All you need B1+
1
ALL YOU NEED B1+ Grammar in Greek Written by Jean Vinten Peter Pappas
Editing by Vicky Nash
Page layout Evi Zimantakou Kalliopi Pipelidou
ISBN student’s: 978-960-6895-42-5 ISBN teacher’s: 978-960-6895-41-8
Published by Supercourse Publishing, 2012 Laodikias 1, 59100 Veria, Greece
Tel: 23310 73777 www.supercourse.gr e-mail:
[email protected]
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publisher.
2
All you need B1+
ALL YOU NEED B1+ Grammar in Greek Written by Jean Vinten Peter Pappas
Editing by Vicky Nash
Page layout Evi Zimantakou Kalliopi Pipelidou
ISBN student’s: 978-960-6895-42-5 ISBN teacher’s: 978-960-6895-41-8
Published by Supercourse Publishing, 2012 Laodikias 1, 59100 Veria, Greece
Tel: 23310 73777 www.supercourse.gr e-mail:
[email protected]
All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publisher.
2
All you need B1+
Lesson 1a
Present Simple & Present Continuous
PRESENT SIMPLE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS FORM
FORM Affirmative I play you play he/she/it plays we play you play they play
Interrogative Do I play? Do you play? Does he/she/it play? Do we play? Do you play? Do they play?
SHORT FORMS Negative I/you/we/they I/you/we/they don’t play he/she/it doesn’t play
Negative I do not play you do not play he/she/it does not play we do not play you do not play they do not play SPELLING TIPS I carry he carries I wash he washes I go he goes
Affirmative I am playing you are playing he/she/it is playing we are playing you are playing they are playing
YES / NO ANSWERS:
USE
USE
SPELLING TIPS come coming run running lie lying
- Yes, I am. - No, I’m not. - Yes, he is. - No, he isn’t. - Yes, we are. - No, we aren’t.
1. Για πράξεις που γίνονται τη στιγμή στιγμή που μιλάμε. Mrs Green is is having a a bath right now.
Why aren’t you you listening to to me? Am I I boring you? you? 2. Για προσωρινές ή εξελισσόμενες καταστάσεις. καταστάσεις.
2. Με μελλοντική σημασία, σημασία, για δρομολόγια δρομολόγια μεταφορικών μέσων, ωρολόγια προγράμματα, κτλ. The next train to London leaves at at 5 pm. Schools close in in June. The film starts at at nine o'clock.
Our grandparents are staying with with us this week. More and more people are studying at at universities nowadays. 3. Για προγραμματισμένες πράξεις στο κοντινό μέλλον. She 's 's leaving for for Oxford tomorrow.
3. Για ζωντανές ζωντανές αφηγήσεις και και οδηγίες. Then the door opens and and a tall man comes in . You put in in the eggs and then you add the the sugar.
They 're 're going to to Scotland this weekend. 4. Για να δείξουμε ενόχληση με τα always , constantly
KEY WORDS / PHRASES • Επιρρήματα συχνότητας: always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, rarely, never Πριν από Πριν από το κύριο ρήμα: κύριο ρήμα: We sometimes play play tennis. I don't always get get up early. Mum is often busy. busy. Μετά το Μετά το ρήμα be: • once a week/year, every day/week, on Mondays,
(=διαρκώς, μονίμως), forever (=συνέχεια). He ’s ’s always asking me me for money! My parents are constantly checking my my homework! It 's 's forever raining in this city! KEY WORDS / PHRASES (right) now, at the moment, this week/month/year, these days, today, tonight ...
in the morning, at weekends, in (the) summer ... τέλος ή στην αρχή της αρχή της πρότασης: Στο τέλος ή I go to the cinema at weekends . OR: At weekends I I go to the cinema.
Lesson 1b
Negative I am not playing you are not playing he/she/it is not playing we are not playing you are not playing they are not playing
SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’m, you’re I’m not he’s, we’re ... he’s not / he isn’t we’re not / we aren’t
YES / NO ANSWERS: ANSWERS: - Yes, I/you ... do. - No, I/you .... don’t. - Yes, he/she ... does. - No, he/she ... doesn’t. doesn’t.
1. Για συνήθειες, μόνιμες μόνιμες καταστάσεις καταστάσεις ή γενικές αλήθειες. αλήθειες. George usually drinks milk milk in the morning. My family and I live in in London. The sun rises in in the East.
Interrogative Am I playing? playing? Are you playing? playing? Is he/she/it playing? Are we playing? playing? Are you playing? playing? Are they playing? playing?
Non-continuous Verbs
NON-CONTINUOUS (STATIVE) VERBS Τα Non-continuous / Stative verbs , δε σχηματίζουν χρόνους διαρκείας (continuous) γιατί αναφέρονται σε μία κατάσταση (state) και όχι σε συγκεκριμένη ενέργεια. Mε αυτά τα ρήματα χρησιμοποιούμε απλούς χρόνους (Present Simple, Past Simple, etc.).
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3
1. Ρήματα προτίμησης like (μου αρέσει) dislike (δε μου αρέσει) love (αγαπώ) want (θέλω) hate (μισώ) prefer (προτιμώ) wish (εύχομαι) 2. Ρήματα κτήσης have (έχω) own (κατέχω) possess (κατέχω) belong to (ανήκω σε)
3. Ρήματα αντίληψης think (νομίζω) believe (πιστεύω) know (ξέρω) remember (θυμάμαι) forget (ξεχνώ) understand (καταλαβαίνω) realize (συνειδητοποιώ) consider (θεωρώ) 4. Ρήματα εμφάνισης appear (φαίνομαι) seem (φαίνομαι) look (δείχνω, μοιάζω)
5. Ρήματα αίσθησης see (βλέπω / καταλαβαίνω) hear (ακούω) smell (έχω μυρωδιά) taste (έχω γεύση) sound (ακούγομαι) feel (έχω αίσθηση, νιώθω) 6. Άλλα ρήματα need (χρειάζομαι) mean (εννοώ) cost (κοστίζω) weigh (έχω βάρος) fit (ταιριάζω σε μέγεθος) be (είμαι)
Examples: I don't understand what he’s saying. (NOT: I'm not understanding...)
She wants to go out. (NOT: She's wanting...)
Do you like ice-cream? (NOT: Are you liking...)
This soup smells great. (NOT: This soup is smelling...)
ΝΟΤΕ: Κάποια από αυτά τα ρήματα σχηματίζουν χρόνους διαρκείας αλλά αλλάζει η σημασία τους. think (of/about) I don’t think this is right. (νομίζω) BUT: I’ m thinking of you / about my problems. (σκέφτομαι)
taste This soup tastes great. (έχω γεύση) BUT: He ’s tasting the soup. (δοκιμάζω) smell Your room smells bad. (έχω μυρωδιά) BUT: She ’s smelling the flowers. (μυρίζω) weigh This box weighs two kilos. (έχω βάρος) BUT: Why are you weighing your suitcase? (ζυγίζω)
see Do you see clearly? (βλέπω) Oh, I see what you mean now. (καταλαβαίνω) BUT: John is seeing the dentist/Beth tomorrow. (συναντώ) have
Άλλα ρήματα που αλλάζουν σημασία σε continuous
We don’t have a dog. (έχω) BUT: We ’re having dinner now. (τρώω) She ’s having some tea. (πίνω) I' m having a bath. (κάνω)
χρόνους είναι: appear (φαίνομαι ― εμφανίζομαι) fit (ταιριάζω σε μέγεθος ― τοποθετώ) feel (νιώθω, έχω αίσθηση ― ψηλαφώ) be (είμαι ― συμπεριφέρομαι)
Lesson 2a
Past Simple & Past Continuous
PAST SIMPLE
PAST CONTINUOUS FORM
FORM Affirmative I played you played he played she played it played we played you played they played SHORT FORMS Negative didn’t
Interrogative did I play? did you play? did he play? did she play? did it play? did we play? did you play? did they play?
Negative I did not play you did not play he did not play she did not play it did not play we did not play you did not play they did not play
SPELLING TIPS decide decided stop carry carried go
* see irregular verbs list YES / NO ANSWERS: - Yes, I / you ... did. - No, I / you ... didn’t. 4
All you need B1+
stopped went *
Affirmative I was playing you were playing he was playing she was playing it was playing we were playing you were playing they were playing
Interrogative was I playing? were you playing? was he playing? was she playing? was it playing? were we playing? were you playing? were they playing?
Negative I was not playing you were not playing he was not playing she was not playing it was not playing we were not playing you were not playing they were not playing
SHORT FORMS Negative wasn’t weren’t YES / NO ANSWERS: - Yes, I / he/she/it was. / - No, I / he/she/it wasn’t. - Yes, we / you / they were. / - No, we / you / they weren’t.
USE
USE
1. Για πράξεις που έγιναν και τελείωσαν σε
1. Για πράξεις που γίνονταν ή ήταν σε εξέλιξη σε
συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο παρελθόν.
συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο παρελθόν.
I went to the supermarket at 10 o’clock yesterday.
At 8 o’clock last night I was surfing the Net.
2. Για πράξεις που έγιναν στο παρελθόν η μία μετά
την άλλη.
παρελθόν.
I tidied my room and then I cleaned the kitchen.
While I was sleeping , my brothers were fighting in their
3. Για συνήθειες ή καταστάσεις στο παρελθόν.
2. Για πράξεις που γίνονταν ταυτόχρονα κάποια στιγμή στο
Grandma played tennis when she was young. I lived in a village whan I was young.
room. 3. Για να περιγράψουμε το σκηνικό μιας αφήγησης. It was an amazing evening. The stars were shining brightly and everyone was dancing round the bonfire.
KEY WORDS / PHRASES yesterday, the day before yesterday, when, last night/ week/month/year, (two days) ago, the other day, the last time
KEY WORDS / PHRASES as, while, all day yesterday, from ... to ..., at that moment
NOTE: I burned my hand while I was cooking . OR: While I was cooking, I burned my hand. (H μία πράξη διέκοψε την άλλη.) ALSO: I was cooking when I burned my hand. BUT: While I was cooking , my sister was watching TV. (Οι δύο πράξεις γίνονταν ταυτόχρονα.)
Lesson 2b
Used to & Would - Be / Get used to WOULD
USED TO Used to (+ infinitive) = συνήθιζα να ...
Would (+ bare infinitive) = συνήθιζα να ...
FORM
FORM
Affirmative I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they used to play Negative I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they didn’t use to play Interrogative Did I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they use to play ...?
Affirmative I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they would play NOTE: η χρήση του would + bare infinitive στην άρνηση και την ερώτηση είναι πολύ σπάνια για συνήθειες στο παρελθόν και δε συνιστάται.
USE
USE
Για συνήθειες ή καταστάσεις στο παρελθόν που δεν ισχύουν πια.
Μόνο για συνήθειες στο παρελθόν, όχι καταστάσεις.
I used to play basketball when I was a student. = I played basketball when I was a student.
I would play basketball every day back then. = I used to play basketball every day back then. = I played basketball every day back then.
(συνήθεια στο παρελθόν, τώρα έχω σταματήσει)
I used to have a dog. = I had a dog.
BUT NOT: I would have a dog.
(κατάσταση, τώρα δεν έχω πια)
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5
GET USED TO
BE USED TO be + used to (+ gerund/noun) = είμαι συνηθισμένος σε/να ...
get + used to (+ gerund/noun) = συνηθίζω (σιγά-σιγά), αρχίζω να συνηθίζω
FORM
FORM
Present Simple of be * Affirmative: I am used to playing, working, etc. Negative: I’m not used to playing, etc. Interrogative: Am I used to playing? etc.
Present Continuous of get * Affirmative: I am getting used to playing, working, etc. Negative: I’m not getting used to playing, etc. Interrogative: Am I getting used to playing? etc.
* Ανάλογα με το νόημα της πρότασης το ρήμα be κλίνεται και σε άλλους χρόνους.
* Ανάλογα με το νόημα της πρότασης το ρήμα get κλίνεται και σε άλλους χρόνους.
USE
USE
Χρησιμοποιούμε be used to για κάτι που είμαστε συνηθισμένοι να κάνουμε ή με ουσιαστικό.
Χρησιμοποιούμε get used to για κάτι που συνηθίζουμε σιγά-σιγά ή μια συνήθεια που τώρα αποκτούμε.
I am used to working long hours.
I got used to working long hours.
(Είμαι συνηθισμένος να δουλεύω πολλές ώρες.)
(Συνήθισα σιγά-σιγά να δουλεύω πολλές ώρες.)
I' m not used to working long hours.
I can't get used to working long hours.
(Δεν είμαι συνηθισμένος να δουλεύω πολλές ώρες.)
(Δε μπορώ να συνηθίσω να δουλεύω πολλές ώ ρες.)
I am used to the noise of the city.
I 'm getting used to the noise of the city.
(Είμαι συνηθισμένος στο θόρυβο της πόλης.)
(Συνηθίζω σιγά-σιγά το θόρυβο της πόλης.)
Lesson 3a
Present Perfect Simple & Continuous
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE FORM Affirmative I / you have played* he/she/it has played we have played you have played they have played
Interrogative have I /you played? has he/she/it played? have we played? have you played? have they played?
SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’ve, you’ve, I haven’t he’s, she’s ... she hasn’t ...
Negative I / you haven’t played he/she/it hasn’t played we haven’t played you haven’t played they haven’t played
* SPELLING TIPS: decide decided - stop stopped - carry carried go gone, eat eaten, ... (see irregular past participles)
YES / NO ANSWERS: - Yes, I/you ... have - No, I/you ... haven’t - Yes, he/she ... has - No, he/she ... hasn’t
USE 1. Για πράξεις που έγιναν στο παρελθόν χωρίς να αναφέρεται το πότε. I ’ve finished my homework but I haven’t eaten yet. 2. Για πράξεις που έγιναν στο παρελθόν και έχουν ορατά αποτελέσματα στο παρόν. I can’t walk because I ’ve broken my leg. 3. Για καταστάσεις που ξεκίνησαν στο παρελθόν και συνεχίζονται στο παρόν. Mary has been a nurse in this hospital for ten years. I haven’t played football for three years. (=Έχω να παίξω ποδόσφαιρο τρία χρόνια.)
NOT: I have to play football for three years. 4. Μετά από επίθετα/επιρρήματα σε υπερθετικό βαθμό. This is the best cake I have ever tasted !
