A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

PART I Introduction to Food Preparation

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A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION Part I presents the basic principles of food preparation and related information necessary for the development of desirable food preparation standards. Fundamental knowl edge and understanding of cooking and measuring tech niques, cooking equipment, tools and utensils, and kitchen lay-out are necessary to achieve the basic skills of food preparation. Likewise, the ability to follow and standardize a recipe will add to one’s skills in achieving excellent results in the preparation of food. The following essentials are presented in this chapter: •

a vocabulary of cooking and food preparation terms with precise definitions;

•

a working knowledge of kitchen equipment and lay-out commonly used in today’s homes; and

•

a thorough yet simple procedure in constructing and standardizing a recipe.

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Introduction to Food Preparation

METHODS OF COOKING FOOD Cooking is the term applied when heat is used in preparing foods. The different methods of cooking can be grouped according to the way heat is applied to food. Two methods are commonly identified as using Moist Heat Cooking and Dry Heat Cooking. Heat is transferred by water, water-based liquid or steam in Moist Heat Cooking; while heat is transferred by air, radiation, fat or metal in Dry Heat Cooking. The following diagram shows the different classifications of cooking methods: COOKING

Using Moist Heat

Using Dry Heat

Scalding

Baking

Simmering

Broiling

Braising

Frying

Parboiling

Stir Frying

Steaming

Deep-frying

Poaching

Roasting

Stewing

Grilling

Boiling

Sauteing

Blanching

Pan Broiling USE OF HEAT IN COOKING

Heat is used in preparing food by cooking and toasting. Cooking is the term applied when heating affects the entire mass of food, while toasting concerns primarily the effects of heat on the surface. Without heat, foods that are unpalatable or unsanitary when raw could not be included in the daily diet. The changes produced in foods by heat depend upon the methods of heat transfer, the time of heating, the temperature reached in the surface and within the mass of food, and the nature of food itself.

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Method of Heat Transfer Heat transfer from the sources of heat to the food are by convection, conduction, radiation and microwave emission. These factors affect the intensity and the rate of cooking. •

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from electricity, gas or solid fuel to the vapor molecules of the air, which in turn heat the food or the utensil it comes in contact with.

•

Conduction is the direct transfer of heat via metals or any heatconducing materials containing the food. In the conduction, heat penetrates the center of the food. Good conductor of heat are metals, copper, water and steam, and air.

•

Radiation is the transfer of heat from a red hot coil to the food. It immediately heats the food it strokes on. The process can be blocked by an obstacle between the source and the object to be heated.

Many foods are cooked by conduction when heat flows from one material to another. Metals are good conductor of heat, thus metal pots and pans are widely used in food preparation. Foods are also cooked by convection currents (as in food processing) and by radiation. With radiation, only the surface is cooked by the waves of energy, the interior is cooked by conduction. Heat, a form of energy, increases the molecular motion of a substance. The temperature of a substance is the measure of the vigor of this motion. Freezing and boiling points are related to molecular structure. The substance with the higher molecular weights requires a higher temperature for a change of state to occur. The heat required to change a substance from frozen to liquid state is known as the heat of fusion. Measurement of Heat or Temperature The usual result of an increase in temperature is an expansion in size. Hence, a convenient way of measuring temperature is by noting the expansion of a column of mercury in a thermometer scale. Mercury expands uniformly at different temperature and has an extensive range between the freezing point -39°F and its boiling point 675°F. There are two kinds of scale in a thermometer: the Fahrenheit and the Centigrade. Heat is measured by degrees Centigrade or Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F).


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The degree of hotness or intensity of heat is expressed as the temperature of the object (food). To express cooking temperatures, the Metric System using °C and °F are used. The Fahrenheit scale is named after a German Physicist. It has 32° for its freezing point and 212° for its boiling point. There are 212 equal divisions between 0° and the boiling point. The Centigrade Scale gets its name from Centum, Latin for “hundred” and Grade which means “step.” In the Centigrade Scale, the freezing point is marked 0° and the boiling point is marked 100°. The scale between these two points is marked off into 10 equal divisions or degrees. There are 9 Fahrenheit degrees for every 5 Centigrade degrees. Thus, when a temperature reading is to be changed into centigrade, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, multiply it by 5 and divide by 9. °C = (°F – 32) x 5. If the change is from Centigrade into Fahrenheit, mul9

tiply the number of Centigrade degrees by 9, divide by 5 and add 32. °F =(°C x 9)/5 + 32.

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IMPORTANT TEMPERATURES IN PREPARING FOODS


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PURPOSE OF COOKING Some foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are highly palatable when eaten raw. However, most foods must be cooked to be acceptable to the human palate. The main purposes of cooking food are: •

to improve its natural flavor and palatability;

•

to destroy pathogenic organisms and injurious substances which may be found on raw foods;

•

to improve its digestibility; and

•

to make its maximum nutritive value available in a palatable form.

Natural Flavor and Palatability Some fruits and vegetables are highly palatable when eaten raw because uncooked and unsoaked foods retain a good portion of their nutritive value and natural texture and color. The effect of cooking on the color and texture is important on its influence in flavor. When the object is to maintain the original flavor of the food, the cooking process used should be as short as possible without adding any flavoring materials. For example, fresh and young vegetables should be cooked in a small amount of boiling water. When several foods are cooked together, an interesting blend of flavor is developed. The cooking process in this case is often comparatively long to allow time enough for the new flavor to develop. For example, casserole dishes, pudding, and the local Sinigang and Nilaga are enjoyed for their interesting blend of different flavors. Overcooking, however, is destructive of flavors and food may become soggy or stringy. The effect of cooking on the color and texture of food has a great influence on flavor. The methods of cooking used must be those which are conserving of the natural color of food or developing the new, desired color. Pathogenic Organisms and Injurious Substances on Food All foods in their natural state are subject to spoilage or deterioration because of pathogenic organisms and injurious substances found in them. Microorganisms, such as molds, yeasts, and bacteria, grow at certain temperature generally between 0 degree to 75 degrees. However, with heat application or exposure to temperatures near the boiling point of water, microorganisms are easily killed.

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Illness may be caused by foods that naturally contain poisonous substances and foods that are contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms and toxins. Cooking, through application of heat, destroys the injurious substances in raw food and renders the food in wholesome and safe form. Most cooking methods produce an interior temperature of 140 degrees to 185 degrees Fahrenheit. Some baked products may reach a temperature close to 21 degrees Centigrade. This temperature range is one in which many harmful organisms do not grow. All portions of food must reach and maintain a certain temperature within this range. Digestibility of Food All foods undergo softening as a result of cooking, which may render food more digestible. Some cooking processes are identical with the processes involved in the breakdown of food during digestion. For example: the transformation of starch into dextrins and the hydrolyses that takes place during the cooking of meat break down the protein collagen in connective tissues. Digestibility to a layman, refers not only to the completeness of digestion and absorption but also the general feeling and after effect of eating. When food is hard to digest, it is easily manifested by a feeling of discomfort. Some fruits and vegetables have to be cooked to be palatable, soft and easy to digest. Maximum Nutritive Value Some foods, like fruits and vegetables group, are highly palatable when eaten raw because uncooked and unsoaked foods retain a good portion of their nutritive value. However, in time of food poisoning outbreak, people are warned not to eat raw or half-cooked food. The most important nutritive change, which occurs in natural food through cooking, is the loss of its water soluble nutrients, hence, the retention of these nutrients in foods is directly related to the amount of water used in cooking. Destruction of vitamins may also be brought about by the action of heat. Studies have shown that Ascorbic acid and Thiamine are unfavorably affected by heat. All these, however, are small losses if compared to the significance of the effects of cooking to assure safety from food-borne diseases. There are some raw foods that have to be cooked in order that their nutritive value can be used by the body. For example, root crops have to be cooked to fully enjoy their carbohydrates content. The protein content of most fish and meat are fully utilized when cooked. To develop,


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enhance, or alter the flavor of foods and to maximize its nutritive value, control must be exercised by the method of cooking used and the length of cooking time. COOKING MEDIUMS The methods of cooking are classified according to the cooking medium, namely, air, water, steam, fat, and a combination of one or more of these mediums. Air and Heat as Cooking Mediums Boiling, roasting, and baking are examples of cooking methods with heat as the medium. Without heat, foods that are unpalatable or insanitary when raw cannot be included in the daily diet. Many foods are cooked by conduction or the flow of heat from one material to another. Metals are conductors of heat, thus metal pans are widely used in cooking. Foods are also cooked by convection currents or the transfer of kinetic energy by heated air or liquid, and by radiation or transfer of kinetic energy by means of waves. Broiling is cooking over or under a source of direct heat such as coals, a gas burner, or a glowing electric unit. Much of the heat is derived from radiant energy; some is conducted from the air and from the broiler rack. Roasting is cooking on a spit before an open fire or by covering with hot coals. Nowadays, the term is used synonymously with baking in meat cookery. Baking is cooking in an oven, whereby, convection cur rents aid in heating the air and equalizing the oven temperature. Water as a Cooking Medium The methods of cooking with water as the medium are: boiling, simmering, and stewing. Boiling is cooking in water at boiling point. This temperature may be recognized by the presence of many bubbles of steam rises to the top and breaks. Incomplete cooking by boiling is called parboiling. It is used when another method is to be employed for the remainder of the cooking time, or when strongly flavored or other water soluble constituents are to be removed and fresh water is added for continued cooking by boiling.

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Simmering is cooking in a bath of water somewhat below the boiling point, 180 to 210 degrees F (82-99 degrees C). The presence of bubbles of steam, which disappears before they reach the surface, is an education of this range. Stewing is simmering or boiling in water enough to cover the ingredient. Bubble size and movement differ during poaching, simmering, and boiling.

a. Poach

b. Simmer

c. Boil

Poaching – Water is heated to a temperature of 160° to 180°F (71° to 82°C). Small motionless bubbles appear in the bottom of the pan. Poaching is used to prepare delicate foods like fish and eggs. Simmering – Water is heated just below the boiling point not less than 180°F (82°C). It is characterized by gently rising bubbles that barely break the surface. Simmering is used for cooking tough cuts of meat to make it tender. Boiling – Water is heated to reach 212°F (100°C), a temperature at which water bubbles rapidly. The high temperature of boiling water is used to cook paste and tougher-textured vegetables like dried beans. Steam as a Cooking Medium The methods of cooking with steam as the cooking medium are: steaming, waterless cooking, and pressure cooking. Steaming refers to cooking in steam arising from added water. Waterless cooking is cooking with steam formed from the water originally present in food.


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Pressure cooking is cooking with steam under pressure; since the heat of vaporization does not escape, the temperature rises steadily to a high point. This type of cooking requires the use of a pressure cooker, a special type of cooking utensil. Fat as a Cooking Medium Fat is used as the cooking medium in sautéing, deep-fat frying, and pan broiling. Sautéing is cooking in a lightly greased pan allowing the product to be turned over or “flipped” for complete cooking. Deep-Fat Frying refers to cooking in an amount of fat sufficient for immersion of the food. The temperature required for frying runs as high as 385 degrees F or 196 degrees C. Combination of Cooking Mediums A combination of more than one method is used in braising, fricasseeing, and pot roasting. Braising represents a combination of sautéing and subsequent cooking in a small amount of liquid in a covered utensil. Fricasseeing is almost similar to braising. Braising and fricasseeing are in fact synonymously applied to meat and poultry. Pot roasting is the term commonly used when a large piece of meat is cooked by the preceding methods. Electronic Cooking Electronic cooking or microwave cooking is done on an electronic range. Electronic cooking does not involve a cooking medium. In an electronic oven, a magnetron tube is used to change electricity to high frequency microwaves; the microwaves are absorbed by the food, causing agitation of the molecules or friction. By creating molecular friction, energy is produced in food. This action results in heating of the food. The food cooks, as in conventional cooking, by becoming hot first. The interior of the food mass is cooked by heat conducted to it from the surface. Aluminum, tin and stainless steel utensils and vessels are not used in microwave cooking because they cut down its efficiency by shielding the food. Paper, glass, china, and earthware are preferable. Much time is saved in microwave cooking; and food will not burn.

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THE STANDARDIZED RECIPE A recipe is a set of instructions for making a food dish from various ingredients. When a recipe is one in which the amounts and proportions of the ingredients and the methods of procedure will consistently produce a high quality product, it becomes a standardized recipe. A recipe has two important parts: • a list of ingredients and • a description of the method for putting them together. Principles to be Followed in Recipe Construction Good recipes are constructed not only to obtain a good product but also to be sure of an efficient and orderly procedure that will minimize the time of preparation. Here are certain principles to follow: 1. 2. 3.

The recipe should be simple, easy to read, and interesting to the reader. The ingredients should be listed in the order they are to be used. Exact measurements should be indicated; if possible abbreviations should be avoided. For example: 1/2 cup chopped onion not 1.2 c. onion, chopped

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Descriptive terms should be placed before the ingredient if the process is to be carried out before measurement. For example: 2 cups sifted flour If the process is carried out after measurement, the terms are placed under the ingredient. For example: 2 cups flour, sifted Whenever possible, it is desirable to use simple measurements. • Fractional measurements in a cup (1/2, 1/4, 1/3 cups); • Weight of uncooked meat, poultry, fish (1/2 kilo, 4 lbs.) etc.; and • Measure and weight of canned packaged products (5 oz. can tomato sauce, 1 lb. cheese). Specify the particular type of ingredient to be used. Thus, if cake flour is the preferred ingredient, specify as 2 cups cake flour instead of 2 cups flour.


7. 8. 9. 10.

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Use the generic names of the ingredients rather than brand names. Short and clear sentences that give the necessary information help to make directions understandable. Use the precise term to describe a cooking process or a preparation method. Do not say mix when you mean fold or beat. Specify the size of the baking pan or utensils needed. State clearly how preparation should be made. For example: oiling greasing lining with wax paper

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12.

State information regarding temperature and cooking time to insure successful results. A statement to describe the stage is most helpful. For example: Bake for 25 minutes at 350°F, until it is golden brown. Every recipe should indicate its yield in terms of average servings. A SAMPLE RECIPE Fish Escabeche

2 medium-sized fish (lapu-lapu, talakitok or pampano) 1 large onion 1 large sweet pepper, cut into long narrow pieces 2 cloves garlic 2 tablespoons cornstarch 2 cups water 2 tablespoons vinegar 4 tablespoons sugar 3 tablespoons soy sauce 1 large carrot cut into strips Clean the fish. Sprinkle with 1 teaspoon salt. Fry until brown and set aside. Saute garlic, onion, and sweet pepper. Add the carrot and cook until crisp and tender. Make medium thick gravy by mixing water, sugar, soy sauce, salt, and cornstarch. Boil 5 minutes before adding the vinegar. Then add garlic, onioncarrot-pepper mixture into this gravy. Pour over the fish. Makes 12 servings.

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THE KITCHEN: ITS STRUCTURE, USE, AND CARE Food preparation is greatly related to the kitchen lay-out, the equipment, the utensils, and the other items in it. Every kitchen is made up of three main activity centers: (1) the storage and preparation center, (2) the cooking center, and (3) the clean-up or washing center. The work involved in all three is so interrelated that these must not be too widely separated but must form a compact work unit. An effective use of the kitchen space and equipment is achieved when range, sink, and refrigerator are fairly close to each other, with sufficient working surface and storage cabinets interspersed among them. The Work Triangle Situating the three main activity centers in a convenient work triangle is essential to achieve a workable kitchen. The following distances are recommended: sink to refrigerator – 4 feet to 7 feet range to refrigerator – 4 feet to 9 feet sink to range – 4 feet to 6 feet Total triangle perimeter – 12 feet to 22 feet To achieve maximum efficiency with the work triangle factors, the following four basic kitchen arrangements are recommended by kitchen planners: 1.

The U-shaped Kitchen The U-shaped Kitchen is generally considered the most efficient arrangement. The three major advantages are: 1) traffic crossing the basic work triangle is prevented; 2) a continuous counter area exists; and 3) distances between appliances are short.


2.

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The L-shaped Kitchen In the L-shaped Kitchen, the work centers are placed along two adjacent walls. A natural eating corner is created without sacrificing space from the work area. An easy flow of work from refrigerator to sink to range is possible in this arrangement of work centers.

3.

The Island Kitchen The Island Kitchen is usually a modified U-shaped or Lshaped arrangement of activity centers. An excellent use of the island is as a cooking or mixing center. The addition of a chopping-block-top and a utensil-hanging-rack makes the design of the kitchen island attractive.

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4.


The Corridor Kitchen The Corridor Kitchen is the simplest and most economical arrangement. The corridor must be at least four feet wide and should have a dead end to prevent traffic through the work triangle.

THE KITCHEN EQUIPMENT The necessary large equipment for the proper preparation of food includes a range, a refrigerator, and a sink. Proper use and care of the equipment will not only make food preparation quicker and easier but also insure their lasting service. The Range The range provides the necessary heat in cooking food. The fuel used for a range may be electricity, gas, kerosene, gasoline, coal, or wood. Ranges differ in size, shape, and special features, but all of them are equipped with surface units for top of the range cooking, an oven for baking and roasting, and a broiler. Both surface burners and ovens have various temperature control features. On a gas range, the source of heat is the “burner”; on an electric range, it is the “Unit” or a coil. The heat of either gas or electric range should be regulated according to the food being cooked and the size of the utensil. Ranges can provide low heat for simmering, medium heat for gentle cooking, and high heat for rapid cooking. The low, medium, and high may each be adjusted to a higher or lower degree. Use and Care of the Range When using the range, remember to •

Use utensils that are large enough to prevent the boiling food from spilling over the range top or oven;

•

Keep a dish on the range top for the spoon that you use in stirring food;


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Avoid putting anything hot on porcelain enameled surfaces or putting cooking utensils across them because the heat may cause the surface to chirp or crack;

•

Arrange pans in the oven so that the air can circulate around them; and

•

Wipe the chromium trimming with a damp cloth and polish it with a dry cloth.

Cleaning the Top of a Gas Range 1. 2. 3. 4.

Remove the burners and the rack, and scrub them with warm, soapy water and scouring pad. Clean the holes with a hairpin or wire. Do not use a toothpick. Rinse with clear, hot water, and dry the rack; turn the burners of the oven upside down. Return the burners and the rack to the range as soon as they are dry.

Cleaning the Units of an Electric Range 1. 2.

3.

Turn on the high heat so that any food on the units will burn off. Cool, and then brush each unit with a soft non-metallic brush. Never clean the unit with a metal brush, a fork, a knife, or a sharp metal tool. Use steel wool or a cloth for units which are enclosed.

Cleaning the Oven 1. 2. 3. 4.

Use a pancake turner to remove food immediately after it has spilled on the oven. Clean the oven thoroughly with a special cleaner when it is cool. Wipe the oven with soapy water. Rinse with clean water and dry. Turn on the oven for a few minutes to dry all parts so that they will not rust.

Cleaning the Broiler 1. 2. 3. 4.

Remove fat from the broiler pan. Then, wipe the pan and the rack with paper. Wash the broiler rack and the pan with hot soapy water using a scouring pad. Rinse and dry thoroughly. Wipe the walls of the broiler. Then, return the broiler pan on the rack.

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Proper Use and Care of Microwave Oven 1. Close the oven door properly. Never operate the oven when it is empty or while door is open. An open door results in harmful exposure to microwave energy. 2. The microwave oven has no temperature control. Cooking is regulated by time alone. The time required to cook food by microwave depends on the types of food and amount of food. 3. Microwave oven should be cleaned, especially around the seal, after each use. Food particles and grease that collect around the seal should be wiped out by paper towels. 4. Glass, china, some plastic, paper, plastic wrap and wax paper are satisfactory materials that can be used in cooking foods in the microwave oven. Do not use utensils with metal bands, clips, screws, delicate glasswares and dishes. 5. Metal containers and materials should not be used in microwave ovens because the metal iron blocks microwave and prevents them from entering the food. 6. Don’t be afraid to watch your food through the oven door. The diffused light inside a microwave oven is due to the finely perforated metal screen embedded in the door. This screen prevents the escape of microwave energy, while it allows you to look as you cook. 7.

If food is ready to boil over, stop the cooking immediately by pushing the stop button and by opening the oven door.

8. Use dry paper towel to cover bacon or foods which are cooked uncovered but tend to spatter. 9. Round shape of casserole dishes microwave more easily than squares or rectangles. 10. The oven should not be adjusted or repaired by anyone except properly qualified service personnel. The Refrigerator Every food preparation area should be equipped with a refrigerator so that perishable foods may be quickly cooled and spoilage prevented. A refrigerator must be well constructed and well insulated, if it is to perform efficiently. Many modern refrigerators are of the combination refrigerator-freezer type, but individual freezer cabinets are also available for home use. There are two types of individual freezer cabinets: the upright type and the chest type. The upright freezer is like the refrigerator in appearance and takes up minimum of floor space. Refrigerators and


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freezer are available in size from 4 cubic feet to 16 cubic feet. The size purchased for a particular food preparation unit depends on the number of persons to be serviced by it and the space available. Food that is used frequently should be placed in the refrigerator where it may easily be reached. The coldest part of the refrigerator or the freezing unit is used for storing perishable foods such as meat, fish, and poultry. Milk, cream, butter, and eggs should be kept near the freezing unit. Cooked foods, which contain milk and eggs, should be placed near the freezing unit, too. Other foods should be kept in the center of the refrigerator. Fruits and vegetables are usually kept in the crisper, the lowest part of the refrigerator. Care of the Refrigerator Refrigerators with automatic defrost should be thoroughly cleaned every week by wiping off food containers and removing all unneeded foods. Whereas, refrigerators without automatic defrost should be defrosted whenever the frost is over 1/4 inch thick. Defrosting the Refrigerator 1.

Turn off the electric current.

2.

Remove all ice trays and frozen foods from the freezing unit.

3.

Wrap frozen foods in a newspaper to keep them from thawing.

4.

Put the drip tray in the proper place to catch the melted ice.

5.

Place pans of hot water in the lower part of the freezing unit. Allow the ice to melt. Never use a sharp or pointed object to remove the ice.

6.

Remove the food in the lower part of the refrigerator.

7.

Wipe the inside portion of the freezing unit as well as the refrigerator with water to which 1 teaspoon baking soda has been added for each quart.

8.

Turn on the current and return the food to the refrigerator.

Proper Use of the Refrigerator 1.

Study the booklet supplied by the manufacturer.

2.

Keep the temperature between 35°F and 45°F.

3.

Allow hot food to cool before putting it in the refrigerator.

4.

Open the door only when absolutely necessary and keep it open as short time as possible.

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5. Put leftovers in small dishes and use them as soon as possible to avoid overcrowding the refrigerator. 6. Remove food from paper bags before storing in the refrigerator. 7.

Do not store unopened cans of food in the refrigerator unless they are to be chilled for the next meal.

8. Store foods in covered dishes or glass jars to prevent odors from spreading. 9. Avoid getting grease on the gasket around the door. 10. Decide on a definite place in which to keep each kind of food, and put the foods in the same places each time so that you will not waste time in looking for them. The Sink A great deal of food preparation is spent at the sink: cleaning, peeling, cutting food, removing waste, and dishwashing. It is central to all food operations that require water, and therefore, it should be placed where it will be easily accessible. The proper height of the sink is important — too high a sink means stretching. All supplies and equipment that are used for scraping, washing, rinsing, and drying dishes should be near the sink. Sinks are available in various sizes and finish with a single, double, or triple bowl. They are usually either with a stainless finish or porcelain enamel, which comes in white or several colors. Care of the Sink 1.

Fill the sink or the dishpan half-full with water when washing the dishes. Put only a few dishes into the sink at one time.

2.

Pour the dishwashing through a sink strainer to avoid clogging the sink.

3.

Use soapy water to clean the sink, rubbing it hard. If the sink is very dirty, use a fine scouring powder and a bleach to remove the stains.

Equipment and Tools The use of proper equipment in top condition is of primary importance in the production of good food. Standardized equipment, a variety of knives, the right kitchen tools, utensils, and appliances are all contribute to good quality food.


SUGGESTED BASIC KITCHEN UTENSILS AND TOOLS A.

Cooking Utensils tea kettle saucepan (2 quarts, 3 quarts, 4 quarts) 1 native carajay or frying pan (10 inches in diameter) 1 small skillet (6 to 7 inches in diameter) 1 double boiler 1 large casserole

B.

Oven Utensils 1 muffin pan (6 to 12 cups) 1 pie pan (9 inches) 2 layer-cake pans (8 x 1 1/2 inches) 1 square cake pan (8 x 8 x 2 inches) 1 tube pan (10 x 4 inches) 1 loaf pan (8 1/2 x 2 1/2 inches) 1 baking sheet

C.

Tools 1 paring knife (3 1/2 inches wide with a blade) 1 large knife (5 to 7 inches wide with a blade) 2 or 3 mixing spoons 2 long-handled cooking spoons 1 long-handled cooking fork 1 spatula 1 can opener 1 kneading board 2 chopping boards 1 rotary egg beater or white beater measuring spoons and cups mixing bowls (1 qt, 2 qts, 3 qts, 4 qts) strainer or sieve colander

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D.


Suggested Additions a pressure cooker a meat grinder a juice extractor a pancake griddle kitchen shears a Dutch oven with cover tongs for hot foods and ice cubes 1 dozen dishtowels 4 pot holders an omelet pan an ice pick


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SMALL EQUIPMENT FOR FOOD PREPARATION Small items of equipment are referred to as kitchen utensils. These are used in cleaning, cutting, chopping, and cooking. Equipment for cooking on the range sauce pan

heavy skillet or carajay

sauce pot

skillet or frying pan

kettle

pressure cooker

double boiler

tea kettle

Dutch oven

coffeemaker

Cutting and chopping equipment butcher knife

scissors

french or chopping knife

meat grinders

bread knife

pastry blender

cutting board

biscuit cutter

paring knife

grater

peeler

can opener mallet mashes

Mixing and preparation equipment mixing bowls

blending fork

sifter

rubber scrapper

wire whip

strainer

wooden spoon

tongs

mixing spoon

chopping board

slotted spoon

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USEFUL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Rotary beater

Wire whisks

Can opener Mixing bowls Bottle opener

Mallet

Vegetable peeler

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Metal spatula

Wooden spoons

Tongs

Kitchen scissors

Strainer

Funnel

Colander

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Metal spatula

Sifter

Utility spoon

Utility spoon

Slotted spoon

Ladle

Kitchen fork Grater

Slotted turner

Garlic press Pancake turner

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BAKE WARE

Loaf pan

Tube pan

Round pan Rectangular pan

Spring-form pan (Removable bottom)

Pie pan

Jelly roll pan

Baking sheet

Muffin pan

Square pan

Tart pans

Bundt pan

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KNIVES: THE BASIC CUTTING TOOLS Butt Tip Bolster

Paring knife

Boning knife

Blade Rivets Heel

Utility knife

Slicing knife

Butcher

French knife

Bread knife

Knife Sharpening Steel

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POTS AND PANS

3-quart pan 2-quart pan

1-quart pan

Frying pan with lid

Omelet pan Stock pot

Double-boiler

Cast-iron frying pan

Dutch oven

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BAKEWARE ACCESSORIES

Souffle Dish Custard cups

Biscuit cutter Wire racks


PASTRY TOOLS

Pastry blender Pastry bag and tips

Pastry brushes Rolling pins

Slicing wheel

Pastry wheel

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MEASURING TECHNIQUES

Dry Ingredients Liquid

Shortening Brown Sugar

Butter or Margarine Shredded Cheese


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MEASURING FOOD MATERIALS The use of standard measuring equipment and standard measuring techniques will help to ensure successful products. To achieve consistent results each time a particular recipe is used, identical measuring procedures must be followed. Every major ingredient, dry or liquid, requires a special measuring technique. Liquids are measured in standard glass or clear plastic cups that hold the exact capacity specified in a recipe. If it is necessary to weigh foods, use a weighing scale. Measuring Techniques How to measure Liquids: Use a liquid measuring cup and place it on level surface. Have the measuring line at eye level to be sure of the exact measurement. Dry Ingredients or Powdered Materials: Gently spoon the ingredient into the cup, piling high or filling cup to overflowing; then level off with a metal spatula or straight-edged knife. Powdered materials such as baking powder, baking soda, salt etc. must be stirred first to break up any lump. Dip a dry spoon in the powder and level off with the edge of the spatula or the knife. Sugar: Sift granulated or refined sugar if lumpy. Spoon into the measuring cup and level off. Do not pack or tap the sugar down. Brown sugar is packed firmly into the cup with a finger until it is even with the rim. When the cup is inverted, brown sugar will hold its shape. Solid shortening: With a rubber spatula, pack into cup. Run spatula through shortening to release air; pack again and level off. Butter or margarine: When using a bar or stick or butter, cut the desired amount. Use these equivalents: 1/2 lb. — 1 cup; 1/4 lb. — 1/2 cup. Shredded cheese: Lightly place the shreds in a dry measuring cup until even with its rim. Do not pack the cheese into the cup. Spices: To measure less than 1/4 teaspoon, use your finger or divide 1/4 teaspoon in half. This is usually referred to as a dash or a pinch. Abbreviations used in measuring ingredients. t or tsp. (teaspoon) T or tbsp. (tablespoon)

lb. (pound) oz. (ounce)

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MEASUREMENTS AND CONVERSIONS Heat Very Cool Cool or Slow Moderate Hot Very Hot

Fahrenheit 230 275-300 350 425 450

Centigrade/Celsius 110 135-150 175 220 230

Conversion of Temperature Measurement CENTIGRADE = 5/9 (°F – 32) or (°F – 32) x 5 9

FAHRENHEIT = (9 x °C)/5 + 32 or 1.8 x °C – 32 Weight and Measure Equivalent Dash = less than 1/8 teaspoon 3 Teaspoons (tsp.) = 1 Tablespoon (Tbsp.) 2 Tbsp. = 1/8 cup (1 fl. oz) 4 Tbsp. = 1/4 cup (2 fl. oz) 8 Tbsp. = 1/2 cup (4 fl. oz) 16 Tbsp. = 1 cup (8 fl. oz) 1 gill = 1/2 cup 2 cups = 1 pint 2 pints = 1 quart 4 quarts = 1 gallon 8 quarts = 1 peck 4 pecks = 1 bushel Approximate Mass and Measures Ingredients

Flour Raisins Cornflour (Cornstarch) Rice Cheese (grated) Liquid (Milk, Water)

Handy Measures (Rounded) 1 Teacup 100 grams 100 grams 100 grams 100 grams 50 grams 150 ml.

