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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
1. IN INTR TROD ODUC UCCI CIÓN ÓN El acero de refuerzo es aquel que se coloca para absorber y resistir esfuerzos provocados por cargas y cambios volumétricos por temperatura y para quedar ahogado dentro de la masa del concreto. Para resistir los refuerzos de tracción los elementos de concreto, se colocan barras de acero, denominadas denominadas generalmente generalmente acero de refuerzo, refuerzo, las barras poseen corrugaciones corrugaciones en su superficie superficie para aumentar la adherencia entre ambos materiales. El uso del acero se multiplicó gracias al avance de la metalurgia y a la soldadura eléctrica. La característica fundamental de las modernas estructuras de acero es la simplificación estructural y la esbeltez. esde sus primeras aplicaciones en puentes y después en rascacielos, el acero ha ido ganando uso sobre todo en edificios, puentes, etc. En la construcción actual el acero es el material de mayor importancia! sin su presencia no se concibe ning"n edificio moderno. Por otro lado, el acero es un material mucho m#s costoso que el concreto. e esto resulta que los dos materiales se emplean me$or en combinación si el concreto se utiliza para resistir los esfuerzos de compresión y el acero los esfuerzos de tensión. Para lograr una acción efectiva del refuerzo, es esencial que el acero y el concreto se deformen en forma con$unta, es decir, es necesario que haya una adherencia suficientemente fuerte entre los dos materiales para asegurar que no ocurrir#n movimientos relativos entre las barras de y el concreto circundante.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
2. HIST HISTO ORI RIA A %unque no se tienen datos d atos precisos de la fecha en la que se descubrió la técnica de fundir mineral de hierro para producir un metal susceptible de ser utilizado, los primeros utensilios de este metal descubiertos por los arqueólogos en Egipto datan del a&o '((( a). *ambién se sabe que antes de esa época se empleaban adornos de hierro. El acero era conocido en la antig+edad, y quiz# pudo haber sido producido por el método de boomery fundición de hierro y sus ó-idos en una chimenea de piedra u otros materiales naturales resistentes al calor, y en el cual se sopla aire para que su producto, una masa porosa de hierro bloom/ contuviese carbón. %lgunos de los primeros aceros provienen del Este de 0frica, fechados cerca de 12(( ad). El hierro para uso industrial fue descubierto hacia el a&o 13(( ad), en 4edzamor, cerca de Erevan, capital de %rmenia y del monte %rarat. La tecnología del hierro se mantuvo mucho tiempo en secreto, difundiéndose e-tensamente hacia el a&o 15(( ad). Los artesanos del hierro aprendieron a fabricar acero calentando hierro for$ado y carbón vegetal en recipientes de arcilla durante varios días, con lo que el hierro absorbía suficiente carbono para convertirse en acero auténtico. Los métodos antiguos para la fabricación del acero consistían en obtener hierro dulce en el horno, con con carbó carbón n veget vegetal al y tiro tiro de aire. aire. 6na 6na post posteri erior or e-pu e-puls lsió ión n de las las escor escoria iass por por mart martilille leo o y carburación del hierro dulce para cementarlo. Luego se perfeccionó la cementación fundiendo el acero cementado en crisoles de arcilla y en 7heffield 8nglaterra/ se obtuvieron, a partir de 192(, aceros de crisol. :ue ;en$amin , 7ir
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
En 1@3( se inventa el proceso de colada continua que se usa cuando se requiere producir perfiles laminados de acero de sección constante y en grandes cantidades. El proceso consiste en colocar un molde con la forma que se requiere deba$o de un crisol, el que con una v#lvula puede ir dosificando material fundido al molde. Por gravedad el material fundido pasa por el molde, el que est# enfriado por un sistema de agua, al pasar el material fundido por el molde frío se convierte en pastoso y adquiere la forma del molde. Posteriormente el material es conformado con una serie de rodillos rodillos que al mismo tiempo lo arrastran arrastran hacia la parte e-terior e-terior del sistema. sistema. 6na vez conformado el material con la forma necesaria y con la longitud adecuada el material se corta y almacena.
