DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY SOC IOLOGY AN INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PREPARED BY CHRISTINA HUGHES UNIVERSITY OF WARWICK
WHAT IS QUALITATIVE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? R ESEARCH? AN INTRODUCTION • Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers. (Punch, 1998: 4) Qualitative research research is multimethod in focus, involvin an interpretive, interpretive, naturalistic approach to its sub!ect matter. "his means that #ualitative researchers stud$ thins in their natural settins, attemptin to ma%e sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanins people brin to them. Qualitative research research involves the studied use and collection of a variet$ of empirical materials & case stud$, stud$, personal e'perience, introspective, introspective, life stor$, stor$, interview, interview, observational, observational, historical, interactional, and visual te'ts & that describe routine and problematic moments and meanins in individuals lives. ccordinl$, #ualitative researchers deplo$ a wide rane of interconnected methods, hopin alwa$s to et a better fi' on the sub!ect matter at hand. (*en+in and incoln, 1994: -) Qualitative research is ... rounded in a philosophical position which is broadl$ interpretivist interpretivist in the sense that it is concerned concerned with how the social world is interpreted, understood, e'perienced or produced ... based on methods of data eneration which are fle'ible and sensitive to the social conte't in which data are produced produced (rather than than riidl$ standardi+ed standardi+ed or structured structured,, or removed removed from from real real life or natural social conte't, as in some forms of e'perimental method) ... based on methods of anal$sis and e'planation buildin which involve understandins of comple'it$, detail and conte't. Qualitative research aims to produce rounded understandins on the basis of rich, conte'tual and detailed data. "here "here is more emphasis on holistic forms of anal$sis and e'planation in this sense, than on chartin surface patterns, trends and correlations. Qualitative research usuall$ does use some form of #uantification, but statistical forms of anal$sis are not seen as central. (/ason, 1990: 4) These quotations convey something of the nature of qualitative research. They indicate that qualitative research is concerned with the study of people in their natural settings. Qualitative researchers use a variety of tools and techniques in order to
develop deep understandings of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world. They seek to make connections between events, perceptions and actions so that their analyses are holistic and contextual. Beyond these broad assumptions, qualitative researchers are very careful to stress the multiplicity and variety of qualitative approaches. or example, !ason "#$$%& comments that she does not feel comfortable with going beyond the above general features. This is because there are many different answers to key questions of qualitative methodology. 'imilarly, (en)in and *incoln "#$$+& highlight the multiple nature of qualitative approaches. They also illustrate how these have changed over time. (en)in and *incoln "#$$+ #& indicate that -qualitative research operates in a complex historical field that crosscuts five historical moments ... These five moments simultaneously operate in the present. (en)in and *incoln describe these five moments as • / The traditional (1900-195& associated with the positivist paradigm where qualitative research aims to reflect the principles of "natural& scientific enquiry0 / The modernist or golden age (1950-1970) where we see the appearance of post1 positivist arguments. This is also part of / The blurred genres (1970-1986) where a variety of new interpretive, qualitative perspectives come into the foreground hermeneutics, structuralism, semiotics, phenomenology, cultural studies and feminism. The humanities also became a central resource for critical and interpretive theory. The blurred genres phase gave rise to / The crisis of representation (1986-1990) where researchers struggled with how to locate themselves and their sub2ects in reflexive texts0 / The postmodern or present (1990-) a new sensibility that doubts all previous paradigms. The key points 3 would make in respect of this are / 4s 5ly et al "#$$#& point out the field of qualitative research is shot through with a host of labels and a host of proponents of those labels. (ifferent terms are used in roughly synonymous ways "naturalistic inquiry, ethnographic methodologies, qualitative research, interpretive research&. This causes confusion and for the new "and also not so new6& student it reinforces a sense that it is the$ who is at fault as they have failed to get to grips with what e'actl$ qualitative research is. Take heart 5ly et al note that Tesch "#$$7& compiled a list of +% terms that social scientists have used to name their versions of qualitative research. 8o wonder we are all confused6 / 4s (en)in and *incoln "#$$+& point out the nature of the field of qualitative research changes over time. (ifferent perspectives and concerns arise at different points. / 4s (en)in and *incoln "#$$+& also point out old concerns do not go away. The -five moments are consecutive but also simultaneous.