1 Tablespoon 25 grams 25 grams 25 grams 25 grams 25 grams 15 ml.

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CUTTING TECHNIQUES

Chopping

Mincing

Slicing

Diagonal Slicing

Julienne Strips

Dicing

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COOKING TERMS Bake — Cook in an oven. Barbecue — Baste meat from time to time with a highly-seasoned sauce as it cooks by direct heat over coals, in an oven or under a broiler. Baste — Moisten food while it is being baked to prevent it from drying out. Blanch or Scald — Put boiling water over food or dip the food into boiling water and then into cold water. Boil — Cook in liquid until bubbles appear and rise to the top and break on the surface. Broil — Cook by direct heat. Braise — Brown meat or vegetable in a small amount of liquid. Fry — Cook in hot fat without cover. Fricassee — Cook by braising. Melt — Change a solid to liquid by boiling. Poach — Cook food in hot liquid just below the boiling point. Roast — Cook meat or poultry uncovered in oven without added moisture. Scald — Heat liquid in the upper part of a double boiler until tiny bubbles appear around the edge. Steam — Cook food by steam in a covered steamer rather than in boiling water. Steep — Cover tea leaves with boiling water and allow to stand, to extract the flavor, color, and aroma from the leaves. Simmer — Cook just below boiling point. Sear — Brown meat quickly on all sides at high temperature to develop flavor and improve its appearance. Stew — Cook food for a long time in a small amount of liquid at simmering temperature.


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FOOD PREPARATION TERMS Beat — Make the mixture smooth and light by lifting it over and over. Blend — Mix two or more ingredients until one ingredient cannot be distinguished from the other. Break — Divide into pieces. Chop — Cut into small, uneven pieces. Cream — Rub, mash or work shortening against the side of a bowl with the back of a spoon until it is smooth and creamy. Cut-in — Combine shortening and dry ingredients when making biscuits or pastry. Cube — Cut into pieces of uniform size and shapes, first, lengthwise then crosswise to make cubes. Dice — Cut into small pieces of uniform size and shapes, first, lengthwise then crosswise to make cubes. Dredge — Coat solid food with a dry ingredient such as flour, breadcrumbs or sugar by sprinkling, dipping or rolling it in one of these ingredients. Flake — Separate fish into small pieces. Fold — Add beaten egg whites or whipped cream to a mixture without losing what has been beaten into them. Grate — Cut into fine pieces by rubbing against a grater in circular or back and forth motion. Julienne — Cut into thin, match-like strips. Marinate — Let food stand in French dressing or an oil acid mixture to add flavor. Mash — Press food from small pieces into a pulp with an up and down or beating action of a fork. Mince — Cut or chop into tiny pieces. Pare — Cut off the outer skin or rind with a knife. Peel — Pull off the outer skin or rind. Puree — Rub food through a sieve to make a smooth semi-liquid mixture for use in soups or sauces, or food for babies.

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Scrape — Remove the skin by rubbing it with the sharp edge of the knife. Slice — Cut across into flat pieces. Soften — Cream butter, margarine, or shortening until it is smooth and creamy or to let it stand at room temperature until it is soft. Stir — Mix the ingredients in a bowl by circular movement of a spoon. Sprinkle — Scatter sugar, flour, and salt over food. Toss — Mix lightly by lifting the ingredients for salad with a spoon and fork with two forks to avoid braising the ingredients. Wedge — Cut into shape of a wedge, each piece thick at one and thin at the other end. Whip — Beat rapidly with a whisk beater to incorporate air and increase volume of egg white.

PART II Food Preservation

39

40


FOOD PRESERVATION Part II highlights the basic principles of food preservation. It introduces the readers to the causes and prevention, and/or delay of food spoilage. Several techniques of food preservation are discussed in the simplest terms. The role of food additives and food packaging in food preservation is given importance. Modern commercial methods are introduced along with traditional methods of processing foods; nonetheless, the basic principles of food preservation still apply.

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41

VALUE OF FOOD PRESERVATION Food preservation is the application of techniques to prevent or minimize undesirable changes in food. Spoilage, no matter what form it takes, has to be minimized and possibly prevented; otherwise, large portions of fruits, vegetables, fish, and other food materials would go to waste. Food preservation assures the consumer of a supply of foods that are out of season. In addition, it prevents the waste of perishable foods that are in season. Surplus of preserved foods may be sold to augment family income. Farmers particularly will be encouraged to plant and raise more crops, thus stimulating agricultural development. From the nutrition viewpoint, food preservation is essential in improving the general health of a family by supplying it with a varied and balanced diet. Protective foods should be provided in quantity and quality needed by the body. Nutritional inadequacy remains a problem in our country because of increasing population coupled by the lack of food supply. With preservation, a year-round availability of the necessary nutrients is assured. PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRESERVATION All methods used for preserving foods are based upon the general principle of preventing or retarding the causes of spoilage — microbial decomposition, enzymatic and non-enzymatic chemical reaction and damage from mechanical causes, insect and rodents. Preservation is temporary when the growth of microorganism is only retarded and inhibited. Permanent preservation is achieved when spoilage organisms are completely destroyed and no other microorganisms are permitted to reinfect it. An effective method of food preservation prevents or slows down spoilage without damaging the food or adding injurious substances to it. No method of food preservation will improve the original quality of a food product. Fresh and flavorful food produced at optimal stage of ripeness or maturity must be used to achieve a satisfactory preserved food. All methods of food preservation are based on the following principles: A.

Microbial Decomposition must be prevented and delayed to prevent food spoilage and prolong the keeping quality of food.

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Microbial decomposition may be prevented or delayed by:

B.

1.

Keeping out microorganisms through sanitary handling and minimizing the initial bacterial load. It is easier to kill microorganism if there is a smaller number of bacteria.

2.

Removal of microorganisms.

3.

Hindering the growth and activity of microorganism by low temperature, drying, anaerobic condition or chemicals.

4.

Killing microorganism by heat.

Self-Decomposition of food may be prevented and delayed by: 1.

Destruction or inactivation of food enzymes Enzymes are organic catalyst produced by living cells. A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of reaction without itself being used up in the reaction. Enzymes catalyze many different chemical reactions in plant and animal tissues. For example, the chemical changes that occur in fruits and the maturing of vegetables are due to enzymatic actions. Enzymes are proteins and therefore may be denatured by heat. Unless enzymes are destroyed in heating, they maybe responsible for certain undesirable chemical changes in preserved food.

2.

Prevention or delay of chemical reactions in foods Chemical reactions in food include oxidation, rancidity of fats, and fermentations. Chemical reaction caused by light and oxygen accelerates the oxidative rancidity of fats in food producing undesirable changes in flavor as well as in color. The nutritive quality of certain vitamins, like Riboflavin and Ascorbic acid, is destroyed or reduced by oxidation. The use of antioxidant prevents delay or delays the chemical reactions.

C.

Damage by external factors like insects, animal or mechanical causes may be prevented only with adequate packaging of food.

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PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FOOD Physical Properties The physical properties of food play an important role in cookery. These are specific gravity, melting point, freezing point and boiling point. The knowledge and understanding of these physical properties will insure success in food preparation and food preservation. 1. Specific Gravity Specific Gravity of food is its weight in reference to the weight of an equal volume of water at a given temperature. It varies according to composition. Specific gravity of food is used as a basis for the specification purchase of food products such as sugar, syrup, jams, jellies, milk, cream, ice cream, and alcoholic beverages. 2. Melting Point The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes from solid to liquid state. For example, pure water in the form of ice melts at 0 degree Centigrade. With foods, the softening point may be identified as its melting point. 3. Freezing Point The freezing point of a material is the temperature at which it changes from liquid to solid state. The freezing point of some foods, such as milk, for example, may be used to determine adulteration. The freezing point of salt water is lower than that of fresh water. 4. Boiling Point Every pure liquid substance has its own characteristic boiling point. The boiling point of liquids varies with the pressure to which the liquids are subjected. The boiling point of water is lowered as the atmospheric pressure is lowered. For example, water boils at a temperature lower than 212 degrees Fahrenheit on a mountain top where the pressure is lower than sea level (76 cm.), but it boils at a higher temperature inside a pressure cooker, where the pressure is high. The presence of a dissolved solid elevates the boiling point, hence, the boiling point of a syrup is always higher than as compared with that of water.

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Chemical Properties The chemical properties of a material are those characteristics that describe its capacity for being transformed into another materials. For example: certain fruit juices (apples, grapes etc.) can be transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide by fermentation; the alcohol can be broken down with acetic acid, which imparts the sour taste to vinegar. All these are chemical changes. The following chemical changes take place when food is processed either at home or in a community: 1. Hydrolysis of Sugars and Starches Sucrose, table sugar (Disaccharides) and starch (Polysaccharides) are capable of being hydrolyzed to form simple sugars (Glucose and Fructose). Glucose and fructose are prepared commercially for the manufacture of certain foods. Fructose has a strong tendency to stay in a syrup condition. Glucose is particularly in demand and is used in the making of table syrup and baked products. Both Glucose and Fructose do not crystallize readily when they are present in a syrup, thus is used to advantage in the preparation of cane syrup from sucrose. In making jellies and fondant, if sufficient fructose and glucose are present, a smooth and even texture results. 2. Fermentation Chemical changes brought about in carbohydrates are known as fermentation. Simple sugar and Disaccharides (Maltose and Fructose) are easily fermented by bacteria and yeast. The spoilage of fruits and vegetables is accompanied by a destruction of glucose. It is the basis for the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Maltose found in germinating seeds is capable of being fermented. For example: malt syrup maybe made from germinating barley and water because yeast and bacteria ferment maltose and glucose easily. 3. Starch Dispersion Chemical changes take place in starch during cooking. Starch is a very large molecule in nature called granule. Every plant has its own characteristic granules. Starch is insoluble in cold water but in heated water, the starch granules burst resulting in starch pastes. If an acid ingredient is present in starch mixture, it will cook to a soft gel and may not thicken properly because the acid material reduces the size of the starch granule. 4. Pectin Formation Pectins are carbohydrates found in water extract of many fleshy fruits. When sugar and acid are added in the proper con-

Food Preservation

45

centration to this extract, it forms a gel. A certain amount of pectin is necessary for making jellies. Overcooking of pectin can produce harmful effects in color, flavor, and strength of gel. 5. Browning Reaction The browning reaction in food is a complex process; this chemical process is not completely known. Studies, however, have shown that three processes in food can produce brown color namely: 1. Non-enzymatic browning – reaction between protein, amino acids, and sugar; 2. Ensymatic browning or Oxidative enzymatic changes. For example: The browning that occurs in the cut surface of an apple; and 3. Caramelization – occurs when sugar is heated to a high temperature. 6. Hydrogenation of Fat The saturating or hardening of fats within an oil is known as hydrogenation. It occurs when a soft fat is exposed to the action of hydrogen. This is an important process in the food industry because hydrogenated fats are used to produce shortening, lard and other commercial products. Hydrogenated fats are better adapted to cooking operation because they are more stable to heat. Hydrogenation is a means of transforming the physical properties of a natural fat, making it possible for liquid fats to be substituted for plastic fats. Special hydrogenated fats or shortening are prepared products specifically for the production of cookies and cakes, which require long shelf life. 7.

Coagulation of Protein One of the well-known changes that proteins in food undergo is the transformation from liquid to solid state. This process is called coagulation, which is generally considered irreversible. When heat, acid, alkali, agitation or high pressure is applied to protein foods, the protein changes and becomes denatured, and precipitation occurs. Denatured protein is the result of applied heat, the PH value of the food, the temperature, presence of sugar, the concentration of oil, and the process of freezing.

8. Hydration of Protein The ability of protein to form hydrates with water is clearly illustrated in wheat protein. Wheat, when milled as flour, is capable of forming dough that will retain the gas evolved during fermentation and upon baking yield a light and well-aerated bread. This

46


characteristic is due to the wheat protein, which when combined with water and mixed as dough and kneaded, an extensible mass is obtained. The PH value and presence of water-attracting materials, such as sugar and salts, affect the hydration of protein. 9. Acids and Bases Acids are compounds that have a sour taste and cause blue litmus to turn red and cause carbon dioxide. Strong acids exhibit their acidic character to a marked degree; weak acids only slightly. For example: Hydrochloric Acid is a strong acid. Acetic acid and Citric acid in foods are weak acids. Numerous important acids are found in food. For example: Tartaric acid is found in grapes; Citric Acid in Citrus fruits; Malic acid is found in apples, pears and a variety of other fruits and vegetables. Oxalic acid, Lactic and Benzoic acid have also been found in fruits and vegetables. Carbonic Acid is chiefly used in the softdrink industry. Bases from water solutions cause red litmus to turn blue. They have bitter taste and soapy feel in a concentrated form. Bases are specially reactive towards acids. The only common base in foods is that which is supplied by the Sodium Bicarbonate in baking powder or baking soda. 10. Oxidation Whenever any substance loses an electron, the process is called Oxidation. Oxidation may convert elements into oxides resulting in a higher state of oxidation. The substance that furnishes the oxygen to an oxidation reaction is called an Oxidizing agent. The speed into which oxidation takes place is influenced by temperature, the chemical environment, the size of the particles being oxidized and the degree of concentration of oxygen. Higher temperature leads to a more rapid oxidation. In food, oxidation affects the baking quality of bread. Bread flours are usually treated with oxidizing agents before processing. A small amount of yeast foods containing oxidizing agents such as Potassium Bromate, when added to flour, usually produces bread that has a good volume and a soft and velvety texture. Dry foods such as milk and coffee are packed in containers that exclude contact with air to prevent oxidation by Atmospheric Oxygen. Tallowy flavors and odors in dry milk are caused by oxidation by atmospheric oxygen.

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47

CAUSES OF FOOD SPOILAGE Food deteriorates or spoils in quality because of biochemical action of enzymes in the food or of those found in molds, yeast, and bacteria. Enzymes are found in all fresh foods and although their action is important to the ripening of certain foods (such as fruits and vegetables) the continuance of this action after the peak of maturity brings about undesirable changes in the food tissue. These changes include the darkening of cut surfaces, the formation of soft spots, and the development of offflavors. Bacteria, yeast, and molds may cause putrefaction, fermentation, or molding in food. Most foods are subject to microbial spoilage. Microorganism is usually found on the skin membrane. It penetrates the inner tissues only when the outer covering of the food has been broken. Worms, bugs, weevils, fruit flies, and moths may damage food and render it unfit for human consumption. The bruises and cuts caused by these insects serve as pathways by which microorganisms reach the inner tissues of food. Chemical reaction is another cause of food spoilage. Temperature, moisture, and oxygen favor these chemical reactions. Decomposition of refined oil, non-enzymatic browning or amino-aldehyde reaction, and oxidation of ascorbic acid are examples of purely chemical reactions. Physical and mechanical causes also contribute to food deterioration. Bruising, moisture loss or gain, temperature extremes, absorption of foreign odors or flavors not associated with enzymatic reactions, are just a few examples. Microorganisms Microorganisms are tiny living things that can only be seen under a microscope. The three groups of microorganism are bacteria, yeasts, and molds. These microorganisms cause food to spoil. However, some food manufacturers deliberately add microorganism into certain foods to make another food. For example, bacteria are added to milk to make cheese and yogurts, molds are allowed to grow in soya bean cakes, and yeast is added to dough to make bread. Microorganism exists in two states: A.

Vegetatives or growing state – which are easily killed by exposure to temperature near the boiling point of water.

48


B.

Spore or resting state – which are more resilient and can survive even after boiling for 6 hours, to germinate and develop again when more favorable condition of moisture, temperature and food supply are present.

Each of the microorganisms grows at certain temperature condition and hydrogen ion concentration. They need moisture and food for development and most of them require free oxygen. Survival of microorganism is generally longer at temperature near their minimum than at temperature closer to the maximum. It is easier to control microorganism by the application of heat than to check them by low temperature storage. Bacteria, Yeast, and Molds Bacteria Bacteria are of many types and are found in air, soil, water, and food. Bacteria are microscopic single-celled plants, which occur singly or are grouped in pairs or chained. They are aerobic, which require free oxygen, and anaerobic, which can live in the absence of oxygen. Bacteria are widely distributed over the earth surface but are not capable of growing everywhere. In order to grow, bacteria need food, moisture and suitable conditions of temperature. Bacteria like to grow readily and multiply easily on food such as meat, seafood, and eggs. It will not grow when it is too cold and when it gets too hot, it will die. Moisture will make bacteria to grow well. One bacterium can become one million in less than seven hours. Given such favorable conditions, the growth of bacteria causes food to spoil and is one of the main causes of food poisoning. The range of temperature over which bacteria is able to grow is generally between 0˚C to 75˚C. Bacteria cannot reproduce when the temperature is raised or lowered sufficiently from the optimum temperature. Most bacteria grow over a Ph range of 4.5 to 8.5 with optimum values of 6.5 and 7.5. Ph range is its degree of acidity for growth. The forms of bacteria are rods (bacilli), oval or group of gelatinous cells (cocci), and spirals (esprilla). Rods and spirals occur singly or grouped in pairs (diplococci) or chains (streptococci). Cocci also appear in grape-like cluster known as (staphylococci). Some products of bacterial decomposition bring about the spoilage of foods and cause them to be highly toxic. Bacteria that cause diseases and food poisoning are called pathogenic. They produce toxins or poisonous substances in foods, which may not be detected by casual observation.

Food Preservation

49

Signs of bacterial growth include the following: 1.

production of acids, giving the flat-sour taste in canned foods;

2.

evolution of gases causing the ends of tin cans to swell or bulge; and

3.

cloudiness or turbidity and development of foreign odors and flavors.

Some types of bacteria produce substances of desirable flavor and are cultivated for their beneficial action. The lactic acid of buttermilk, Saukraut, fermented milk, cheese and butter (when made from sour cream) is an example of a desirable flavor substance formed by bacterial action. Yeast Yeasts are true fungi and are visible only under a microscope. They are always present in the atmosphere and contaminate food exposed to the air. Most yeasts grow best with plenty of available moisture and in the presence of greater concentration of salt and sugar. Many yeasts are powerful fermented of sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide. They are of great importance in the production of wine and vinegar, in the making of bread and beer, and in the fermentation of various materials. Over fermentation, however, produces off flavors and foreign tastes in fruits. Yeasts play useful or harmful roles in foods. Yeast fermentation is a chemical change in which enzymes produced by the yeasts cells convert sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Fermentation is important in the production of foods such as bread, vinegar, beer and wine. Yeasts are undesirable when they grow and ferment fruits, fruit juices, syrup, honey, molasses and so on. Most sugar containing foods, specially those that are slightly acid like fruits and fruits juices, are particularly susceptible to spoilage by yeasts. Yeasts grow most rapidly at temperature of 68˚C to 100˚F (20 to 38˚C). Temperature somewhat below boiling may be adequate for the destruction of yeast if time of heating is extended. Yeast growth is inhibited by low temperature. Boiling temperature destroys yeasts cells and spores. Molds Molds are multicellular and filamentous fungi usually giving a fuzzy or cottony appearance when growing on foods. They may be white,

50


dark or in various colors. Spores are produced by molds in large number, usually light and resistant to drying, and are easily spread through the air to alight in any exposed foods. In general, molds require less moisture than yeasts and bacteria, and because they are adaptable to many condition of acidity and temperature, they are commonly involved in the spoilage of food. They commonly occur on meat, cheese, milk, and other protein foods. They grow on fresh fruits, vegetables, and cereal products. Worms, Insects, and Rodents Worms attack fruits and vegetables, and are often the cause of big economic losses to farmers. Insects, like ants, beetles and cockroaches, have brought big losses to packers of flours, nuts, dried fruits and confections. These insects infect and often reproduce, and the development of the larval stage is done in the food product. Other insects, like beetle, scatter their feces on the food, thus rendering it unpalatable. It also attacks and scavengers on foods such as bread or cracker, spices, drug, cereals, nuts, confection and products of animal origin. Insects and rodents do not only cause great economic waste by consuming foods intended for human use, but in some cases contaminate these with pathogenic organism and render these aesthetically unacceptable by the signs of their presence. Signs of rats and mice include their dropping, urine markings and holes in packaging. Pantry pests, such as beetles, mites, moths, weavers, and silverfish, prefer pantry food such as flour, sugar, rice, and other dry goods. Cockroaches are drawn to food crumbs and often regurgitates while eating.

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FOOD-BORNE ILLNESSES Food is a potential vehicle for food-borne illnesses. Food-borne illnesses are transmitted to people and usually resulted in intestinal upset and fever. These are often caused by the consumption of food and water. It is therefore important for one to be able to distinguish foods that are unsafe for human consumption. The very young, the old and those with immune systems compromised by diseases are most seriously affected by food-borne illnesses. There are two types of food-borne illnesses namely: Food Intoxication and Food Infection. Food intoxication or Food Poisoning is caused by toxins formed in the food or by toxin-producing pathogens or bacteria. The most common food intoxicants originate from bacteria. Certain plants and animals produce toxins. Bacteria grow on food and release toxins that cause illness in the person consuming the toxin-laden food or beverage. Food intoxication occurs when bacteria enter the intestinal tract and then start to produce the toxin in the intestine. E. Coli is the most common example of bacteria naturally found in the intestinal tract and causes problem when fecal matter gets into the food or water supply. Undercooked meat is the most common source of E. Coli contamination because meat comes in contact with its intestinal tract during the butchering of a carcass. Carcass may become contaminated during slaughter if the intestines were accidentally cut and the contents touched the muscles (meat). Food Infection occurs when pathogens enter the body through ingestion of contaminated food. Examples are Salmonella and Escherichea Coli contamination. Bacterial food infections are caused by ingesting bacteria that grow in the host intestine, replicate, and create an infection through their colonization. People get sick from food that has been contaminated by Biological (bacteria and other microorganisms), Chemical (plant, toxins, industrial and agricultural chemicals), and Physical (glass, bone, metal, and plastic). Parasites need a host to survive. Two of the most common foodborne parasites are the Round Worms and Protozoa. Roundworm infections can result from eating undercooked pork or fish. Raw or undercooked fish may contain the live worms and people who consume such food may experience the symptoms when the worm penetrates the stomach or intestinal wall, causing severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting or

52


diarrhea. Protozoa are animals consisting of just one cell. They most frequently infect humans through contaminated water. Harmful Chemicals in food are hazardous to health. These chemicals can come from plants, fruit pits, mushrooms, animals, fish, or chemicals used in agriculture or industry that may end up in food unintentionally. Seafood toxins can cause food-borne illnesses. Shellfish such as mollusks, oysters and clams that consume red tide algae become poisonous and should not be eaten. Red tide is the result of the rapid growth of a reddish marine algae usually occurs during the summer or in tropical waters. Mad Cow Disease causes or creates holes in the bovine brain causing convulsion, loss of coordination, and ultimately, death. The disease infects cows or sheeps, and is speculated to have occurred in Great Britain. Prion, an infectious protein particle that does not contain DNA or RNA, causes the Mad Cow Disease. Livestocks growers kill the sickly animal and speculate that healthy cattles become infected and when slaughtered for their meat, would potentially spread the disease to the consumer.

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Food Preservation

MAJOR FOOD-BORNE ILLNESSES (Adapted from A. Brown 2005. Understanding Food) NAME

FOOD SOURCES

SYMPTOMS

Staphylococcus (Staph)

Lean meat, pastry products, creamfilled patries, whipped butter, cheese, dairy products, ham and other protein foods

Gastrointestinal

Botulism

Improperly canned foods and processed lowacid foods

Fatigue, weakness

PREVENTION

Rapid cooking of Abdominal cramps foods Thorough heatDiarrhea ing Nausea Avoid contaminaVomiting tion from bare hands and sick Within 2-4 hours food handlers after eating Proper refrigeraDuration: 1-2 tion of food hours

Double vision Inability to swallow

Thorough heating and cooking of food

Follow recommended processSlurred speech ing time and Respiratory failure temperature for canned foods Death Duration: 12-36 hours

Salmonella

Raw, undercooked eggs

Diarrhea

Raw milk

Chills, fever, vomiting

Meat and poultry

Abdominal pain

Dehydration either 12-16 hours Duration: 12-36 hours Streptococcus

Cook eggs, meat and poultry thoroughly Pasteurize milk Refrigerate cooked meat products properly

Raw milk

Sore throat

General sanitation

Deviled Eggs

Fever

Pasteurize milk

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TIPS TO AVOID FOOD POISONING (Source: Dept. of Health Services, LA, USA 2007) 1.

Keep food either hot or cold. Most bacteria die at temperature above 168˚F. They cannot multiply at above 150˚F or below 40˚F, but in between, they multiply rapidly and that’s the danger. Cooked foods should be stored at 40˚F or frozen rapidly. Keep hot food hot, cold food cold.

2.

Cook all meat, poultry, and seafoods thoroughly. Raw chicken is highly contaminated with salmonella. Internal temperature of 165˚F can kill these bacteria. Leftovers should be reheated to 165˚F and not just warmed up. Do not taste food when they are not thoroughly cooked.

3.

Keep everything clean. Wash hands, counter top and utensils in hot and soapy water between each step in food preparation. Wash all fresh fruits and vegetables before eating.

4.

Never leave food out of the refrigerator for more than 2 hours. Avoid contact between raw foods and cooked foods. Wrap and discard foods in your refrigerator that are heavily covered with molds. Always clean the refrigerator and examine nearby items.

5.

Keep your kitchen equipment clean. Always scrub the utensils and cutting board thoroughly with soap and hot water. Add a little chlorine bleach to rinse.