3. EL ACERO
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
Para lograr una acción efectiva del refuerzo, es esencial que el acero y el concreto se deformen en forma con$unta, es decir, es necesario que haya una adherencia suficientemente fuerte entre los dos materiales para asegurar que no ocurrir#n movimientos relativos entre las barras de y el concreto circundante.
El acero es una aleación de diversos elementos entre ellosA carbono, manganeso, silicio, cromo, níquel y vanadio.
El carbonoA Es el m#s importante importante y el que determina determina sus propiedades propiedades mec#nicas. mec#nicas. % mayor contenido de carbono, la dureza, la resistencia a la tracción y el límite el#stico aumentan. Por el contrario, disminuye la ductilidad.
El manganesoA es adicionado en forma de ferroBmanganeso. %umenta la for$abilidad del acero, su templabilidad y resistencia r esistencia al impacto. %sí mismo, diminuye su ductilidad.
El silicioA se adiciona en proporciones que varían de (.(3C a (.3(C. 7e le incluye en la aleación para propósitos de deso-idación pues se combina con el o-ígeno disuelto en la mezcla.
El cromoA incrementa la resistencia a la abrasión y la templabilidad.
DíquelA me$ora la resistencia al impacto y la calidad superficial.
anadioA anadioA me$ora la temperabilidad. El acero para ser utilizado en concreto armado se fabrica ba$o las normas %7*4B%B>131>134B((, y %B9(>19(>4B((
3.1. 3. 1.
CARA CA RACT CTER ERÍS ÍSTI TICA CAS S DE DE ACE CERO RO
Ventajas Ventajas del acer a cer
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
%lta disponibilidad, su producción es 5( veces mayor al resto de materiales met#licos no férreos. 4aterial altamente adaptable. o :#cilmente reciclableA 7e puede usar chatarra como materia prima para la producción de o nuevo acero. o %lta resistencia mec#nica esfuerzos de tracción y compresión/. Des!entajas del acer" o
o
o
)orrosiónA El acero e-puesto a intemperie sufre corrosión por lo que deben recubrirse siempre e-ceptuando a los aceros especiales como el ino-idable. )alor, )alor, fuegoA En el caso de incendios, el calor se propaga propaga r#pidamente por las estructuras estructuras haciendo disminuir su resistencia hasta alcanzar temperaturas donde el acero se comporta pl#sticamente, debiendo protegerse con recubrimientos aislantes del calor.
3.2. PRIN PRINCIP CIPALES ALES PRODUCT PRODUCTOS OS DEL ACERO #arras" o o o
;arras para hormigón ;arras para molienda %lambrón
$lans" o o o
Planchas gruesas Follos y planchas laminadas en caliente Follos y planchas laminadas en frío
T%&%lares o
*ubos soldados por arco sumergido
El re'%er( del cncret se )resenta en e n tres 'r*as" !ar+llas crr%,adas- ala*&re *allas
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3.3. VARIL ARILLAS LAS CORRUGAD CORRUGADAS AS Y ALAMBRES ALAMBRES
Las Las vari varillllas as corrug corrugada adass son son de secci sección ón circu circula larr y, como como su nomb nombre re lo indi indica, ca, pres present entan an corrugaciones en su superficie para favorecer la adherencia con el concreto. Estas corrugaciones deben satisfacer requisitos mínimos para ser tomadas en cuenta en el dise&o. E-isten tres calidades distintas de acero corrugadoA grado 2(, grado >( y grado 93 aunque en nuestro medio sólo se usa el segundo. Las características de estos tres tipos de acero se muestran en la *abla 1.
Irado 2( Irado >( Irado 93
f yGgHcm5/ 5=(( 25(( 3'((
f sGgHcm5/ 2@(( >'(( 9(((
*abla *abla 1 )aracterísticas resistentes r esistentes de los aceros grado 2(, >( y 93. f y A Esfuerzo de fluencia del del acero f s A Fesistencia 4ínima a la tracción tracción a la rotura
Tabla 2.