/ Theories of ontology "what is the form and nature of social reality and, thus, what can be known& and epistemology "what is the nature of the relationship between the knower and would1be knower and what can be known& are central to understanding the forms of knowledge that are produced through qualitative approaches. 3 would add the following imperatives, drawn from !ason "#$$%& / Qualitative research should be conducted systematically and rigorously. This means that, like all social researchers, qualitative researchers have to use key principles of research design such as linking the research questions to the methodological approaches, considering issues of analysis and data collection as integrated and being clear about the purposes of the research. / Qualitative research should be conducted in a flexible and contextual way. This means that qualitative researchers make decisions on the basis of their research design and in terms of the changing contexts and situations in which the research takes place. 9ne of the strengths of qualitative approaches is that this flexibility can enhance the research leaded to unanticipated, but significant, issues. / Qualitative research should be conducted through critical, self1reflexive enquiry. This means that the researcher should be constantly asking questions about her or his role in the research process. / Qualitative research should produce social explanations to intellectual pu))les. This means being explicit about the logics th at have produced these explanations "eg. sampling, selection of events for analysis, researchers role and so on&. / Qualitative research is not a unified body of philosophy and practice. or example, qualitative research should not be viewed as completely distinctive from, or uncomplementary to, quantitative approaches. The -divide between quantitative and qualitative research is to some extent false. Qualitative research does quantify "look for phrases such as more than, less than&. Quantitative research can collect more qualitative data through open ended questions. 4ll researchers should think carefully about how the choices of method and the potential combinations of approach that are appropriate and possible. / Qualitative research should be conducted as ethical practice. :hilst the field of qualitative research is complex and riven with internal debates, nonetheless it is important to have a general sense of the key features of qualitative research. To this end 3 conclude with the following produced by 5ly et al "#$$# +&
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH KEY CHARACTERISTICS / vents can be understood ade#uatel$ onl$ if the$ are seen in conte't. "herefore, a #ualitative researcher immerses her2himself in the settin.
/ "he conte'ts of in#uir$ are not contrived3 the$ are natural. othin is predefined or ta%en for ranted. / Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to spea% for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. "herefore, #ualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives. / Qualitative researchers attend to the e'perience as a whole, not as separate variables. "he aim of #ualitative research is to understand e'perience as unified. / Qualitative methods are appropriate to the above statements. "here is no one eneral method. 5 6or man$ #ualitative researchers, the process entails appraisal about what was studied. 5ly et al add the following from 'herman and :ebb "#$;;& to their definition Qualitative implies a direct concern with e'perience as it is lived or felt or underone ... Qualitative research, then, has the aim of understandin e'perience as nearl$ as possible as its participants feel it or live it.
Further Wor or those of you interested in following up debates and issues within qualitative research in more detail the classic texts are (en)in and *incoln, #$$+ and (en)in and *incoln, #$$; "a shorter paperback version of the #$$+ edition&.
IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH A CREDIBLE METHODOLOGY? WHICH BEST DESCRIBES QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH? %&'T #* %+,$TI.$ &,$TI.$ %/ %$ #$ %$ I*II $3$#I4,$ &+#3I%/ %I$3$ &2I3I&3 T#+T
3deas that qualitative research is a -second best approach rest in large part because of the predominance of the -science model of social research. The central values of such an approach are ob2ectivity and generali)ability. :ithin quantitative approaches, ob2ectivity is maintained in various technical ways. or example, through the distance between the researcher and the researched that is created through the administration of a formal questionnaire0 through the possibilities of replication of the research0 and through the use of external checks on the methods used. The generali)ability of quantitative research is again seen to be possible through technical solutions. The development of sophisticated statistical and sampling techniques are key to this. 3n contrast, qualitative approaches emphasise the importance of getting close to the researched. This is because one of the purposes of qualitative approaches is to try to depict the participants view of social reality. Thus, techniques such as participant observation and unstructured or informal interviews are commonly used. Because of the time and costs involved in such work, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large1scale data sets. 3n addition, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies. 3deas of -second best also rest on the stereotypes that arise when quantitative and qualitative approaches are compared in this way. 3n practice, researchers use a variety of methods or techniques of data collection under the umbrella terms of -qualitative and -quantitative to enhance the generali)ability of the account "Bryman, #$;;&. 3n addition, as =ammersley "#$;$& indicates there is much greater variety of theories of social reality within and between the labels -quantitative and -qualitative than we might at first imagine. 3n some ways the concerns that arise about a qualitative>quantitative divide can be resolved by giving greater attention to how these approaches can be combined. or Bryman "#$$; #?%& this would produce -more complete accounts of social reality. =owever, it is perhaps important to remember that the values conveyed by descriptions such as soft>hard, idiosyncratic>generali)able, art>science, small scale>large scale have political import. There is a politics in the choice and use of methods, particularly if you hope that your research will impact on policy or create change in some way. @ayaratne "#$$A& encourages feminists to use both methods because she believes this is more likely to achieve feminist goals. Thus -!y approach to this issue of choice of methodC is political that is, 3 believe the appropriate use of !oth quantitative and qualitative methods in the social sciences can help the feminist community in achieving its goals more effectively than the use of either qualitative or quantitative methods alone "p #7$, emphasis in original&. 3n a similar vein, 'tanleys "#$$7& account of a 'ocial 'ervices referral indicates the politics embedded in the power of -ob2ectivity in the production of social research knowledge. 'tanley delivered a paper that gave an account of an elderly couples experiences of 'ocial 'ervices intervention. This account deliberately omitted the fact that the couple were her parents. 4s she states -3 felt that presenting -the case study as my own still recent experience of caring would disqualify both me and it fr om -research and -papers in the eyes of those present "p #?#&.
The key points 3 would wish to emphasise are / There are many stereotypes about qualitative and quantitative approaches. / Qualitative and quantitative approaches are not as distinctive as the idea of a -divide suggests. / These stereotypes lead to comparisons that are political in import. 3n addition, it is important to be aware of the various strengths and limitations of any methodological approach. 3 set out below a summary that 3 have adapted, and added to, from Burns "?7771#A1#+& in respect of qualitative research
L"#"t$t"o%& o' Qu$("t$t")e A**ro$+he& / The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a ma2or criticism. Because of the sub2ective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliabilit y and validity. / Dontexts, situations, events, conditions and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent nor can generalisations be made to a wider context than the one studied with any confidence. / The time required for data collection, analysis and interpretation is lengthy. / The researchers presence has a profound effect on the sub2ects of study. / 3ssues of anonymity and confidentiality present problems when selecting findings. / The viewpoints of both researcher and participants have to be identified and elucidated because of issues of bias.
Stre%,th& - Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insiders view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed "such as subtleties and complexities& by the scientific, more positivistic enquiries. - Qualitative descriptions can play the important role of suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects and dynamic processes. - Because statistics are not used, but rather qualitative research uses a more descriptive, narrative style, this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports in order to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight. - Qualitative research adds flesh and blood to social analysis.
HOW DO YOU DO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH? THREE POINTS TO NOTE • "he researcher has several methods for collectin empirical materials, ranin from the interview to direct observation, to the anal$sis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal e'perience. "he researcher ma$ also use a variet$ of different methods of readin and anal$+in interviews or cultural te'ts, includin content, narrative, and semiotic strateies. 6aced with lare amounts of #ualitative materials, the investiator see%s wa$s of manain and interpretin these documents, and here data manaement methods and computer& assisted models of anal$sis ma$ be of use. (*en+in and incoln, 1994: 14). ... unstructured interviewin and focus roup techni#ues are #ualitative methods of data collection (7owlin, 199: 11) Qualitative researchers stud$ spo%en and written representations and records of human e'perience, usin multiple methods and multiple sources of data. everal t$pes of data collection miht well be used in the one #ualitative pro!ect. ... the main wa$s of collectin #ualitative data ;are< the interview, observation, participant observation and documents. =hatever the desin and whatever the perspective, the data in most #ualitative research come down to these main t$pes.(Punch, 1988: 14) Qualitative research mainl$ wor%s with two sorts of data. .erbal data are collected in semi&structured interviews or as narratives. ... .isual data result from appl$in the various observational methods, ranin from participant and non&participant observation to ethnoraph$ and anal$sin photos and films ... verbal and visual data are transformed into te'ts b$ documentin them and b$ transcription. (6lic%, 1998: 11&1-) 4s these quotations illustrate, there are many ways to -do qualitative research.