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FOOD SAFETY THERMOMETER

Lethal temperature for botulinus bacteria Twenty (20) minutes at boiling point in the presence of air will destroy botulinus toxin. Cooking temperature (above 140˚) destroys most bacteria. The higher the temperature, the faster they die. At 165˚ most bacteria are killed but a few survive. Above 140˚, bacteria survive but do not grow. Above 120˚, growth slows but does not stop. Between 60˚ and 120˚, bacteria grow rapidly and some bacteria produce toxins. Body temperature is ideal for bacterial growth. Between 40˚ and 60˚, bacteria grow slowly. Refrigerator temperatures inhibit growth. Freezing temperatures (below 32˚) halt bacterial growth, but some bacteria survive.

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METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION Heating Nearly all types of food can be preserved for a considerable period of time by cooking. When raw foods deteriorate, it is through the action of the enzymes they contain and action of bacteria with which they become contaminated. Heating or cooking destroys or inactivates these enzymes, thus preventing this type of deterioration. Cooking also destroys certain types of microorganisms that cause spoilage. At home, cooking is used as a preservation method as well as a method to make food more palatable. However, ordinary cooking does not destroy all bacteria. Deterioration, although delayed, will occur through the growth of surviving bacteria. Pasteurization In this method of preservation, which named after Louis Pasteur, foods are subjected to sufficient heat to kill most of the bacteria without markedly altering flavor or other characteristics. The food is heated in a closed system, rapidly cooked, and then placed in covered or sealed container to prevent recontamination. This method is generally used for liquids such as milk, fruit, vegetable juices, and beer. Canning Canning is a method of preserving foods, which combines the techniques of heating to kill spoilage microorganisms and inactivate enzymes by sealing in an airtight container to prevent subsequent contamination. Microorganisms may exist in two forms: a growing vegetative cell or an inactive form called a spore. Vegetative cells can be killed by rather mild heat (140°F-180°F) depending upon the time of exposure. However, some spores can withstand boiling water for hours and after cooking still germinate into vegetative cells that cause spoilage. Therefore, it is necessary to use much higher temperature to kill spores in foods. Food products are heated to expel air, then sealed in containers of glass or plated steel and heated or sterilized in retorts and cooled. The resulting product is altered in flavor and texture from that of the raw product. Nevertheless, it is preserved so that it can be shipped or stored for several years at ordinary temperature.

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Baking Baking has two-fold purposes: developing a different type of food product from grains, then preserving it for future use. Grains for bread are ground into flour, then made into dough by fermentation with yeast to develop desirable flavors and textures. The dough is then subjected to heat. This coagulates the bread, reduces the moisture, and kills the microorganisms that would otherwise cause spoilage. Cakes and other items owe their oven structures to chemical leavening agents such as baking powder or natural gas such as beaten egg whites. Unless the heat is sufficient to kill yeasts, molds, and spoilage bacteria, the products have a short shelf life. However, in hermetically sealed containers they keep very well. Refrigeration The rate of deterioration by naturally occurring enzymes and the rate of growth of microorganisms are progressively retarded by low temperature. In supermarkets, fresh meat is displayed in a chilling case, and fresh poultry in crushed ice to maintain quality and retard deterioration. Fresh fruits and vegetables are held in a refrigerated warehouse regulated to obtain maximum storage according to product requirements. To extend storage life, products such as butter, cheese, dehydrated eggs, and canned goods are stored in cooled warehouses. No change of form or texture is involved when products are simply cooled to prolong freshness. Sun and Air-Drying In certain localities where the warm sun and low humidity prevail, local fruits are dried on trays in the open. Rapid drying is essential to prevent molding and to maintain quality. For fast drying where sun drying is not practicable, mechanical air-drying offers a solution. Fruit and vegetables are prepared, spread on perforated trays as belts, and passed through temperature regulated air until dry. In some products, sulfur dioxide is applied to preserve color and retard deterioration. Some liquid foods such as milk, liquid eggs, and instant coffee are dried by spraying them into rapidly moving current of hot dry air then covering the resulting powder. Drying on a rotating heated drum is also employed for certain products. Vacuum Drying With products that deteriorate from heat or oxidation, a vacuum drying process may be employed in batch or continuous flow. A high

58


vacuum plus heat causes the product to dry rapidly by evaporation. Raising the temperature increases the rate of evaporation but this must be regulated according to product requirements. This method lends itself to the drying of certain fruit juices. Freeze Dehydration Certain products require a porous structure to facilitate dehydration; otherwise, they may suffer heat or oxidation damage during drying even at room temperature. Products such as raw or cooked meat, fish, and certain fruits and vegetables are frozen, placed in a chamber, and subjected to a high vacuum. This causes the ice crystals to sublime or evaporate leaving small cavities. The spongy material takes up water rapidly during dehydration. To facilitate evaporation, heat is applied through the shelves upon which the frozen food seats. Temperature of the shelves must be regulated to increase the drying rate without melting. Many products can be dried in this way and very closely resemble raw products when dehydrated, yet will keep for long periods without refrigeration provided proper moisture proof packaging is used. Fermentation Wines and beers are produced by adding yeast to ferment the natural sugar. Because fruits and juices spoil through the action of many types of organisms, these are placed in a container to seal out air. Yeast can utilize sugar even without oxygen and produce alcohol, which acts as preservative. When the container is opened, acetic acid bacteria will oxidize the alcohol within the beverage, producing vinegar. Preserving, Concentration, and Carbonation In jams, jellies, marmalades, and such, preservation is accomplished by addition of sugar, while concentration of products by the removal of water produces syrups and various fruit concentrates. Most of these products can be kept without refrigeration, but some require cool storage to retain flavor. Such products add variety to the diet through use of this preservation method. Honey is a natural product owing preservation to soluble sugars gathered from flowers and concentrated by the bees. Beverages are often pressured, and made more palatable, by use of carbon dioxide gas under pressure. The gas is soluble in the liquid and inhibits bacterial and mold growth. Fine filtration with raw fruit juices coupled with saturation with CO2 under about 7 atmosphere pressure is used for long term bulk refrigerated storage.

Food Preservation

59

Salting, Curing, and Smoking Meat, fish, and certain vegetables may be preserved by high salt concentration. The salt inhibits microorganisms and enzyme action. Products are later utilized by leaching the salt out with water. In curing ham, bacon, brine fish, and producing pickles, the product is submerged in a solution of curing salts, allowed to undergo a “cure”; then certain products are processed in a smokehouse by dry heat. Corned beef is curing salt brine and distributed under refrigeration. Certain sausages, like salami, are made by adding a small amount of curing salt to control fermentation that imparts a characteristic flavor and exerts preservative qualities. These products are partially dehydrated in the smokehouse and are stable for a time without refrigeration. Irradiation Energy imparted by atomic radiations can kill cells and is used as preservation method. This has been referred to as cold sterilization method since it does not employ heat. Extensive work is now in progress employing gamma rays from radioactive Cobalt 60, machine accelerated electrons, and X-rays. When used in small amount, a pasteurizing effect can be obtained for short storage; or when used in a higher dose of energy, sterilization can be obtained. Certain low levels will inhibit sprouting of potatoes in storage. Use of this method is still in the experimental stage, and extensive work is yet to be done to prove the commercial practicability and to assure the safety and wholesomeness of the product thus treated. Chemicals Chemical preservatives can contribute substantially in the preservation of food. High temperature and humidities favor microbial attack and increase the rate of development of oxidative rancidity — which can be controlled by the use of chemicals. Food processors have been using many types of additives aside from preservatives to improve the appearance, flavor, texture, or storage properties of food products. New Preservation Methods Recent innovations in technology have come up with new preservation methods such as Pulsed Light, Pascalization, and Aseptic and Modified-Atmosphere Packaging (MAP). (Brown, 2005) Pulsed Light is still undergoing approval by the Food and Drugs Administration (FDA). This method works by exposing food to intense

60


and very brief flashes of light, which disrupts the cell membranes of bacterial cells but not the surrounding food. The intensity of the light, which lasts only a second, is 20,000 times brighter than sunlight. There is no thermal effect, so quality and nutrient content are retained. Pascalization is a food preservation process utilizing ultra high pressure to inhibit the chemical processes of food deterioration. Pascalization is named after Blaise Pascal, a 17th-century French scientist who described how contained fluids are affected by pressure. Pascalization subjects food to very high pressure, a process that kills many bacteria, yeasts, and molds. Acidic foods are best suited for this method because bacterial spores remain resistant and must be treated with acid to block their ability to germinate. Aseptic and Modified-Atmospheric Packaging (MAP) has been used for many years on food products. Food that is aseptically packaged is sterilized, packed, and sealed in a sterilized container under sterile conditions. The “juice box” is an example of an aseptically packaged product. It is sometimes combined with modified-atmospheric package, which consists of changing the air composition around the food to prolong its shelf life. The shelf life of products packaged with MAP is considerably longer than foods packaged without this technology. ModifiedAtmospheric Packaging is commonly used for fruits and vegetables that are ready to use, fresh, peeled, sliced, shredded or grated sold within a week of preparation. Cured cheeses, most meat and poultry are also packaged using MAP.

Food Preservation

61

FOOD ADDITIVES Food additive is a substance or a mixture of substance other than basic foodstuffs, which is present in food as a result of production, processing, storage, or packing. Food additives are added to foods in precise amounts during processing. They are technologically justified for: • maintaining the nutritional quality of the food; • enhancing the keeping quality or stability of food thereby reducing food wastage; • making food attractive to consumers in a manner which precludes deception; and • providing essential aids in food processing. Food Additives are substances added to food to improve its: • storage properties, • appearance, • flavor, and • nutritional value. Additives are very important for the processed food industry. Natural additives are came from plants and animals while other additives are artificial using various chemicals. Common types of additives are: • preservatives, • coloring, • flavoring, and • nutrient. The FDA makes sure that food additives used by food manufacturers are safe and approved for regulated use. Classification of Food Additives 1.

Preservatives are substances added to food to prevent or inhibit the growth of organisms causing spoilage. Examples of selected preservatives are: a.

Salt, sugar, vinegar, and pepper (common household preservatives)

62

2.


b.

Saltpeter or sodium nitrate (used for meat curing)

c.

Sulfur dioxide (sulfurous acid) and sulfide (inhibit discoloration of cut fruits and serve as anti-browning agent)

d.

Benzoic acid or Sodium benzoate (for fruit juices, jellies, margarine, and catsup)

e.

Citric and Tartaric Acids (provide the acid for flavor improvement in syrups, drinks, and jellies)

f.

Alum and soaked lime or apog (used as a firming agent for pickles and fruit preserves)

Antioxidants Oxidative reaction results in many deteriorative effects on foods. For examples, the rancidity of food fats and discoloration (enzymes) in fruits. Anti-oxidants are used to prevent these. The antioxidants perform their function by breaking the oxidation chain of reaction, thus preventing further oxidation. Acidic substances, like Ascorbic, Citric and Phosporic Acids, are frequently added with antioxidant to prevent discoloration. The commonly used antioxidant are Leutylated Hydroyausele (BHA) and Leutylated Hydroxyloluene (BHT). BHA is excreted rapidly while BHT is slowly excreted by the human body. Anti-oxidants are very beneficial in preventing spoilage in animal’s fats caused by oxidation. During prolonged storage, antioxidants may also be added to fats to increase the storage time of certain foods (example: pastry, potato chips, and crackers) made with fats. Use of anti-oxidants must be government-approved.

3.

Sequestrants A sequestrant is a chemical which combines with a substance and sets aside so it can be removed from the food. Sequestrants are used to inactivate a substance which interferes with the processing of a food. They are frequently used to keep the minerals from settling out of beverages and making them cloudy. Sorbital and Phosporic Acid are used as sequestrants.

4.

Humectants Humectants prevent food from drying out. Glycerine, Sorbital, and Monitol are called humectants and are used in foods such as coconut and certain confections to help retain moisture.

Food Preservation

5.

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Bleaching and Maturing Agents, Starch Modifier Chemicals such as Chlorine Dioxide, Bromate and Iodate, and Chlorine are used as bleaching and maturing agents for flour. The use of these materials reduces the time required for natural aging of flour and therefore is economically important. It is usual procedure that flour is bleached and matured with chlorine. Bleaching agents are also used in manufacturing of certain cheese to impart a white color. The bleaching agent used is Benzoyl Peroxide. Hydrogen Peroxide is used to bleach tripe, a variety meat.

6.

Stabilizers, Thickener Agar-agar, Gelatin, Pectenate Sodium are commonly used as stabilizers and thickening agent for beverages, ice cream, icings, baked goods and cheese spreads.

7.

Surface Active Agents Lecithin is an emulsifier, an example of surface-active agents. When added to baked goods, it facilitates in machining of dough and improves resulting bread appearance. In frozen deserts, like ice cream, the whipping qualities are enhanced when small amount of emulsifier is added.

8.

Anti-Caking Agents and Enzymes Calcium Phospate, Silica Gel in curing mixes and Stearate are examples of anti-caking agent.

Criteria for Use Before being considered for use, a chemical preservative needs to fulfill the following conditions: (Borgstrom, 1968) 1.

It must be non-toxic and suitable for application.

2.

It must not impart off-flavors when used at levels effective in controlling microbial growth.

3.

It must be readily soluble.

4.

It must exhibit antimicrobial properties over the PH range of each particular food.

5.

It should be economical and practical to use.

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Food Additives Commonly Used Binders and strengtheners — Aids in binding ingredients together to improve the texture of baked products. All comes from milk, soybeans, or wheat. Colors — Probably the most controversial category of food additives. Coloring may be natural (N) or synthetic (S). However, the words “artificial color” must be included on the label if the substance is added solely for the purpose of coloring the food. This is regardless of whether it is natural or synthetic. Emulsifiers — Added to foods to prevent separation of ingredients such as oil and vinegar in salad dressings. In baking, emulsifiers improve the volume and uniformity of breads and rolls. Flavor ingredients — The largest category of food additives used strictly to add flavor to foods. Synthetic flavors are often cheaper than the real thing and help to meet consumer demand when there are not enough of certain flavors available in nature. Flavor enhancers — Improve the natural flavor of foods without actually adding any flavor of their own. Humectants — Help food to retain moisture. Nutrients — Added to foods to improve their nutritional value and/or to replace nutrients that are sometimes lost in processing. Preservatives — Extend storage time. Prevent spoilage and growth of bacteria, molds, and fungi. Sweeteners — Added to make the aroma or taste of food more agreeable or pleasurable. Stabilizers, Thickeners — Added to foods to improve body consistency, and texture. Many are natural carbohydrates. Sealants — Used to seal moisture in fresh fruits and vegetables, candies, gums, and dietary supplements.

Food Preservation

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FOOD PACKAGING Food packaging is valuable to food preservation because it aids in lengthening the life of food. A package protects the foodstuff from physical damage during handling, and contamination by dirt and other foreign materials. It also prevents infestation of insects, rodents, and microorganisms. Moreover, loss or gain of moisture is controlled and contact with air, light, heat, and contaminating gases is minimized. Food packaging serves the following purposes: 1.

It protects food from physical and chemical spoilage.

2.

It enhances the shelf stability of preserved foodstuffs.

3.

It facilitates the handling of food.

4.

It simplifies storage of foodstuffs.

5.

It protects food from physical and chemical spoilage.

Package Characteristics The main function of a package is to insure complete protection of the contents. The packaging material should be suitable to the product properties and should not alter the good qualities of the product. Package characteristics include moisture proofness, resistance to grease, resistance to microorganisms, resistance to insects and rodents, protection against light, and odor retention and absorption. Types of Packaging Materials The types of packaging material best suited for a particular food depend on the size and shape of the food, consistency, and state when packed as solid or liquid. Here are the classifications of the types of packaging materials. 1.

Flexible or Soft Packaging Materials a.

cellophane

b.

aluminum foil

c.

polyethylene

d.

wax-coated papers

e.

tetrapack

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TYPES OF FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS

Flexible and Soft Packaging Materials

Rigid Containers

Non-Rigid Materials

2.

3.

f.

saran film

g.

laminated wrappings

h.

others — such as box, edible packages, plastic bags

Rigid Containers a.

glass jars

b.

cans

c.

rigid plastic containers

d.

paperboard cartons

e.

oven glass casseroles

f.

bags and boxed bags

g.

wooden boxes

Non-Rigid Materials a.

paper such as carton, greaseproof paper

b.

cloth such as muslin, cheese cloth and burlap

PART III Selection, Preparation and Preservation of Selected Food Groups 67

68


SELECTION, PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF SELECTED FOOD GROUPS To achieve excellent results in food preservation, proper selection of food materials is necessary. A thorough knowledge and understanding of the nature of each foodstuff in a particular good group will help one to select the best quality item from the market place and elsewhere. More importantly, the conservation of the nutritive value of food can be achieved if one is familiar with the proper storage and handling, cooking techniques and appropriate recipes. This chapter presents the most advanced thinking on the selection, storage, preparation, and cooking of these food groups. Fruits

Shellfish

Vegetables

Cereals

Meat

Flour

Poultry

Starch and Alimentary Pastes

Fish

Fats and Oil Sugar

Selection, Preparation and Preservation of Selected Food Groups

69

FRUITS Fruits are produced from flowers. As ripened plant ovaries and their adjacent tissues, fruits are fleshy or pulpy in character, often juicy and usually sweet with fragrant, aromatic flavors. Most fruits are edible when ripe. Fruits differ in structure according to the kinds of flowers from which they have been developed. Some fruits come from a simple blossom and others from a flower with many stamens and pistils. In addition, there are some fruits formed from many flowers that have collected together. Nuts, on the other hand, yield a seed rather than a fleshy portion but are botanically classified as fruit. Fruit Classification Fruits may be classified on the basis of consistency and structure: 1.

Fleshy fruits — These are fruits from a single ovary, which remain succulent instead of turning dry at maturity. Examples are: citrus fruits such as orange, calamansi, grapes, bananas, mangoes, and others.

2.

Dry fruits — Fruits that developed when the ovary opens at maturity and discharges the seeds, allows them to fall, or fails to do so. Examples are: nuts, legumes, and cereal grains.

3.

Aggregate Fruits — These are fruits that develop from a flower with carpels distributed loosely or closely over a common receptacle. In short, they are formed from several ovaries produced as one flower. Examples are: atis and strawberries.

4.

Multiple or Collective fruits — These are fruits that are formed from many flowers that have collected together. Examples are: pineapple and jackfruit.

Changes During Ripening Knowledge of the ripening process of fruits is essential because most fruits are good only when ripe. Several important changes occur during ripening: the fruit develops to its full size; the pulpy edible tissue surrounding the seeds becomes soft and tender; the color changes; the starch content changes to sugar giving a mild, sweet flavor; and the

70


full characteristic aroma of the fruits develops. However, the enzymes continue to function even after the fruit has reached its peak of maturity. Changes beyond this point cause spoilage and deterioration of texture and flavor. Ripeness and the manner of ripening may influence the vitamin content of fruits. For example, the ascorbic acid content of banana is greatest in fully ripe fruit. Fruits ripened in the sun are rich in ascorbic acid. KINDS OF FRUITS

Fleshy Fruits

Dry Fruits

Aggregate Fruits

Collective Fruits


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COMPOSITION OF FRUIT FLAVORS The flavors of fruits are due to the combinations of sugar, acids, phenolic, aromatic compound and essential oils. 1.

Organic Acids Organic Acids that are located in the cell sap of fruits contribute to its tart flavor. Natural sugar, such as fructose, glucose and sucrose, contributes to the sweetness of fruits. Acidity usually decreases as fruits ripen. Citric Acid found in citrus fruits, and malic acid in apples and strawberries are examples of organic acids in fruits. These organics acid found in fruits are either volatile or non volatile.

2.

Pectic Substances Pectin is a general term used for carbohydrates-like substances found in fruits. It acts as a cementing substance and is partially responsible for the fruits firmness and structure. It is used commercially to contribute to the gelling of fruit preserves. Pectin is very important in the ripening of fruits and the gelling of fruit preserves.

3.

Phenolic Compounds or Tannins Phenolic compounds are responsible for the browning and bruising that often occur in ripening fruits. Tannins are commonly found in unripe fruits, which give them a bitter taste and astringent feeling in the mouth.

Storage of Fruits Some fruits are picked and shipped to market in an unripe state. Unripe fruits are easier to transport than the ripe ones, which are more delicate. Unripe fruits can be left at room temperature in a paper bag until ripe. It is best to store them outside the refrigerator. Unripe fruits are stored commercially under controlled atmosphere storage and with the aid of preservatives coatings. This process maintains a higher quality in fresh fruits in shipping over long distances. Ripe fruits with high water content will spoil quickly within three days, and it is best to store them unwashed in plastic bags in the refrigerator and washed prior to consumption. The plastic bags should be punctured with air holes. Ripe Bananas are best stored at room temperature. Refrigeration interferes with their ripening process, thus causing

72


their skin to blacken. An overripe fruits should not be stored with the good ones because they will ruin the others by releasing ethylene gas that speeds up ripening. Dented, damaged, and bruised fruits should be sorted out and removed before storing other fruits. Fruits continue to respire after harvesting, that is, they take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. This fruit metabolism is controlled or retarded and reduced by cold storage. Fruit Cutting Pineapple

1. Twist crown off pineapple.

2. Cut pineapple in quarters, lengthwise.

3. Trim each end, 4. Cut the quarthen cut away tered fruit the center core into bite size strip and the fruit pieces. (as close to the shell as possible).

2. Twist the halves apart.

3. Remove the seed by striking it with a knife.

Avocado

1. Halve the avocado.

4. Peel off the skin and cut balls, crescents, cubes or slices.


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Nutritive Value Fruits do not contain large amounts of protein and fats but are high in carbohydrates and water content. They are the best food sources of minerals and vitamins. Sugars in fruit are in a form ready for use by the body. The minerals, phosphorus, and iron are found in abundant quantity in fresh fruits. Although there is a variation of vitamin content from fruit to fruit, most fruits in the raw state contain some ascorbic acid. Citrus fruits, berries, and melons are among the best sources of ascorbic acid. Carotene is present in good amount in yellow fruits such as papayas, mangoes, and bananas. Fruits are also valuable for their bulk or indigestible fiber. The following table gives figures of the nutritive composition of some locally available fruits. Table 1. Proximate Composition of Selected Fruits in 100 gms. Edible Portion The Philippine Food Composition Table, 1997-FNRI Fruit

Moisture %

Cho GM

Protein GM

Fat GM

Ascorbic ACID MG

Carotene Iron EQUIVALENT MG MG

1. Bananas

68

29.6

1.4

0.2

25

360

0.8

2. Lanzones

83.9

14.2

1.0

0.3

2

––

0.9

3. Avocado

81.8

10.5

0.9

6.2

14

130

0.8

4. Guava

82.4

16.0

0.8

0.3

127

40

0.9

5. Kasoy

90

13.8

0.7

0.6

67

15

0.5

6. Durian

59.9

36.1

2.0

1.2

44

—

1.1

7. Mango

82.4

16.4

0.6

0.2

46

1165

0.6

8. Sampaloc

83.4

61.4

2.0

0.6

4

—

0.9

9. Papaya

86.6

12.1

0.5

0.3

74

450

1.0

73.3

23.7

1.3

0.4

40

—

0.9

10. Atis

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SELECTION OF FRUITS Efficient selection of fruits involves a consideration of its special characteristics. Knowledge of these characteristics will ensure the selection of fruits with desirable qualities. Here are some characteristics of fruits to consider: FRUIT

DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS

Banana

Plump and fully matured; skin flecked with a brown tip; yellow or brown, not green.

Mango

Golden yellow skin; sweet and juicy; fully cheeked.

Melon

Heavy in relation to size; fragment, normal in shape; free from decay and disease; a bit soft when pressed at the bottom end.

Pineapple

Yellowish brown; stiff leaves that can easily be pulled from the fruit; heavy in relation to size; fragrant.

Citrus fruits (Suha, Calamansi, dalandan)

Heavy; fine-grained; thin-skinned and smooth.

Strawberries

Firm; free from decay; bright red; uniformly large in size.

Papaya

Firm with trace of yellow at the apex or between ridges; free from lump; not misshapen.

Avocado

Smooth and firm; purplish black.

Guides in Buying Fruits 1. Shop for fruits early in the morning when fruits are fresh. 2. Buy the fruits in season. They are less expensive and better in quality than those out of season. 3. Because fruits deteriorate rapidly after they have ripened, avoid buying large quantities at one time, unless you have provisions for preserving the surplus fruits. 4. Decide how the fruit is to be used before buying it.


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5. Select the fruit personally whenever possible in order to make the best selection for your purpose. 6. Purchase the fruit by weight; the heaviest rather than the biggest may be the best. 7.

Select fruits that are ripe but firm and smooth. Overripe, soft, or bruised fruits are not desirable.

8. Handle fruits with care to preserve their attractive appearance. 9. Select fruits with good color and aroma; these are guides to ripeness. 10. Fruit price is not an identification of quality or nutritive value but is determined by supply and demand. Some Principles in Cooking Fruits 1. Some underripe fruits of firm texture require cooking because of their starch content and cellulose structure that needs softening. Fruit is cooked to provide variety of dishes as well as to prepare it for canning purposes. 2. Whenever possible, fresh fruits should be cooked with the skin on for better color, flavor, and nutritive value. 3. Fruit should be cut into uniform pieces before it is cooked so that all pieces will be tender at the same time. 4. Fruit should be cooked in small amount of water as possible until tender to prevent loss of vitamins and minerals. 5. The amount of sugar to be added depends on the sweetness of the fruit. Too much sugar destroys the delicate flavor of the fruit. Fruits are better cooked in sugar rather than in syrup because too long cooking in syrup develops an off-flavor. 6. When it is desirable to retain the shape and firm texture of fruit, it is cooked in sugar syrup or with sugar. 7.

Red fruits, such as strawberries, may lose color when heated rapidly, so slow heating is preferable.

8. Short cooking time will ensure greater vitamin and flavor retention. 9. Cooked fruit is most palatable when served immediately. 10. Fruits with heavy skin, such as apples, are good to bake because the peel serves as protective covering and holds in the steam necessary to soften the cellulose and decrease the loss of volatile flavors.

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SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR FRUIT PRESERVATION: JELLIES, JAMS, MARMALADE AND CANDIED FRUITS Jelly Jelly is the semi-solid food made from sugar and fruits. It is a beautiful colored transparent product with texture so tender. It cuts easily with a spoon and quivers when removed from its mold. A good jelly is not syrupy, gummy or sticky. The four essential ingredients in jelly making are fruits, pectin, acid, and sugar. Not all fruits can be made into jellies. Only fruits rich in both pectin and acid are ideal for jelly making, namely, Guavas, Santol, Tamarind, Bignay, Sour Oranges and Tart Apple. Pectin is the general term used for Carbohydrates-like substances found in some fruits that form colloidal solutions in water. Pectin is capable of forming a gel with sugar and acid. General Directions for Jelly Making 1. Choose fruits with high pectin content. Fruits with low pectin should be combined with high pectin ones. 2. Prepare the fruit by washing and chopping. There is no need to peel or core. Do not use damaged fruit. 3. Cook fruits slowly but thoroughly by boiling with water. 4. After 30 minutes to one hour, depending on the softness of fruit, pour the content into a jelly bag or a fine cloth and leave it to drip into a bowl until all juice is strained off. Do not touch or squeeze while juices are dripping or jelly will be cloudy. 5. Measure the strained juice and add sugar as specified in the recipe. The amount of sugar will depend upon the pectin content of the juice. 6. Stir sugar into juice until dissolve. Boil for 10 minutes until setting point is reached. Remove any scum from surface. Pot and cover. Failure in jelly making are characterized by bubbles (trapped air), tough or stiff (overcooked), glass-like particles (too much sugar), and cloudy (cooking too long). All these problems are preventable.


