Renaissance/Reformation: John Wyclif/John Huss- attacked power of church, called for simpler Christianity, set the stage for Protestant Reformation Petrarch- “father of humanism” 1304-1374, individualism praised, focused on studying Latin works in order to better society Leonardo Bruni- 1369-1444; translated ancient Greek texts into Latin, lived in Florence. Most famous for his admiration of Cicero Lorenzo Valla- 1406-1457;great philologist (study of ancient languages) Pico della Mirandola- 1463-1494;revived Plato's philosophy Oration on the Dignity of Man . Neo-Platonism, humans once shared a divine nature, and we still keep some divinity now, which can be recaptured through intellectual and spiritual regeneration Lorenzo de Medici- 1449-1492;ruled Florence during Golden Age- advocated civic humanismgreat patron of the arts. When he died in 1492, Florence went into deep decline with invasions Niccolo Machiavelli- 1469-1527;wrote The Prince - rulers must be courageous like a lion with the cunning of a fox, wrote it in hopes of achieving a strengthened Italy after it had been invaded so many times. Very ruthless and harsh belief of ruling Castiglione- 1478-1529;wrote the Book of the Courtier how to gain fame, introduced the “Renaissance Man”. Had to be a scholar and athlete. Reserved education for women to be on music/poetry Donatello- 1386-1466;revived free-standing sculpture. David full-size statue cast in bronze since ancient times Holy y Trin Trinity ity also used realism and 3-D Masaccio- 1401-1428; used perspective geometry in his Hol space technique in a series of frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel Brunelleschi- mainly an architect, but also sculpted with bronze and painted- helped develop the use of perspective geometry in painting. Greatest work was Il Du Duom omo o Mona na Li Lisa sa and Leonardo da Vinci- 1452-1519;great “Renaissance Man”, most famous for the Mo Thee La Th Last st Su Supp pper er , also interested in science, engineering and anatomy. Autopsied a lot of bodies, and invented many things like the parachute and helicopter. David,, painter of the Sis Sistin tinee Cha Chapel pel,, and Michelangelo- 1475-1564;great sculptor in David architecture in St. Pet Peter' er'ss Bas Basili ilica ca Dom Domee - earlier nude works show a heroic vision of the human, while his later works express a darker vision Scho hool ol of At Athe hens ns,, showing Raphael- 1483-1520; rival of Michelangelo, greatest work was the Sc coveted ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle Johann Gutenberg- perfected the movable type in the 1450s, famous for the Gutenberg Biblemade books much more accessible and faster to print (German) Christine de Pisan- 1364-1431; published one of the first feminist books The City of Ladies , defends a woman's intellectual capabilities Isabelle d'Este- 1474-1539; “First Lady of The World”, married into the Gonzaga familyconducted diplomacy for her husband while he was off at war. Built many schools for girls Laura Cereta- 1469-1499; wrote works advocating equal opportunity for women Peace of Lodi- 1454; signed between the Italian city-states, ensured stable peace for 40 years Cosimo de Medici- 1389-1464;wealthy patron of humanism, helped found the Florentine Platonic Academy, grandson was Lorenzo. Family ruled Florence Savanarola- 1452-1498;crazy, pious ruler that took over Florence, eventually burned at the stake. Burned many priceless artistic works deemed “too secular” Francezo Sforza- 1401-1466;took control of Milan in the 1450s, ruled by harsh dictatorship Alexander VI- 1492-1503;very corrupt Borgian ruler of the papal states, used children to gain
marriage alliances Pope Julius II- (1503-1513) “Warrior Pope” led armies into battle, sponsored art projects like the Sistine Chapel Book of Gold- registry of the leading families in Venice Wars of the Roses- civil war in England during the middle of the 1400s, ended 1485 between the Lancaster and Yorks- eventually the Tudors gained power King Henry VII- 1485-1509; tamed the nobles, created a new aristocracy, first Tudor monarch King Henry VIII- 1509-1547; took control of the Catholic Church, obsessed with having a male heir. Still defended Catholicism, wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon, Pope Clement VII wouldn't allow it since he was her nephew. Impregnated Ann Boleyn, declared himself head of the Catholic Church of England with the Act of Supremacy, Act of Succession legitimized his offspring as heirs. Thomas Cromwell and Cranmer helped him confiscate church lands, published Six Articles to show he wasn't reforming the religion Edward VI- 1547-1553;added book of Common Prayer and Act of Uniformity for a simpler form of worship. All of these reforms were undone when he died in 1553 Mary I- 1553-8; persecuted many protestants, nicknamed Bloody Mary Elizabeth I- 1558-1603; established a compromise with the Elizabethan Settlement. Became a politique and also never married. Made a new Book of Common Prayer to satisfy all faiths in the Thirty-Nine Articles. Executed Mary queen of Scots when she tried to assassinate her. Defended against the Spanish Armada in 1588. Star Chamber- royal court system of England established Louis XI The Spider- 1461-1483;added new territory to France, very ruthless- conquered parts of Burgundy Francis I- 1515-1547;Renaissance king, controlled French clergy by agreeing with the pope in the Concordat of Bologna, established direct tax and salt monopoly Ivan III The Great- 1462-1483;drove Mongols out of Russia, claimed Moscow as the “third Rome”, created the streltsy a military service class Ivan IV The Terrible Terrible- very ruthless, suppressed boyars (nobles) and expanded Russia- killed his heir which led to civil chaos in Russia for 30 years Isabella/Ferdinand- 1479-1504,1479-1516; unified Spain by allying with towns and establishing order, called reconquista. Enacted the Inquisition which called for strict Christian orthodocy and expelled Jews/Arabs in 1492. Charles I(V in HRE)- 1516-1555;inherited many lands and became the most powerful monarch in Europe. Saw need for reform in Christianity, but was way too busy fighting in wars Christian humanism- emphasized on Christian readings and early church fathers, criticized the Catholic Church's abuses and wanted to reform from within (this was before Luther) Thomas a Kempis- wrote the Imitation of of Christ , daily exercises to communicate directly with God Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life- founded in the Low Countries and Germany, ministered to the poor, preached living in simplicity, many were killed. Erasmus- 1466-1536; “Prince of Christian humanism” wrote the Praise of Folly which made fun of the church- power of education to promote God (condemned fanaticism)- laid the egg that Luther later hatched Thomas More- 1478-1535;very religious, served in Parliament, most famous for Utopia where he depicts a perfect society based on communal livings- beheaded in 1535 because he oppose Henry VIII taking over the Catholic church Pope Leo X- 1513-1521; 1517 allowed sale of indulgences by Johan Tetzel to finance St.
Peter's Basilica Great Schism- 2 popes in France and Rome bickering against one another. Martin Luther- condemned indulgences, posted the Ninety Five Theses (1517) on the church wall, published pamphlets about his ideas. Believed Bible was the only authority in Christianity, salvation comes from faith alone, salvation is free you don't pay for it. Some famous pamphlets were On the Freedom of the Christian , On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, An Address to the Nobility of the German Nation. Translated the Bible in the 1530s in German so it could be read by all. Believed clergy should marry. Popular mainly in Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark Peasants' Revolt of 1524-5- thousands of peasants went crazy, killing nobles and burning buildings down- Luther condemned this and called for their death (lost a lot of support) Diet of Worms- 1521 Luther called by Charles V, didn't recant his beliefs, excommunicated, after went to Frederick III of Saxony's protection Peace of Augsburg- 1555, whoever rules their land determines religion (only Lutheran/Catholic) John Calvin- 1509-1564;set up reform movement in Switzerland, differed from Luther by believing in predestination. Wrote The Institutes of the Christian Religion (everything God said was true, humans are weak). Protestant work ethic popular. Divided Genevan politics into Ecclesiastical Ordinances where the church was divided into doctors, pastors, deacons, and elders. Spread among the nobility and middle class. Founded the Genevan Academy in 1559, famous student of this school was John Knox (Presb. Church in Scotland). Popular in France/England Ulrich Zwingli- 1484-1531; established radical reform movement, disagreed over Luther between Jesus's coexistence with bread and wine (it's a memorial, for Luther Jesus's body is spiritually there). Met at the Marburg Colloquy to settle dispute, failed. Killed in 1531 in the Swiss Civil War Anabaptists- being a Christian was an adult choice, practiced adult baptism, religious toleration, seperation of church and states- hated by Catholics and Protestants- war in Munster where Anabaptists claimed to rule it- introduced polygamy, burned the Bible. Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros- 1436-1517;tightened regulations for priests, addressed clerical abuses Pope Paul III- 1534-1549;responded with the Counter-Reformation. Established new religious orders like Ignatius of Loyola's Jesuits who catholocized much of Eastern Europe. Ursulines brought education to girls. New working bishops emerged Council of Trent- 3 meetings from 1545-1563. Eliminated many church abuses, gave better education and regulated priests. Reaffirmed Catholic practices like celibacy, authority of the pope, and transubstantiation. Index of Prohibited Books Roman Inquisition- used to take out heresies. Committee of 6 cardinals who could execute you with no jury or appeal. Bernini- most famous baroque artist, revived Catholic spirituality. Economic Expansion/Religious Wars: Vasco de Gama- 1469-1524;in 1498 sailed around Africa to India, brought great riches- Indian trade posts made Portugal one of the only sources for these items Christopher Columbus- 1451-1506;four voyages to the Americas, discovered the New World Hernando Cortes- 1460-1547; typical conquistador, destroyed the Aztecs through superior horses and cannons- helped establish Spanish presence in North America Ferdinand Magellan- 1480-1521; sailed under Spain, first to circumnavigate the earth