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All you need B1+
KEY WORDS / PHRASES • just
We have just washed the car.
(μόλις)
• already I’ve already finished my project.
(ήδη)
• never
He’s never tried bungee jumping.
(ποτέ)
• ever
This is the best song I’ve ever heard. (ποτέ)
• always I’ve always wanted to travel abroad. • so far • yet
(πάντα)
She's written three e-mails so far . (έως τώρα)
σε ερώτηση & άρνηση (ήδη, ακόμη) Have you finished your work yet ? (ήδη, κιόλας) I haven’t finished my work yet . (ακόμη)
• once, twice, three times ..., a few / many times ...
I’ve visited Australia once or twice. • (It’s) the first, second, ... time + Present Perfect
It’s the first time I’ve eaten Chinese food.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORM Affirmative I have been playing you have been playing he/she/it has been playing we have been playing you have been playing they have been playing
Interrogative have I been playing? have you been playing? has he/she/it been playing? have we been playing? have you been playing? have they been playing?
Negative I haven’t been playing you haven’t been playing he/she/it hasn’t been playing we haven’t been playing you haven’t been playing they haven’t been playing
SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’ve, you’ve, I haven’t, he’s, she’s ... she hasn’t ... YES / NO ANSWERS: - Yes, I ... have - No, I ... haven’t - Yes, he ... has - No, he ... hasn’t
USE 1. Για πράξεις που άρχισαν στο παρελθόν και συνεχίζονται στο παρόν, με έμφαση στη διάρκεια. I ’ve been studying all day today. He has been working here since 1990. 2. Για πράξεις με διάρκεια στο παρελθόν και με ορατά αποτελέσματα στο παρόν. He looks very tired. He ’s been running for two hours.
NOTE: Τα ρήματα work και live χρησιμοποιούνται στον Present Perfect Simple και Continuous , χωρίς να υπάρχει διαφορά στο νόημα της πρότασης.
I have lived / have been living here since 1999. She has worked / has been working as a teacher for eleven years.
Lesson 3b
KEY WORDS / PHRASES • all day/morning/evening/week ...
(όλη μέρα)
I’ve been working hard all day . • How long ...?
(πόση ώρα, πόσον καιρό) How long have you been watching TV today?
• since + χρονικό σημείο ή πρόταση με Past Simple
He’s been living here since 1990. He’s been living here since he was a child.
(από) (από τότε που)
• for + χρονικό διάστημα, π.χ. two years/months/hours ...
She’s been sleeping for two hours.
(εδώ και)
Present Perfect vs. Past Simple - Have gone to, Have been to/in
PRESENT PERFECT
PAST SIMPLE
USE: 1. Για πράξεις που έχουν γίνει στο παρελθόν χωρίς να αναφέρεται το πότε. The film has finished .
USE: 1. Για πράξεις που έγιναν σε συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο παρελθόν η οποία αναφέρεται. The film finished at 9.00 o’clock.
2. Για πράξεις που άρχισαν στο παρελθόν και συνεχίζονται στο παρόν. I have had my bike for three years. (και ακόμα το έχω)
2. Για πράξεις που άρχισαν και τελείωσαν στο παρελθόν. I had a bike when I was young. (δεν έχω πλέον)
3. Για πράξεις που έγιναν από ανθρώπους που είναι ακόμα στη ζωή. Emma Watson has starred in many films. (ζει ακόμη) KEY WORDS / PHRASES just, already, never, ever, always so far, (not) yet, once, twice, three /many /a few times, It's the first time ..., superlative degree (+ever) ...
3. Για πράξεις που έγιναν από ανθρώπους που δε ζουν πια. Graham Bell invented the telephone. (δε ζει πια)
KEY WORDS / PHRASES yesterday, the day before yesterday last night /week /month /year, when, (two days) ago, the other day, the last time ...
HAVE GONE TO - HAVE BEEN TO/IN • Xρησιμοποιούμε have gone to για να αναφέρουμε ότι κάποιος έχει πάει κάπου και είναι ακόμη εκεί, δεν έχει επιστρέψει. • Xρησιμοποιούμε have been to για να αναφέρουμε ότι κάποιος πήγε κάπου στο παρελθόν αλλά τώρα έχει επιστρέψει. • Xρησιμοποιούμε have been in για να αναφέρουμε ότι κάποιος ζει ή βρίσκεται κάπου.
Nelly has gone to England. (Βρίσκεται ακόμη εκεί.) Nelly has been to England. (Έχει πάει στο παρελθόν, δεν βρίσκεται εκεί τώρα.) Nelly has been in England for two months. (Βρίσκεται εκεί εδώ και δύο μήνες.)
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7
Lesson 4a
Past Perfect Simple & Continuous
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE FORM Affirmative I / you had played * he/she/it had played we / you had played they had played
Negative I / you hadn’t played he/she/it hadn’t played we / you hadn’t played they hadn’t played
Interrogative had I / you played? had he/she/it played? had we / you played? had they played?
* SPELLING TIPS: decide decided - stop stopped - carry carried go gone, eat eaten, ... (see irregular past participles)
USE
SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’d, you’d, I hadn’t, he’d, she’d ... she hadn’t ... YES / NO ANSWERS: - Yes, I/you... had. - No, I/you... hadn’t.
KEY WORDS / PHRASES
Για μια πράξη που είχε γίνει στο παρελθόν πριν από κάποια άλλη πράξη ή πριν από κάποιο χρονικό σημείο.
• by the time/ when/ before + Past Simple
The concert had already started by the time we arrived. 1η πράξη: Past Perfect - 2η πράξη: Past Simple
•
by (+ χρονικό σημείο), π.χ. by then, by 6 o'clock ...
• after, as soon as: I got up after I had eaten . • until: I didn't get up until I had eaten .
They had booked the table by 9.00 o'clock. COMPARE:
When / By the time I got there, he had already left .
• still (+ άρνηση): He still hadn't called me by 8pm.
This is the first time I have travelled abroad. That was the first time I had travelled abroad.
• It was the first, second ... time • It was + superlative (+ ever)
It was the best song I had ever heard.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORM Affirmative I had been playing you had been playing he/she/it had been playing we had been playing you had been playing they had been playing
Interrogative had I been playing? had you been playing? had he/she/it been playing? had we been playing? had you been playing? had they been playing?
Negative I hadn’t been playing you hadn’t been playing he/she/it hadn’t been playing we hadn’t been playing you hadn’t been playing they hadn’t been playing
SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’d, you’d, I hadn’t, he’d, she’d ... she hadn’t ... YES / NO ANSWERS: - Yes, I/you ... had. - No, I/you ... hadn’t.
USE Για να δώσουμε έμφαση στη διάρκεια μιας πράξης που γινόταν πριν από κάποια άλλη πράξη ή ένα χρονικό σημείο στο παρελθόν. I found my keys last night. I had been looking for them for three days. They had been running in the marathon since 10 o’clock.
KEY WORDS / PHRASES • for, since, all night/day/week/year ... • by the time/when/before + Past Simple • after/by (+ χρονικό σημείο)/ How long ...?
NOTE: Present Perfect Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous Her eyes are red because she has been crying for half an hour. (αποτέλεσμα ορατό στο παρόν) Her eyes were red because she had been crying for half an hour. (αποτέλεσμα ορατό στο παρελθόν)
Lesson 4b
Revision of Present & Past Tenses
PRESENT SIMPLE
8
FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I play Do I play? I don’t play
• συνήθεια • μόνιμη κατάσταση • γενική αλήθεια • δρομολόγια, προγράμματα, αφηγήσεις
I brush my teeth every night. I speak French and German. Pets need affection. The exhibition opens at 8.00.
All you need B1+
PRESENT CONTINUOUS FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I am playing Am I playing? I’m not playing
• πράξη σε εξέλιξη • προσωρινή/εξελισσόμενη κατάσταση • προγραμματισμένη πράξη στο μέλλον • ενόχληση
Look! The baby is smiling ! I ’m working as a waiter this summer. We are flying to Boston tomorrow. Why are you always wearing my shoes?
FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I played / went Did I play / go? I didn’t play / go
• πράξη που έγινε και τελείωσε σε συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο παρελθόν • διαδοχικές πράξεις στο παρελθόν • συνήθεια στο παρελθόν
Henry finished a crossword last night. I set the alarm clock, turned off the light and went to bed. I swam every day last summer.
PAST SIMPLE
PAST CONTINUOUS FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I was playing Was I playing? I wasn’t not playing
• πράξη σε εξέλιξη σε συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο παρελθόν • παράλληλες πράξεις στο παρελθόν • σκηνικό μιας αφήγησης
When I saw Jim, he was wearing glasses. Pam was drying her hair while I was working . The children were playing happily in the garden. Suddenly, the ground shook violently.
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I have played / gone Have I played / gone? I haven’t played / gone
• πράξη που έγινε και δεν αναφέρεται το πότε • παρελθοντική πράξη με αποτέλεσμα στο παρόν • κατάσταση που ξεκίνησε στο παρελθόν και συνεχίζεται στο παρόν • μετά από επίθετα/επιρρήματα υπερθετικού βαθμού
I have been to Egypt. He can’t go to the concert because he ’s lost his ticket. I ’ve known Jill for twenty years. That’s the largest house I’ ve ever seen !
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I have been playing Have I been playing? I haven’t been playing
• πράξη με διάρκεια στο παρελθόν που συνεχίζεται στο παρόν • πράξη με διάρκεια στο παρελθόν με αποτέλεσμα στο παρόν
Mum has been peeling potatoes for half an hour. His eyes are red because he has been playing computer games for hours.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I had played / gone Had I played / gone? I hadn’t played / gone
• πράξη που είχε γίνει πριν από άλλη πράξη ή χρονικό σημείο στο παρελθόν
They had finished their meal when I arrived. We had left the office by 2 o’clock yesterday.
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I had been playing Had I been playing? I hadn’t been playing
• πράξη με διάρκεια πριν από άλλη πράξη ή χρονικό σημείο στο παρελθόν
They had been playing tennis for two hours when it started raining.
All you need B1+
9
Lesson 5a
Future Tenses (1) USE
FUTURE SIMPLE FORM Affirmative: I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they will play Interrogative: will I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they play? Negative: I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they will not play SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’ll, you’ll I won’t, he’ll, she’ll ... you won’t ...
YES / NO ANSWERS:
- Yes, I/you... will. - No, I/you... won’t.
KEY WORDS / PHRASES tomorrow, next week /month /year, in two months, in the future, when/after ... + Present tenses *
1. Για προβλέψεις με τα: I think, I believe, I suppose, I hope, I’m sure, probably, perhaps, certainly, ... I think they ’ll win the match. It will probably rain tomorrow. 2. Για αποφάσεις της στιγμής και υποσχέσεις. The phone’s ringing. I ’ll get it. I promise I ’ll send you a postcard. 3. Για να προτείνουμε ή να ζητήσουμε κάτι ευγενικά. Will you join us tonight? Will you bring me some water, please? 4. Για προειδοποιήσεις ή απειλές. Be careful! You ’ll cut your finger. Stop fighting or I 'll punish you.
* NOTE: Δε χρησιμοποιούμε μέλλοντα μετά από τους χρονικούς συνδέσμους: when, after, before, as soon as, while, once, until / till, by the time και τα if, unless, in case. Aν και αναφερόμαστε στο μέλλον, οι σύνδεσμοι αυτοί συντάσσονται
με Present Simple ή Present Perfect. Π.χ. When I get home, I will call you. / We'll clean up after everyone has left the party.
FUTURE CONTINUOUS FORM
USE
Affirmative: I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they will be playing
1. Για πράξεις
που θα
βρίσκονται σε εξέλιξη
Interrogative: will I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they be playing?
συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο μέλλον.
Negative: I, you, he/she/it, we, you, they will not be playing
At 8.00 o'clock tomorrow I ’ll be travelling to Rome.
SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’ll, you’ll I won’t, he’ll, she’ll ... you won’t ...
YES / NO ANSWERS:
- Yes, I/you... will. - No, I/you... won’t.
σε
2. Για πράξεις που θα γίνουν σίγουρα στο μέλλον επειδή
είναι μέρος κάποιου προγράμματος ή ρουτίνας. I ’ll be having football practice on Saturday morning.
KEY WORDS / PHRASES this time tomorrow/next week/next month, at 6 o'clock tomorrow, between 5 and 6 o'clock, from ... to ..., tonight, ...
BE GOING TO USE FORM Affirmative I am going to play he/she/it is going to play we/you/they are going to play Interrogative am I going to play? is he/she/it going to play? are we/you/they going to play?
SHORT Affirmative I’m, you’re he’s ...
FORMS Negative I’m not, you aren’t, he isn’t ...
1. Για μελλοντικά σχέδια (πρόκειται, σκοπεύω να). We 're going to buy a new house next year. 2. Για προβλέψεις που βασίζονται σε ενδείξεις. Look at those clouds. It 's going to rain.
YES / NO ANSWERS - Yes, I am. - No, I’m not. - Yes, you are - No, you aren’t. - Yes, he is. - No, he isn’t.
Negative I am not going to play he/she/it is not going to play we/you/they are not going to play
REMEMBER:
Με μελλοντική σημασία χρησιμοποιούμε επίσης: • Present Simple: The ship sets sail at 7pm.
(δρομολόγια, ωρολόγια προγράμματα) • Present Continuous : I ’m leaving for Cambridge tomorrow. (προγραμματισμένες πράξεις)
10
All you need B1+
Lesson 5b
Future Tenses (2) & Revision
FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
FORM
FORM
Affirmative: I, you, he/she/it, we, they will have played *
Affirmative: I, you, he/she/it, we, they will have been playing
Negative: I, you, he/she/it, we, they will not have played Interrogative: will I, you, he/she/it, we, they have played? * SPELLING TIPS: decide decided - stop stopped - carry carried go gone, eat eaten, ... (see irregular past participles) SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’ll, you’ll I won’t, he’ll, she’ll ... you won’t ...
YES / NO ANSWERS:
- Yes, I/you... will. - No, I/you... won’t.
Negative: I, you, he/she/it, we, they will not have been playing Interrogative: will I, you, he/she/it, we, they have been playing? SHORT FORMS Affirmative Negative I’ll, you’ll I won’t, he’ll, she’ll ... you won’t ...
YES / NO ANSWERS:
- Yes, I/you... will. - No, I/you... won’t.