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SUGGESTED RECIPES Guava Jelly 1 cup juice 1 cup sugar 1. Use mature but slightly underripe guavas. Wash and remove blossoms end. 2. Cut into small pieces, place on a pan and add enough water to barely cover fruits. Boil gently for 10 to 15 minutes or until soft. 3. Transfer cooked fruit in jelly bag. Twist the end slightly to extract the juice but not the pulp. 4. Add 1 cup sugar per cup juice. Stir to dissolve sugar. Bring to a boil and strain again to remove undercooked sugar, scum and dirt.

5. Cook rapidly to a jellying point without stirring. 6. Skim and pour while hot into warm jelly glasses. Santol Jelly 1 cup juice 1 cup sugar 1. Use rare-ripe or just ripe santol. Wash and blanch in boiling water for 5 minutes. 2. Cut pulp into small pieces and combine with the seeds. Place pulp and seeds in pan and add enough water to cover fruits. 3. Boil gently for 15 to 20 minutes or until soft. Pour cooked pulp into jelly bag, squeeze out juice and allow to settle. 4. Add 1 cup sugar per cup juice. Stir to dissolved sugar. Bring to a boil and strain again to remove undissolved sugar, scum and dirt. 5. Cook rapidly to a jellying point without stirring. 6. Skim and pour immediately into sterile jelly glasses.

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Jams Jams are basically a cooked mixture of fruit and sugar to a moderately thick consistency. The high concentrations of sugar used in jam making prevent the growth of microorganisms and allow the jam to be kept for many months. The Steps for Jam Making Include: 1. Choosing fruits with sufficient quantities of pectin acid and sugar. Some fruits are naturally rich in pectin such as guava, santol, tamarind, bignay, sour orange and tart apple. Others may need to be boosted with added pectin from calamansi, citric or tartaric acid. Commercial pectin can also be used. 2. Testing for pectin content. Cooked the fruit until soft, take 1 tsp. juice and put it in a glass. When the mixtures form a jelly-like clot, the fruit has a good pectin content. 3. Adding the exact amount of sugar specified in the recipe. Too little sugar produces a poor set; too much of sugar makes a dark sticky jam, overpowers the fruit flavor and may crystallize. 4. Testing for the doneness of set. The saucer test is done by putting a small amount on a cold saucer or plate. Allow it to be cool, and then push a finger gently through it. If the surface of the jam wrinkles, setting point has been needed. The temperature test is most accurate. Stir the jam and insert a sugar thermometer in the middle of the pan. When the reading is 105°C (221°F), a set should be obtained. 5. Skimming the scum. As soon as set has been reached, remove the pan from the heat and with slotted spoon, skim of any scum. Leave the jam from the pan for about l5-20 minutes before potting. Spoon the jam into the warm jar, filling right to the top. Either cover immediately or leave the jam until cold. Store in a cool, dark places.


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SUGGESTED RECIPES Whole Strawberry Jam 1 kg. (2 1/2 lbs.) small strawberries, washed and hulled 3 tbsp. lemon juices 1 1/4 kg. sugar (3 lbs.) knob of butter 8 fl oz. bottle of pectin 1.

Place strawberries in an aluminum or stainless steel pressing pan with lemon juice and sugar. Leave to stand for one hour, stirring occasionally.

2.

Heat slowly, stirring when sugar has dissolved, then add butter.

3.

Bring to a boil rapidly for 4 minutes, stirring occasionally.

4.

Remove the pan from the heat and stir in pectin. Leave to stand for at least 20 minutes before potting.

5.

Pot and cover. Strawberry Jam 1.6 kg. (3 1/2 lbs.) strawberries, washed and hulled 4.5 ml. (3 tbsp.) lemon juices 1.4 kg. (3 lbs.) sugar knob of butter

1.

Place the strawberries in a preserving pan with the lemon juices and simmer gently, stirring occasionally for 20-30 minutes until really soft.

2.

Take the pan off the heat, add sugar and stir until dissolved then add butter. Bring to a boil rapidly for about 20 minutes, stirring frequently.

3.

Test for a set then take the pan off the heat and remove scum with slotted spoon.

4.

Test for set. Leave to stand for 15 minutes. Pot and Cover.

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Marmalades Marmalade is made from citrus fruits. Bitter oranges make the best marmalade. Sweet oranges give marmalade a rather cloudy appearance and are best used in combination with other citrus fruits. Fruits like Guava, Santol, Papaya and Pineapple may also be made into marmalade. A true marmalade is a clear, jelly-like mixture in which are suspended small pieces or thin slices of fruits. General Directions for Making Marmalades 1. Prepare the fruit by hand or by a food processor. Chop the sliced peel of fruits to a preferred thickness. 2. Put the cut fruits in a pot and simmer gently for 1 to 1 1/2 hour until the peel is really soft and the contents of the fruit are reduced by half. 3. Add the sugar and stir until dissolved. Boil rapidly for 15-20 minutes. 4. Test for a set. Pot and cover.


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SUGGESTED RECIPES Orange Marmalade 2 lbs. (900 gram ) oranges juice of 2 lemons 2.6 liters (4 1/2 pints) water 3 lbs. sugar 1.

Peel off enough rind from the oranges and cut into thin strips.

2.

Cut up the rest of the fruits and simmer in a covered pan with the water and lemon juice for about two hours until fruits are soft.

3.

Put the shred rind, covered with water (1 pint) and simmer gently until soft.

4.

Pour the mixture into a jelly bag and leave into a large bowl for 15 minutes.

5.

Test for pectin and boil rapidly.

6.

Test for a set, then remove the pan off the heat. Leave the marmalade to stand for 5 minutes then stir to distribute the peel. Pot and cover. Makes 2.3 kg. (5 lbs.)

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Papaya-Pineapple Marmalade 2 cups papaya juice 1 cup chopped pineapple 1 tbsp. calamansi juice 2 cups sugar 1.

Use rare-ripe papaya. Wash, pare, cut in half and remove seeds. Cut into small pieces and measure.

2.

Place cut papaya in pan. Add 1 tbsp. calamansi juice per pint of cut pulp and enough water to barely cover fruit.

3.

Simmer papaya pulp for 15 minutes or until soft. Strain juice, measure.

4.

Use fresh pineapple. Chop finely and measure.

5.

Combine papaya juice, chopped pineapple, calamansi juice and sugar in the proportion given in the recipe.

6.

Cook rapidly with constant stirring until mixture thickens.

7.

Remove from heat, stir and skim alternately for 3 minutes and pour while hot into warm sterile jars. Seal immediately. Candied Camias 1 kilo camias 2 kilos sugar 1 tbsp. lime in 1 liter of water (lime solution)

Soak camias in lime solution overnight. Wash thoroughly to remove all traces of lime in the camias. Boil in enough water for 3-5 minutes. Soak in water. Drain. Prepare syrup (1 part sugar to 1 part water) and boil. Add camias. Boil for about 3 minutes. Soak overnight. Drain. Add 1 cup of sugar to the syrup. Boil. Add camias and heat for 3 minutes. Soak again overnight. Drain. Add sugar to thicken syrup. Add camias and boil. Allow to soak overnight. Drain and concentrate syrup. Add camias. Allow to cool. Drain and arrange in trays to dry under the sun. Finish drying in an oven at a low temperature. Cool and wrap in cellophane.


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VEGETABLES Vegetables are edible parts of plants. They are the roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, or pods. In culinary arts, vegetables are considered those plant materials eaten with the principal parts of the meal. They may be served cooked or raw in their natural state or in a completely changed appearance. Vegetables may be combined with other food items or eaten as is. In the Philippines, vegetables are always the popular item in people’s diet. Classification of Vegetables Plant parts used as vegetables maybe classified as follows: Leafy Vegetables are often called green vegetables. Examples of these are kamote tops, kangkong, pechay, saluyot, malunggay, ampalaya leaves, alugbati, spinach and other leaves used for food. Seed Vegetables are sometimes called leguminous vegetables. Examples of these are paayap, mongo, bataw, and other beans and peas. Stems and Bulbs consist of asparagus, bamboo shoots, coconut shoot, onions, and celery. Roots and Tubers are at times referred to as root crops. Examples are kamote, cassava, carrots, ubi, singkamas, potato, gabi, ginger, garlic, and other plants identified with roots. Fruit Vegetables consist of tomatoes, squash, eggplants, upo, ampalaya, patola, sayote, cucumbers, and okra. Flowers consist of katuray, squash blossoms, cauliflower, and kakawati flowers. Nutritive Value of Vegetables Vegetables are naturally rich sources of vitamins and minerals. They also contain cellulose-fibrous materials that aid in digestion. Protein, sugar, and starch are most abundantly found in vegetable seeds and pod, root crops and fruits and flowers. Dark green and yellow vegetables are especially rich in Vitamin A as well as other minerals.

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CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES

Leafy Vegetables

Seed Vegetables

Stem Vegetables and Bulbs

Roots and Tubers

Fruit Vegetables

Flower Vegetables

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The following table shows the nutritive value of selected locally grown vegetables: Table 2. Proximate Composition of Some Common Vegetables In 100 grams Edible Portion The Philippine Food Composition Table, 1997-FNRI VEGETABLES CHO gm

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Ampalaya Squash Tomato Kamote Tops Kangkong Carrots Cabbage Eggplant Monggo Bitsuelas Sitaw Petchay Malunggay Leaves

FAT PROTEIN VIT. A ASCORBIC gm mg (Carotene) mg Equivalent mcg)

IRON CALCIUM mg mg

4.5 8.6 5.2

0.4 0.5 0.9

0.9 1.4 0.3

185 880 385

40 20 34

0.8 0.7 1.0

42 61 31

9.1 3.5 10.5 4.8 5.8 64.2 6.8 7.2 3.2

0.8 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.2 1.0 0.1 0.2 0.5

3.3 3.5 1.5 1.4 1.0 24.4 2.0 3.1 2.0

3,195 2,575 10,290 20 80 80 360 250 1,450

28 30 8 42 85 10 17 22 54

4.6 4.6 2.1 0.8 0.6 5.7 1.2 0.9 3.7

137 92 69 74 35 142 77 61 168

12.4

1.9

6.1

14,945

231

4.5

346

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SOME GUIDELINES IN THE SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF VEGETABLES Vegetables have high perishability and great variation in quality. It is therefore important for one to know how to select vegetables at their best quality. The quality of vegetables depends on: a)

favorable conditions for their growth;

b)

the season of their harvest;

c)

the variety of the vegetable;

d)

degree of maturity;

e)

size and uniformity of shape; and

f)

presence of defects.

The Essentials of Buying Vegetables 1. Buy vegetables that are in season; they are cheap and plentiful. They are also most nutritious and better in flavor. 2. Select the vegetables that are free from surface bruises or blemishes due to decay. 3. Choose leafy vegetables that are fresh, young, and free from decay. Avoid the wilted ones. 4. Pick out dry seeds or legumes that are not powdery and are free from holes. Legumes are susceptible to weevil attacks especially when they had been stored improperly for sometime. 5. Get root crops that are free from dark spots and dirt. They must be firm, not soft. 6. Buy quality vegetables that will best suit your particular purpose. 7.

Consider the cost in relation to the edible portion and the amount of waste for each type.

8. Buy by weight, if possible or by the count if necessary. 9. Consider the prices of similar vegetables from at least two sources before buying. 10. Consider equality above all other considerations.


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Vegetables Cookery 1. Cook fresh green vegetables uncovered for the first few minutes and continue cooking until tender and still slightly crispy. 2. Peel and cut vegetables just before cooking; avoid soaking them in water. 3. Never cook vegetables in an iron container. Enamelware is suitable and preferable. 4. Use the smallest amount of water possible in boiling leafy vegetables. If vegetables are to be cooked with meat, add the vegetables just before the meat gets too tender. 5. To preserve the green color of vegetables, avoid overcooking them; do not use baking soda; uncover the pan for the first 2 or 3 minutes. 6. Use the same water in which dried legumes are soaked, by simmering them instead of boiling. 7.

Cook starchy vegetables such as potatoes, gabi etc. long enough to gelatinize. Drain off after boiling.

8. Save the liquid left after cooking vegetables; use it for gravies, soups, or sauces. 9. See that cooked vegetables are crispy rather than mushy, with flavor and color as natural as possible. 10. For the best method of cooking frozen vegetables, read what is stated on the package. On the other hand, canned vegetables have already been cooked. They need only to be heated and seasoned. To prepare dehydrated vegetables, add water and cook according to the directions on the package.

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SELECTION OF VEGETABLES Vegetables

Desirable Characteristics

Beans

Firm, clean, tender, crisp pods, seeds hardly half grown. (Toughness, wilting, or discoloration indicate over maturity.)

Cabbage

Hard, compact heads, greenishwhite in color, (Puffy, slightly yellow leaves indicate overmaturity.)

Carrots

Firm, fresh, smooth, well-shaped roots of a bright yellow to orange color.

Cucumbers

Firm, fresh, well-shaped bodies and firm, crisp, tender flesh, immature seeds.

Eggplant

Firm, heavy body of a uniform dark, rich purple color, free of scars or decay.

Green Leafy Vegetables (Camote tops, Kangkong etc.)

Fresh, tender young leaves, (Discolored and wilted leaves indicate poor quality.)

Onions

Bright, clean, hard, well-shaped globes with dry skins.

Squash

Fresh bright-colored, hard rind.

Tomatoes

Well-formed, plump bodies with a uniform red color.


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SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR VEGETABLE PRESERVATION Pickled Vegetables Materials: Chinese pechay or any of the following vegetables: Cabbage Cucumber (unpeeled) Radish (peeled) Singkamas (peeled) Carrots (peeled) Procedure: 1. Trim, wash, and drain the vegetables. 2. Cut them into halves, lengthwise. 3. For every kilo of vegetables, sprinkle 4 to 5 tablespoons of salt. 4. Press vegetables with the palm of the hand. Arrange them in a container. Place a cheesecloth or plastic on top and put weight so as to drain the juice from the vegetables. Cover. 5. After a day, wash vegetables in running water and squeeze gently. If they are too salty, soak them in water. 6. Squeeze and slice them thinly. Serve with ginger sauce. Ginger Sauce: 2 tbsp. soy sauce 1/2 cup water 2 tbsp. sugar 1 tbsp. finely chopped ginger 1 piece sili labuyu (crushed) Combine all ingredients and serve with the pickled vegetables.

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Tomato Ketchup Materials: 2 kilos of fully ripe, thick-pulped red tomatoes 1/2 cup sugar 1/2 cup vinegar 1/4 cup native onions (chopped) 1 tbsp. pickling spices 1/4 tbsp. chili sauce 2 tbsp. salt Crushed sili labuyu in small amount of water.

Procedure: 1. Scald and peel tomatoes. 2. Cut into halves and remove seeds. 3. Strain seeds from juice and add to pulp. 4. Add onions and boil until soft. 5. Remove mixture from fire and pass through a stainless strainer or through a blender. 6. Add salt, sugar, vinegar, and the spices placed and tied in a piece of cloth. 7.

Cook to a thick consistency.

8. While hot, pour in sterile ketchup bottles. 9. Seal, cool, and label. Store.


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Instant Ginger Tea Materials: 1 kilo ginger (whole) 2 to 3 kilos sugar (a mixture of brown and white) Procedure: 1. Select round young ginger rhizomes. 2. Clean and remove bruised and spoiled particles. Wash and weigh. 3. Scrape off skin. 4. Cut or slice the ginger thinly and chop. 5. Add water, approximately 1 cup or enough to cover. 6. Grind chopped ginger in an osterizer; beat chopped ginger. 7.

Strain and measure. To the extract, add sugar (2-3 kilos).

8. Stir and boil. Reduce fire, if ginger syrup is already thick. 9. Cook and stir continuously until granules are formed and become dry. 10. Pound granules and sift to obtain a uniform product. 11. Pack in a small plastic bag and seal. 12. To make a beverage or salabat, add 1 tablespoon instant ginger tea to every cup of hot water. Garlic Salt 1. Peel garlic and chop finely. 2. Mix salt, 1/5 of the weight of garlic. 3. Spread on nylon screen and dry thoroughly under the sun or in a dehydrator. 4. Pack in plastic bags and seal.

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MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS Meat is an important food in the diet and is the foremost food of the people in the world. In nearly every home the daily menu is built around meat as the central dish. This extensive use of meat is due to its palatability and high nutritive value. Technically, the term meat is used to designate only those portions of the various animals used for food like muscle, fatty tissues and some glands such as the liver, heart, and spleen. Commercially, the term meat includes all portions of the dressed carcass as muscle tissues, connective tissues, fat, lymphatic glands, edible organs, and the bone. Zoological classes of animals from which meat is obtained are: 1.

Mammalia — Examples are: cattle, carabaos, sheep, swine or pigs, and other similar four-footed animals.

2.

Aces — fowls and birds.

3.

Pisces — fishes.

4.

Reptilia — turtles.

5.

Amphibia — frogs.

6.

Mollusca — oysters and clams.

7.

Crustacea — lobsters and crabs.

Grading of Meat After the meat has been inspected by an authorized veterinarian and declared wholesome, hygienic and fit for human consumption, then it is graded. The basis for grading is quality, conformation, and finish of its carcass. 1.

Quality includes tenderness, juiciness and palatability.

2.

Conformation refers to the shape, form or general outline of the side or the whole carcass. This indicates the relative proportion of lean to bone ratio, as well as the relative percentage of each of the different wholesale cuts. Good conformation means a high meat to bone ratio and high percentage of the tender cuts.

3.

Finish refers to the amount, quality, and color of the fat within and around the muscle.


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The Bureau of Standards (Philippines) standardized and prepared in 1970 the meat grading as Excellent, Superior, Good, and Unclassified. But grading is an expensive operation, hence it is not widely practiced in the Philippines. Imported meat cuts that find their way to the modern supermarket may have grades according to the grading system of their country of origin. Structure of Meat A piece of meat usually consists of lean tissues, fatty tissues, connective tissues, and bone. The lean tissues or the lean meat consist mainly of muscular tissues and lesser amounts of connective tissues. The muscle fiber size has much to do with the grain or texture of the meat. Fine grain, smooth texture, and a smooth and soft surface indicate tender meat. Young animals have finer-grained flesh than mature animals. The type and quantity of connective tissue in meat also affect tenderness. There are two kinds of connective tissue: white (collagen) and yellow (elastin). Collagen is changed into gelatin and water by moist heat. Elastin cannot be changed by cooking. To make it tender, it is broken up by mechanical treatment such as grinding, pounding, or cubing. Fats in meat occur mainly in the adipose tissues as visible fat. It is present in intermediate amounts in between the muscle as intramuscular fat and in minor quantities inside the muscle cell as intracellular fat. Intramuscular fat when present in sufficient quantity and visible, is called marbling. Fats in meat are important because they contribute to tenderness, juiciness and flavor. The bone is an essential part of the gross structure of the meat. The conditioning of the bone is an indication of the age of the animal. In young animals, the backbone is soft and has reddish tinge. In fully mature animals, the bones are flinty and white. A high proportion of bone to meat increases the cost of meat; therefore the carcass with a high proportion of meat to bone is more desirable. The shape of the bone is an excellent guide for identifying the various cuts of meat. Nutritive Value of Meat Meat is a very valuable food. It is rich source of high quality protein needed for building and repairing worn-out body tissues. It contains rich supply of phosphorous, copper, iron and Vitamin B, thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin. It is relatively low in calories without the fat. The fat in meat

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gives the body energy and warmth. The variety meat or the internal organs that include the brain, sweet breads, liver, spleen, and intestines are equally as nutritious as the lean meat. Liver is a good source of iron which is needed to make the blood red. Table 3. Proximate Composition of Lean Meat From Pork, Beef and Carabeef, 100 gms. The Philippine Food Composition Table, 1997-FNRI

Protein (gm) Moisture (%) Fat (gm) Calcium (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Iron (mg) Vitamin A (Retinol) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg)

PORK

BEEF

17.3 58.6 23.2 29 142 1.3 35 .45 .27 4.5

22.9 71.8 4.2 96 194 3.2 180 .10 .20 6.4

CARABEEF 20.6 77.3 0.8 22 161 2.6 85 114 .26 4.3


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Classes of Meat Beef carcasses are classified on the basis of age and sex. The specific classes are: stear — a male cow, castrated when young; heifer — a young female which has not borne a calf; cow — a female that has not borne a calf; stag — a male castrated after maturity; and bull — a mature male not castrated. Cara beef is carabao meat. Although widely eaten by Filipinos, it is still sold and passed as beef. Veal is meat from immature animals of the bovine species. The best veal carcasses are usually from animals 4 to 8 weeks of age of either sex. Pork is the meat of swine. Good quality pork comes from young animals usually 7 to 12 months of age. In young animals there is no distinction in quality or grade of meat due to sex. However, in older animals sex differences are pronounced. Lamb and mutton are sheep carcasses so classified according to the age of animals. Lamb meat is taken from young animals of one year or less of age. Mutton is derived from those that have passed the lamb stage. Carcasses of yearlings are heavier and their flesh darker than those of lamb. It is the best of the mutton class. The flesh of all carcasses in the mutton class is darker in color, less tender, and stronger-smelling than lamb. Goat’s meat is quite popular in some parts of the Philippines particularly in the Ilocos Region. It is taken mainly as “pulutan” with basi or tuba by men who drink during their leisure hours or after work in the farm. Rabbit’s meat comes from rabbits that should be 3 to 4 months old before they are slaughtered for food. At this age, a large breed of rabbit weighs about 1/2 to 2 kg. Older stocks are heavier and make good materials for roasted meat. Domesticated rabbits are meatier but gourmet relishes the wild rabbit’s meat. Rabbits are known in the Philippines as pets and certainly not for eating.

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Market Forms of Meat Meat is available in the market as fresh, chilled, frozen, cured, canned, or dried. Fresh Meat has not undergone chilling, freezing, or any processing treatment. Most market meat in the Philippines is in this form. Chilled Meat has been cooled to a temperature range of 1 to 3°C (34° to 36°F) within 24 hours after slaughter. Chilled Meat has been chilled and then frozen. Most meat in supermarkets are pre-packaged frozen meat for self-service. Frozen meat should have an expiry date stamped on the package. Cured Meat is preserved meat acted upon by curing agents such as salt, sodium nitrate (salitre), sugar, and sometimes spices and vinegar without refrigeration. Sausage, hotdog, langoniza, tocino, ham, bacon, corned beef and tapa are examples of cured meat. Canned Meat is cooked and requires only to be reheated. Corned beef, adobo, liver spread and other meat recipes are examples of this form. Dried Meat is also known as dehydrated meat. There is a limited amount of dried meat available. Tapa is an example of dried meat that is also cured.


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MEAT CUTS A slaughtered animal is called a carcass. The carcass is cut into larger pieces called wholesale cuts, which are further reduced into retail cuts. The retail cuts commonly found in the market are further classified as tender cuts, less tender cuts, tough cuts, and variety cuts. The specific cut determines the price of the meat. Tender Cuts Tender cuts contain lean meat and little collagen. These are the least exercised parts of the animal and are the most expensive cuts. Meat of the upper half of an animal, along the backbone, is tender because the back muscle simply supports the spine and does not perform much movement. The most tender muscle in both beef and pork is the psoas major muscle or the loin. This portion is most appropriate for broiling, roasting, and frying. The whole loin or kadera of the beef yields the loin end, short loin, sirloin and the tenderloin. In pork, the loin is known as lomo, when sliced is called pork chops. Other tender cuts in pork include the ham and side bacon or belly. Less Tender Cuts There are more developed connective tissues in less tender cuts than the tender cuts. Considerable portions are present in the shoulder and neck of the animals. It is necessary to apply moist heat methods of cookery to gelatinize the connective tissues, thus tenderizing the meat. Braising and stewing are also appropriate cooking methods. Most often, less tender cuts are ground to break and cut the muscle fibers and connective tissues. In a pork carcass, the shoulder, Boston Butt, picnic and neck bones are examples of less tender cuts. The round, rump and chuck are for the beef carcass. Tough Cuts The tough cuts are usually those muscles which get more exercise while the animal is alive. They are usually located in the lower part of the animal. Muscles that are exercised a lot contain higher quantities of connective tissues. Really hardworking muscles such as the shoulder (or chuck) and neck produce tough meat. The tough cuts in beef are the shank, flank, plate, brisket, and neck. There are no tough cuts in the pork carcass.

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Variety Cuts Variety cuts are the animal glands and other internal organs. They include the liver, kidney, tripe, sweetbreads, brain, lung, and tongue. The tail, blood, and skin are also grouped under the variety meats. Variety meat should be cooked until well-done to minimize the danger of transmitting the organisms found in them. In the Philippines, the variety cuts are considered choice parts and are priced accordingly. LIST OF VARIETY CUTS Local Name

English Name

Suggested Recipes

Puso

Heart

Atay

Liver

Bato

Kidney

Baga

Lungs

Lapay

Pancreas

Empella Bahay guya Dila

Small Intestines Uterus Tongue

Bachoy, Bopiz, Dinuguan, Egado Liver spread, Bachoy, Bopiz, Dinuguan, Adobo, Egado Bachoy, Bopiz, Egado, Dinuguan Egado, Bopiz, Dinuguan Dinuguan, Egado, Bopiz Adobo, Kilawin, Dinuguan Dinuguan, Bopiz Pastel de lengua, Gisado

Tuwalya/ Libro

Tripe

Balat Dugo Kaloogan Tastasin Trepella

Skin Blood Esophagus Omentum Omentum

Menudo, Goto, Callos, Kilawin Sitsaron Dinuguan, Bopiz Egado, Bopiz Bopiz, Dinuguan Goto, Bopiz, Dinuguan


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MEAT CUTS OF BEEF AND CARABEEF

The chuck or paypay contains the square-cut shoulder and the top five ribs, the arm, the blade bones, and the neckbones. The brisket or punta y pecho has layers of lean and fat, and pieces of breast bone. The ribs or costillas include 6 to 12 ribs and the blade bones. The plate or tadyang is a fatty cut whose meat is ground for hamburgers. The short loin or solomillo consists of the backbone and sometimes the last rib. This is the cut that yields the beef steaks, porterhouse, T-bone and club steak. The flank or kanto is lean and tough, and contains a high percentage of fat. The loin end or tagilirang hulihan lies between the rump and the short loin and yields sirloin steaks, pin bones, wedge bones, and flat bones. The rump or tapadera is the rear part behind the upper sirloin. The round or pierna costa is oval shaped with a small round bone and a high proportion of lean and fat roast cut. The sirloin tip or kadera is from the bottom and round and the lower sirloin.

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The foreshank or kenchi or pata is a very bony piece that contains a high percentage of cartilage and connective tissues. PORK CUTS

Jowl (Kalamnan)Boston Butt (Paypay)

Picnic (Kasim)

Tail (Buntot)

Loin (Lomo)

Ham (Pigi) Bacon Side (Liyempo)

Spare Ribs (Buto sa Tadyang) Foreshank (Pata)

Hindshank (Pata)

Jowl or kalamnan is the loose flesh above the lower jaw or throat with a high percentage of fat. Boston Butt or paypay is cut from the upper shoulder, has a compact shape and is easy to slice. The loin or lomo is a long cut that extends along the backbone of the animal. This may be cut into smaller loin roasts known locally as costillas. The picnic or kasim is cut from the lower portion of the shoulder of the animal that has more bone in proportion to lean meat. The bacon side or liyempo is cut from the belly portion of the long carcass, usually cured and sold in slices or slabs. The ham or pigi is composed of the butt or shank end. It contains a higher proportion of lean to bone. The spare rib or buto sa tadyang is taken from the belly portion of the animal; it contains a large proportion of bones. The shanks (foreshank and hindshank) or pata are the pig’s legs, considered by the Filipinos as a delicacy, they contain a high percentage of cartilage and connective tissue.


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MEAT COOKERY Meat is cooked to make it more palatable and digestible. To tenderize meat, it must be cooked with heat. Dry heat seldom softens meat and overcooking even with dry heat toughens the flesh. High temperatures and extended cooking even with moisture are not advisable. Doneness can be judged by the outside and inside appearances of the meat. There are six stages of doneness: (Kotchevar, 1975) 1.