John Cabot- 1450-1499; with brother Sebastian helped claim parts of North America for England Jacques Cartier- claimed part of North America for France St. Francis Xavier-Jesuit missionary went to India, Indonesia, Japan Francisco Pizarro- conqueror of the Incas with just 300 men Vasco Nunez de Balboa- crossed Panama to discover the Pacific Ocean Treaty of Tordesillas- 1491; Portugal got Brazil, Spain got everything else in S. America encomienda- settlers given land and native labor- natives brutally exploited and declined Bartolome de las Casas- 1484-1566; Brief Account of the Devastation of the Indies in 1542 showed the issues of these abuses- led to a reformed encomienda system Columbian Exchange- potatoes, tobacco, tomatoes, cocoa, gold, silver, beans, corn introduced to Europe and horse, cattle, sheep, pigs, rice, wheat, sugar cane (disease) given to New WorldAmerican population had been reduced by 90% Gerardus Mercator- 1512-1594;produced the first globes, made first accurate Mercator map Commercial Revolution- acceleration in global trade- led to an increase in Europe's population, and steady inflation (Price Revolution). Gentry class introduced (indep. Farmers) Bank of Amsterdam- funded commercial dominance of Netherlands putting-out system- Entrepreneurs began to give cloth to workers in home who spun the weave and got paid by cloth Dutch/British East India Companies- most famous joint-stock companies, gained monopolies Mercantilism- economic theory that global wealth was limited, favorable balance of trade crop rotation- one section of land was uncultivated to allow soil to be replenished Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis- 1159;Habsburg/Valois setlle differences, Habsburgs win. Phillip II- 1556-1598;ruled Spain and the low countries, protected Catholicism, King of Paper. Outsider to low countries who wanted to remain de-centralized- policies sparked revolts. Increased taxes, established church, Inquisition. Iconocolast revolt- citizens smashed statues and church decorations. Duke of Alba- Phillip sends him to Netherlands, establishes the Council of Blood, executed thousands of Protestant Nobles. William the Silent - aided by sea beggars, led 17 provinces against the Netherlands in the Pacification of Ghent Alexander Farnese- 1545-1592;Duke of Parma, sent to subdue Netherlands. 1578 brought the southern 10 provinces to ally with Spain in the Union of Arras. The northern 7 provinces formed the Union of Utrecht in 1581 to separate from Spain. Sir Francis Drake- hired by Elizabeth I to attack Spanish ships- the Spanish armada lost to England. Phillip III- signed the Twelve Years' Truce 1609, granted Dutch Independence. Southern 10 provinces became the Spanish Netherlands, Spain slowly declined. Concordat of Bologne- France treaty with pope, France becomes Catholic as long as the ruler takes control of the priests. Henry II- 1547-1559;ruled France, died in a jousting accident that put France into a civil war Catherine de Medici- 1519-1589;Henry's widow, quietly controlled France Charles IX- 1560-1574;very weak, dies very soon Henry Bourbon of Navarre- wished for free worship of Huguenots, 1572 married Catherine de Medici's daughter- on their wedding day, the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (10,000 Protestants killed)
War of the Three Henries- 1588 Henry Guise (ultra-Catholic) took Paris. Henry III of Valois formed an alliance with Henry Bourbon against ultra-catholics- assassinated Henry Guise. 1589 a monk killed Henry III, Henry Bourbon IV is the new ruler of France (1589-1610). To bring peace, he converted to Catholicism, Paris is worth a mass, issued the Edict of Nantes where Huguenots had religious freedoms. Frederick V- 1610-1623;ruler of Palatinate, converts to Calvinism,, upsets Peace of Augsburg. Elected king of Bohemia Ferdinand II- 1620-1637;about to gain control of important Bohemia, betrayed promise of religious liberties to Bohemians- led to the Defenestration of Prague. Bohemian nobles tossed two imperial officials out of the Prague castle, elect Frederick V of Palatine as new king. Bohemian Phase, 1618-1625- Frederick V defeated at White mountain, Ferdinand II elected emperor and confiscated Bohemian noble lands. Danish Phase, 1625-1629- Christian IV of Denmark supported Protestants and wanted to gain Balkan territory, defeated by Albrecht von Wallenstein. Ferdinand issues the Edict of Restitution, returns all confiscated Church lands since 1517. Swedish Phase, 1629-1635- Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden defeats imperial forces at Breitenfield and Lutzen. Cardinal Richelieu brought France into the conflict to reduce Habsburg power. Wallenstein finally assassinated. Ferdinand III issues the Peace of Prague- ends Edict of Restiitution. Conflict now becomes Habsburgs vs. Swedes and French. Franco-Swedish Phase, 1635-1648- Battle of Rocroi 1643, French defeated the Spanish, made France the major power in Europe. Phillip IV (1621-1665) wasted a lot of resources in this war. Peace of Westphalia- 1648;Holy Roman Empire no longer has a role, Switzerland and Dutch Republic are formally ercognized. France, Sweden, Prussia, and the Dutch gain power. Papacy was virtually ignored, Germany's population declined by 33%. Now you can be Catholic, Lutheran, or Calvinist. Absolutism/Constitutionalism/Eastern Europe: Age of Crisis- Religious warfar, poor weather, crop failures, high taxes, revellion, witchcrafts, intellectual changes, economic changes, and increased violence from 1550-1650 Bishop Bossuet- 1627-1704;most famous advocate of divine-right rule, king's power from God Henry IV- 1589-1610; balanced French budget, firmer taxation- promoted economic development through building roads/canals, draining swamps, colonization. Wanted to lower peasant taxes, curb nobles. Louis XIII- 1610-1643;regent Marie de Medici-strongly relied on his advisor Cardinal Rechelieu- increased direct (taille) and indirect (gabelle) taxes. Curbed nobility, employed spies, appointed intendants (local officials, collected taxes, regulated trade). Destroy nobles castles with army, nobles are scared. Forced Huguenots to relinquish their closed towns. Highn unemployment, food shortages, declining of lower class. Set up the French Academy. Corrupt tax collectors. Louis XIV- 1643-1715;inherited throne at 5. Fronde rebellion 1648-52 convinced Louis he needed to rule with an iron fist. Cardinal Mazarin ruled 1602-1661 in actuality. Controlled parlements by threatening exile and property confiscation. “I am the state”. 80% of revenues used to build Versailles palace to curb his nobles. Never called the estates general. Jean-Baptiste Colbert- 1619-1683;minister of finance, Louis's primary advisor. Unified internal market, created internal tariffs, created free trade zone (Five Great Farms). Established roads and postal systems, reputation for high-quality goods. Established French East India Company- tariffs enforced to limit foreign goods. Peasants taxed the most, nobles had many exemptions. Established mercantilism (sell more than you buy).
Jansenists- opposed Jesuit's belief of free will, in favor of predestination. Edict of Fontainebleau- revoked Edict of Nantes, forced Protestants to convert or leave. Charles le Brun/Jules Hardouin-Mansart- assisted in design of Versailles, combined Baroque with neoclassical. Marquis de Louvois- 1641-1691;minister of war, largest European army with 400k. William of Orange- 1673 elected stadholder of the Netherlands, never created a centralized monarchy Anglo-Dutch Naval Wars- along with English Navigation Acts restricted Dutch trade with England's colonies, couldn't keep up with other main powers James I- 1603-1625;Scottish outsider, believed in divine right powers and discarded Parliament The True Law of Free Monarchies 1598. Antagonized Puritans, “no bishop, no king”. His politics fueled an anti-Catholic sentiment. Charles I- 1635-1649;demanded revenue 1628, Parliament issues Petition of Right- assertion of tax laws. Before, Charles ruled alone from 1629-39, got money from ship money- coastal towns had to contribute for defense. Imposed new Book of Common Prayer in 1640- Scots rebelled. 1642 attempted to arrest parliamentary Puritans, plunged England into civil war. Cavaliers (king) vs. Roundheads (parliament), captured Charles 1645. Oliver Cromwell- 1599-1658;leader of Parliament's New Model Army. Pride's Purge- drove out Parliament's moderate members. Rump Parliament placed King Charles under arrest, executed him 1649.Oliver names himself Lord Protector, writes the Instrument of Government 1653 (first English constitution). Imposed military rule, banned plays, promoted mercantilismviolently subdued rebellion in Ireland and Scotland. Died in 1658, aristocracy agreed to restore the Stuart Monarchy. Charles II- 1660-1685;privately Catholic. Distrusts Parliament. Declaration of Indulgences religious toleration, appointed Catholics as local officials. 1673 Parliament gave Test Act, required everyone to take communion (Protestant). Treaty of Dover- 1670 secret treaty, gained annual allowance to introduce Catholicism to England- had enough money to rule without Parliament. James II- 1685-1688;divisions in Parliament between Tories (supporters) and Whigs (opposers). Was a Catholic, gave birth to male heir 1688. Parliament invited Mary and her husband William of Orange in Netherlands to claim the throne- Glorious Revolution. William III- 1689-1702;passed a Bill of Rights 1689, Toleration Act allowed Protestants to worship but didn't have public service, Act of Succession 1701 prohibited monarchy from being held by a Catholic. 1707- The United Kingdom of Great Britain ally with Scotland. Mannerism- late 16th century art form- those who painted in the manner of later Michelangelo. El Greco- 1541-1614;most famous, introduced yellows and grays. Famous for th thee Bu Buri rial al of Count Cou nt Org Orgaz az Baroque- Mannerism eventually became baroque. Major theme is power- absolute monarchies, Catholic Church- Bernini the most famous (example: Th Thee Ec Ecst stas asy y of St St.. Theresa Theresa)) Velazquez- 1599-1660, hired by Louis XIV, glorified monarchy, Th Thee Ma Maid idss of Ho Hono norr Peter Paul Rubens- 1577-1640;muscular and energetic compositions of religious scenes in The Rais Ra isin ing g of th thee Cr Cros osss and political in Th Thee Li Liffe of Mar ariie de Me Medi dici ciss . Popularized the female body style, now known as Rubenesque. Dutch War- earned Louis XIV Franche-Comte and Swiss terriroty Nine Years' War- 1689 invaded Alsaice-Lorraine, resulted in the League of Augsburg. William III made this to prevent Louis's domination. Treaty of Ryswick- 1697, war ends with Louis only getting a few towns