USE
USE
Για πράξεις που θα έχουν ολοκληρωθεί πριν από κάποια συγκεκριμένη στιγμή ή άλλη πράξη στο μέλλον. I will have finished this book by next week. By the time the exams start, I will have revised all my lessons.
Για πράξεις που θα συνεχίζονται έως μια συγκεκριμένη στιγμή ή άλλη πράξη στο μέλλον. Έμφαση στη διάρκεια. By next month /By the time she turns fifteen, my older sister will have been playing basketball for five years. KEY WORDS / PHRASES for + χρονικό διάστημα (two hours/months/years ...) by, by the time / before / when ... + Present tenses
KEY WORDS / PHRASES by, by the time / before / when ... + Present tenses NOTE: Χρησιμοποιούμε until /till (= έως) με Future Perfect μόνο στην άρνηση. He won’t have repaired the roof until /till Friday.
NOTE: Με τα ρήματα work και live χρησιμοποιούμε Future Perfect Simple ή Continuous χωρίς διαφορά στο νόημα. By June, I will have lived/been living in Paris for five years.
Revision of Future Tenses TENSES
USE
EXAMPLES
Future Simple
1. προβλέψεις 2. στιγμιαίες αποφάσεις, υποσχέσεις 3. προειδοποιήσεις, απειλές
1. I’m sure you will enjoy the play. 2. It’s very hot. I’ ll open the window. 3. Be careful or else you’ ll fall into the river.
be going to
1. μελλοντικά σχέδια 2. προβλέψεις βάσει ενδείξεων
1. She’ s going to travel to Italy. 2. Look at those clouds. It’ s going to rain .
Future Continuous
1. πράξεις σε εξέλιξη σε συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο μέλλον 2. σίγουρες πράξεις στο μέλλον (μέρος προγράμματος ή ρουτίνας)
Present Continuous (for the future)
προγραμματισμένες πράξεις για το άμεσο μέλλον
They are leav ing for France next week.
Present Simple (for the future)
προγράμματα (θέατρων κλπ.), δρομολόγια (τρένων κλπ.)
Hurry up! The play starts at seven.
Future Perfect Simple
πράξεις που θα έχουν ολοκληρωθεί έως κάποια στιγμή ή άλλη πράξη στο μέλλον
We will have reach ed the top of the mountain by two o’clock.
Future Perfect Continuous
πράξεις που θα συνεχίζονται έως κάποια στιγμή ή άλλη πράξη στο μέλλον
They will have been work ing here for ten years in June.
1. I’ ll be do ing my homework at six o'clock tomorrow. 2. I’ ll be revis ing for my exams all day on Sunday.
All you need B1+
11
Lesson 6a MODAL VERBS
Modal Verbs
USE
EXAMPLES
can
1. ικανότητα / δυνατότητα 2. άδεια 3. παράκληση
1. Sue can play the piano. / We can meet tonight. 2. You can go out now. 3. Can you lend me your car?
can’t
1. έλλειψη ικανότητας / δυνατότητας 2. αρνητικό συμπέρασμα 3. απαγόρευση
1. He can’t swim. / I can't go out. I'm busy. 2. It can’t be that difficult. 3. You can’t stay out late tonight.
could
1. ικανότητα στο παρελθόν 2. πιθανότητα 3. άδεια, παράκληση
1. She could speak English before she started school. 2. They could be at home. 3. Could I borrow your laptop?
1. πιθανότητα
1. I may/might send you an e-mail. He might not arrive on time. 2. You may leave when you've finished this report. May/Might I go out, Miss?
may / might
2. άδεια
will
1. πρόβλεψη 2. απόφαση στιγμής 3. παράκληση 4. απειλή
1. I'm sure this plan will succeed. 2. You look tired; I will make you a cup of tea. 3. Will you please close the door? 4. Give me your money or I 'll shoot.
would
1. παράκληση 2. συνήθεια στο παρελθόν (κατάφαση) 3. υποθετική κατάσταση
1. Would you help me with the test? 2. Every winter we would go skiing with our friends. 3. I would come to the party if I weren't ill.
1. συμβουλή / κριτική 2. υποχρέωση
1. You should/ought to eat more fruit. You shouldn't talk like that. 2. You should/ought to finish your project by Tuesday.
must
1. υποχρέωση 2. θετικό συμπέρασμα
1. My mother says I must tidy my room. 2. They've reached the top. They must be thrilled.
mustn’t
1. απαγόρευση
1. You mustn’t smoke in here.
shall (+ I/we)
1. πρόταση 2. προσφορά βοήθειας
1. Shall we go to the aquarium today? 2. Shall I carry these bags for you?
should / ought to
Lesson 6b SEMI-MODALS
Semi-modal Verbs USE
EXAMPLES
1. μπορώ, είμαι ικανός να (στη θέση του
1. She is ( not ) able to / can (’t ) swim. They won’t be able to join us tonight.
can σε όλους τους απλούς χρόνους)
be able to + inf.
2. κατάφερα να (για ικανότητα σε συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο παρελθόν OXI could σε κατάφαση και ερώτηση)
πρέπει / είμαι υποχρεωμένος να
have to + inf.
(στη θέση του must σε όλους τους απλούς χρόνους - κλίνεται σαν κύριο ρήμα)
δεν είναι ανάγκη / δε χρειάζεται να
(not) have to + inf. needn’t
(σε όλους τους απλούς χρόνους - κλίνεται σαν κύριο ρήμα)
2. I was able to find the museum without a map. Were you able to fix the car on your own? BUT: We weren’t able to / couldn't fix the car ... We have to / must tidy up our rooms this weekend. Jill had to stay up late to finish her project. I'm afraid I' ll have to ask you to leave. You don’t have to explain this. I understand. Luckily, we didn't have to revise for the test. I hope I won't have to pick Tim up from school.
δε χρειάζεται να
You needn’t / don't need to get up early tomorrow. It’s Sunday. He needn't / doesn’t need to work. He's rich.
didn’t need to + inf.
δε χρειάστηκε να (και δεν έγινε)
She didn’t need to take a taxi because she had her own car.
needn’t have + past participle
δε χρειαζόταν να (αλλά έγινε)
You needn’t have bought any bread. I’ve already bought some.
don’t/doesn't need to
12
+ inf.
All you need B1+
NOTES •
was/were able to >< could
Για να πούμε ότι κάποιος κατάφερε να κάνει κάτι σε συγκεκριμένη στιγμή στο παρελθόν, χρησιμοποιούμε was/were able to σε κατάφαση ή ερώτηση και ΟΧΙ could. I was able to solve the problem on my own. (NOT: I could solve ... ) Were you able to do that all by yourself? (NOT: Could you do ... ) Στην άρνηση όμως και τα δύο είναι σωστά με αυτή την έννοια. She wasn't able to / couldn't find her keys this morning. •
don't/doesn't have to >< mustn't
Μη συγχέεις το don't/doesn't have to (= δεν είναι ανάγκη να) με το mustn't που δηλώνει απαγόρευση (= δεν πρέπει, απαγορεύεται).
Lesson 7a
Adjectives & Adverbs: Use, Form & Order
ADJECTIVES Τα επίθετα (adjectives) προσδιορίζουν ουσιαστικά.
Τhey have bought a new car.
Her hair is long and straight .
1. Ρήματα όπως: be, look, feel, sound, smell, taste, appear, ... ακολουθούνται από επίθετα. She looks tired. He feels sad. It tastes delicious. The soup smells nice.
It sounds excellent.
2. Όταν χρησιμοποιούμε δύο ή περισσότερα επίθετα, ανάλογα με το τι εκφράζουν, τα βάζουμε με την παρακάτω σειρά:
a/an a a a
opinion
size
age
small
shape
colour
origin
oval
fantastic beautiful
new old
3. Σύνθετα επίθετα (compound adjectives ): a ten- year -old girl NOT: a ten-years-old girl a three- hour drive NOT: a three-hours drive BUT : a blue- eyed girl (= a girl with blue eyes)
black
material
purpose
noun
wooden leather
kitchen
table bag vase
Chinese
4. Κάποιες μετοχές (present & past participles) χρησιμοποιούνται και ως επίθετα. Sports are interest ing . (= τι αίσθηση προκαλεί κπ. ή κτ.) I’m interest ed in sports. (= πώς νιώθει κανείς)
ADVERBS Τα επιρρήματα (adverbs) προσδιορίζουν ρήματα, επίθετα ή άλλα επιρρήματα. • Σχηματίζονται με την κατάληξη -ly στο επίθετο.
bad - badly easy - easily active - actively
simple - simply beautiful - beautifully logical - logically
• Κάποια επιρρήματα έχουν ανώμαλο σχηματισμό ή την ίδια
μορφή με τα επίθετα. good - well fast - fast late - late
hard - hard high - high early - early
• Κάποια επιρρήματα όπως hard, late, near, high
αποκτούν άλλη σημασία εάν πάρουν κατάληξη -ly. hard (σκληρά) They work hard .
hardly (σχεδόν καθόλου, μετά βίας) BUT: She hardly knows that man.
late (αργά) lately (τον τελευταίο καιρό) He got up late yesterday morning. BUT: I’ve been jogging a lot lately . near (κοντά) nearly (σχεδόν) There’s a school near here. BUT: It’s nearly five o’clock. high (ψηλά) highly (πολύ, σε μεγάλο βαθμό) Can you jump that high ? BUT: He's a highly successful businessman.
TYPE
POSITION
EXAMPLES
Adverbs of manner
1. μετά από κύρια ρήματα 2. μετά από αντικείμενα ρημάτων
He ran quickly down the street. You’ve done your homework well .
Adverbs of frequency
1. πριν από κύρια ρήματα
We often visit our grandparents on Sundays. They don’t usually phone us so early. You must never say that again. You are always late.
2. μετά το ρήμα be Adverbs of degree
1. πριν από επίθετα / επιρρήματα 2. πριν από κύρια ρήματα
Adverbs of place and time
συνήθως στο τέλος της πρότασης
This is extremely / very difficult. She speaks rather quickly. I absolutely support her ideas. There’s a hotel nearby . I went skiing yesterday .
All you need B1+
13
NOTE 1: Κάποια επιρρήματα τρόπου, τόπου ή χρόνου μπορούν να μπουν στην αρχή της πρότασης για έμφαση. Quietly , she came into the house. Nearby , a band was playing. Yesterday , I went shopping. NOTE 2: Όταν σε μια πρόταση υπάρχουν περισσότερα από ένα επιρρήματα ή επιρρηματικές φράσεις, τότε μπαίνουν με την εξής σειρά: 1. τρόπος - 2. τόπος - 3. χρόνος He’s been working hard (1) at school (2) recently (3).
Όταν όμως στην πρόταση υπάρχει ρήμα κίνησης, μπαίνουν με τη σειρά: 1. τόπος - 2. τρόπος - 3. χρόνος She came to work (1) by bus (2) this morning (3).
Lesson 7b
Adjectives & Adverbs: Comparisons
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES •
•
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
Comparative degree (συγκριτικός βαθμός)
FORMS
Για να συγκρίνουμε δύο πρόσωπα, ζώα ή πράγματα μεταξύ τους. Ι think German is harder than English. Hockey is more dangerous than basketball.
•
Επιρρήματα με κατάληξη -ly:
Adverb
Comparative
Superlative
nicely cleverly
more nicely than more cleverly than
the most nicely the most cleverly
Superlative degree (υπερθετικός βαθμός)
•
Επιρρήματα που έχουν την ίδια μορφή με τα αντίστοιχα επίθετά τους: the hardest hard harder than the fastest fast faster than high higher than the highest the latest late later than the earliest early earlier than
•
Ανώμαλες περιπτώσεις:
Για να πούμε ότι κάποιος ή κάτι έχει μία ιδιότητα σε μεγαλύτερο βαθμό από το σύνολο στο οποίο ανήκει. Cathy is the tallest student of all in our class. Stella is the best athlete in the team.
FORMS •
•
Μονολεκτικοί σχηματισμοί:
Adjective
Comparative
Superlative
tall large fat happy
taller than larger than fatter than happier than
the tallest the largest the fattest the happiest
Περιφραστικοί σχηματισμοί (κάποια δισύλλαβα π.χ. με καταλήξεις -ous, -ful, -ed, -ing ή για τρισύλλαβα και πάνω): more famous than the most famous famous more attractive than the most attractive attractive
• Ανώμαλες περιπτώσεις:
good bad
better than worse than
the best the worst
Adverb
Comparative
Superlative
well
better than
the best
badly
worse than
the worst
far
farther/further than
the farthest/furthest
little
less than
the least
much
more than
the most
many
more than
the most
Examples: My mother speaks more loudly than my father. But my sister speaks the most loudly of all.
OTHER TYPES OF COMPARISON •
as + adjective/adverb + as (τόσο … όσο) My brother is as tall as your brother. Linda sings as beautifully as her sister.
•
not as/so + adjective/adverb + as (όχι τόσο ... όσο) My house is not as/so big as your house.
•
the + comparative, the + comparative (όσο πιο ... τόσο πιο) The more you practise, the better you perform.
14
All you need B1+
•
comparative + and + comparative (όλο και πιο ...) The weather is getting warmer and warmer .
•
the same as / similar to (ίδιος / παρόμοιος με) My i-phone is the same as yours. Your T-shirt is similar to mine.
•
less ... than / the least (+long adjective /adverb) I find history less interesting than geography. He behaves the least responsibly of all.
Lesson 8a
Bare vs. Full Infinitive
FULL INFINITIVE
3. ΜΕΤΑ από σύνταξη με too και enough.
FORM: to play / not to play
I’m too short to reach the top shelf. I’m not tall enough to reach the top shelf. Have you got enough money to buy this dress?