Very rare. Only a thin portion around the edge of the meat is fully cooked. Red that almost bloody juices ooze out. Under finger pressure, the meat feels soft and jelly-like inside.

2.

Rare. The raw, red portion of the meat is small and around it is pink; there is good brown outer surface. The meat has a full, plump appearance and gives in to pressure; juices are red but not bloody.

3.

Medium rare. The interior portion is rich pink and exudes juice of the same color. The meat is still plump and firm; the amount of gray outer surface has increased.

4.

Medium. The interior color of the meat is a modified rose. Pink juices are apparent but less. The exterior portion is wellbrowned. The surface does not appear plump or full. When pressed, there is definite resistance.

5.

Medium well. The pink color has completely disappeared. Juiciness is still evident, but the juices are clear or gray, not pink. There is no plumpness; the meat is firm to touch.

6.

Well. The meat is completely gray inside, hard, flinty and shrunken. Little or no juice appears on its surface which is brown and dry.

Cooking Techniques The extent of its tenderness largely dictates how meat should be cooked. Tender cuts are usually cooked by dry heat and tough cuts by moist heat. Some tough cuts may be treated mechanically with tenderizers to make them soft, and then be cooked by dry-heat methods. Dry heat methods are: 1.

Broiling, pan broiling, or griddle broiling

2.

Roasting or baking

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3.

Barbecuing

4.

Sautéing, pan frying, or grilling

5.

Deep-frying

6.

Ovenizing

Moist heat methods are: 1.

Braising (pot-roasting, fricassing, casseroling, and stewing)

2.

Simmering

3.

Steaming

4.

Blanching

Principles of Cooking Meat 1.

Meat should be immediately removed from wrapping paper because paper absorbs the juice of meat. Soaking meat in a pan of cold water for a long period of time draws out the meat juices.

2.

Low to moderate heat is the best cooking temperature for meat. Such temperature produces a tender and flavorful product, minimizes meat shrinkage and retains much of its nutritive value.

3.

Tough cuts of meat must be cooked with moisture or in water at low temperature for a longer period of time.

4.

Pressure-cooking meat results in decreased cooking time. However, the process reduces the color and flavor of food produced by ordinary cooking. Nevertheless, these qualities can be attained by the use of other food materials such as spices, sauces, and vegetables.

5.

When defrosting or thawing frozen meat, one should not remove its wrapping to prevent the growth of bacteria. Meat that has been defrosted should be cooked immediately. It should never be refrozen.

6.

Pork should always be thoroughly cooked because it may contain harmful pathogenic organisms or small worm harmful to the human body.

7.

Meat is done when the heat necessary to bring about desired changes in color, texture, and flavor has penetrated to the center of the piece.


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8.

Ground meat will cook in a much shorter time because its connective tissues have been broken making it more tender.

9.

When broiling meat, one must keep the fire very hot and turn the meat every two or three minutes to keep it at proper temperature. SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR MEAT PRESERVATION Langgonisa or Native Sausage 1 kilo meat (3 parts lean,1 part pork fat) 2 1/2 tbsp. fine salt 2 tbsp. sugar 2 tbsp. vinegar 2 tbsp. wine (Anisado) optional 1 1/2 tbsp. soy sauce 1 1/2 tsp. chopped garlic 1 tsp. peppercorn, pounded 1/2 tsp. saltpeter 3 meters casing

1.

Use either lean pork or beef. A good combination for sausage is 3 parts lean meat (3/4 kilo) and one part pork fat (1/4 kilo).

2.

Chop lean meat and pork fat or grind together using a course blade.

3.

Thoroughly mix curing ingredients with ground meat and pork fat.

4.

Stuff into pig casing and into links 4-5 inches long.

5.

Hang in a cool dry place for 1 to 2 days before cooking.

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Chorizo De Recado 1 kilo pork (2 parts lean, 1 part fat) 2 1/2 tbsp. pimenton 1 1/2 tbsp. fine salt 2 tbsp. wine (Anisado) 1/4 ground black pepper 3/4 tsp. saltpeter 1/4 tsp. thyme 1/2 tsp. chopped garlic 1/8 tsp. nutmeg 1.

Chop or grind lean meat and pork. Mix well with the curing ingredients.

2.

Stuff into casing and tie into 4 inches long.

3.

Allow to cure at room temperature for 1 day or in a refrigerator for 3 days.

4.

Dry slightly under the sun for 2-3 hours. Home Made Bacon 1 kilo pork (liempo or pork sides) 3 tbsp. fine salt 2 tbsp. sugar 1 tbsp. saltpeter

1.

Cut and trim pork into rectangular pieces.

2.

Mix curing ingredients and rub well on the surface of the meat.

3.

Pack meat with the skin side down in a covered dish. Store in the refrigerator and cure for 2 weeks. In the absence of a refrigerator, cure at room temperature for 5 days.

4.

Wash, dry and smoke at 125ºF for 2-3 hours or until bacon is tanned. In the absence of a smoke house, apply either liquid or powdered smoke to give the desired smoke flavor of bacon.


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Homemade Ham 1 kilo pork loin 1/3 cup sugar 1 tsp. saltpeter or prague powder 3 tbsp. salt 1.

Combine salt, sugar, and saltpeter. (These form the curing mixtures.)

2.

Spread mixture all over meat.

3.

Refrigerate for 3-6 days turning once or twice.

4.

Bake or stew in: 1/2 cup sugar 1 cup pineapple juice 1 cup water 3-4 pcs. cloves peppercorn as desired a leaf of laurel

5.

Boil and/or bake till done.

6.

Baste all over. Slice and serve. Instant Corned Beef 1 kilo beef (punta y pecho) 1 1/2 cup water 1 1/2 tbsp. fine salt 1 tsp. prague salt 1 tbsp. sugar

1.

Cut the beef into 1 1/2 inches cubes.

2.

Combine and add the rest of the ingredients.

3.

Pressure cook for 40 minutes.

4.

Cool and shred beef with a fork.

5.

Combine with broth left from cooking. Cool and refrigerate.

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Tocino 1 kilo pork (pork chop or liyempo) 2 tbsp. salt 4 tbsp. sugar 1/4 tsp. salitre a dash of pepper food color as desired (1/4 tsp.) 1.

Mix sugar, salt, salitre, and color.

2.

Rub both sides of the pork.

3.

Place the salted pork in a container and cover.

4.

Keep at room temperature for 5 days or keep in the refrigerator for 3 days.

5.

Wash a little before cooking.


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POULTRY Nature of Poultry Poultry, which consists of domestic birds specially bred for the table, includes chicken, duck, goose, pigeon, and turkey. Poultry is now available in many convenient forms and sizes the year round. The production of poultry may be adapted to most areas of the world. At present, it is a main source of meat in the people’s diet throughout the world. In the Philippines, a total of 3.9 kg. poultry meat is consumed per person in a year and 97% of this consists of chicken, while the rest consists of turkey, pigeon, and duck. Comparable in nutritive value to other meat forms, it is economical. It has a rapid growth rate and a rapid generation time, that is, a poultry farm can produce meat in 8 weeks and eggs in 24 weeks. Furthermore, poultry meat is low in calories in relation to other nutrients present in it. Hence, it is good food for those on weight control diets, convalescents, and old people who are not physically active. CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY

Chicken

Turkey

Duck

Pigeon

Goose

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Classification of Poultry Chicken Throughout the year, chickens are available, fresh or frozen. When sold oven-ready they are plucked, drawn, and trussed. 1.

A Pullet is a baby chicken, four to six weeks old and weighs at most 1 lb. It is suitable for roasting and grilling.

2.

Double Poussin (Broiler). This chicken is six to ten weeks old and weighs about 2 lbs.

3.

A Spring Chicken (Fryer) is about six weeks old, with an average weight of 2 1/2 lbs.

4.

A Roasting Chicken (Roaster) is the most popular size for a family. It is eight weeks old and weighs 3.4 lbs.

5.

A Broiler Fowl is an older bird usually a laying hen, about 8 months old, weighing 6 lbs. Meaty but also fat, it is suitable for stews or casseroles.

6.

A Capon is a surgically unsexed male chicken (usually under 8 months of age) that is tender-meated with soft, pliable, smooth-textured skin.

7.

A Stag is a male chicken (usually under 10 months of age) with coarse skin, a toughened and darkened flesh, and considerably hardened breast-bone cartilage. It shows a condition of fleshing and a degree of maturity intermediate between a cock and a roaster.

8.

A cock or roaster is a mature male chicken with coarse skin, toughened and darkened meat, and hardened breastbone tip.

Ducks Most ducks are marketed as ducklings or young ducks. A duck weighing the same as a chicken cannot be served to many people. A 6 lb. duck is only enough for 4 people. A duck is a fatty bird that is best roasted. A broiler duckling or fryer duckling is a young duck usually under 8 weeks of age, of either sex, with tender meat, a soft bill, and a soft windpipe. A roaster duckling is a young duck, usually under 16 weeks of age, of either sex, that is tender-meated and has a bill that is not completely hardened and a windpipe that is easily dented.


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A mature duck or old duck is usually over 6 months of either sex, with toughened flesh, and hardened bill and windpipe. Turkeys Turkeys are not readily available in the market although they may be classified into: A fryer-roaster is a young immature turkey (16 weeks of age, 4.8 lbs.) of either sex that has tender meat with soft pliable, smooth-textured skin and flexible breastbone cartilage. A young hen is a young female turkey (5-7 months weighing 8-4 lbs.) that is tender-meated with soft pliable, smooth textured skin, and breastbone cartilage that is somewhat less flexible than in fryer-roaster turkey. A young tom is a young male (5-7 months weighing 12 lbs. and over) that is also tender-meated with soft pliable, smooth-textured skin, and breastbone cartilage that is somewhat less flexible than in fryer-roaster turkey. A yearling hen is a fully matured female turkey (under 15 months of age) that is reasonably tender-meated and with reasonably smoothtextured skin. A yearling tom is a fully matured male, under 15 months of age that is reasonably tender-meated and with reasonably smooth-textured skin. A mature or old turkey is an old turkey male or female usually more than 15 months old with coarse skin and toughened skin. Pigeons A squab is a young immature pigeon of either sex, and is extra tender-meated. A pigeon is a mature one of either sex, with coarse skin and roughened flesh. Goose It is a fatty with creamy-white flesh, which is light brown when cooked. It has a slightly gamey flavor. It is marketed young and usually weighs 6-12 lbs., but again it serves less per pound than chicken. Gosling is a young goose not more than six months old.

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COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEATS The nutritive value of poultry is similar to that of other meatproducing animals. The proteins supplied by poultry are complete and contain amino acids essential in building body tissues. In addition, poultry is a very good source of B-Vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin. A concentration of niacin is especially high in the flesh of young chickens. Dark chicken meat is richer in riboflavin and thiamine, poorer in niacin and more abundant in fat and connective tissues than white meat. It has a high myoglobin content which is practically absent in white meat. The dark meat belongs to those which are more active. Hence, wild birds, which are very mobile, have only dark meat. Filipinos prefer dark meat over the white meat. Chicken fat is yellow mainly because of the presence of carotenoids, xanthophyll, and carotene. The fat content of goose, duck, squab, or turkey is higher than that of a chicken. The fat of poultry is deposited in the muscle tissue, in thick layers under the skin and in the abdominal cavity. The fat of all types of poultry is of a softer consistency than that of other meats. It also has a lower melting point. Table 4. Proximate Composition of the Dark Meat of Chicken, Turkey, Duck and Pigeon per 100 gm. Edible Portion FNRI-Food Composition Table Recommended for use in the Philippines. (1997) CHICKEN TURKEY Moisture (gm) Protein (gm) Fat (gm) Carbohydrates (gm) Ash (gm) Calories Calcium (mg) Phosphorus (mg) Iron (mg) Sodium (mg) Potassium (mg) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg)

76.3 22.6 0.1 0.0 1.0 108 4 86 1.0 56 365 0.11 0.07 5.2

76.6 20.3 2.1 0.0 1.0 106 8 141 1.0 119 357 0.09 0.28 4.7

DUCK

PIGEON

73.1 19.8 6.0 0.0 1.1 139 11 164 2.8 71 365 0.18 0.38 4.1

64.6 14.6 20.1 0.0 0.7 244 10 218 0.6 86 286 0.15 0.41 2.9


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How to Bone the Chicken Chicken are easy to bone if one follows these simple instructions. It is not too difficult once you have tried it, but care should be taken not to pierce the skin except for the initial slits. Here are the step-by-step procedure: 1.

Place the bird breast down on the board and make an incision in the entire length of the spine, through both skin and flesh. Push the skin and flesh back as you cut.

2.

Work the skin off the neck down, so you can get the neck bone to extend way beyond it.

3.

Start with the ball and socket joint of the shoulder, cutting it free and boning the shoulder blade. Pull the wing bone through from the inside, bringing the skin with it.

4.

Strike for the ball and socket joint of the leg and pull the bone through.

5.

Continue to work the meat free, from one side of the body, then from the other, until the center front of the breastbone is reached. Get the whole skeleton out with its contents all in one piece.

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Principles of Selection In the Philippines, poultry is marketed in these forms: live, whole, dressed, drawn, and pieced ready-to-cook. It is important to know the characteristics of each form to insure proper selection when purchasing poultry. Live Poultry. When selecting live poultry, choose those that are alert, healthy, well-feathered, and well-formed. They should have a good fat covering and free from broken bones, bruises, and blisters. Sluggish looking birds should not be purchased. Whole Poultry. Similar qualities to those of live poultry should be considered here except that this poultry is not alive. Most poultry in this form are those that are hunted as game birds. Dressed Poultry. Most of the chickens available in most markets are in this form. These are slaughtered poultry with head, feet, and viscera intact, and blood and feathers removed. The good dressed poultry have moderate fat covering, free from pin feathers, no missing skin or parts. Those with slimy, off odors, and discoloration should be avoided. Drawn Poultry. These are dressed poultry with the visceral organs, feet, and head removed. Drawn poultry are usually available in supermarkets, either chilled or frozen. Freezing is done in local poultry processing plants which insure quality control. There are a number of good brands of frozen drawn poultry in the local supermarkets. Frozen poultry with freezer burns should not be purchased. Ready to Cook Poultry Parts. Several pieces of a single poultry parts are usually available and packed in one carton, wrapped, and are chilled or frozen. Wings, drumsticks, thighs, backs, breasts, legs, halves, quarters and internal organs, such as livers with hearts, and gizzards are separately packaged and sold in most supermarkets. Consumer acceptance of these ready-to-cook poultry parts is indicated by the brisk sales in the frozen compartments of supermarkets. Wet markets also sell these poultry parts minus the fancy packaging of supermarkets. Likewise, even chicken heads, feet, and intestines are sold in the wet market because some people have preference for them.


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POULTRY CUTS

Drumstick Leg with Thigh

Thigh

Quarter Half

Wing

breast Leg with Thigh and Meat from back

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Principles in the Preparation of Poultry In the Philippine countryside, poultry is still slaughtered at home. This practice is becoming rare in the urban area where commercial preparation of ready-to-cook poultry is taken care of by the poultry farms business. The steps in dressing the poultry are basically the same except that commercial preparation makes use of automated devices and machineries. Steps in Dressing Poultry 1. Slaughtering and bleeding. Proper handling prior to slaughter is essential to prevent bruising and injury to the bird. Live birds are not fed 8 to 24 hours prior to slaughter to allow easier removal of entrails. Water may be given to the live animals. This practice improves flavor and tenderness of the meat. Slaughtering is done by slitting the large or jugular vein in the animal’s throat. Bleeding may take about 1 to 3 minutes to effect proper draining of its blood. In the case of large scale slaughtering, the live birds are shackled and electrically steamed. 2. Scalding. The bled birds are scalded by dipping in hot water at about 60°C (140°F) for 30 to 75 seconds. Scalding is done to facilitate removal of feathers. In commercial dressing of poultry, big tanks with good temporary control are used for scalding. 3. Defeathering. Feathers are removed by rubbing. The birds are now called dressed poultry. Defeathering in commercial basis is done in machines with rubberized “picking fingers.” 4. Evisceration. Slitting the abdominal part and pulling out the entrails in one piece is called evisceration. When this is accomplished, the poultry is called drawned poultry. The head and feet are cut off cleaned and the oil glands are removed. If pin feathers are present, they may be removed by singeing over on an open flame. Internal organs are removed and cleaned. Commercially, evisceration is done in cool rooms where the carcasses are also inspected by an authorized veterinarian and then chilled quick-frozen and vacuum-packed prior to marketing.


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Principles of Poultry Cookery 1. Poultry meat lacks color. Therefore to add color to the meat and intensify its flavor, poultry should be browned as part of cooking. 2. Mature birds have more extractives than young ones. Thus, they are excellent for various kinds of soup and broth. Fryers and broilers are suitable for frying. 3. Low to moderate heat is the best cooking temperature for poultry because it produces a tender and flavorful product and allows little shrinkage of meat and more retention of nutritive value. 4. Frozen poultry should be thawed without removing the wrapping to prevent the growth of bacteria. It should be cooked immediately. 5. When cooking poultry, the age and fat distribution of the birds should be considered. Young birds are more palatable when cooked by dry heat; older birds are best cooked by moist heat. 6. Chickens and turkeys should be stuffed immediately before roasting so that the danger of bacterial action is minimized. The cavity should not be filled completely with stuffing which will tend to swell and fill up the air spaces and prevent the stuffing from being thoroughly cooked. 7.

In roasting, chicken cuts are laid with the breast-side down to produce a tender and juicy product. The breast-side up position tends to dry it out.

8. Cooked poultry should always be eaten as soon as possible after being removed from the heat. 9. Poultry leftovers, a common source of Salmonella bacteria, must be refrigerated immediately. Left-over stuffing from chicken relleno should be removed and refrigerated separately. 10. Basting improves the desirability of the lean meat of poultry in terms of improved flavor, palatability and appearance.

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SUGGESTED RECIPES Poultry Ham (Chicken, Turkey, Duck) Procedure 1. Select birds that are healthy and plump, preferably those that belong to the meat breed. 2. Handle them carefully to avoid bruising them. 3. Bleed thoroughly and scald in water at 533°C or simmering temperature. 4. Remove the feathers, the pin feathers, and the legs. Cut the neck close to the body leaving portions of loose skin uncut. In evisceration (removal of internal organs), leave no trace of blood or adhering tissue inside. 5. Wash and soak in cold water (with little ice) for about 15 minutes to remove body heat. 6. Prepare curing ingredients as follows: Curing pickles must be prepared a day before processing. For the pumping pickle, prepare a stock of saturated salt that can be dissolved by stirring in a certain amount of boiling water. Cool in a refrigerator or ice box, place the container with cold water. Strain in the brine to remove the excess salt. Boil plain water for dilution purposes and cool. Then measure and mix all the required ingredients as follows: Pumping Pickle Ingredients 2 1/2 cups saturated salt solution 2 1/2 cups cold boiled water 2 1/2 tbsp. sugar 1/2 tsp. salitre 2 1/2 tbsp. Phosphate blend for ham (optional) 1 drop of oil anise 1 drop of oil cloves 2 drops maplein


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The diluted brine should give a salinity of 50°S which can be tested if a salometer is available. Dissolve the ingredients in small amount of brine before finally mixing with the rest of the liquid. Stir thoroughly and strain before using. Unused pickle may be set aside in a refrigerator for future use. Cover Pickle Ingredients 6 cups saturated salt solution 4 cups boiled water 1/8 tsp. salitre 5 tbsp. sugar The cover pickle is slightly more saltier than the pumping pickle. Spices are omitted. Dry-Cure Mixture Instead of using cover pickle, prepare the following ingredients which will be rubbed on the surface of every kilo of trimmed poultry. 2 tbsp. salt 4 tbsp. spoons sugar 1/16 tsp. salitre anisado wine 7.

Injection of the pumping pickle, immersion or application of dry cure mixture. Introduce the pumping pickle into the clean portions of the chicken carcass using a large syringe or needle. The amount of pickle to be pumped should be 10% of the dressed weight of the bird or 100cc. of the pickle per kilo of the material. After injection, massage the carcass lightly to spread out the pumped pickle, then place in palayok or any sufficiently large non-corrosive container (wooden, plastic, aluminum or enameled) and pour enough cover pickle. To keep the whole carcass submerged in the pickle, place the clean pieces of banana leaves or wax paper and wooden weight on top. Finally cover the container tightly with muslin cloth. Store to room temperature for 2 days or refrigerate for 5 days. Once each day during curing period, stir the pickle to promote even absorption of the ingredients.

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If the immersion process is not desired, the day cure mixture may be used for surface treatment. Mix the salt, sugar, and salitre thoroughly as prescribed. For duck ham, drench the trimmed carcass in anisado wine and place in a shallow container. This will eliminate the peculiar duck odor. Run each piece with the dry cure mixture. Place the treated poultry in a porcelain, plastic, or earthen ware, and cover very well. Keep at room temperature for 8 hours and in the refrigerator for 3-5 days. 8. Smoking and drying. At the end of the curing period, pull out the chicken from the pickle, wash with plain water, and tie the legs with abaca twine. Allow to drain for a while and hang in an improvised smokehouse, such as in an elevated bottomless gasoline drum. Place guava leaves over charcoal embers to produce a good amount of smoke. Continue smoking for 2-3 hours and dry further for 2-3 days at 110°F to 120°F (optional) to a brown finish. 9. Cooking the finished chicken or poultry ham. For every piece of ham, mix the following with the final cooking: 1/2 bottle beer or 1/2 cup pineapple juice 1/2 cup sugar 2 pieces laurel leaves 2 pieces clavo de comer 2 strands oregano Keep the ham immersed. Cook until well-done. Drain, then spread brown sugar on the surface of the ham and caramelize with either a blow torch or hot sianse, or in an oven of 450°C. Serve hot or cold.


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Steamed Chicken in Salt (Manok na Pinaupo) Ingredients 1 ready-to-cook chicken 2 cups coarse salt enough to cover the bottom of one kaldero. Allow the chicken to sit on the salt in the kaldero. Cook over low heat. Asadong Manok (Tangy Chicken Stew) 3 lbs. chicken, cut up

2 medium tomatoes, chopped

1/4 cup vinegar

1 tbsp. pabrika

2 tsp. salt

1 small bay leaf

1/8 gloves garlic, minced

1 cup water

1 medium onion, sliced Combine chicken pieces with vinegar, salt, pepper, and garlic. Let stand for at least 30 minutes. Heat oil in skillet over medium heat and sauté onions and tomatoes until tomatoes are mushy. Drain the chicken pieces; save the marinade. Add the chicken pieces to tomato mixture. Sauté until the chicken colors slightly. Add marinade, paprika, bay leaf, and water. Simmer in 30 minutes or until the chicken is tender. Correct the seasoning. Chicken Liver Sauce 1 lb. chicken livers, halved

1 tsp. salt

2 tbsp. bacon fat

pinch of pepper

1 medium onion, thinly sliced

1 tbsp. chopped parsley

Wash and dry chicken livers. In hot bacon fat, sauté chicken livers and onions for 2 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and cook for 5-8 minutes more over medium heat. Sprinkle with parsley and serve.

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Galantina (Stuffed Rolled Chicken) 5 lbs. chicken capon 1/2 tsp. salt 1/4 lb. fresh pork fat cut in long strips 22 oz. chorizo cut in 4 long strips each

1/3 cup pistachio nuts 2 carrots, cut in two pieces each 1 stalk celery, cut in 3 pieces

Filling 1/4 lb. lean cooked ham, cut into thin strips 1/4 lb. chicken livers cut into pcs. 1/4 lb. salt, pork, cubed 1 lb. ground pork 2 eggs

1/4 cup dry white wine 1/4 cup heavy cream 1 tbsp. salt 1/4 tsp. pepper 2 tbsp. chopped green onions

Bone the chicken. Carefully remove the meat from the skin to leave a shell. Sprinkle the shell with 1/2 tsp. salt. Wrap in waxed paper and keep in a refrigerator until ready to use. Place all chicken bones in a pot, cover with water and simmer covered for two hours to make a rich broth. Let chicken broth cool; then refrigerate. Grind or finely chop chicken meat; combine with all filling ingredients; place mixture in a covered container, and refrigerate for 1 to 2 days for a full blending of flavors. When ready to use, test seasoning days by dropping a tablespoon of meat mixture in a small pan of simmering water. Cook for 2 to 3 minutes and adjust seasoning if necessary. Generously butter a large piece of clean linen or several layers of cheesecloth. Lay the chicken shell on it, outside skin down. Spread marinated meat mixture over shell; arrange alternate rows of fresh pork fat and chorizo strips on top. Sprinkle with pistachio nuts. Bring the edges of the skin together to form a tight sausage-like roll. Sew up the seams carefully; tightly wrap galantina in the buttered cloth; tie at both ends. Place it in a casserole large enough to hold it. Add the carrots, celery, parsley and enough broth to cover the roll. Cover and bring to a boil. Reduce heat; simmer for 1 hour. Let cool in the broth. Remove the cloth from the roll and re-roll in plastic wrap. Chill in the refrigerator. When ready to use unwrap roll and slice.


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FISH The Nature of Fish Fish is scientifically known as Istiophorus Orientalis. This group of flesh foods may be classified into two major categories: fish (vertebrate) and shellfish (invertebrate). Fish is covered with scales while the shellfish is encased in some type of shell. Shellfish is of two groups, the mollusks and the crustaceans. The mollusks are soft in structure and are either partially or wholly enclosed in a hard shell that is largely of mineral composition. Examples of mollusks are oysters, clams, abalone, scallops, and mussels. The crustaceans are covered with crust-like shells and have segmented bodies. Common examples are lobster, crab, shrimp, and crayfish. The kinds of scaly fish available for food vary widely in different localities. They include both saltwater and freshwater varieties and differ in flavor and quality depending partly on the water in which they are grown. Most fish are caught in the open seas and their availability is not dependent on man’s productive efforts, unlike agricultural or farming crops, but rather on his ability to detect and catch large schools of fishes. However, in the Philippines, we have learned to culture some marine fish and bangus. This is the foremost example. The act of culturing fish in inland water is called aquaculture, while that of culturing in saltwater bodies such as coves and shores is mariculture. Mariculture, presently applied to tahong and oysters, is relatively in its infancy in the Philippines. Fish has always been an important item in the Philippine diet and one of the cheapest sources of protein; and thus can take the place of chicken, pork, carabeef, or beef. Like these meats, the protein of fish contains all the essential amino acid; hence it has a high biological value. Deteriorative Changes After Death Most fish caught from the sea die even while still in the net in the water. Those caught or harvested from inland waters also die shortly after they are taken from water. An exception are those fish with accessory breathing organs like hito and dalag which stay alive after catch. The deteriorative changes after death of fish are important to its acceptability as food. Immediately after death, the fleshy portion or muscle of fish is soft, gel-like, and sticky. The rigor mortis sets in and is characterized by rigidity of the muscle. When rigor has passed, spoilage starts. This is caused mainly by fish enzymes and bacteria. The bacteria come

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from the slime of the fish skin as well as from the gills and intestinal tract. The flesh of a healthy fish is actually sterile. The enzymes which are found mainly in the intestinal organs of the fish start digesting the neighboring flesh. A substance which is found in living fish flesh called trime-thylamine oxide is converted to trimethylamine which imparts the characteristic odor of stale fish. Oxidative deterioration or rancidity of fish fat follows. Nutritive Value of Fish and Shellfish Protein. Fish is one of the most valuable sources of high grade protein. Most fish contain 18-20% protein with most of the essential amino acids in the right proportion. Apahap, lapu-lapu, labahita, tulingan, talakitok, bia, and kanduli have generally high protein content. Protein is needed for growth and repair of body tissues. Fat. The fat content of fish varies. Most fish varieties are low in fat, (less than one percent) thus being moderately low in calories. Fat is not always uniformly distributed throughout the flesh of a fatty fish but it is found on the belly, head and liver — where the bulk of it is stored. Vitamins. Fish liver oils are topically rich sources of Vitamin A. Often, parts of a fish not normally eaten like the liver and gut, contain much greater quantities of oil-soluble vitamins than the flesh. Fish roe, when present, is also a good source of vitamins. An average serving of fish meat supplies 1/20 to 1/5 of the daily allowance for B, 1/25 to 1/5 of B2, and 1/10 to 1/2 of niacin. These water-soluble concentrates contain an appreciable amount of Vitamin B2 — a growth promoting compound. Minerals. The edible portions of fish are satisfactory sources of magnesium, phosphorous, iron, copper, and iodine. Shellfish is rich in minerals such as calcium, which is good for our bones. Inclusion of fish in the daily diet provides an abundant mineral intake. Carbohydrates. All shellfish has some carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. Its sweet taste is due to the glucose formed by enzyme action from glycogen.