methodolo$ is more problematic. =e states that -Technically, it methodologyC refers to the study of method"s&, the overall analysis of how research proceeds ... 3t is often used more loosely, as in the phrase - the research methodology of this study. 3n such a case, -research method"s& would be a more accurate term "p?$&. The key point about making a distinction between method and methodolo$ is to emphasise that the tools that are used to collect data cannot be separated from the frameworks of analysis, and their underpinning theories, that are used to make sense of this data. :e can do qualitative research in a positivistic, an interpretive "the most common&, a postmodern and a critical way "also very common&. Fiven that how we interpret the data cannot be separated from how it is collected, qualitative researchers also stress a third features of this approach. This is that to be a qualitative researcher requires one to be highly reflexive. 4lvesson and 'koldberg "?777G& describe this in terms of drawing • ...attention to the comple' relationship between processes of %nowlede production and the various conte'ts of such processes as well as the involvement of the %nowlede producer. "his involves operatin on at least two levels in research wor% and pa$in much attention to how one thin%s about thin%in ... ;this means< that serious attention is paid to the wa$ different %inds of lin#uistic, social, political and theoretical elements are woven toether in the process of %nowlede development, durin which empirical material is constructed, interpreted and written. mpirical research in a reflective mode starts from a sceptical approach to what appear at a superficial lance as unproblematic replicas of the wa$ realit$ functions, while at the same time maintainin the belief that the stud$ of suitable (well thouht&out) e'cerpts from this realit$ can provide an important basis for a eneration of %nowlede that opens up rather than closes, and furnishes opportunities for understandin rather than establishes truths. The key point here is that the reflexive social researcher has to recognise their own place and role in generating the knowledge that is in the research report. or example, 'cheurich "#$$H& suggests that the researcher is an imperialist who can marshall the data according to her will. :hat does this mean, then, for the validity of the researchI
WHICH HINTS AND TIPS WORK? int "hin% of choosin $our research topic in terms of the >oldiloc%s strate$. ?ou want to select a topic which is not too bi, and not too small, but !ust riht (and one which will not brea%). (p -@) int Af $ou find ver$ conflictin aruments in $our readin around, $ou ma$ well have identified an issue or debate which would be worth e'plorin in $our research pro!ect (p 9@) int 7ein critical does not mean rubbishin or re!ectin someone elses wor%. s a researcher and thin%er $ou should be able simultaneousl$ to entertain two or more contradictor$ ideas at one time. (p 1B@)
int Af $ou carr$ out a search of the literature usin a computer database, and this results in hundreds of references, do not download them all. arrow $our search further, perhaps b$ limitin it to wor%s published after a certain date, or b$ addin to or chanin $our %e$ words. (p 11) int Af $ou feel traumati+ed or terrori+ed b$ the process of anal$sin the data $ou have collected, $ou miht li%e to thin% of it as analoous to coo%in. =hat and how $ou coo% depends on $our taste, s%ills and the resources $ou have available. ?ou ma$ li%e $our food simple and freshl$ prepared, or carefull$ blended over a lon period, or fast and processed. ?ou ma$ mi' the inredients toether usin a recipe, or based on previous e'perience, or $ou ma$ bu$ a pac%et alread$ prepared. ?ou ma$ use a rane of tools in $our coo%in, from a simple %nife or spoon to an e'pensive foodprocessor. ?ou ma$ be preparin food !ust for $ourself or for a ban#uet. ee if $ou can find further parallels as $ou coo% $our dataC (p 14) int ome of the tas%s involved in anal$sin data are ver$ basic and repetitive. ave these for when $ou are unable to do, or do not feel li%e doin, an$thin more demandin. (p 18) int "r$ e'plainin it to a non&specialist aain. (p 198)
.A(( 'ro#/ Blaxter, =ughes and Tight, #$$%& :hen teaching a class recently, one student admitted that her focus group interview went badly wrong. 'he had been researching -Firls 8ights 9ut and had invited two groups of friends to her house. They did not get on and sat either end of the room throughout the entire evening. 9ne of the members of the class "very gently& told her that, because this was a common problem, it was normal practice in focus group research to ensure that the people invited did not know each other beforehand. 3f it was thought desirable to bring people together who did know each other then it was important to ensure that they were one rather than two or more groups. This -tip, of course, would have been much more useful beforehand but this story is not so much concerned about when, and how, we acquire such advice. 3t is more concerned to emphasise that it is too easy to dismiss the usefulness of such knowledge6 The hints set out above have arisen from my own research and teaching experiences. They are aimed at students who are undertaking research for the first time. 3 hope that the following exercise will generate some more hints and tips that are useful in your research. #. :hat would you adviseI /
/ where do you beginI / The person you are interviewing expresses some extreme racist views. :hat do you say in responseI /
THE RESEARCH DIARY O!&er)$t"o%$( Note& These record events experienced principally through 0$t+h"%, and ("&te%"%,. They contain as little interpretation as possible and are as reliable as the observer can construct them.
Metho1o(o,"+$( Note& These record aspects of reflection on the methodology. or example they might include a critique of ones own tactics. They will note the time, place and technique used.
Theoret"+$( Note& These are your attempts to derive meaning from your data.
A%$(2t"+$( Note&
These are where you attempt to bring together several aspects of your analysis within a broader, more abstract statement.
UNDERTAKING AN OBSERVATION - 4re the times at which you carry out your observations relevantI - (o you need to devise an observational schedule or determine pre1coded categoriesI - =ow are you going to organi)e your data recordingI - 3s it important to you to try and record -everything or will you be much more selectiveI - 4re your age, sex, ethnicity, dress or other characteristics likely to affect your observationsI - =ow artificial is the settingI =ow visible are you as the observerI (oes this matterI - 3s observation enough or will you need to participate, and>or use other means of data collectionI - 4re there any situations to which you cannot get access but where observation may be importantI =ow can you get -backstageI - 3f you are going to participate more directly in the events you will be observing, how are you going to balance the demands of participation and observationI CAN RESEARCH BE EMPOWERING? • "he terms power and empowerment crop up a reat deal in research related to social !ustice. "his is not surprisin. Amprovements in !ustice are related to power: who has it, how it is e'ercised and where it manifests itself. At sounds as if researchers for social !ustice would find a lot to aree about here. 7ut this is not the case. ... the ver$ differences invite reater refle'ivit$ and clarit$ about what researchers thin% the$ are doin, and whether it is worthwhile. (>riffiths, 1998: 11) Dsin creative enres of writin ... can help mobili+e social action or evo%e participator$ e'periences throuh imaination, performance art, and stor$tellin. (llis and 7ochner, 1990: B) Eeaders who identif$ with an oppressed roup ma$ achieve a uni#ue outcome throuh readin about rhetorical fiures who are metaphors for themselves. elf&re&conition ma$ result in an imainative namin of ones conditions. (7arone, 199@: 09)
=e re&present stories told b$ sub!uated Fthers, stories that would otherwise be discarded. nd we et a hearin. (6ine, 1998: 1@B). :e might suggest that calls for empowerment, giving voice and dialogue are fairly commonplace these days. :e find the idea of empowerment in literatures as far apart as those concerned with organisational competitiveness and those concerned with the eradication of poverty. The extent of usage of such terms, and the impact of what some call the postmodern -malaise, has meant that we are more likely today to find that there are calls for serious skepticism of and critical attention to those contemporary education narratives that claim to be emancipatory "*ather, #$$? #?$&. 4ll liberatory talk has oppressive potentials. Fore "#$$? G%& usefully delineates the concept of empowerment into three components. Thus, empowerment suggests "#& an agent of empowerment, "?& a notion of power as property, and "A& some kind of vision or desirable end sate&. This oucauldian approach suggests that to empower someone, then, means that you are authori)ed by yourself or others to give something.