USE Χρησιμοποιούμε Full Infinitive (πλήρες απαρέμφατο): 1. ΜΕΤΑ από ορισμένα ρήματα όπως:
advise * (συμβουλεύω) afford (αντέχω οικονομικά) agree (συμφωνώ) allow * (επιτρέπω) appear (φαίνομαι) arrange (κανονίζω) ask * (ζητώ) beg * (ικετεύω) begin (αρχίζω) can afford (έχω χρήματα για) choose * (διαλέγω) continue (συνεχίζω) decide (αποφασίζω) deserve (μου αξίζει) encourage sb (ενθαρρύνω) expect * (προσδοκώ) force * (αναγκάζω) forget (ξεχνώ) happen (τυχαίνει να) hate (μισώ, απεχθάνομαι) hope (ελπίζω) intend (σκοπεύω) invite * (προσκαλώ) I can’t afford to travel abroad.
learn (μαθαίνω) like * (μου αρέσει) love (αγαπώ) manage (καταφέρνω) mean (σκοπεύω) offer (προσφέρομαι) plan (σχεδιάζω) prefer * (προτιμώ) prepare * (ετοιμάζω, -ομαι) pretend (προσποιούμαι) promise * (υπόσχομαι) refuse (αρνούμαι) regret (λυπάμαι) remember (θυμάμαι) remind * (υπενθυμίζω) seem (φαίνομαι) start (αρχίζω) threaten sb (απειλώ) try (προσπαθώ) want * (θέλω) would like * (θα'θελα) would love * (θα'θελα πολύ) would prefer (θα προτιμούσα) He promised to study more.
* ΝΟΤΕ: τα ρήματα με αστερίσκο μπορούν ή είναι απαραίτητο να ακολουθούνται από αντικείμενο (όνομα, ουσιαστικό ή αντωνυμία) πριν το full infinitive.
Ι want her to wash the car. He asked Helen to help him. She advised her kids / them not to talk to strangers.
2. ΜΕΤΑ από κάποια επίθετα όπως: anxious, glad, happy, pleased, sorry, lucky, ready, easy, difficult, ...
Ι’m very pleased to hear this. The children are happy to water the garden. It's easy / difficult to understand this theory.
4. ΜΕΤΑ από who, what, which, where, how (ΟΧΙ why) σε δευτερεύουσες ερωτηματικές προτάσεις. He didn't know where to go. I haven't decided what to do.
BARE INFINITIVE
FORM: play / not play USE Χρησιμοποιούμε Bare Infinitive (γυμνό απαρέμφατο):
1. ΜΕΤΑ από modal verbs (can, will, could, would, may, might, must, should ) He can play the guitar. I should work harder. 2. ΜΕΤΑ από would rather και had better I ’d rather have a piece of cake. (θα προτιμούσα να) You ’d better go to bed early. (καλά θα κάνεις να) 3. ΜΕΤΑ τα make, let, see, hear + αντικείμενο He let him go out. (αφήνω, επιτρέπω σε) She made me iron the clothes. (αναγκάζω) I saw him play football. I heard her sing in the competition. 4. ΜΕΤΑ από why (not) σε απρόσωπες ερωτήσεις. Why not go to the cinema? Why stay in when we can go out?
ΝΟΤΕ: Το ρήμα help ακολουθείται από full ή bare infinitive χωρίς διαφορά στο νόημα. Can you help me (to) carry my suitcases upstairs?
All you need B1+
15
Lesson 8b
The Gerund - Gerund vs. Full Infinitive
GERUND
GERUND vs. FULL INFINITIVE
FORM: (not) play ing, coming, swimming, ...
Τα παρακάτω ρήματα ακολουθούνται άλλοτε από gerund και άλλοτε από full infinitive, αλλά με σημαντικές διαφορές στο νόημα.
USE Χρησιμοποιούμε gerund (γερούνδιο): 1. Ως υποκείμενο ή αντικείμενο ρήματος. Reading story books is my favourite hobby. I prefer swimming to jogging.
•
BUT: I stopped to drink some water. (σταματάω / κάνω μια στάση για να κάνω κτ. άλλο)
2. ΜΕΤΑ από ορισμένα ρήματα ή φράσεις όπως:
accuse sb of (κατηγορώ κάποιον) admit (to) (παραδέχομαι) avoid (αποφεύγω) begin * (αρχίζω) can’t help (δε μπορώ να μην) can’t stand (δεν αντέχω) consider (σκέφτομαι να) deny (αρνούμαι κατηγορία) discuss (συζητώ) dislike (αντιπαθώ) enjoy (απολαμβάνω) feel like (έχω διάθεση) find + sb (βρίσκω κπ. να) finish (τελειώνω) hate * (μισώ, απεχθάνομαι) how about imagine (φαντάζομαι)
keep (on) (συνεχίζω) like * (μου αρέσει) look forward to (ανυπομονώ) love * (αγαπώ) mind (με πειράζει) miss (μου λείπει, νοσταλγώ) postpone (αναβάλλω) practise (εξασκούμαι) prefer (προτιμώ) recommend (συνιστώ) regret (μετανιώνω) risk (ρισκάρω) spend time (περνώ χρόνο) start * (αρχίζω) stop (σταματώ, παύω να) suggest (προτείνω) what about(τι θα έλεγες να...)
•
BUT: Ι regret to tell you that we haven't found your car. (λυπάμαι που πρέπει να κάνω κτ.) •
FORGET I’ll never forget visiting London for the first time. (ξεχνάω κτ. που έκανα) BUT: I forgot to book the tickets yesterday. (ξεχνάω να κάνω κτ.)
•
REMEMBER I remember locking up. (θυμάμαι ότι έκανα κτ.) BUT: I remembered to lock up. (θυμάμαι να κάνω κτ.)
•
TRY I tried watching TV to relax. (δοκιμάζω, επιχειρώ) BUT: Ι tried to solve the problem. (προσπαθώ)
GO ON
They admitted (to) stealing the money. I avoid staying up late. We feel like going to the theatre.
He went on talking about the war for hours. (συνεχίζω / εξακολουθώ να κάνω κτ.)
* ΝOTE 1: τα ρήματα με αστερίσκο μπορεί να ακολουθούνται και από full infinitive με μικρή ή καμία διαφορά στο νόημα. It has just started raining / to rain.
BUT: He told us a story about the war. Then he went on to tell us about what he studied at university.
3. Μετά το ρήμα go για δραστηριότητες ή χόμπι. I go shopping every Saturday. They've gone skiing in the Alps. 4. Μετά από προθέσεις, ή κάποια phrasal verbs. I apologize for being late. We're against cutting trees. They ended up staying in a tent. Ηe gave up smoking. 5. Μετά από κάποιες εκφράσεις όπως: There’s no point (in) shouting like that. =δεν έχει νόημα ... It’s (not) worth buying an expensive car. =(δεν) αξίζει (τον κόπο) It’s no good / use carrying so much on holiday. =δεν ωφελεί ...
ΝOTE 2: Όταν το υποκείμενο του κυρίου ρήματος είναι διαφορετικό από αυτό του γερουνδίου (=ετεροπροσωπία), βάζουμε πριν το γερούνδιο: - είτε κάποιο πρόσωπο (συνήθως σε γενική κτητική) - είτε τα κτητικά επίθετα my, your, his, her, its, our, their ή τις προσωπικές αντωνυμίες me, you, him, her , it, us, them. I like John’s singing. I like his singing. He doesn’t mind my/me being late.
16
REGRET I regret telling you lies. (μετανιώνω που έκανα κτ.)
•
STOP I’ve stopped drinking coffee. (σταματάω να κάνω κτ.)
All you need B1+
(συνεχίζω κάνοντας κτ. άλλο)
REMEMBER: used to + inf. BUT: be/get used to + gerund 1. I used to eat salad. (συνήθιζα να) 2. I am used to eating salad. (είμαι συνηθισμένος να) 3. I got used to eating salad. (απέκτησα τη συνήθεια)
Lesson 9a
Passive Voice (1): Present & Past Simple
PASSIVE VOICE FORM
From ACTIVE to PASSIVE VOICE:
Subject + be (*) + Past Participle (+ by / with + agent)
Για να μετατρέψουμε σε παθητική φωνή προτάσεις που είναι σε ενεργητική (Active Voice):
Στην παθητική φωνή (Passive Voice), κλίνεται το βοηθητικό ρήμα be στο χρόνο που χρειαζόμαστε (*) και ακολουθεί η παθητική μετοχή (Past Participle) του κύριου ρήματος.
a. κάνουμε το αντικείμενο της ενεργητικής υποκείμενο της παθητικής b. κλίνουμε το ρήμα be στον ίδιο χρόνο με το κύριο ρήμα c. προσθέτουμε την past participle του κύριου ρήματος
•
Present Simple: am / is / are + Past Participle
d. βάζουμε προαιρετικά by + agent (ποιητικό αίτιο) χρησιμοποιώντας το υποκείμενο της ενεργητικής φωνής.
Aff: Tomatoes are grown in this area. Neg: Tomatoes aren't grown in this area. Inter: Are tomatoes grown in this area? •
Past Simple: was / were + Past Participle
Aff: That cake was made by grandma. Neg: That cake wasn't made by grandma. Inter: Was that cake made by grandma?
Active: The zoo keepers feed the animals every day.
Passive: The animals are fed ( by the zoo keepers) every day. (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
AGENT
USE Χρησιμοποιούμε Passive voice όταν μας ενδιαφέρει περισσότερο η πράξη για την οποία μιλάμε και όχι ποιος την έκανε ή όταν δε γνωρίζουμε από ποιον έγινε κάτι. Our classrooms are cleaned every morning. Is Spanish spoken in the USA? Τhis building was built in 1940. My shoes weren't made in Greece.
Tο ποιητικό αίτιο ( agent) δεν αναφέρεται όταν είναι άγνωστο ή αυτονόητο. Τhe thieves were arrested . (εννοείται by the police) BUT: " Romeo and Juliet" was written by Shakespeare . Γι αυτό συνήθως παραλείπεται σε μετατροπές προτάσεων με υποκείμενα όπως people, someone, he, she, they ... Active: Someone brought this letter earlier on. Passive: This letter was brought (by someone) earlier on.
NOTE 1: Οι προσωπικές αντωνυμίες I, he, she, we, they γίνονται αντίστοιχα me, him, her, us, them μετά το by (π.χ. σε περίπτωση που αναφέρονται για έμφαση). Active: He broke the window, not I ! Passive: The window was broken by him , not me !
NOTE 2: Όταν αναφερόμαστε στο υλικό ή αντικείμενο που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για να γίνει κάτι, το ποιητικό αίτιο εισάγεται με την πρόθεση with. This cake was made with chocolate. ( NOT by chocolate) The hostages were tied up with rope. ( NOT by rope)
Lesson 9b
Passive Voice (2): All Tenses
Δείτε στον παρακάτω πίνακα το σχηματισμό όλων των χρόνων και μορφών παθητικής φωνής.
PASSIVE FORMS
ACTIVE (examples)
PASSIVE (examples)
PRESENT SIMPLE am/ is/ are + past participle
She cleans the house. They write e-mails.
The house is cleaned. E-mails are written.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS am/ is/ are being + past participle
She is cleaning the house. They are writing e-mails.
The house is being cleaned. E-mails are being written.
PAST SIMPLE was / were + past participle
She cleaned the house. They wrote e-mails.
The house was cleaned. E-mails were written.
All you need B1+
17
PASSIVE FORMS
ACTIVE (examples)
PASSIVE (examples)
PAST CONTINUOUS was / were being + past participle
She was cleaning the house. They were writing e-mails.
The house was being cleaned. E-mails were being written.
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE * have / has been + past participle
She has cleaned the house. They have written e-mails.
The house has been cleaned. E-mails have been written.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE * had been + past participle
She had cleaned the house. They had written e-mails.
The house had been cleaned. E-mails had been written.
FUTURE SIMPLE * will be + past participle
She will clean the house. They will write e-mails.
The house will be cleaned. E-mails will be written.
FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE * will have been + past participle
She will have cleaned the house. They will have written e-mails.
The house will have been cleaned. E-mails will have been written.
BE GOING TO am/ is/ are going to be + past part.
She is going to clean the house. They are going to write e-mails.
The house is going to be cleaned . E-mails are going to be written .
MODAL & SEMI-MODAL VERBS (semi) modal + be + past participle
She might clean the house. They have to write e-mails.
The house might be cleaned. E-mails have to be written .
IMPERATIVE must /should + be + past participle
Clean the house! Write the e-mails!
The house must / should be cleaned. The e-mails must / should be written.
* Οι εξακολουθητικοί (continuous ) τύποι αυτών των χρόνων δε σχηματίζουν παθητική φωνή.
NOTES •
Προσοχή στη θέση του by σε παθητικές ερωτήσεις με who.
Active:
•
Τα phrasal verbs ακολουθούνται από τις προθέσεις τους στην παθητική φωνή.
Active:
Who built that house?
Passive: Who was that house built by ? (πιο σύνηθες) By whom was that house built? (σπάνιο, επίσημο)
Someone broke into my office the other day.
Passive:
My office was broken into the other day.
• Δε σχηματίζουν παθητική φωνή ρήματα που δεν παίρνουν άμεσο αντικείμενο (αμετάβατα), όπως:
appear, disappear, grow (μεγαλώνω, αυξάνομαι), happen, occur (συμβαίνει, προκύπτει), consist of (αποτελούμαι από), sleep, become, go, fall, come ... He has appeared in two plays so far. ( NOT has been appeared )
Lesson 10a
Passive Voice (3): Special Cases
MAKE, SEE, HEAR, LET Προσοχή στη μετατροπή των ρήματων make, see, hear, let (+ sb + do) σε παθητική φωνή:
Active
ACTIVE VOICE (examples)
PASSIVE VOICE (examples)
make sb do be made to do
Our mother makes us tidy up our rooms every Saturday.
We are made to tidy up our rooms every Saturday.
see sb do be seen to do
We saw him drive by in his new car.
He was seen to drive by in his new car.
hear sb do be heard to do
Everyone heard Betty shout at her sister.
Betty was heard to shout at her sister.
let sb do be allowed to do
My parents let me stay up late at the weekend.
I am allowed to stay up late at the weekend.
18
Passive forms
All you need B1+
DOUBLE-OBJECT VERBS Double-object verbs (δίπτωτα ρήματα) ονομάζονται τα ρήματα που παίρνουν δύο αντικείμενα: ένα έμμεσο(1) (πρόσωπο) και ένα άμεσο(2) (πράγμα).