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The nutritive component of fish is shown in the illustration: Fish is high in vitamins, minerals, and protein but low in fat and carbohydrates.

Fig. 11 — Nutritive Value of Fish

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Distinguishing Characteristics of Fresh and Stale Fish Criteria Eyes Gills Odor Body Color Flesh

Slime Belly walls Muscle tissue Vent Scales Test Taste

Fresh Bright, full, bulging Bright red, covered with clear slime, odor fresh Fresh seaweedy odor Firm Bright, shiny Firm, elastic, finger impression does not remain Clear Intact White, light Pink, not protruding Complete, adhere tightly, sink Sinks in a basin of water Sweet

Stale Dull, wrinkled, sunken Dull brown or gray, slime cloudy, odor offensive State, sour, putrid Soft Faded Soft and flabby finger impression remains Opaque Often ruptured, viscera protruding Pinkish, tainted with blood especially around backbone Brown, protruding Loosely attached Floats in a basin of water Biting, itchy


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MARKET FORMS OF FISH 1. Live Fish or whole, round

Live fishes are transported and marketed alive. Whole, round fishes are caught and taken from the water.

2. Dressed

Dressed fish is whole fish with scales, entrails, fins and head removed.

3. Butterfly Fillet

Butterfly fillets are the two sides of the fish cut lengthwise away from the backbone and held together by the uncut flesh and skin of the belly.

4. Fillet

Fillet is the boneless side of the fish cut lengthwise from the backbone.

5. Steaks

Steaks are cross section slices cut from a large, dressed fish; the cross section of backbone generally included.

6. Sticks

Sticks are uniform stock cuts from large blocks of frozen fillets.

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FISH COOKERY Fish tastes much better when cooked. Fish is cooked to destroy any bacteria present as well as to improve its taste and tenderness. In cooking, moderate temperature is used, long enough for the fish delicacy flavor to develop, for proteins to coagulate and for very small amount of connective tissue present to break down. The flesh of fish is sufficiently cooked when it falls easily into clumps of chalky-white flakes when tested with a fork. When no additional water is used to cook fish, it is important that no overcooking be done, otherwise the fish would be very dry. This method is known as dry cookery. Broiling, baking, frying and toasting are examples of such method. As a rule, fat fishes are more desirable for dry heat cooking. When moist cookery is employed (fish is cooked in water, it is best to allow the water to boil before plunging or adding the fish). Prolonged boiling tends to break the flesh of the fish until it falls apart. Ten to 15 minutes cooking is generally enough time for the fish to be done. Indication of doneness is evident when the flesh becomes opaque and the muscles are easily flaked. Principles of Cooking Fish 1. If fish is not to be cooked at once, it should be dressed and wrapped completely and placed in the freezer, in a closed container or package. 2. Fish requires less cooking time for it has no connective tissues. It is fully cooked when it can be easily flaked and the eyeballs come out. 3. Fat fish is best cooked by dry heat, broiled or baked. 4. Cooking should be done in the shortest possible time to avoid loss of moisture, flavor, and nutritive value. 5. Because fish has a mild flavor, it is frequently served with sauce and some garnishes. Garnishes and sauces add to the appearance and flavor of the fish. Sliced cucumber, tomatoes, green pepper, hardcooked eggs, pickles, etc. are good garnishes. Butter, tomato, chili, mayonnaise and catsup are examples of sauces. 6. Fish should be served soon after it has been prepared, otherwise it will become dry, hard and lose some of its flavor. Something colorful, crisp, or tart-like celery, raw vegetables, coleslaw or tossed green salad should be served with fish.


7.

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Fish may be fried at moderate heat until golden brown. Fry only a single layer at a time and drain it on absorbent paper.

8. When baking fish, baste the fish occasionally to prevent it from drying out. New Fish and Fishery Products Fish Quekiam is prepared by mixing the fish meat with shrimp meat, egg, spices, and vegetables; and is served with sweet sour sauce to enhance its flavor. Fish Croquettes are mixture of fish meat, chicken, and vegetables chopped into fine pieces. It is formed into balls, rolled in breadcrumbs and deep-fried in oil until brownish color is obtained. Tuna Ham is a convenient item simply prepared from the meaty portion of fish. It undergoes curing in a mixture of flavoring and preserving agents such as salt, sugar, and nitrates for one week, finally smoked to obtain a distinctive flavor and aroma. Boneless Bangus is a result of deboning bangus, after which it may be closed, frozen, smoked, or fried. It may also be left open and pickled in preparation for making it into daing. Fishburger is derived from a wide variety of fish such as lapu-lapu, tuna, and parrot fish. It is easily prepared by mixing the chopped fish meat with the ingredients such as salt, pepper, milk, onions, eggs, and hamburger seasoning. Then, it is molded into patties and fried in oil until brownish color is obtained. Spicy dilis is prepared from dried dilis, completely coated with mixture of well-blended ingredients such as egg, sugar, salt, sili, and cornstarch. It is fried in deep fat or oil. Fish Sausage, similarly prepared as to meat sausage, consists mainly of the white meaty portion of fish like labahita, sharks, or marlin. It is prepared by grinding the fish meat and thoroughly blending it with other ingredients and cooked in simmering water for one hour. By-Product Technology Fishery by products is largely derived from fish left unsold; these include products that cannot be sold as fresh fish or rejects from drying and smoking plants. Such by-products comprise the following:

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Fish sauce-bagoong — residue left after the extraction of patis. Fish meal — a dried product, ground to small particles and used as an additive in animal feeds. Fish sauce — locally called “patis” is drawn off from the liquefaction of salt mixture. Fish silage — for animal feed ingredients; a product of acid hydrolysis. FISHERY PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS


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SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR FISH PRESERVATION Smoked Fish (Tinapa) Raw Materials: tamban, salt, sugar, salitre, pepper, bay leaves Utensils: kitchen knife, smoking trays, tin cans Procedure: 1. Cut the fish along the back just above the backbone so that it will open, leaving the belly solid. 2. Remove all internal organs and wash off blood. 3. Make another cut under the backbone. 4. Wash well and soak for 30 minutes in salt solution of 1/2 cup salt and 4 cups water. 5. Cook the fish in boiling solution of 1/2 cup water, 2 tablespoons salt, 1 tablespoon sugar, 1/4 teaspoon salitre, crushed black pepper and crushed bay leaves. 6. Arrange the fish in smoking trays and drain for 10 minutes. 7.

Partially dry the fish in a cool, shady place for about 3 hours before smoking.

8. Smoke the fish in tin cans using saw dust for 1-2 hours until golden brown. Dried Fish (Tuyo) Raw Materials: Any fish (bangus, dalag, hito, tunsoy, dilis), salt Utensils: Wire screen or bamboo rack Procedure: 1. Wash the fish well in clean water. 2. Remove the internal organs through a cut made across the belly. 3. Soak the fish for 30 minutes in a solution of 1 part salt to 9 parts water to remove blood. 4. Put the fish in a solution of 2 tablespoons salt to 1 cup water for 12-24 hours. 5. Place the slated fish in a single layer on wire screens, rattan, or bamboo racks to dry.

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Fish Paste (Bagoong) Raw Materials: Dilis, sapsap, and ayungin can be made into bagoong. Utensils: wooden, steel barrels or vats instead, or earthenware pots. Procedure: 1. Wash the fish in clean fresh water. 2. To every 3 cups of fish, add 1 cup of salt and mix well. 3. Place the fish and salt mixture in earthenware pots. 4. Cover the containers tightly to keep away flies and other insects. 5. Let it stand for 2 weeks to 1 year to develop its characteristic aroma and flavor. Fish Sauce (Patis) Raw Materials: Fresh Dilis, Galunggong, Tamban, and Tunsoy, or can be made into Patis or Fish Sauce. 1.

Wash fish several times in water and drain thoroughly.

2.

Mix coarse salt with drained fish in the proportion of 1 to 3 1/2 parts to 2 to 7 parts by weight.

3.

Place salted fish in a clean jar with cover to protect from flies and insects.

4.

Allow to ferment in a warm place for at least 2 weeks (for small fishes) or longer (for large fishes) to develop the characteristic flavor and aroma of Bagoong.

5.

After 2-3 months of fermentation, big fishes like Galunggong and Hasa-Hasa may be ground and mixed with its own sauce.

6.

Continue Bagoong fermentation. After 4-6 months, liquid will form on top of the mixture.

7.

Drain the liquid (Patis) and strain, or filter until light in color. Pack in clean bottles.


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SHELLFISH Fish and shellfish are very perishable and deteriorate rapidly after removal from water. Fish with shells as distinguished from fish with bones forms two groups based on differences in the character of the shells. Oysters, clams, scallops live in hinged shells. They have unsegmented bodies and the whole portion is eaten except in the case of the scallops which only the muscles are used. Lobsters, crabs, and shrimps have various appendages and shell-like crusts that conform to the shape of their bodies. Fifteen percent of the total fish consumption in the Philippines consists of shellfish. It also includes squid, cuttlefish, and sea cucumber. The production of fish in saltwater bodies such as in coves and shores is called mariculture. Mariculture is presently applied to tahong and oysters; and is relatively in its infancy in the Philippines. Types of Shellfish: Crustaceans and Mollusks Crustaceans Crustaceans are shellfish with hard shells over the back and along the claws but have softer shells covering the lower part of the body and legs. Examples of these are crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. Crabs. There are various types of crabs commonly found in the Philippines: the alimango or green crab, the alimasag or blue crab, and the talangka. The talangka or kapi is unique due to its small size, about one-fourth the size of a regular crab. A fresh water crab obtained from the rivers has a shell that covers the lower part of its body and is soft enough to be edible. The carapace or hard shell covers its back which contains the fat or aligi that may be separated from the meat and preserved, called taba ng talangka. It is eaten as sauce, a delicacy prepared laboriously by experts. The bigger crabs, alimango and alimasag, also contain aligi which is normally with its meat. Lobster is popular shellfish in New England Fisheries. The claw meat is preferred and brings a higher price than the tail meat. Lobsters are expensive and marketed mainly for export. Shrimps are more commonly eaten than lobster. Like crabs, some shrimps are also small and would normally be eaten whole with their shells. Suahe is a saltwater shrimp while ulang and tagunton are freshwater shrimps.

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Mollusks Mollusks have soft unsegmented bodies and are protected by calcareous shells in one or more pieces or enclosed in hard shells, which are largely mineral in composition. Examples of these are oysters, clams, scallops, and sea mussels. There are two types of mollusks: the univalves, with only one shell and the bivalves, with two shells. The shells of mollusks are usually hard all over so that they are not in any case edible. Examples of univalves is kuhol while examples of bivalves are clams (halaan), kabibi, tulya, oysters (talaba), and mussels (tahong). The composition of the edible portion of mollusks is quite different from fin fishes and crustaceans, even if the former’s shells are not normally eaten. Their flesh are generally leatherly in texture. They are comparatively high in glycogen content. For instance, in the case of oysters, the ph does not rise after death but decreases down to as low as 4.8 due to the formation of lactic acid from glycogen. The ph serves as an index of freshness of oysters. Tahong is a salt water mussel cultured mostly in Bacoor, Cavite. Its meat is considered more delicious than that of oysters. Oysters grown in artificial beds are usually of better quality than those grown in natural beds. Oyster eggs are now being planted in many waters. When the eggs are hatched, the tiny oysters, which are not any larger than the point of a needle, move about the water and finally attach themselves to some body such as stone, stick, or shell. They grow slowly and at the age of one year they have usually reached about the size of a silver quarter. Oysters are harvested by picking and scooping the shells from the bottom of the sea. Clams are of two types: the hard-shell clams and the soft-shell clams. The former have tightly shut shells but the latter may have partially open shells because of the long siphon extending from the interior. Clams are dug by hand. Scallops are highly prized because of their buttery texture and delicate flavor. Scallops have two shells and are capable of swimming freely through water.


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Table 5. Classification of Philippine Shellfish 1. Mollusks English Name a. Oyster b. Clam 1. Clam 2. Clam c. Mussels 1. Saltwater mussel 2. Freshwater snail 2. Crustaceans English Name

Tagalog Name Talaba Halaan Tulya Kabibi

Tahong Susong Pilipit

Tagalog Name

Scientific Name Ostrea Sp. Cyraeidae Cyrenidae Sotetellina Cumingiana Mytilus Smaragdinus Cheamitz Thiara Asperata Lim

Scientific Name

a. Crabs 1. Small crab 2. Crab 3. Crab

Talangka Alimasag Alimango

Potamon Grapsoides Neptunus Pelagacius Scylla Serrata

b. Shrimps 1. Small shrimp 2. Freshwater shrimp 3. White shrimp 4. Tiger prawn

Alamang Ulang Suwahe Sugpo

Acetas Indicus Palaenonidae Metapenaeus Sp. Penaeus Monodom Fab

c. Other family a. Squid b. Octopus

Pusit Pugita

Loligo Pealli Octopus Spp.

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Types of Shellfish

Lobster

Blue Crab

Dungeness Crab

Oyster

Clam Shrimp

Scallop

Mussel

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Table 6. Proximate Composition of Local Clams, Snails, Mussels, and Oysters in Grams per 100 gms. Edible Portion The Philippine Food Composition Table, 1997-FNRI Proximate Components

Kabibi Clams

Halaan

Kuhol Snail

Tahong Mussel

Oyster Talaba

84.8

89.2

77.6

40.8

85.5

Protein

9.0

5.8

12.2

21.9

5.9

Fat

1.6

0.6

0.4

14.5

5.2

Carbohydrates

3.0

2.6

6.6

18.5

5.2

Ash

1.6

1.8

3.2

4.3

1.7

Moisture

Table 7. A Proximate Composition of Local Types of Fresh Crabs in Grams per 100 gm. Edible Portion The Philippine Food Composition Table, 1997-FNRI Proximate Components

Alimango Meat

Alimasag Meat

Alimango Aligi

Talangka E.P.

Moisture

74.6

75.5

58.1

68.1

Protein

19.8

29.9

26.0

13.8

Fat

4.0

0.5

5.6

3.8

Carbohydrates

0.0

2.2

8.5

8.1

Ash

1.6

1.9

1.8

6.2

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Market Forms of Shellfish Shellfish are sold in the shell, shucked or removed from the shell, or cooked. All forms are quickly perishable and care is needed in selecting them. Live Shellfish Ideally, crabs, clams, mussels, snails, oysters, and shrimps should be marketed live. A live crab is indicated to be fat if its claws do not have sharp teeth and if it is heavy in weight. The female crab has a rounded apron and usually contains aligi; the male crab has a narrow and more pointed apron. Filipino consumers generally prefer the female variety. Because of the proximity of most markets to the sources of shellfish, live species can be sold to consumers. Whole Shellfish Whole shellfish are served in the form in which they are caught but are no longer alive. The head and thorax are intact. Filipinos are fond of eating the heads and extremities of crabs and shrimps. Shucked Shellfish Oysters, clams, mollusks and scallops when removed from the shell are known as shucked shellfish. Fresh shucked shellfish have a translucent appearance but become opaque when no longer fresh. Headless Shellfish Shrimps, lobsters, and prawns are marketed for export in headless form; the head and thorax removed. Foreign consumers do not favor the consumption of these parts of the shellfish. Furthermore, the head is removed mainly because it is the main source of bacterial spoilage. Cooked Form Most cooked shellfish are canned for export. The meat of shrimps, crabs, and lobsters are usually popular items for canned products. At present, only a small volume of canned and cooked shellfish is available locally; most of it is imported.


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Principles of Cookery 1. Shellfish requires a little cooking time; overcooking causes the flesh to become tough and fibrous. 2. Unwholesome parts of most shellfish such as the beard of mussels, crabs’ gills, or lobsters’ intestinal tubes must be removed before cooking. 3. Color change in crustaceans is an indication that cooking is done. Shrimps and crabs, for example, change from dark blue green to an attractive orange or bright red. 4. Crabs are usually boiled in small amount of brine for 10 to 20 minutes until color change occurs. Over cooking would make the food watery. 5. Clams, oysters, and mussels may be roasted, baked, or broiled in their shells to retain their delicacy flavor. 6. Shellfish are all very lean. Therefore, dry heat, high heat and long cooking time will make them tough and rubbery. Ideally, they should be either steamed or simmered within the temperature range of 190°-210°F. All shellfish cook very quickly.

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SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR SHELLFISH Tulya Crunches 1 cup flour A.P. 1 cup cornstarch 1 1/2 tsp. salt 1 tsp. white pepper 1 tsp. baking powder 1/2 cup diluted or tulya pure (1/4 cup tulya meat in 1/4 cup) water 1 egg oil for deep frying Procedure: 1.

Boil clams in just enough water to open the shells.

2.

Scoop the meat from the shells and measure. With an electric blenderizer, blend it properly; if no blenderizer is available, chop the clam meat and squeeze its juice in 1/4 cup water.

3.

Sift all dry ingredients and sprinkle the clam juice.

4.

Knead the mixture until it blisters and is strengthened with the use of rolling pin.

5.

Cut it thinly and shape it lengthwise to look like noodles.

6.

Pre-heat oil and fry well. Serve.


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Shrimp Kroepeck 350 grams cooked shrimp 12 cups rice (wagwag) 15 teaspoonfuls salt 12 teaspoonfuls apog or lime Procedure: 1. Soak the rice overnight in water. 2. Drain well and grind finely together with the blanched whole shrimp and an equal amount of water until a fine and thin paste is obtained. 3. Mix one teaspoon lime (apog) and 1/2 cup water. Add this lime solution to the paste and stir well to produce a homogeneous mixture. 4. Transfer a thin layer into a pie plate and cook by steaming for 2 minutes until the mixture is clear or transparent. 5. Cut into appropriate pieces (1 x 2 inches square), transfer to the trays and dry in the sun for six hours until crisp. The use of artificial heat for drying the kroepeck is recommended. 6. Fry in hot oil for serving.

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Quekiam 1/2 kilo flaked fish (labahita) 1/2 kilo chopped shrimps 2 eggs 1/2 cup chopped turnips or carrots 3 tbsp. minced onions 13 pieces minced garlic 1 tbsp. pepper 1/4 cup A.P. flour 1 tsp. quekiam powder 1/2 cup soy sauce 3 tbsp. salt Que kiam wrappers or lumpia wrapper Procedure: 1. Mix all ingredients thoroughly. 2. Shape into rolls and wrap in que kiam wrapper or lumpia wrapper. 3. Steam and cook. Fry before serving. Serve with sweet and sour sauce or ketchup.


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CEREALS The word cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain, Ceres. Cereals are the edible seeds of grass or the edible grains derived from cultivated plants of the grass family. The term cereal also applies to breakfast foods and a large group of foods made from the grains. At present time, cereal grains in some form are produced in every area of the world. Each area grows its own preferred cereal, generally the grain best adapted to its soil and climatic condition. Lacking of cereals, the world can hardly feed its masses. In many countries, 80 to 90 percent of the food calories consumed are supplied by one single kind of cereal grain. Kinds of Cereal Rice, corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, and buckwheat are some of the most important cereal grains. The form in which they are used varies with their kind. Some cereals are ground into flour for making baked products; others are converted into breakfast cereals; and still others are milled and eaten as a staple food.

Rice In the Philippines, rice is a staple food eaten three times a day. It is an important food crop. Rice provides a low-cost and palatable staple food to over one half of the world’s population. Over 90 percent of the world rice crop is produced and consumed in Asia, but the United States has also its major areas of rice cultivation. Rice to be edible should have the bran removed to yield white or polished grains. Milling makes possible the removal of inedible grain husks but oftentimes results in broken rice kernels. Each rice variety has its own characteristic, cooking properties and cooking time. In countries where milled rice is eaten as a staple food, preferences depend mainly on flavor and tenderness. Some people like their rice soft, some not too soft and others hard. The popular varieties of rice in the Philippines include wagwag, milagrosa, elon-elon, binirhen, intan, C4-636, and IR 20. Corn Corn is the second staple crop in the Philippines. Classified as white or yellow, local varieties include Batangas, yellow flint, College yellow flint, Cebu or Bicol white flint, sweet corn, pop corn and lagkitan or waxy maize. Corn occurs in the diet in many different forms — most frequently

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in the form of cornmeal, grits, or hominy. Cornmeal is produced by grinding the kernels of corn to a fine or coarse mixture. The coarse mixture is known as grits. Hominy is normally made from white corn, pulverized into rather large particles. Other corn products are ready-toeat breakfast cereals, cornstarch, corn oil, and animal feeds. Wheat Wheat is used mainly for the manufacture of flour. It is the most important grain for making bread. For commercial purposes, wheats are divided into five major groups: hard red spring wheat, hard red winter wheat, soft red winter wheat, durum wheat, and white (winter and spring) wheat. Wheat is traditionally grown in temperate climate. Attempts to grow in the Philippines have failed but the search for the right variety adopted to our country continues. Wheat is important and milled locally by Philippine flour mills. Rye Rye is used mainly for the commercial manufacture of bread. Bread products made with rye flour are moist and less elastic in texture. Forty percent of the total world supply of rye comes from the U.S.S.R. Rye is also used for making whisky and for feeding livestock. Oats Oats as food for human beings are used mainly in the form of breakfast foods. Most of the oats crop grown in the United States are used for fodder. Oatmeal is prepared by dehulling the oat grains into grains which are rolled into flakes. Rolled oats or oatmeals are used as breakfast hot cereal or ingredients in baked products. Barley Barley is used in soups and baby foods but its most important use is in the production of malt. Malt is used for the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Malt syrups are used for malted milk concentrates and enzyme supplements of breakfast foods. Buckwheat Buckwheat is used for the manufacture of pancake flour. Some buckwheat groats are sold for use as breakfast cereal. It has a characteristic flavor which limits consumers acceptability.

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Physical Structure of Cereal Grain All cereal grains have similar structure consisting of three parts: the bran, the germ or embryo, and endosperm. The BRAN is the outer covering, which is about 5% of the kernel, contains cellulose, minerals, or ash, vitamins and some proteins. The aleurone layer, which is a group of singled layer cells just beneath the brain, is rich in protein, ash and thiamin. The ENDOSPERM makes up 85% of the kernel. It is the large central portion of the kernel and contains most of the starch and protein of the kernel (75% starch, 10% protein) and traces of fats, ash, and fiber. The GERM or EMBRYO is a small structure at the lower end of the grain. It makes up 3% of the kernel and is concentrated with oil, protein ash, and vitamins.

corn

barley

oats

wheat rice

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Nutritive Value All cereals are excellent sources of energy. The energy value is mainly contributed by starch and fat. Cereals are also significant sources of proteins although these proteins are usually incomplete. The nutritive value of cereal protein is great and is improved when cereal is mixed with animal protein food such as milk. Good amount of Vitamin B is also found in cereals, which is sometimes reduced by milling processes. Whole grain products have a great variety of nutrients but are valuable chiefly for their iron, phosphorus, and thiamin. A comparative summary of the important nutrients is shown in the table. Table 8. Approximate Composition of Whole Cereal Grain in Percentage Grain Rice Corn Wheat

Water(%) Protein (%) 12 11 8.7

Fats (%)

Cho (%)

Ash (%)

1.7 4.3 2.0

77.7 73.4 75.8

1.1 1.3 1.8

7.5 10.0 11.7

Reference: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Circular 549

Pointers In Buying Cereals In buying cereals, it is assumed that the consumer knows the family preference, new or old harvest, long or short grained, waxy type or not. The family budget has to be considered too. Cereal grains that are whiter with a higher percentage of whole kernels are more expensive. Tips on buying cereals: 1.

Check how clean the cereal is.

2.

Look closely for the proportion of broken kernels or

3.

Smell a handful to detect off-odors especially from insect infestation.

4.

Note the presence of seeds, stones, or rice weevils.

5.

Buy by weight. Get your cereal supply from reliable sources.

Storing Packaged Cereals A cool dry place in your cupboard is right for unopened cereal packages of all kinds. Once opened and tightly reclosed, all types of cereal except whole grain cereals (and jars of wheat grain), should be refrigerated.


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Open packages carefully, following label instructions so that they can be reclosed. Fold and close the inner wrapping as well as the box in which ready-to-eat kind of cereal will store longer. To keep it fresher, transfer it to a jar or canister with an airtight closure that helps defeat humidity. Avoid keeping cereals in an open containers uncooked; or keeping ready-to-eat cereals longer than 3 months in the kitchen cupboard. Uncooked whole grain cereals can be stored in the refrigerator up to 6 months after opening. Cooked cereals, refrigerated and covered, will keep up to 4 days. To sum it up, the main aims of proper storage and packaging of cereals are: •

to retain crispness as in ready-to-eat cereals;

•

to avoid off-flavors absorbed from surrounding foreign odors;

•

to prevent the entrance of rodents, insect infestation, and mold growth; and

•

to avoid moisture absorption.

Principles of Cooking Cereals 1. Enough water should be used in cooking cereals to form a starch gel. The various cereal grains vary in the amount of water required. 2. A high temperature should be used in cooking cereals to improve their palatability. 3. Sufficient cooking of cereals is necessary to eliminate the raw starch flavor. 4. Pastes made with cereal starches, such as corn and wheat, are cloudy in appearance, whereas those from root starches, such as potato and tapioca, are more clear. 5. Finely ground cereals tend to lump when they are cooked. To prevent these lumps from forming, the cereal should be combined with enough cold liquid to form a paste before it is added to the remainder of the boiling liquid. 6. The use of excess water for cooking cereals should be avoided because nutrients may be discarded with the excess cooking water. 7.

The water in which cereals are to be cooked should be boiling rapidly before cereals are added. This way, complete gelatinization is obtained.

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SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR CEREAL COOKERY Botse 1 1/3 sweet potato, mashed 4 tbsp. sugar 1/4 cup water 1/2 cup rice flour (galapong) 1 egg, beaten 1/3 cup sugar, brown 1 cup oil 1.

Mix sweet potato and 4 tablespoons sugar.

2.

Shape into round, flat, cookie sizes and set aside.

3.

Combine water, remaining sugar, rice flour, and egg to form batter.

4.

Dip the cookies in the batter.

5.

Fry in hot oil until golden brown on both sides. Tahada 1 3/4 cups toasted ground pinipig 3/4 cup grated young coconut 3/4 cup sugar 1/2 cup evaporated milk

1.

Toast pinipig and then grind in mortar and pestle.

2.

In a bowl, mix 3/4 cups pinipig with grated young coconut and sugar.

3.

Moisten mixture with evaporated milk added gradually in small amounts.

4.

Roll mixture into 1/2 inch thickness between 2 pieces of banana leaves or wrapper. Cut into serving portions and dust with remaining toasted ground pinipig.


