryYSryRENE W CHANNELS
POLY SUP (Om|ONAL)
--=ROOFING
MEMBRANE
Cf NSUUTION AOARDS AND FILTER FABRC TO ALLOW ACCESS TO
O%IN
TAPER INSUUTION DOWN TO DRAIN EffUDED rcLYSryRENE INSUUNON AOARD
4-MIL SLIP FILTER
POLY SHEET
-
FABRIC
NOTES tA. THICK rcLYSHYLENE FOAM REFGMED ryPANs;ION JOIM FILLER
CONTNUOUS
CLAT
N OTES 1 . Membrane must be single-ply. lf thermoplastic membrane is specified, provide slip sheet betw@n insulation and membrane.
LIGHT METAL PARAPET
AT SINGLE.PLY
2. Set pawrs on pedestalsor specity that the top layerof insulationboardshave ribs on the top side to facilitate oryrng.
ROOF
1 . Standard w€ight concrete pavers should be used to mark drain locations and to tacilitate access to drains. 2. To facilitate placement ol insulation boards, etc., the clamping ring and strainer are to b€ removed trom metal drains. A r/, in. hardware cloth strainer should be laid at the bottom ol the drain bowl. 3. For a thermoplastic membrane, use a 4{il polyethylene slip sheet between the membrane and the insulation boards. Cul a hole in the sheet at the drain, apgroximately 2 in. larger than the diam€tor of the drain bowl.
ROOF DRAIN
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak Leat Studio;Crownsviile.Marytand RichB@n; The RoofingIndustryEducatronal Insl(ute;Engtew@d,Colorado
MEMBRANE ROOFING
428
Sproy-AppliedPolyurethqneFoom Roofing
GENERAL
7
Polyurethane foam roofing is spray-applied; seamless, and fully adhered. The loam is made by mixing isocyanate and resin components at a 1:'l ratio- Spray polyurethane foam is a closed{ell foam that provides good insuiation and water resistance. These systems are used with a prolective coat Ing or stone ballast covering system, which protects the foam roofing from ultraviolet rays and mechanical damage. These systems can be applied in varying thicknesses to eliminate ponding, to improve drainage. and to meet specitied R-values (approximately R6.25 per inch). Some advantages of spray foam systems are that they can be used over highly irregular surfaces, unusual geometries, or existing sloped metal systems. They are also lnherenlly lightweight and ofter good wind uplift resistance. N OTES '1. Before spray polyurethane foam is applied. all surfaces must be clean, tree of contaminants, securely fastened to the substrate, and completely dry. Moisture-sensitive 'indicators may be needed to detect anv moisture within the existing roof assembly. Vapor retarders may be necessary; consult with the manufacturer to coordinate a specific roofing condition with foam application. 2. Most polyurethane foam manu{acturers produce three seasonal grades: winter (fast), regular, and summer (slow).
EUSTOMERIC COATING DOUBLE THICKNESS 1 2' (OmTONAL) TO EDGE
\ V.GROOVE AND SEALANT
,
-.\
\ METAL EDGE IN MASTIC SET (RIME FUNGE)-
\ \ \
EUSTOMERIC
SPRAY-APPLIED FON (1' MIN. ',. AGGREGATE
=:Yi.,
M N.
4-
-
FLANGE
/-
I
I
I
ELASTOMERIC
I
iTHTCKNtrSS
l?;JR"=33[,,.
hcir:' l*-l
ili{EE,-,;l, \ltNrocunac rl
SPRAY-APPrttrD
,-
| igb:"slrErs
A><
," *,a.4
PREPARID SURFACE OF BOARD STOCK
CONTINUOUS CLEAT
CONTINUOUS CLEAT
EUSTOMERIC COATING
G(.ffER
METAL ROOF EDGE
ROOF EDGE AT GUTTER '-
12'WIDE FELT UNDER JOIM JOINT COVER. 4' TO 6' WIDE, Sff IN EUSTOMERIC SEAUNT
Z
E4STOMERIC (vx aeeKeeA
COATING I e,
COATING EPDM WASHER AND STAINLESS SEEL FASTENER
POLYURETHANE THICKNESS WHEN COVERING) \
ENERIOR fuWOc)D ON CLEAT OR TAPERED BLOCKING TO PROWOE SLOPE
Ih. TO 7A' DIAMETER AGGREGATE COVERING MIN. THICKNESS 7.'. APPLIEO OIREfrLY TO FOAM SURFACE OR IN CONJUNCNON WITH ROTECNE EUSTOMERIC COATING
ROOF
,. V-GROOVE AND SIALANT
I I /
YFT+
-.
f
FASTENERS
/
FASTENERS AT 3" O.C., STAGGERED
4' MtN. FUNGE
3. lf wind speed affects foam quality, use wind screens or discontinue spraying. The surface texture of sprayed foam can vary due to wind, equipment adjustment, spray technique, and characteristics of the system used. Foam thar will be elastomeric coated should have a smooth texture resembling orange peel. For an aggregate covetr ing, the texture should be no rougher than popcorn. PROTECTIVE
ELASTOMERIC (OR COAT1NG AGGREGATE)
. / 1
ENEND ABOW ,
COATING FOAM 2'
cowRrNG COMINUOUS CLEAT
:) .:
SPRAYED POLYURETHANE FOAM NEW DECK
DECK
ROOF
.: j'.:i:
NOTE This detail shouldbe used only when the deck is supported by the wall. An expansionjoint detail should be used for non-wall-suooorted decks.
NOTES
LIGHT tngs may vary. and the coating manufacturershould be consultedtor recommendationson specificneeds. 2. Granulesmay b€ applied to the wet uncuredprotective topcoat to enhance the resistanceof tha coating systems to UV or mechanicaldamage SPRAY.APPLIED FOAM ROOFING
POLYURETHANE SYSTEM DOUBLE MME SKYLIGHT
METAL
PARAPET
CAP
STRA'NER
/
EGSTOMERIC COATING ENENDED C)OWN INTO DRAIN BOWL
METAL FLUES DECK WITH SPRAY,APPLIED POLYURETHANE FOAM / OR PRECUT INSERTS
METAL
/CUMPING R|NG
/
,/
/,
DECK DETAILS DECK'SUPPORTEO PENETRATION
ENEND COATING 2' ABOVE FOAM TERMINATION LINE
V.CUT FOAM AT CUMPNG RING AND SFT RING IN -) SEAUNT
EGSTOMERIC COATING
TAPER FOAM TO DRAIN \
EMUED ALUMINUM FRAME WIfr WEEP rcLES
/-
METAL COUNTERFLASHING
.\
/
rasteNens aFmox. a- o.c
DECK DEC<
i\SMAYEDIN.fuCE rcLYURETHANE N OTE
-*=-or.*'.
COATING
coue
-/
NOTES 1. Remove clamping ring prior to foam application. place protective covering over drain bowl opening to prevent overspray from frlling bowl
FOAM
2. Taper foam toward drain bowl lo provide positive drainage.
On skylights, do not cover weep holes with polyurethane IOam or coatrng_
3. The use of metal deck sump pans is not recommended.
SKYLIGHT,
ROOF DRAIN
SCUTTLE,
SPRAYED POLYURETHANE
OR VENT CURB
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA: Oak Leaf Studio; Crownsville, Maryland Bich Boon: The Rooling lndustry Educatronal Inslitute; Engtewood, Colorado
MEMBRANE ROOFING
SINGLE PIPE PENETRATION
THROUGH.WALL FLASHING -.. CONTINUOUS THROUGH.
COPING
FUSHING
THROUGH,WALL FLASHING @UMERFUSHING
UNDER
THROUGH-WALL FUSHING
COPING
BUILT UP ROOFING CAM
SRIP
ABOVE COUNTERFL',SHING
SPANDREL BEAM
THROUGH.WALL FUSHING
AT SPANDREL AND LINTEL
SILL
AT
INTERIOR
SILL
FINISH
FL@R
THROUGH,WALL FUSHING
AT
SPANDREL
T H R o u c H -wA1-1- psaffi'fflla17if \MALL AT
GRADE
THROUGH-WALL FUSHING
THROUGH-WALL
FLASHTNG
<")
TNSTALLATION
GENERAL Modem building materialsare often waterproof, but thev ile nol pemanently imp€rviousto windiriven moisture. uraouarsnnnkageot some materialsandthe naturalmovement of buildingscan eventually causeleaks.When mois_ ture enters walls it tends to form pockets of water. which eventuallydraininto lhe inleriorof the building,sometimes by gravity,other times by €pillarv action. this water will damageinteriors,defaceexteriors,disintegralemortar and masonry,and rust steel spandrels,lintels,etc. Flashingsshould be used wherever there is any possibility of water enteringa structure.Through-wallftaining is th6 most successfulmethod of permanentlypreventingleaks. except In.areas exposed to eanhquakes,where through, wall flashingis not recommended.Through-wallflashindis
rude of many different materials,includingretals, plasti6, and combinationsof metals with paperl fabric,orrub_ ber- Mat€rials that are in contact must be compatiblL without deterioration. Joants.in flashings must be durable and waterproof and shouldusually lap 4 in. When the flashing is metal, joints should be soldered.Flashingshould be exiendedto within r/2 in. of the exterior lace. Endand edge-formeddams should-beu_sedwhere necessa.yto contro-ldrainagedrrec_ tion.Metalflashingthar extendsbetowgradeis ins-talled in reglets after th€ surfac€ waterproofinghas been applied o€tow{rade.
THROUGH.WALL COPING
FLASHING
UNDER
SMACNA, Inc., from the SMACNA Architeclurat Sheet Metat Manual, Sth ed., with permission Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Washington, D.C.
FLASHING AND SHEET METAL
y
CounterflqshingSysiems
430
m m m m m 4
COMPOSITION FI-ASHING
---a
COU NTERFLASH
COUNTERFLASH
ING r^/ITH RECEIVER
I NG I NSTALLATION
FASTENER
BUrON-
v SRNG COMACT
AMON -
COUNTERFLASHING RECEIVER
\^/ITHOUT
METAL
Tvl/O-PI ECE COU NTERFLAS
REGLET
HING
GENERAL Careful considerationmust be given to flashing systems where a roof and wall reet. The base flashing system must keep water from enteringthe buildingand must allow for building movement. Counterflashingturns water away from a wall onto the rmf or base flashing.The baseflashing is usuallyinsertedinto a reglet, lvhich must be capableof supporting the flashing. In high wind areas.clips can be sp€cifiedlor the lower edge of the counterflashing.Cour tertlashingthat is removableis cost eftective for the work installationsequenceand for repairof roofingsystems. All membraner@fing should have removablecounterflashing. Metal counterflashing shouldbe used in conjunctaon with compositionbase flashing. Metal base tlashingsare used with shingleor metal roofs, but are not recommended for use with membrane rooting systems. A metal base
flashing may b€ used over a composition flashing as a pre tectivq cover in lo€tions where the base llashing may be that base flashings be abused bv traffic. lt is recomrended applied over a cant and be extended up the wall a minimum of 10 in. above the roofline.
COUNTERFUSHING
SNAP.IN
Receivers for counterflashing should be elevated 10 in. above the finished roof. Install metal counterflashing to cover a minimum of 4 in. of the bas€ flashing. After the counterflashing is installed. the receiver is bent 45 degrees 10 provide a drip edge. The lower edge of metal counterflashing should be a minimum of 1 in- above a cant. The countertlashing is notched and lapped at inside corners and ioints, and seamed at outsade corners. The flashing receiver is notched and lapped 4 in. at corners and ioints.
,-
SPRING
LOCT
INSERT FLASHING
SMACNA, Inc., from the SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual. 5th ed., with permission Valerie Eickelberger: Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington. D.C.
FLASHING AND SHEET METAL
OETAIL
SPRING
LMKED
CounterflqshingSystems
431 BUILDING
SIDING OR STUCCO
METAL COUMERFUSHING
COUNTERFLASHING
FOR CONCRETE '6-GAUGE X IA' X 1 Ih' X 1b' CHANNEL G 1'X %6'BARJ FASTEN 1A' O.C.
cooUNTERFLASHT SAWCW
*
4'
REGLfl
COUNTERFLASHING FOR NONMASONRY V\/ALL
114'DEEP
FASENER, 24'O.C. WIH WASHER EXCET IN HIGH WND AREAS
FASTEN
TO
NAILER
SEAL REGLET
SEAL AT FASTENER PENETRANON
4
NG EXPANSTO N
MIN
1' MIN
cwrcsmoN FUSHING
90UNTERFLASXtTc v\/ALL
e.|. exrsrtruc
F335,1?E*sH rNGwrrHour
COUNTERFLASHING OVER STRUCTURAL STEEL
FUSHING AND
|.fJotMs IN FUSHING 6' IN FLOW DIREfrION
24'
O.C.
METAL
FUSHING
COUNTERFLASHING
AT SLOPCO
NOOF
COUNTERFLASHING
AT SLOPEO ROOr
COUNTERFLASHING
AT
TILE
ROOF
SMACNA, lnc.. from the SMACNAArchitecturalSheet Metal Manual. --' -' sth ed., with permission ValerieEackelberger; RippeteauArchitects,pC; Washington,Di.
FLASHING AND SHEET METAL
FloshingSpecioltyDetoils
432
CONTINUOUS
\^/ALL
FOUNDATION
PEDIMENT
ELEVATION
PEDIMENT
WOOD
FLASHING
FLASHING
UNEXPOSED
E)
LEOGE FLASHING
@NTINUOUS CLEAT WITH
WALL FOUNDATION FLOOR PORCH
CONNNUOUS
WTTH
SCUPPER
STONE
LEDGE FLASHING INTERNAL
E}RICI<
DORMER
FI_ASHING
FT,ASHING
PRIOR
TO
\A/ALL
SUPPORT
VENEER
WALL
SHINGLING
DORMER FLASHING
INTERNAL
FLOOR
SUPPORT
NOTES l.Termite shields may be fabricated of copper or galva nized steel. Aluminum may be used except where masonry is above the termite shield. 2. Joints should be lapped 3t in. and soldered or flat locked Corners should be notched. lilled, and soldered.
TERMITE
APRON DORMER
HEAD
FI-ASHING FLASHING
FTASHING
DETAILS
SMACNA. Inc.. from the SMACNA Architectural Sheet Metal Manual, sth ed., with permission Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, PC; Washington, D.C.
METAL FLASHING AND SHEET
WINDOW
FLASHING
SHIELDS
TYPICAL
MANSARD
ROOF
ORNAMENTAL
ROOF CANOPY
&&& SELF-SUPPORTING
ROOF
qq
FUSHING
PANil SCREEN EffICAL FANEL SCREEN
fuSHING FUSHING
SEAM PROFILES
CONTINUOUSLY
SUPPORTED
ROOF
METAL MANSARD ROOFS Metal mansardroots typicallyused on one,storycoc -are merqats_ltuctures. Often they concealrooftopequipment, usrng Dattenscreens or louveredenclosures.Metil man_ sard roofs are also used for flat or curyedornamentalroofs or canopiesfor the front of buildings. staintesssteet,gatvanizedsreet,or pre_ llgT,l_r-.coppe.. Irnrsned metals may be used for metal mansardroofs. ihe metal can be prefabricatedfor severalstyfes ot fieia connection using various seam configurations.prefinished metals used in curved appli€tions lypically trave a .lslft
r,adius limit.Concave.or convexpanetsnormallyhavea 24_ In. mrnrmumradiusfor standingseamsand a 72_in.mtni_ mum radtuslor battenseams.Solt metalsare used when the metal must be stretched. man.sa.droofs may be contrnuousrysupponed or fl,e]1! serLsuppontng. continuouslysupportedroofshave a con_ Irnuous sheathing substrate. Self_supportingroofs have structural.framing with vertiel and horizon-talmembeii rGareo where needed for metal panel attachment. Maft saror@ts requtrecapandsill{lashing.
SMACNA, Inc., from the SMACNA Architectwat-Sheet Metal Manual.5th --' 'Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects, pC; Wasirington, D.a.
ed., with permjssion
FLASHING AND SHEET METAL
434
Metol Roofing-Locksqnd Seoms
coMMON
(CLINCH)
LOCI<,
HOOK
SEAM
/_-7
A
-"="t--
[]/-7
---,-,------t\
// //-7
,
SEAM
STANDING
SINGLE
LOCK
SINGLE E}UTTON
STANDING LOCK PUNCHEO
@\/
SEAM
FTAT LOCK
OR
CLEAT
DRIVE
LOCK
FTAT
DOUBLE
OR
S CLEAT
LAP
JOGGLE
SEAM SOLDERED
LAP
SEAM
SOLDEFIED HEAVY.GAUGE
LAP
SEAM METAL
SEAM'
a'1
LOCK FOR
STANDING
LOCK I,AP
RIVETED
S POCKET
A/> \^/ITH
SEAM
SNAP
SEAM
t-AP RIVETED HEAVY.GAUGE
FOR SEAM METAL
OOUBLE
LOCK
SEAM
STANDING
o 5
DOUE}LE
SEAM
/7-l -M l/
q BUTTON
PI,ATE
SEAM
COVERED BACKUP
PTATE PLATE
WITH
SEAM BU-FT FASTENED
V 3So#-
COVERED
OPEN
STANDING
SEAM
LOCK
PITTSBURGH
\ /ITH E}ACKUP ONE SIDE
PTATE.
CAPPED
coRNER
LOCK
DOUBLE SEAM
ffi v CORNER
STANDING
SEAM
CORNER
SEAM
LOCK SEAM
SEAM BTJTT FASTENING
\A/ELDED
FLAT
BAC}
JOINT
SEAM
SMACNA.lnc..fromtheSMACNAArchitecturalSheetMetalManual.5thed,wlthpermrssron Valerie Eickelberger; Rippeteau Architects. PC; Washington, D C
METALROOFING SHEET
LOCK
PLATE,
SNAP
CAP
STANDING
STANDING SEAM
SEAM
435
PAN
METHOD
OF
FORMTNG
STANDING
SEAM
. +--+\ '"+--frill
\A . |F l\r
illl
.---1.ilI-- ---JilL- 3[@[l
FIELD
METHOO
\-=---\Jl# Bccl FORMING
OF
\
GTANDING
\ll
\
-(--------\
\llL----\
-L
AEAM
PLASTTC TABS INSIDE SLOT HOLD CLEAT FOR ALIGNMENT BUT BREAK TO
/
/CLOSER BETWEEN
GASKETS SEAMS
ALLOW FOR MO€MENT.
PANEL
CLIP
FASTENING FOR RIOGE
RIDGE
CONsTRUCTION ENO SLICES SHOULD AE STAGGEREO FROM AOJACENT SHIETS SPLICES ARE COVERED WITH A CLAMPTNG PLATE WITH INTEGRAL CHANNELS TO OIVffiT WATER AROUNO FASENERS
NOTES To allow for expansion and conlraction movement n rool panets, some manufactu.ers sei movable cleats into a stationa.y panel clip system. The cleat is held in position in rhe panet ctip by two remporary l-tl9 ilot ":lt",jl ptastrc tabs. This" allows for co.rect alignment of the cleai with the roof panel; Once rhe cleat his Ueen rotteC into the panel seam, it wifl move with the r@f panel by forcang the plastic tabs to break under movement Oressure.
MOVABLE
HOOK COVERING
LOu/
P|TCH
CLEAT
SEALANT
SEAM
ANO
PANEL
__lg- .'=m_.y_fu/Slor-:J'3|"3RD-oouBLe
NOTES pa.n* secured at the eave expand up rhe slope of lool the roof. Depending on the length of the roof Danel. an engineered distance should be left between the end of roof panels on each side of the ridge, thereby allowinq lor expansion at the ridge. In cases of a very long run oi ml panels {usually in excess of 200 ttl, expansion joinrs will b€ required at other points in a
may be ;nsrailed on stopes as :l1LdinS ::qm.looling gentte as 7. an./ft. Eecause ol the architectural appear_ ance ot the roof system, it is more commonly used on steeper roof slopes, allowing the panels to be seen as Pan Ot the overall desion
top, botrom, and sides of the individual sheets are oreto allow tocking together at eacn eOge. SeJms 191T"9 at the top and bottom of each sheet are Called transverse seams. In the roll melhod, a series ot long sheets aie ioined together ar rhei. ends with double tfaitock ieims. These field-formed seams can be executed either man_ ually or with a seaming machine (a wheeled electronic oevrce which runs along the sheet joint forming rhe seaml-
The spacing of seam" i.", u"r, withrn reasonable limits tlre afch(ecturat sryte of a given buitding. pre_ 19 :urt rormed sheets (as used with preengineered metai build. rrgsl hav€ seam locations set by locations of p.epunched noEs In the structural framing memoers.
ln€ithea method, cleats (spaced as recommended by the manutacturerl are formed into the standing seam. Seam term,nations are usually solde.ed.