Ε.g. give, bring, show, offer, send, ... +sb(1) + sth(2) We gave Martha (1) a present.(2) I'm sending him
(1)
an e-mail.(2)
Τα ρήματα αυτά σχηματίζουν παθητική φωνή με τους εξής δύο τρόπους: Active: Passive:
We gave Martha (1) a present.(2) 1. Martha was given a present. (πιο σύνηθες)
2. A present was given to Martha. (πιο σπάνιο, για έμφαση)
Active: Passive:
I'm sending him (1) an e-mail.(2) 1. He is being sent an e-mail. (πιο σύνηθες)
2. An e-mail is being sent to him. (πιο σπάνιο, για έμφαση)
PASSIVE INFINITIVE vs. PASSIVE GERUND be + past participle
being + past participle
Το infinitive της ενεργητικής φωνής μετατρέπεται σε passive infinitive (be + past participle) στην παθητική. Αντίστοιχα, το gerund της ενεργητικής φωνής μετατρέπεται σε passive gerund (being + past participle) στην παθητική. Active infinitives: You must finish your project by Monday. They have to find a solution.
Passive infinitives: Your project must be finished by Monday. A solution has to be found .
Active gerunds: He hates people telling him what to do. We enjoy Mr Lee teaching us new things.
Passive gerunds: He hates being told what to do. We enjoy being taught new things by Mr Lee.
Lesson 10b
Passive Voice (4): Personal vs. Impersonal Structures
BE SAID, BELIEVED, THOUGHT, KNOWN ... Ρήματα όπως say, believe, think, know, expect, report, κτλ. σχηματίζουν παθητική φωνή με δύο τρόπους: την απρόσωπη(1) (impersonal ) και την προσωπική(2) (personal ) σύνταξη. 1. Impersonal structure: It + passive verb (+ that) + clause (πρόταση) 2. Personal structure: Active:
Subject + passive verb + to + infinitive
People think (that) his new novel is excellent.
Passive: 1. It is thought (that) his new novel is excellent. 2. His new novel is thought to be excellent. Active:
Everyone knows (that) we are the best in our field.
Passive: 1. It is known (that) we are the best in our field. 2. We are known to be the best in our field. Active:
They say (that) Ken has stolen the money.
Passive: 1. It is said (that) Ken has stolen the money. 2. Ken is said to have stolen the money. Active:
The newspaper reported (that) the police have arrested the thieves.
Passive: 1. It was reported (that) the police have arrested the thieves. 2. The police were reported to have arrested the thieves.
NOTES: 1. Προσοχή στη συμφωνία των χρόνων των εισαγωγικών ρημάτων μεταξύ ενεργητικής και παθητικής φωνής. They say (that) he is ... It is said that he is ... / He is said to be ... They said (that) he is ... It was said that he is ... / He was said to be ... They have said (that) he is ... It has been said that he is ... / He has been said to be ... 2. Η προσωπική παθητική σύνταξη ακολουθείται από past infinitive (= have + past participle) όταν το ρήμα της δευτερεύουσας πρότασης στην ενεργητική είναι σε past simple ή present / past perfect. They say (that) he was / has been / had been ... He is said to have been ... People believe (that) he stole / has stolen / had stolen ... He is believed to have stolen ...
All you need B1+
19
Lesson 11a
Conditionals (1): Ζero & First - Temporals
ZERO CONDITIONAL
USE
EXAMPLES
• If + Present Simple , + Present Simple
• γενικές αλήθειες &
If / When you boil water, it evaporates .
συνήθη αποτελέσματα πράξεων
or: When + Present Simple , ...
If / When he doesn’t sleep enough, he is in a bad mood all day long.
FIRST CONDITIONAL
USE
EXAMPLES
• If + Present Simple , + Future Simple
• πιθανά αποτελέσματα
If he tries hard enough, he will / can / may pass the exam.
στο μέλλον
If + Present Simple , + can / may + infinitive
• προσταγές υπό
• If + Present Simple , Imperative
προϋποθέσεις
) tell him about If you see Kevin, ( don't the party.
NOTES 1. Σε περίπτωση που προηγείται η απόδοση και ακολουθεί η υπόθεση, δε χωρίζονται οι προτάσεις με κόμμα. We will take the bus to school if mum doesn't drive us. BUT: If mum doesn't drive us to school, we will take the bus. 2. Μπορούμε να βάλουμε unless + affirmative (αν δεν, εκτός κι αν) στη θέση του if + negative και το αντίστροφο. If she doesn’t pay attention, she won’t understand this. Unless she pays attention, she won't understand this. 3. Για να εκφράσουμε προϋποθέσεις ή ενδεχόμενα μπορούμε να βάλουμε στη θέση του if τα παρακάτω: • providing / provided (that) (με τον όρο να)
I will lend you the car providing ( that ) you drive carefully.
• as long as (εφόσον, με την προϋπόθεση να)
As long as you do your homework, Mr White will be happy.
• in case (σε περίπτωση που, μην τυχόν και)
I will take my umbrella in case it rains.
TEMPORALS
USE
EXAMPLES
When (*) + Present tenses , + Future tenses
χρονικές προτάσεις με μελλοντική σημασία
When I wake up, I will have a shower.
(*) as soon as , once, after, before, until / till, while, by the time, ...
Once he has finished his project, he will take some time off.
* REMEMBER: Οι χρονικοί σύνδεσμοι δε συντάσσονται ποτέ με Future tenses. (NOT: When I will wake up, ... / Once he will have finished ... ) Ακολουθούνται από Present Simple ή Present Perfect (για να τονίσουμε την ολοκλήρωση μιας πράξης στο μέλλον).
Lesson 11b
Conditionals (2): Second & Third
SECOND CONDITIONAL
USE
EXAMPLES
If + Past Simple ,
• φανταστικά σενάρια
στο παρόν ή το μέλλον
1. If we had a lot of money, we would / could / might buy a yacht.
• συμβουλές, συστάσεις
2. If I were* you, I would see a doctor.
+ would + could + might
+ infinitive
(*) Βάζουμε were σε όλα τα πρόσωπα του ρήματος be μετά το if. (NOT: If I was you, ...) THIRD CONDITIONAL
USE
If + Past Perfect , + would have
φανταστικά σενάρια στο 1. If I had hurried* up, I wouldn’t have missed the train. παρελθόν (συχνά για πράξεις που μετανιώνουμε) 2. If he had fallen* , he could / might have broken his leg.
+ could have + might have
20
All you need B1+
+ past participle
EXAMPLES
NOTES: •
Ο δεύτερος υποθετικός λόγος ( second conditional) δείχνει ότι δεν ισχύει στο παρόν αυτό που υποθέτουμε. * Example 1 (meaning): We don't have a lot of money, so we won't / can't buy a yacht.
• Αντίστοιχα ο τρίτος υποθετικός λόγος (third conditional) δείχνει ότι έγινε στο παρελθόν το ακριβώς αντίθετο από αυτό
που υποθέτουμε. * Example 1 (meaning): Ι didn't hurry up, so Ι missed the train. * Example 2 (meaning): He didn't fall, so he didn't break his leg.
Lesson 12a
I wish / If only
Εισάγουμε προτάσεις με wish & If only (μακάρι, εύχομαι, θα'θελα να) για να εκφράσουμε ανεκπλήρωτες επιθυμίες για το παρόν, το παρελθόν ή το μέλλον. Το If only μπαίνει μόνο στη θέση των I wish και We wish.
FORM
USE
EXAMPLES
I wish If only + Past Simple
για ανεκπλήρωτες επιθυμίες στο παρόν
I wish /If only I were* a millionaire. We wish /If only we had less homework.
I wish If only + could + infinitive
για ικανότητες / δυνατότητες που θα θέλαμε να έχουμε
I wish /If only I could fly a helicopter. Dad wishes he could take some time off work.
I wish If only + Past Perfect
για πράξεις του παρελθόντος που μετανιώνουμε
I wish /If only I had stayed at home last night! Vincent wishes he hadn’t eaten so much.
I wish If only + would + infinitive
για ενόχληση ή μελλοντικές επιθυμίες (MONO σε ετεροπροσωπία)
I wish /If only they wouldn’t smoke in here! Mum wishes you would be more polite. NOT: I wish I would …
(*) Το was κατά κανόνα γίνεται were μετά από wish/If only. Στην πράξη όμως, ο κανόνας αυτός δεν τηρείται πάντα.
Lesson 12b
Modal Perfect Forms
Οι σχηματισμοί modal verb + have + past participle ονομάζονται Modal Perfect Forms . Αναφέρονται στο παρελθόν δηλώνοντας βεβαιότητα, πιθανότητα, δυνατότητα ή υποχρέωση. Σε αυτούς περιλαμβάνεται και το would have + past participle του 3ου υποθετικού λόγου που βλέπουμε εδώ σε επανάληψη.
MODAL PERFECT FORMS
USE
EXAMPLES
must have + past participle
καταφατική βεβαιότητα για το παρελθόν = πρέπει να έγινε κάτι
Liz must have been tired. She went to bed early.
αρνητική βεβαιότητα για το παρελθόν = αποκλείεται να έγινε κάτι
Ann can’t have lied to us. She never does that!
πιθανότητα στο παρελθόν = ίσως να (μην) έγινε κάτι
I may have run out of petrol. My car won't start.
can’t have + past participle
may (not) have might (not) have + past could have participle
It must have rained cats and dogs last night. The streets are flooded.
They can’t have left by taxi! They were expecting me to pick them up.
He hasn't called yet. He might have fallen asleep, or he could have forgotten to call us.
All you need B1+
21
Οι σχηματισμοί modal verb + have + past participle ονομάζονται Modal Perfect Forms . Αναφέρονται στο παρελθόν δηλώνοντας βεβαιότητα, πιθανότητα, δυνατότητα ή υποχρέωση. Σε αυτούς περιλαμβάνεται και το would have + past participle του 3ου υποθετικού λόγου που βλέπουμε εδώ σε επανάληψη.
MODAL PERFECT FORMS
USE
EXAMPLES
could(n't) have + past participle
δυνατότητα στο παρελθόν = (δεν) θα μπορούσε να είχε γίνει κάτι (αλλά έγινε το αντίθετο)
I could have left after the film but I stayed.
υποχρέωση /συμβουλή για το should(n't) have + past παρελθόν ought (not) to have participle
would(n't) have + past participle
REMEMBER: needn't have + past participle
He couldn't have avoided me. He had no choice but talk to me. You shouldn’t have eaten so much pizza. No wonder your stomach hurts.
= (δεν) έπρεπε να γίνει κάτι (αλλά έγινε το αντίθετο)
They ought to have accepted your offer. I’m sure they will regret it.
ανεκπλήρωτη πράξη στο παρελθόν (+ 3rd conditional) = (δεν) θα είχε γίνει κάτι (υπό άλλες συνθήκες)
We would have bought that MP3 player but we didn’t have enough money. If I had seen to it, I wouldn't have run out of gas.
didn't need to + infinitive
You needn’t have washed my black shirt again! It was perfectly clean! (=δε χρειαζόταν αλλά το έκανες) BUT: I didn't need to wash my black shirt because it was clean. (=δε χρειάστηκε και δεν το έκανα)
must have + past participle
had to + infinitive
He must have left early. He was very tired. (=μάλλον έφυγε - το υποθέτουμε) BUT: He had to leave early. He had work to do. (=έπρεπε να φύγει και το έκανε)
Lesson 13a
Questions & Question Tags
QUESTION WORDS Α. WH-QUESTIONS
B. HOW-QUESTIONS
who whom whose what which
how how much how many how long how often
How was the wedding ceremony? How much money do you need? How many people have you invited? How long have you been / lived here? How often do you go to the gym?
how + adj./ adv.
How old / tall is your brother? How thick is this wall? How fast is your new car / can you run? How far is the nearest hospital? How long is Mary’s new skirt?
where when why
Who sent this message? With whom are you going out? (σπάνιο) (BUT: Who are you going out with?) Whose is this pen? / Whose pen is this? What would you like to eat? Which bag is yours? Which (one) is your car? Where were you born? When will you travel to France? Why are you so sad today?
SUBJECT QUESTIONS Όταν ρωτάμε για το υποκείμενο μιας πρότασης κάνουμε subject questions. Στις ερωτήσεις αυτές, η ερωτηματική λέξη είναι το υποκείμενο ( S). Το ρήμα ( V ) ακολουθεί χωρίς να αλλάξει μορφή. Συνεπώς δεν προσθέτουμε τα βοηθητικά do/does & did στον Present Simple & Past Simple. (S)
( V )
Romeo loves
(S)
( V )
(S)
( V )
The rain damaged the plants.
That kid
‘ Who loves Juliet?’ ‘ Romeo (does).’
‘ What damaged the plants?' ‘ The rain (did).'
‘ Which kid took your bag?’ ‘ That one (did).'
(NOT: Who does love Juliet? )
(NOT: What did damage the plants? )
(NOT: Which kid did take your bag? )
22
Juliet.
All you need B1+
took
my bag.
REMEMBER: Τα υπόλοιπα είδη ερωτήσεων με ερωτηματικές λέξεις συντάσσονται διαφορετικά: Ερωτηματική λέξη - V 1 (βοηθητικό/modal) - Υποκείμενο (S) - V 2 (κύριο ρήμα) (S)
( V )
Romeo loves Juliet .
(S) ( V )
(S)
1
( V )
That kid took my bag .
( V ) 2
- ‘ Who does Romeo love?' / - ‘ Juliet .'
( V 2)
SO - NEITHER/NOR
Question tags είναι σύντομες ερωτήσεις στο τέλος των προτάσεων που ζητούν επιβεβαίωση (=έτσι δεν είναι;). Αποτελούνται από ένα βοηθητικό ρήμα (ή modal) και μια προσωπική αντωνυμία. Όταν η πρόταση είναι σε κατάφαση, τα question tags είναι σε άρνηση και το αντίστροφο. Mary locked up, didn’t she? He hasn’t got a sister, has he? We' d better go now, hadn't we?
SPECIAL CASES:
Χρησιμοποιούμε So ή Neither/Nor για να συμφωνήσουμε με καταφατικές ή αρνητικές προτάσεις αντίστοιχα.
FORM: So + auxiliary verb + subject Neither/Nor
EXAMPLES:
• Imperative • • • • • • •
(S)
‘ What did that kid take?' / - ‘ My bag ’.
QUESTION TAGS
The Lees live here, don’t they? You aren’t sleeping , are you? Bob ’s watching TV, isn’t he?
( V 1)
I am let’s there is/are someone , everyone ... something, everything no-one , nobody nothing
Write to me, will you / won’t you ? Don’t shout, will you ? I’m taller than you, aren’t I ? Let’s go for a walk, shall we ? There is room for me, isn’t there ? Everyone came, didn’t they ? Something's wrong, isn’t it ? Nobody knows, do they ? Nothing has happened, has it ?