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FLOUR FIour is a finely ground meal or powdery product obtained from milling cereal grains, root crops, starchy vegetables, and other foods. It is used principally in making bread, pastry, cakes, cookies, and macaroni products. Properties and Characteristics of Flour Whitish Color. Normally milled flour has a yellow pigment imparted by the carotenoid pigment, xanthophyll, and carotene. Flour color is important because it affects the brilliancy of the finished bread. Although that whiteness in flour means quality, this is not always true. It has been shown that some baked products can usually be produced from a long extraction-unbleached flour. Strength. The strength of flour is determined by the ratio between the rates of carbon dioxide production and the loss in the fermentation dough. It is the ability of the flour to produce a large loaf brought about by the presence of protein of sufficient quantity and quality to retain the gas and diostatic activity to produce sugar for uniform gas production. The ability of flour to produce products of large volume of well “pile” loaves is related to flour strength. “Piling” refers to an even smooth grain and fine texture. A large volume with a coarse uneven grain indicates that the flour is not of high quality. Tolerance of bread flour means its ability to withstand any processing abuse brought about by mixing fermentation, make-up and all other baking processes and still produce satisfactory results. Tolerance is often correlated with the quality of loaf of the glutten. High Absorption is the ability of a flour to carry the maximum amount of moisture in the dough and still produce quality of loaf bread. Uniformity. Uniform quality of every flour shipment is a baker’s dream. It will be too cumbersome for the baker to keep changing his formulation and process every time a new shipment arrives. Market Forms of Wheat Flour Whole Wheat Flour — also called graham or entire wheat flour. This contains the components of wheat kernel in its original proportion. It is more nutritious than the refined white flour. Bread Flour or hard or strong flour — made chiefly from hard wheats other than durum wheat. It has slightly higher percentage of gluten than other flours. Off-white in color and granular in texture; it does not lump. It is most suitable for baking yeast-leavened breads.

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All-Purpose Flour — refers to family or general-purpose flour, which is used for all cooking purposes. It has lower protein content which makes it desirable for the quick-breads type of flour mixture. All-purpose is lower in strength and lighter in weight and color than bread flour. It is made from the blend of wheats with protein content varying from 1011%. Cake Flour — is known as soft flour and made from soft wheat. It is highly refined, bleached, and finely ground. It feels soft and very silky to touch. It is excellent for delicate fine-textured cakes. Pastry Flour — designates flour which contains enrichment ingredients. Specified levels of nutrients as required by law are added to white flour. Iron, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine must be added within the prescribed amount for flour to qualify as “enriched.” This flour type is a convenient item for those who often prepare products that use baking powder. Instantized or Quick-Mixing Flour — is an instant flour or all-purpose flour processed by moistening and then readied to form agglomerates that do not lump or pack. Such flour flows freely, requires no sifting before use, and blends easily with liquid. Durum or Macaroni Flour — designates flour milled from durum wheat. It has high protein content and is used for macaroni products. Non-Wheat or Composite Flours Flours made from grinding or milling grain kernel other than wheat, root crops, and legumes, are collectively referred to as non-wheat flours. One or more of these flours may partially replace wheat flour for cooking purposes and the resulting flour mixture is called composite flour. Market Forms of Non-Wheat Flours Rye Flour is obtained by sifting rye meal of the non-wheat flours. It approaches the quality of wheat flour but for bread making it is still inferior to the latter for lack of the gluten forming protein. Buck Wheat Flour is a finely ground product obtained from sifting buck wheat meal. It is used in making and sifting yellow or white corn. Corn Flour is obtained by milling and sifting yellow or white corn. Potato Flour is made by cooking white potatoes which are then dried and ground. This makes good quality doughnuts and fairly acceptable cookies.

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Rice Flour has two kinds: full-fat and low-fat soy flour. The former is made from shelled soybean, while the latter is prepared from defatted soybeans. Soybean flour has a strong beany flavor. Although it has high protein content than most legumes, it does not have the gluten potential of wheat flour. Waxy Rice Flour or Sweet Rice Flour is produced from waxy rice or malagkit. Other Flours. Coconut, cottonseed, safflower, peanut, sweet potato, purple yam or “ubi,” monggo bean and other root crops, seed oil or legumes can all be converted to non-wheat flour. Composition and Nutritive Contribution of Wheat Flour A wheat grain has about 84% endosperm, 14.5 bran, and 1.5% germ. When wheat is milled into whole flour, about 75% of the grain is recovered. The rest goes along with the bran and germ; and the mixture of which is called shorts and is used for animal feeding. Table 9. Amount of Nutrients Per 100-Gram Flour Flour

Energy (Call)

CHO (Gm)

Protein Calcium (Gm) (Gm)

Iron Thiamine Ribof(Gm) (Gm) lavin (Gm)

Whole Wheat

333

71

13.3

713

3.3

0.55

0.12

All-purpose and enriched

364

76

10.5

16

0.8

0.06

0.05

Self-rising enriched

52

76

9.3

265

2.9

0.44

0.26

Cake flour, unenriched 364

79

7.9

17

0.5

0.03

0.03

Bread flour, enriched 365

74

11.8

16

2.9

0.44

0.26

Reference: USDA Agriculture Research Science, 1963.

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When the whole wheat kernel is milled without separating the bran and germ layers, the resulting flour is called whole wheat or graham flour. It has the composition of the original wheat kernel and has higher protein, vitamin and mineral content than refined white flour. Milling removes much of the nutrients. Self-rising flour has an added leavener in the form of sodium bicarbonate and acid salt, calcium phosphate, which explains its higher calcium content. Energy Value. On the average, 100 gm. wheat flour yields 360 calories, 40 only from protein and the bigger portion comes from starch. The amount of carbohydrate in 100 gms. of flour ranges from 71-79 gms. Moisture Content. Most flour contains 12-14% water. Protein Content. Protein content in flour varies from 7-14% depending on the type of wheat used; of this, 80-85% is in the form of gluten and gliadin, the water insoluble fractions that make-up gluten. The water-soluble proteins albumim and globulin constitute 1%-7% of the total protein respectively.


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FLOUR MIXTURES Flour mixtures are combination of liquid and flour with various ingredients. They are classified as batters and doughs based on the proportion of flour to liquids. Batters Batters are flour mixtures which contain enough liquid to be beaten or stirred. Batters vary in stiffness and can be subdivided into pour batters and drop batters. Doughs A dough has less liquid in proportion to flour and has a consistency that can be handled or kneaded. The soft dough and stiff dough are two kinds commonly used in baking. Flour Mixture Ingredients Milk *Improves crumb and flavor *Browns crust *Adds nutrients

Leavening Agent *Increase volume *Contributes to crumb, textures, flavor

Sugar *Sweetens *Increases volume *Adds moistness *Improve color

Salt *Adds flavor *Firms dough *Improves volume texture, crumb *Prolongs shelf life Fat *Tenderizes *Increases volume *Contributes structure, flakiness *Adds flavor, color *Increases resistance to staling

Eggs *Add structure *Help leavening *Improve color/flavor *Add nutrients

Liquid *Hydrates flour *Gelatinizes starch *Serve as a solvent for dry ingredients

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FLOUR MIXTURES Classes

Liquid

Consistency

Example of Product

Pour batters

1 part

1 part

Pours in a steady stream

Popovers, Griddle Cakes, Waffers cream puffs

Drop batters

1 part

2 parts

Breaks into drop when poured

Muffins-Fritters, Drop cookies, Drop biscuits, Cakes

Soft Dough

1 part

3 parts

Sticky to touch Rolled biscuits, Yeast rolls and bread

Stiff Dough

1 part

4 parts

Firm to touch

Popovers, Noodles, Rolls, Cookies

Reference: Philippine Home Economics Baking Basics, 1976 Wheat Associates, U.S.A

The kind of flour for each type of mixture and mixing techniques is important in producing good baked products. Soft wheat flour or cake flour is used in pour batters because of the low protein content and the possibility of less gluten development in either. Pour batters do not need much mixing. Drop batters, on the other hand, use all-purpose flour. Mixing is not very thorough for these mixtures, doughs need strong flours that provide good framework which can withstand kneading, rolling, and shaping into many types of bread. A good amount of gluten is necessary for these doughs such as that contained in bread flour and all-purpose flour. Leavening Agents A leavening agent is a gas added or produced during the mixing and/or heating of a batter or dough, making the mixture rise, and therefore the product light and porous. Leavening action may be produced by physical, chemical or biological means. The common leavening agents are air, steam, and carbon dioxide. Kinds of Leavening Agents Air acts as a leavening agent in processes such as beating eggs, folding, and rolling dough. Yeast (dry yeast, liquid yeast) is composed chiefly of moist living cells pressed into cakes with a small amount of starch as binder.


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Gas is formed by chemical action of agents like baking powder, baking soda, baking cream, and ammonium carbonate. Uses of Leavening Agents in Baked Products 1.

Baked products are so light that they can be easily chewed.

2.

Baked products made with leavening agents have open or more porous grain. When these foods are taken into the body, digestive juices come readily in contact with the food; thus digestion is greatly facilitated.

3.

Baked products made with leavening agents are more palatable and appetizing.

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SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR FLOUR AND FLOUR MIXTURE Butter Cake 2 cups flour 2 eggs 1/3 cup shortening or butter 1 1/4 cups sugar 2 tsp. baking powder 1/2 tsp. vanilla 1/4 tsp. salt 1/3 cup evaporated milk with 1/3 cup water 1.

Sift the sugar, flour, B.P. at least two times.

2.

Cream butter and add sugar gradually.

3.

Stir in unbeaten eggs thoroughly and mix.

4.

Alternately add flour and milk with water until well blended.

5.

Pour into a greased pan (or a pan lined with cut-rite) and bake for 30 minutes at 350°F.


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Chiffon Cake 2 1/4 cups cake flour 1 1/2 cups sugar 3 tsp. baking powder 1/2 tsp. salt 1/2 cup oil 6 egg yolks, unbeaten 3/4 cup cold water or pineapple juice 1/2 tsp. vanilla 6 egg whites 1/2 tsp. cream of tartar 1.

Sift together into mixing bowl: flour, B.P., salt and 1/2 cup sugar.

2.

Make a well in flour and add the oil, egg yolks, cold water or juice and vanilla.

3.

Beat until smooth and well blended.

4.

Beat egg whites and cream of tartar in a separate bowl until stiff peaks are formed.

5.

Add remaining sugar gradually, beating continuously.

6.

Pour egg yolk mixture over beaten egg whites gently folding with rubber scraper until just blended.

7.

Pour into ungreased tube pan and bake for about 50 minutes.

8.

When cake is done, invert and let hang until cake is cold.

Variations: 1. For orange chiffon cake, use grated orange rind instead of vanilla and orange juice instead of water. 2. For mocca chiffon, use cold coffee instead of water. 3. For chocolate, use cold chocolate instead of water.

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Siopao Fillings: 1/2 kilo pork, cut into cubes 1 cup water 2 tbsp. cornstarch dissolved in 1/4 C water 1/2 cup sugar 1/2 cup soy sauce 1 small laurel leaf 1/4 tsp. each of salt and pepper 1 tablespoon anise 1. Simmer pork in water until tender. 2. Add all ingredients except cornstarch. 3. When meat is tender stir cornstarch mixture. 4. Continue simmering until cornstarch is cooked and mixture is thick. 5. Set aside to cool, then place in the refrigerator to chill.


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Dough 2 tsp. yeast 1 1/2 cups lukewarm water 2 tbsp. sugar 5 cups A.P. flour 2/3 cup sugar 1 tbsp. baking powder 3 tbsp. oil on pork lard 1. Soften yeast in water and sugar until it appears bubbly. 2. Mix together softened yeast, flour, and oil; stir well until blended. 3. Knead dough until smooth. Let rise for 2 hours. 4. Divide dough into 24 pieces. 5. Form into balls, flatten, apply filling, and seal. 6. Let rise for 30 minutes. 7.

Steam for 20-30 minutes. Serve hot. Make 24 servings.

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Pan De Sal 2 tsp. active dry yeast 2 cups lukewarm water 1/3 cup sugar 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

1 1/2 tsp. salt 1/4 cup shortening 6 cups A.P. or bread flour

Soften the yeast in lukewarm water. In a bowl, mix together the sugar, salt, and shortening. Add the softened yeast and half of the flour. Blend well and add the remaining flour. Mix until the dough leaves the sides of the bowl. On a slightly floured surface, knead dough until smooth. Form dough into a ball and put it in a slightly greased bowl. Let it rise in a warm place for 2 hours until it doubles in bulk. Punch down. Roll into 1 1/2 inches diameter strips. Cover with bread crumbs and let strips stand to rise for 1 1/2 hours. Cut into 1 1/2 inches pieces and arrange on a slightly greased baking sheet, cut side up. Sprinkle with more breadcrumbs. Let rise for 30 minutes and bake in a pre-heated oven at 4000F until done. ONE BOWL CAKE METHOD

1

2

sugar + fat + egg + flavoring

3

4


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STARCH AND ALIMENTARY PASTES Nature of Starch Starch is a white granular, organic chemical that occurs in all green plants. Next to cellulose, it is the most abundant substance in the vegetable world. Its natural function is to provide a reserved food supply for the plant, so as to sustain the root or tuber through winter dormancy or to nurture the new plant during germination. The starch stored in plants is the basic kind, but only a few yield it in commercial quantities. Sources are corn, tapioca, potato, sago, wheat, rice, arrowroot, and sorghum. In corn and wheat, starch is stored in the seed; in tapioca and potato, it is stored in the root or tuber; and in sago, it is stored in the stem pith. Extraction is usually carried out by cleaning the plant material and then grinding, soaking, washing, and filtering the material to recover the starch. Table 10. Amount of Starch Present in Common Food Sources (Percent or gm. per 100 gm. food) The Philippine Food Composition Table, 1997-FNRI Cereals

%

Noodles

%

Rice, raw

80

Bihon or rice noodles

32

Rice, cooked

30

Miki or wheat noodles

55

Corn grits

78

Miswa or wheat noodles

73

Corn yellow

39

Sotanghon or mungo beans

85

Oatmeal

71-85

Spaghetti

76

Root Crops

Legumes

Cassava or Kamoteng kahoy

34

Cowpeas dried or paayap

67

Gao yum or tuge

25

Mungbeans or mungo

65

Potato or patatas

20

Lima beans or patani

23

Taro or gabi

25

Soybeans or Sitaw

32

Purple yum or ubi

25

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Functions of Starch The numerous functions of starch in food preparation are summarized as follows: 1.

thickening sauce and gravies, for example, lechon sauce or fresh lumpia sauce.

2.

gelling gumdrops or pudding, e.g. bread pudding, kutsinta.

3.

structural framework for baked goods, e.g. pastries and cakes.

4.

stabilizing beverages, salad dressings, e.g. chocolate drinks.

5.

moisture retaining as in filling and candies.

6.

coating or dusting bread and candies, e.g. candies and biscuits.

7.

coloring dextrines, e.g. polvoron, kare-kare sauce.

Other uses of starch (processed starch) include the following: 1.

Starchy cereals make important feed for poultry and stock animals.

2.

Starch is also used in the paper industry. All types of papers, except tissue and newsprint, employ starch either as a fiber binder or surface finish. It is also used in the fabrication of corrugated paper board.

3.

In the textile industry, it is a sizing material for strengthening the wrap threads during weaving and as thickening agent for dye printing solutions.

4.

Starch products are employed as stiffening agent in laundry, binders in building, and adjuncts with malt in the brewing industry.

5.

The pharmaceutical industry uses starch as a diluting material in the manufacture of tablets.

Principles of Starch Cookery When starch granules are mixed with water at room temperature, they do not dissolve but scatter or disperse. A non-vicious suspension is formed and after standing for sometime without stirring, the granules settle to the bottom.


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Dry heat Dry heat is applied to starch, makes starch more soluble and reduces its thickening power when made into a cooked paste. Some starch molecules are broken down to dextrines in the process called dextrinization. Color and flavor changes also occur when starchy foods are subjected to high temperature with dry heat. Effect of Moist Heat When starches are heated with water, the granules swell and the dispersion in viscosity intensifies until a peak thickness is reached. The term gelatinization is used to describe these changes which appear to be a series of steps that starch undergoes in the presence of moist heat; the granules absorb water and as heating continues, they swell and thicken. Within the temperature range of gelatinization, being the characteristic of food starch, the sol becomes viscous and loses opacity. Gelation When a gelatized starchy paste is cooked, it may or may not gel depending upon various factors. Gelation is the setting of the sol into a solidified mass. As loose molecules pull together, the gel network shrinks and water is pushed out of the gel, leaving a spongy mass. This process is called “weeping.” 1. It must be remembered that the gelation time varies with the species of starch. 2. To prevent lumping, other ingredients in the recipe should be mixed with starch; to separate the granules, water should be added gradually with stirring, making a smooth paste. 3. Starches must be cooked 5 minutes more after reaching maximum gelatinization. 4. There must be enough water for the quantity of starch molecules in suspension. 5. Scorching may be avoided by thorough dispersion of the starch particles, control of temperature, adequate stirring, and scraping the sides occasionally. Alimentary Pastes Alimentary pastes or pastas in Italian refer to a family of macaroni in various sizes and shapes. The most popular ones are spaghetti, macaroni, vermicelli, egg noodles, and lasagna.

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The primary ingredient utilized in making pasta is a coarsely ground flour from durum wheat called semolina. Macaroni products originated in the orient many years ago and were brought to Italy by Venetian traders and explorers of the middle ages. The Italians adopted pasta as their national dish, and from Italy the popularity of pasta spread throughout Europe. Nutritive Value An 8-ounce (21 lbs.) package of pasta offers 838 calories (about 4 1/2 cups) sufficient for 4 to 6 people depending on how you intend to serve it. The same amount of enriched pasta cooked before saucing or other preparation, yields: protein

28.4

gms.

sodium

6.5

mgms.

fat

2.7

gms.

potassium

447

mgms.

carbohydates

170.7

gms.

thiamin

1.03

mgms.

calcium

61

gms.

riboflavin

.57

mgms.

phosphorous

368

gms.

niacin

8

mgms.

Types of Pastas and Noodles Different types of pastas are sold in the market in various sizes and shapes. Pastas are all made from semolina which is mixed with water to form a stiff dough. The dough is then forced through appropriate perforated discs to give the shape desired. The pieces are dried in hot air and packaged. Other ingredients like monoglyserides, seasoning, vegetables, eggs, milk, etc., provide variety in flavor. Noodles made from rice, soft wheat, soybeans, cassava, and other legumes and root crops do not hold their shapes as well as macaroni. However, with proper cooking procedures, they give palatable products with texture, color and flavor distinctively their own. To this group belong our locally manufactured noodles which are: Miki — flat yellowish noodles made from wheat flour, lye, salt, water, and fat mixed and formed into a dough. Sotanghon — long, thin round translucent noodles sometimes called “nylon” or silk, made from mung beans and cassava starch. White bihon — thin noodles from rice and corn which are soaked, ground, drained, and further pulverized in a stone roller.


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Fresh bihon — moist, thick, and doesn’t keep long; is used in pancit palabok or luglog. Pancit Canton — made from egg noodles, flour, duck’s egg, salt, and soda. Proper Cooking of Noodles For preparing pastas, it is best to follow the methods suggested by the manufacturers usually found on the package. If instructions are not available, use 6 cups of water per 8 ounce pack. Add 1 teaspoon oil to the water. Gently lower pasta into boiling water, lower heat, and simmer. Cook up to “al dente” stage or the time when noodles are firm enough when bitten but not too soft to be mushy. For homemade pasta, lessen cooking time. After “al dente” is reached, pour into a colander, drain and wash with tap water. Oil may then be added to avoid sticking. Principles of cooking pastas are the same as in cooking cereals and starchy pastas. There should be enough water to gelatinize the starch completely. Noodles swell twice to their original volume. The time temperature of cooking is carefully regulated to avoid uncooked starch granules. Dried bihon is washed to make the pieces limp. After the strands are drained well, these are separated and added to other ingredients. The amount of liquids necessary depends on the size of the bihon. Sotanghon is washed and soaked in water, drained well, cut with kitchen shears and added to other ingredients. It needs more liquid compared to bihon or miki. Miswa is added to boiling broth directly, removed immediately from the heat, stirred gently to distribute the miswa and kept covered for 5 minutes. It needs to be served immediately. Fresh miki is added to sauted meat and vegetables with just enough stock to complete the cooking of the noodles. It has high moisture content so that the amount of liquid (soup stock or broth) needed is less than that for dried bihon. The mixture should be stirred to retain the shape of the noodles and should be served immediately. For dried miki, more liquid is necessary. Canton needs less liquids and shorter time for boiling since it has been pre-cooked.

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Selection and Care of Noodles In buying noodles, make certain they are in packages, either cardboard boxes or plastic bags, which are intact with no breaks or open flaps. If the product is needed within a few weeks, store it in its original package in a cool dark pantry shelf. For good and fresh flavor beyond that period, store pasta in a tightly closed metal or glass container. Some of the fancy shapes add to kitchen decor when stored in cork or screwtapped glasses, bottles or jars. Cooked pastas can be keep tightly covered in the refrigerator up to 4 days. For best second-time-around use, cool the leftover pasta, store it in cold water tightly covered in the refrigerator; or rinse, then toss it with a little oil before storing to prevent sticking. TYPES OF NOODLES

Vermicelli (Sotanghon)

Regular Elbow Shell Pasta

Linguine

Spaghetti

Fetuccine

Fusilli

Farfalle (Bowtie/Butterfly Pasta/ Spinach Bow)

Salad Spiral

Lasagne

Miki

Pancit Canton

Lasagne Bits


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SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR STARCH AND ALIMENTARY PASTES Macaroni Jumbo Salad 1 small package macaroni (cooked and drained) 1 cup Tuna chunks 1 cup pineapple tidbits (drained) 1/4 cup pickle relish (drained) 1 tsp. onion (finely chopped) 1 piece sweet red pepper (diced) 1. Combine all ingredients and toss together until well-blended. 2. Serve on lettuce leaves. Lumpia Wrapper 1 cup cornstarch 1 cup water 1 egg 1 tbsp. cooking oil a pinch of salt Mix all ingredients until well-blended. Heat carajay after greasing it evenly. Pour 1/4 C batter and spread evenly when the batter begins to loosen, the wrapper is done. (Make 15-18 wrappers)

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Mike (Local Noodles) 1 1/4 cup A.P. Flour 1/2 cup water 1 tbsp. salt 1 tbsp. lye yellow food color Procedure: 1. Combine water, salt, lye, and a few drops of yellow food color in mixing bowl. 2. Add flour and stir. 3. Turn out dough into a floured board and knead until smooth. 4. Divide dough into 2 equal parts. 5. Roll it out 1/8 inch thick. 6. Fold dough and with a sharp knife cut into strips. 7.

Sprinkle cornstarch to avoid sticking.

8. Drop mike in boiling water for 3 minutes. Drain and toss it with 1 tablespoon oil.


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FATS AND OIL The terms fat and oil do not refer to different substances; they indicate different physical states of the same group of substances. Fat that is liquid at normal room temperature is called oil; however, that, which is solid or semi-solid is referred to as fat. All oils solidify when sufficiently cooked and all fats liquefy at elevated temperatures. Solid fats may contain a relatively large portion of liquid oil but may still be classified as fats because they remain solid at room temperature. The temperature at which fat changes to oil is called the melting point of the fat; the melting point varies for different fats (Peckbam, 1969). Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are built up by linking together the number of individual fatty acids chemically combined with glycerin. A fat is formed by the union of one molecule of glycerol and molecules of fatty acids. In the process, molecules of water are freed. Chemically, fats may be generally defined as triglycerides — glycerides containing three fatty acid radicals. When the three fatty acids are of the same kind, the fat is a simple triglyceride. If the fatty acids are different, the fat is called mixed glyceride. Natural fats in foods are made up mostly of triglycerides. Nutritive Value Fats are concentrated source of energy furnishing two and one fourth times as much energy as carbohydrates and proteins. Fats give palatability to meals and a certain amount is desirable in a well-rounded diet. Some fats contain vitamins. Vitamin A is present in butter in varying amounts. Fats are also known as carriers of fat soluble vitamins namely, Vitamins A, D, E, K. Classification of Fats and Oils From the standpoint of physical appearance, fats are classified into two. Visible fats are purified fats. Easily seen because they are greasy. Examples are cooking oil, salad dressings, butter, lard, margarine, and animal fats like pork fat, and suet. Invisible fats come from food products that contain fat. They are hidden and are not easily recognized as oily or greasy. They are found in egg-yolks, milk, olives, avocado and well-marbled lean meats. According to sources, fats and oils are classified into two:

168


Animal fat exists in bacon, butter, fish oils, poultry fat, suet, and tallow. Vegetable oil is found in coconut, cottonseed, peanut, sunflower, soybeans, and safflower. Forms of Fats and Oils Butter, according to federal requirements, must contain 80% pure fat, the remainder being water, salt and perhaps some milk. It has been regarded as good source of Vit. A, although it has been shown that the content of its vitamin varies widely with the feed given to the cow. Butter from the fatty substances skimmed from full cream milk, churned then pressed to squeeze out water. Margarine includes all substances, mixtures and compounds, which have a consistency similar to that of butter and which contain any edible oils or fats other than milk fat if made in imitation of butter. Generally speaking, margarine is the most acceptable alternate for butter as spread on for seasoning and making cakes and sauces. However, it does not duplicate the exact flavor of butter, even though the fats have been churned with milk to attain that end. Lard is the rendered fat of the hog; it is one of the oldest of house fats but it has remained one of the least standardized of them all. Nuts fat is also introduced into the diet through rich fatty food as nuts. These are used as component part of prepared dish, such as nut loaf, nut bread or fruit nut conserved as garnishes for salads and desserts and as accompaniment to the meal. Peanut butter is the most popular of the various nut butters. It is rich in fat, has high content of protein, and is a good source of thiamine and niacin, as well as a significant amount of riboflavin and some Vitamin A. Coconut oil is the most important source of lauric acid oil which is a product of the coconut milk. This is used commonly in a wide variety of native vegetables dishes and desserts. It is usually prepared in Filipino homes as part of kitchen preparation by mixing some water to grated mature coconut. Sesame oil is the product of the seeds of a sesame plant which is grown principally in India and warmer regions of China. Rice bran oil consists of the outer layers of the brown or de-husked rice grain, which is a valuable by-product of rice. It contains 10-20% oil and 10-13% protein.


169

Cottonseed oil is derived as a by-product of the cotton fiber. Obtained from its seed, this oil is used for cooking. Soybean oil comes from the legumes of the soybean plant. It is obtained by solvent extraction or mechanical expression. Peanut oil is derived from the seed of a peanut plant. The plant is grown to yield whole nuts. The oil is just a by-product coming from lowgrade nuts. It is used for cooking and salad dressing. Olive oil comes from the olive fruits of an olive tree and is used for salads and for cooking. The distinctive flavor it imparts to food is what makes it important in frying. Beef fat, also known as oleo oil, is used in food preparation at home. Balm oil and palm kernel oil are extracted from the husk and seed of an oil palm. The plant is sometimes called African palm. The oil is very similar to coconut oil in almost every respect but it is more unsaturated. Corn oil is the by-product of cornstarch and grain alcohol industries, which derive its products from the kernel of a corn plant. It is also known as maize oil that is expressed from the germ of a seed separated from the remainder of the kernel by wet milling process. Uses in Cookery Fats and oils have numerous uses in cookery. They add flavor and nutritive value to a food, prevent particles of food from sticking to one another or to pans, serve as a cooking medium to fry foods and enhance flour mixture by imparting a shortened quality to batters and doughs, thus tenderizing them. In cakes, fats hold air incorporated during the beating of the mixture. They also serve as chief ingredient in the preparation of foods which form emulsions. Some fats are suitable for all purposes, but some because of their physical properties may have limited uses. Frying. In pan-frying, the fat serves as lubricant and heat transfer medium. Pan fried food develops a brown crust and absorbs some of the flavor of the fat. Deep-fat fried foods are golden brown and crisp. Smoke point. A suitable fat for frying food is one that has fairly high smoke point, a smoke point of about 4.20°3c1F is considered good for oil and shortening which do not contain emulsifiers.