implies the best possible of whatever kind is aimed at. . R$1"+$( +h$%,e o' $%2 o' the !e("e'& $%1 )$(ue& "& *o&&"!(e/ Amprovements in %nowlede are alwa$s uncertain, so researchers must be prepared to chane their minds radicall$, and to challene others durin and after doin the research. Jesearch results and processes may surprise and discomfort any or all of the members of the researcher community, and also other educational researchers. 4. Co(($!or$t"o% $%1 +o%&u(t$t"o% 0"th the "##e1"$te re&e$r+h +o##u%"t23 Eesearchers need to wor% collaborativel$ with people as part of the communit$ carr$in out the research. 3t is difficult to establish hard and fast boundaries to this research community. Dreating, establishing and working with such a diverse research community requires that all sectors respect and work with each other in conditions of trust and safety, in the interests of improving education. 3t is acknowledged that the processes of consultation and change are going to r esult in conflict and people feeling exposed when putting their views on the line. :aiving trust and safety can be morally 2ustified, but only in extreme conditions. @. O*e%%e&& to $ 0"1er +o##u%"t2 Eesearchers need to be open to the viewpoints of all concerned with the research. This means not only those in "+& above, but also users of the research and anyone else to whom it is relevant, eg pupils, teachers, support staff, parents, *54 advisors, the neighbourhood, policy1makers and pressure groups. 'trategies are needed to listen to quiet, less powerful, voices. 0. O*e%%e&& to *o("t"+$( ,rou*"%,& $%1 *er&*e+t")e&/ Eesearchers need to see% out and be open to the viewpoints of socio&political roups. There are alliances to be made between groups of people on the basis of, for instance, class, race, gender, sexuality. They cross1cut alliances between, for instance, teachers, advisors, children and parents. 4ll these groups need acknowledgement, support and understanding. This is a source of the reflexivity mentioned in "H& and ";&. . Re'(e4")"t2 $!out o0% *o&"t"o% $%1 "%tere&t& Eefle'ivit$ is needed about the researchers own socio&political positions and interests. 4rgument, anger and risk are all part of the process. 'ome of the feelings of risk come about because such consultation requires researcher"s& to be open to reflexivity about their own position and interests. 8. Re'(e4")"t2 $!out o0% u%1er&t$%1"%, $%1 )$(ue& Eefle'ivit$ is needed about the researchers own understandin and values. 3t is important that the researchers acknowledge their allegiance to beliefs, values and traditions. Their most dearly held knowledge and values may be based in these principles of research for social 2ustice, but these too are revisable. 9. Per'e+t"o% "% re&e$r+h "& %ot to !e 'ou%1/ "here is no hope of doin perfect research. Dtopia does not e'ist. 4ll research programmes have to be constructed on the run, and against a background of social and educational change. Time constraints and compromises are inevitable. By the ti me the best possible design, methods and forms of dissemination are found, the situation will most probably have changed. 3t follows that all research must be sub2ect to critique. Food research still needs to
improve. This may mean that there are areas in which a research programme is excellent, but some other things may be out of its control altogether. 1B. T$"%, re&*o%&"!"("t2 $& *$rt o' the 0"1er e1u+$t"o%$( re&e$r+h +o##u%"t23 Eesearchers must reconi+e their responsibilities related to bein part of the communit$ of educational researchers. Food research also requires researchers to be open to the community of educational and other researchers, in a process of reflexivity related to dangerous knowledge and power. 4dvances always come as a patchwork or ragbag. There can never be a tidy overarching rationale or masterplan for improving fairness. (anger has to be acknowledged. Kigilance is needed. 9n the other hand, advances need to be recognised and celebrated. Friffiths warns that it is important to note that this is not a -pick1and1mix list. 4ll principles are interlocking. (oes your work embrace these principles or do you think they are valid enough to adoptI
Further Wor Daution does need exercising with the use of concepts such as empowerment and power. !ost common assumptions are based on top down, Ls and Them, models where power is something that an elite or a boss has. This is not to deny that some groups>individuals do have more power than others but the tendency is to focus in this one direction. oucauldian analyses of power highlight how power is not simply repressive but productive, that power is everywhere and that alongside power we will find resistance. The Friffiths "op cit& text gives a fuller exploration of this and provides associated examples from research in education.
AN INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE RESEARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY 4lvesson, ! and 'koldberg, M "?777& Re'(e4")e Metho1o(o,2/ Ne0 V"&t$& 'or Qu$("t$t")e Re&e$r+h, *ondon, 'age 4rbnor, 3 and B2erke, B "#$$H& Metho1o(o,2 'or Cre$t"%, Bu&"%e&& K%o0(e1,e , *ondon, 'age 4tkinson, E "#$$7& The Eth%o,r$*h"+ I#$,"%$t"o%/ Te4tu$( Co%&tru+t"o%& o' Re$("t2, *ondon, Joutledge Barone, T "#$$G& Eersuasive writings, vigilant readings and reconstructed characters the paradox of trust in educational storysharing, in @ =atch and J :isnieski "5ds& L"'e H"&tor2 $%1 N$rr$t")e , *ondon, almer, pp %A1H+ Bartunek, @ and *ouis, ! "#$$%& I%&"1er5Out&"1er Te$# Re&e$r+h , *ondon, 'age
Belenky, !, Dlinchy, B, Foldberger, 8 and Tarule, @ "#$;%& Wo#e%6& W$2& o' K%o0"%,/ The De)e(o*#e%t o' Se('7 Vo"+e $%1 M"%1 , 8ew constructing Jesearch 8arratives 'elf and 'ociological 3dentity in 4lternative 'ettings, in @ Jibbens and J 5dwards "5ds& Fe#"%"&t D"(e##$& "% Qu$("t$t")e Re&e$r+h/ Pu!("+ K%o0(e1,e $%1 Pr")$te L")e&, *ondon, 'age, pp #H#1#;G Blaxter, *, =ughes, D and Tight, ! "#$$%& Ho0 to Re&e$r+h , Buckingham, 9pen Lniversity Eress Bowling, 4 "#$$H& Re&e$r+h Metho1& "% He$(th/ I%)e&t",$t"%, He$(th $%1 He$(th Ser)"+e& , Buckingham, 9pen Lniversity Eress Bryman, 4 "#$;;& Qu$%t"t2 $%1 Qu$("t2 "% So+"$( Re&e$r+h, *ondon, Joutledge Burns, J "?777& I%tro1u+t"o% to Re&e$r+h Metho1& , *ondon, 'age Butler, @ "#$$7& Fe#"%"&# $%1 the Su!)er&"o% o' I1e%t"t2 , 8ew
lick, L "#$$;& A% I%tro1u+t"o% to Qu$("t$t")e Re&e$r+h , *ondon, 'age rancis, B, Jobson, @ and Jead, B "?777& I%&+r"*t"o%& o' Ge%1er/ Ge%1ere1 P$tter%& "% U%1er,r$1u$te Wr"t"%, $%1 F"r&t De,ree A0$r17 Eaper presented at eminist Eedagogy Donference, Lniversity of *iverpool Fore, @ "#$$?& :hat :e Dan (o or empowering effects of reflexive practice, I%ter%$t"o%$( 9our%$( o' So+"$( Re&e$r+h Metho1o(o,2 , #, +, pp ?;#1?$% =ughes, D "#$$$b& The Wo#$% M$%$,er/ Ho0 Do We K%o0 Her? Eaper presented at the (epartment of !anagement 'eminar, Lniversity of Meele @ayratne, T "#$$A& The value of quantitative methodology for feminist research, in ! =ammersley "5d& So+"$( Re&e$r+h/ Ph"(o&o*h27 Po("t"+& $%1 Pr$+t"+e , *ondon, 'age *ather, E "#$$?& Eost1critical Eedagogies 4 eminist Jeading, in D *uke and @ Fore "5ds& Fe#"%"&#& $%1 Cr"t"+$( Pe1$,o,2, 8ew
A%,e(ou, *ondon, Kirago !aynard, ! and Eurvis, @ "5ds& "#$$+& Re&e$r+h"%, Wo#e%6& L")e& 'ro# $ Fe#"%"&t Per&*e+t")e , *ondon, Taylor and rancis !ayo, 4 and *ank, 5 "#$$+& The Po0er o' Le$r%"%,/ A Gu"1e to G$"%"%, Co#*et"t")e A1)$%t$,e, *ondon, 3E( !ason, @ "#$$%& Qu$("t$t")e Re&e$r+h"%,, *ondon, 'age !organ, ( "#$;%>#$$H& Fo+u& Grou*& $& Qu$("t$t")e Re&e$r+h , *ondon, 'age 9akley, @ "#$;#& 3nterviewing :omen 4 Dontradiction in Terms, in = Joberts "5d& Do"%, Fe#"%"&t Re&e$r+h , *ondon, JME, pp A71%# 9leson, K, (roes, 8, =atton, (, Dhico, 8 and 'chat)man, * "#$$+& 4nlay)ing Together Jecollections of a Team 4pproach, in 4 Bryman and J Burgess "5ds& A%$(2:"%, Qu$("t$t")e D$t$, *ondon, Joutledge, pp ###1#?; Eunch, M "#$$;& I%tro1u+t"o% to So+"$( Re&e$r+h/ Qu$%t"t$t"e $%1 Qu$("t$t")e A**ro$+he& , *ondon, 'age Jath "#$$$& Gett"%, S#$rter, Doventry, (epartment of Dontinuing 5ducation, Lniversity of :arwick "unpublished Eh(& Jichardson, * "#$$?& The Donsequences of Eoetic Jepresentation :riting the 9ther, Jewriting the 'elf, in D 5llis and ! laherty "5ds& I%)e&t",$t"%, Su!8e+t")"t2/ Re&e$r+h o% L")e1 E4*er"e%+e , 8ewbury Eark "Dalif&, 'age, pp #?G1#+7 Jibbens, @ and 5dwards, J "5ds& "#$$;& Fe#"%"&t D"(e##$& "% Qu$("t$t")e Re&e$r+h/ Pu!("+ K%o0(e1,e $%1 Pr")$te L")e&, *ondon, 'age 'cheurich, @ "#$$H& Re&e$r+h Metho1 "% the Po&t#o1er% , *ondon, almer 'keggs, B "#$$H& For#$t"o%& o' C($&& $%1 Ge%1er, *ondon, 'age 'lim, = and Thompson, E "#$$A& L"&te%"%, 'or $ Ch$%,e/ Or$( Te&t"#o%2 $%1 De)e(o*#e%t, *ondon, Eanos 'mith, ! "#$$;& So+"$( S+"e%+e "% Que&t"o%, *ondon, 'age>9pen Lniversity 'tanley, * "#$$7& 4 Jeferral was made behind the scenes during the creation of a 'ocial 'ervices (epartment -elderly statistic, in * 'tanley "5d& Fe#"%"&t Pr$4"&, *ondon, Joutledge 'tronach, 3 and !ac*ure, ! "#$$H& E1u+$t"o%$( Re&e$r+h U%1o%e/ The Po&t#o1er% E#!r$+e , Buckingham, 9pen Lniversity Eress
'teyaert, D and Bouwen, J "#$$+& Froup !ethods of 9rgani)ational 4nalysis, in D Dassell and F 'ymon "5ds& Qu$("t$t")e Metho1& "% Or,$%":$t"o%$( Re&e$r+h/ A Pr$+t"+$( Gu"1e7 *ondon, 'age, pp #?A1#+% :eiler, M "#$$G& reire and a eminist Eedagogy of (ifference, in = =olland and ! Blair with ' 'heldon "5ds& De!$te& $%1 I&&ue& "% Fe#"%"&t Re&e$r+h $%1 Pe1$,o,2, Ehiladelphia "E4&, !ultilingual !atters>9pen Lniveristy, pp ?A1++ :ilson, K "#$$H& ocus Froups 4 Lseful Qualitative !ethod for 5ducational JesearchI Br"t"&h E1u+$t"o%$( Re&e$r+h 9our%$( , ?A, ?, pp ?7$1??+
U&e'u( I%ter%et S"te& CAQDAS Net0or"%, Pro8e+t set up in con2unction with 5'JD to disseminate an understanding of the practical skills needed to use software to facilitate qualitative data analysis and to encourage debate about methodological and epistemological issues raised by the use of such software 3 htt*/55+$;1$&3&o+3&urre23$+3u5 E+o%o#"+ $%1 So+"$( Re&e$r+h Cou%+"( to keep up to date with developments and potential websites for both qualitative and quantitative methods. http>>www.esrc.ac.uk> So+"o(o,"+$( Re&e$r+h O%("%e an on1line 2ournal. htt*/550003&o+re&o%("%e3or,3u5