Lesson 13b
- She plays tennis. - So do I.
- Kate went to school. - So did Ben.
- John can’t swim. - Neither/Nor can I.
- Mary doesn’t eat meat. - Neither/Nor does Kim.
Personal Pronouns, Possessives & Possessive Case
SUBJECT PRONOUNS
OBJECT PRONOUNS
POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
I
me
my
mine
you
you
your
yours
he she it
him her it
his her its
his hers --
we
us
our
ours
you
you
your
yours
they
them
their
theirs
REMEMBER: Subject pronouns Υποκείμενα ρημάτων He is coming out. They have arrived. Object pronouns Αντικείμενα ρημάτων ή μετά από προθέσεις We can't see him . Don't worry about them . Possessive adjectives Συνοδεύουν ουσιαστικά My house is here. That's our car. Possessive pronouns Αντικαθιστούν ουσιαστικά This house is mine . Which one is yours ? This car is ours . That one is theirs .
POSSESSIVE CASE vs. "OF" Για να δηλώσουμε κτήση χρησιμοποιούμε τη Γενική Κτητική (Possessive Case) ή την πρόθεση of στις εξής περιπτώσεις:
FORMS 's
(-s)' of
USE
EXAMPLES
1. ουσιαστικά ενικού αριθμού 2. κύρια ονόματα 3. ουσιαστικά με ανώμαλο πληθυντικό (χωρίς -s) 4. αναφορές σε τόπο ή χρόνο
1. that boy ’s toys, my mother ’s dress, this man ’s eyes 2. Bob ’s toys, Mrs Brown ’s dress, John Lee ’s eyes 3. the children ’s toys, those women ’s / men ’s clothes 4. at the chemist ’s , at the greengrocer ’s , at Mary ’s (house) today ’s news, yesterday ’s exam, tomorrow ’s test
1. ουσιαστικά πληθυντικού αριθμού (σε -s) 2. κύρια ονόματα πληθυντικού (οικογένειες)
1. those boys ’ toys, my parents ’ car 2. the Browns ’ house, the Lees ’ car
1. πράγματα / αφηρημένες έννοιες 2. σύνταξη noun + of + possessive pronoun name + 's
1. the colour of that car, this way of life 2. a teacher of mine, this/that cousin of yours a friend of Helen’s, those neighbours of John’s
All you need B1+
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NOTE 1:
NOTE 2:
Peter ’s and Tim ’s houses = ο καθένας έχει το δικό του σπίτι
Σε ονομασίες τοποθεσιών βάζουμε είτε ’s, είτε of.
BUT: Cathy and Stella ’s room = το δωμάτιο ανήκει και στις δύο
London ’s population OR the population of London
Lesson 14a
Relative Pronouns
Oι αναφορικές αντωνυμίες (relative pronouns) εισάγουν δευτερεύουσες αναφορικές προτάσεις (relative clauses) και αναφέρονται σε πρόσωπα, πράγματα ή ζώα, κτήση, τόπο και χρόνο όπως βλέπουμε αναλυτικά εδώ.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS who
whom
which
USE
EXAMPLES
αναφορά σε πρόσωπα (ο/η/το οποίος,α,ο, οι/τα οποίοι,ες,α / που)
This is the lady who has just moved in next door. Is that the boy who you met yesterday?
στη θέση του who:
1. Is that the boy whom / who you met yesterday?
1. ως αντικείμενο ρήματος (σπάνια) 2. μετά από προθέσεις
2. Those are the people with whom I work. BUT: Those are the people who I work with.
αναφορά σε ζώα ή πράγματα
The box which is on that table is very heavy. I must return the book which I borrowed from Tim.
(ο/η/το οποίος,α,ο, οι/τα οποίοι,ες,α / που)
αναφορά σε κτήτορα (του οποίου, της οποίας, των οποίων)
Sam’s dating a girl whose mother is a doctor. ( NOT : whose the / her mother)
where
αναφορά σε τόπο (όπου) (ALSO: in / on / at / to which)
Let’s visit the place where mum grew up. OR : Let’s visit the place in which mum grew up.
when
αναφορά σε χρόνο (όταν, που)
I’ll never forget the day when we first met.
whose
that
στη θέση των who(m), which & when (ONLY in defining relative clauses - see 14b)
Lesson 14b
That’s the man that / who stole my bag! Can you see the dog that / which is barking? Was it during the week that / when I was ill?
Relative Clauses: Defining vs. Non-Defining
Υπάρχουν δύο είδη αναφορικών προτάσεων: οι προσδιοριστικές (defining ) και οι μη προσδιοριστικές (non - defining). Τα χαρακτηριστικά τους και οι διαφορές τους είναι οι εξής:
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES
1. Δίνουν απαραίτητες πληροφορίες. Χωρίς αυτές δε θα καταλάβαιναν οι άλλοι σε τι/ποιον αναφερόμαστε.
1. Δίνουν επιπρόσθετες πληροφορίες. Χωρίς αυτές παραμένει ξεκάθαρο σε τι/ποιον αναφερόμαστε.
The woman who works in this bank is Rob’s mother. NOT : The woman is Rob’s mother. (Which woman?) 2. Δε διαχωρίζονται από τις κύριες προτάσεις με κόμματα. I need the book which is on your desk. 3. Εισάγονται προαιρετικά και με that.
Shakespeare, who was a playwright, was born in 1564. Shakespeare was born in 1564. (OK!) 2. Διαχωρίζονται από τις κύριες προτάσεις με κόμματα. I need my maths book , which is on your desk. 3. Δεν εισάγονται ποτέ με that.
The woman who / that works in this bank is Rob’s mother.
NOT: Shakespeare, that was a playwright, was born ...
I need the book which / that is on your desk.
NOT: I need my maths book , that is on your desk.
4. Τα who(m), which, that μπορούν να παραληφθούν εάν 4. Δεν παραλείπονται ποτέ οι αναφορικές αντωνυμίες τους. ). είναι σε θέση αντικειμένου (πριν από υποκείμενο + ρήμα Mary’s friend, who we saw in the park, is 12 years old. The boy who (m )/ that we saw in the park is Mary’s friend. NOT: Mary’s friend, we saw in the park, is ... The boy we saw in the park is Mary’s friend.
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All you need B1+
ΝΟΤΕ ON PREPOSITIONS: She has lost the doll. She sleeps with it.
That’s the woman. He was talking to her. That’s the woman to whom he was talking. (σπάνιο, επίσημο)
She has lost the doll with which she sleeps. (σπάνιο, επίσημο)
That’s the woman who / that he was talking to . (πιο σύνηθες)
She has lost the doll which / that she sleeps with . (πιο σύνηθες)
OR: That’s the woman he was talking to .
OR: She has lost the doll she sleeps with .
Lesson 15a
Nouns: Countable & Uncountable - Quantifiers
COUNTABLE NOUNS
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Τα μετρήσιμα ουσιαστικά (countable nouns) σχηματίζουν πληθυντικό ως εξής: 1. με κατάληξη -s: school - school s, house - house s 2. με κατάληξη -es όταν λήγουν σε -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o: bus - bus es dress - dress es brush - brush es church - chuch es box - box es potato - potato es
ΒUT: photo - photo s, kilo - kilo s, video - video s (ουσιαστικά ξένης προέλευσης) 3. με κατάληξη -ies όταν λήγουν σε σύμφωνο + y: lady - lad ies baby - bab ies 4. με κατάληξη -ves όταν λήγουν σε -f, -fe: leaf - lea ves knife - kni ves
Τα μη μετρήσιμα ουσιαστικά (uncountable nouns) δεν μπορούν να απαριθμηθούν και δεν έχουν πληθυντικό αριθμό. Πρόκειται συνήθως για: • τροφές / υγρά: cheese, bread, butter, meat, sugar, chocolate, fruit, water, milk, juice, oil, petrol, ... • υλικά: paper, plastic, cotton, metal, wool, wood, ... • αφηρημένες έννοιες: love, hate, health, freedom, ... • διάφορα άλλα: fun, time, traffic, help, advice, baggage, luggage, equipment, furniture, money, hair, information, rubbish, weather, accommodation, work, ...
Για να αναφερθούμε στην ποσότητά τους χρησιμοποιούμε μονάδες μέτρησης ή άλλα ουσιαστικά + of: a kilo of flour a carton of milk 200 grams of sugar a jar of honey / jam a pound of ham a loaf of bread a litre of juice / water a packet of tea a bar of chocolate / soap a piece / slice of cheese a bowl of soup a tube of toothpaste a can of coke / beer a bag of flour a piece of information / advice / furniture / baggage
BUT: roof - roof s, handkerchief - handkerchief s 5. με ανώμαλο τρόπο: man - m e n woman - wom e n foot - f ee t tooth - t ee th goose - g ee se ox - ox en
mouse - mice child - child ren sheep - sheep fish - fish species - species deer - deer
NOTE: Κάποια μετρήσιμα ουσιαστικά έχουν ΜΟΝΟ
NOTES: • Το ουσιαστικό news (ειδήσεις, νέα) και σχολικά
μαθήματα όπως maths , physics , gymnastics , ... αν και έχουν καταλήξεις πληθυντικού, συντάσσονται με ρήματα σε ενικό αριθμό:
πληθυντικό αριθμό. Συνήθως αναφέρονται σε: •
πράγματα που αποτελούνται από δύο μέρη όπως: glasses, trousers, jeans, shorts, scissors, pyjamas, etc. These shorts are dirty. Your jeans need washing. Για να τα αριθμήσουμε, χρησιμοποιούμε τη λέξη pair: one pair of jeans, two pairs of scissors, ...
•
πράγματα που από τη φύση τους αποτελούνται από πολλές μονάδες, κομμάτια ή μέλη όπως: clothes, stairs, goods, etc. My clothe s are still wet. The stair s have collapsed.
There is good news and bad news. ( NOT are) Maths has always been my favourite subject. ( NOT have) • Αντίστροφα, το ουσιαστικό police (αστυνομία), αν και
έχει μορφή ενικού αριθμού, συντάσσεται πάντα με ρήματα πληθυντικού: The police are investigating this case. ( NOT is)
COUNTABLE NOUNS
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
------ X ------ There aren't many people in this room.
We haven't got much sugar left. ------ X ------
a little (+) little (-)
------ X ------ ------ X ------
There's still a little soup in the pot. (= λίγο που αρκεί) I have little time for hobbies. (= πολύ λίγο, δεν αρκεί)
a few (+) few (-)
Ι get by with a few dollars a week. (=λίγα που αρκούν) Few people like that man. (=πολύ λίγοι, δεν αρκούν)
------ X ------ ------ X ------
a lot of / lots of plenty of some any no
We've got a lot of / lots of roses in our garden. I usually buy plenty of vegetables. There are some pens here. Are there any pens here? / There aren't any pens. There are no potatoes left.
QUANTIFIERS much many
There is a lot of / lots of chocolate in this cake. We’ve got plenty of juice in the fridge. I need to buy some butter. Do you need any butter? / I don't need any butter. There is no furniture in my new flat.
All you need B1+
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NOTES: Τα much / many χρησιμοποιούνται συνήθως στην άρνηση και την ερώτηση. Τα συναντάμε και σε κατάφαση κυρίως μετά από λέξεις όπως too, as, so. E.g. I've spent too much money. / Take as many apples as you want. Το some χρησιμοποιείται και στην ερώτηση όταν π.χ. προσφέρουμε, ζητάμε κάτι ή περιμένουμε θετική απάντηση. - Would you like some more cake / peanuts? - Yes, please. - Can I have some water, please?
Lesson 15b
Prepositions of Time & Place - Articles
PREPOSITIONS OF TIME at (+ χρονικό σημείο)
in (+ χρονική περίοδος)
on (+ μέρες)
at ten o’clock at Christmas / Easter at noon / midday at breakfast / lunch / dinner at the moment BUT: at night, at the weekend NOTE: during + noun while + clause
I’ll be at home by ten. in the eleventh century on Monday in 1996, in 2005 on Monday morning (το πολύ μέχρι τις δέκα) in spring, in (the) summer on 18th May I’ll be there until / till ten. in September, in August on a hot / cold day (μέχρι τις δέκα ακριβώς) in the morning, in the afternoon on my birthday in two hours / ten minutes on Christmas Eve She fell asleep during the lesson. (πρόθεση = «κατά τη διάρκεια του/της/των») BUT: She fell asleep while she was listening to the teacher. (σύνδεσμος = «ενώ»)
by <> until / till
PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE & MOVEMENT in (για εσωτερικό κλειστών χώρων / τοποθεσίες)
at (για συγκεκριμένα σημεία, κτίρια, περιβάλλοντα)
on (για μεταφορικά μέσα / επιφάνειες)
to (για κατεύθυνση) I'm going ...
in the garden / house in bed, in class in France, in the UK /USA in London
at the bus stop, at the corner at the station / cinema / theatre at home, at school, at work at the party
on the bus, train, plane on the beach / coast on this floor / the farm on page ten
to France, to the UK ... to the cinema ... to bed, to work, to school to the beach, to the party
MORE PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE: over above inside outside under below near next to
(πάνω από) (πάνω από) (μέσα σε) (έξω από) (κάτω από) (κάτω από) (κοντά σε) (δίπλα σε)
The lamp hangs over my bed. There’s a sign above the door. Let’s see what’s inside the box. I’m waiting outside the bank. There’s a shoe under the bed. I wear my skirts below the knee. Is there a post office near here? The dentist’s is next to the bank.
beside / by (δίπλα σε) in front of (μπροστά σε) (πίσω από) behind
Their house is beside / by the lake. There's a tree in front of the house. The pool is behind that fence.
between among
(μεταξύ δύο)
Lia is sitting between Tim and Tom. This painting was among old things.
opposite (a)round
(απέναντι)
(ανάμεσα σε πολλά)
Her desk is opposite the window. There’s a garden ( a )round our school.
(γύρω από)
MORE PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT: up / down into / out of from towards (προς)
We ran up / down the stairs. They've just got into / out of the car. He got back from work very tired. She was walking towards him angrily.
along across past through
(κατά μήκος) (κατά πλάτος) (μπροστά από) (διαμέσου)
Walk along High Street. I swam across the river. Walk past the church. Did you run through the forest?
ARTICLES A / AN
THE
1. όταν μιλάμε γενικά για κάτι 1. όταν μιλάμε για κάτι συγκεκριμένο Ηe wants to buy a car. The people of this village work in farms. 2. κύρια ονόματα πληθυντικού (οικογένειες, 2. εκφράσεις μετρήσεων, οροσειρές, νησιά, ενωμένα κράτη): the Smiths, ταχύτητας ή συχνότητας: the Alps, the Bahamas, the UK, the USA ... a thousand, a million, fifty kilometres an hour, once 3. ωκεανοί, θάλασσες, ποτάμια: a week, twice a month / the Pacific ocean, the Aegean, the Thames a year 4. μουσικά όργανα: the guitar, the violin ... 3. ιδιότητα, επάγγελμα, 5. μοναδικά πράγματα: the sun, the moon θρησκεία: 6. δεκαετίες, αιώνες: the 1960s, the 16 th century He’s a student / a teacher. 7. επίθετα (αναφορά στο σύνολο): the poor, the She’s a Catholic. old and the young, the homeless, ... 8. ουσιαστικά ενικού (αναφορά στο σύνολο): The dolphin is a sea mammal. 9. με ονόματα εφημερίδων και περιοδικών: Father usually reads the Guardian every evening. 26
All you need B1+
ZERO ARTICLE 1. κύρια ονόματα προσώπων, τόπων, λιμνών: Mary, Tom, Europe, Greece, Athens, Lake Baikal, ... 2. παιχνίδια, μαθήματα, αθλήματα, γλώσσες, γεύματα: Monopoly, history, basketball, English, breakfast /lunch ... 3. αφηρημένες έννοιες: freedom, nature ...
4. μεταφορικά μέσα: by car, by train, by bus ... BUT : on foot 5. εκφράσεις όπως: watch TV, listen to music, go home, go to bed / school / church / hospital / work ... 6. ουσιαστικά πληθυντικού (αναφορά στο σύνολο): Dolphins are mammals.
Lesson 16a
Special Structures (1)
STRUCTURES
EXAMPLES
too + adjective (for sb) + to do too + adverb (for sb) + to do
Bob is too short to reach the top shelf. (υπερβολή με αρνητικές She speaks too quickly for us to follow. συνέπειες)
very + adjective / adverb
Bob is very short but he can reach the top shelf. (έμφαση χωρίς She speaks very quickly but we can follow her. αρνητικές συνέπειες)
adjective + enough (+for sb) + to do
They are old enough to drive a car. He isn't reliable enough for me to lend him anything.
adverb + enough (+for sb) + to do
That athlete doesn't run fast enough to win the race. She didn't do well enough in the test for the teacher to let her pass.
enough + noun (+for sb) + to do
We don't have enough money to go to the concert.
so + adjective / adverb
I've never been so anxious in my life. It's the first time she has performed so badly.
so + many / few + plural noun much / little + uncountable
We've never seen so many / so few tourists in this village. I didn't know he had so much / so little patience.
so + adjective/adverb + that + clause
He’s so tall that he can reach the ceiling. He speaks English so well that he sounds like a native speaker.
such (a/an) + (adjective) + noun
It was such a nice film!
such (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + that + clause
We had such bad weather that we couldn't go outside. You're such a nice person that you can't say "no".
each + singular noun each + of + plural noun / pronoun
Each contestant is asked a question. And each must answer quickly. Each of my friends / them has a car of their own. (ο καθένας ξεχωριστά)
every + singular noun
He was such an idiot!
Every summer we go to the beach. (κάθε = όλοι, ες, α / για 3 και πάνω)
both … and (και ... και .../για δύο)
Both Tina and Len work at school. I can both study and listen to music at the same time.
either … or (είτε … είτε)
Either you or Thomas will have to help me out here. You can either tidy your room or water the plants.
neither … nor (ούτε … ούτε)
Neither Andrew nor Evie enjoyed the performance. I can play neither the piano nor the guitar.
Lesson 16b
Special Structures (2)
STRUCTURES
EXAMPLES
prefer + gerund/noun + to + gerund/noun
I prefer reading books to watching TV. He prefers tea to coffee.
prefer + to do
We prefer to visit them on Monday. I prefer not to have another drink.
(γενικά)
(πιο συγκεκριμένα)
would prefer + to do (+ rather than + do)
I would prefer to go out tonight ( rather than stay in).
would rather + do would rather + do + than + do
I’ d rather (not) speak to him first. I ’d rather walk than drive.
(ταυτοπροσωπία)
would rather + subject + Past Simple
I ’d rather we went out to dinner.
(ετεροπροσωπία)
had better + do
You’ d better go to the doctor. You’ d better not do that again.
(μόνο ταυτοπροσωπία)
It’s time (for sb) + to do
It’s time (for us) to leave. (ουδέτερη διάθεση)
It’s time + subject + Past Simple
It’s time he started behaving himself. (συνήθως δείχνει ενόχληση)
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ΤΗΕ SUBJUNCTIVE Η υποτακτική σύνταξη (subjunctive) συναντάται μετά από κάποια ρήματα ή επίθετα και έχει ως εξής:
EXAMPLES: He suggested (that) she (should) take some time off.
suggest
The doctor recommends (that) Ray (should) get some rest.
recommend
We demand (that) he (should) be punished.
demand
+ (that) SUBJECT (should) DO
It is important (that) Jill (should) have a room of her own.
It is important
It is necessary (that) he (should) deliver the parcel today.
It is necessary
NOTE: Τα παραπάνω ρήματα και επίθετα είναι ενδεικτικά. Γενικότερα, υποτακτική παίρνουν: • ρήματα που προτείνουν ή επιβάλλουν σε κάποιον να κάνει κάτι. I prefer / insist / propose / request ... that you not do this. • επίθετα που δείχνουν ανάγκη ή πόσο σημαντικό είναι να γίνει κάτι. It's imperative / essential / crucial ... that he listen carefully.
Εναλλακτικοί τρόποι σύνταξης: suggest + gerund
I suggested going to the cinema.
recommend + gerund
We recommend taking these pills after lunch.
demand + to do
They demand to be served first.
It’s important + to do
It’s important to ask for your teacher’s help.
Lesson 17a
Indirect Speech (1): Statements
INDIRECT STATEMENTS Πλάγιο λόγο ( indirect speech) χρησιμοποιούμε όταν μεταφέρουμε τα λόγια που είπε κάποιος μιλώντας σε ευθύ λόγο (direct speech). Παρατηρήστε τις αλλαγές στο παρακάτω παράδειγμα: Direct speech:
“I like this dress,” she said.
Indirect speech:
She said (that) she liked that dress.
Συνεπώς, όταν μεταφέρουμε προτάσεις σε πλάγιο λόγο: 1. Χρησιμοποιούμε εισαγωγικά ρήματα, π.χ. say (+ to sb) & tell + sb. Direct speech Indirect speech Sue: I am tired. Sue said (that) she was tired. Sue said to me / us (that) she was tired. Sue told me / us (that) she was tired. 2. Αλλάζουμε τα κτητικά επίθετα και τις αντωνυμίες (προσωπικές, κτητικές, αυτοπαθείς) ανάλογα με τους (συν)ομιλητές. Helen: “ I’ m going to put on my sunglasses”. Helen said (that) she was going to put on her sunglasses. Ken: “ You haven’t been yourself lately”. Ken told me (that) I hadn't been myself lately. 3. Αλλάζουμε τους χρόνους των ρημάτων ως εξής ( μόνο όταν τα εισαγωγικά ρήματα είναι σε Past tense ):
DIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT SPEECH PRESENT & PAST SIMPLE TENSES
•
PRESENT SIMPLE:
“I like Jill's dress,” he said. “I don’t like Jill’s dress,” he said. •
PAST SIMPLE:
“I saw Bill at ten o’clock,” he said. “I didn’t enjoy Roy’s party,” he said.
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All you need B1+
PAST SIMPLE: He said (that) he liked Jill's dress. He said (that) he didn’t like Jill’s dress.
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE: He said (that) he had seen Bill at ten o’clock. He said (that) he hadn’t enjoyed Roy’s party.
DIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT SPEECH PRESENT & PAST SIMPLE TENSES
•
PRESENT SIMPLE:
PAST SIMPLE:
“I like Jill's dress,” he said. “I don’t like Jill’s dress,” he said. •
He said (that) he liked Jill's dress. He said (that) he didn’t like Jill’s dress.
PAST SIMPLE:
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE:
“I saw Bill at ten o’clock,” he said. “I didn’t enjoy Roy’s party,” he said.
He said (that) he had seen Bill at ten o’clock. He said (that) he hadn’t enjoyed Roy’s party.
AUXILIARIES in OTHER TENSES •
am / is / are
was / were
“Liz is running fast,” he said. (Present continuous) •
He said (that) Liz was running fast. (Past continuous)
has / have
had
“I have already eaten,” he said. (Present perfect) “She has been crying,” he said. (Present perfect cont.) •
He said (that) he had already eaten. (Past perfect) He said (that) she had been crying. (Past perfect cont.)
was / were
had been
“They were watching TV,” he said. (Past continuous) •
He said (that) they had been watching TV. (Past perfect cont.)
will
would
“I will see / be seeing them,” he said. “They will have slept / have been sleeping,” he said.
He said (that) he would see / be seeing them. He said (that) they would have slept / have been sleeping.
MODAL VERBS •
can / may / must
could / might / had to
“She can / may / must pass the test,” he said.
He said (that) she could / might / had to pass the test.
4. Αλλάζουμε τις παρακάτω χωροχρονικές λέξεις / φράσεις ( μόνο όταν τα εισαγωγικά ρήματα είναι σε Past tense ):
tonight, today now yesterday last night / month ... a week ago
tomorrow
that night, that day then, at that time the day before, the previous day the previous night / month ... the week before
Lesson 17b
next week /year ... here this / these
the next / following day the day after the following week / year there that / those
Indirect Speech (2): Questions
INDIRECT QUESTIONS Οι πλάγιες ερωτήσεις (indirect questions) εισάγονται με ρήματα όπως ask (+sb), wonder, want / would like to know, ... Ακολουθούν: 1. η ερωτηματική λέξη ή if / whether 2. το υποκείμενο 3. το ρήμα σε άλλο χρόνο (*) και με μορφή κατάφασης ή άρνησης (ΟΧΙ ερώτησης). Direct question: «Where is dad going?» he asked.
asked
(1) question word if / whether
(2) subject
(3) verb in different tense (affirmative or negative)
Indirect question: He asked where (1) dad (2) was going (3). ( NOT: where was dad going)
Μελετήστε προσεκτικά τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα:
DIRECT QUESTIONS (with question words)
INDIRECT QUESTIONS (with question words)
“ Where are my books?” he asked.
He asked where his books were.
“ What have you done with my bag?” she asked me.
She asked me what I had done with her bag.
“ How do you like your eggs?” she asked us.
She asked us how we liked our eggs.
“ How much did Sally pay for this dress?” he wondered.
He wondered how much Sally had paid for that dress.
“ Why didn't you tell me the truth?” she asked me.
She asked me why I hadn't told her the truth.
All you need B1+
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Μελετήστε προσεκτικά τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα:
DIRECT QUESTIONS (no question words)
INDIRECT QUESTIONS (with: if / whether)
“Are these Bob's books?” he asked.
He asked if / whether those were Bob's books.
“Can you understand this theory?” she asked us.
She asked us if / whether we could understand that theory.
“Does everyone agree with Tom?” I wondered.
I wondered if / whether everyone agreed with Tom.
“Did you see Kim yesterday?” he asked me.
He asked me if / whether I had seen Kim the previous day.
* NOTE: Μόνο όταν τα εισαγωγικά ρήματα (ask, wonder, ...) είναι σε Past tense αλλάζουν οι χρόνοι των ρημάτων των πλαγίων ερωτήσεων ή οι χωροχρονικές λέξεις που είδαμε στο Lesson 17a, p. 132. Διαφορετικά παραμένουν όπως είναι στον ευθύ λόγο.
Lesson 18a
Indirect Speech (3): Commands & Requests
INDIRECT COMMANDS/REQUESTS Πλάγιες προσταγές ή παρακλήσεις σχηματίζουμε όταν μεταφέρουμε σε πλάγιο λόγο προτάσεις με ρήματα σε προστακτική (imperative). 1. Οι πλάγιες προσταγές (indirect commands) εισάγονται με tell / order + sb.
Οι πλάγιες παρακλήσεις (indirect requests) εισάγονται με ask / beg + sb. 2. Τα ρήματα σε προστακτική του ευθέος λόγου, στον πλάγιο λόγο γίνονται: to + infinitive στην κατάφαση Ron (to Beth): “ Leave me alone!” Ron told Beth to leave him alone.
not to + infinitive στην άρνηση Beth (to Ron): “ Don’t talk to me like this, please!” Beth asked Ron not to talk to her like that.
Μελετήστε τα παρακάτω παραδείγματα:
DIRECT COMMANDS & REQUESTS
INDIRECT COMMANDS & REQUESTS
“ Watch out,” Ted said to me.
Ted told me to watch out. (command)
“ Help me out with this please,” Ann said to us.
Ann asked us to help her out with that. (request)
“ Don’t drop these boxes Bob,” I said.
I told Bob not to drop those boxes. (command)
“Please mum, don’t shout at us,” we said.
We asked mum not to shout at us . (request)
NOTE ON SUGGESTIONS (let's): To let's + infinitive του ευθέος λόγου μεταφέρεται στον πλάγιο λόγο με το ρήμα suggest με τους εξής δύο τρόπους: 1. suggest + gerund 2. suggest (+that) + subject (+should) + infinitive
Ron (to me/us): “ Let’s take a trip this weekend!” 1. Ron suggested (our) taking a trip that weekend. 2. Ron suggested (that) we (should) take a trip that weekend.
Lesson 18b
Indirect Speech (4): Special Introductory Verbs
SPECIAL INTRODUCTORY VERBS Τα παρακάτω εισαγωγικά ρήματα (introductory verbs) μας επιτρέπουν να μεταφέρουμε τα λόγια κάποιου σε πλάγιο λόγο, όχι ακριβώς επί λέξη, αλλά εκφράζοντας το γενικότερο νόημα της κάθε πρότασης. Προσοχή στη σύνταξη που απαιτεί το καθένα.
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All you need B1+
INTRODUCTORY VERBS
agree * claim explain how offer * promise refuse * threaten advise allow ask / beg encourage invite order * remind warn want accuse sb of apologize for * complain of * deny * insist on * suggest inform sb exclaim
+ to do
+ sb to do
+ doing
+ that clause
DIRECT SPEECH
INDIRECT SPEECH
“Yes, I’ll help you,” he said to me.
He agreed to help me.
“I know everything about it,” I said.
I claimed to know everything about it.
“This is how you make bread,” she said.
She explained how to make bread.
“Shall I carry it for you?” he said to me.
He offered to carry it for me.
“We’ll tidy our rooms,” the kids said.
The kids promised to tidy their rooms.
“No, I won’t go on foot,” she said.
She refused to go on foot.
“I’ll tell mum what you did,” I said to him.
I threatened to tell mum what he had done.
“You should eat more fruit,” she told me.
She advised me to eat more fruit.
“You may take my car,” he said to her.
He allowed her to take his car.
“Please, don’t do this,” I said to him.
I asked / begged him not to do that.
“Go on, open up!” he said to me.
He encouraged me to open up!
“Would you like to join us?” I said to him.
I invited him to join us.
“Stand up!” he said to them.
He ordered them to stand up.
“Don't forget to phone Ted,” I said to her.
I reminded her to phone Ted.
“Don’t go in there,” she said to me.
She warned me not to go in there.
“I’d like you to come here,” he said to her.
He wanted her to go there.
“You broke the vase,” he said to me.
He accused me of breaking the vase.
“I’m sorry I upset you,” she told them.
She apologized for upsetting them.
“I've got a boring job,” he said.
He complained of having a boring job.
“No, I didn’t steal the money,” I said.
I denied stealing the money.
“I am going out no matter what,” she said.
She insisted on going out no matter what.
“Let’s go to the cinema,” they said to us.
They suggested going to the cinema.
“They will be late,” she said to us.
She informed us that they would be late.
“What a wonderful view!” we said.
We exclaimed that it was a wonderful view.
NOTE: Τα ρήματα με αστερίσκο (*) ακολουθούνται και από that + indirect statement, δίνοντάς μας τη δυνατότητα να μεταφέρουμε επί λέξη τα λόγια κάποιου σε πλάγιο λόγο. Ε.g.: I claimed that I knew everything about it. The kids promised that they would tidy their rooms.
I denied that I had stolen the money.
I threatened that I would tell mum what he had done.
She insisted that she was going out no matter what.
I reminded her that she should phone Ted.
They suggested that we (should) go to the cinema.
Lesson 19a
Reflexive / Emphatic Pronouns - Causative Form (1)
REFLEXIVE - EMPHATIC PRONOUNS myself R A L U G N I S
He complained that he had a boring job.
yourself himself herself itself
ourselves L A R U L P
yourselves
themselves
USE: Οι παραπάνω αντωνυμίες έχουν δύο χρήσεις: την αυτοπαθή (reflexive) και την εμφατική (emphatic).
Α. REFLEXIVE USE Η ενέργεια του υποκειμένου επιστρέφει στον "εαυτό του": I cut myself by mistake. (= κόβομαι) Did you entertain yourselves ? (= ψυχαγωγούμαι) He sometimes hates himself . (= μισεί τον εαυτό του) They can take care of themselves . (= φροντίζουν τον εαυτό τους) SPECIAL PHRASES: I enjoy myself = διασκεδάζω, ψυχαγωγούμαι I help myself to sth = "σερβίρομαι", πάω και παίρνω κτ. μόνος μου I behave myself = συμπεριφέρομαι σωστά / καθώς πρέπει I introduce myself to sb = συστήνομαι σε κπ. I make myself at home = νιώθω / βολεύομαι σαν στο σπίτι μου
All you need B1+
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NOTES: • Ρήματα όπως wash, dress, shave, relax , ... συνήθως δεν παίρνουν αυτοπαθείς αντωνυμίες.
I'm trying to relax now. NOT: I'm trying to relax myself now. • Το wash or dress μπορούν να πάρουν αυτοπαθείς αντωνυμίες όταν μιλάμε για μικρά παιδιά ή ζώα. The little boy is trying to dress himself . The dog is washing itself in the pond.
B. EMPHATIC USE Τονίζεται ότι κάποιος έκανε κάτι ο ίδιος προσωπικά ή μόνος του, χωρίς βοήθεια: The President himself announced the results. Beth made this chocolate cake herself . Rob himself repaired the family car. ΒΥ + EMPHATIC PRONOUN: • μόνος, χωρίς συντροφιά I live in this flat by myself . • μόνος, χωρίς βοήθεια You should do this by yourself . (or: yourself )
CAUSATIVE FORM (1) FORM:
have / get (*)
+
+
something
+
(object = thing)
done
(+ by someone)
(past participle)
(*) Τα ρήματα have ή get κλίνονται ως κύρια ρήματα στο χρόνο που απαιτεί το νόημα της πρότασης.
USE: Η αναθετική σύνταξη (causative form) δηλώνει ότι αναθέτουμε σε κάποιον άλλο να κάνει κάτι για μας. Paul didn't clean the desk himself. He asked Mary to do it. Paul had the desk cleaned (by Mary). Δείτε παρακάτω παραδείγματα αναθετικής σύνταξης σε διάφορους χρόνους και μορφές:
Present Simple
She has her dresses made. I don't have my homework done. Does Bob have his shirts ironed?
Past Simple
I had my e-mails typed. He didn’t have his lawn cut. Did you have the car washed?
Present Continuous
We are having our roof fixed. Is he having his car repaired?
Past Continuous
I was having my room cleaned. Were you having your lunch served?
Present Perfect
I have had my house painted. Has she had the dog fed?
Past Perfect
Sue had had the letters sent by six. I hadn't had my laptop fixed by then.
Future Simple
They will have their trees trimmed. We won't have our drinks paid for.
Future Perfect
We will have had our kitchen renovated by next week.
Infinitive
I should have my hair cut. You'd better have your eyes tested.
Gerund
I like having my feet massaged. She regrets having her hair dyed.
Lesson 19b
Causative Form (2) - Words Often Confused
CAUSATIVE FORM (2) FORMS:
EXAMPLES:
+
have (*) + someone + do (object = person) (bare infinitive) make
something
Mum had Tom wash the dishes. (τον έβαλε να ...) Mum made Tom wash the dishes. (τον ανάγκασε να ...)
+
get (*)
something
Mum got Tom to wash the dishes. (τον έπεισε να ...)
+
someone (object = person)
+
to do (full infinitive)
ΝΟΤΕ: Αυτός ο δεύτερος τύπος αναθετικής
(*) Τα ρήματα have , make , get κλίνονται ως κύρια ρήματα στο χρόνο που απαιτεί το νόημα της πρότασης.
σύνταξης δεν έχει ως αντικείμενο το "πράγμα" που αναθέτουμε να γίνει (βλ. Lesson 19a) αλλά το πρόσωπο στο οποίο αναθέτουμε να κάνει κάτι.
Μπορούμε λοιπόν τώρα να εκφράσουμε ανάθεση με δύο τρόπους: Dad doesn't wash the car himself. He always asks Ted to do it. (CAUSATIVE FORM 1: have/get sth done) 1. Dad always has the car washed (by Ted). 2. Dad always has / makes Ted wash the car. Dad always gets Ted to wash the car.
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All you need B1+
(CAUSATIVE FORM 2: have/make/get sb (to) do sth)
ON TIME - IN TIME
WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED
The bus arrives on time . (ακριβώς στην ώρα του) I didn't finish my project in time . (εγκαίρως, μέσα στα χρονικά περιθώρια)
AGO - BEFORE Susie graduated school three years ago . She did her homework before she went to the cinema. We got the tickets two days before the show. I've never climbed such a high mountain before .
AT THE END - IN THE END At the end of the day I like to relax with a book. (στο τέλος) We had decided to paint the room blue, but in the end we chose yellow. (τελικά)
BESIDE - BESIDES
AT THE BEGINNING - IN THE BEGINNING
The bed is beside the bookcase. (δίπλα)
She fell asleep at the beginning of the film. (στην αρχή)
Besides clothes, they also sell shoes. (εκτός από) I'm not hungry now. Besides , I don't like beans. (εξάλλου)
In the beginning , the film looked interesting. But then it got really boring. (αρχικά)
AFTER - AFTERWARDS
MOST - MOSTLY
I went out after I had tidied my room. (αφού) We had dinner after the cinema. (μετά από κτ.)
Elderly people are most affected by heat. (πάρα πολύ) We mostly wear casual clothes. (κυρίως)
I tidied my room and afterwards I went out. (μετά, κατόπιν)
ALSO REMEMBER:
ALSO - AS WELL (AS)
•
hard (σκληρά) hardly (σχεδόν καθόλου, μετά βίας) They work hard . - We hardly know them.
•
late (αργά) lately (τον τελευταίο καιρό) It's getting late . - He's been very busy lately .
LIKE - AS
•
He repeats everything like a parrot. (σαν, για παρομοίωση)
near (κοντά) nearly (σχεδόν) It's near the hospital. - We nearly crashed into a tree.
He bought some milk. He also bought some cookies. He bought some milk as well as some cookies. He bought some milk. He bought some cookies as well .
She works here as a secretary. (ως, για ιδιότητα) This is my expert opinion as a doctor.
•
high (ψηλά) highly (πολύ, σε μεγάλο βαθμό) I can't jump so high . - She's highly educated.
•
deep (βαθιά, σε βάθος - κυριολεκτικά) deeply (βαθιά, σε μεγάλο βαθμό - μεταφορικά) Don't dive too deep into these waters. BUT: I was deeply touched by his gesture.
Lesson 20a
Clauses of Manner, Time & Result
CLAUSES OF MANNER (τρόπου) •
as if / as though + Past tenses (= σαν να ...)
CLAUSES OF RESULT (αποτελεσματικές) •
so + adjective / adverb + that
Μετά από ρήματα όπως: act, appear, be, behave, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste, ...
The play was so boring that we left before the end.
+ Past Simple: για κάτι απίθανο στο παρόν She behaves as if she was / were the boss (but she isn't). BUT: She behaves as if she is the boss (she might be).
•
+ Past Perfect: για κάτι απίθανο στο παρελθόν She felt as if they had misled her (but they didn't).
He runs so quickly that he’s going to win the race.
so + much/many/little/few + noun + that
They have so much money that they spend it carelessly. There were so few participants that the meeting was put off. •
such + a/an (+adjective) + singular noun + that
Sue is such a nice girl that everybody likes her. Her baby is such an angel that I can't take my eyes off him.
•
how, (in) the way
We don't understand how you do this. I don't know how to replace a flat tyre. Try to do it the way I showed you. (όπως) This is the way mum folds our T-shirts. (ο τρόπος που)
•
such (+adjective) + plural noun/uncountable + that
She makes such delicious meals that I can never resist. We had such heavy luggage that we couldn't lift it. •
as a result / so + clause
The pub was too crowded so we didn't stay long. The pub was too crowded. As a result, we didn't stay long.
All you need B1+
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CLAUSES OF ΤΙΜΕ (χρονικές) after, as soon as, once, before, by the time, until/till, when, while, as, ... + clause
•
They had to wait for hours until the rescue team arrived. She called him as soon as she got into the house. By the time we arrived, the ferry boat had left.
REMEMBER: Δε βάζουμε Future tenses στις χρονικές προτάσεις που αναφέρονται στο μέλλον. Στη θέση τους βάζουμε Present Simple ή Present Perfect. By the time the bus arrives , she will have taken a taxi. ( NOT: By the time the bus will arrive, ...) Call me once you' ve prepared everything. ( NOT: ... once you will have prepared ...)
Lesson 20b
Clauses of Reason, Purpose & Concession/Contrast CLAUSES OF CONCESSION/CONTRAST
CLAUSES OF REASON (αιτιολογικές)
(παραχωρητικές / εναντιωματικές)
as / since + clause (εφόσον, επειδή)
•
Μπαίνουν συνήθως στην αρχή, πριν την κύρια πρόταση.
•
As their car broke down, they had to call a taxi.
•
Since he was late, he couldn’t get into the theatre.
because + clause (διότι, επειδή)
•
"Why don't you like him?" " Because he's arrogant." We didn't go for a picnic because it was raining.
BUT: because of + noun phrase (εξαιτίας, λόγω) Because of the rain, we didn’t go for a picnic.
reason this/that is
• •
•
Although / Even though / Though it was snowing, I went jogging in the park. OR: I went jogging in the park, although / even though/ though it was snowing.
NOTE: Το though μπαίνει και στο τέλος κύριων προτάσεων όπου σημαίνει "παρόλα αυτά / κι όμως" .
+ why + clause
This is the reason why I didn’t help you. (ο λόγος που) There's no reason why you shouldn't do it. (λόγος να) He's lost his dog. That's why he's so sad. (γι αυτό το λόγο)
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (του σκοπού)
It was snowing heavily. I went jogging in the park, though . • •
She had high fever. Nevertheless , she kept on working. •
We called Uncle Ben to invite him to the wedding.
•
•
for sb + to + infinitive (για να - σε ετεροπροσωπία)
I'm making pizza for the children to eat . • •
in order (not) to + infinitive (για να, έτσι ώστε να) so as (not) to
She’s studying in order to / so as to become a teacher. We didn't tell him the truth in order not to upset him. I concentrated hard so as not to make any mistakes. •
I’ll work hard so that I can / will get a promotion. We hurried up so that we wouldn't be late.
in case + clause (μην τυχόν και / σε περίπτωση που)
We’ll pack some sandwiches in case we get hungry. ( NOT: in case we will get ...) She took her coat in case the weather got worse. 34
In spite of + noun phrase / gerund / the fact that Despite
In spite of / Despite the snow, I went out. (παρά) In spite of / Despite studying hard, he failed. (αν και) In spite of / Despite the fact that he studied hard, he failed. (παρά το γεγονός ότι) •
yet / but + clause (κι όμως / αλλά)
She did her best, yet / but she wasn't successful.
so that + clause (έτσι ώστε να)
Συχνά ακολουθείται από can, could, will, would + infinitive.
•
However, + main clause (παρόλα αυτά, ωστόσο) Nevertheless,
It was snowing. However , I went jogging in the park.
to + infinitive (για να - σε ταυτοπροσωπία)
•
Although Even though + clause (παρόλο που, αν και) Though
All you need B1+
•
whereas / while + clause (ενώ)
John likes meat whereas / while Mary likes vegetables.
NOTES
All you need B1+
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