170


Shortening. The shortening effect of fat in flour mixture is brought about by the formation of fat layers which serve to separate the starch and gluten particles, thus reducing their tendency to adhere to one another. Lard and vegetable shortening, because they hold in most of the air that is incorporated during mixing, seem to be preferred for cake products. Lard, being softer and somewhat superior in shortening value, is frequently used in making pies, biscuits, and shortcakes. Salad dressing may be a simple oil and vinegar mixture, French, cooked, or mayonnaise. Oils used in salad dressing. The fat used in making salad dressing may be a vegetable oil — such as corn, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, olive oil or combination of these. The important factor in the selection of an oil for salad is a bland or mild flavor. Mayonnaise. A semi-solid emulsion of vegetable oil, egg-yolk or whole egg, acid, and seasoning. The emulsifying agent in this mixture is the egg yolk protein. The vinegar used in making mayonnaise constitutes most of the liquid in the emulsion. The oil used is corn or cottonseed oil. French dressing is a mixture of vinegar and vegetable oil with salt and spices added. In the commercially prepared condiments, egg, tomato sauce and other materials are used to aid in emulsification. Cooked salad dressing is a mixture of egg, vinegar, starch, fat or salad oil, and seasoning. It may be varied by using fruit juices in place of vinegar, milk, or water. Processing of Fats and Oils Fats commonly used in food preparation do not occur free in nature. They are separated from other materials or tissues and refined. Many oils come from seeds or fruits. Lard comes from pork tissue; and butter comes from cream. The processes by which these fats are removed may differ from one product to another. Fats are consumed by people who eats meats, eggs, whole milk, and avocados. Rendering is the process of extracting fats and oils from animal tissue. The most commonly used method is steam rendering which consists of heating finely chopped fatty tissues in cookers at steam pressure of 40 to 60 pounds. Oil from plants are extracted either by pressing or by extraction through a solvent. Protein which may be present in oil is coagulated by cooking in steam.


171

Refining. Crude oils and fats extracted from animals and plants also contain free fatty acids and other miscellaneous materials which give them undesirable qualities. These free fatty acids are removed by the addition of alkali to form a water and oil emulsion which is then heated, broken, and separated. This is repeated several times until a refined fat of only 0.01 to 0.05 free fatty acid is obtained. Hydrogenation is the process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fats to convert them to solid fat. This is done under controlled condition of temperature at 100-200°C (212-392°F) for less than 15 atmosphere of pressure and in the presence of a nickel catalyst. The hydrogenated oil, now called fat, is then deodorized by treating it with steam under a high vacuum and at high temperature. The fats produced are neutral in flavor and they have high smoking temperature, which makes them useful for frying and shortening. Winterizing. Some vegetable oils are cooled to 7°C (44.6°F) and then filtered to remove crystals that has been formed at this reduced temperature. The product, an oil, can remain clear even at refrigerated temperature because the fatty acids with the highest melting points have been removed.

172


SUGGESTED RECIPES USING FATS AND OILS Sitsaron 1/2 kilo pork skin 1 1/2 cups oil Wash pork skin and cut into 1 inch squares. Fry in deep fat until skin is tender. Soak in the same oil overnight. Fry again until the edges of the skins blister. Soak in same oil overnight. Fry the third time until skin puffs or double in size.

Mayonnaise 1 egg yolk 1 1/2 tsp. sugar 1 1/2 tbsp. of calamansi juice or vinegar 1/2 tsp. mustard 1/4 tsp. white pepper 1 cup oil Combine all ingredients except oil in a bowl. Beat thoroughly. Add oil one tablespoon at a time, beating well after each addition. After all the oil is added, beat until mayonnaise is thick enough to hold its shape when spooned out.


SAJI MA

Dough: 1 1/2 cups A.P. flour 1 tsp. baking powder 2 whole eggs oil for frying

Syrup: 1 cup sugar 1 cup water 1 chopped peanuts or cashew 1.

Sift flour with baking powder.

2.

Mix flour mixture with eggs and blend well.

3.

Roll out into 1/8 inch thickness.

4.

Cut into strips. Deep fry until golden brown.

5.

Drain and dip into prepared syrup. Roll in chopped peanuts.

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SUGAR Sugar consists of sweet, crystalline, soluble organic compounds that belongs to the important food component collectively called carbohydrates. They are the simplest of the digestible carbohydrates. Classification of Sugar Sugar is chemically classified into two forms. 1.

2.

Monosaccharides or simple sugar includes glucose, fructose, and galactose. a.

Glucose is the basic unit upon which the higher carbohydrates are built. It is found in fruits and plant saps, and is the main transport form of carbohydrates in the bloodstream of animals.

b.

Fructose is the sugar that gives flavor to many fruits because it occurs most abundantly in these foods. It is also found in quantities in honey. It is produced from certain tubers which contain insulin, a starch-like carbohydrate. Fructose is also called levulose or fruit sugar.

c.

Galactose does not occur free in nature. It is not found in quantities in any food but milk.

Disaccharides means two or more kinds of sugar. It includes sucrose, maltose, and lactose. a.

Sucrose is commonly called table sugar, and is commercially prepared from sugarcane or sugar beets. Sucrose consists of glucose and fructose, and therefore breaks into these two monosaccharide upon hydrolysis. Sucrose occurs naturally in many plants and crystallizes easily so it can be separated by this process from plant juices or tree sap.

b.

Maltose is made up of two molecules of glucose with one molecule of water eliminated. This sugar is found mainly in malt extract. It is present in small amount in baking to provide nutritive substances which promote the growth of yeast in the dough.

c.

Lactose, referred to as milk sugar, is composed of one molecule of glucose and one of galactose. It does not seem to occur in other sources; and milk seems to contain no other sugar but lactose. This sugar is not crystallized or used commercially.


175

Properties and Characteristics of Sugar All sugars are sources of calories; these supply enough energy but they are not good sources of a significant amount of protein, vitamins, and minerals. As the simplest carbohydrates, they are easily digested and utilized. Certain physical and chemical characteristics of sugars are pertinent to food processing. These processes include crystallization, saturation, fermentation, caramelization, and hygroscopicity. Crystallization A crystal is composed of closely packed molecules arranged in a pattern. Crystallization occurs only if the solution is supersaturated. The higher the degree of saturation in a solution, the more rapid the rate of crystallization. The rate of crystallization is influenced by the nature of the crystallizing substance, concentration of the solution, temperature, stirring action and impurities that may be found in it. Generally, small crystals are produced at high temperatures. Stirring increases the formation of many small crystals and brings the supersaturated solution in contact with each crystal. Impurities impede growth of crystals. For instance, fat in a candy mixture interferes with the crystallization of sucrose by coating the sugar crystals. Saturation Fairly large amounts of sugar dissolve easily in water. The higher the temperature of the water, the greater the amount of sugar dissolves in it. A saturated solution contains a maximum amount of a solute, which dissolves at room temperature. When heated alone, granulated sugar will melt and form a clear mass without any crystals. If permitted to cool, it will form a hard cake. If heating of sugar continues until it turns dark brown, the resulting product is known as caramelized sugar. Caramelized sugar has a very distinctive flavor and is locally used in native delicacies such as custard or leche flan and yema. Fermentation Any solution, which contains at least 12 to 25 percent sugar, can undergo fermentation by yeast. Fermentation is a biochemical process that involves the action of microorganisms. It is the anaerobic oxidation of carbohydrates by microbial enzymes. Fermentation is completed in 10 to 14 days when all the sugar has been oxidized to alcohol. Wine or ethyl alcohol is the first product in anaerobic oxidation of a sugary solution.

176


Caramelization Granulated Sugar is also known as table sugar or refined sugar, processed from sugar cane or sugar beets syrup. This form comes in white crystals since the more refined the sugar is, the lighter its color. Hygroscopicity The property of sugar to absorb moisture from the atmosphere is called hygroscopicity. Fructose containing substances (e.g. molasses, honey, and brown sugar) are the most hygroscopic. Hygroscopicity of sugar is necessary in order that soft candies may remain moist to maintain their plasticity. However, hygroscopicity can present problems such as caking, softening, watering, and molding of candies. Functions of Sugar In Food Production 1.

Sugar is an important ingredient in the preparation of candy. Candies are classified according to their sugar content and crystallinity. Examples of crystalline candies are fondant and fudge; and noncrystalline or amorphous candies are hard candies, brittles, caramels, butterscotch, gum drops, and lollipops.

2.

The most obvious role of sugar is being a sweetening agent but it is universally used to add flavor to foods.

3.

In jellies, jams, and canned fruits, sugar is used as a preserving agent. Sugar has a dehydrating effect on microorganisms that cause spoilage.

4.

Sugar is the main ingredient in products like icings, candies, fruit preserves, and jellies.

5.

As dietetic food, sugar is important because it is readily digested and absorbed for quick energy. Special sugars are used for infant feeding.

Forms of Sugar Sugar is available in a variety of forms. A description of each form will help make clear their importance. Granulated Sugar is also known as table sugar or refined sugar, processed from sugar cane or sugar beets syrup. This form comes in white crystals since the more refined the sugar is, the lighter its color.


177

Brown Sugar is light, medium, or dark brown. Dark brown sugar consists of coarse sticky crystals locally known as muscovado. When the sugar cane extract is in its early stages, it is allowed to dry up in small halved coconut shells forming a solid brown mass locally known as panutsa. Brown sugar is a partially purified product. Its natural liquor (molasses) is not removed from the brown sugar and imparts their characteristic flavor. Powdered Sugar or Confectioner’s Sugar is obtained from granulated sugar by pulverization. It is the finest, smoothest, and whitest form of sugar to which cornstarch is added to prevent caking. It is used for frostings, candies, and dusting for baked products. Syrups are liquids containing large amounts of sugar. They have unusual flavors which make them useful in adding flavor to other foods. Syrups are classified according to source. Thus, we have corn, honey, molasses, and maple syrup. Stages in Sugar Cookery A.

Thread is reached at a temperature of 230-235°F or 118-113°C. The mixture will spin a 2-inch thread when dropped from a fork or spoon.

B.

Softball is attained at 235-240°F or 113-116°C. The mixture dipped in cold water will form a softball, but lose its shape when removed from the cold water. There is no exact concentration at which a softball becomes firm. In making the cold water test, it is best to use a shallow bowl rather than a cup. It is easier to see how the syrup acts in the cold water and also easier to pick up the ball.

C.

Firmball is reached at 246-258°F or 119-121°C. The mixture will form a firmball in cold water.

D.

Hardball is reached at a temperature of 121-129°C or 258-265°F. The mixture will form a hard ball in cold water.

E.

Soft crack is reached at 132-142°C or 270-290°F. The mixture will crack or break when crushed between the fingers.

F.

Hard crack is reached at 149-154°C to 388-310°F. This stage is characterized by a brittle mixture which will not stick to the teeth.

G.

Caramel is reached at about 177°C or 350°F. By this stage, the mixture will have passed the hard crack and will begin to brown.

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Principles of Sugar Cookery 1.

Sugar is used in the preparation of candy. Candies made from sugar solution and cooked to high temperature are hard and brittle. When sugar is melted slowly and other ingredients like cream or butter are added to it, caramel or non-crystalline candies are obtained. Examples of these are butterscotch and taffy.

2.

When candy syrup of sugar with water starts to boil, it should not be stirred.

3.

It is best to use a heavy saucepan and a wooden spoon for stirring.

4.

Milk cream of chocolate, contained in syrup, easily coagulates or settles down; therefore constant mixing and stirring of the syrup is needed.

5.

In caramelizing sugar, the solution should be stirred only when liquid has formed to prevent crystallization.

6.

Fairly large amount of sugar dissolves easily in water; the higher the temperature of the water, the greater the amount of sugar dissolves in it.

7.

Sugar is used for sweetening in making preserves, jams, jellies, and candies.


179

SUGGESTED RECIPES FOR SUGAR COOKERY Peanut Brittle Ingredients: 1 cup sugar 1/4 tsp. salt 3/4 cup peanuts 2 tbsp. shortening 1 tsp. baking soda Caramelize sugar. When done, remove from fire and add baking soda, shortening and nuts. Stir and mix. Pour on a greased chopping board and cut into desired sizes. Cool and wrap. Molido Ingredients: 1 kilo sugar 1 grated coconut 1/4 kilo cooked camote 1 tsp. lemon extract Mash camote and mix with sugar and coconut. Cook in carajay till done. Flavor with lemon extract. Stir continuously until mixture is thick and does not stick to the pan. Roll in greased board and cut into desired sizes. Cool and wrap.

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Candied Tamarind Select about 100 ripe fruits; peel whole and arrange well in a deep enamel basin. Prepare syrup as follows: 1 part sugar 1 part water Pour syrup while hot to cover tamarind. Allow to soak for one day. Drain off the syrup and cover with freshly prepared syrup using: 2 parts sugar 1 part water Soak for 2 to 3 days. Repeat changing the syrup until the tamarind becomes sweet enough. Carefully arrange the sweetened tamarind in bamboo racks and dry under the sun. Cover this with a wire screen to keep off flies. Finish the drying in an oven at a low temperature. Cool and wrap in cellophane.


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HERBS AND SPICES Since time immemorial, herbs and spices have been used in food. The main purpose of herbs and spices is to heighten or improve the flavor of meat, fish, vegetables, rice, and fruits. Herbs are sold fresh or dried. Dried herbs have a stronger flavor than fresh, and should be used sparingly. Fresh herbs should be picked just before using it. Most herbs can be grown successfully outdoors in your own garden. Spices are the dried parts of aromatic plants and may be fruit, bark, seed, root or flower bud. Most spices come from hot countries and are sold dried, either whole or ground. For the strongest flavor, grind the spices immediately before use. The following list of herbs and spices are the common ones (with local names), generally used in food preparation and preservation: Selected Herbs (English and Common Names) 1. Bay Leaf (Laurel) — taken from the berries of the Bay Tree, has a strong spicy flavor and can be used fresh or dried. Always remove from the dish before serving. 2. Chives (Sibuyas na Mura) — members of the Onion Family with an edible narrow green leaves. Best used raw to flavor salads and used as a garnish for soup and savory dishes; usually snipped into short lengths before use. 3. Coriander (Cilantro) — mainly grown for its seeds; good for soups and salads. 4. Curry Plant — green, spikey leaves of a shrub; used fresh or dried. 5. Lemon Grass (Tanglad) — a thick grass-like leaves which smell and taste strongly of lemon. 6. Mint (Yerba Buena or Dahong Maria) — has different flavors and scents such as peppermint, spearmint, applemint; used as flavoring and garnish in wine and fruit cups. 7.

Parsley — flat, curly leaves which makes an attractive garnish; flavor is in its stalk.

8. Rosemary — strong, pungent herb with spikey leaves. Excellent for use with barbecued meats. 9. Sage — a large-leaved herb with a strong, slightly bitter taste. Use in stuffings, casseroles, salads and others.

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10. Thyme — has a strong aromatic flavor. Use by rubbing before roasting meat, stuffing and in dishes cooked with wine. Common Spices (English and Local Names) 1. Chilli Pepper (Siling Labuyo) — a very hot spice; a fruit pod of the Capucum plant. 2. Cinnamon (Kanela) — grown in stalks or bark; has a sweet, pungent flavor used for baking or flavoring. 3. Cloves (Clavo de Comer) — look like small nails when whole; are also sold ground. Have a distinctive pungent flavor; used mainly to flavor ham. 4. Coriander (Colantro or Cilantro) — also known as Chinese parsley. Seeds with a mild and sweet orangy flavor. Sold whole or ground, used as ingredient in Curry Powder. 5. Ginger (Luya) — root with hot sweetish taste. Available fresh or dried. Root ginger needs to be cooked to release true flavor. 6. Mustard — made from black, brown and white seeds of a mustard plant. Mustard is used as a condiment like salt and pepper. 7.

Paprika — a sweet mild spice which ground to red powder. Good for adding color to dishes.

8. Pepper (Paminta) — the berry of a climbing vine can be found in several forms: black, green or white. Sometimes lightly crushed or used as whole. Has a strong, pungent, and hot flavor. Best when freshly ground to season dishes. 9. Saffron (Casubha) — most expensive of the spices. Dried stigmas of the saffron crocus flower; has a slightly bitter taste and aromatic. 10. Sesame Seeds (Linga) — small seeds with a rich, sweet slightly burnt flavor which is enhanced by toasting or frying. 11. Tamarind (Sampalok) — a large pod that grows on a tree. Seeded, peeled and pressed into a dark-brown pulp. Sour flavor. 12. Turmeric (Luyang Dilaw) — dried root of a plant from the Ginger family. Looks like fresh ginger, but bright orange inside the peel. Most commonly sold ground.


183

SUGGESTED RECIPES Homemade Curry Powder 2 level tbsp. Cumin Seeds 1 1/2 level tsp. mustard seeds 1 level tbsp. black peppercorn 8 level tbsp. Coriander seeds 1 level tbsp. ground peppercorn 1 level tsp. hot chilli powder 4 level tbsp. ground turmeric Combine all the ingredients in a blender or coffee grinder and blend to a fine powder. Store in an outright container for 3 months. Drying and Storing Herbs 1.

Dry homegrown herbs in a slow oven or microwave oven, dry in the sun by hanging them in a cool airy place, covered with muslin to keep the dust off.

2.

When dry, strip the leaves carefully from the stems and leave them whole. This will preserve more flavor than crumbling them.

3.

Dried herbs keep best in straight jars away from the light. Choose wood, earthenware or dark-colored glass.

4.

In a cool place, dried herbs keep their flavor for 6-8 months.

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SELECTED HERBS (English and Common Names)

Bay Leaf (Laurel)

Curry Plant

Chives (Sibuyas na Mura)

Lemon Grass (Tanglad)

Parsley

Sage

Coriander (Cilantro)

Mint (Yerba Buena or Dahong Maria)

Rosemay

Thyme

185

Appendices

Appendix A LIST OF PHILIPPINE FRUITS AND THEIR LOCAL NAMES PILIPINO

ENGLISH

BIKOL

BISAYA

Atis

Sugar apple

Atis

Atis

Atis

Anatis

Sep.-Dec.

Abokado

Avocado

Abokado

Abokado

Abokado

Avocado

Feb.-July

Kaimito

Star Apple

Kaimito

Kaimito

Kaimito

Kaimito

June-May

Saging

Banana

Batag

Saging

Saba

Sain

Year round

Kasuy

Cashew

Kasuy

Kasoy

Balogo

Baluliad

April-May

Dalanghita

Ludy orange

Naranghita

Kahil

Sibuyas

Dalanghita

Oct.-Feb.

Bayabas

Guava

Bayabas

Bayabas

Bayabas

Biyabas

June-Nov.

Guyabano

Soursap

Guyabano

Rabana

Gayabano

Guabano

Aug.-Nov.

Melon

Honey dew melon

Melon

Almon

Itimon

Melon

April-July

Langka

Jackfruit

Langka

Langka

Langka

Yangka

March-April

Kalamansi

Philippine lemon

Agridulce

ILOKO

PAMPANGO

SEASON

March-Aug. June-Oct.

186


Appendix B LIST OF PHILIPPINE VEGETABLES PILIPINO ENGLISH

BIKOL

Alugbati

BISAYA

ILOKO PAMPANGO

Alugbati

Ampalaya

Asparagus

Paliya

Parya

Ampalaya

Karot

Carrot

Sitaw

Cow pea

Hantok

Balatong

Otong

Bule

Kadyos Kamote

Pigeon pea

Tabios

Kadios

Kaldis

Kadyos

Sweet Potato

Kamote

Kamote

Kamoti

Kamoti

Kangkong

Swamp cabbage

Gaway

Kangkong

Kankong

Katuray

Sesban flower

Malunggay

Horse radish tree

Gawaygaway Katodai

Kature

Meran pea Munggo

Mung beans

Monggo

Monggo

Balatong

Monggo

Mustasa

Mustard

Mustasa

Mustasa

Mustasa

Mustasa

Okra

Okra

Petsay

Chinese cabbage Pechay

Saluyot

Jute

Kabog

Tagabag

Saluyot

Saluyot

Sitaw

Yardlong bean

Hanitak

Balatong

Otong

Kamanyang

Utao

Soybean

New Zealand

Balatong

Balatong

Ispinaka

Spinach

Espinaka

Espinaka

Spinaka

Spinaka

Kalabasa

Squash

Kalabasa

Kalabasa

Kalabasa

Kalabasa

Tapilan

Rice bean

Lukha

Bayas

Abias

Kamatis

Tomatoes

Kamatis

Kamatis

Kamatis

Kamatis

187

Appendices

Appendix C A GUIDE TO DAILY FOOD CHOICES Key Fat (naturally occuring and added)

• Sugars added These symbols show fats, oils, and added sugars in foods. Fats, Oils, & Sweets USE SPARINGLY

Milk, Yogurt, & Cheese Group 2-3 SERVINGS

Meat, Poultry, Fish Dry Beans, Eggs, & Nuts Group 2-3 SERVINGS Fruit Group 2-4 SERVINGS

Vegetable Group 3-5 SERVINGS

Bread, Cereal, Rice, & Pasta Group 6-11 SERVINGS

THE FOOD PYRAMID The Food Pyramid is a diagram developed by nutrition experts all over the world to illustrate the balance of foods needed for a healthy lifestyle. It serves as a nutritional guideline in the wise choice of food to obtain the best balance of nutrients in the diet. The three major food groups are placed in the Food Pyramid with indicators to healthy eating habits. The food groups are classified as Eat Least Foods – which are high in fat, sugar, salt, and alcohol. This food group is on top of the pyramid; Eat Moderately Foods – foods with high protein content but may have high fat level. This food group is in the middle part of the pyramid; Eat Most Foods – which are high in fibre and low in fat and sugar. These are the foods which make up the base of the pyramid and should be the biggest part of the diet. Foods need to be chosen from all three levels in the proportion shown above to make sure there is a good balance of nutrients and variety of foods in the diet.

188


Appendix D COMMON NAMES OF PHILIPPINE FISHES

BLUE-LINED STURGEON FISH (LABAHITA)

GROUPER “LAPU-LAPU”

TUNA (TULINGAN)

RED SNAPPER (MAYA-MAYA)

SPANISH MACKEREL (TANGINGI)

BLACK BASS (APAHAP)

LONG-TAILED GOBY (TALIMUSAK)

ANCHOVY (DILIS)

ROUND SCAD (GALUNGGONG)

INDIAN SARDINE (TAMBAN)

189

Appendices

SHORT-BODIED MACKEREL (HASA-HASA)

SLIPMOUTH (SAPSAP)

BLACK-TAILED CAESIO (DALAGANG-BUKID)

SEA CATFISH (KANDULI)

TILAPIA (TILAPIA)

GREY MULLET (BANAK)

FRESH WATER CATFISH (HITO)

MILK FISH (BANGUS)

190


References Alejandro, Reynaldo G., 2005. The Food of the Philippines. Singapore: Periplus Editions. Arroyo, Patricia, 1974. The Science of Philippine Foods. Quezon City: Abaniko Enterprises. BPI, 1983. Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables. Manila: Laboratory Services Division. BPI, 2006. Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables. Manila: Laboratory Services Division. Borgstorm, George, 1968. A Complete Course In Canning. Baltimore, Maryland: The Press of Canning Trade. Brown, Amy, 2005. Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation: Singapore: Thomson Wadsworth Asia Pie Ltd. Claudio, V. S. de Leon, M. de Guzman, 1986. Basic Foods for Filipinos. Manila: Merriam Websters Bookstore. Claudio, V. S. de Leon, P. Arroyo, 1977. Basic Foods For Filipinos. Manila: Merriam School Supplies Corp. Desrosier, Norman, 1970. The Technology of Food Preservation. Connecticut: Air Publishing Company. DOST, FNRI, 1997. The Philippines Food Composition Table. FNRI, 1980. Food Composition Table. Ferrari, Linda, 1991. Canning and Preserving: Techniques, Recipes, Uses and More. New York, U.S.A.: American Country Living. Frazier, William C., 1967. Food Microbiology. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. Guzman, Matilde P., 1973. Principles of Cooking. Quezon City: GES Publishing Corp. Hughes and Benion, 1970. Introductory Foods. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company. Keville, Kathy, 1996. Herbs for Health and Healing. Emmaus, Pennsylvania USA: Rodale Press Inc. Kotchevar, L., 1975. Quantity Food Production. U.S.A.: Maple Press. Lagua, R.C. Cruel, V. Claudio, 1977. Food Preservation For Filipinos. Quezon City: G.M.S. Publishing Corp.

References

191

Leon de Sonia, 1971. Preservation of Philippine Foods. Quezon City: Alemars-Phoenix Publishing Company. Mendoza, Jose, 1962. Philippine Foods: Their Processing and Manufacturing. Manila: Philippine Education Co. Methven, Barbara, 2005. Basic Microwaving. Minnesota, USA: De Cross Inc. Mok, Joyce, et al., 2005. Home Economics and You. Jurong East, Singapore: SNA Pampac Pte. Ltd. Palacio, June Payne and Monica Theis, 2000. West and Wood Introduction To Food Service. Singapore: Pearson Education Asia. Peckham, Gladys, 1968. Foundation of Food Preparation. Canada: The MacMillan Co. Robles, Cynthia and A. Palmes, 1977. Philippine Home Economics Baking Basics. Makati: Wheat Associates U.S.A. Soriano Narvaez, Nora, 2004. A Guide To Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation. Manila: Rex Book Store. Stanley and Clime, 1965. Foods: Their Selection and Preparation. New York: Ginn and Company. Still, Jean, 1981. Food Selection and Preparation. New York: MacMillan Co. Sunset Editors, 1982. Easy Basics For Good Cooking. California: Lane Publishing Company. Townsend, D. M., 1978, The Cooks Companion. New York: Crown Publishers. Wong Ping et al., 2004. Teen Life. Singapore: Times Publishing Limited. Yeager, Selene, 1998. Food Remedies. Emmaus, Pennsylvania. USA: Rodale Press. Online Sources: Food Preparation Encyclopedia www.allrecipes.com/encyc Virtual Link to the Food Processing Industry www.foodonline.com FNRI DOST www.fnri.dost.gov.ph

192


The following LIST OF TABLES have been updated: Source: The Philippine Food Composition Table, FNRI, 1997 1. Proximate Composition of Selected Fruits 2. Proximate Composition of Some Common Vegetables 3. Proximate Composition of Lean Meat from Pork, Beef, and Carabeef 4. Proximate Composition of Dark Meat of Chicken, Turkey, Duck and Pigeon 5. Classification of Philippine Shellfish 6. Proximate Composition of Local Clams, Snails, Mussels, and Oysters 7.

Proximate Composition of Local Types of Fresh Crabs

8. Approximate Composition of Whole Cereal Grain 9. Amount of Nutrients 10. Amount of Starch Present in Common Food Sources

GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATED TO FOOD PRESERVATION Additives — materials added to food to help manufacture and preserve it and to improve its nutritive value, palatability and eye appeal. Amounts used in food are regulated by law. Aging — changes in tenderness that take place in meats after slaughter. Aerobes — microorganisms that need oxygen for growth. Anaerobes — microorganisms that grow in the absence of oxygen. Antibiotics — substances produced by living organisms that inhibit the growth of the other organisms; used in some countries as food preservatives. Antioxidants — substances that retard the oxidative rancidity of fats. Botulism — rare form of food poisoning caused by the toxin produced by clostridum botulinum. Buffers — substances that resist change of acidity or alkalinity. Colllagen — insoluble proteins in the bone, tendons, skin, and connective tissues of animals and fish; can be converted to soluble gelatin by moist heat. Deodorization — the removal of flavor or odor from fats during refining. Emulsifying agents — substances that aid the uniform dispersion of oil in water. Enzymes — catalysts produced by living cells, which are responsible for most of the reactions carried out in plants and animals. Ester — chemical name of the compound of acid and alcohol. Fermentation — transformation of metabolism of compound without the use of oxygen. Ferming agents — calcium salts, such as calcium chloride or carbonate, that may be added to fruit or vegetables to keep them firm. Freeze drying — a method of drying in which the material is frozen and high vacuum is applied. The cooking effect of the evaporation keeps the material frozen while distills off as a vapor. Gel — a sol or colloidal suspension that has set to a jelly. 193

194


Gluten — the protein fraction of wheat or flour which gives it the elastic properties essential for making bread. