(2017)
1
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ALMA A LMA NAQUE NA QUE UNIFICADO UNIFIC ADO DE LA L A NATURA NA TURALE LEZA ZA Sergio Aschero (2017) 1. Introducción
La pregunta ¿qué es el hombre? Busca aquello que todos tenemos en común. A esto se le suele llamar esencia o naturaleza. El debate acerca de qué es la "naturaleza humana" (y si realmente es, existe, de algún modo) ha dado lugar a interpretaciones interpretaciones tan variadas y a polémicas tan inacabables que, antes de estudiar en qué consiste, se hace preciso esclarecer los conceptos de naturaleza en general, y naturaleza n aturaleza humana en particular. Estamos en un terreno donde conviene despejar los equívocos. Una de las características características de los seres vivos es la tendencia a crecer y desarrollarse hasta alcanzar su fin. Eso coincide con la idea de bien: el bien es aquello que es conveniente para cada cosa porque la lleva a su plenitud. El bien tiene carácter de fin, significa perfección. La naturaleza del hombre es precisamente la condición de posibilidad del despliegue del hombre hacia su bien final, que constituye su totalidad. Atentos: la naturaleza está en el punto de partida, pero a la vez es la causa del dinamismo biográfico del que hemos hablado. Si el hombre busca la perfección, si en él hay un anhelo, una inquietud de ser más, es precisamente porque por naturaleza está hecho para ese crecimiento. Por eso, en el mundo clásico, a la naturaleza se la ha llamado también principio de operaciones. De este modo, la naturaleza de todos los seres, y especialmente del hombre, tiene un sentido que puede ser codificado. Ese orden es un u n orden dinámico. Esto es especialmente claro en el caso de los seres vivos con sus fases de nacimiento, crecimiento, reproducción y muerte. Ese orden determina un sentido en cada una de sus fases y en la totalidad. totalidad. Por eso se puede decir que lo más importante en el hombre son los fines, es decir, aquellos objetivos hacia los cuales tiende y se inclina. El hombre, por naturaleza, ha nacido para lo excelente. Y eso no está dado en el punto de partida más que como inclinación natural. Dar cuenta de esa inclinación es una tarea de la cual cada uno es, en último extremo, el responsable. Para entender correctamente correctamente qué es el hombre y qué es la naturaleza humana es importante evitar, de nuevo, la tentación del dualismo. Sería dualismo, en efecto, pensar que en el hombre hay una naturaleza abstracta, intemporal, cuando resulta que somos seres concretos, históricos, en unas determinadas determinadas circunstancias que continuamente están en variación. Pero también sería parcial el modelo historicista o relativista, según el cual el hombre es relativo a cada época, a cada cultura, etc., no habría una naturaleza humana, sino diversidad de seres humanos en relación a los cuales los bienes del hombre, los fines, la moralidad, etc., variarían, no siendo ningún sistema mejor o peor que su contrario.
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que existe son los individuos individuos concretos. Ambas posturas nos abren al conflicto entre naturaleza y libertad: ¿es la nuestra una naturaleza libre?, ¿cabe libertad si resulta que se impone una naturaleza dada?, ¿no supone la libertad que la realidad humana debe ser creada por cada hombre?, ¿hay un conflicto entre naturaleza y libertad? Esta discusión se agudiza en Europa en torno a 1800, y ha sido frecuente en algunas escuelas científicas y filosóficas modernas, para las cuales, el hombre o es materia evolucionada, o una libertad desarraigada, desarraigada, que se enfrenta e nfrenta a la naturaleza al tener el deber de construirse su propia esencia. La pregunta ¿qué es el hombre? Se contesta diciendo: su historia. Y de ese modo lo universal pierde su valor. El hombre tiene una dimensión intemporal y otra temporal, y no podemos prescindir de ninguna de las dos. Los modelos explicativos explicativos anteriores tienden a afirmar uno de los dos polos en detrimento del otro. Intentaremos exponer el asunto de un modo no dualista, de modo que se empiece a ver que la naturaleza humana es libre: naturaleza y libertad, en el hombre, no pueden separarse. ¿Qué es lo natural en el hombre? Lo que le es propio: ejercer sus facultades. Lo natural en el hombre es, por tanto, el desarrollo de sus capacidades. Ese desarrollo se dirige a conseguir lo que es objeto de esas facultades. Lo natural y propio del hombre es alcanzar su fin. Y el fin del hombre es perfeccionar al máximo sus capacidades, en especial las superiores (inteligencia y voluntad; verdad y bien). La inteligencia busca el conocimiento de la realidad. Cuando lo logra, alcanza la verdad, que es el bien propio de la inteligencia: abrirse a lo real. Querer lo verdaderamente bueno es ejercer la voluntad perfeccionándola. Lo natural en el hombre, como en todos los demás seres tiene carácter de fin, es algo hacia lo cual nos dirigimos. Este fin no se puede entender de un modo cronológico (pues, en ese caso, sólo tendrían verdadera naturaleza humana los hombres que alcanzaran una determinada perfección y edad; los niños, fetos, ancianos, enfermos mentales, etc., o no habrían alcanzado esa naturaleza o la habrían perdido). No se dice fin en sentido cronológico sino de un modo más delicado al que hemos hecho referencia con anterioridad: el fin del hombre es la verdad y el bien porque, de hecho, ya desde el inicio de su existencia (y desde que empieza a ejercer operaciones de un modo más visible) anhela alcanzar la verdad y lograr el bien, y por eso mismo se mueve hacia ellos desarrollando su historia. Es decir, por naturaleza se posee desde el principio el fin que a la vez (históricamente, (históricamente, o por razón) estructura la tensión de esa búsqueda en la cual consiste nuestra existencia. La pregunta ¿qué es el hombre? se transforma en esta otra: ¿eres capaz de llegar a ser aquello a lo que, desde el inicio de tu existir, estás llamado? "¿Qué hace el hombre a partir de sí mismo, como ser que actúa libremente, o qué puede y debe hacer?" Y así, descubrimos que "la naturaleza se trasciende a sí misma en el hombre", "el hombre supera infinitamente al hombre" (Pascal). La naturaleza humana es auto trascendencia, trascendencia, apertura, actividad, creatividad y posesión de aquellos fines que le son
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La naturaleza humana invita a alcanzar el fin que le es más propio, a no conformarse con su punto de partida, sino a aceptar la tensión del anhelo de perfección, de excelencia, que hay en ella. "Hombre, atrévete a ser quien eres", sería el compromiso que plantea la capacidad de acción del hombre. Atreverse indica que depende de una decisión de la voluntad de cada quien: el hombre en este sentido es una tarea para sí mismo: en sus manos está el acertar o el fracasar. f racasar. Justamente se puede hablar de vidas fracasadas si resulta que ya está inscrita en toda existencia la posibilidad de lo mejor. De no ser así, a lo sumo podría decirse que hay distintas opciones, más o menos atractivas pero igualmente válidas. De ese modo, ser justo o injusto injusto dependería dependería de una decisión decisión emocional, emocional, pero no no habría habría diferencia de valor entre esas dos actitudes. Pero la verdad es que eso no se lo cree nadie: el justo atrae, el malvado repele. Pero centremos la atención sobre esa idea: el hombre es libre. ¿De qué modo va a influir este hecho en la acción de la persona? Por un lado, el bien y la verdad sólo se pueden alcanzar libremente. Nadie que no quiera puede llegar a ellos a base de obligarle. Al final, la decisión de respeto del bien de otros depende no tanto de los argumentos racionales que se le den, como de su propia decisión de respeto. Si tuviéramos que convencer a alguien de la conveniencia de no maltratar a sus padres estaríamos tratando con una bestia, y lo mejor sería cuidarse de que nos