The lwo methods of forming a standing seam are the pao method and lhe roll method. In the pan method, the
STANDTNG GEAM METHoos
AND-EE;FEs
CONTINUOUS
Z
GABLE
CONTINUOUS
DETATLS
C
EAVE
DETATLA
*
LrMrrEo
avalLAsrLrry
VALLEY
OETATL
FasoGreaves,An ArchitectureCo.poration;Waco, Texas )uauD AssocrateyArchitects: lroy, Michigan Emory r. Hrnket.Jr.; A. G Odelt.Jr. and Asseiates; Charlotte, North Caroilna
SHEET METALROOFING
436
BermudoType Metol Roofing WDTH OF S€ET (rN.) 20
24
OR
GAUGES
RECOMMENDED
WIOTH OF PAN..D" rN.)
COPP€R
oz)
I-WOOO
PAI NTEO 40 TERNE COATING LB COATIN o. ot5
tN
26 2A
o. or5 lN
r6
26
26
o.ol5
20
24
26
o.or78
lN
o.or7a
tN
2Ot/2
24
lN
FOOF
TYPES
AT HIP OR RIOGE
FRAMINO
CLEAT
DETAIL
\^/IDTHE
26
OETATT- Z.EEAM
OETAIL
PAN
sTA*Eg6 Sl'EEL (CIAUGE )
tet/2
241/2
METAL
FOR
GALVANIZEO STEEL (6AUGE I
,61/z
zzt/2
EtERMUDA TYPE
\^/EIGHTG
a" o.c
3-CONSTRUCTION
DETAIL
AT BATTEN
4-CONSTRUCTTON VALLEY
AT CLOSURE
AND
/-ROOF
r-1,-'JSk-saalgp z/\ll
cuosuaE
\4.r=o.
II \14
\coNTINUOUS
"r.'r,::T]^ DETAIL
5-EAVE
DETAIL
6-EXPANSION
.'OINT
DETAIL
?-CONSTRUCTION
NOTES 1. The Bermuda rool may be used for roofs havinga slooe o.eaterthan 2'12 in./fi. Wood framing must be ordvided as shown in detarl l. Dimension"D" and gaugeof metal will dependon the sizeof shret used. See chart. Consllt generalnotes on metal roofs for rrcommendedsurfacepreparation. 2. Bermudaroof is appliedbeginningat the eave The first pan is hooked over a continuouscleat asshown in detail 5, The upper ponion of the first and each succeedingpan is ittached as shown in detail 3' Cleatsspeed on I in. centersare nailed to batten
as in A of detail 3. Joint is deetoped asshown in B of detail 3 and malletedagainstbatten asshown in C of detail 3. All crossseamsare singlelockedand soldered except at expansionioints. Crossseams should be staggered. Expansionioints should be used at least uery 25 tt and formed as shown in detail 6. Rooling is ioined at hip or ridgeby useot a standingseam as shown in A of detail 2. Seam may be malleteddown 6 shown in B of detail 2. 3. Detail 4 shoffi the method of forming valleys' Vallev sstions are lapped8 in. in direction of flow'
Straub Assocrates/Arch'tects: Troy, Michigan Emory E. Hinkel, Jr; A. G. Odell, Jr. and Associates; Charlotte, Nodh Carolina
METALROOFING SHEET
AT RAKE
lndividual clcures for side of valley are formed as shown in A of detail 4 and must be solderedas indi cated in B of detail 4. A method of teminating the roof at rake is shown in detail 7. The fee plate (optional) is held in place by continuouscleatsat Uotir top anObottom. The batten closureis formed as a cleat to hold edqe of roof pan as shown In sction A'A ot detail 7. Se also Metal Roofs tor generalnot6.
lctten ond RibbedMetot Roof
oETATL r-ear-EI
EIATTEN
SEAM
METAL
LAP
DETAIL
2-
RIDGE
ALTERNATES
ROOF
AND
CON€TRUCTtON
OETAIL
3-EATTEN
JOINT
CONSTRUCTION
,@ B
OETAIL
4-
LOW
BATTEN
CAP
CONSTRUCTION
OETAIL
PITCH
STEEP
5-TRANSVERSE
CAP
PITC)H
SEAM
OETAIL
6-
GAEILE
STAINLESS STEEL SCREW WITH NEOPRENE
GUT TE R LINING
OETAIL
7-VALLEY
NOTES l. gallel-sam roofing m_aybe apptied on stopesof J In-llt.Or greater. lf the surfaCeto rtreive the roorng.ts Other than wood, the battens Should botted inro ptace. Ail O"tt"n t"rtJne^-m,iii be Countersunk anto batteos. Se general nOteS 6e Metat Roofs for rrcommended surii"" pi"p"riiioi.'On 2. The spacingof the wood battensmay vary wathin reasnable limits to suit the architecturalsiyle inJ $ale of- the building, but the rtrommendedmaximum .cttstanceis Z0 in. between battens. Ca.e snoutdbe taken to spacethe bailensin such a man. ner tnat wasteol metal is held to a minimum. Bat. tens may b€ shapedas shown in A or B of detail 1.
C)ETAIL
8-
EAVES
A is preferred. since it automatically makes allow ance for expansion. When battens jhown in B are c1f" must be taken ro provide for expansion :Td-, oy Dendrng the- metal where it meets the birten ar greater than 90". 3, Sheets are formed into pans with eeh side turned up z'/B tn. A r/2 in. flange is turned toward the cenrer ot.the pan as shown in B of detail 3. Al rower end ol_the pan, the sheet is notched and a nooK eoge rs tormed as in A or B of detail 5. For row prtched roofs the upper end of the shet is rormed as in A of detail 5. On steper roofs rhe uoper end is formed as shown in p"I" B ot a"trf!.
Straub4ssocrates/Archrtects; Troy, Michigan Emory t Hrnket,Jr.; A. G. Odell,Jr. and AssGiates; Charlone.North Carotrna
DETAIL
9-
PREFABRICATEO
gArrEIS'
sraningat rhe eave.and hetd in ptace :1lJ.tl1lld, wrrn cteats spacednot over '12 in. on center as snown A of detail 3. Each pan is hookedto the _rn rt and ctearedinro ptace. After pansare :l:,o9to* In prace,a cap is installedover the battenas shown in 8 and C of detail3_ 4 A number of manufacluren have cleveloped metal roorrng^systems usinggveral prefabricateddevices. A and I. of detail 9 showtwo commonprefabricated battensin us. S. Se also StandingSeam Metal Boofing for details on combination barten and standing6r it"i*i. roofing. SeealsoMetal Roofs for generalnoles.
SHEET METALROOFING
437
FLASHING CONOITIONS MINIMUM THICKNESS (GAUGES OR WEIGHT) FOR COMMON CONDITIONS
!?r z=
22 E2
u o uG of
o<
J< (u
MATERIALS
l0 oz
1 0o z
o
z
<; 36
u o
o<
oz zi <; e<
)= X,Z F<
10oz
ii
16oz
rifr eNi
;z 6<
!95
oxql
l6 oz
16 oz
UO
0 . 0 1 9 " 0.019" 0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 26 GA 30 GA 26 GA 30 GA 30 GA 24 GA 26 GA 26 GA 26 GA 26 GA 26 GA o.6' o.027" o.o27" o.027" 0.o27" 0.027" 3# 3# 21/z# 21la# 21lz# 3# 40# 2W 2W 40# 40# 40#
Zim alloy Paintedterne elastomericsheet; fabric-coatedmetal
GENERAL NOTES l. All sizs and weights of material given in chart are minimum. Actuaa conditions may require greater strength. 2. All galvanizedsteel must be painted. 3. With lead flashing u* 16 oz copper cleats. ll any pan is exposed,use3# lead cleas. 4. C@t zinc with asphsltum paint wtren in contact with redrcod or cedar. High mid content (in thes mods onlv) dweloPsstains. 5. Type 302 stainlesssteel is an all purpose flashing type. 6. Use only aluminum manufactured for the purpose of flashing. 7. See manuJacturer'sliteEture for us€ and types of flashingr 8. In general, cleats will be of the same material as flashing, but heavier weight or thicker gauge. metal tlashing, precaution must be 9. In *lcting taken not to plae flashing in direct cont4t with dissimilar metals that €use elstrolysis' the table are us not rec10. Spac markedElin ommended tor that material.
iJF YJF
E<) u>(,
16 oz
u z
u z
Zz I< Uc
16oz
sI go
o<
*y .bz
UJ JE
9U EG
16oz
1 6o z
N
N
E
E
'16 oz
EDGE i sTR rP
20 oz
40#
U F
u J U
o z
16 oz
o.024" 24 GA
22GA 26 GA 0.04q' 3# 20#
2 2 G A Note 2 0.027" 3# 40#
Se Note 7
GALVANlccoRRos|oN(ELECTRoLYS|5)PoTENT|ALBETWEENcoMMoN MATERIALS FLASHING MATERIAL5 AND SELECTED CONSTRUCTION
J
u q F
o z o FLASHING MATERIALg
Copper Aluminum Stainlesssteel Galvanizedst4l Zinc alloy Lead
a Galvanicction will acur, hence dirst contact should be aoided' miy occui unoer certain circumstancesand/or over a period of time' ;iil 6 c;i;;;i; is irisignificant, metals may come into dirtrt contact under normal circumstances. ;ii;; 6 c;i;;;i; from one materislcomesin cont4t with a GENERAL NOTE: Galvaniccorrosionis apt to ccur when water runoff potential ly reactive material. MATERIAL VARIES
>
ere"O
zu oz 0.049' 24 GA
0.o27" o.027" 0.o27" 0.o27" o.o27" 0.032" 3# 3# 3# 3# 3# 3# 40#
F
8E uo
o
0.032" 26 GA
n
o U&
U
0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 0 . 0 1 9 " 0.049' 26 GA 26 GA 30 GA 24 GA 24 GA 24 GA 26 GA
X
X
See Note 7
oO I>E
C O P T N GW I D T H
F
-rt
CAP
LEAD WEOGES SEALANT
RECE IVER
WEOGES
SEALANT CAP FLASHING
EO6E
( HOLD
rcWN
}
METAL
AIN<'LE LOCK BEAM NOTES l. Field lold end of eeh adioiningshst in opp6ite dirstion. 2. Hook folded edges tog€ther and dres down ioint with a mallet.
METAL
BEAM
NOTES 1. Double told end of eachadioiningsheetin opposite direction with bar folder. 2. Stide edg6 together and drs dom ioint with a mallet.
Michael Scott Rudden: The Stephens Assmiates
FLASHING
P.C.-Architects;
FLAEHING OF CAP DEVELOPMENT NOTE Hem in cap flashing reommended for niffnes; but be omitted if heilier gauge material u*d.
AIbany, New York
CAST
REOLETE
IN PLACE
CAP
8TEP e OOUBLE LOCK
F LASHING
€;TRIP
SA\^/ED REGLET MATERIAL
TYPICAL
IN
REGLETg
NOTE Various types of m€tal regletsare eailableJor cast in plac€ and msonry srork; se€ manutacturer's literature. Where mteri8l permits, req lets may be sawn. Flashing is secured in.reglets with le;d wedg€s at nux. 12" o.c., fill reglet with nonhardening water-fesi$ant compound.
Floshing:An Inlroduction THROUGH FLASHING COPING
DEFINITIONS EASE FLASHINGS are essentiallya continuation ot the built-up rmfing membraneat the upturned edo6_ applied in an operationseparatefrom the application of the root membraneitself.
WALL AT
C A P F L A S H I N G S( C O U N T E R F L A S H T N G S a r) e n o r m€lly made of stret metal and shietd the exposd rop ot the base_flashing.Some nonmetallic cap flashings are made of felts. and are made water-resistantwith flashingcement,
THRC'UGH WALL CAP RECEIVER
CAP
THREE-WAY
FLASHING
SAWTOOTH
CONCEALED FLASHTNGSare invisiblefrom the exterior or. interior of the building. Metal sheetor foil, rabfic, ptasttc,or variouscombinationsof thrc mate. rials may be used,dependingon climate and structural requtrements.
FLASHING BUILT.UP
439
ROOF
CORRUGATEO
OR
CRIMPEO
EXPOSED FLASHINGS are exposed ro view and affect the aesthetic of the building. Metals are almosr entirely used. Attention must be paid to the corrosive potential between di$imilar metals.
TEXTUREO
/-\ R I BgEO
PLAIN
TYPICAL PROFILES OF THROUGH r'1/ALL FLASHING (pRopoRTtoNS EXAGGERATEO )
CAST IN PLAC:E REGLET TO RECEIVE SNAPIN FLASHING
SNAP-tN CAP FLASHING
BUILT_UP
STRUCTURE VARIES 2'' TURNUP NO FINISH
WHERE USEO
THROUGH FOUNOATION FLASHING
WINO UPLIFT PREVENTION CLIP NAIL TO I"X 3': BENO METAL TO FORM CLIP SPACE AT 4'-o'O-C. MAX.
WATER-RESISTANT MEMBRANE
TYPICAL FLAEHIN<'
THROUOH AT WALL
BECTION 6NAP-IN WINO
CONTINUOUS
ROOF
NOTES l. Selet fldhing that is flexible tor molding to f lashIng supports and can withstand expEted thermal, wind, and structurd mdement. provide exoansion ioints in plee of flashingas requiredby condirions. 2. Consult manufaturer's literature for choice of flahing materialsand detaits. 3. Avoid sharp b€nds^inbituminous ba* flashings.U* 6nt stripswith 45o maimum beno. 4, Provision for differmtial movement b€tween roof drck and wall is rcommmded. 5. Ribb€d or.emboss€d throuqh wall flashing is not rrcommended for earthquake areu. 6. Base flashing sh@ld extend 8 to l2 in. above high6t anticipated waterline. Metal cqnterflahin'qs should.lapb6e flashingat least4 in. minimum. Lip all verticalioints. 7. At cavity walls with more than 3L,,space between wythes, us flashing of type that provides me. chanicalbond
FLASHING PREVENTION
WITH CLIP
RECEIVER
METAL
LEOGE
fuASHIre
@NTIN@US CLEAT SET REGLET
LEDGE CAP FLASHING
MffAL IN
FLASHING FOR THICK WALL METAL OR ROOF
CORNICE MATERIAL AND DESIGN
CORNICE METAL
FLAEHING ROOF
CORNICE
WITH
CORNICE FLASHTNG CAP FLAAHING
WITH
CORNICE FUGHING
LEOOE CAP ANO RTC|EIVER
FLASHING
Michael Scott Rudden; The Stephens Ass@iates p.C.-Archilects:
Albanv. New york
FLASHING
Woll-lo-Roofond Woll-to-WollFloshing
440
X
{ o
RECEIVCR
SH I NGLE
4
MtN
,'t*'?;t::-
z 5
)
l.- rt\ -
t AND CAP BASE ASHI NG
WIT SECURED aTS. 12- O. C
APRON FLASHINO WHER€ ROOF BLOPEE FROM WALL
PITCHEO
ROOF
\MITH
vr/ALL
/ .'/" / t I
,.t
/
/ CLEATS
2'-O-
COMBINATION ANO COPING
SECURE sTRrP
NEW oLo
NEW
WALL
HIG|HER
\^/ALL
TO
rO
Mer^t coA2
O.C. BASE
CLINCH O.C.
NEW OLO
THAN
OLO
FLA6HINO
BABE
I
coMBlNATloN BASE AND
, l; i I=
RUNNER
OF
FLASHING
,/'
,.t
+
PIECES 6EPARATE FLAEHINC] BAEE
WALL
WALL WALL
FLASHING
NOTE Through mll flashing not rrcommended in eanhquake ar6s. Michael Scott Rudden;The StephensAssmaatesP.C.-Architects; Albany,New York
FLASHING
LOWER
THAN
COPING
FLASHINo
J
SHEATHI
i fts ul3
NG
STRUdURE VARIES
WALL VARIES
FINISH
MATERIAL
THROUGH WAU CAP RECEIVER FLASHING
E(ff
r,Zj*
e4i*
EXTENO UP 2" BTHIND SHEATHTNG ON SOLIO ELOCKING IF BUILDING APER NOT USEO
-(f,oE THROUGH WALL CAP RECEIVER
BASE FLASH CANT
ING
CAP
REC)EIVER
CAP
FLASHING
&SE
FLASHING
CANT
STRIP
1 :
STEP FLASHING SHOWN DOTTED. USEO WHEN FLASHING tS NOT R IBBEO OR
N IS
J
eM €ossto
SEAL TOP OF BASE FLASHING WITH FABRIC: AND MASTIC. FASTEN
STRIP ILT - UP
BUILT-UP ROOFI NG
ROOFING
FLASHING FLASHI
FIRE
WALL
vl/ALL
FRAME
MASONRY
COPING
NG
\^/ALL
VARIES
COPING VARIES DIMENSION VARIES
MATERIAL vaRtes
ELASTOMERI SEALANT
T#IOUGH WALL CAP RECEIVER c:
METAL STANOING SEAM PARAPET LINER
ANGLE CLAMPING ' BAR WITH SLOTTED ANCHOR HOLES
CLEAT AT STANOING SEAM
EXPANSION CAP FLASHING
EIASE
FLASHING
AAST FLASHI NG
wooo NAILERS
CAST
IN
PLACE
CONC.
r^/ALL
HIGH
PARAPET
FLASHTNG
pARApET
HIGH
wtrH
utNlNo-
COPINci VARIES THROUGH WALL CAP RECEIVER AP
CAP
FLASHING
ASPHALT SURFAc)ES BAS€
WALL
FLASHING
PRIMER
MATERIAL
ALTERNATE MEMBRANE. SLIP SHEET
I-O\^/
PARAPET
{CLIP
TO
PREVENT
WINO
UPLIFT)
FUSHING Nc)NNAILA€|LE
VARIES
TERMINATION OF ROOF LEAVE ORY TO PROVIC)E BEHIND BASE FLASHING
4OPTIC)NAL STRIffiNG FLASHING OVER JOINTS
FLAAHING'
BUILTVARIES
GENERALNOTES 1. Select flashing rhat is llexible for molding to flashing suppons and that can withstand expected thermal, wind, and structural movement. provide exmnsion joints in place oI flashing as requiredby conditions. 2. Consult manulacturer's literature for choice of flashrogmaterialsand details. 3. Avoid shafp beods in bituminous base flashings.Use cant strips with 45o maximumbeno. 4. Provisiontor differentialmovementbetwem r@f deck and wall is recommended. 5. A ribbed of embossedpattern should be used for all through wall flashing. Through wall ftashing is not recommendedfor earthquakesreas. 6. Baseflashing shouldextend I to 12 in. sbove highest anticipated waterline. Metal counterllashing should lap base tlashingby ar least 4 in. Lap all verticll pints.
c)N
UP I
ROOF
COM POSITION ( NUM€}ER OF
1
WOOO FIBER
{ NUME€R
BASE PLIES
OF
BASE
OF
PLIES
FLASHING VARIES I
NAILER OR
WOOO
CANT
STRIP
;
TYPICAL
BASE
FLASHING
MichaelScott Rudden;The StephensAssciates p.C._Architects;Albanv. New york
FLASHING
442
Chimney Flqshing --..
R-----
GIMNEY
'H"',iE5'?Fo"33I#'lJ-S'"' - PAN eTEPPEO FLAEHING RECOMMENDEO RUBALE. STdE, MATERiAL.
FLASHING
WALL
THROUG)H
AT
FLAGHING
RIDGE
\/VITH CRICKET LOCK
G EUILT POROUS ANY
CHIMNCYS FOR ANO ASHLAR,
TURNUP SOLDER
ff-+
l-
SEAM
SOLDER€D
SOLDER
CRICKET
ALTERNATE ONE-PIECE
CRICKET
CRICKET LINING-==
FLUE 4' MtN. APRON
gECTION
A- A
NOTE WHEN @ DMENSTfl (B) OIMENSION EXCEEOS 12" THAN oniareR m 6THROUGH USE STEPPED-PAN FLASHING WALL
SOLDER
CAP
TO
PAN
CHIMNEY
NOTE MICK SHOWN N O€TAIL. BUT VARIES MATERI4
@
FLASHING
CAP
FLASHTNG
COVERS
s%iSl#El:#S" BASE
MrN
CLEATS
ALTERNATE FLAAHING
ONE'PIECE
FLASHING
t2
4'
APRON
FLASHING
FLASHED ARE OF CHIMNEY SIOES FLASHING PIECES OF BAS GING COURSE EACH WITH INSTALLED ErcE THE UPPER OF $INGLES. FLASHING G PIECE OF EACH EACH 2"ABOVE EXTEND SrcULO
oHi.'?H"^ S.3''5.'\2P F33E=8 FGMTNG stNaEs Ei,rrs or rHE
0.c
FLSING BAs i-sl Neir cffisE. VUST EXTENO UP THE WALL Arc
BAAE FLAT
PAN
THROUGH
\^/ALL FLA€HING)
THE
ROOF
MIN,
OF
4''
Floshingqt RoofPenetrotions MIN. LAP 2" VENT PIFE
INSIOE
PIPE
YENT VARIES
DIAT'ETER
IN SET HAROENI SEALANT
NON_ NG
r/4 t" x BAND
DRAW
METAL
$LOEREO SEAM
LAP
METAL OAM
WEIGHT MATERIAL OF SAME AS FOR ROOF PENETRATIONS STRIPPING
STR
FASTEN FLANGE TO OECK METAL
VENT
PITCH
HOOO
WEIGHT SAMI MATERIAL AS FOR ROOF PENETRATION
OF
PITCH
IPPING
FASTEN ruANGE TO DECK
OAM
PIPE
PIPE
FLAGPOLE€I
AND
TALL
SIZE
VARIES
P|PE6
ROOF
RELIEF
ATTAC;HMENTS STRUCTURAL WITH WEATHERSEAL WASHERS
METAL
NEOPRENE
COPING
STRUCTURAL THROUGH
STR
STUB COLUMN ATTACHED TO STRUCTURAL
FUTURE
STRIP WITH
ROOF
SECTION OECK
WELD PLATE WATERTIGH T
PAD
2 PLY MEMBRANE IN FLASHING CEMENT TURNED OOWN OVER
CLINCH 24^ O.C. WASHERS
\/ENT
2-
X
CURA
SEAL TOP OF BASE FLASHING WITH FABRIC TAPE ANO MASTIC
OR FASTTNERS WEATHERSEAL
&6T
FLASHING
IPPING
TREATEO WOOD NAILER SURROUNOING COLUMN
FRAMING
COLUMNS.
SIGN
SUPPORTS,
METAL PAN SET BITUMEN ANO
ANO
STEEL
AruCUES
IN FILLED
STRAINER
WITH Hc)T BITUMEN OR PLASTIC CEMENT
1"1
TWO SET
FLASHING CLAMP ANO GRAVEL STOP
FELT SHEETS IN BITUMEN 3_ t-
t2
DI MENSTO
2'MIN
FELT NS
OEVICE
STRIPPING.
ROOFING
MEMBRANE
FELT STRIFING
STEEL
r'\
-A
DECK FOR WOOO OECKS FILL WITH CEMENT MORTAR POURING BITUMEN
I" DEEP BEFORE
OECK CLAMP { OPTIONAL }
NOTE Whenwer posible iloid the us of pitch pakets in filor of curbs with bce and cap flashing around the penetrating member.
NOTE To obtain proper drainage,roof drains should be lo, cated at points of the lowest expcted deflction in roof drck.
PITCH
ROOF
POCKET
CONCRETE
ox rc" FLASHING FLASHING
ROOF
LEAO FLANGE CEMENT
IN
DRAIN
Michael Scott Rudden;The StephensAssociatesp.C.-Architecrs; Albany,New york
FLASHING
443
Ridge ond Vqlley Floshing
444
CONTINUOUS STR DOWN
TO
BHIN6LEE
CONTINUOUS DOWN STRIP
HOLO
METAL
IN ROOF
AT CHANGE
FLAEHING
HOLD IP
MATERIAL
FOR MIN WT SEE "ROOFrg "ROOF e,, IN TABLE ON
AS AT ..RIOGESHtE'IN TABLE ON ANOTHER
CLEATS
PAGE
,'*"" =r^,"/ SHINGLES
coNotTtoN
a coNDtTtoN coNolrlol xore,: Shingle material varies. Flashing nailed to sheating 8" o.c.
FLABHINO
OF
IN ALOPE
BREAK
OF
2'-O'O.C
PROVIOE I,."V.,CRIMP FOR SLOPES LESS THAN 6/12
LLEY
c
ROOFE
AHINGLE
SCREW PRENE
WIIH NEOWASHER
MATERIAL
SHINGLE
VARIES
f"'v"cRrMP
TS2-OO.
CONCEALED
RIOOE
EXPO€tEO
FLA€IHING
RIDGE
NOTE
NOTE
Ridge tlashing lormed in l0' lengrhs and lapped 4". Flashing is nailed to sheathing after shingles are installed. then flashing is covered with ridge sfiingle!
Ridg€ flashing formed in lapped 4".
FLAAHING '10'
VALLEY FLASHING lengths and UNEQUAL
OPEN
gLOPEE
VALLEY
FLAEHINO
1A..FOR 6/12 OR
SLOPES MORE
SLOPES 24"FOR THAN LESS 6/12
VALLEY FLAS H ING
PIECES SEPARATE FLAqING G AT INSTTLEO EACH COURSE OF gINEES FOR MIN. ,.VALLEY.. ON
6ECTION
ROOF
EDGE
FLAAHING
SEE TA6LE PAGE
cRogg
A-A
CONCEALEO
VALLEY
MichaelScott Rudden;The StephensAssociatesP.C-Architects: Albanv,New York
FLASHING
WT IN ANOTHER
FLAAHING
eEcTroN
I/16' NEOPREM t6 02. coPPER .OI5 TO 40 LB. PAINTEO TERNE 24 GA. GAL. IRON
A waler table is a ledge or slight prolection of masonry. wooo or other construction on the outside of a toundatio; wail, olust above. lt p.otects the toundation from rain bv rnrowrng thF waler awav from the wall. ln lhe architectur;l nrerarcny ot a butldtng form, the water table forms the transrronar xnebetween the base and middle secltons. A water ro as an ofls€t when the base plane :1?g_l: jul9""d pro,ects out trom the upper Dlane.
SHEATHING
MASONRY
ANCHOR SPECIAL SHAPES WATER
BRICK TO FORM
TABLE
METAL FUSHING FILL WITH MORTAR
WEEP HOLES
BRICK ROWLOCK WATER TABLE
GRADE
BRICK STRETCHER WATER TABLE
BRICK WATER TABLE
BRICK VENEER BRICX METAL FLASiHING
FkBFS Eh"""J.",ilf5^"i3,1,"c LEs wIr H BUILDING PAPER -SHEATHING
STEEL SHELF ANGLE WITH EXPANSION
8.1f,Ts"*a SHAKE SHINGLES BLOCKED OUT TO FORM WATER TAAE STONE WATER TABLE DISC ANO ROO ANCHOR FLOOR JOTST _
BLOCKING
CROWN MOLOING
CMU BACKUP STONE VENEER METAL FUSHING
CMU FOUNDATION
WEEP HOLES _ AT JOINTS
EXTERIOR
INSULATION
AND
FTNISH
SYSTEM
BRICK VENEER WITH STONE WATER TAALE
r/2" FURR|NG FASTENEO TO SHEATHING
STONE VENEER
BUILDING
CMU BACKUP
SHEATHING
RIGIO INSULATION
BLOCKEO.OUT
SHAKE SHINGLES
OISC AND ROD ANCHOR MffAL
FGSHING
STONE WATER TAELE
2X6WOOD WATER TABLE
METAL FUSHING
HOOK ANCHOR
METAL FUSHING CMU FOUNDATION
STUCCO
TROWELED
STONE VENEER WITH STONE WATER TABLE
EXTERIOR
VENEER
MASONRY VENEER
STRAIGHT
SIOTNG
FLUSH
WITH
FOUNDATION
WOOD SIDING
RichardJ. Vituilo,AtA; Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsvilte.Maryland
FLASHING
BoseCourseond DoorThresholdFlos
M6
BASE COURSE F LASHING
TURNUP WHERE NO FINISH USED
/:
EXT ERIOR FACE OF WALL
t N
PAVING
----{f -1 I
ASE
COURSE
FLASHING
MIN.WC)C'O MAKE
BONO
WITH WATERMATERIAL
EIAAE
I r2.,
COURSE
RESISTANT
AT
PAVING
ANO
\NALL
FLC)OR
ANO
STRUCTURE
WALL FOUrcA.l'R CONC. SiTRUCTURE FLOC)R M|N:WOo'D WALL FOUNOATION MASONRY
COUReE
BASE
AT
FLOOR
ANO
CONSTRUCTION
ii::*; MAKE AOND MAKE WITH
BASE COURSE FLASHING
BOND WATER-
RESISTANT MATERIAL
E|AEIE COUREE
AT
SILL
OF
MAsONRY
CONsTRUCTION
WATER R€SISTAN
BASE
T
COUFIG|E AT
6ILL
OF
FRAME
WITH AONO MAKE RESISTANT WATERMATIRIAL VARIES FINISH
MASONRY
VENEIR
BUILOING
PAPER
HOLES WEEP PROVIOE WYTHE IN EXTERIOR LC,C;ATEO waLL cavtTY oF AEOVE TMMEt)TATELY FLASHING' ANO LEOGES 2',- O' O. C, SPACEO
COURSE BASE FLASHING BASE
COURSE
STRUCTURE FLOOR A" MIN. WOOD WALL FOUNDATION ANO CONC. STRUCTURE FL@R I2.' MIN- WOOD WALL FOUNDATION MASONRY AND
AT BAEE COURSE VENEER MAsONRY MichaelScott Rudden;The StephensAssociatesP C.-Architects; Albany,New York
FLASHING
AT BAEE COURSE BUILT- UP ROOF
SILL
CONsTRUCTION
Spqndrel Ponel Flqshing
HEAO
FLASHING
coNorTtoN
AT
EENING
No. I
coNotTtoN
No.2
coNorTroN
I R ;l
SPANOREL WATER ^t='=to*t
No. 3
M,
; \
>l
)
I
N, \h-1
-+-| I
(--
f
u______.1
Txnouox
/-REGLET VARI
I I
o
4
vanres
w+L
Nr
MIN.
FLASHING
I
U
:rrursx
Y +--
TYPE ES
t
a
I
L
o I F
l'
LI
L il-r, ./ tl
W€EP HOLES
ll II I I I
MAY €tE EXTENOED FOR HEAO FLASHING AT OPENING
coNotTtoN
ft
No- 4 WEEP
-\
FtNtsH
SPAN OREL FLASHING
OPEN JOIST
WE
vantrs I
Nor E I O E T A I L S AT JUNCTIoN FLA S H I N G WITH MULLIONS M E N IBERS AS WELL AS FLA 3 H I N G PROFILE OEP€NO CUF TAIN WALL DESIGN
coNorTtoN
i2-o-
-
,Jn \----:,"*:n* -ta \
SPANOREL FLASH I NG
oF ANO
FRAM
ING
ON
No.5
HOLES
o.c
OPENING VARIES
| .*,=t lrvaRlES\
HEAD FLASHING
i) L-J-
N
t l
)
WEEP
SILL FLASH
HOLES
I NG
7
0 ,.o x<
MATERIAL VARI ES
OPENING VAR IES
[,.FlNlSH lvaRrES
IO
oz n0 IO
FINISH
CONOITION
VARIES
NO. "
Michaei Scoft Rudden; The Stephens Ass@iates P.C.-Architectsj
HEAO
FLAEHINO
gILL
FLAEHINO
Albany, New Yo.k
FLASHING
447
Roofond PoropetExponsionJoinls
M8
NUOS RUN SHOULO CONTI WATERSTOPS TO TOP BUILDING. OF FROM FOOTING FLOW 4" IN LAP JOINT DIRECTION OF
EXPANSION
JOINT
AT
INTERSECTION
OF
\^/ALL
@
APET
AND
ONE
PIECE
VERTICAL AT WALL
EXPANSION
JOINT
COMrcSITION
'
1
:
.
\ \
|
\
\
I'-6'' FASTENERS WATERTIGHT USE
O. C
*
PLAN METAL PLATE
AT
SECTION
PARAPET
SPLICE
EX PANSION JOINT
METAL STOP
EXPANSION
JOINT
TRANSITION
AT
COPER FUSHING. TO $LOER VERTICAL WATERSTOPS
GR AVEL ANO FASCIA
EAVE
EXPANSION JOINT
VERTICAL COPING
SECTION
AT
PARAPET
FASTEN I'-6'O.C. USE WATERTIGHT WASHERS COMPOSITION
EXPANSION
JOINT
AT
INTERSECTTON
CTA Architects Engineers; Billings, Montana
FLASHING
OF
WALL
ANO
FLASHING
PARAPET
EXPANSION AND WALL
JOINT
AT
ROOF
NEOPRENE BELLOWS NAIL WITH NAILS
A" O.C. SPEC)IAL PROVIDED
INSULATION
ROOFER'S CEMENT ROOF INSULATION
cuRa
FLANGe
FASTEN r.-6,. o.c. USE WATERTIGHT WASHERS
APPLY RC)OFER'S CEMENT TO BOTH SIOES OF TOP OF BASE FLASHING BEFORE INSTALLING ROOF
expeF-sroll
OECK
TJ()INT
FACTC)RY
NEOPR ENE BELLOWS 2-PLY FELT STRIPPING
W)4
NEOPRENE SPLTCE COVERS METAL FLANGE NA|L 4'O.C.
PIT
ROOFER'S UNDER
COMPOSITION FLASH I NG
FASTEN t'-5.' o. c: USE WATERTTGHT WASHERS
CEMENT METAL SLOPEO
WOC'D
NAILEO TO ONE SIDE OF JOINT ORY OR
2 X 6 NA'LER SLOPEO
FELT PITCH
ENVELOPE OAM
JOI NT
I8" TAPERED EOGE STRTP
STRATGHT rlawEE
exprNsroN
uorFT
COVER
AT
PIECE
\^/ALL
NOTE: SLoPE CURB TO NAILER AT 2-PLY OVER
FELT METAL
STRI PPI NG FLANGE
NATLS FASCIA STOP
4,,
O.C
GRAVEL
MIN. GAUGE 16 OZ COPPER 22 GAUGE GA LVAN 'ZE O
rRoN, o.oso IN.
ALUMINUM
ORY
TAPER EO EDGE STRIPS 2x6-NAILER
STRATGHT Fl-aNoE
ENVELoPE ,/ NOTE: ROC)FING EXTENOS UP TAPEREO EOGE STRIPS AND BENEATH FLANGE ANO ORY ENVELoPE
AT-EEFEL-=?EF
CTAArchirects€ngineers;Billings.Montana
cuRB
FLANGe
ar
cnlvel
sioe
BUrLoING
ex paNsJtoN_.lor NTs
FLASHING
Metql Coping ond GrovelS!gP!
450
MINIMUM GAUGES FOR GRAVEL STOP_FASCIA
RECOMMENDED
PLY'FEL] 9,. WIDE STRIP'IN SET IN ROOF CEMENT
] 6'' WIDE ORGANIC FELT ENVELOPE
6EDGE FUSHING AEYONO END OF EDGE, SET TAPERED IN HOT ASPHALT
D (MAX) (tN.)
GALVANIZED (GAUGE)
ZINC
STEEL
ALLOY
(rN.)
STAINLESS (GAUGE)
STEEL
STOP. GRAVEL IN SKT FLANGE FULL BED OF ROOF CEMENT
BUR MEMBRANE
RECOMMENDED WIDTH flN.)
OF COPING
MINIMUM GAUGES FOR COPING GALVANIZED (GAUGE)
TOP
STEEL
STAINLESS (GA,UGE)
STEEL
24
ALUMINUM (tN.)
(oz.')
o.232
26
to
ROOF DECK
CONTINUOUS CLEAT
RIGID INSULATION
PLY-FELT TO BELOW BLOCKING
ROUND OFF
WOOD BLOCKING
OFF EDGE
TAPERED
SELECTION
WOOO BLOCKING
EDGE FLASHING
BASE FLASHING SET IN PLY.FELT ROOF CEMENT
SEALANT
FIBER
ruO-PIECE METAL COUNTERFLASHING
BASE
CANT
FUSHING
PLY-FELT STRIP.IN SET IN ROOF CEMENT
GALVANIZED
BUR MEMBRANE BUR MEMBRANE
RIGID
INSULATION
ROOF DECK GRAVEL STOP
PARAPET
TRANSITION
SPLICE GRAVEL
JOINT STOP
-rySPLICE JOINT CLEAT
CONTINUOUS CLEAT
GRAVEL
STOP TRANSITION
DETAIL MrN.Tor/. ,/--rls" MAX. TYP. +-+ | | TpARApETCAp !r,
,/
SECTION THROUGH
NAIL SPLICE JOINT CLEAT AS SHOWT DO NOT NAIL GRAVEL STOP ONTO SPLICE SPLICE SHOWN
EDGE
coNTfNUoUS BsD oF SEALANT AT CENTER-\
SPLICE SHOWN
JOINT CLEAT IN PUCE
AT SPLICE JOINT
l/e" MtN To
CONTINUOUS CL€AT
GRAVEL
STOP SPLICE
JOINT
SPLIC€ JOINT CLAT AT EACH PARAPET CAP SECTION, IO' MAX.
PARAPET
CAP SPLICE
VARIES WITH ROOF SLOPE
STEEL
Stainless steel retains manY of the advantages of other steel products and yet is generally corrosion resistant. In addition to resisting corrosion, stainless steel can be lield soldered so as to accommodate difficult transition and teF mination conditions- lf the mill finish appearance is not acceptable. the stainless steel may be field painted atter installation by using a primer followed by finish painting. CO PPE R
TYP. PARAPET CAP
SPLICE JOINT CLEAT AT EACH GRAVEL STOP SECTION, I O, MAX
STEEL
Galvanized st€el flashings should be a minimum ot 24 gauge with a G-90 galvanized coating. Of commonly used llashing m€tals, galvanized st€el probably is the most common ahd least expensiv€. Although galvanized flashing metal may be left exposed, generally it is painted to further orotect the steel from corrosion. Be{ore it is painted, galva nized metal must bg prepared. Plain galvanized material chemically etched in the tield is prefe(ed lor surfaces to be painted. Factory etching, in which the metal is dipped in an acid bath, €tches it on all sides. As a result. exposed edges often rust. Field etching is prefetred because only the surfac€s to be Dainted are etched. After etching, the surface should be primed and finish painted. prelerably with two coars.
STAINLESS
'/a" MlN. To llo'unx
METAL
Galvanized steel is 6asv to solder, low in cost. and easy to work. All flashing metal transitions and terminations should be soldered fully for permanent installation; however. this should not be don€ at metal flashing joints where movement caused by thermal expansion is expected or at building expansion joints.
/ \colttruuous CLEAT SPLICE JOINT
NAIL SPLICE JOINT CLEAT AS SHOWN- OO NOT NAIL PARAPET CAP ONTO SPLICE JOINT CLEAT
JOINT CLEAT IN PUCE AT
OF FLASHING
Each commonly used flashing metal has distinctive characteristics. uses, and limitations. Thickness ol materials is a function o{ material size, aesthetic consideralibn {preven tion of oil{anning), and wind uplift due to metal movement during violent storms.
JOINT
GRAVEL STOP STT IN FULL BED OF SEALANT
Copper is also among the lifetime materials that are considered maintenance free. It can be soldered and molds very easily, which makes it adaptable to complicated transitaons and changes of plane. Since copper can be soldered in the field, it should be terminated with fully sold€red conditions. The design€r should be aware, however. that th€ runolt from the metal can stain adioining building materials. CoP per is generally found to be a softer material than other flashing metals. Copper has a moderate coafficient oI expansion in that it is higher than steel and yet less than alumrnum.
PRIMED METAL FUNGE ALUMINUM
FUSHING
BASE
CHAMFER FIBER
CANT
PLY,FELT Sil ROOF CEMENT
BUR
IN
MEMBRANE
RIGIO INSUSTION (AS SOLDERNELD PER METAL TYPE)
GRAVEL STOP FABRICATION
OUTSIDE
CORNER
ROOF
EDGE DETAIL
Joseph J. Williams. AIA; A"/R/C Associates lnc.; Orlando, Florida
AND ACCESSORIES ROOFSPECIALTIES
DECK
Aluminum rs among the permanent materials.because lt corrodes at a slow rate. Aluminum will, however. oxidize and pit over time, depending on the exposure. Since alumi num can only be connected by welding, field conditions are more difticult to accommodate. Although corner conditions can very often be orelabricated, unusual or difficult changes of plane may be difficult to properly accommodate in alumr num. Aluminum also has a high coefficient of expansion and contraction compared with other flashing metals and field welding is difficult. Due to the limitations of in-field tabrications, aluminum is best used on roots oI simple conIigurations and {ew transitions.
Roof,Eove,Attic, qnd Crqwlspoce Ventilqtion CONTNUOUS RIDGE VENT (OPTIONAL) =,--
VENTILATION
GABLE LOUVER AT EACH END _=---=
SPACE
REQUIREMENTS
TO PREVENT CONDENSATION TOTAL NET AREA OF (A) VENTILATION
DESCRIPTION
REMARKS
a = lVZbU.Unrrormly distrabuted ventsat eaves
cerlrngattached to underside of jojsts)
EXHAUST DUCT (MUST,NOT EXHAUST INTO AnC: EXTEND TO OUTSIDE)
451
Vent each joist space at both ends. Maintain 1 14 in mrnrmum clear path above insulation for ventilatron.
a = A./150.Uniformly distributedvents at eaves with a continuousridge venI.
EAW
Attrc
WNT
GAE}LE
ROOF
WITH
UNOCCTJPIED
a = Ar/lb0. At leasttwo louverson oppositesides near radgeor one continuous ridge vent. Uniformly distributedvents at eaves.
ATTIC
CONTINUOUS RIDGE WM.
Any combination of gable/hip louvers and/or ndge vents may be used to achieve required ventilation Vent area may be reduced by anclusionof wind-driven or mechanical ventilators. Consult mechanical engineer.
GABLE LOUWR AT EACH END Hip
VENT SPACE (MA|MAIN r,A' tN CLEAR PATH ABOW NSUUTION FROM EAW TO -- ------7 RDGE,-
space/
INSULANON
a=2V100+4800
Provrde at least one opening per side, as high as possible in wall.
Where L = crawl space/basement perimeter(linearfeet) EAW
WNT
GAE}LE UNDER
WITH OCCUPIED ROOF
SPACE
FINISH
FLOOR
VrcR BARRIER (1.O PERM. OR LESS)
NOTES 1. A = areaof spaceto be ventilated,in squarefeet. 2. The openingsin insect screeningshould not exc€ed rA in. (6 mm). The effective net area of ventilationis OMONAL CO€RING
INSUUTION
SHINGLE ON WM
reduced by screening; consult manufacturers of screeningmaterialsfor percentageof "free air" flow reducedby the amount of solid materialin screening. PRESSURE-TRAED STOPS, FASENED
VAPOR BARRIER (1.O ERM. OR GSS)
2X WOOD INSUUTION TO DECK
SHINGLES ON ROOF
ROOF SHEAHING CW BACK Tc) PROVDE AR PASSAGE
ON 15+ BUILDING SHEATHING
,,ir,p' ';Y .
VArcR BARRTER Wffi SLIP-RESTSTANT SURFACE RIGID
INSUUTION MH SPACE ABOVE (1 '/2' MtN.)
Attics andcrawl spacesmust be ventilatedto removemoisture and water vaporthat has enteredthe spacesJromsurrounding air or soil or that has been created by human activity.Generally,crawl spaces (andbasements)requirea greater amount of ventilation than an equivalent area ol attic. The quantityof water vapq dependson the building type (e.9.,residenca,sch@|. etc.). activity{e.9., bathr@m, kitchen,etc.), air temperature.and relativehumidity. lf the temperatureof th€ wntilated space falls below the dew point temperature,@ndensationwill mcur wtrich will deteriorate insulation.framing, etc. This can be avoided by proper d€tailingto limit moistur€ infiltration and increase ventilationto remv€ it if it d6s enter the soace.
W@D
TRIM
CONTINUOUS SCREEN
INSEO
NOTE S 1. Provide ridge vent to complete cavity ventilation detail. 2. Fasteners should be carefully selected and located to secure insulation, stops, sleepers. sheathing, etc. to structural tongueand€roove deck.
INSULATED TONGUE.AND.GROOVE ROOF VENTILATION DETAIL
BARRIER
1%' MlN. CLARNG AIR PASSAGE
RIDGE VENTS 4'LONG (AT EACH
2X BL€KING MAERIAL RA|+R LOCANON)
R@F BACK
SHEATHING FOR WMNG
TO
BAFFG
BEMEEN
CLJT
2X LEDGER METAL
ALLOvv
MAY BE NECESSARY ON LOW.SLOPED ROOFS
METAL COUM€RFUSHING WtrH PTRFORANC)NS AT LOW HGZOMAL FACE
STOP
BLOCKING
|uSHING
INSU4NON WIH 1 IA' AIR SPACE ABOW VAPOR BARRIER
VArcR BARRIER UNDER INSUUTION
\EAW
INSULATION VENT
SLEEPERS, AT EACH
LOUWRED EAVE VENT TONGUE.AND, GROOE WOOD DECK
AIR
2X4BLCKINGAT EACH RAffER
INSUUTTON
2X W@D LMATED
AL RIDGE VEM
VENT APPLICATIONS GENERAL
PAPER
SELF.ADHERING
FOR SHED ROOF AT V\/ALL
Z
1' TO 3- DIA
N OTE
BLOCKING
Insect screenmust be added to backof tile.
ROVIDE DIRECTLY
VENT
AND BAFFLE
TNSECT BEHIND
SCREEN VtrNT
SLO]
PLW@D
LOUVER N OTE Most vents for crawl spaces are set inlo unit masonry (and are sized accordingly) or conqete. Consult manufacturers. Metal louvers and vents have integral insect screens.
CRAWL SPACE VENTILATION MATERIALS
GAE}LE
LOUVER
ROOF LOUVER
CUPOLA
TYPES
DORMER
CIRCUIAR
VENTS
EAVE VENTILATION
STAMPED E)
OR VENT
TYPES
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak Leat Studio;Crownsville.Maryland Erik K. Beach;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington,D.C.
ROOFSPECIALTIES AND ACCESSORIES
S
Metol RoofinqRetrofitfor ProblemoticFlotRoof
452 GENERAL
Structurai metal panels are used in roofing applicalions when removal of the existing root membrane is too costly or undesirable. tvletal panel roofs are durable, have g@d wind and {ire resistance ratings, and require little maintenance. The panels are manufactured erther from steel or aluminum and are mechanically seamed on the iob site. Sealants in tape or gel form are used as a gasket between metal connectjons. The sealant, applied in the female corrugation to make the roof more weathertrght, allows the panels to expand and contract independently ol the insulation and slructural svstems.
FLAT ROOF REMOVAL EXPENSE OF REMOVAL DISrcSAL OF EXISTING
VIS1BLE HIGHLY OVERFLOW CLOGGED DRAIN _. IMMEDIATELY EVIDENT
REOUIRES AND
LEAVE EXISTING ROOF MEMBRANE IN PLACE .-.
/_ I \
PROBLEMATIC DRANAGE (FREZING LEAKS INTERNAL DRAINS. Z-
VR^NS)
Twofan clips concealed inside the standing seams accommodate thermal exDansion and eliminate the need for tasteners in the tlat pans oI the panel. The top part of the clip holds the metal panel, while the base of the clip is fastened to ths structural member. A slot between the two parts of the clios allows indeoendent movement. The concealed clip also provides the attachment necessary for wind uplift ratings.
Z;
ffi^
Structural metal r@fs can be used with slopes as low as r/. in. per ft but may also be used in a steep slope configuration. The panels are available in a wide variety of colors and typically have corrosion{esistant coatings. Before adding the weight of structural metal roof panels to a building, it is important to verify the load-bearing capacity of th6 existing roof structure.
EXISTING REPUCEMENT ROOFING -
TRAPEZOIDAL
VERTICAL
FULLY
PARTIALLY
CLOSED
FLAT ROOF
RETROFIT
WITH
METAL
PANEL
ROOF
MSAL
:
NEW GUfrER INTEGRAL TO METAL ROOF SYSTEM
CLOSED
SEAM TYPES FOR METAL PANELS MANUFACTURER'S STANDARD GABLE
PROBLEMATIC
'-
ROOFING
eavE
vENTtuTtoN
EXISTING CAP FUSHING RAKE EXISTING
CAVIW
WALL
NOTE Design sleeper to distribute r@J load adequatelyover the roof surface.Considercompressibilityof insulationand conBUILDING
SECTION THROUGH
dition of membrane. Provide bearing plates and holddown clios as necessary.
ROOF SYSTEM
GABLE END VENTIUNN IN PROECTED SGFT ADDEO BAE INSUUTION TRAPEZOIOAL TOP PANEL
END STRAP
tAP
WITH
A
EXISTING
VERTICAL THE LEG END LAP WITH PANEL FI,ATS S\ /AGED SO UPPER PANEL FITS INTO LOWER
GABLE
END WALL
RIDGE CAP FOR METAL ROOFING PANELS
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects,PC: Washington,D.C. PaulNimitz:PDNAssociates;BlueSprings,Montana
ROOFSPECIALTIES AND ACCESSORIES
END LAPS FOR METAL PANELS
ROOFING
Roofond PoropetExponsionJoinls . -'
STANDING
.
z' ,/
./
,./
FASTENER ENURGED
.r"'..r"r',,r) ,./ /
../
NEOPRENE, UPPED AND SEALED WITH WATERPROOF
\loxestw -\ \
.//
t..,"
SEAM
453
WIft HOLE
WASHER
BOLT A' oc
THROUGH
CONTINUOUS METAL RECEIVER
COMrcSTION
FUSHING
./
,rt
COUMERFUSHING METAL COUNTERFUSHING
LOOSE LOCK SEAM
s_-t\
FASENER WITH WASHER THROUGH ENURGED HOLES
wooD NAILER
GRAVEL
COVER
CONCRETE
STOP FORM LENGG,
PLATE
EXPANSION
JOINT AT GRAVEL
IN
1O' UP
AND SAL aaT
STOP
METAL
COMPOSITION FUSHING
1' LOCK SEAM SEE CLAT OETAIL WOOD NAILER
ri|
LiLr
MtN. 8" €OVE ROOF
l
ll
=t
I I :=----:'L]------i
METAL
COVER
NOTES 1.The minimum recommendedgaugelor the expansion . joint shown is 24{auge stainlesssteel, 16 oz copper,22gaugegalvanizedsteel, or 0.050 in. aluminum. 2. Expansionjoints allow independent movement of the root structure. ROOF EXPANSION @NCRETE
JOINT
WALL
COUMERFUSHING OWR UPANSION EXPANSION JOINT COER EfENDS COUMERFUSHTNG
PAST
FOR ROOF MOVEMEM
EXPANSION
JOINT
UP ANO SAL JOIM
AT PARAPET
COUNTERFUSHING NAILED COMrcSINON BASE OWR
FUSiHING TOP OF
CONCRETE MASONRY
WALL
FUSHING
RECEIVER
EXPANSION COWR, UP SEAL JOINTS
NOTCH
ANO
UP
CURB
CURB
JOINT AND -
COUNTERFUSHING. COMNUOUS CLEAT NAILED TO W@DCOMrcSIION BASE FUSHING
W@D
CURB
N OTES l.The minimum recommended gauge for the expansion ioint shown is 24{auge stainless steel, 16 oz coppet.22gauge galvanized steel, or 0.050 in. aluminum. 2. Expansion joints allow independent rool structure.
EXPANSION
JOINT INTERSECTION
ROOF.TO-WALL
EXPANSION
movement
JOINT
SMACNA,Inc.,from the SMACNAArchitecturat SheetMetatManuat,5th ed..with permission ValerieEickelberger;RippEteauArchitects, pC; Washington.D.C.
ROOFSPECIALTIES ANDACCESSORIES
of the
Flqt RoofDroinoge
454
: ,/
--
FGSHING
SOLDERED CONNECTION
OR
GENERAL
SEALED
The size and number of scuppers should be ca.efully deter mined to control ponding on roofs- Rectangular shapes con vev more water (per inch of water depth on the roo{) than round shapes. The performance of rectangular shape: aooroxrmates that of a broad{rested weir Standard eqtri tions for channel fiow are based on test models larger thari tvprcal roof scuppers. While downspout slzes nolmally are based on draining a grven area of roof, that flow rate mav not pass through a scupper that has been sized to have a cross sectional area equal to the downspout area
CLOSURE FLANGE AND SEAMED SOLDERED TO SCUPER
SCUPPER sIZING PROCEDURES 1 Determine the head (H) in inches of water {tYpically 1 in minimum bv code) at a point 6 tt back from the scupper opening. 2. Determine the roof drainage area in sq ft {SF). 3. Using .aintall intensity in inches per hour (lPH) trom a rainfall data table, determine discharge capacrty rn ga lons oer minute (GPM). GPM = SF of room area x IPH x 0.0104. The'constant is 7.48 gallons per cubic fool divided by 12 inches per foot divided by 60 manutes per
SEAMED JOINT BETWEEN AND FUNGE SCUPPER BELOW
MASONRY FASTENER
ftq #\
L@K LOOSE CONNEfrION
SOLDERED OR SEALED CONNECTION
hour: GPM = {0.0104) IPH x SF 4. Using H and the GPM. find the aggregate scupper lenglh {L} in rhe scupper capacity table {below). 5. Select enough individual scuppers to satisty the total GPM requirement and locate them proportionately
LOCK CONNECTION
FUSHING
SCUPPER
DETAIL
AT PARAPET
WALL
(CONDUCTOR
HEAD SIDE) CAP FUSHING
FUSHING FGNGE AND
SCUPPER SALED
CLOSURE FUNGE SEAMED AND
4'
HAN
MlN. MASONRY FASTENER
(MAY E}E OMTTED IF URGEST S'cUFER DiMENSION
. t
/ ,./
HEIGfr DEPENDS caeacw
ON or
RMF DRAINAGE MOWDED
12')
CONDUCTOR N OTE
Scupperassembliqs{rom top to bottom (flashingto scup oer outlet to conductor head) should be overlappedto ensurethat water will be dkectedaway from the wall. CANT STRIP
SCUPPER ASSEMBLY
ELEVATION
NOTES l.Us€ overflow scuppers when roof is completely surroundedby parapetsand drainagedependson scuppers or internaldamage. O\/ERFLOW
SCUPPER
DETAIL
AT PARAPET
2. Pre€st concrete panelswith scupp€rsdo not ne€d closure flangeson face; all penetrationsshouldbe seated' WALL
SCUPPER CAPACITY IN GPM*
NOTE
'Basedon the Francisformula:O = 3.33(L'0.2H) Hr5.in which Q = Flow rate, cubic ft per socond L = Lengthof scupperopening,ft (shouldbe 4 to 8 times H) H = Headon scupper.lt {measured6 ft back from openingi 1 GPM = 448.8 CFS
SMACNA, Inc.,from the SMACNA ArchitecturalSheet Metal Manual. sth ed.. with permassron GraceS. Le€;RippeteauArchitects,PC;Washington.D.C.
ANDACCESSORIES ROOFSPECIALTIES
Scuppers that empty into a gutter may be integrated with a roof edge- The scuppers are soldered into a fo.med gravel stop-fascia system. The suggesled maxrmum scupper interval is l0 ft. The front rim o.f the gutter must be I In below the back edge, and it should be below the nailers used to elevate the roof edge. The drip €dge on the fascia should lap the back edge of the gutter a minimum of 1 in. The gutter must be free to move behind the fascia.
fing Detoits BIRD SCREEN.
_
-
4S5
-W|DTHOF DISCHARGE OPENiNG SHOULO BE 25% URGER THAN ROOF OPENING tF ,/.. MESH SCREEN IS USED
TNSECT
SCREEN
//SHINGLES
.-
/
--
ROOF
EXTERNAL BRACKET {INTERNAL BRACKET MAY BE USED IF THROAT DIAMETER ts 12" OR LESS)
aLuvlNuu
earvaNago STEEL, OR PLASTIC ENT COVER AND VENT STACK
-METAL GMSENECK V€NT
ROOF CURB BELOW
,
SHINGLES
/ I
BOLT NAILER TO METAL
N OTE
ROOF VENT IN SLOPED ROOF
Ihis ventilator may be used on a sloped rool
BIRD SCREEN
WIOTH OF ROOF OPENING
2" APPROX
METAL ROOF CURB. SPOT MLDED TO METAL DECK
RAIN CAP WND
METAL DECK
NOTE
GOOSENECK
sKtff (BEYOND)
21h' APPROX
GRAVITY VENTILATOR
STRUCTURAL EOUIPMEM SUPPORT
BAND
INNER CONE
This ventilator may be used for either intake or exhaust with gravityflow.
VENTILATOR 2' TO 6.
METAL RAIN CAP
SCREEN
WNT
LOOSE INSUUTION
STACK
AP TO BE LOWER THAN TOP OF ENT \ STACK
BUCE (4 REOUIRED)
WATERTIGffi UMBREtg WTH SEAUNT AND DRAW BAND AT TOP
SHEil R@F
ROTATING
Mff[ JACK
CLEARANCE TO UMBREIu
Sff FUNGE IN MASTIC: STRIP IN WG
NOTE All sloped partial or full conical shapes should be based on the same angle (generally30o).
STATIONARY VENTILATOR
ruO FLIES OF FELT: PRIME FUNGE BEFORE
-
NOTE
GRAVITY ROOF
RGID INSUGTION VAPOR OVER
BARRIER DECK
This detail allows moisture due to leaks. fauttv vaDor barriers, or constructton work to escape lrom the roof svstem.
ROOF RELIEF VENT
. ROOFING . MATERIAL
IN SUUNT
FLUE OR OTHER HIGH TEMPERATURE STACK
FASTENERS. 24' O.C.
EUSTOMERIC SEAUNT DRAW
OR WELD UMARELU STACK
L@SE
BAND
TO
INSUUrcN SEEL |uTE, FASTENED PPE COLUMN AND BEAM BELOW AS REOUIRED
N OTES
TO TAL
1. This detail en be adapled to. other uses. such as siqn supports. 2. Many roofing manufacturersoffer prefabricatedflashing p,eces or permit the use of materials other than thos; shown here for flashing.Sp€ifi€tions on these oroori_ etarydesignsvary;consultthe manulacturers. 3. Foraccessto areasunderneathequipment,varypjpe column heightas shown in the accompanyingchart. COLUMN PIPE
EQUIPMENT
COLUMN
EQUIPMENT (lN.)
\,r/IDTH
UMBRELU FASTENERS.
a' o.c.
\-emctNe MAERIAL
SUPPORT
HEIGHT COLUMN (tN.)
HEIGHT
up to to 36
to
NOTE
BASE FUSHING, AS RECOMMENDED FY MANI 'FAM JRER
This detail allows tor roof maintenancearoundthe equip ment or sign. The continuoussuppon, in contrast to the pornt load of a pipe column support, is preferredfor lighiweight roof systems. Clearancemust be provided for removaland replacementof roofing and flashingbetw€en parailet suooorts. CONTINUOUS
EQUIPMENT
SUPPORT
'P INSUUTE VOID FOR COLD STACKS SEAL TOP G FUSHTNG WITH FABRIC TAPE ANO MASTIC METAL WHERE
SLEEW REOUTRED
N OTE
BASE FLASHING
FASTENERS APPROXIMATELY a' o.c.
This detail allows the opening to be completed before the stack as placed. The metal sleeve and lhe clearance necessary will depend on the temperature of the materiat han_ dled by the stack.
FLUE STACK
ROOF PENETRATION
RichardJ. Vtullo,AIA; Oak LeafStudio;Crownsville. Maryland
ROOFSPECIALTIES AND ACCESSORIES
Speciol RoofingDetoils
456
\
SHAKES
. MODIFIED BITUMEN WATERPROOF SHEET SIDING
..-
OR
..,- SH]NGLES
PAVERS TO SURROUND EOUIPMENT FOR SERVICE ACCESS
-
MATERIAL
'
ROOF SURFACE
FASTENtrFS. A5 Ntr'ISSAP,
-.. METAL
METAL FUSHING
FUSHING
--eawns .- MECHANIGL EOUIPMENT
STAIRWAY
N OTE
Root pavers provide a stable walking service on any tlat roof surfaceand orotect the roof membranefrom wear and lear. Servicewalkways should follow the most direct route 10equipmentto arcid shortcutsby mainlenancepersonnel. Consult mechanical engineer about access needed to mechanicalequiprent.
NOTES
SERVICE
WATERPROOFING
\,YALK\^/AYS
ON ROOFS ALLOWS DRANAGE -
STRIP
WL*EDROOF
ES' / DECK-
1. Modifiedbitumen sheet sp€cifiedto provide self-sealing aroundfastener.
2. Height of flashing and waterproof sheet depends on local snow probabilities and codes and on the roof slope.
AT ROOF TRANSITIONS
ADJACENT
BEruEEN PAWRS ROOF
CANT
ROOFING
MAERIAL
FOR 30 LB UPED
2" TO 3'. WP. (1%'. MtN. tF FOR BALLAST ONL'
RGING OVER
COMINUOUS STRIP OWR
FELT, 12'. MIN
SAL FASTENERS
rcLYETHYL€NE OR MEMBRANE PROECTION SHEET UNDER PAWRS
1A'TO 36'. WP
DRAINAGE UNDER PAER BY INEGRAL PEDESTALS
'
, ./
/
PAVER
WTTH
INTEGRAL
POLYETHYLENE OR MEMB%NE PROTECTIoN SHEET UNDER PAVERS
PEDESTAL 7€' HIGH, ryP . HIGB-DENSIR POLYETHYLENE PEDESTALS WITH DRAINAGE SLOTS UNDERNEATH ,
--
,/
/
POLYETHYLENE AR MEMBRANE PROTECTTON SAEET UNDER
PEDEST{S PAVER
ON
SUPPORT
PEDESTALS
R@F COMINUOUS INSIDE
FACE
FUT OR STANDING SEAM METAL ROOF AT EDGE
DECK CLilT OF
GUTER
WALL
HEIGHT OF WATERPROOF A (MrN.)
FRONT PART LOCATE OF GUfrER BELOW RANGE ICEISNOW OF SLIDING 2X
SHEET
FASCIA
N OTE Provide gutters where required to protect building; if not required, avoid gutters where icing is common.
ICE DAM DETAILING
AT EAVE WITH
GUTTER
NOTE Ballast pavers arg typically made from with a norskid toxture on the surface.
BALLAST
ROOF
precast concrete
PROJECTION SNOMRIfl
SURCHARGE
R@F
PAVERS.
SNOW ROOF
BUILT{P RC)ESION SHEETS STAGGERED TO CRATE LEWL WALKING SURFACE ON DRAINABLE ROOF DECK 2X PRESSURE-MEATED OR NAruRALLY DECAY RESISTANT WOOD DECK BOffiDS AND SLEEPERS
ROOF
PROJECTION
W()()D
FLAT
DRIffING ROOF
METAL FRAME RESTS ON RAISID PORTION OF R@FING
TEXTURED METAL GRID
WDTH VARIES
METAL
MISCELLANEOUS SURFACES
ON RMF
SNOWDRIfl SURCHARGE ROOF
SNOW
INTERSECTING FI,AT
ROOF
ADJACENT
Tc)
SLC)PED
BUILDING
PI-ANES
ROOF
NOTES 1. Consult codes for projected local snow heights.
ROOF
ROOF WALKING
SNOW
SLIDING SURCHARGE FROM UPPER R@F
NONCORROSIVE FASTENERS AfrACHED FROM BELOW, AS NTCESSARY PALLET.TYPE W.ALKWAY /DECK
LENGTH TO SUT
ROOF SNOWDRIffS
SNOW SLOED
SIZ OF PALLET DEFENOS ON WEIGHT OF UNIT (SHOULD BE LIGHT ENOUGH TO LIil FOR REPAIR, ETC.)
SLOE MWN TO DRAIN
ON
SNOW
SNOW TENDENCIES
RichardJ. Vilullo,AIA: Oak LeafSrudio;Crownsville. Marvtand
ROOFSPECIALTIES ANDACCESSORIES
ON BUILDING SURFACES
2. Snow accumulation on roofs is generally unequal due to wind action. The resulting unequal load distribution might be aggravated by unequal melting of accumulated snow.
RoofRepoirStrotegies
fu?{1 ff6b iA
L)c.U
BITUMFN
-'-
457
MOpptNC
_-
PREPARATION
MEMBRANE
ROOF REPAIR
ROOFING NAILS WITH ROOFING
PREPARATION
ASPHALT
COMPLETION
SHINGLE
REPAIR
AREA OF REMOVED
souND
suE
C:OVERED CEMENT
SH|NGLES
/
PREPARATION
SLATE SHINGLE
MISSING SUTE
OR SHINGLE
COMPLETION
REPAIR
ValerieEickelberger;RippeteauArchitects.pCj Washington.D.C
ROOFSPECIALTIES AND ACCESSORIES
458
WindUplitt -
TOP CHORD BRACING (HORTZONTAL BRACING OF TRUSSES ALSO USED. NOT SHOWN)
2 X 4
RIDGE
LOCATE
BRACE,
WITHIN
6"
OF
RIDGE
e:- 10 .r'' Ms,/_ a '1o. Y MAX / /_a
ADHLS.VI A1 HFAD BLfrfR
NAIL COWF HtrP, TO ? Y 4 NAILeP Bf I OW
RI COVVT\DID TOP UP ADHESION
TILE
COWR
/-T|LE
2 X 4 NAILER ON EDGE
)tMETAL HURRICANE SMAP
30-LA
AIR WHIRLING FLOWS. OR VORTICES. ACCUMUGTE AT THE CORNERS OF AND EDGES PUNES BUILDING (REINFORCMENT AND OF FRAMING BUILDING MATERIALS HERE) NECESSARY
CONCRETE REINFORCEMEM TIE 8EN ANACHMEM OF MATERI{S IS CRTCAL AT EAW TO ROOFING INTEGRIfr IN HIGH WINDS
,
/
1O' MASON TROWEL FULL OF WPE M MORTAR re'PLW@D SHEATHING -
HIP ROOF DESIGN IS MORE AERODYNAMIC, REDUCING DIRECT WND FORCES PERPENDICUCR TO WINDWARD OF BUILDING PUNES V\/OOD
RECOMMENDED
FRAME
ROOF
NAILS SPACED --______\. 12'O.C.
ROOF %.
(OR
TRUSS
MIN.
NAILS SPACED PANEL ENDS -
SHEATHING
/t - ------
CODE-RATED WtrH GIVNED
OWRUY BELOW
AND rcINT WTH MORTAR AND FINISH TO MATCH TILE
SHINGL-ES NAILS)
EAVE CLOSURE WITH WEEP HOLE STRIP.
STARTER
.....-..-
NALED
AND
DETAIL-COMPOSITION
AND ASPHALT
HEAD ROOFING HEX WITH URGE SCREW WASHER AND NEOPRENE GASKET FASTEN AT EACH
Eii \
2X ruRLIN NAILED To SHEAHTNG (2'O' O.C )
€IST
After tile roofs are laid up completely, traffic should not be allowed on roof and no work that creates vibration in fram ing or roof sheathing should be allowed for 72 hours, mini mum (24 hours is needed to ensure proper set).
SHINGLES
t-.ji*
$)
EffiUDED
.
./
CONCRETE
-.1O" rurr
,/ ,/
-//
NAILS: SEAUNT APPLIED AT HOLE
/, TRIM 2X WMD NAILED TO SHATHING
%" reROR RW@D
GRADE SHEATHING
2X BLOCKING AT ACH PLWOOD EDGE -
HIGH v\/IND RESISTANCE
DETAIL-G,A,LVANIZED
GENERAL Roofingmaterialsare particularlysusceptibleto damage from wind uplift and debris borne by h gh winds. Contributing to this problem is the use ot inferior rooJingmaterials and lasteners, substandard workmanship practices, and poor designchoicgstor areasknown for frequentor potentially severehigh winds. Use of design practicesthat resist wind uplift and lateral torces can protect the total bui,ding system from damagedue to high winds and/orhurricanes. Anchoring framing members to the foundation system, tying together all traming, and bracing members, particularly roof trusses. are practices that strengthenand brace the entire building.Only when that has been accomplished are g@d roofingdesignand details relevant.
WOOD
METAL
30-LA ROOFING
FELT
rs'PLWOOD SHEATHING MORTAR IS COMACT MADE WtrH 3 TILES: HEAD OF LOWER TILE, UNDERL@K SIDE OF DST TILE UID, AND UNDERSIDE OF TILE BEING UID
ROOFING TURNED OWR RAKE EDGE SGEWED THROUGH TRIM IMO ruRLIN
HANGER
TILE
MASON TROWEL lPtr M MoRlaR or
-
,tti
/ ,,/
DETAIL_
HIGH WIND RESISTANCE S TYPE TILE ROOFING
'rtii
,--/
.-'-
-
GLUED
wH vrtaL DRIP, NAIL 4'o.c. NAILS GALVNZED R@FING
Staplesare not recommendedfor any structuralor rooling fastenings.
SCREW
R@FING
TROWEL 1O' MASON FULL OF WPE M MORTAR NAIL HEREj NAIL AULK HOLE WIH ASPHALT SEALER
\--
RmFING
TILE
HOT MOMD UYER OF ASPHALT COATING NOT NECESSARY BUT IN AASENCE OF RECOMMEND€D HIGH WIND CODE-RATED SHINGLES
HIGH WIND (FASTENED
eonldGarl-oNivirn
3OL8 FELT
-
INSTALLED
6' OC, AT
3O'LB FELT UNDERUYMENT STARTER STRIP (T s.LB NOT RECOMMENDED)
GALVANIZED R@FING AfrACHED TO ruRLIN AT EERY OTHER
DETAIL-
S WPE
RAflER)
RWOOO
DRIP AT
BED FOR MORTAR POINT CO€RAGEi TO FINISH ENDS (PROVIDE HOLE) WEEP
WTH LONG DIMENSION ACROSS JOINTS SUPPORTS| WRTIAL
HIGH WIND RESISTANCE
METAL NAILED 4" O.C.
r,./IND RESISTANCE HIGH BARREL TILE ROOFING
DESIGN
ROOFTNG FELT
/.
THICK BUfr IILE STACKER \
METAL NAILED
DRIP, AT 4'
O.C
RAffERfRUSS
ROOFING
HIGH WIND RESISTANCE EXTRUOED CONCRETE
DETAIL-
ROOFING FAILURES IN HIGH WIND Some of the main reasons for roofing material failure caused by high winds are described here: 1. Roof sheathing-lnadequate reinforcement at the edges causes sheathing to separate from the roof truss or .after. Wafer b@rd, composite board. oriented strand board. or structural particleboard used as sheathang does not provide sufficient wind resistance. 2. Composition shingle and felt underlayment-Use of shingles, attachment adhesives, and/or fasteners not rated
Richard J. Vitullo, AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsville, Marvland
ROOFSPECIALTIES AND ACCESSORIES
numbers, for highwindsor fastenersusedin insufticient locations,and/ororientationcan leadto wind damage. 3. Extrudedconcreteor claytile-Poor nailingand/ormortar connectionsand underlaymentfailure due to lack of and mortaror mortar bondingbetweenthe underlayment and tile can causefailureol the roof. As well, clay tile may shatterwhen hit with flyingdebris. 4. Sheetmetal-lnadeouatelvadheredand fastenedeave flashing,drips,and metalgravelstopscancausefailure.
Gutterond DownspoutSizing GUTTER DESIGN Designfor guttersanddownspouts for buildings depends
NOTES 1. Most gutters are run level for appearance. However, a slope of r/16 in. per foot is desirable as a minimum for drarnage.
on the following factors: 1. Design area of the roof (total rool area x pitch factorl.' 2. Rainfallintensity for the geographic area. 3. Length of guter and roof area per downspout. For rectangular gutters, use the rectangular gutter sizing graph on this page to determine size. Choose the depth/ width ratio based on the proportions of the gutter desired. st@k availability, or other relevant tactors. The ratio ot depth ro width must be known before the actual design width can be determined. For semicircular gutters, first size the downspout from the downspout tables, then size the gutter one inch larger in diameter. For irregularly shaped gutters. determine an equivalent rectangular size and use the rectangular gutter sizing method
il
459
2. For residential work, allow 100 sq ft ot design roof area per one sq in. of downspout. 'leader' 'conductor' 3. The terms and have the same meaning as doMspout.
DOWNSPOUT
"1j-,r.
CAPACITY
n
U
il It --1 tl
fl-
.II
;
1 ti f1
/r
9\' o{
NOTE
NOTE
This map shows hourly rainfall intensity in inches per hour for fiveflinute periods to be expected once in '10years. Ntrmally, this is adequate for design, but some storms have b@n twice as intense in some areas-See lmal r4ords.
A roof that is level up to a 3 in. per foot slope is considered 'flat' a roof and has a pitch factor of 1.0. When a rool is sloped greater than 3 in. per foot, neither a'plan area'nor 'actual an ar€a' should be used to siz6 drainaoe since the pitch affects the area in two ways, by increasi;g the actual area and by affecting the speed ol the runoff. Instead. multiply the plan area (A x B) by the tactor shown in the chart above to obtain the design area.
RAINFALL INTENSITY MAP WIDTH OF RECTANGULAR RAINFALL INTENSITIES
GUTTERS FOR GIVEN ROOF AREAS AND
DESIGN
AREAS
DOWNSPOUT
FOR PITCHEO
ROOFS
SIZES
o.50
".6' t'-
Drs
-u
o.rc o.ao
z4a
o.ao t-:t) 6./ |
t.o
t F
i
I F I q
1.25 l
l_$
.C
1.75 2.@
td 7 aoQooo9e9PSohoooo
8
8
8
8
R
oodoFdso^i-: ON
lA
= RAINFALL
INTENSITY
SAMPLE GUTTER PROBLEM
8g
g
2.25 2.50
g
g
X AREA
N
g
L = LENGTH
OF
o
GUTTER
.
IN
o
FEET
SIZING
A New York City buildingwith a tootprint of 120 ft x 30 ft needs a gutter system. The buildinghas a flat roof with a raisedr@f edge on thr@ sides;a gutter is to be locatedon one of the 12Gft sides. So each gutter section will be no more than 50 ft, three doMsoouts will be used with two gutter expansionjoints. The area to be drainedby each4G
ft section gutter is 1200 sq ft. The rainfallintensityaccording to lhe map is 6 in.. and the ratioof gutter depthto width is 0.75. On the chart above.find the venical line representing L = 40. Proceedverticallyalong this line to its intersection with the oblique line representingM = 0.75. Movo horizontallyto the left to intersect the v€rti€l line repre-
senting lA = 7200. The point of intersection occurs between the oblique line representinggutter widths of 5 and 6 in. With a requiredgutter width of 6 in. and a depthtqwidth {M) ratio oI 0.75, calculatethe depth of the gutter by multiplyingthe width {6 in.) by M (0.75)to calculatethe gutter depth at 4 |4 in.
Lawence W. Cobb; Columbia,South Carolina
GUTTERS AND DOWNSPOUTS
Guttersqnd Downspouts
460 /-/
| I
4" TO lO'
AASKET STRAINER
--ji',, 1 i*'' | 3"roro
TYP
I
| "i
I
l
|
-_=.t_
l
/
|r
t____l
ffiflv *V
OUILET ELBOWS
AX
\.>
SCREEN
I\_-/ rl
r l __/
CONDUCTOR HEAD (PROVIOE ONE IF DOWNSPOUT IS OVER 40,LONG)
GUNER HANGER
;\
WALL BRACKf (5'O" O.C.. MAX )
[l
(ALSO
DOWNSPOUT LEADER .oR
coNoucToR)
l=l; t/tl
WALL BRACKET
L____f TYPICAL
t_-__i stzEs
GUTTER
Fil tt
OR SHOE
SPLASH
BLOCX
ll
1/2"r cLEARANcE,
GUTTER PLACEMENT
HANGER
IN SNOW ZONES
N OTES
1. Formedand extrudeddownspout sizesare 3 x 4 to 6 x 6: roundsizesare 3, 4, or 5 in- in diameter.(Extrudeddownspoutsare for heaw traffic.) 2. Generally.space downspouts a minimum of 20 ft and a maximumot 50 ft apart. 3. A downspoulof 7 sq in. minimum should be used, exceptfor canopiesor small porches. 4. Corrugatedshapesresist breakagedue to freezingbetler than straightprofiles. 5. Elbows are available in 4G, 6U, 1+, and godegree angles. DOWNSPOUT
SHAPES
l.Gutter hangers are normally spaced 3 ft on center Reduce spacing to 1 tt 6 in. o.c. where snow and ice are orevalent. 2. Spike and terrule hangers are not recommended if girth 'l is greater than 5 in. 3. Hangers are available in many sizes, shapes, and materi als and are matched to the design of the gutter used Consult manulaclurers' design manuals.
GUTTER HANGERS NOTES
LEAF GUARD
AND
METAL STRAPS aT 30" o.c
^ \
SNOW GUARD
BONOM SHINGLE UPPING GUARD
EDGE OF OVER. SNOW
SNOW GUARO
N OTES 1. Gutters should be placed below the slope line so snow and ice can slide clear. A steeper pitch requires less clearance.
SUPPORT BRACKET
SUPPORT BRACKET
CONCEALED ORAINAGE (OPTIONAL)
CONCEALED
BRACKET
ICE PLANE
N OTES
TYPICAL stzEs
'.7
GUTTER BRACKET oR STRAP STZES (lN.) .
V
K l<^x
PARTS OF A GUTTER/DOWNSPOUT SYSTEM
___il
n CORRUGATEO
ELBOW
FASTENERS (TOP AND BOnOM)
GUTTER
2. Snow guards are installed on roofs to protect gutters from snow slides and snow overloading. They hold the snow in place evenly over the entire roo{, allowing it to melt gradually jnto lhe gutter system. They also help prevent snow from collecting over the eaves, where it may thaw and refreeze, potentially causing damage. 3. Snow guard placement depends on the root slope, local snow conditions, the insulation at the roof below, and the length of the rafters. Snow guards typically are staggered on the roof, with the first row starting 2 ft lrom the eave.
GUTTER
Jones/Richards and Associates; Ogden, Utah Lawrence W. Cobb: Columbia, South Carolina
GUTTERS AND DOWNSPOUTS
PROTECTION
1. Continuousgutters may be formed at the installationsite with cold lorming equipment,thus eliminatingjoints in long runs of gutter. 2. Guttersand downspoutsare availablein aluminum,galvanizedsteel, copper,and stainl€sssteel. Consultmanufacturersfor custom materials. 3. Girth is the width of the sheet metal from which a gutter is fabricated. 4. Although all joining methods are applicableto most gutter shapes,lap ioints are more commonly used. Seal all ,oints with mastic or by soldering.Lock, slip, or lap joints do not orovidefor exDansion. jointsshouldbe usedon all straightruns over 5. Expansion 40 ft. In a 1o-ft sectionof gutterthat will undergoa 100degreetemperaturechange,Iinearexpansionwill follow thesecoefficientsof expansion {CE)andmovements: Aluminumr CE-.00128;movement-.15in. Copper CE-.00093: movement-.1'l in Galvanized steel: CE-.0065; movement-.08 in. 6. Always keep the front of the gutter ,{ in. lower than the back. 7. Use a minimum width oI 4 in. except for canopies and small porches. The minimum ratio of depth to width should be 3 to 4. 8. Many custom shapes for gutters and downspouts are available; consult manufacturers' design manuals. See the Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors (SMACNA) Architectural National Association Sheet Metal Manual to( gutter sizing and details.
Scuppersond ConductorHeods
CAP
WINO UPLIN PREVENTION CLIP AT 4' O'' O C. MAX
OPTIONAL CAP FUSHING OVER FUSHING FUNGE (USE IF SCUPPER FUNGE IS AAOVE PARAPET ---_---\ WALL CAP FUSHING)
PROVIDE SEAUNT OR LET TOP INTO MASONRY JOINT FUSHING
461
CONTINUOUS
PARAPET
WALL CAP FUSHING THROUGH WALL CAP
RECEIVER
GRAVEL STOP
MASONRY FASTENER
SEAMED JOINT BEruEEN FUNGE ANO SCUPPER BELOW
CANT
CONDUCTOR HEAO
SRIP GRAVEL
SCUPPER FUNGE SEAMEO ANO SOLDERED (WELDED IF ALUMINUM} TO SCUPPER
GRAVEL STOP FASTENED TO FLOOR OF SCUPPER
SEALANT AT JOINT MEMBRANE BASE (SEAL TOP FLASHING WITH FABRIC ANO MASTIC AND FASTEN TO WALL)
ROOF MEMBRANE
SCUPPER DETAIL AT PARAPET WALL (CONDUCTOR Sfl TOP OF CONDUCTOR HEAO I " BELOW SCUPPER OPENING LEVEL IF OVERFLOW OPENING IS NOT USEO
OPTIONAL REMOVABLE SCREEN OPTIONAL OVERFLOW OPENING
HEAD SIDE)
SCUPPER
DETAIL AT PARAPET
WALL
(ROOF
SIDE)
N OTES
PROVIDE SEAUNT
l.Overflow openings are recommended in hea\ry icing areas and for drains that may become plugged with leavesor other debris.Checkl@al @des tor elevationof overflow opening. 2. Conductorheads and downspouts should be fabricated of the same material.R€ommended minimum for construction of conductor heads is 24 gauge galwnized steel, 0.032 in. aluminum. 16 oz. copp€r, or 26 gauge stainlesssteel. 3. Edgesof conductorheadmust be suitablystiff, basedon dimensional characteristics.
\
OR
Lfl rNTo \ MASoNRY JOINT
FUNGE SEAMED AND SOLDERED TO SCUPPER SCUPPER
CONDUCTOR HEAD TOP TILTED OOWN FOR MAXIMUM OVERFLOW CAPACITY {CHECK LOCAL COOES
DIVERTER NOTE
I I 7
-
SHEET SPOUT
OF ul
=9z
- -)..^ z
1 9I
-:
This detail may be used as pflmary roof drain or as overflow.
MSAL EXTENSION
RAINSPOUT
DETAIL
OVERFLO\^/ GUTTER
SCUPPER
Q} F FO o oO
r/-
OOWNSPOUT LEAOER OR CONDUCTOR
TYPICAL
TYPICAL
CONDUCTOR
GRAVEL
HEAD
STOPS
CONDUCTOR OVERFLO\/v
H EAD.MAXIMUM
AT BUTLT-IN
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA; Oak LealStudio;Crownsvilte, Marytand
GUNERS AND DOWNSPOUTS
Scuppers
462
CLOSURE FUNGE SEAMED AND SOLDERED TO SCUPPER (MAY BE OMIfrED IF URGEST SCUPPERDIMENSION IS LESS THAN
PROVIDE SEAUNT OR LET INTO MASONRY JOINT CAP FLASBING
I2-
SCUPPER FUNGE SEALED AND SOLDERED TO SCUPPER
WINO UPLIFT
OPTIONAL CAP FUSHING OVER FUSHING FSNGE (USE IF SCUPPER FUNGE WALL IS ABOVE PARAPET CAP FUSHING)
cLrPAT4 -O
PREVENTION
O.C.MAX
CONTINUOUS PARAPET WALL CAP FUSHING THROUGH.WALL CAP RECEIVER
PROVIDE SEAUNT AT FUNGE TO waLL JotNT - -
HEIGHT OEPENDS ON CAPACITY OF ROOF DRAINAGE PROVIDED
GRAVEL
CANT STRIP CANT STRIP
NOTES
1.Use overflow $uppers when r@f is completely surrounded by parapets and drainage dependson scuppersor internaldrainage. 2. Precastconcretepanelswith scuppersdo not need closureflangeson face: all penetrations shouldbe sealed. OVERFLOW
SCUPPER
DETAIL AT PARAPET
SCUPPER FLANGE (SEAMED AND SOLDEREO TO SCUPPER) ROOF
SCUPPER
DETAIL OPTIONAL EXTENSION
SCUPPER FUSHING
AT JOINT
MEMBRANE BASE (SEAL TOP FLASHING WITH FABRIC ANO MASTIC ANO FASTEN TO WALL)
MEMBRANE
OVERFLOW
WALL
SEAUNT
AT PARAPET
WALL
(ROOF
SIDE)
CAP FASCIA OVER SCUPPER
FUNGE
EXTRUDEO GRAVEL STOP
TAPERED EDGE STRIP
SHEET METAL SPOUT EXTENSION
RAINSPOUT
MEMBRANE
ROOF
DETAIL
FUSHING
MEMARANE
N CONTINUOUS
CLEAT
CONDUCTOR HEAD
SCUPPER
DETAIL AT GRAVEL
STOP (CONDUCTOR
HEAD
RichardJ. Vitullo,AIA;Oak Leaf Studio;Crownsville, Marvland
GUTTERS AND DOWNSPOUTS
SIDE)
SCUPPER
DETATL AT RAISED CURB
CHAPTER
EIGHT
DOORSAND WINDOWS Fire Rating and Security
464
Door and Windornr Openings
Entrances and Storefronts 467
Windornrs
486
Metal Doors and Frames
469
Skylights
498
Wood and Plastic Doors
473
Hardrruare
5O3
Specialty Doors
478
Glazing
512
442
Fire-Roted Openings
464 GENERAL
Fire-rated assembliesfor door and windowopenings,used to protectagainstthe spreadof fire andsmoke.consistof a lire-rateddoor or window with frame. hardware,and accessories.includinggasketing.Each componentis crucialto the overallperformanceof the assemblyBs a fire barrier Choicesto be made regarding the enclosureof openingsin fire-rated wallsincludethe following: 1. Fire{atedwall requirements 2. Sizeof opening 3. Means of egress a. Requiredsize per occupanry b. Ouantityand location c. Directionof egress flow and operationof enclosure d. Hardwarerequirements e. Window egress requirements 4. Materialsand finishes 5. Security 6. Visibility andglazing FIRE
PROTECTTON
CRITERIA
NFPA 80. Standardfor Fire Doors and Fire Windows, is a consensusslandard that establishesminimum criteria lor installingand maintaining assembliesand devicesused to protect openings in walls, ceilings, and floors from the spreadof tire and smoke. The degre of fire protection{in hours) required for a given opening is rof€renced in the model buildingcodes (BOCA,SBCCI.and UBC)and the Life SafetyCode {NFPA101).Fire doors are classifiedby hourly referencesdetermined by testing done in a@rdance with NFPA252. StandardMethod of Fir€ Tests of Door Assemblies (also known as UL 108). Furth€rinformationis avaif able in chapter 6. section 6 of the NFPA'SFire Protection Handbook. TYPES
OF
FIRE RESISTANCE: the property of materials or their assembles that prevents or retards the passage ot excessrve heat, hot gas, or tlames under conditrons of use. .FII
LAEELED: equioment or materials marked with the label, symbol, or other identifying mark ol an organization concerned with product evaluation and acceptable to the local jurisdiction. This organization must periodically inspect production ot labeled equipment, and the manufacturer. by labeling the product, indicates compliance in a specified manner with appropriate standards or performance. NONCOMBUSTIBLE: a mate.ial that, in the fo.m in which it is used and under the conditions anticioated. will not aid combustion or add appreciable heat to an ambient fire. SELF-CLOSING:as applied to a fire door or other protective opening, selfrlosing means the door is normally closed and is equipped with an approved device that will ensure closure after the door has been opened. SMOKE BARRIER: a continuous membrane, either vertical or horizontal. such as a wall, floor, or ceiling assembly, that is designed and constructed to restrict the movement of smoke- A smoke barrier may or may not have a fire{esistance rating. FULL MITRE CONTINUOUS
,.
OPENINGS
I ru - xxxxxxxI n;aadilary;'
|
%-HB AND 2GM|N. OPENINGS(formerlyclass C, E): located in walls or partitionsbetween rooms and corridors with a lire-resistanceratingof one hour or less. The hourly protection rating for openingsdepends on the use of the barrier,as in exit enclosures,veni€l openingsin buildings,buildingseparationwalls. corridorwalls,smoke barriers. andhazardous locations.In most codes,classdesignationshave been .eplacedby hour classifications. OF FRAMES
LABEL
I t:
r;';.
o
E
o
FRAME UBEL N OTE Various agencies test and rate fire door and window units and assemblies Manufacturers locate metal labels in accessible but concealed locations (the hinge edge oi doors, lor example); these labels must remain in place, unpainted, uncovered, and unaltered.
TESTING
LABELS
40sotr '-
OPENING
.a-.
6"-a" MlN. MAX.) i10 -o
CLEARANCE BONOM OF FRAME TO FLooR, 3/a" MAX
CLEAR WIDTH (4'-O" MAX.) NOTE
|,,
Fireiated doorframescan be assembledat the iactorv or in the field. Frames must be ad€quately anchored at the jambs and fl@r accordingto the manufacturer'sspecifications. Codes reouire d@rs to be installedin ac@rdance with NFPA80. Section 2-5, Frames,indicat€sonly labeled trames are tg be used.
E
^a
.z
tt tl tl ll ll II tl tl ll tl
1yr-HR AND 1-HR OPENINGS(formerlyclass D and B. respectively):located in multistory vertiGl communication enclosures.andin 2-hr rated panitions providinghorizontal trre separatrons.
LIGHT-GAUGEMETAL FRAME: head and iamb members with or without transom panel made from aluminum (45min. maximumrating)or lightgauge steel (1rl2trrmaximum rating);installed overtinishedwall.
DOOR
rso
Y
4-HR AND 3-HR OPENINGS(formerlyclass A): located in fire walls or in walls that divide a single building into fire areas.
TYPES
smoveo
ANO WELD
DOUBLE FRAME WITH FIXEO MULLION
(oPTroNAL) ->n
\
FIRE'RESISTANCERATING: the time. in minutes o. hours. that materials or assemblies have withstood fire exposure in accordance with the test procedure of NFPA 252.
HEAVY FLOOR FOR FRAME
_l'
CLIP
The minimum width of each door opening must be suffi cient for the @cupant load it serves. Verify the following gereral guidelines tor door width with local codes: 1. Dwelling units that are nol required to be accessible or adaptable:293/oin. 2. Hospital and other medical facililies: 36 in. 3. Standard openings: 32 in.
SECURITY FRAME REINFORCING FIRE-RATED OPENINGS
PRESSED STEEL{HOLLOWMETAL):hoadandiamb members with or without solid or glazedtransomsor sidelights made from 18-gaugeor heavier steel (3+rr.maximum rating);requiledfor most metaldoors.
FOR
DOOR OPENINGS EGRESS
FOR MEANS OF
soLto PANEL (3-. I '/2-. 1-. ANO 3/4,HR) WIRE GUSS OPTIONAL MULLION
DEFINITIONS The followingdefinitionsare typicallyused in relationto fireraleoopenrngs: AUTOMATIC:providinga function without the necessityof humanintetuention.
.q o 4'-O"
FIREBARRIER: a continuousmembrane-eitherverticalor horizontal{tor example.a wall, tloor. or ceiling assembly), that is designedand constructedwith a specifiedfire-resis tance ratingto limit the spreadof fire and restrictthe movement of smoke.
4 -O' MAX
PAIR \A/ITH TRANSOM BAR
FIRE.RATED NationalFire ProtectionAssciation; Ouincv.Massachusetts DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA; Washington,D.C.
FIRERATINGAND SECURIry
STEEL
FRAME
ELEVATIONS
SINGLE TRANSOM
FLUSH
Fire-RotedOpenings
465
FLUSH METAL DOOR GLASS LIGHT t 296 SO tN. THICK WIRE GLASS IN 3/.-HouR,
NO GUSS PERMINED
NO LOUVERS PERMIfrED
I@ SO IN MAX oF '/." THtcK WIRE GUSS
UNLIMITED AREA IN 20-MtN. DOOR
LOUVERS] 576 SO IN. MAX
LOUVERS: 576 SO IN MAX
TYPICAL CLEARANCES: r/"" MAx- AT JAMBS3/;" AT NoNcoMBUsrtBLE FLOOR; 3/s" AT Top
4 . H O U R / 3 - H O U RC L A S S I F I C A T I O N NOTES 1.All hinges or pivots must be steel. Two hinges are requiredon d@rs up to 5 ft in h€ighu an additionalhinge is requiredtor each additional2 fr 6 in. of d@r height or fractionlhereot. The same requirementholdsfor pivots. FIRE.RATED
| 1 / r - H o u R / t- H o u R c L A s s t F t c A T l o N
. 4 - H O U R / 2 O - M t NC. U S S t F t C A T T O N
2. While wired glassr/. in. thick is the mosr common material used for glasslights,other mat€rialshave been listed and approvedfor installation.Reter to the UL fire Drotection directory.
3. Consultall authoritieswith iurisdictionbetore installation of glasslightsand louvers. 4. Fusible-linldautomatic closing louvers are permitted in fire-rateddoors with restrictions;they are not permitted in smoke$arrierdoors.
DOOR CLASSIFICATIONS FIRE.RATED WALL ASSEMBLY
CONSTRUCTION SWINGING FIRE
OF DOORS
Outlined h€re are different types of swinging fire doors and notes about the hardware used with them.
OPERABLE SASH
TYPES OF DOORS l.Composite fire doors: wood, steel, or plastic sheets bonded to and supponed by a solid core material. 2. Hollow metal tire doors: flush or panel design with a steel face of not less than 20gauge steel. 3. Metal{lad firedoors: flush or panel design consisting ol metal{overed wood cores or stiles and.ails and insulated panels that are covered with steel of 24€auge or lighler4. Sheet metal fire doors:22€auge or lighter steel of corrugated, flush sheet, or panel design. 5. Tin{lad fire d@rs: wood core with a terne plate or galvanized steel facing (3G or 24gauge). 6. Wood core doors: w@d, hardboard, or Dlastic face she€ts bonded to a wood block or w@d panicleboard core material with untreated wmd edqes. DOOR
N OTE
NOTE When requiredfor egress,such as in sleepingareasin residences,windows must meet the followingcriteria:
OPERATION
1. Doors that swing in the direction of egress are preferred for fire{ated doors.
Glazedpanelassembliesin fire{ated walls must @nform to the sazelimitationsindi@ted below and to wire glass and other approvedmaterialrequirements.Muhiplo panelsare permitted, but the aggregatearea of all panels and openings must not exceed 25yo ol the wall surface. Reter to specificcodeslor details.
GLAZED PANEL REQUIREMENTS
1. Clearopeningper sashmust be a minimumof 5.7 sq ft. 2. Bars, grilles. or screens must be releasablefrom inside without use of tools or key. 3. Windows opening onto fire escapes have additional requirements;refer to codes. 4. Check with runufacturers for integral releasehardware optionsfor aming. casement,pivot, or other windows. 5. Double-hungwindow units with fully removable sash that do not requirespecialtoots, force. or knowl€dgeto operate may offer greater flexibility in unit selectionto mret size requirerents for egress openings;verify with manufacturersand code otlicials.
MAXIMUM DOOR SIZES (HOLLOVV METAL, ALL CLASSES*)
\/vINDOW EGRESS REQUIREMENTS
*W@d door size requirementsare similar
singlefoint or 3toint latchingdevice
2. Horizontal sliding and revolving doors are permined with restflctrons. HAROWARE 1. Door hardware is provided by the builder independent of the assembly or furnished by the manufacturer with the door assembly. In either case, the manufacturer prepares the door and frame to receive hardware to ensure the integrity of the fire{ated assembly. 2. Fire d@rs are hung on steel ball-bearinghinges and must be self{losing. Labeled automatic latches and door closers can be self{perated or controlled by faifsafe devices that activate in a lire. 3. Pairs of doors require c@rdinators with astragals to ensure that both doors close4. Heads and jambs should be sealed with gaskets when smoke control is required. 5. Panic hardware may be required when space occupancy '100 people. is greater than
NationalFire ProtectionAssociation;Ouincv,Massachusetts
FIRERATINGAND SECURIry
Doorqnd WindowSecuritY
466 GUIDE METAL
SPECIFICATIONS MANUFACTURERS
ga.
18 ga.
l4 ga
u ga.
16ga.
l4 ga
ace Sheets Interol exteflor
4 at 12 ga. o( 12 ga
2" z2 9a weld Continuous
1 89 a weld Contrnuous
ulosed wrth I b ga. continuous recessed steel channel, spot welded to face sheets
Closedwith 12 ga.continuousrecessedsteel channel,spot welded to lace sheets
Reinforced wrth conttnuous steel channel, 10 ga spot welded to face sheets 4 0n center
Frxedmolotngsweloeo to dooron securty side loose stops, 20 ga.
Fixed moldings welded to door on security side; loose stops,20 ga.
l-rxed moldrngs welded to door on security side; all stops, 16 ga.
l-lxedmoldrngs,I2 ga. spot weldedto tace sheets5" o.c.:removableglassstops,14 9a pressedsteelchannel
lb ga. {lu ga.lor wood doors,20 ga. for hollow core wood doors)
tbga.: 14ga_roropenings over 4'- 0" in widlh
1 29 a
ga
1 2g a
ga
2 2g a . uontrnuousweld or lnterlockingseam welded at top and bottom ot door Closedwrth I 6 ga.continuousrecessedsteel channel
edges
Iop and bottom :dges
ga LEVER BOL"T PROVIOE AT TOP AND BOTTOM WITH I,, MIN. THROW INTERLOCKING MEETING STILE
DUTY LOCK WITH HOOK TYPE HARDENED DEAD BOL] GROUT FRAME FULL OR BRACE SOLID FROM FLOOR TO t2 ABOVE LOCK SLIDING
'I
xtenor opentngs tron
anchors
b ga.
4 ga.
Welded units with integralstop and trim
Welded units with jntegral stop and trim
'1b
ga. welded inside jambs
l4 ga. welded inside iambs
l4 ga. welded inside jambs
Same ga. as lrame, welded inside jambs with at least 4 spot welds per anchor
In masonrywalls 16 ga. steelor 0.156" diameter steel wire. For stud partitions,18 ga. steel anchorswelded inside aambs
In masonrywalls 16 ga. steelor 0.156" diamet€r steel wire. For stud panitions,18 ga.steel anchorswelded inside lamos
In masonrywalls14 ga. steelor 0.156"diameter steel wire. For stud partitions,16 ga.steel anchorswelded inside lambs
z0 ga. cold-roileo sleel
lb ga. cold-rolled steel
ga. as
ga.
NOT€S 1. HMMA 860: For use in buildingprcjectsrhere traflic is relativelylight and hard usagois not anticipated. 2. HMMA 861: For use in commercialand industrialapplicationswhere rigoroususe is anticipated.such as schools,hospitals, industrialbuildings,office buildings,hotels.nursinghomes, airports,and conventioncenters. 3. HMMA 862: For use in applicationswhere security is paramountdue to high susceptibilityto vandalism,break-in.and theft, such as entrances and back doors of businesses,storerooms, warehouses, strip stores, apartments,and condominiums. HMMA 862 incorporatestesting proceduresand performancerequirementspromulqatedby NILECJ{or ClasslV doors (ASTM F476-84)includingjamb/wall stiffness tesl, jamb/wall stiffness performance,door impact test, door and glazingpanel impact resistanceperformance. 4.HMMA 863:Forapplications in jails,prisons,detentioncenters,andsecuredareasin hospitals or counhousesHMMA 863 requiresfive tests: static loadtest, racktest, impact load test, removableglazingstop test, and bullet resistancetest. 5. Reorintedwith Dermission trom lhe HollowMetal Manulacturers Association. divisionof NAAMM.
PERFORMANCE SECURITY
REQUIREMENTS
FOR
SLIDING
GLASS
DOOR
UNIT
REOUIREMENTS PARAM ETER
CLASS
I UNIT
UNIT
No entry Latch loidang resistance device stability
Venical- 50 lbf (222 N) plus weight of panel (10 cycles)
panel removal resistance
nuilluntdt
- tuu tDI I+4c f
Vertical- 300 lbf ( l 335 N)
GLASS
\^/INDOW CRITERIA
welded or knocked{own welded unr$ wrm with inlegralstop and integral stop and trim lrim
srops zu ga. cold{olled steel
UNITS
Sliding glass doors are a pantcular concern rn secunng a building. The locking devices should include vertical rod. or lever bolts, at top and bottom; the frame should be solid or reinforced at the locking points; the stile must also be rein forced at the lockrng points. The operating panels should be designed so that they cannot be lifted out of their tracks when in the locked position. Glazing and other components should be installed from the inside so that entry cannot be gained by disassembly.
I'ietntorcedby 10 ga. continuoussteelchannel, weld continuous
FRAM E5
openrngs
DOOR
SLIDING
FROM THE HOLLOW (HMMA) ASSOCIATION
Vertical- 50 lbf (222 N) plus weight of panel {'l0 cycles) Hoflzontal -
Venical- 600 lbf (2670N) plusweightof panel
DOOR
SECURITY
DESIGN
The followingitems shouldbe consideredwhen designing and selectingwindows: 1. ll accessible (residential:12 ft vertical, 6 ft horizontal; and hidden commercial:18 ft venical,10 ft horizontal) from publicview, a highergrade is required. 2. lI windows-areprot€cted by a detection device {such as shutters, security screens, or bars), the window grade could be irrelevant.lf security screens,bars, or shutters are used, r€quirementsfor tire exiting must be met. The 3. existenceof windbreaksnear a buildingmay provide cover for intruders. 4. The use of shades and window coverings may deter intruders, dep€nding on the ease of removal of these devicesor the noise from breakage.The use of lockable shutters or rolldown blindsis very effective. 5. Window units should at least comply with ASTM F58885 StandardTest Methods for Resistanceof Window Assembliesto ForcedEntryfor a minimum gradeperforPhysicalSecurityof Win mance and with NIJ-STD-o316, dow Units, for highergradeperformance. FRAME DESIGN ELEMENTS 1. A rigidframe and sash is imponantto resistpryingand shouldbe removabletrom the insideonlv. 2. The quality of the hardware and its placement and anchorage are critical to security. Exposed removable hingesshouldnot be used. 3. Specialattention must be given to the use of weather stripping. since this can permit insertion of wires to unlockwindows. GLAZING DESIGN ELEMENTS l.Multiple glazingsystems provide a greaterhazardto entry/exitthrough brokemut windows. 2. Reflectiveglazingimpedesoutsidedaytimesurueillance MATERIALS AND METHODS FOR vv!NOOWS 1. Class lV. Very heaw fixed irames with laminatedglass overr/a in. thick socurity screen. bars, or shuners with speciallockingdevice. 2. Class lll. Heavy duty sash with laminatedglass over '/. in. thick or polycarbonateglazing'/a in. thick. Lock should includeat least two heavyduty dead lockingbolts. 3. Classll. Heavyduty sashwith laminatedglassor polycarbonate glazing; if wood, sash must be reinforced or heaw; double locks required. 4. ClassL Regularglazingin commercialsash with double locks;can be w@d frame.
Lockrng devrce strength
strength strength
300 lbf (1335N)
GROUT SOLID TO REINFORCE WALL AND ANCHORS AT BOTH SIDES OF WINDOW
NOTES
EXTEND 3" MIN,
1 . Table from the National lnstitute of Jusrice (NlJ) Standard 031 8.00, Physical Security ol Sliding Glass Door Units. 2. Class I sliding door units provide a minimum level ol physical security. Class ll sliding door units provide a moderate level oI physical security. 3. Loiding is a method of manipulating a locking device trom the exterior of a sliding glass door unit by means of a thin, flal obiect or a thin stitl wire that is inserted between the locking stile and the strike so as to torce the locking device toward the unl&ked posrtron-
WINDOW
McCain McMu(ay, Architect: Washington, D.C.
FIRERATINGAND SECURIry
JAMB
DETAIL
FASTENER
Doorond WindowOpenings
467
DEFINITIONS BUCK: a subframe of wood or metal set in a wall or panition to support the linish frame of a dmr or window; also called door buck or rough buck.
DOUBLE STUD. WOOD OR METAL
CASING: the finished, often decorative lramework around a door or window opening, especially that which is parallel to the surrounding surface and at right angles to the iamb; also called trim. SUBCASING: finish frame components guide the door or sash.
STUD T R I M M E RS T U D FINISH --.-..-..-WALL MATERIAL
that support and
HEAD: horizontal members at top of door or window. JAMB: venical members at sides of door or window. STOP: integral or applied member that prevents a door or window from swinging past its closed position, or members that guide horizontal or vertical sliding movement.
n o o o
SILL: horizonlal members at bottom of door or window,
THRESHOLD: appliedwood, stone,or metalplate,usually weatherproof-
o z 2 U
@ @
I
SADDLE:part oi a threshold,usuallybridgingdissimilar llooring materials.
117777777) V7777777V t/ / / /\{\4/ / /t l/ / // / //_1__1)
t\\\\\l STOP PUNTED (OR DOUBLE RABEETED STOP)
-\
\\ \
I
o E
ROUGH oPENTNG//
Y--/--Z--l-l--1-) RABBETED STOP
-,.
,/
/
>"
JAMB BUNK (FOR CASEO OPENING)
FRAME
o
ROUGH OPEN ING
AND STOP TYPES ----------
| ll
FRAMEWITHOUT sroPs. oooR, oR wrNDow -\
==-=N
il
II N
M -....E
-
---.-t
ll NN MN
: CASED
REVEAL
OPENING
SUBCASING
N OTE Weatherproofingfor exterior dmr openings is similar to window weatherprooting. DOOR OPENING
TYPES
COMPONENTS ;P o" vtn.
*""'Y
TRANSOM (FANLIGHT sHowN)
MOISTURE BARRIER OVERUPPED TO DIRECT MOISTURE AWAY FROM STRUCTURgFRAMING CAP/BRICK MOLD
CASINGtrRIM HEAD
TRANSOM BAR
CASING[RIM
FOLDED OR SOLDEREO HEAD FLASHING WITH DRIP EDGE
FOLDEO OR SOLDEREO SILL FLASHING
DOORFRAME MIN 6 MIN
SIDELIGHT MIN. GUSS LIGHT MIN.
wrNoow NOTE
\
JAMB CASING/TRIM
1. Caulking.sealant.adhesive.or gasket seals window lraming and wall joints to torm air barrier.
APRON
ACCESSORIES
WINDOW
WEATHERPROOFING
\\
SILL (SLOPED TOP) OVERHANGS APRON 1" APPROXIMATELY
2. These principles are also applicable to d@r weatherproofing. DOOR
UNIT
PRINCIPLES
Daniel F. C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D.C.
DOORANDWINDOWOPENINGS
468
Wood DoorfromeInstollotionDetqils WOOD SIDING OVER PLYWOOD SHEATHING
FLASHING (TURN UP 6 . MlN.)
GYPSUM WALLBOARD
DRIP CAP OVER TRIM
(TURN FUSHING UP6 ON INSIDE FRAME) SLIDING
FRAME
DOOR DOOR
TRIM
GYPSUM WALLBOARD
SEAUNT SHIM
TRIM
SPACE
ROUGH BUCK
VINYL.CLAD WOOD FRAMES ALUMINUM SCREEN ANO FRAME
FRAME DOOR
WEATHER STRIPPING
DOOR WITH WEATHER STRIPPING
FLUSH METAL TRACK
oooR
SEAUNT
METAL SAODLE
SAOOLE (OPTIONAL)
FUSHING BLOCKING UNDER JOINT AffWEEN SILL AND SUBFLOOR
BLOCKING UNDER JOINT BETWEEN SILL AND SUBFLOOR
FINISH FLOORING UNOERCUT AS REOUIRED
HEAOER
FUSHING UNDER wooD stLL
SI LL
SLIOING DOOR IN WOOD FRAME
DOORFRAME
DETAILS
INTERIOR SWING OOOR IN WOOD FRAME
IN WOOD
WALL
CONSTRUCTION SHEATHING
CMU LINTEL
GYPSUM WALLBOARO
FLASHING
wooD BUCK SHIM
EXTERIOR SWING DOOR IN WOOD FRAME
STEEL
FLASHING
LINTEL
SEAUNT
SPACE
WOOD FRAME WITH APPLIED STOP
SHIM SPACE (FILL REMAINING VOIDS WITH INSULATION)
DOOR
DOORFRAME
BRICK ARCH
SEAUNT
DOORFRAME DOOR
CMU GYPSUM WALLBOARD OF FURRING CHANNELS
SEAUNT SEAUNT
SHIM SPACE SHIM
SPACE
DOORFRAME
TRIM WOOO
OOORFRAME DOOR
FRAME
JAMB
JAMB
SADDLE REQUIREO IF TRANSITION AETWEEN DIFFERENT FLOOR MATERIALS NEEDED
METAL SADDLE
METAL SADDLE
WOOD SILL FUSH ING
CARPET ON UNDERUYMENT PLYWOOD SUBFLOOR
SEAUNT MASONRY SILL BLOCKING
SI LL INTERIOR
SWING
OOORFRAME
DOOR
IN
MASONRY
SILL WALL
SWING
DOOR
DETATLS IN MASONRY WALL CONSTRUCTTON
Danrel F. C Hayes, AlA, Washington, D.C. Rrchard J. Vrtullo, AIA; Oak Leal Studio; Crownsulle. Maryland
DOOR AND WINDOWOPENINGS
IN
MASONRY
VENEER
SWING
DOOR
IN
SOLIO
MASONRY
HollowMetol Doorfromes MATERIALS Hollow refal doorframesare avatlablern valous steel gauges according to where and how they will be used. Localcodes and governingauthoritiesestablishminimum gauges.which shouldalwaysbe consulted.Some manulacturersmake cuslom moldingsfor a specificdesign.as longas a sufficientquantityis required. For security.the exteriormoldingson exteriordoors should be welded into the trame and exposedfastenersshouldbe ramoeroroor. TYPES
OF
-T- . t) T- -
= -
9'
JJ
STANOARD DOUBLE RABBET /TYPICAL
SINGLE RABBETS
CLIP
DOUBLE EGRESS
BACKBENDS
FACE PROFILES
-
rq:". l_\ TRIM
FRAMES
469
Doorframescan be factory or tield assembled.All frames musl be adequately anchored at lhe iambs and floor accordingto the manufacturer's specifications.
t\
t-
Ftnt-
PROFILES
VARIOUS STANDARD
N
PROFILES
LIGHT-GAUGE METALFRAME:headand iamb members. with or withouta Iransompanel,of aluminum{45 min.max imum rating)or light-gauge steel (1.5hr maximumrating). Frameis installedoverfrnrshed wall. PRESSED STEEL(HOLLOWMETAL):headandiambmembers,wirh o. withoutsold or glazedtransomsoi sidelights, of l8{auge or heavier steel (3 hr maximum rating}.This frame is requiredfor most metal doors. * Omit stopsfor casedopeningframes.
FINISHES Hollow metal frames shouldreceiveat least one shoo coat of rustinhibitive primer betore delivery to the iob site. In very corrosiveatmospheres,such as saltwaterbeachlocations, is it advisableto hav€ doors and frares hot dipped galvanizedfor additionalprotection. paint tinishesin Erious colors Frameswith tactory-applied are availabl€frm severalmnutacturers.
NOTES S T A N D A R DO O U B L E R A B B E T NOTE Maximm gauge is l0: consult manufacturersfor tighter gau9es. HOLLOW
METAL FRAME
PROFILES
1. Many other profilesare availabl€;mnsult manufacturers' listslor dimensionsandoptions. 2. Depthsvaryin 1/sin. incrementsto '12%in. maximum. 3. Standardstops are sla in. lllz in. minimum); standard facesare 2 in. (1 in. minimum).
AND COMPONENTS
CEILING STRUT ANCHOREO TO STRUCTURE ABOVE (AS REOUIRED)
ANCHOR
18" 20-, OR 22. GAUGE FRAME
TRIM
(CASING)
wooo
SNAP-ON ANCHOR
WITH
sTUos
METAL STUDS WITH GYPSUM BOARD
PLASTER
wooD oR METAL STUD
LIGHT.GAUGE FRAME
FRAME
GAUGEs
JAME ANCHOR
MASONRY WITH GYPSUM BOARD BUTTED TO FRAME
METAL FRAME
I NSTALLATIONS
(OPTIONAL)
MPo NENrs rn.-"di=.
;:
EW&W ,,-
,o""JL-#\r.o*", HEAD (JAMA STMtLAR)
WEATHER
)4:F
HEAO (JAMB SIMILAR}
PROOF I NSTALLATIONS
B U T T F R A M E / F L U S HF R A M E N OTES
WRAPAROUND FRAME
1. Use ancho.s appropriatefor the type of wall construction;a minimumof threep€r iamb is required. 2. Groutframe with mortar or plasteras used in wall. 3. Caulkframeat wall. 4. DimensionA is minimum3 in. in area ol pull or knob naroware. 5. Trim may be used to coverjoint at wall line. 6. CheckdimensionB on hinge side for door swing greater than90". FRAME CONDITION
N OTES 1. Easic wall dimension is less than throat opening dimension. 2. Use anchors appropriate for the type of wall construc tion; a manimum of three per jamb is required. 3. Fill frame with mortar or plaster as used in the wall. 4. Grout frame at masonry wall. 5. Backbend may vary as selected.
AT WALL
James W. G. Watson,AIA; RonaldA. Spahnand Assmiates Cleveland Heights.Ohio DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA;Washinglon, D.C.
METALDOORSAND FRAMES
HollowMetqlFrqmes
470
O@R PANIL
CORNER EQUAL
xaEeuraEo EXCEPT CONSTRUCTION ETANOARO
CO : ORRNI E R VAR RIIIA B L E
\^/ITH FACE6
METHOO ANO TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION VARIES BETWEEN MANUFACTURERS. MECH. FASTENING TO Be J SPECIFIEO TO ASSURE TIGHT CORNER TAB A N D T
lN oRywaLL
6TEEL
WITH FACES
OR SHOWN
RABAET INEERT
u/IOTH
PANEL SHOWN
STOPPEc)IN gERT
IN
ALTERNATE TRANSOM
CONTINUOUS, ASTRAGAL /
FRAME
?lFilEE'""* KNOCT<
OOWN
FRAME
CORNER
CONETR
FLU6H 6URFAc;E OOOR ANO TRAN6OM
SPECIAL
sEcTroNs STDSECTIS
AOJUsTAALE
FRAME
T\^/O-PIECE
FRAME
| |il l], \Llv
EXT FACE \^/ELOEO OR ORIVEN MULLION
_il Wruru B
GIY6TEM
Vnl
TRANSOM
5Ht"*T.-.t,o*
THIS SYSTEM USES CERTAIN STO. PROFILES IN ANY VARIE:TY OF LINEAR ARRANGEMENTS; FABRICATES EASILY ANO QUICKLY. JOINTERY VARIES BETWEE:N MANU. FACTURERS
f, a
ETICK
=ffi STANOARO HEAO WITH FRAME
SIOELIGHT
GILL
'I
6IOE LIGHT
EILL
'3
MULLION OF 2 ATD. €'ECTIONe WITH SPLINE
REMOVAgLE (HEAO' MULLION
SAOOLE
REM OVAgLE MULLION (gILL}
TF*
1re.-"ll 6toELIGHT
SIOI. LIGHT
ANCHOR EXTERIOR FACE MAY BE EXTENDEO AS ORIP SIOELIGHT SILL*2
BORROW LIGHT
MAY TRACE OUT FULL STOP
WIRE AREA
GL.-MAX. PER LT:
FASTEN TO CLIP STRUCT SMOKE
6CREENS
5/.HR
WrTH
WIRE
GL
CUT-OFF
SL
FRAME
James W. G. Watson, AIA; Ronatd A. Spahn and Associates; Cleveland Heights, Ohio
METALDOORSAND FRAMES
HO€;PITAL
STOP
m ffi qr) qf) '"""ffi ffi ffi9 ffi) """fuH ."RBEE"*'"'
HollowMetol Fromes,Anchors,ond Accessories
ru& ::T/W
WEDGE
^l^^:
:::.:_./
t
FRAME
"-'[ffi
OETAIL
'z'cuP LABEL
CEILING
REMOVABLE
STRUT
BUCK
#I
ROUGH
BUCK
CONTINUOU6 OA6KET REEILIENT
#2
ll-.-l | | -.t \,. THROUGH EOLT FRAME ANCHOR
FIEi.-o"tt""*t'
APPLIEO
GAGKET
ffi
Us STC' rated door w/ automatic door bottom & frare Vadiustable stops; lilled & installed in com. p.tible wall construction. 's.T.c. = sound Transmission Class.
I l'--l
:Y:l^ "*'"o{-,,',
CORE BOARD ANCHOR
ADJUSTABLE 6OUNO STOP
PANIC HEAOER REINFc)RCING
FIOUCH
N.
WEDGE ANCHOR
CLIP
\
dL
lill'sllllll FLOOR
4CK
ADJ, CLG ANCHOR
&11 lrfill ll STANOARO KNEE
14 GA. FRAME <_+[ INTffiSEcT = WALL il LINING II wfrH eP-il{lll FRAME I IllllF-l L--!YL---l ttA' x tt/2" x r'C: BE|NF. \ ANGLE, ANO Vd Z. J oooR LNt rG MUsr/ NTERSECT LINE OF SIGHT ACROSS FRAME LINNG LINEO FF'AME LEAO
NOTE
wr,l
wELDEo oR
STOP
OR
SCREW
ROUGH
WELDEDOFT SNAP-N ANCHOR
471
-l ---rLJfr
FINISHED
*,*..(PI't i,vJ;?xg-yJ3Ei5"
W/REINECUT-OUT. AND PLASTER GUARO
ROUGH LAE|EL
rrNrsxgo
st'
\ I ,I *Jh ,/
aUcK-
BUC'< AVAIL.
#
3
guc
Sf
STRIKE AOJUeTAALE KNEE
FLOOR
FRAME EXTENO€O \ //BAEE ANCHOR
cuT ouT ry
BL
NK
COVER
HEAOLEE6 OOOR FRAME LAEIEL AVAIL.
ROUGH LABEL
BUCK AVAIL.
James W. G. Watson, AIA; RonaldA. Spahnand Associates;ClevelandHeights,Ohio
METALDOORSAND FRAMES
*
:+
HollowMetol DoorTypes
472
NOMI
NAL
1 !o j:
WIOTH
c^
tz
_^c
r I
U]
eF; si?
oo zu
I
ul I c 0 0 o F ul
I
t l
aJ o< \g a9
o
z
=)
OOOR
ANO
OOOR
FLUSH G RECESSED PANEL EOTTOM RAIL-
CONETRUCTION
Relativelywidecenterpanelconnectedto hingeand lock stile by interlocking and/or weldingforming two exposed vertical seamson door face. Invertedchannelclosestop and bottom. Exteriordoor is furnished with cap. CENTER PANEL
END CHANNEL STILE
ANO
PANEL
Pan type or enclosed siruction.
7i
CONSTRUCTION
grid con-
No seams visible on face. Exposed seams may be on vertical edges where two pans join. Top and/or bottom of door may be tlush or recessed.
t/2c2
,/2G
A recessedpanel door, generally considered an industrial type door, mav be used lor decofalive purposes,
RAIL
zu
t/2G3
CLEARANCE
A flush or recessedoanel is held in place by stiles and ,ails.
ANO
OOOR FLUgH REINF CLO€ER
-Tt U r Jn
SH ED FLOOR SPECIFIED
Tubularstil€sand rails compose structural elements.
ATILE
o4 iz
NVERTED
AS ETANOARO
i0
r:-l ll tt
r.:-] ll tl
lI u l l_l
ll
ll lt
T-] ll il
lul l-l
T:::]
lt--lJl l-l tr_J_Jt l-l
l-l l:l
ll"Hl r
ANO PANEL 6TILE DOOR TOP \^/ITH GLAZED OPENINO
6TILE JOINT
ANO
PANEL
gTILE oooR
ANO
R
1 lq- r-l r l
IlF_]_-]ll:l ll"_--lJl
T--l
l-l
l-ll
t-|-|-|-|-l G}LAES / LOUVERED t/2GlL, P(L) FG(L)
F(Ll
P(L)
[-] lT-lt--l r-Fr ulr--ir I Lrl lrl lllllllll
HINOE REINFORCEMENT
HL!_t r_!l LllE_l "i:i'*.-:"
N
N
IL
N
t-nI i!-l tml tffi] l-ffi]
l= ll!!l lil-lll*llffil lffil In lllnl ll Hl t
uElt!!]L__t trl "1,"oo""t'";
FG6
,zGe
STILE ANO CORNER
R
IL
FG24
mIWt*r t+r t]r]t | |ll I t
|]
| *i;:" |
?:J,:: F(Dl
|"1
"'::"
b"^:![-
FLUBH
OOOR
CORE
LOC)K REI N FORCE
M E'N T
NOTES Ooo. types may be imposed on anv door construclion. Delined areas are filled with glass, scr€ening, louvers, or recessed or tlush panels unless otherwise noted. Stiles and rails or muntins make divisions. FINISHES
SAMLESS FLUSH
FULL
FLUSH
CON6TRUCTION
Standard: primed and/or galvanized Paint: baked enamel Applied: vinyl clad Textured, embossed: stainless steel, aluminum Polished: stainless steel
James W. G. Walson, AIA; Ronald A. Spahn and Ass@iates; Cleveland Heights, Ohio
METALDOORSAND FRAMES
FLUSH OOOR ANO BOTTOM coN6T.
EOCIE
STILE ANO RAIL OOOR BOTTOM CONST.
FlushDoors METAL DOORS
HOLLOW
Hollow metal doors are available in steel gauges ranging from 20 to 12; which gauge to use depends on where and how a door will be used. Consult local codes and gcvernrng authorities for minimum gauges that may have been established. Sore manu{acturers will custom make doors to a specific design if an order is large enough.
Hollow metal doors should receive at least one shop coat of rust-inhibitive primer b€fore delivery to the iob site. In very corrosive atmospheres, such as saltwater beach locations, the doors and trames should be hotdipped galvanized for additional protectaon. Doors can be ourchased from the manufacturer tory-applied painr linishes in various @lors.
FLUSH
ALTERNATE VISION PANEL LOCATION
HINGES (2 OR 3, AS NECESSARY)
I 'a
FINISHES
b9 _trF-
UTCH Sff LOCATION
UTCH Sfr LOCATION
FLAT WITH
SURFACE NO TRIM
LOUVER LOCATION
q.9
'@@
SWING DIRECTION SYMBOL
with tac-
HINGES (2 OR 3, AS NECESSARY)
I/VOOD DOORS
NOTE Louversare sized per mechanicalrequirements-Fireiesisrequireclosablelouversor precludeinstaltanceregulations lationin smoke-barrierdoors and certainfire-rateddoors.
MATERIAL
SOLID COBE: wood block, single specie, maximum 2rl, in. width. surfaced two sides, no spaces or defects impairing strength or visible through hardwood veneer facing.
TYPICAL FLUSH DOOR CHARACTERISTICS
HOLLOW CORE: w@d. wood derivative, or class A insulation board. SPECIAL
VISION PANEL SIZED PER FIRE.RESISTANCE REOUIREMENTS
'ig;'.,:h:..
For security, exterior moldings on exterior doors should be welded into the door and all exposed fasteners should be tamoerDr@f .
CORE
VISION OR LOUVERED
SIZES AND OPEN TOP/ INVERTED CHANNEL
CORES
't3lo and 2tla CORE: thicknesses ol SOUNDINSULATING in.; sound transmission class rating of 36 for 13/{in. and 42 or dampang lor 21L in. barrier faces separated by a void compound to keep faces from vibrating in unison. Special stops, gaskets, and threshold devices may be required.
PERIMffER CHANNEL OR TUBUUR FRAME 'c" oR "2" CHANNEL, OR TRUSS MEMBER
LEAD-LINED CORE:r/rr in.101/, in. continuous lead sheeting from edge to edge inside door construction; may be reinforced with lead bolts or glued. (See UL requirements.)
HONEYCOMB FIBER, FOAM, OR STRUCTURAL MINERAL CORE
GROUNDED CORE: wire mesh at center of core, grounded with copper wire through hinges to frame.
UTCH RAIL REINFORCING.
FACE
TYPES
TOP RAIL HINGE STILE LOCK STILE CENTER PANEL. HONEYCOMB CORE M ETAL FACE PLY
UMINATEO TO CORE
'/'u in. to1/:z Standard thickness face veneers range from in.; they are bonded to hardwood with a crossband (1/'o in. to116 in.) and are the most economi@l and widely used veneer type. Face ven@rs inhibir checking in the finish but are difficult to refinish or repair. They can be used on all cores. Bonded to a crossband.r/6 in. sawn veneers are easily retin ished and repaired.
LOUVER
HOLLO\iv METAL DOOR WITH STIFFENED CORE
DOOR V\/ITH STILE WOOD EDGE BANDING FRAME EXPANDABLE CELLUUR OR HONEYCOMB FIBER, INTERLOCKED STRIPS OR IMPLANTED BLANK CORE
BONDED, BLOCKS, EITHER VERTICAL OR HORIZONTALT BONDED TO FACE PANET-S ANO FRAME
OPENINGS
UTCH HAROBOARO CROSSBANO PLY (EACH SIDE)
In hollowrore d@rs. the cutout aroa can be at most half the height of the d@r. Doors with openings greater than 4096 are not guaranteed. Weatherpr@fing of exterior doors is required to prevent moisture from leaking into the core. FINISHING
HARDBOARD CROSSBAND PLIES (EACH SIDE)
FACE PLY/ VENEER; FINISH FACE
FACING
For opaque finishes only, high or medium-low density overlav faces ol ohenolic resins and cellulose fibers can be fused to the inner faces of a hardwood door to setue as a base for the final tinish. Laminated plastic ('/,6 in. thick. minimum) can be bonded to a wood back of two or more plies ('/16 in., minimum). Hardboard, '/s in. thick and smooth on one or both sides. can be used as a facing. DOORS cENERAL NOTES: wooD '1. Kilniried w@d: moisture content at 6-12yo. 2. Type I dors: lully waterproof bond, exterior and interior. 3. Tvpe ll doors: water-resistant bond, interior only.
RAIL
CROSS RAIU REINFORCING
FACE PLY OR VENEER (FINISH FACE OF DOOR)
Partial finishing ii availabte, with sealing coats in place but the tinal finish applied on the job. Complete factory tinish' ing requires the door to be prelit and premachined. SPECIAL
HOLLOW METAL AND RAIL
WOOD EDGE BANDING FRAME
Custom rude to speitications, this type of door has wood beads and slats that match the face veneer. Space betlveen th€ opening in the d@r and the edge of the door €n be no less than 5 in.
FACTORY
SEAMLESS EDGE, CONTINUOUS WELO FILL AND GRIND SMOOTH
SPOT-WELDEO, MECHANICAL INTERLOCKING OR HEMMED SEAM
'/" an. sawn Staved-bl@k and stile-and-rail solid cores take veneers. These are the same asr/s in. sawn veneers but do not have a crossband on stile-and-rail solid cores with hori zontal blocks. Faces can be cut with decoratave grooves. LIGHT AND
DOOR CLOSURE CHANNEL OR OPTIONAL CAP
METAL FACE u/OOO
473
NOTE For bonded blocks, stave core is the most economical and widely used. Other materials include particleboard (heavier, more soundproof, economical) and mineral compositjon (lighter, difficult cutouts and detailing. lower screw strength).
Acoustical materials may be used to cut sound transmlssion.
\MOOD SOLID CORE DOOR
WOOD
4. Tolerances:height, width, thickness, squareness,and warp per NWWDA standards;vary with solid vs. builtup construction. 5. Prefit: d@rs at 3/join. less than width and'/s in. less in height than nominalsize, t1132in. tolerance,with vertical eoges easeo.
6. Premachining:doors monised lor lmks and cut out for hingeswhen so specified. 7. Premium: fo. transparentlinish; good/custom:lor paint or transparentfinish; sound: for paint. with two coats completelycoveringdefects.
N OTE
HOLLO\^/ CORE
DOOR
Daniel F. C. Hayes. AIA; Washington, D.C.
DOORS WOOD AND PLASTIC
Stileond RqilDoors
474 GENERAL
BUILTUP MEMBERS
Panel doors consist oJ a framework of vertical (stile) and horizontal (rail) members that hold solid wood or plywood nanels. glass lights. or louvers rn place.
The core and edge and end strip material is simrlar to the mate.ial used in flush doors. Face veneer is typically hardwood at'/s in. minimum thickness.
CONSTRUCTION
sTtcKlNG, GLASS STOPS. AND MUNTINS
Doors are made of solid or builtup stiles, rails, and venical members {muntins), doweled as in NWWDA standards. Stock material includes ponderosa pine or other Western pine, fir, heml@k, or spruce and hardwood veneers. Hardboard, metal, and plastic facings are available in patterns simulating panel doors.
TUBUUR METAL PERIMETER
Typical profiles used are cove, bead, or ovolo.
OR
PANELS
Premium (selectl grade is used for natural, clear, or stained finishes. Exposed wood is free of defects that affect appearance
RAIL (VERTICAL
STILE
HINGE
:
DOOR
STILE AND
MEMAERS)
GLAZING, EITHER SINGLE.GUZEO PANEL WITH REMOVABLE MUNTINS OR INOIVIDUALLY GUZED PANES WITH TRUE DIVIDEO LIGHT MUNTINS
MEMBERS)
STILE
LOCK
EDGE CHANNEL
HOLLOW METAL RAIL DETAIL
All glazing in doors must be salety glazing Insulated glazing is available.
RAIL
FtNtsH METAL F A CE
STRUCTURAL FACE PLY
Door projections, such as Dutch door shelves, may be no more than 4 in. if more than 27 in. above linished floor. Thresholds and saddles must be no lrigher thanl/, in. with beveled edges. Kickplates are recommended outdoors along accessible routes.
GLAZING
TOP
_
ADA ACCESSIBILITY GUIDELINES Foropening widthcompliance, usedoors3 ft 0 in.wide.
Standard grade is used for opaque Iinishes. Defects, discof oration. mixed species, and finger joints are permitted if undetectable aller linishing.
(HORIZONTAL
./
Flat panels are typically 3{ly hardwood or softwood. Raised panels are constructed of solid hardwood or soft wood built uo ol two or more olies. Doors 1 ft 6 in. wide or less are one panel wide.
GRADES
RAIL
CORE MATERIAL
STILE
MEETING STILE (PASSIVE/ STATIONARY LEAF}
o o
LOCK (CROSS) RAIL PANEL (DISTINCT SECTION ENCLOSED BY FRAMEWORK)
c o
GUZING
oz OU zu
FUT
PANEL
PANEL
FULL LOUVERED PANEL
15 O
RAISED
PANEL
MUNTIN (NONSTRUCTURAL MEMBER WITHIN FRAME OF DOOR)
r:
;9
;0
BONOM
t
<1'---
Lrt
RAIL
":;+":,e+i"','|. iroer;oa EXTERIOR:2-6",2'-e",3-O"
t, .,V | -.zi-ntERroR r 3/e". r3ro' E X T E R I o R 1 3 t 4 " .? ' t a ' )t SToRM/SCREEN DOOR I ,/6
Tempered or laminated safety should be used in glazed panels.
--t'/
TYPICAL
STILE
SIZES
AND
AND
RAIL
I J/s'' FRENCH DOOR
CHARACTERISTICS
DOOR
GLAZED/LOUVEREO
TYPES
//
MOLDTNG
MOLDED MUNTIN SOLID MOLDED FRAME WITH FLAT VENEEREO PANEL I/".'MIRRoR A5
VENEER/ FINISH
APPLIEO
HARDWOOD FINISH
TYPICAL BEVELED DOOR
WOOD
BANDING
VENEERED FUT PANEL
PLY
VENEERED BUILTUP FRAME
CORE
EDGE
RAISEO PANEL
PUTTY STOP FOR E X T E R I O RU S E -
MOLDING
EACH SIDE
STILE OR RAIL CROSS
(TEMPERED
REoUIRED)
MIRROREO
PANEL
STILE ANO RAIL DOOR DETAILS
Jeftrey R. Vandevoort, Talbott Wilson Associates, lnc.; Houston Texas Daniel F. C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D C.
WOODAND PLASTIC DOORS
GUZEO
DOOR
DOOR
Door LeofChorocteristics GENERAL
DEFINITIONS
Consider the following wheo designrng a door: aesthetics {the design and look of the door}, operation (how the door moves), fire-resistance ratings/egress requirements, accessibility for people with disabilitres,size and weight, location, materials/method of conslruction, glazing requirements, special requirements (sound transmission, containment of harmtul material such as x-rays or prcjecliles), security issues, energy consetuation, electrostatic grounding, hardware, and weatherprmting.
ACTIVE LEAF: the primary operating leaf oJ a door pair
SPACE
475
REQUIREMENTS
(vARlous DooR wlDTHs-lN.
l
AIR CURTAIN: a mechanically produced downward st.eam ot air across a door opening intended to prevent transmission of heat and weatherAUTOMATIC DOOR: a door fully or panially operated with an externai mechanism (door opener) triggered by sensor or switch/button, as opposed to manual operation; refer to accessibility and fire code requirements.
Refer to local, state. and federal codes and trade association and manufacturers' specifications and recommendations for additional informaton and re?uirements.
HAND: denoles direction of door movement. LEAF: a door panel.
DOOR SWING OIRECTION SYMBOL
LEFT-HINGED DOOR: a door with hinges mounted on the left stile of the active panel. PASSIVEiINACTIVE DOOR: a door that operates independently of and secondarily to the active leat of a door pair; normally held closed with floor and head bolts; the strike plate of this door receives the latch of the aclive leaf.
HINGE SIDE
PREHUNG DOOR: door and frame combination fabricated and assembled by the manufacturer and shipped to the site.
LATCH OR STRIKE
STATIONARY {FIXED) DOOR: a nonoperational leaf.
LOCKSTT
BALANCED
DOOR
STOPS PERMIT SWING IN ONE DIRECTION ONLY AND SEAL OPENING THERMALLY AND ACOUSTICALLY
DOOR SWING ROUTE OF TRAVEL
-;\R
PIVOT POINT (PIVOT HARDWARE IN FLOOR AND HEAD OR DOUBLE-ACTING
DOOR LEAF
-.',
Doors that swing. the most common typ€ of door opera, tion, rotate aroundan axisdeterminedby hingesor pivots.
,i,'
DOOR AND OPENING CHARACTERISTICS
-e
lTfmr
PARALLEL
A balanceddoor is a single-actionswinging door mounted on offset pivots. The leaf operates independentlyol the jamb, and the ellipticaltrajectoryof the leaf requires less clearfloorspacelhan a conventional swingingdoor.
RIGHT-HINGED DOOR: a door with hinges mounled on the right stile of the active panel.
BEVEL
DOOR SWING ROUTE OF /TRAVEL -
lTIIl].N "illTlTl
DOUBLE.ACTING
lT|[r]T]1|ltfftflr
The single-acting door, the most common door type. has a leaf that operates in a swinging or sliding motion in only one qtrecton.
STRAIGHT
MEETING EDGE TYPES FOR DOUBLE DOOR LEAVES
SINGLE
DOOR
NO STOP -/ DOOR
Double-actingdoors have a leaf that op€ratesin two directions-Thereis usuallyno stop presentto rest.ict the motion of the door, but when the door can be stopped, it can be releasedmechanically to permrtaccessin an emergency.
LEAF TYPES
MEETING EDGES ACTIVE LEAF
--I DooR swrNc ROUTE OF TRAVEL TYP
/
.? ,t-
- ,/
\\ / _.\ <)\/_
DOUBLE-EGRESsi DOORS
OOUBLE
OR
PAIRED
/ '
OOORS
N OTE Double€gress doors have a pair of swinging leaves that operate in opposite directions, permitting equal access to two or more means of passage.
DOUBLE
DOOR
Double or paired doors have two leaves (of equal or unequal size). that operate either together or indepen-
dently. They create a doorway wilh variable widths suitable lor differing occupancy/egress requirements.
LEAF TYPES
RichardJ. Vitullo.AIA; Oak LeafStudio:Crownsvilte, Maryland DanielF. C. Hayes,AIA;Washington, D.C.
WOODAND PLASTIC DOORS
476
Swinging ond Sliding Doors
SWINGING DOOR \
s, . \N\
v
'-z
stLL oR DOOR
-
-
SWING
"-- J:1'::'.jy:'-- --
SURFACE-MOUNTED
NOTE Swingingdoors rotateon hingesor pivots,requireadequate floor space to accommodate outswing, and are used for egressopenings.Seecodesfor requirements. SWINGING
DOORS
s',-O",6aO"
,3-t",
Wood, metal, or glass d@rs that slide horizontallyor vertically on tracks create totally clear openings without the SLIDING DOORS TOP LEAF MAY
2 -a',2'-9"
----T
swlNc
SWINGING
1
DOOR SIZES
METAL TRACK
OR CONCEALED J \. cLoSER --------]--l
SPECIAL
CONCEALED
ADJUSTABLE TROLLEY (2 PER DOOR)
i
SLIDING
DOOR TRACK
BOLT TO ENABL€ BOTH HALVES
ON TRIM TO PERMIT OPERATION
DUTCH OOOR
floor space requirementsof swinging doors. See codes for egressrequirements.
METAL CLIPS, AS NECESSARY, FASTENEO TO WALL STRUCTURE
r 80"
8',O", 9'-O"
il|m| mmm |mml ll\il]zlll tiL,rllt\llL_ril :J [lJ =-1_l 1_[
DOOR
NOTE
DOOR
Sv\/INGING DOORS
WOOD FRAME
DOOR
.*"N,,. HARDWARE
FOR BYPASS DOORS
HEADER STRUCTURE
METAL TRACK
METAL TRACK ADJUSTABLE TROLLEY
BYPASSING DOORS
SEAUNT AND AACKER ROD WOOD CASING CONCEALS SHIM AS REOUIRED
ABOVE
2X STUDS TURNED SIDEWAYS AT t6 0C.
RETRACTABLE DOOR PULL IN DOOR EDGE SCREEN DOOR AND FRAME UNIT
THRESHOLD
rrilh-T-
li ll+f1f-
JKJLJ+#-
Z|*N--------.-.--.-.
SHIM
uu-----
L?\\\\\I\SL\SJLI\IN\\ID'
JAMB CASING WITH OPTIONAL
IrlL JAMB
FLOOR GUIDE CLIPS, AS NECESSARY
SLIDING DOOR
OPTIONAL ROLLER AND TRACK FOR HEAVY OR URGE DOORS SILL
DETAIL-EXTERIOR
SWINGTNG DOOR
DETAIL-SLIDING
Daniel F C. Hayes, AIA; Washington, D C
E
WOOD AND PLASTIC DOORS
POCKET
SPACE
DETAIL-BYPASS
DOOR