Charles II of Spain- 1665-1700;last Habsburg of Spain, died. Louis XIV and HR emperor made claims to throne through family marriages. Charles left a will that gave his entire possession to Phillip V, bourbon grandson of King Louis XIV. War of Spanish Succession- 1702-1713;France and Spain vs. England, Netherlands, and HRE. Battle of Blenheim French lost in Bavaria. War dragged on, very expensive. Peace of Utrecht- 1714 conflict finally ended- Phillip V became Bourbon ruler of Spain, but could never unite with France. 10 southern provinces of Netherlands and lands in Italy given to Austria. England gained Gibraltar, territory in North America, and was allowed to trade with Spain (asiento). Britain now the leading maritime power of Europe. Poland- weakest European kingdom. Powerful nobles (szlachta) limited power of kings. Any noble could block the Sjem (representative body) with the liberum veto. Fell prey to large rivals Sigismund III- 1587-1632;Swedish king of Poland put it in a needless war to recapture Sweden Eugene of Savoy- 1663-1736;military leader of Austria that beat the Turks at the Battle of Zenta (1697)- gained Hungary and Transylvania, and Balkan territory in the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Charles VI- 1711-1740;only occupied with ensuring Maria Theresa (daughter) would be heir. Made the Pragmatic Sanction, she was official heir. Lands would never be divided. Hungarians constantly revolt, eventually gives them their priveleges. Hohenzollern Dynasty- 1618 inherited the Duchy of Prussia, territory in West along the Rhine in the Peace of Westphalia. Frederick William the “Great Elector”- 1640-1688;gave Junkers (nobles) important positions in the army and complete power over serfs. General War Commisariat collected taxes. Most of its tax revenues went into building its army. Only 40,000 men, but very skillful used for security established monopolies- welcomed persecuted Huguenots for their skills. Emperor Frederick I- 1713-1740;after Spanish Succession, William gained title of King of Prussia. Spent a lot of money Frederick William I- very cruel, pistols loaded with salt. Establishes absolutism- creates strong army, huge soldiers. Set up a strong bureaucracy- anyone can rise up in power. Got rid of estates, lowered junker power Time of Troubles- 1604-1613, Ivan IV killed his heir, chaos in Russia. Michael Romanov finally elected as tsar 1613-1645. Serfdom now legal, many rebellions- led to more repression on the serfs. Peter I, the Great- 1682-1725;wanted to greatly modernize Russia. Created divisions with Russian society. Traveled incognito to West Europe, interrupted by streltzy rebellion, who he executed. Built Russia's first navy and modern army. Banned wearing of long coats, beards, veiling of women. Table of Ranks where subjects could rise in status based on state contributions. Placed the church under control of the state. Army of 200,000 (peasants drafted for life) peasants taxed 3 times. Charles XII- 1697-1718, ruler of Sweden beat Russia in 1700 at the battle of Narva- led the Great Northern War (1700-1721). Peter changed technology, while Charles was occupied with Poland, later lost. Treaty of Nystadt- 1721 Russia gained Baltic territory, Peter built St. Petersburg The Scientific Revolution Scholasticism- studying using ancient Greek thinking, dominated investigations of science for hundreds of years. Believed that our earth lay at the center of the universe with other planets revolving around it along crystal spheres. Galen- ancient Greek physician, said the body had 4 humors- blood, phlegm ,yellow bile, and
black bile. Disorders happened due to an imbalance- correcting it was done through bleeding Nicholas Copernicus- 1473-1543; On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres published before he died in 1543. Developed an accurate calendar- presented the notion of a heliocentric universe. Brah e- 1546-1601l;stared at the sky for years without a telescope. 1577 saw path of a Tyco Brahe comet- was traveling in an irregular pattern through spheres- disproved everything. Never really accepted new theories, but his data aided future scientists. Johannes Kepler- 1571-1630; Brahe's assistant, came to the conclusion that planets travelled elliptically ellipticall y. laws of planetary motion and saw the closer a planet was to the sun, the faster it moved. Galileo Galilei - 1564-1642;devised math formula of accelerating bodies- 32 ft/sec. Empirical support (based on senses) of heliocentric theory- 1609 built first telescope. Law of intertia. Starry Messenger 1610 showed moon as imperfect with a rough surface, contradicted church. Dialogue Concerning Concerning the the Two Two Chief World World Systems: Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican Copernican 1632, endorsed Copernican's theory, sent to house arrest for 9 years Isaac Newton- 1642-1727;thought the world was based on universal laws Principia Mathematica 1687- 3 laws of motion. Came up with the universal law of gravitation, invented calculus. Everything in the universe attracts other things according to laws. Andreas Vesalius- 1514-1564; The Structure of the Human Body contradicted Galen, anatomy William Harvey- 1578-1657;developed modern theory of blood flow, arteries/veins Anton von Leeuwenhoek;invented microscope, discovered bloof, sperm, bacteria “The Father of Microbiology” Robert Boyle- 1627-1692; The Sceptical Chemist criticized alchemy Francis Bacon- 1561-1626;scientific approach based on inductive thinking. Called for systematic investigation of nature with experimentation- Instauratio Instauratio Magna wanted a new start to human knowledge. Need to compile a lot of data, and you will learn from that data. New Atlantis 1627 portrayed scientific utopian developments, didn't really appreciate mathematics in scientific investigation. Rene Descartes- 1596-1650;rejected Scholasticism, put every piece of human knowledge in doubt to build a surer foundation “I think, therefore I am” argued for dualism- nature is made of the intangible (thinking) and tangible (matter). Discourse on Method deductive approach Maria Winkelmann- 1670-1720;discovered comet with husband Metamorphosis of the Insects Insects of Surinam Surinam Maria Sybilla Merian- 1647-1717; Metamorphosis Historical and and Critical Dictionary Dictionary Pierre Bayle- 1647-1706; Historical Baruch Spinoza- 1632-1677;Portuguese Jew living in the Netherlands- rejected Descartes's understanding of God and substance. All of nature was one substance- God (monism). Excommunicated by his Jewish community Ethics as Determined Determined in a Geometric Matter Matter Blaise Pascal- 1623-1662;invented first successful adding machine, developed Pascal's triangle. Underwent conversion 1654, influenced by Jansenists Pensees wanted to show the proper relationship between reason and faith. Pascal's Wager. Leviathan justified absolutism- humans are born as selfish Thomas Hobbes- 1588-1679; Leviathan creatures, the only solution to this insecurity is a social contracts with the sovereign who rules over them. Rebellion is completely prohibited. John Locke- 1632-1704;justify the Glorious Revolution. Second Treatise on Government man freely enjoys natural rights of life, liberty, and property. Governments are limited to only protecting these rights- citizens have the right to rebel if they don't provide these rights. Essay Concerning Human Understanding , rejected Descarte's notion of born idea, tabula rasa.
Struggle for Wealth and Empire: Charles “Turnip” Townsend- 1674-1738;use of nitrogen-replenishing crops like turnips, clover, alfalfa. Useful feed for lifestock. Jethro Tull- 1674-1741;seed drill, put the seed beneath soil made things a lot easier. Parliament-passed enclosure acts, wealthy landowners could buy land and enclose it in manors- unequal landholding system in England, drove small farmers to the cities Louis XV- 1715-1774;became king at 5-France ruled by regency for a while. Parlement of Paris claimed power to legislation and taxes-emerging conflicts between monarchy and nobility. Relied heavily on advisors, Cardinal Fleury who avoided war instead of focusing on policies. Mistress Madame de Pompadour exercised a lot of influence in govt. Mississippi Company- 1720, stock for investors since many people were desperate, Mississippi Bubble bankrupted thousands. France lagged behind due to its massive debt. Queen Anne- 1701-1714;last Stuart Monarch, died without heir, England turned to the German Hanoverians. Didn't want to appoint James III thought it would lead to an uprising. George I- 1714-1727;first Hoverian English monarch, didn't speak English. Government now basically relied on a prime minister and cabinets. Robert Walpole- 1721-1743;first prime minister, developed Britain's cabinet system. Selected commercial Whigs who were loyal to him for a common goal. Advanced British commercial interests abroad while avoiding war (except Spain 1739-42). Frederick II “The Great”- 1740-1786;king of Prussia, attacked Austria because of the Pragmatic Sanction. Bavaria, Saxony, Spain rushed to claim territory. French allied with Prussians and Britain joined Maria Theresa against everyone else, The War of Austrian Succession. Austria lost resource-rich Silesia under the Treaty Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle. Maria Theresa- many reforms- central collection of taxes, army tripled, promoted primary education, promoted vaccination, eased serfdom. 1756 advisor Count con Kaunitz convinced France to enter alliance with Hanbsburgs against the greater threat of Prussia, Russia also joins. Forced Britain into an alliance with Prussia to prevent a continental disruption. The Seven Years' War- 1756-1763;Frederick outnumbered 10 to 1, had financial support from Hubertusb urg 1763 Britain. Took advantage of the disorganization of his opponents, Treaty of Hubertusburg still held Slesia. William Pitt the Elder- 1708-1778;British leader, won many victories in North America, Caribbean, and India. Emerged victorious as dominant power in India over the French. Treaty of Paris- 1763, Great Britain gained sole access to North America in Mississippi, had dominant position in India- France kept islands in Caribbean. France lost a lot of money in yet another war, set stage for the French Revolution. The Enlightenment: Rococo- 1720s, art movement dedicated to lighthearted themes. Antoine Watteau and JeanHonore Fragonard main painters, creams and golds, nice patterns. Example: Verzehnheilegen Neoclassical-emerged in the 1750s, mainly by Jacques-Louis David Oa Oath th of th thee Ho Hora rati tiii good example- ancient Greek stories, straight lines, bold colors, passive women. Age of Classical Music- 1750-1830;Joseph Hadyn, Mozart wrote symphonies of several movements, complex musical patterns Fontanelle- idea of progress, science could be used to understand human problems. Cesare Beccaria- 1738-1794; On Crimes and Punishments 1762 described of a penal system without torture. Supported penal reform, rehabilitation through discipline. John Wesley- 1703-1791;founder of Methodism in England- appealed to the lower classes with warm spirituality. Dramatic conversions.
Pietist Revival- initiated in Germany by Count von Zinzendorf, more liberal Edict of Toleration- 1781 enacted by Joseph II of Austria, granted toleration to Jews William Hogarth- 1697-1764;great illustrator, told many stories of success and failure Madame de Geoffrin- 1699-1777;mediator, hostess of salons that attracted philosophers. Other hostesses include Julie Lespinasse or Suzanne Necker Mary Wollstonecraft- 1759-1797;first statements of the feminist movement. Thoughts on the Education of Daughters if women were trained for intelligence they would suit government positions well. A Vindicatio Vindication n of the Rights Rights of Woman Woman 1792 there was no reason that could justiry discriminating women from men. Deism- main religion of these philosophes, belief of God as a Newtonian clockmaker who just invented the world, then let it be without interfering. Encyclopedia with 17 volumes, critical of Denis Diderot- 1713-1784;atheist, made the Encyclopedia organized religions “Bible of the Enlightenment”. Banned by French government. David Hume- 1711-1776;leader of the Scottish Enlightenment, believed stable knowledge arises from our immediate observations. Dialogues Dialogues Concerning Concerning Natural Religion Religion skeptical and agnostic attitude towards miracles-morality can only be based on our morals sense, not reason. Mind is a bundle of human impressions. Immanuel Kant- 1724-1804;combined empirical and rationalist traditions into one system of knowledge. Rational intuitions about time, space, and causes provide us with knowledge about what we experience. System is called constructivism- our intuitions construct the world out of our experiences. Very rationalist about ethics, determined by testing and is universal. Called for freedom of the press to promote Enlightenment thoughts. Letters, and the Spirit of the Laws . Geography, Baron de Montesquieu- 1689-1755; Persian Letters climate, and history determine the forms of government and laws of each nation. Large nations despots (Russia), medium monarchy (France) small republics (Switzerland). Favored the checks and balances that the British government had. Adam Smith- 1723-1790;built off French Physiocrats, criticized mercantilism for violating the natural laws of economics. Physiocrats believed land was true source of wealth, developed laissez-faire economy. Bible of Capitalism: Inquiry into into Nature Nature and Causes Causes of the Wealth Wealth of Nations. Labor was the ultimate source of value, laws of supply and demand, nations should allow free flow of goods and have comparative advantages, wanted free trade and a higher division of labor to produce larger quantities of good at lower costs. Voltaire- 1694-1778;committed to intellectual freedom, aimed at religious fanaticism and hypocrisy. Argued for religious toleration, religion made people stupid and cruel. Crush the infamous thing! Philosophic thing! Philosophical al Letters on on the English English admired England's balanced government and tolerance. Shared his ideas with Frederick II of Prussia. Wrote Candide , show the stupid and shallow optimism of humans. Was a deist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau- 1712-1778;civilization corrupting natural inclination for mutual association with artificial divisions. Glorified the life of the noble savage no need of reason, happy with all the simplicities they had (Native Americans). Wrote the Social Contract 1762 to find a political association where the general will was pursued through common goodrepublican state. Emile presentation of the cult of sentiment (humanitarian impulses elevated society through reform movements), educated naturally. Committed to individual freedom. Encyclopedia attacking Christianity. The System Baron d'Holbach- 1723-1789;contributed to Encyclopedia of Nature 1770, all of existence consisted no more than particles in motion. God couldn't exist since he didn't have material nature. People were machines, first atheist of the time. Marquis de Condorcet- 1743-1794;preached for equality, justice, constitutional government,
liberty. Progress Progress of of the Human Mind Mind science's connection to greater freedom and happiness. Frederick II “the Great”- 1740-1786;skeptic, practiced religious toleration. Forms of Government 1781 how each element of society played a specific and necessary function for the operation of state. Classes still remain defined, no mobility- favored Junkers. Serfdom grew worse. Codified laws of all of his lands, achieving greater centralization. Joseph II- 1780-190;greatest believer of all 3 despots. Pursued reform recklessly- abolished serfdom, toleration to minorities (Edict of Toleration), liberty of the press, legal equality. Clashed with the pope, wanted more control over Austrian Church. Edict of Idle Institutions disbanded monasteries, used money for hospitals. When he died, many of his 10,000 reforms were reversed. Offended local traditions, alienated important parts of society. Catherine II- 1762-1796;when Peter died 1725, 40 years of weak and unstable rulers. Gained power via her weak husband. Brang Voltaire and Diderot to her court, wrote the Instruction Instruction to the Legislative Commission 1767- reason, equality, schools for girls, abolished torture. Charter of Nobility liberated nobles from state service- added more territory to Russia than anyone else in history by gaining Ottoman and Polish lands. Pugachev- revolts 1773, calls himself tsar abolishes serfdom and taxes, kills thousands of nobles. Eventually repressed, showed that Catherin could never abolish serfdom. Partitions of Poland- 1772, 1793, 1795;Austria, Prussia, and Russia took advantage of instability and completely took all of Poland. Benjamin Franklin- 1706-1790;discovered electricity, bifocals. Negotiated Treaty of Paris, ended war for American independence. Thomas Jefferson- 1743-1826;wrote the Declaration of Independence, natural law, inalienable rights, right of revolution. Promoted religious toleration. Thomas Paine- 1737-1809; wrote Common Sense 1776 criticized monarchy as unnatural, sparked independence movement. Later wrote for the French Revolution with The Rights of Man in 1791 and The Age of Reason in 1794. The French Revolution: Louis XVI- 1774-1793;weak ruler, couldn't handle the massive unrest of the Third Estate. Although French commerce expanded 10x, wealth was distributed very unevenly. Semifedual status made it unable to tap into wealth effectively. Inefficient tax system, richest had exemptions, and tax collectors pocketed a lot of tax money. 1785- French treasury bankrupt, went for reform but was blocked by nobles. Not strong enough to ignore them. Lafayette starts the Society of Thirty- further influences the French Revolution Turgot- 1774-1776;French advisor, physiocrat. Wanted to convert corvee peasant service into cash payment, eliminate government positions and pensions, stop monopolies, slash spending, free trade, and a single sirect tax. Widely opposed. Jacques Necker- 1776-1781;compte rendu report showed all of the wast of money by the French government, dismissed in 1781, later called back in 1789. Charles de Calonne- 1781-1787;handpicked an Assembly of Notables 1787 to approve new taxes- refused and he was forced to leave Archbishop Brienne- 1787-1788;convinced Louis to play hard and intimidate parlement, ultimately led to the calling of the Estates General in 1788 The Liberal Phase- 1789-1791;all French people wrote down their grievances in the cahiers de doleances, called for tax equality and abolition of feudalism. Estates General in 1789 led to arguments if Third Estate should get double delegates since it was 98% of France, had to vote as individuals so Third Estate could get outvoted. Third Estate declares itself the National Assembly June 17, 1789. The Tennis Court Oath took place June 20, 1789 where they vowed to
write a new constitution for France. Abbe Sieyes- 1748-1836; What is the Third Estate? EVERYTHING Fall of the Bastile- July 14, 1789;crowds in Paris march to Bastile and take it down National Guard formed to protect the revolution, appointed Marquis de Lafayette Great Fear- June-August 1789, peasants attack manors and nobles, destroy feudal systems Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen- August 26, 1789;legal equality, religious freedom, judicial rights, rights, liberty, liberty, property, property, security, security, resistance to opressions opressions October Days- October 1789 angry women of Paris march on Versailles, kill guards ad bring the toyal family back to Paris. Catholic Church- attacked from November 1789-July 1790, lands confiscated, issue paper currency of assignats which leads to rapid inflation. Bishops elected by state, pope's influence over clergy eliminated. Clergy forced to swear an oath, those who don't start a counterrevolution. Constitution of 1791- June 1791;single legislative body with a constitutional monarchy. Active citizens can vote (have property) passive can't (the others). Separation of powers Champs de Mars Massacre- National Guard kill 50 in a crowd who demand to overthrow the king. The Radical Phase- 1792-1794;grew due to economic problems (inflation) Declaration of Pillnitz- August 1791- Austrian Emperor with Prussia promise to restore French order. April 20, 1792, France declares war on Austria. July 25, 1792 Austria and Prussia issue the Brunswick Manifesto threaten with violence if any harm inflicted on king. Paris Commune- created by Paul Marat and Georges Danton- revolutionary government. National Convention- elected to govern France August 1792. Declare France a republic September 20. September Massacres- 1792, revolutionaries break into prisons and massacre thousands Reign of Terror- January 21, 1793;king is executed, begins the reign. 50,000 peopl killed. Ends when Robespierre is killed July 1794. Maximilien Robespierre- 1758-1794;leader of The Mountain, dominates the National Convention. Creates the Constitution of 1793- universal male suffrage, never put into effect. Set forth levee en mass (everyone must join war), law of General Maximum (set prices on some goods), abolition of slavery, revolutionary 10-week calendar, cult of supreme being (worship French revolutionaries instead of saints), standardized weights and measures. May of 1794, executes chief supporter Danton. July 27, 1794, he is finally executed with his supporters, ends the reign of terror. Committee of Public Safety- rules France, 12 member executive body elected each month. In Vendee, a counterrevolution rises which justifies radical measures. Law off 22 Prairial- allows looser standards of proof of treason. Thermidorian Reaction- 1795-1799;extreme policies reversed. Jacobins club is closed, the Constitution of the Year III written 1795. The Directory rules France for 4 years, weakened by divisions from the left and right. Napoleon Bonaparte- 1769-1821;war hero from Egypt, came back to France. Created a new government called the Consulate- chosen as First Consul (absolute dictator) at 32. Officialy crowned emperor in 1804. Centralized administration through a professional bureaucracy. Joseph Fourche- 1763-1820;leader of the secret police, censored press and stopped all opposition to Napoleon. Napoleonic Code- single code for all of France reinforced patriarchy in the home, limited the rights of women.