J
dbpulg/ dbcm/
Pcm/
5 ' 2 3
1H2 'H= 1H5 3H=
5 ' 2 3
(.'>3 (.@35 1.59( 1 3==
%scm5/ KGgHm / (.'5 (.53( (.91 (.3>( 1.5@ (.@@2 5 (( 1 335
ecm/
hcm/
ccm/
B (.>>5 (.=== 1 11(
B (.('= (.(31 ( (91
B (.'>' (.2=3 ( >(=
Varillas
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
ondeA db P %s ? e < )
A i#metro nominal de la varilla. A Perímetro de la varilla. A 0rea de la sección transversal de la varilla. A Peso lilineal de la la varilla. A 4#-i 4#-imo mo espa espaci ciam amie ient nto o ent entre re corr corrug ugac acio ione ness de la vari varilllla. a. A %ltur ltura a míni mínima ma de las las cor corru ruga gaci cion ones es de la vari varilllla. a. A )uerd uerda a de las corru orruga gaci cion ones es de la vari varilllla. a.
En la figura '. se muestra claramente el significado de los términos e, h y c.
Figura 3. Características de las corrugaciones de las varillas de acero
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
CORRU0ACIONES La superficie de la varilla esta provista de rebabas o salientes llamadas corrugaciones, las cuales evitan el movimiento relativo longitudinal entre la varilla y el concreto que la rodea. Las características y requisitos de las corrugaciones para varillas son las siguientesA M eben estar distribuidas de manera uniforme en la varilla. M eben estar colocadas con una inclinación de entre 23N y 9(N con respecto al e$e longitudinal de la varilla. M La distancia entre ellas no debe e-ceder del 9(C del di#metro nominal.
3.4. MALLA MALLAS S ELEC ELECTROS TROSOLDAD OLDADAS AS Es un elemento fabricado con acero de grado >( >((( GgHcm5/, corrugado o liso, laminado en frio y electrosoldado. 7u presentación comercial es en ho$as de 5.3 - > m o en rollos de 5.3 - 2( m.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
por alambres lisos o corrugados corrugados dispuestos en mallas mallas cuadradas cuadradas o rectangulares rectangulares y soldados soldados en los puntos de unión del refuerzo. )onsiste en varillas trefiladas que se pueden ser lisas o corrugadas, las que se colocan en forma longitudinal y transversal, y que son soldadas en sus intersecciones. Estas varillas, mediante el proceso de trefilado al que son sometidas durante su fabricación, obtienen mayor resistencia. Esto permite utilizar utilizar menos cantidad cantidad de acero que con barras corrugadas corrugadas %7*4 %B>13 IF%O >(.
A)l+cac+nes Uss 4alla Electrosoldada en FollosA En el refu refuer erzo zo de t"ne t"nele les, s, como como mall malla a para para shot shotcr cret ete e y mall malla a de temp temper erat atur ura a para para la construcción. 4alla Electrosoldada en PlanchasA En el sector construcción, reemplazando
a
las
mallas
de
fierro
tradicional.
4alla ElectrosoldadaA En el sector minero, para canales hidraulicos, en acero ino-idable, para filtrado y multiusos. Losas de pisos, techos, muros armados, platea de cimentación, canales, cisternas, revestimiento de t"neles, piezas prefabricadas. 7u uso m#s frecuente es en el refuerzo de losas con sistema losacero y capas de compresión en losas aligeradas de concreto 7istema igueta y ;ovedilla/. *ambién se utiliza para reforzar firmes de concreto.
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$RO$IEDADES /ECNICAS Nr*a tcn+ca %7*4 %B1=3 %B1=3 Liso/ %7*4 %B2@9 %B2@9 )orrugado/ I% >'BF
gHmm5
R gHmm5
3(
3>
3.5. DIME DIMENSIO NSIONES NES Y PESOS PESOS NOMINA NOMINALES LES
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Otras medidas consultar en nuestro epartamente *écnico Q R 4alla de cocada cuadrada F R 4alla de cocada rectangular
4U5 O#TIENE CON ESTE $RODUCTO
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FOLLO7.B Empleados principalmente en obras de minería. Las 4allas pueden ser fabricadas seg"n su requerimiento.
3.6. ACERO, VENT VENTAJAS AJAS Y DESVENT DESVENTAJAS AJAS El acero es una aleación de carbono y hierro que nos brinda características estructurales impresionantes. Iracias a sus propiedades físicas y mec#nicas es que podemos llevar a cabo
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
esventa$asA inconveniente e del acero, y es que cuando se encuentra a la Crrs+7n" Este sería el principal inconvenient inte intemp mperi erie e este este se corro corroe e con faci facililida dad, d, por esto esto simp simple le se trat trata a de prove proveerl erle e con un recubrimiento, ya sea de un espesor de hormigón o de alg"n material dedicado para esto. Endtr*+c" Las estructuras en acero o con partes en acero, propagan f#cilmente el calor debido a las propiedades físicas de este material, y en caso de incendio las altas temperaturas se propagar#n f#cilmente por la estructura haciendo que falle m#s r#pido.
3.7.. COR 3.7 CORROS ROSIÓN IÓN DEL DEL ACERO ACERO La corrosión se define como el deterioro de un material a consecuencia de un ataque electroquímico de su entorno. e manera m#s general, puede entenderse como la tendencia que tienen los materiales a buscar su forma m#s estable o de menor energía interna. El proceso de corrosión es natural y espont#neo.
•
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3.8.1.. Sl%c+ 3.8.1 Sl%c+nes nes Cntr Cntraa La Crr Crrs+7n s+7n
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
imprimador basado en zinc. La segunda y tercera capas deber#n consistir en una pintura de epo-i sobre base de brea. %l pintar el acero, se deber#n tener en cuenta los siguientes puntosA Las pinturas caseras normales no son adecuadas para el entorno marino debido a que, al igual que algunos pl#sticos, enve$ecen con mucha rapidez cuando est#n e-puestas a los rayos del sol. El diesel, queroseno y la gasolina no son químicamente compatibles con las pinturas marinas! habr# de utilizarse el diluyente de pintura apropiado. 7e deber#n utilizar guantes siempre que se manipulen pinturas basadas en epo-i. Prote$a el acero con #nodos de zinc protección catódica/. Los #nodos de zinc se utilizan para prolongar m#s a"n la vida "til de estructuras de acero sumergidas en agua del mar como, por e$emplo, pilones de acero, pontones, flotadores met#licos, etc. Los elementos de aluminio, en contacto con acero h"medo, quedan e-puestos también a la corrosión galv#nica. •
•
• •
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
%lgunos aceros ino-idables son muy duros! otros son muy resistentes y mantienen esa resistencia durante largos periodos a temperaturas e-tremas. ebido a sus superficies brillantes, en arquitectura se emplean muchas veces con fines decorativos.
•
Acer 0al!an+(adA El %cero Ialvanizado por inmersión en caliente es un producto que combina las características de resistencia mec#nica del %cero y la resistencia a la corrosión generada por el )inc. Propiedades del Acer 0al!an+(adA Fesistencia a la abrasión
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL •
%l colocar el cuarto peso, la viga se deforma m#s y surgen grietas mayores.
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
=> )ara 9%e *e s+r!e la d%ct+l+dad? En el supuesto de que nos encontr#semos en cualquiera de las siguientes situaciones, con toda seguridad preferiríamos que el edificio se deformara aunque lo de$ara fuera de uso, a que se viniera aba$o repentinamente sin posibilidad de desalo$arlo a tiempo. B %cciones sísmicas. B %ctuación de cargas superiores a
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DANIEL ALCIDES CARRIÓN ESCUELA DE FORMACIÓN PROFESIONAL INGENIERIA CIVIL
Es la tensión a partir de la cual el material pasa a
sufrir deformaciones
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una reducción significativa del tonela$e de acero y del tama&o de los miembros estructurales de
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I0URA B.11 iagrama Esfuerzo eformación para %ceros de resistencia mayor a 25((
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del cilindro no sólo e$erce una presión ascendente sobre el pistón, sino también una
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