atacara a tacara también a nosotros. No atender a razones es una de las posibilidades a las que nos abre la libertad. Además, no está asegurado alcanzar el propio bien ni la verdad. Hay que quererlos. Los fines de la naturaleza humana vienen exigidos (se anhelan, se buscan) pero se pueden conseguir o no. Depende de la libertad, de que a mí me dé la gana. Como decía Albert Camus: "el hombre es la única criatura que se niega a ser lo que ella es". Los modos concretos de alcanzar la verdad y el bien no están dados, porque es la libertad quien tiene que elegirlos. Está dado el fin general de la naturaleza humana (felicidad, perfección), pero no los medios que conducen a esos fines. Es decir, hay muchísimo que inventar, que decidir, a lo que aventurarse. La orientación general está dada por nuestra naturaleza, pero ésta necesita que la persona elija los fines secundarios y los medios. Y dado que no está asegurado que alcancemos los fines naturales del hombre, la naturaleza humana tiene unas referencias orientativas para la libertad; libertad; es decir, tiene unas normas, unas leyes que le permiten encauzar (libremente) el cumplimiento de ese anhelo constitutivo. Si se cumple lo indicado en ellas estaremos un poco más cerca del objetivo. Si no se cumple, nos alejaremos de él. La primera de las normas de esta guía de la naturaleza humana tradicionalmente se ha formulado así: "Haz el bien y evita el mal". No un bien y un mal externos y extraños a nosotros, sino nuestro mejor bien, evitando lo que nos daña: hacer el bien y evitar el mal es una invitación positiva a que cada uno haga de sí mismo el mejor de los proyectos posibles. Eso son las normas morales, que tienen como fin establecer unos
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Esas normas tampoco se cumplen necesariamente, necesariamente, sino solament solamente e si uno quiere. Pero están ahí porque la realidad humana está ahí, y "tiene sus leyes", sus caminos. Y es que el desarrollo de la persona y el logro de sus fines naturales tienen un carácter moral, ético. La ética es algo intrínseco a la persona, a su educación, y a su desarrollo natural. Es el criterio de uso de la libertad. Por tanto, no cabe entender la ética como un "reglamento" que venga a molestar a los que viven según les apetece. Sin ética no hay desarrollo de la persona, ni armonía en el vivir. A poco que se considere quién es el hombre, enseguida surge la evidencia de que, por ser persona, es necesariamente ético: "la ética es aquel modo de usar el propio tiempo según el cual el hombre crece como un ser completo". La naturaleza humana se realiza y perfecciona mediante decisiones libres, que nos hacen mejores porque desarrollan nuestras capacidades. capacidades. El hombre, o es ético, o no es hombre. Hemos dicho que los hábitos son importantes, porque modifican al sujeto que los adquiere, modulando su naturaleza de una determinada manera. Está claro que la naturaleza humana se perfecciona con los hábitos, porque hacen más fácil alcanzar los fines del hombre. Está claro también que el hombre se perfecciona a sí mismo adquiriéndolos: adquiriéndolos: es entonces "el perfeccionador perfectible": perfecciona perfecciona al mundo, da finalidades a las cosas al tenerlas, y actuando se perfecciona a sí mismo. Podemos definir al hombre como un ser intrínsecamente perfectible. La naturaleza del hombre no puede ser algo a lgo independiente independiente del crecimiento y desarrollo que lleva al ser humano a un fin determinado y a la perfección. Parte de la naturaleza que posee cualquier ser vivo es el impulso o inclinación de crecimiento y desarrollo dirigidos hacia un fin específico. Solamente los seres inertes o sin vida pueden permanecer quietos sin necesitar ningún tipo de movimiento, movimiento, pero eso no sucede con los seres vivos. Ese movimiento en los seres vivos se convierte o llega a ser el crecimiento y desarrollo en busca de los fines que le son propios a cada ser vivo. Es importante también mencionar que ese fin puede ser llamado también "mejorar". Otro término que aparece dentro de todo este contexto y que puede ser usado de la misma manera es el "bien". Todos nos buscamos un bien, aunque ese bien es diferente para cada uno, pero sin embargo todos vamos tras lo que es bueno para alcanzar nuestros fines o nuestra plenitud. Esto significa significa que teniendo un fin específico, llegaré llegaré a alcanzarlo a través de aquello que es bueno en función de alcanzar el fin propuesto. El bien se dirige o proyecta hacia un fin superador, superador, por lo cual forma parte del camino natural que caracteriza caracteriza a los seres humanos. La naturaleza humana es algo que ya todos traemos y significa un punto de partida para todos pero a la vez no es algo estático, sino dinámico, de modo que es la misma naturaleza humana la que nos lleva a nuestro fin o plenitud durante el curso de nuestras vidas, es decir que es algo con lo que nacemos pero no es algo que
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Hay una forma sencilla pero realmente importante con la cual podemos comprobar que la naturaleza humana tiene un carácter que nos mueve al crecimiento, y es el hecho que vemos como algo natural en todas las personas los anhelos y la inquiet inquietud ud de ser más, cuya explicación es que todas las personas estamos hechas para ese crecimiento como parte de nuestra n uestra misma naturaleza. Es por este carácter que tiene la naturaleza humana que podemos decir que a la naturaleza se le ha llamado principio de operaciones, ya que no es algo que termina al nacer, sino una naturaleza que nos acompañará toda la vida motivándonos motivándonos a alcanzar nuestras propias finalidades, por lo cual decimos que la naturaleza humana tiene un carácter final. Hay dos ramas del pensamiento que han criticado este modelo en el ser humano, y estas son el racionalismo y el vitalismo. Veamos el significado significado de estos dos términos dentro del ámbito filosófico: Racionalismo: Doctrina cuya base es la omnipotenc omnipotencia ia e indepen independencia dencia de la razón humana. Doctrina Doctrina que pone el origen de las ideas en la razón y no en la experiencia. Dentro Dentro de la filosofía, se sabe que en la antigüed a ntigüedad ad fueron racionalistas varias escuelas griegas. Pero el racionalismo por antonomasia es el iniciado por Descartes en el siglo XVII y sus principales representantes son, además de él, Malabranche, Spinoza, Leibniz y Wolf. Esta corriente se considera opuesta al empirismo, aunque Kant y otros autores intentaron una síntesis entre estas tendencias. Vitalismo: Tendencia filosófico-biológica filosófico-biológica que proclama la existencia de un u n principio o una fuerza vital irreductible a procesos fisicoquímicos. fisicoquímicos. El racionalismo y el vitalismo se oponen a la afirmación del proceso superador en el hombre porque dicen que es una imposición exterior exterior sobre los seres humanos, de manera que perderían la característica de su libertad. El problema se presenta cuando el racionalismo y el vitalismo tratan de enfocar el modelo de superación humana como algo extraño a su naturaleza que llega a imponerse o a introducirse desde el mundo exterior al interior, de modo que violenta lo que somos. Pero eso no es e s cierto porque la búsqueda de lo mejor de nosotros es parte de nuestra misma naturaleza humana y por tanto no proviene del exterior ni se nos trata de imponer, pues es algo que nos pertenece pertenece o que viene ya con nosotros como algo natural en el hombre desde el momento en que nacemos. Se deben desplegar y desarrollar nuestras propias tendencias hasta perfeccionarlas perfeccionarlas y no tiene nada que ver con un objetivo o fin f in externo para quitar al hombre la capacidad de tomar desde adentro sus propias decisiones. Por el contrario podemos afirmar que este camino es el que dirige al hombre hacia la plenitud de lo que es capaz de llegar a ser.
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mueve a hacer las cosas, esto significa los objetivos o inclinaciones que tenemos. Todos poseemos la búsqueda de la excelencia en el ámbito de nuestros propios fines. Cada uno posee esas inclinaciones como punto de partida dentro de su carácter, pero cada uno es responsable de llevar a feliz culminación esa inclinación natural, lo cual es una tarea individual que tenemos como seres humanos. Uno de los errores que se dan y que debemos evitar es pensar en el hombre como un dualismo. No hay que pensar en el hombre como teniendo una naturaleza abstracta e intemporal, sino más bien sabiendo que tiene una naturaleza concreta e histórica. La naturaleza humana tampoco debe ser vista a través del modelo historicista o relativista, que habla de la naturaleza del hombre como algo que será independiente y diferente para cada persona dependiendo dependiendo de su cultura, época en la que vive, el modelo o estructura social, etc. Esto daría lugar a hablar de varias naturalezas humanas, lo cual no puede ser posible porque la naturaleza humana es solamente una porque la especie humana es asimismo una. Dentro del estudio de la naturaleza humana encontramos dos extremos: el primero de ellos es el racionalista, que trata de estudiar al hombre como una ciencia exacta que está por encima del tiempo y espacio; y el segundo es el extremo del historicista o relativista cultural, que se enfoca únicamente en individuos concretos y no en una naturaleza como tal. Desde estos enfoques parece presentarse presentarse un conflicto conflicto entre naturaleza y libertad, lo cual debe ser aclarado, para lo cual decimos que la naturaleza humana, aunque nos viene dada a todas las personas al nacer sin que elijamos e lijamos tener esta naturaleza (pues nacemos sin que nadie nos pregunte si queremos hacerlo o no con esta naturaleza), no limita nuestra libertad ni está en contra de ella. El racionalista y el historicista o relativista cultural se formulan las siguientes preguntas respecto a la naturaleza humana y la libertad: ¿Es la nuestra una naturaleza libre? ¿Cabe libertad si resulta que se impone una naturaleza dada? ¿No supone la libertad que la realidad humana debe ser creada por cada hombre? ¿Hay un conflicto entre naturaleza y libertad?
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eso no nos priva de nuestra libertad ni tampoco significa que por ello no seamos seres libres o con voluntad propia. La naturaleza humana no se opone a la libertad propia del hombre. No debemos ver la naturaleza humana como una serie de "reglamentos que vienen de fábrica" y que nos mueven a actuar de cierta manera sin haber uso de nuestra libertad y voluntad individual. La naturaleza del hombre tiene un carácter universal, por lo cual no se puede tomar la historia como base para responder a la pregunta ¿qué es el hombre? o para explicar exactamente la naturaleza del hombre, pues la historia puede ser relativa a determinado lugar y no es fácil darle un carácter universal como para que nos permita comprender verdaderamente la naturaleza del hombre o quién es el hombre. Así como no podemos separar del hombre su naturaleza y de su libertad libertad de elección, pues ambas caminan juntas, no debemos ver la naturaleza del hombre como opuesta a la libertad del hombre ni viceversa. La naturaleza humana no incluye únicamente aspectos físicos o corporales, sino que parte de la naturaleza propia del hombre y tiene que ver con el crecimiento que nos lleva a desarrollar nuestras capacidades capacidades y a ejercer nuestras facultades. Los seres humanos tenemos como parte de nuestra misma naturaleza el alcanzar nuestros fines. La naturaleza humana nos mueve o inclina al perfeccionamiento perfeccionamiento máximo de nuestras capacidades o facultades, sobre todo de estas (capacidades superiores): 1. Inteligencia: va en busca de la verdad a través del conocimiento de la realidad. Al conocer esa realidad que ha buscado, alcanza la verdad, que podríamos definirla como el bien propio de la inteligencia: abrirse a lo real. 2. Voluntad: va en busca del bien a través de querer lo que es verdaderamente bueno. De esa manera podremos ejercer ejercer la volunta voluntadd hasta llegar a perfeccionarla, que es el lo que se pretende. Entonces podemos hacer una importante afirmación sobre la naturaleza humana al decir enfáticamente qué es lo natural en el hombre: ejercer sus facultades o desarrollar sus capacidades. Esto lo hace con la inteligencia inteligencia en busca de la verdad y con la voluntad en busca del bien. Los fines de la naturaleza humana son:
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Lo que es natural en el hombre no es simplemente simplemente un principio, sino que presenta carácter de fin, es decir algo hacia lo cual nos dirigimos. Nuestra naturaleza es algo dinámico y no estático. Como se ha dicho anteriormente, dentro de la naturaleza misma del hombre encontramos el crecimiento y desarrollo encaminados a un fin (que es la perfección o perfeccionamiento perfeccionamiento en el bien que queremos alcanzar). Es por ello que la naturaleza humana involucra el aspecto dinámico de crecimiento crecimiento y desarrollo encaminado a un fin determinado que representa la perfección tras de la cual vamos. Es la misma naturaleza naturaleza humana la que no noss inclina o invita a alcanzar el fin f in que nos es más propio, esto significa no conformarnos con el punto de partida. Es verdad que la naturaleza humana involucra también el punto de partida, pero no se queda ahí, sino que esta naturaleza nos da un anhelo o deseo de perfección y excelencia. Nuestra naturaleza humana nos inclina o mueve a alcanza a lcanzarr nuestros fines, con perfección y excelencia por supuesto. El éxito y el fracaso existen dentro de la naturaleza humana porque en el hombre existe siempre la posibilidad de algo mejor, de una perfección. perfección. Cuando hablamos de "vidas fracasadas" estamos presuponiendo que hay una contraparte, la cual sería: "vidas exitosas". Eso significa que hay algo mejor. Esta tendencia o inclinación de todo ser humano a buscar el éxito y de evitar el fracas f racaso, o, nos da una clara prueba de que la naturaleza humana se dirige hacia la perfección, el bien y la verdad; lo cual lo ha de buscar y encontrar mediante la inteligencia y la voluntad. El hombre debe decidir triunfar en vez de fracasar f racasar a través de buenas decisiones tomadas desde nuestra libertad. Cuando decimos que el justo atrae y el malo repele estamos reconociendo la inclinación del hombre hacia el bien. Cuando decimos que la mentira es mala estamos reconociendo nuestra inclinación inclinación hacia la verdad como parte de nuestra naturaleza humana. Todos los seres humanos estamos estructurados para producir el bien, reflejando esa parte de nuestra naturaleza que nos lleva hacia la verdad y el bien mismo. Sin embargo, aunque todos compartimos esa misma naturaleza, independientemente del país, época, sociedad, cultura, etc. en la que vivamos, nadie nos puede obligar a hacer el bien a pesar de que el bien y la verdad sean parte de nuestra naturaleza humana. Eso es parte de nuestra misma libertad, gracias a la cual decidimos lo que queremos
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Ahora hablaremos un poco de la ética en relación a todo esto, y comenzaremos con la siguiente pregunta: ¿Qué relación tiene la ética con la naturaleza humana? Primero que nada, la ética es algo intrínseco a la persona, a su educación, y a su desarrollo natural. La ética es el criterio de uso de la libertad. Pero si decimos que la ética es algo intrínseco a la persona y sabemos que la naturaleza humana es la misma esencia de cualquier persona, entendemos claramente que entre la naturaleza humana y la ética hay una notable e indiscutible relación. El hombre es e s por naturaleza ético. La naturaleza naturaleza humana puede ir perfeccionándose perfeccionándose a través de hábitos, los cuales tienen que ser éticos. Dentro de esto encontramos la libertad, pues los hábitos los elegimos libremente y eso nos permitirá perfeccionarnos hasta lograr un carácter verdaderamente ético. Platón defendía que todos los artefactos (incluyendo las obras de arte) son imitaciones de algo natural, de algo genuino u original. Para Platón, decir que algo es "artificial" es decir que esa cosa parece ser, pero no es realmente, aquello que imita. Lo artificial es meramente aparente; aparente; lo único que hace es mostrar cómo es e s alguna otra cosa. Las flores artificiales no son más que papel, no son flores en absoluto. Cualquiera que las tome por flores está equivocado, engañado por una apariencia, envuelto en una ilusión. Y, al ser imitaciones o simulacros, o sustitutos, son menos valiosas que lo genuino y tienen también un aire moralmente sospechoso a su alrededor. (Por otra parte, para ser más precisos, para Platón los artefactos no son simplemente imitaciones, sino imitaciones de imitaciones ya que --de acuerdo con su teoría de las Ideas o Formas-- todas las cosas del mundo son ya imitaciones de sus respectivas Ideas). Aristóteles planteaba la cuestión de un modo diferente. Creía que la naturaleza y el arte (lo natural y lo artificial) no tienen nada en común; constituyen dos esferas diferentes de la realidad. En consecuencia, las leyes que gobiernan estos dos tipos de entidades difieren de forma esencial y, por esta razón, el conocimiento de ambas también es distinto. La ciencia natural no incluye el saber-cómo de los instrumentos, instrumentos, las herramientas y las máquinas, y éstas é stas últimas no ofrecen ninguna ayuda para el conocimiento de las entidades naturales. Se trata de dos tipos distintos de conocimiento. Los entes naturales tienen una forma primaria, mientras que los artificiales tienen una forma secundaria que los agentes humanos les imponen. Según Aristóteles, lo natural "tiene en sí mismo la fuente de su propia formación", mientr
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de conocimiento que posee el artesano y el ingeniero) y lo que podríamos llamar "saber-por-qué" o comprensión demostrativa (que sólo posee el científico). Un constructor de barcos, por ejemplo, sabe cómo unir los tablones de madera formando una estructura apropiada para la navegación; pero no tiene ni necesita una demostración causal, silogística, silogística, basada en los principios primarios de las primeras causas de las cosas. Lo que necesita saber, entonces, es que la madera convenientemente dispuesta flota; pero no tiene ninguna necesidad de mostrar cuáles son las causas y principios que le proporcionan a la madera la propiedad de la flotación. Por el contrario, el científico se ocupa de lo que Aristóteles denomina "hecho razonado; hasta que no haya mostrado por qué algo se comporta de la forma en que lo hace rastreando sus causas hasta los primeros principios, no tendrá conocimiento científico de ello." La dicotomía básica que separa lo natural de lo artificial para Aristóteles se desplaza, esencialmente, a lo largo de la línea divisoria entre lo espontáneo y lo intencional. La esfera de la interferencia humana, la de los artefactos, está así separada de un modo muy definido de la de la naturaleza, al ser el producto de los agentes humanos. Ambas esferas, sin embargo, son similares porque están estructuradas teleológicamente. teleológicamente. En contraste con la concepción moderna, Aristóteles no defiende que los procesos naturales sean causales (derivados de causas eficientes) eficientes) mientras que los artificiales son teleológicos (gobernados por causas finales). Como es bien sabido, las cuatro causas de Aristóteles A ristóteles funcionan funcionan en ambas esferas. De este modo, mientras que para Platón las invenciones auténticas son imposibles, para Aristóteles el mundo del arte y la artesanía es el territorio del ingenio humano. Sin embargo, considera las creaciones del homo faber muy inferiores al funcionamiento y los productos de la naturaleza. Es bien sabido que los filósofos de la Grecia antigua despreciaban las artes y sus productos. "En Las Leyes, Platón prohíbe al ciudadano ejercer un trabajo mecánico, y cuando señala a Gorgias el gran interés del estado en el trabajo del ingeniero, no olvida subrayar que pese a eso, no cuenta con el respeto social. Aristóteles tampoco está preparado para aceptar al artesano como ciudadano en el estado ideal; y en la Ética a Nicómaco considera la vida contemplativa superior a la más elevada forma de actividad práctica". Así, los predicados "natural" y "artificial" eran términos con carga valorativa para los filósofos de la Grecia antigua. Lo natural, lo producido por la naturaleza, tenía un valor
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parecen carecer más aún de valor epistemológico. No son en absoluto interesantes como objetos de conocimiento para los escolásticos, que, por otra parte, muestran ser auténticos discípulos de Aristóteles al rechazar el método de la experiment e xperimentación ación (la intervención deliberada en el curso natural de los eventos) como un medio legítimo de conocimiento. El punto de vista oficial de la Iglesia era que la experimentación constituía una actividad ilícita, una interferencia en los caminos de Dios, que se cruzaba y quizá se oponía a ellos. Pero esto, se creía, sólo podía llevarse a cabo con la ayuda de los poderes malignos. Este tipo de razonamiento puede verse en funcionamiento en el famoso caso de Roger Bacon aunque, es preciso añadir, su "scientia experimentalis" se situaba en algún lugar de la oscura zona que separa la experimentación experimentación propiamente dicha del "ars magica", el arte mágico de producir apariencias escalofriantes. (Aquí encontramos una mezcla de las concepciones platónica y aristotélica de la producción de artefactos). Sin embargo, la tradición hermética, que distinguía distinguía la magia negra de la magia blanca o natural (la "magia naturalis"), naturalis"), no creía que esta e sta última necesitara necesitara ninguna ayuda diabólica para llevarse a cabo. Más bien, consideraban que el hombre estaba dotado de un poder creativo divino análogo al de Dios (que la ortodoxia le negaba). De aquí surge, entonces, la idea del Hombre Mago, que es capaz de comprender el curso de la naturaleza y, de este modo, tiene el poder de interferir en él para generar algo nuevo o reorganizar lo antiguo. En su deseo de anticipar e influir sobre el futuro, o de ser "Consejero de los Dioses" como lo expresó Henry Briggs (un matemático hermético del siglo XVI), el mago concebía su actividad como la de creación de un universo dentro del universo creado por Dios, y no inferior a él. El principal propósito de la magia era producir p roducir herramientas, herramientas, tanto mentales (símbolos, como las "monas hieroglyphica" de John Dee o la numerología) como físicas (como los instrumentos del laboratorio de alquimia), para poder alcanzar diversos objetivos humanos o, en
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transuránicos o ceburros, en este sentido, no son artefactos como los coches. Los primeros, simplemente, se producen de forma artificial, son el resultado de procesos experimentales; su generación no es espontánea, pero siguen siendo cosas naturales. A los experimentadores modernos, sin embargo, no les gustan mucho los denominados artefactos experimentales (artefactos en el sentido platónico del término), las apariciones no intencionadas intencionadas e imprevisibles, o efectos colaterales, colaterales, producidos por las situaciones experimentales y los propios instrumentos de medida. El problema moderno no es más que éste: cómo evitar confundir estos artefactos experimentales con los fenómenos naturales que predice la teoría y que se pretende observar en el experiment e xperimento. o. Pensemos, por ejemplo, en el famoso caso del experimento de la fusión fría y sus replicaciones replicaciones (suponiendo que no sean meras trampas); o en la controvertida controvertida afirmación de Joseph Weber a principios de los 70 de que había detectado ondas gravitacionales con un aparato de su construcción. El problema era que, como Collins señala, "no estaba claro en principio si un experimento diseñado adecuadament adecuadamente e debería debería detectar ondas gravitacionales, gravitacionales, porque la detectabilidad detectabilidad misma era el tema de discusión". La cuestión era, en otras palabras, si lo que el aparato pretendía estar detectando eran ondas gravitacionales con una existencia independiente, independiente, pero sólo detectables gracias a la situación experimental; o algún otro fenómeno, un artefacto experimental producido por el propio aparato (y su ambiente). La pregunta, entonces, es: ¿cómo demarcar los resultados resultados genuinos de las afirmaciones espurias? El consejo que Ian Hacking (1983) propone en Representing and Intervening es que podemos tomar ese tipo de resultados como genuinos (o como él dice, reales) y no como artefactos experimentales cuando permanecen invariables al realizar cambios en la situación experimental. (Esta definición, sin embargo, es problemática cuando se
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teñido, el destilado, la fabricación de vidrio, azúcar, pólvora, etc.; o las que implican el uso de herramientas mecánicas: mecánicas: carpintería, arquitectura arquitectura y la fabricación de relojes y molinos. Este fue el origen de las denominadas ciencias baconianas baconianas que, como señaló Kuhn, eran completamente extrañas a la mentalidad de un aristotélico. A este respecto, Bacon defiende la compilación de una Historia de las Artes que podría constituir una variedad de, y estar a la par con, la Historia de las Criaturas, la Historia Natural tradicional. tradicional. Esto significa que las artes y las artesanías, así como sus productos materiales (los artefactos y el saber-cómo), ya no se consideran inferiores a las ciencias naturales. La dicotomía aristotélica natural/artificial natural/artificial queda así destruida en el siglo XVII por Bacon y Descartes. Este proceso es paralelo al proceso mediante el cual los cuatro tipos de causas aristotélicas se reducen a uno solo: la causa eficiente. Paolo Rossi ha mostrado convincentemente cómo el nacimiento de la ciencia moderna había dado la vuelta a la analogía básica. Mientras Mientras que anteriormente la fuente de la analogía era la naturaleza y su objetivo los artefactos, desde el siglo XVII es la esfera artificial la que sirve como modelo para comprender la naturaleza. Según Descartes (Principia Philosophiae) no hay en principio ninguna diferencia diferencia entre los cuerpos naturales y los artificiales (máquinas), solamente se distinguen por sus tamaños y proporciones. Mientras que los tubos, muelles y ruedas que el artesano construye son grandes, los producidos por la naturaleza son pequeños y casi invisibles o difíciles de percibir. La diferencia es, entonces, simplemente cuantitativa. De acuerdo con esto, el consejo metodológico de Descartes al científico es que modele los procesos naturales basándose en su analogía con los artificiales, que son más fáciles de observar (como, por ejemplo, el funcionamiento de una máquina), y explicar los primeros en términos de los últimos. Para los cartesianos empezó a ser conceptualmente imposible trazar
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cartesianos, sólo lo que se puede utilizar para construir máquinas merece el nombre de "conocimiento". "conocimiento". Por tanto, las afirmaciones de conocimiento conocimiento pueden justificarse en general por sus consecuencias consecuencias experimentales y técnicas. (Recordemos que el término técnico más importante de nuestra epistemología, "hecho", deriva etimológicamente del latín "factum", un participio pasado, que quiere decir algo que está hecho o efectuado). Nos encontramos ahora de vuelta en el siglo XX. En lo que se refiere a la distinción d istinción natural/artificial, somos auténticos herederos de la concepción baconiano-cartesiana. No es sorprendente, entonces, que la posibilidad misma de tal distinción conceptual, en la medida de mi conocimiento, no haya sido planteada por los filósofos de la ciencia. Este problema es un terreno inexplorado en nuestro mapa epistemológico epistemológico que no ha sido tratado ni positiva ni negativamente negativamente en toda la abundante literatura literatura de filosofía de la ciencia. Considero, sin embargo, que merece nuestra atención filosófica. La distinción natural/artificial afecta al problema de las clases naturales (recordemos la pregunta planteada anteriormente: si "artefacto" es un género, un término que designa una clase natural, como "animal"). Si no se ofrece una solución para este problema, entonces la distinción entre las ciencias naturales y las técnicas se desdibujaría. La solución también es imprescindible para fundamentar teóricamente los estudios ambientales y la investigación sobre inteligencia artificial. No es sorprendente, sin embargo, que la posibilida po sibilidadd misma de tal distinción parezca haber desaparecido del campo de la investigación investigación filosófica. Parece más bien ser una auténtica (o casi) pseudo-pregunta, una pregunta que sólo puede ser planteada en el contexto del razonamiento pre científico y ordinario, pero sin relevancia teórica o importancia en temas científicos o tecnológicos. La razón de esta situación, creo, es la perenne confianza en la analogía a nalogía básica (mencionada anteriormente) anteriormente) que constituye un determinante esencial de nuestro paradigma científico. Dentro del ideal de ciencia
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la historia o el proceso que condujo a su existencia. Parece que un problema mucho más complejo es el de ofrecer una definición no tan estrecha (un conjunto de criterios necesarios y suficientes) para una distinción general entre lo natural y lo artificial, es decir, donde "artificial" signifique: hecho/producido por cualquier ser inteligente suponiendo que lo haya hecho intencionalmente. La intencionalidad es aquí esencial. Por tanto, considero que podemos decir si algo dado es o no natural en la medida en que seamos capaces de investigar la forma de razonamiento de su productor/creador. En otras palabras, en la medida en que podamos reconocerlo como un ser inteligente (capaz de tener intenciones). Aquí nos encontramos con un círculo vicioso: se puede decir si algo es artificial una vez que sabemos que fue producido por un ser inteligente, y sólo se puede decir si fue producido por un ser inteligente una vez que sabemos que es un artefacto producido intencionalmente. Para terminar, establezcamos una lista de diferentes clases de artificialidad. Hay dos grandes categorías en mi clasificación. Una la componen las cosas que son productos artificiales; artificiales; y la otra las cosas cuya producción producción es artificial, pero que son en en última instancia naturales. ¿Significaría esto que mientras el hombre produce artefactos cada vez más complicados, estructuras altamente altamente complejas, por medio de las cuales hace disminuir localmente la entropía y el desorden, al extender la esfera técnica estamos necesariamente necesariamente produciendo desorden al mismo tiempo en nuestro medio terrestre? ¿Lleva el desarrollo técnico inevitablemente a la destrucción del orden natural? Y como final, ¿qué es una invención?
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algo que es considerado deficiente. Este es el momento en el que el inventor en cuestión planea un nuevo elemento o producto y luego de hacerlo debe llevarlo a cabo a través de la construcción construcción de las estructuras correspondientes correspondientes (materiales o abstractas). La etapa final de una invención tiene que ver por lo general con la prueba, justificación o testeo de tal elemento elemento con con el fin de comprobar si su su funcionamiento funcionamiento se aplica realmente a la satisfacción satisfacción de tal necesidad.
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En primer lugar, hay que destacar la razón de ser de d e estas construcciones en su aplicación de calendarios, ya que un pueblo agrícola sin escritura necesitó conocer con exactitud la duración del año y de las estaciones, al objeto de prever labores tan vitales como la siembra y la recolección, lo cual no es difícil comprobando, al observar el Sol, que en los equinoccios el día tiene una duración igual a la noche en toda la Tierra (del 20 al 21 de marzo y del d el 22 al 23 de septiembre), mientras que en los solsticios, las duraciones del día son máximas respecto a las de la noche (21 al 22 de junio para el hemisferio hemisferio norte), o mínimas (21 (21 al 22 de de diciembre). La duración duración exacta del día y de su noche podía observarse por la posición de las estrellas en el firmamento, pues dado un momento en el día en el e l que las estrellas ocupan cierta posición, al transcurrir exactamente exactamente un día sidéreo volverán a estar en el mismo lugar; y para conocer la duración del día, los sumerios empleaban ya en el 2025 a. de C. la sombra del gnomon, o barra clavada en el suelo. Al observar la Luna, resulta fácil comprobar que cada 29 días y medio (en números redondos, cada 30 días), existe luna llena. A este período lo llamaron mes. Un año comprendía 12 períodos de lunas llenas o meses, por lo que su duración era de 360 días. Aunque en realidad era de algo más de 365 días, había cuatro días al año en los que reajustar el calendario, por lo que el error estaba siempre bajo control. El hecho de que los calendarios megalíticos megalíticos prevean hasta la determinación determinación exacta de la fecha de los eclipses, mucho más de lo necesario para determinar los ciclos estacionales
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falanges de los dedos meñique anular corazón e índice, al acabar la cuenta tendremos 12 unidades, en lugar de las cinco obtenidas de contar exclusivamente los dedos. Si a cada 12 unidades asignamos un dedo de la mano izquierda, habremos obtenido 60 unidades al acabar la cuenta, con lo cual únicamente con 10 dedos tenemos la posibilidad de designar biunívocamente hasta 60 objetos con sólo señalar los dedos correspondientes de la mano izquierda, y la falange determinada de un dedo de la mano derecha. La base duodecimal y la sexagesimal quedan establecidas. Esta explicación es de todos modos bastante discutible. También puede argumentarse argumentarse que se dividió el círculo que representa el reloj de Sol en 12 horas dobles a causa de la armonía geométrica de los ángulos de 30º, ángulo cuyo seno es igual a 1/2 exactamente. De todos modos esta división en el reloj de Sol llevaría a horas de diferente duración. Para que las horas resulten iguales en un reloj de Sol, es preciso que las líneas que las indican sean ajustadas en función de la latitud del lugar. Los sumerios se encontraron con un mes de 30 días y 12 meses en cada año de 360 días. Obviamente, el círculo de 360 grados lo dividieron en 12 sectores de 30 grados cada uno (signos del Zodíaco), pues la posición de los astros era parte de su mística y sistema de medir el tiempo. Era normal que el día lo dividieran en 12 horas, y posteriormente, posteriormente, en 24 (12 para el día y 12 para la noche). Cuando hubo que subdividir la hora o el grado, la segunda base prestó su apoyo, por lo que se estableció en 60 minutos, mensurables desde el año 2000 a. de C. gracias a la existencia de los relojes
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También muchas culturas se han preocupado por la periodicidad de los movimientos de la Luna. El gran problema inherente a todos los calendarios es que los períodos de los movimientos anteriormente descritos no presentan ninguna relación entre sí. Teniendo en cuenta que la influencia de la Luna sobre la vida diaria es bastante menor (aunque es posible que no todo el mundo esté de acuerdo) que la de los días y las noches y las estaciones, se comprenderá que el prescindir de ella simplifica notablemente el problema. Muchas civilizaciones plantearon plantearon calendarios lunisolares, pero poco a poco se fue demostrando la superioridad de los calendarios estrictamente solares, al menos desde el punto de vista práctico. La explicación explicación es que resulta más sencillo acomodar solamente el calendario a los días, las noches y a las estaciones del año, sin considerar la Luna, astro de movimiento bastante complejo. De todas maneras, prescindiendo de la Luna, sigue existiendo el problema originado por el hecho de que la periodicidad de las estaciones (duración del año trópico) no es un número exacto de días medios. El objetivo de este capítulo es precisamente comparar los calendarios solares surgidos en la civilización occidental desde este punto de vista. Se demostrará la superioridad del Calendario Gregoriano sobre el Juliano, la del Calendario Revolucionario sobre los otros dos y finalmente el Calendario Unificado de la Naturaleza sobre todos.
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C. El calendario estaba basado en la observación de la salida "heliaca" de la estrella Sirio (la más brillante del firmamento). firmamento). Se produce la salida "heliaca" de una estrella cuando ésta vuelve a ser visible sobre el horizonte poco antes del amanecer, después del intervalo de tiempo en el que la luz solar impedía su visibilidad. El intervalo de tiempo entre dos salidas "heliacas" consecutivas de una estrella es el año sidéreo, que no coincide exactamente con el verdadero año solar o trópico, que es el que determina la periodicidad de las estaciones. La causa de que no coincidan año sidéreo y año trópico es el movimiento movimiento de precesión de los equinoccios que sufre nuestro planeta. De todas maneras la diferencia entre ambos es relativamente pequeña. 4. El Calendari Calendario o Babilónic Babiló nico o
El primitivo calend calendario ario babilónico fue del tipo lunar. Al principio, el e l año babilónico estaba constituido por 12 meses de 30 días, es decir, que tenía casi 5 días y 1/4 menos. Al cabo de algunos años, el "mes de arar", por ejemplo, no se ajustaba a tal faena agrícola. Posteriormente se acortaron algunos meses para acomodar más exactamente el calendario a la aparición regular de la Luna nueva. Esta medida desajustó aún más el e l calendario con las estaciones. Los babilonios resolvieron posteriormente esta dificultad intercalando un nuevo mes de acuerdo con un ciclo
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lunares, algunos de cuyos nombres se emplean todavía: Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Iunius, Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, December, Ianuarius y Februarius. No obstante, los antiguos romanos no tenían un sistema exacto para la inserción de meses intercalares. Los pontífices o sacerdotes sacerdotes proclamaban el primer día de cada mes las Calendas, (voz de la que deriva calendario) e intercalaban un mes cuando el calendario lo exigía por haberse retrasado. En muchas ocasiones se hacía esta corrección sin ningún cuidado y a veces ocurría que los funcionarios romanos acomodaban el calendario al capricho de los gobernantes, que añadían y restaban no sólo días, sino también meses para alargar o abreviar los periodos de las magistraturas. Como consecuencia de estas irregularidades, el calendario llegó a
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Marzo (Martius): Para los romanos, que nombraron este mes en honor del dios de la guerra, Marte, era el primero del año. Abr Ab r il (Aprilis): Los romanos dieron a este mes el nombre n ombre de abril, derivado de aperire ("abrir"), probablemente probablemente porque es la estación e stación en la que empiezan a abrirse las flores. Mayo (Maius): Era el tercer mes en el antiguo calendario romano y tradicionalmente se acepta que debe su nombre a Maia, la diosa romana de la primavera y los cultivos. Las celebraciones en honor de Flora, la diosa de las flores, alcanzaban su punto culminante en la antigua Roma el 1 de mayo. En Europa se levantaban mayos (palos de mayo) en las aldeas adornados con espinos en flor el 1 de mayo.
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Febrero. La razón política para ello, fue el evitar que César Augusto pudiera pudiera haber sido considerado como inferior a Julio César. Originalmente los romanos numeraban los años ab urbe condita, esto es a partir de la fundación de Roma. Si este calendario hubiera seguido utilizándose, entonces el día Viernes 14 de Enero de 2000 (Gregoriano) hubiera sido Viernes 1 de Enero de 2753 ab urbe condita. Para obtener la fecha ab urbe condita no hay más que sumar 753 años al año correspondiente correspondiente en el Calendario Juliano. El sistema de numerar los años a partir del nacimiento de Jesucristo, de la indicación A. D. (Anno Domini, año del Señor), se debe a Dionisio el Exiguo en el siglo VI. Concretamente Concretamente fue en el año 525 de nnuestra uestra era, cuando el monje Dionisio el Exiguo
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6 y 5 a.de C. fue Cirenio el delegado del Emperador en Siria. Con todos estos datos puede estimarse el año del nacimiento nacimiento de Jesús entre el 8 y el 4 a.de C. Y, ¿qué hay del 25 de Diciembre? Esta fecha empezó a usarse como día del nacimiento a partir del año 336 d.C. Esto se hizo para convertir en fiesta cristiana la pagana que hasta entonces se celebraba, ligada al antiguo culto al Sol: la fiesta del Dies Solis Invictis Natalis, fiesta del Sol que renace todos los años y que en siglo II d.C. se fijó el 25 de Diciembre, considerando que era entonces el día en que el Sol entraba en el solsticio de invierno. Epifanio (315-403 d.C.) da el 6 de Enero del 752 ab urbe condita (2 a.de C.) como fecha de nacimiento, que es como se celebra en el oriente cristiano. Esta fiesta
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Según el Nuevo Testamento, Jesús fue crucificado en la víspera de la Pascua judía y tres días después resucitó. Por consiguiente, la fiesta de Pascua conmemoraba la resurrección de Jesucristo. Con el tiempo, surgió entre los cristianos una seria diferencia sobre la fecha de la fiesta f iesta de Pascua de Resurrección. Los de origen judío celebraban la resurrección a continuación de la Pascua, que según su calendario lunar babilónico caía en la noche de la luna llena (el decimocuarto día del mes de Nisan, primer mes del año); para su ajuste, la Pascua de Resurrección cae en diferentes días de la semana de un año a otro. Sin embargo, los cristianos de origen no judío querían conmemorar la resurrección el primer día de la semana litúrgica: el domingo; según su método, la Pascua tendría lugar el mismo día de la semana, aunque de un año a otro caiga en diferentes fechas
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Debe tenerse en cuenta que no existe el año cero, con lo que la fecha siguiente al
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Durante la revolución francesa, el pueblo quiso liberarse de sus opresores, y es en
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la decisión de que el año en el Calendario Revolucionario debería comenzar con el
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quitar la influencia cristiana del calendario. En los calendarios, su desarrollo se
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El Calendario Revolucionario fue abolido en agosto de 1805 por Napoleón.
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35.
Colombia Colomb ia (*)
36.
Corea del Norte Nort e
37.
Corea del Sur
38.
Costa de Marfi Marfill
39.
Costa Rica
40.
Croacia
41.
Cuba
42.
Dinamarca
43.
Dominica
44.
Ecuador Ecu ador (*)
45.
Egipto
46.
El Salvador
47.
Emiratos Árabes Unidos
48.
Eritrea
49.
Eslovaquia
50.
Eslovenia
51.
España
52.
Estados Unidos
53.
Estonia
54.
Etiopía
55.
Filipinas
56.
Finlandia
57.
Francia
58.
Gabón (*)
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61.
Ghana
62.
Granada
63.
Grecia
64.
Guatemala
65.
Guinea
66.
Guinea Ecuator ial (*)
67.
Guinea-Bisáu
68.
Guyana
69.
Haití
70.
Honduras
71.
Hungría
72.
India
73.
Indonesi Indo nesia a (*)
74.
Irak
75.
Irán
76.
Irlanda
77.
Islandia
78.
Islas Marsh Marshall all
79.
Israel
80.
Italia
81.
Jamaica
82.
Japón
83.
Jordania
84.
Kazajist Kazaji stán án (**)
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87.
Kiribati Kir ibati (*)
88.
Kuwait
89.
Laos
90.
Letonia
91.
Líbano
92.
Liberia
93.
Libia
94.
Liechtenstein
95.
Lituania
96.
Luxemburgo
97.
Malasia
98.
Maldivas Maldi vas (*)
99.
Malí
100.
Malta
101.
Marruecos
102.
Mauritania
103.
México
104.
Micronesia
105.
Moldavia
106.
Mónaco
107.
Mongolia
108.
Montenegro
109.
Nepal
110.
Nicaragua
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113.
Noruega
114.
Omán
115.
Países Bajos Bajo s
116.
Pakistán
117.
Palaos
118.
Panamá
119.
Polonia
120.
Portugal
121. 121.
Reino Unido
122. 122.
República Repúblic a Centroafr icana
123.
Repúblic Repúb lica a Checa
124. 124.
República Repúblic a de Macedo Macedonia nia
125. 125.
República Repúblic a del Congo (*)
126. 126.
República Repúblic a Democrátic a del Congo (*)
127. 127.
República Repúblic a Dominic ana
128.
Rumania
129.
Rusia (**)
130. 130.
San Cristó bal y Nieves
131.
San Marino
132. 132.
San Vicente y las Granadinas
133.
Santa Luc ía
134. 134.
Santo Tomé y Príncipe Príncip e (*)
135.
Senegal
136.
Serbia
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139.
Siria
140.
Somalia Somali a (*)
141.
Sri Lanka Lan ka
142.
Sudán
143.
Sudán del Sur
144.
Suecia
145.
Suiza
146.
Surinam
147.
Tailandia
148.
Tayikistán
149.
Togo
150. 150.
Trinidad Trini dad y Tobago
151.
Túnez
152.
Turkmenistán
153.
Turqu Tur quía ía (**)
154.
Ucrania
155.
Ugand a (*)
156.
Uzbekistán
157.
Venezuela
158.
Vietnam
159.
Yemen
160.
Yibuti
Países del Hemisferio Sur
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1.
Angola
2.
Argentina
3.
Australia
4.
Bolivia
5.
Botsuana
6.
Brasil (*)
7.
Burundi
8.
Chile
9.
Colombia Colomb ia (*)
10.
Comoras
11.
Ecuador Ecu ador (*)
12.
Fiyi
13.
Gabón (*)
14.
Guinea Ecuator ial (*)
15.
Indonesi Indo nesia a (*)
16.
Islas Salomón
17.
Kenia Keni a (*)
18.
Kiribati Kir ibati (*)
19.
Lesoto
20.
Madagascar
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27.
Nueva Zelanda
28.
Papúa Nueva Guin ea
29.
Paraguay
30.
Perú
31.
República Repúblic a del Congo (*)
32.
República Repúblic a Democrátic a del Congo (*)
33.
Ruanda
34.
Samoa
35.
Santo Tomé y Príncipe Príncip e (*)
36.
Seychelles
37.
Somalia Somali a (*)
38.
Suazilandia
39.
Sudáfrica
40.
Tanzania
41.
Timor Oriental
42.
Tonga
43.
Tuvalu
44.
Uganda (*)
45.
Uruguay
46.
Vanuatu
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25. La Tierra Rotación
La Tierra da vueltas sobre sí misma, haciéndolo alrededor de un eje que pasa por los Polos y por el centro de la Tierra. Se trata de un eje imaginario; es decir, que no existe de verdad como si fuese el eje alrededor del que giran las ruedas de un coche. Pero se lo puede imaginar fácilmente fácilmente si se hace girar un globo terráqueo que sí tiene un eje por dentro. Para que sea como lo hace la Tierra en realidad tiene que hacerlo de izquierda a derecha o, para decirlo como en Astronomía, de Oeste a Este. Este es el movimiento de rotación de la Tierra, que tarda un día en dar una vuelta completa alrededor de sí misma:
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llama el Hemisferio Norte y la de abajo Hemisferio Sur. El punto por donde sale el eje imaginario por arriba se llama Polo Norte y, en el otro extremo, está el e l Polo Sur. Y todavía hemos inventado más líneas imaginarias, los Meridianos y los Paralelos. Es como si la superficie de la Tierra fuese una hoja de papel cuadriculado. Utilizamos las líneas para poder saber exactamente en qué punto de la Tierra (en que cuadrado) estamos:
Tanto los meridianos como los paralelos son círculos, porque la Tierra es una esfera. Pero mientras que todos los meridianos son iguales de grandes (todos son círculos cuyo radio es igual al radio de la Tierra) y todos pasan por los Polos, no todos los paralelos son iguales de grandes. El Ecuador, que que no es más que uno de ellos, es el único paralelo igual de grande que los meridianos (o sea, que el Ecuador es un círculo de radio igual al de la Tierra). El resto de paralelos son círculos cada vez más pequeños a medida que nos alejamos del Ecuador y nos acercamos a los Polos. La rotación de la Tierra es la causa de la existencia del día y la noche.
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antes en Asia y Oceanía que en Europa y África: simplemente porque la Tierra da vueltas de de Oeste a Este. Y esto se complementa con estos dos dibujos:
El de la izquierda, representa representa la rotación de la Tierra si se pudiese estar en una nave espacial justamente sobre el Polo Norte (el punto negro en el centro). Tal y como está dibujado, he supuesto que el Sol está por la derecha (las flechas amarillas representan los rayos de luz del Sol). Así que en la mitad de la derecha es de día y en la de la izquierda es de noche. Volando sobre el Polo Norte se vería a la vez todo el Hemisferio Norte, la mitad de día y la otra mitad de noche. Sin embargo no se vería el Hemisferio Hemisferi o Sur. El dibujo de la derecha representa lo que se se vería si se volase en una una nave sobre el Ecuador. Ahora también se ve medio planeta, pero, en lugar de un hemisferio completo, se ve medio Hemisferio Norte y medio Hemisferio Sur. Traslación
El otro movimiento de la Tierra es el de traslación alrededor del Sol. Pero, en realidad, lo que hace la Tierra es más complejo: a la vez que rota sobre si misma se desplaza (se traslada) alrededor del Sol. Así:
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La Tierra tarda 1 año en dar una vuelta completa alrededor del Sol. Es decir, que durante una de estas vueltas habrá dado un poco más de 365 rotaciones sobre sí misma. Veamos la órbita de la Tierra alrededor del Sol:
La órbita de la Tierra es plana. O sea, como si el Sol y la Tierra estuviesen siempre sobre una mesa mientras la Tierra da sus vueltas alrededor del Sol y de d e ella misma. El eje de rotación de la Tierra está inclinado con respecto a su órbita. No está vertical. Veamos:
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Hemisferio Norte: lo que más llama la atención es que en el Polo Norte es siempre de día. En esta época del año a ño el Polo Norte de la Tierra está inclinado hacia el Sol. Todo el hemisferio Norte está inclinado hacia el Sol. Por eso la zona iluminada por el Sol en el Hemisferio Norte es más grande que la parte que queda a oscuras. En el Hemisferio Hemisferio Sur ocurre justo lo contrario: En el Polo Sur es siempre de noche. La parte iluminada por el Sol es más pequeña que la parte oscura, así que mientras la Tierra da una vuelta sobre sí misma, un sitio cualquiera del Hemisferio Sur está más tiempo a oscuras que iluminado por el Sol. O sea, que las noches son más largas que los días durante esta época del año en el Hemisferio Sur. Es el invierno para sus habitantes. Veamos que ocurre pasados seis meses, en diciembre.
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El eje de la Tierra sigue igual de inclinado pero en estas épocas del año lo está hacia un lado, no hacia el Sol. Así que el Sol ilumina la mitad del planeta. Las zonas iluminadas son iguales a las oscuras en ambos hemisferios. Los días y las noches duran más o menos lo mismo en cualquier sitio de la Tierra. En marzo es primavera en el Norte y otoño en el Sur y en septiembre al revés. Solsticios y Equinoccios
Hemos visto que en junio los días duran mucho más que las noches n oches en el Hemisferio Norte. Es verano en este e ste hemisferio. Como la Tierra da la vuelta alrededor del Sol lo que pasa es que el Polo Norte va inclinándose hacia el Sol poco a poco, continuamente, a medida que la Tierra da la vuelta alrededor del Sol: en marzo el Polo no está inclinado hacia el Sol porque el eje de rotación de la Tierra está inclinado hacia un lado, no hacia el Sol). A mediados de la primavera (mediados de mayo) el Polo Norte ya está un poco inclinado hacia el Sol. La zona del Hemisferio Norte iluminada iluminada por el Sol es ya un poco
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En los solsticios en uno de los Polos es de día todo el tiempo mientras que en el otro es de noche todo el tiempo.
Bueno, y en un momento exacto durante septiembre y en otro momento exacto durante marzo los Polos están completamente derechos porque el eje de rotación de la Tierra está inclinado completamente hacia un lado y no hacia el Sol. Son los equinoccios. El Sol ilumina justo la mitad de cada Hemisferio así que en esos momentos la noche dura justo lo mismo que el día en cualquier lugar del planeta. El equinoccio de marzo marca el comienzo de la primavera en el Hemisferio Norte y del otoño en el Su Surr y el de septiembre al contrario.
Equinoccio
Un momento exacto en el que ninguno de los dos Polos terrestres está inclinado hacia el Sol. Ocurre dos veces al año, uno el 21 de marzo y el otro el e l 21 de septiembre y marca el comienzo de la primavera y el otoño. El día que ocurre el equinoccio la noche y el día duran lo mismo en cualquier punto del planeta.
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Las letras en blanco señalan las estaciones para el Hemisferio Norte, como contrapartida, las letras coloreadas indican las estaciones en el Hemisferio Sur. Estaciones
Las estaciones son los periodos del año en los que las condiciones climáticas imperantes se mantienen, en una determinada región, dentro de un cierto rango. Estos periodos son normalmente cuatro y duran aproximadamente aproximadamente tres meses y se
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Cerca del Ecuador, las estaciones no se diferencian mucho ya que los rayos del sol golpean de lleno durante casi todo el año, por lo que la temperatura permanece alta. En los Polos la radiación recibida varía desde cero en el solsticio de invierno hasta un valor netamente superior al del Ecuador en el solsticio de verano debido a que no hay noche.
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y progresivo de las temperaturas conforme avanzan las semanas, con algún período intercalado en el que puede "reaparecer" el ambiente invernal debido a algunas masas de aire frío residuales. residuales. Las precipitaciones tienden a ser más irregulares irregulares y menos generalizadas, descargando descargando en forma de chubasco y tormentas más probables a mediados y finales de la estación, cuando el verano está próximo. Las hojas y flores de los árboles de hoja caducifolia vuelven a crecer de manera gradual, dando colorido de nuevo al pa paisaje isaje después del invierno. La primavera también puede referir a las ideas del nacimiento, el rejuvenecimiento, la renovación, la resurrección y el nuevo crecimiento. En la literatura, literatura, la primavera representa la juventud, época o fase la vida de una persona en la que q ue se dice que está en la "flor de la vida". 26. Año Nuevo
El Año Nuevo comenzó a festejarse el 1 de enero hace relativamente relativamente poco tiempo; fue el Papa Gregorio XIII quien lo dispuso en 1582 para todos los países católicos, al inaugurar el calendario en vigencia, que sustituyó al juliano. Luego, poco a poco, las restantes naciones naciones lo incorporaron -los rusos fueron los
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Lo dicho no tiene demasiada relevancia, si se observa que otros pueblos -que en lo civil se manejan con el e l calendario gregorianogregoriano- celebran su año nuevo en otras fechas, en función de sus propias tradiciones históricas o religiosas. Por ejemplo, el Año Nuevo chino comienza entre entre enero y febrero con la primera Luna nueva de Acuario; el Rosh Hashaná (cabeza de año) judío empieza en el mes de Tisri del calendario hebreo, que equivale a septiembre u octubre del gregoriano; y el Año Nuevo musulmán en el mes de Muharram que, como obedece a un calendario lunar, puede caer en cualquier mes gregoriano. Respecto a los años, estos también son dispares: los chinos viven en el año 4704 del Perro y el e l próximo 18 de febrero recibirán al año 4705 del Cerdo. Los judíos transitan el 5767, que establecieron a partir de la supuesta fecha del nacimiento de Adán; en tanto que los musulmanes, cuyo almanaque comienza con la huida de Mahoma a Medina en el año 622, le restan esta cifra al año gregoriano para saber en cuál viven: 1384. En la ciudad de Buenos Aires, la ley 1550 sancionada sancionada en 2004, instituyó el 21 de junio como año nuevo de los pueblos originarios, en función de que ellos lo celebran en el el
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La celebración del Año Nuevo Vietnamita, celebrado junto al Año Nuevo Chino. El Año Nuevo Islámico se celebra el 1 de Muharram, Muharram, aproximadamente fines de enero e inicios de febrero. La celebración del Año Nuevo Tibetano se celebra entre enero y marzo. La celebración del Año Nuevo Iraní es para el equinoccio vernal, el 21 de marzo. También la celebración del Brahmanismo se da en el equinoccio vernal, el 21 de marzo. En Tailandia, Camboya, Birmania y Bengala se celebra entre el 13 y 15 de abril. Celebración del Año Nuevo Mapuche es el 24 de julio. Celebración del Año Nuevo Inca, el 24 de julio. Celebración del Año Nuevo Judío es generalmente en septiembre. Celebración del Año Nuevo Etíope, el 11 de septiembre...
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