Bank of France- finally eliminated the budget deficit and modernized the tax system. Concordat of 1801- signed with Pope Pius VII pope regained some control of the French clergy, Catholicism recognized as majority religion. Piece of Amiens- 1802; signed with Britain, didn't last long. War of the Third Coalitiondefeated Austria, Prussia, and Russia Treaty of Tilsit established as continental master Battle of Trafalgar- 1805;invasion of Spain that was destroyed by the British under Horatio Nelson Continental System- tried to force nations to embargo British goods- failed because it hurt the economy and was too difficult to enforce. 1810 Russia pulls out and France invades. Had to retreat from Moscow due to a burning campaign from the Russians. Final defeat that ended him was Waterloo in 1815. Confederation of the Rhine- replaced the Holy Roman Empire, created Duchy of Warsaw in Poland Declaration of Rights of Women and the the Female Citizen Citizen Olympe de Gouges- 1748-1793; Declaration guillotined in 1793 for it. Society for Revolutionary Republican Women- wanted equal rights, banned by the Mountain. The Industrial Revolution/1848 Revolutions: Thomas Malthus- 1766-1834;believed food supply would eventually not be enough for population growth Essay on Human Population Population 1798. Had a concern of huge population growth and advocated for limitation of growth. Iron Law Law of Wages Wages. If the poor gain wages, they will produce more David Ricardo- 1772-1823; Iron children, which will increase labor supply and lower incomes. Believed humanity couldn't produce a higher standard of living. John Kay- invented the flying shuttle in 1733- made weaving a lot faster, which created a bigger demand for spun yarn, which stimulated more inventions. James Hargreaves- invented the spinning jenny in 1768-allowed a person to spin 8 threads of yarn at the same time with additional threads Richard Arkwright- invented the water frame-the spinning jenny was automatically powered by water, factories now near rivers. Samuel Crompton- invented the spinning mule 1780-same concept except with a mule. Edmund Cartwright- invented the power loom in 1785, but only became cost-effective in the 1830s. It drove hand-weavers out of business. Eli Whitney- invented cotton gin in 1793;raw cotton now much easier to cultivate, which led to a lot more textiles with the other inventions. New outlook on African slavery. James Watt- 1736-1819;with Matthew Boulton perfected the steam engine with a separate condenser. Gave factories a dependable power source, so they could be located anywhere. Abraham Darby- 1709 made the first furnace to use coke (coal) instead of charcoal to heat iron- burned cleaner and longer. Henry Cort- early 1700s developed the puddling and rolling process to make higher-quality iron Richard Trevithick- 1804 designed the first steam-powered locomotive. Soon after, George Stephenson created a faster one “The Rocket”. Josiah Wedgwood- 1730-1795;one of the first entrepreneurs to develop factories-standardized pottery and porcelain, making it much cheaper and available to all social classes. Crystal Palace Exhibition- 1851;first world's fair, was in London Friedrich List- 1789-1846;Prussian economist, wanted to develop a national economic system since each state had their own tariffs and taxes. Wanted to create a free trade zone called the
Zollverein, laid basis for German political unity. Rich in coal and iron, industrial production began to boom in the mid 1800s. Sadler Commussion- in 1832 Parliament made this to investigate child labor in mines and factories- convinced Parliament to pass the Factory Act of 1833- inspection of factories, limiting hours, and at least 2 hours of education for children a day. Edwin Chadwick- 1800-1890; The Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population 1842 showed the need for new sewage and sanitary conditions in crowded cities. Led Parliament to create the Public Health Act of 1848- developed sanitary systems and public health boards. Robert Owen- encouraged the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union- organized all industrial workers to strike. Built a model factory in Scotland where he treated his workers well. Called for utopian socialism. Combination Acts- Parliament passed, prevented union activity. Chartists- had petitions, meetings, called for universal male suffrage and salaries to Parliament members. Were violent on many occasions. Luddism- rejected idea of mechanization of labor. Met in secret in the early 1800s to destroy knitting frames for taking their skilled jobs. British government crushed them, executed them. The Vienna Settlement- 1814-1815;established rules for legitimate governments. Rightful monarchs were restored (Bourbon Louis XVIII in France). Created a balance of power, created buffer states to quarantine France. Kingdom of the Netherlands combined Dutch republic and Austrian Netherlands. Prussia got Rhine territory, Piedmont-Sardinia strengthened in Italy. Klemens von Metternich- 1773-1859;dominated Austrian congress. Wished to repress nationalism and maintain the status quo. 1815-1848 “Age of Metternich”. Talleyrand- 1754-1838;represented revolutionary France, restored Bourbons. Allied with Metternich when he exposed Prussia and Russia's plan to take Saxony and Poland. Castleragh- 1769-1822;British leader, established balance of power on the continent. Prince con Hardenberg; 1750-1822;Prussian leader, usually outmaneuvered by Metternich. Least influential in Vienna, basically did what Austria did. Alexander I- 1801-1825;started as reformer, but then grew more conservative. Wanted to control Poland and start a Holy Alliance of Prussia, Russia, and Austria. Quadruple Alliance- formed in Vienna Settlement. (Austria, Russia, England, Prussia). Quintiple with the addition of France in 1818. Concert of Europe- met periodically to discuss issues, provided some security. Congress of Aix-La-Chapelle- 1818; France's good behavior got it admitted to the Quintiple Alliance and Concert of Europe Congress of o f Troppau Troppau- 1820;Spain and Naples revolutionaries starting revolts, Metternich subdues revolts without any other help. Congress of Verona Verona- 1822;issue of the instability in Spain and Latin American revolts. French army subdued threats to Spanish monarchies (Britain objected, wanted to exploit empire for trade). The United States issued the Monroe Doctrine 1823, no European power can colonize in the Americas. This was the last Congress. Corn Laws- protected British grain from foreign competition, harmed consumers. Peterloo Massacre a peaceful gathering 1819 protested this, 11 were shot and killed. In the 1830s, liberal reform movements began. Carlsbad Decrees- 1819; forced dissolution of Burschenshaft (young nationalist group to celebrate German culture and discuss political issues), censored press, and supervised universities. Decembrist Revolt- 1825;Alexander I died, revolutionaries wanted Constantine to become new
king (liberal) rather than Nicholas I. Nicholas crushed revolt. Edmund Burke- 1729-1797;major conservative, called for change through adaptation instead of violent revolution (like French revolution) Joseph de Maistre- 1753-1821;also opposed French revolution and how it became chaos. Liberals- embraced laissez-faire, social contract of limited government, religious toleration and individual rights. Suppoorted a more representative govt, with an expansion in suffrage. Jeremy Bentham- 1748-1832;liberal, advocated utilitarianism where good provided pleasure and evil caused pain. Held belief for the greatest good for the greatest number. John Stuart Mill- 1806-1873; On Liberty 1859 defended freedom of expression. Republicans- radical, favored equality, universal male suffrage, opposed organized religion. Eventually turned into socialism. Socialism- believed capitalism was unjust, wanted social and economic planning. Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier thought of cooperation, where shared property would be done. Flora Tristan- 1803-1844largued oppression of women spring from unequal property ownership. Established a clear agenda for feminism- more education, legal, property, political rights. Johann Gottfried Herder- 1744-1803lwanted to replace the state with a fol-nation called the Volksgeist. Germany celebrated their music and folk tales. Hegel- 1770-1831;German philosopher, glorified the national state as the march of destiny through history- called for German unity. Giuseppe Mazzini- 1805-1872;formed Young Italy in 1831. Wanted to overthrow the Concert of Europe to found a free, independent state. States should be made along national lines, would create true brotherhood and peace. Established the Roman Republic. Pan-Slavism- Poles, Serbs, Croats, Czechs, Slovaks looked at their common traditions, inspired uprisings from 1815-50, but failed. Had to wait until Russia the “protector of Slavs”. Romanticism- emphasized feeling and emotion, inspiration from nature, emphasized nationalism and religion,and individualism. Lord Byron- 1788-1824;great poet and fought for Greek independence where he died of fever Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand- 1768-1848; The Genius of Christianity , glorifies realigious faith and its connection to nature Johann Wolfang con Goethe- 1749-1832; Sorrows of Young Wether tale of a passionate man who commits suicide over love. Combined neoclassicism with Romanticism. Eugene Delacroix- 1798-1863;painter-large canvases, bold color Liberty Leading the People Ludwig von Beethoven- 1720-1827;sophisticated orchesta, nine symphonies, helped establish the Romantic movement Hector Berlioz- 1803-1869;program music where the drama matches the tone of music Charles X- 1824-1830;Bourbon restored king, established the power of the Catholic clergy. Censored the press and limited votes- revolts made him quickly abdicate. Throne went to Duke of Orleans, Louis Phillipe the “bourgeois king” Belgian revolt- 1830-1;seceded from Dutch kingdom, pretty peaceful Polish revolt- 1831;revolted against Russians, crushed by Nicholas I, congress eliminated, and Poland became part of Russia Treaty of Adrianople- 1829;Greeks revolt against Ottomans, get independence. Supported by many European intellectuals. Reform Act of 1832-doubled the amount of males who could vote. Also was the abolition of slavery in 1833, and the Poor Law of 1834. 1846 finally repeal the Corn Laws Louis Phillipe- quickly abdicates in 1848, when revolts for suffrage expansion “banquet
campaign”. Louis Blanc- socialist advocate for national workshops for workers. Louis Napoleon- elected president of the Second Republic in 1848 June Days- violence between radical republicans and army- 10,000 republicans die, moderate republic is established Frederick William IV- 1840-1861;agreed to liveral request of the election of a Prussian assembly, rejected to be king of a united Germany. 1850 Constitution accomplished for representation. Frankfurt Assembly- 1849 complete constitution, William rejects offer of monarchy Franz Joseph I- 1848-1916;Metternich unable to withstand 1814 revolutions and abdicates. Abolishes serfdom, agrees to Constitution in 1849. Reestablishes control and crushes further opposition. Attempted to hold his diverse realm, very hard. Alienated Slavic and Magyar minorities. Allowed creation of the Dual Monarch 1867 of Austria-Hungary. General Windischgratz- broke up Slavic nationalist meeting in Prague Louis Kossuth- Hungarian nationalist, called for Magyar liberty. 1848 claimed new constitution to promote Magyar language but represses Slavic minorities. Declares independence, but fail after Austrians exploit Slavic fear to crush the revolt. Charles Albert- 1831-1849;king od Piedmont-Sardinia, urged Italian states to resist Austrian rule. Grants constitution to his people, declares war on Austria. Many Italian states revolt. Austrian army eventually defeat him and they restore authority. Pope Piux IX- 1846-1878;initially a reformer, but was expelled when he was against the revolts. Louis Napoleon sends troops to Rome to restore him in 1849. Imperialism/Nationalism: Charles Dickens- 1812-1870;novels of cruel urban life Oliver Twist Madame Bovary Bovary disillusioned with her life, commits suicide Gustave Flaubert- 1821-1880; Madame Jean-Francois Millet- hard labor artist, The Gleaners Gustave Courbet- 1819-1877; brutal work of laborers The Stonebreakers Auguste Comte- 1795-1857 theory of positivism, history has progressed through 3 stagestheological, philosophical, and scientific. Progress must rely on empirical investigation of reality without wishful thinking. Karl Marx- 1818-1883;with collaborator Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto 1848 urged the working class to unite and throw off chains. Conditions of the Working Class in England highlighted inequalities in capitalism. Wnated nationalization of property, universal suffrage. Blamed division of labor for alienating worker from other people, product was equal to the amount of labor that produced it, profits were thieved from workers. Dominant class that oversee production exploit the proletariat, and will be overthrown. Rejected religion as the “opiate of the masses”. The Crimean War- 1853-1856;probably avoidable, Russia wanted to take advantage of weak Ottoman power. France and Britain intervened, defeated Russia. Florence Nightingale- 1820-1920;helped found nursing profession in the war. Treaty of Paris (1856)- ended the Crimean war, halt Baltic expansion. By this time, Nicholas I died and Alexander II was tsar. Destroyed the Concert of Europe. Victor Emmanuel II- 1849-1878;Charles Albert abdicated, now appointed Cavour as prime minister. First monarch of Italy. Camillo Cavour- 1810-1861;wnated to modernize Piedmont, update tax, limit church, strong army. Treaty of Plombieres- 1858;Cavour convinced Napoleon III to join them to attack Austria.
Gained Lombardy and Venetia, then defeated Austria. Northern states revolted and 1860 voted to join Piedmont. Garibaldi- leader of the Red Shirts, told b Cavour to control Sicily in South Italy. Successful in taking all of southern Italy, unified with North Italy in March 1861- Victor Emmanuel new monarch. Gained Venetia 1866, Rome in 1870. Still had problems of corruption and economic differences between north and southern Italy. Humiliation of Olmutz- 1850lPrussia guaranteed not to work toward unity. William I - 1861-1888;inherited Prussian throne, wanted to reestablish Prussian throne. Introduced army reforms with expansion and modern weapons. The Reichstag were appointeed by a 3-tiered voting system. Liveral party grew in Prussia. Otto von Bismarck- 1815-1898;appointed chancellor 1862. Took advantage of opportunities, overthrew the liberals, appealed to Prussian patriotism “iron and blood” Danish War- 1864 Denmark got German Schleswig and Holstein, violating treaty. Austria and Prussia easily defeated them. Austro-Prussian War-Prussia went to war with Austria-ensured Russia was favorable to Prussia and France/Italy bought off with land promises. Prussia easily won- Austria lost Venetia and couldn't intervene in German affairs. North German Confederation- created 1867 of the northern states, Reichstag was elected by universal male suffrage. Franco-Prussian War- 1870, Spanish throne became vacant, William's relative offered the throne. Napoleon III objected, demanded apology from William, declared war after he was insulted. French easily defeated. Treaty of Frankfurt Frank furt- 5 billion francs owed, lost Alsace-Lorraine. German Empire officially created January 1871, William I as kaiser. Napoleon III- dissolved the Chamber of Deputies and 1848 republican constitution. 1852 announced the Second Empire. Modernized France internally- Credit Mobilier bank, railways, rebuilt the city of Paris. Relaxed censorship, free trade with Britain. Empire ended 1870 when captured by Prussia. Baron von Haussman- 1809-1891;rebuilt paris, modern sanitary system, grand boulevards. Paris Commune- established a socialist program, Constiuent Assembly was popularly elected, crushed the commune, and established the Third Republic. Alexander II- 1855-1881;series of top-down reforms, too late to save Romanovs. Finally abolished serfdom 1861, equality in legal system, corporal punishment abolished, created local zemstvos assemblies, reformed armies. Agriculture suffered from land shortages. Break in society between Slavophiles and Westernizers. Anarchism gained support, the People's Will eventually assassinated him in 1881. Rudyard Kipling- 1865-1936; The White Man's Burden to civilize colonies. 1870S, Charles Darwin's ideas were being transformed to form social Darwinism. King Leopold II 1865-1909;Belgian king, took over Congo. Harshest colonial rule in Africa, natives decimated. Berlin Conference 18845-5 meant to establish colonies for all Europeans, no regards for cultural divisions. Joseph Chamberlain- 1836-1914;wanted to create a tariff union (British colonial secretary)countries would achieve self-rule but be economically tied to Britain. Cecil Rhodes- 1853-1902;British colonist, hoped to establish a Cape-to-Cairo connection. Provoked war with the Dutch, forced to resign Boer War- 1899-1902, British fought Dutch, had widespread opposition
Sepoy Mutiny in India due to insensitivity of sepoy (Indian soldiers) Hindus and Muslims in 1857. Greatly repressed, Queen Victoria established direct rule over India. Opium Wars 1839 in China, all Europeans could sell to Chinese- a very harmful, addicting drug. When Chinese tried to stop, Britain fought with them and beat them. Treaty of Nanking 1842 China surrendered Hong Kong, forced to create free-trade ports. Boxer Rebellion 1900- Chinese conservatives angry over control, brutally crushed Meiji Restoration in Japan borrowed industrial techniques and education from the West. By 1890 it established itself as an imperial power, established dominance over Korea 1894. Russo-Japanese War 1904-5;Japan beat Russians on land and sea, led to the Russian Revolution of 1905 and the later Russian Revolution of 1917 J.A. Hobson argued imperialism was driven by capitalism, greedy for wealth. Imperialism, the the highest Stage Stage of World World Capitalism Capitalism claimed imperialism VI Lenin- 1870-1924; Imperialism, was inspired by capitalism. Concentrate in few hands, led to exploitation. Challenges of Modern Europe: Louis Pasteur- 1822-1895;demonstrated microorganisms caused disease, killing bacteria through pasteurization. Developed the rabies vaccine. Joseph Lister- 1827-1912;first antiseptic for wounds Education Act of 1870 under William Gladstone provided the basis for elementary education in Britain Queen Victoria- 1837-1901;Victorian ideal where males dominated business, politics, and war while women managed the domestic sphere. Reform was driven out by the conservatives and liberals. In 1867 and 1884, universal male suffrage achieved Third Republic- 1870-1940;moderates established a parliamentary democracy. General Boulanger- 1837-1891;wanted to take over government, establish military rule, later fled the nation Dreyfus Affair 1894 Captain Alfred Drefus Jewish officer sentenced to treason on thin evidence, became the legal case of its day. Led to complete seperation of church and state and secularization of education by the state. Emile Zola- 1840-1902;condemned decision in J'Accuse William Gladstone - 1809-1898;liberal reform effort, lifted religious/political restrictions on citizens. Universal schooling, secret ballot, legalized unions, service exams Benjamin Disraeli- 1804-1881;conservative protected workers from industrialization, passed acts regulating public housing and sanitation National Insurance Act 1911 created a welfare system, abandoned laissez-faire economics Parliament Act of 1911- veto power of the House of Lords was removed Home Rule in Ireland split liberals, delayed until 1922 because of WWI Kulturkampf policy of Busmarck attacked the Catholic Church, was unsuccesful and abandoned it Pope Pius IX- 1846-1878;condemned modern ideas in his Syllabus of Errors 1894 Social Democratic Party in Germany concerned Bismarck, eventually enforced Antisocialist Laws which restricted the SPD to meet and publish its newspaper. Instead, Bismarck initiated a welfare program he called state socialism. Became largest party in Reichstag by 1912 Kaiser William II - 1888-1918;dismissed Bismarck, went toward the SPD, more aggressive foreign policy Karl Lueger- 1844-1910;mayor of Vienna, pursued policies of excluding Jews. Generation of 1898- Spanish intellectuals who ruled Spain, encountered anarchist violence
Second International- 1889, formed by leaders of socialist parties in France, Italy, and Russia Fabian socialist movement led by HG Wells and George Bernard Shaw in Britain James Keir Hardie- 1856-1915;helped organize the Labour Party Revisionist socialism- democratic processes would better secure workers' rights instead of violent means. In Germany, Eduard Bernstein in France Jean Jaures- expelled from Intl. Georges Sorel- 1847-1922;anarcho-syndicalists wanted to create a single industrial union aimed at shutting down the nation through strikes Mikhail Bakunin- 1814-1876;anarchist, opposed all government systems as corrupt Anne Besant and Margaret Sanger preached for birth control in England and the US Contagious Diseases Acts- prostitutes had to be tested for STDs, Josephine Butler protested and had these repealed 1886 Women's Social and Political Union - led by the Pankhurst family, called for suffrage with militant actions Theodor Herzl- 1860-1904;founded Zionism in the 1890s Charles Darwin- 1809-1882; On the Origin of Species 1859 natural selection and random variations caused evolution- caused uproar for rejecting God in creation T.H. Huxley defended Darwin Gregor Mendel provided additional support through the Descent of Man Man and gene theory Marie Curie- 1867-1934;atoms emitted radioactive energy when they disintegrated Willieam Rontgen- 1845-1923;discovered the x-ray Max Planck 1900 quantum theory, particles emit energy through packets of energy Albert Einstein- 1879-1955;absolute time and space don't exist, but are relative (relativity theory)-space and time both curve in the presence of a massive object Sigmund Freud- 1856-1939;instinctual and unconscious human behavior- practice of psychoanalysis. Psyche divided into the id (pleasure) ego (reason) and superego (conscience). Unpleasant memories buried in the subconscious explored through dreams. Sexual feelings occur early in life, replace parent of the same sex. Ivan Pavlov- 1849-1936;dogs can salivate at a particular signal, same could be done with humans Max Weber- 1864-1920;explored influences of crowd mentalities, only a charismatic individual could overcome this Herbert Spencer- 1820-1903;produced Social Darwinism, inequalities developed due to inferior races. Henri Bergson- 1859-1942;theory of vitalism, nature couldn't by analyzable. Human reasoning could not be explained Friedrich Nietzche- 1844-1900;chaos is inherent in nature. Human nature is both rational and instinctual. Christianity taught people to suppress natural tendencies toward domination. Morality was person between conceptions of good and evil. Ernst Renan- 1823-1892; Life Life of Jesus Jesus portrayed him as human and historical Pope Leo XIII- 1878-1903;toned down antimodern attacks. Socialism reflected Christian teachings, but firmly rejected Marxism as anti religious. Didn't condemn Darwinism Impressionism- how the eye really sees, offcenter positioning, visible brushstrokes. Famous artists were Claude Money, Pierre-Auguste Renoir Dance at le Moulin de Galette and Edgar Degas Postimpressionism- moved away from Impressionist light and shadow. Famous paintersVincent van Gogh, Paul Cezanne, Paul Gaugin, and George Seurat. Starry Night
Expressionism- strong fields of color and simple lines to show detail. Most famous was Henri Matisse (1869-1954) Green Stripe, Stripe, controversial convey emotions also Edvard Munch The Scream Cubism- mainly Pablo Picasso (1881-1973)- broke apart scenes into analyzable parts, reassembled in unique ways Les Demoiselles d'Avignon Louis Sullivan- 1856-1924;first skyscrapers, simple buildings with clean lines Naturalism literary movement- Emile Zola wrote novels with the destructive influence of heredity on characters, unable to determine actions freely. Leo Tolstoy War and Peace Dostoevski Crime and Punishment Wagner- 1813-1883;used music to express a revolutionary Germany Richard WagnerWWI/The Russian Revolution: Schlieffen Plan- 1894 Germany designed a 2-front war against Russia and France after the Franco-Russian alliance Three Emperor's League- 1873, Otto decided to create an alliance between Germany, Austria, and Russia. Russia eventually too difficult, became Austro-German alliance, in 1879 then the Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria in 1882. 1887 Reinsurance treaty with Russia and Germany. Kaiser Wilhelm II undid all of these plans Entente Cordiale in 1904 alliance between France and Britain. 1907 Russia formed the AngloEntent e. Russian Entente- later known as the Triple Entente. Moroccan Crises of 1905 and 1911- Wilhelm provoked French in Morocco Russo-Turkish War- 1877-8 Russia clearly beat Ottomans- Treaty of San Stefano. Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania got independence from Ottomans. Russia got the Dardanelles, and Austria claimed Bosnia-Herzegovina. Balkan League- Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro- attacked the Ottomans in the First Balkan War 1912-3. London Conference- 1912-3, Austria, Italy, Germany forced Serbia to create indep. Albania Second Balkan War- 1913, couldn't decide how to divide Macedonia- Bulgaria faced the Ottomans and other Balkans, easily lost. Archduke Franz Ferdninand- 1863-1914;visited Bosnian capital, build support for a Triple Monarchy. Black hand member Gavrilo Princip assassinated Franz June 28, 1914. Austria declared war on Serbia, which led to Russia declaring war on Austria, and Germany declared war on Russia, when France declared war on Germany. Violation of Belgian neutrality brought Britain on war with the Entente. Miracle of the Marne- German advance to Paris halted when the French beat them at the Marne River. For most of the war, it was just a stalemate Treaty of London- bribed Italy to join the war with promises of Austrian territory. Ypre- use of chemical warfare 1915 (168 tons of chlorine gas) Verdun- February 1916, German Erich von Falkenhayn launched a surprise attack. 1.1 million casualties, the longest battle of the war (almost 1 year). Somme- bloodiest Battle for British, 30,000 died in 3 hours. 1 million killed. Brusilov Offensive- Russia surprised Austria, drove them hundreds of miles back. In 1917, Russia pulled out due to revolution, while the US joined the Entente due to the Zimmerman Telegram and Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare. Treaty of Brestlitovsk- March 1918 Germany took a lot of territory and resources from Russia Armistice- ended the war on November 11, 1918- Germans surrendered. War Ministry led by Walter Rathenau helped Germany deal with supply shortages David Lloyd George made Minister of Munitions to avoid shortages.
Erich Ludendorff and Paul von Hindenburg German war generals, practically wan Germany and established a military dictatorship President Woodrow Wilson- 1856-1923;Fourteen Points for reconstructing Europe and making the world safe for democracy. Dreamed of the League of Nations George Clemenceau- 1860-1952;concentrated on French security, wanted to suppress German Economic Consequence Consequencess of Peace the ruination of world John Maynard Keynes- 1883-1946; Economic economy Alexander III- 1881-1894;Alexander II assassinated, new Alexander brutally represses revolutionary groups. Bloody Sunday- peaceful protesters went to the Winter Palace, troops fired on the crowd and killed hundreds. Tsar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto- legislative assembly created (duma) Peter Stolypin prime minister, introduced reforms. Peasants allowed to sell land, property rights advanced. Assassinated 1911, end of Russia's chance for peaceful transition. Provisional government deposed the tsar and replaced him- made up of constitutional democrats and moderate socialists. Petrograd Societ- radical workers group Alexander Kerensky leader of Provisional Government, arrested Bolsheviks who tried to overthrow the provisional government Vladimir Lenin- criticized imperialism, was a Bolshevik who believed in a ruling elite, insisted on rapid industrialization. November 1917, troops voted to support the Bolsheviks. January 1918 disbanded the Constituent Assembly, led to a civil war. Brest-Litovs k Russia recognized independence of Baltic provinces, Poland, and Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Ukraine Red Army formed by Bolsheviks, important leader Leon Trotsky- fought the conservative White Army. Produced class warfare with wealthy peasants, beat the White Army by staying united. Formed a secret police, secured control of Russia in 1922. Red Terror- thousands of bourgeoisie, gentry, and White Army were killed. New Economic Policy introduced by Lenin in 1921. Peasants allowed to sell grain, provoked split between those who wanted to keep this and those who wanted a more communist policy. Joseph Stalin- replaced Lenin after he died of many strokes, beat rival Trotsky. Much more ruthless, exiled Trotsky. World War II Catholic Center Party- drew up German Constitution with the Social Democratic Partywished to avoid communist takeovers. Raymond Poincare- French prime minister incaded the Ruhr Valley to extract payments when Germany fell behind on reparations. Led to hyperinflation when Germany kept printing bills that weren't backed- $1 equaled 4 trillion marks. Adolph Hitler- 1889-1945;attempted to overthrow Wiemar Republic 1923 in the Beer Hall Putsch, got sent to jail for 5 years. Wrote Mein Kampf in prison. Joined the Nazis in 1920 and became their leader. Dawes Plan- aided Germany by the US loaning them some money Locarno Pact 1925, Germany and France agreed on their borders, France got Alsace-Lorraine. 1926, Germany was allowed into the League of Nations. Kellog-Briand Pact 1928, condemned war within 65 nations Great Depression- strong inflation due to war, disrupted markets, agricultural prices plummeted, high tariffs were imposed, and a shaky reparations cycle- October 1929 stock
market crashes in US. John Maynard Keynes General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money 1936 believed countries should borrow money and create deficits to help the working class National Government put in Britain 1931 when Labour PM Ramsay MacDonald joined with conservatives to reduce budget deficit. Gave autonomy to Egypt, Ireland. Dominion status to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Popular Front in France promotes a 40 hour workweek, paid vacations. Franklin Roosevelt- 1882-1945; initiated many programs and subsidies. Social Security Act of 1935 provided insurances. Benito Mussolini- 1883-1945;influenced by Sorel and Nietzsche, glorified the state and violence. Leader of the Blackshirts to crush opposition. March on Rome thousands of fascists protested to appoint Mussolini as head- Victor Emmanuel III appoints him as premier. Censored the press, had a secret police, ran a corporative state where the whole economy was run by 22 corporations. Acerbo Law- 1924 fascists gained government because the party that gained most votes got two-thirds of seats. Lateran Accord 1929 Mussolini signs, recognizes church sovereignty. Nazis- by 1932, had 37% of Reichstag seats. Led Hindenburg to appoint Hitler chancellor 1933 Enabling Act made Hitler absolute dictator 1933 Civil Service Act made all government employees to swear an oath to Hitler Ernst Rohm leader of the SA police, assassinated by Hitler as he was deemed a potential challenger to Hitler- the Brownshirts get killed in the Blood Purge. Four-Year Plan 1936 to promote self-sufficiency- won over industrialists with promise of contracts. Nuremberg Laws of 1935, clarified Jews position, were highly persecuted Stalin- began building “socialism in one country”, wanted to industrialize as rapidly as possible Five Year Plans 1928 goals were to build heavy industry, self sufficiency, and modern infrastructure. Forced kulaks (wealthy peasants) to collective farms. Millions were killed for resisting. Great Purges Stalin was very paranoid, killed those he thought were against him- old Bolsheviks who supported Trotsky. Lost Generation writers, artists, intellectuals from the age of World War I- irrationality, subjectivit, and alienation Oswald Spengler- 1880-1936;pessimist Decline of the the West West Western culture would soon decline stream-of-consciousnees writers would just write whatever came out of their minds Dadaism in Belin, an anti-art movement showing the absurdity of life surrealism Salvador Dali bizzare positioning of objects The Persistence of Memory Carl Jung- 1875-1961;collective unconscious person's psyche is made up of basic character types forming all experiences Werner Heisenberg- 1901-1976;uncertainty principle, couldn't observe position and momentum of a particle at the same time Joseph Goebells- 1897-1945;great propaganda filmmaker for Hitler New European Order- Hitler wanted to regain lost lands at Versailles, conquer Slavic Europe, eliminate culture destroyers like Jews and Gypsies Anglo-German Naval Agreement Hitler is allowed to build up his navy again Spanish Civil War- 1936-1939;General Francisco Franco fascist tries to overthrow
government. Soviet Union tries to battle fascism, but Franco gains control 1939. Rome-Berlin Axis signed with Mussolini and Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan Anschluss 1938 Hitler incorporates Austria, gets approved by popular vote Munich Conference 1938 Hitler wants Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia where 3 million Germans live. Neville Chamberalin organizes conference, Hitler agrees he will stop expansion after this. 1939 violates it, creates a protectorate in Czechoslovakia. Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact Russia wouldn't invade Germany vise-versa- invades Poland after which w hich starts World War II. Blitzkrieg Phase, 1939-1941 Hitler attacks Poland, move to Norway, Low Countries, and France. America provides aid to Britain, leasing ships. 1941 Hitler invades the USSR. Conquer two-thirds of France, establish the Vichy government in the South. Charles de Gaulle starts resistance. Battle of Britain Winston Churchill beats Germany, lose Royal Air Force planes. Japan attacks America in Pearl Harbor. th e Tide, 1942-1944 Hitler divides armies of Soviet Union into Leningrad, Turning of the Moscow, and Caucasus. Japan expands its Pacific empire, height in 1942. Battle of Kursk Soviets capture a German army, and advance toward Germany. El Alamein German-Italian attacks on Suez Canal stopped. 1943 Allies invade Sicily, move up Italy and capture Mussolini. Tehran Conference Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin agree on unconditional surrender of Axis powers. The End, 1944-5 America/England move to France, dive Germans out. D-Day in Normandy liberate Paris August 1944. The US retakes the Phillipines, start bombing Tokyo and Dresden in Germany. Battle of the Bulge last German attempt, lose May 1945. Japan still fights, surrender September 1945 after atomic bomb was dropped. Cold War/Modern Europe: Yalta Conference February 1945 to discuss the layout of postwar Europe. Agreed on the Declaration on Liberated Europe- self-determination and free elections. Created the United Nations Potsdam Conference July 1945 war ended- war crime trials at Nuremberg, 4 German occupation zones, and reparations for rebuilding the USSR North Atlantic Treaty Organization peacetime alliance with Western powers. Had containment policy for communism National Security Act 1947 USA created the National Security Council and CIA Marshall Plan US extended aid to promote democracy, USSR countered with the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Cominform replaced the old Comintern in 1948 for Soviet propaganda Berlin Blockade 1948 cutting off East Germany from West Germany, led to the Berlin Airlift Korean War 1950 North Korea invades South Korea, America intervenes- North and South Korea divided along the 38 th parallel in 1953. Ho Chi Minh 1954 takes control of North Vietnam, leads to Vietnam War. Ends in 1973- US troops taken out. Berlin Wall erected in 1961. Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 where Soviets put missiles in Cuba. Eventually back out. Prague Spring 1068 Czechs revolt, Soviets crush them. The Brezhnev Doctrine allows Soviets to protect threats of socialism Treaty of Moscow 1970 West Germany and Soviet Union establishes diplomatic relations, recognizes the split Talks Soviets and Americans agree to limit nuclear weapons Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
Helsinki Accords acknowledge the existence of national boundaries Afghanistan Invasion 1979 Soviets invade, President Carter limits trade with the USSR, support the mujahadeen Mikhail Gorbachev- 1931- ;becomes new soviet leader 1985, works toward reforms. Perestroika reforms (restructuring). Agrees to Intermediate-Range Nuclear Force Treaty, eliminates dangerous weapons in Europe. Withdraws troops from Afghanistan in 1988. Berlin Wall falls 1989, Germany becomes unified in 1990. Soviet Union finally collapses in 1991 with the help of Boris Yeltsin. Gulf War 1990 Saddam Hussein invades Kuwait- US Desert Storm Operation 1991 defeated Iraqi forces. 9/11 caused the American Am erican War on Terror Nikita Kruschev initiated campaign of de-Stalinization, focused on consumer goods, fell in 1964 Leonid Brezhnev maintained influence over army, maintained spheres of influence, but economy staggered. Lack of productivity- workers became absent and alcoholics. Commonwealth of Independent States became Russia- Yeltsin took constitution to effect 1993. Vladimir Putin- 1952- ;promoted economic development, centralized state authority- took control 1999. Repressed internal opponents. Has created democratic institutions, private property, and religious freedom.. There is still a lot of crime and decaying life expectancy. Wladyslaw Gomulka- 1908-1982;Polish reformer relaxed economic control, stayed in power by promising allegiance to Warsaw Pact. Imre Nagy- 1896-1958;Hungarian leader, freed political prisoners, worked towards liberalization. Withdrew from Warsaw Pact, deposed by Soviets, Janos Kadar appointed as new leader. Edward Gierek Polish reformer replaced Gomulka- 1980 price increases led to strikes, workers found independent labor union Solidarity by Lech Walesa. General Wojciech Jaruzelski declared martial law 1981, arrested Walesa. Walesa eventually elected president 1989 after perestroika movement. Janos Kadar- communism with a capitalist facelift. Communist leaders pushed him out of power, more social multiparty elections- Nagy put back, encouraged many East Germans to come to Hungary due to reforms. Vaclav Havel in Czechoslovakia became rallying- started free elections, free press, became president. Velvet Revolution nonviolent change. Velvet Divorce 1993- Czech Republic and Slovakia. Nikolae Ceausescu Romanian ruler since 1965 ironfisted ruler. Wanted to force industrialization. Crushed opposition with Securitate police. Forces collapsed, captured Christmas in 1989- National Salvation Front reform movement. Slobodan Milosevic- 1941-2006;Yugoslavia attacked Bosnia to get territory, engaged in ethnic cleansing 1991. Croatian armies responded with atrocities against Serbs Lost office in 2001, died before he could be put on trial. Dayton Peace Accord 1996-both parties agreed to separate Bosnia. International Money Fund- 1944 Western European currency stabilization. European Coal and Steel Community- 1952 Benelux nations, France, Italy, and Germany. Eliminated tariff barriers- production doubled within 5 years. 1957 Treaty of Rome esablishes the European Economic Community. European Union created in 1991.
Margaret Thatcher- 1925- ;first female Prime Minister of England- asserted power abroad, disagreed with the welfare state. Fourth Republic of France, 1945-1958. Political instability, but enacted some important legislation. Fifth Republic 1950-present under Charles de Gaulle, much more strong. Konrad Adenauer 1876-1967- founding chancellor of Germany. Led the Christian Democratic Party to laissez-faire economics and close US ties. Willi Bradt normalized relations between East Germany and the Soviet Union. Simone de Beauvoir The Second Sex 1949 how women have always been treated as the Other Betty Friedan- The Feminist Mystique 1963 encouraged women to battle suppression Kyoto Protocol- 1992 150 nations signed this to limit greenhouse gases, US declines to ratify Postmodernism- disgust over wars, movement against modern assumptions of knowledge. Soren Kieregaard subjective experience. People wanted to deconstruct things to find underlying structures Existentialism- angst amid dizzying changes. Jean-Paul Sarte founded resistance movement “existence precedes essence” we don't choose to exist, we have no creator. Abstract Expressionism- expresses emotional attitude or mood. Jackson Pollock “drip technique” splashed paint on canvases. Andy Warhol Roy Lichtenstein- advertising comment on artificiality. Serialism- Arnlod Schoenberg 12-note scale, more abstract sound. John Paul II- first Slavic pope, worked toward the end of communist oppression. Apologized for Crusades, Galileo, etc.
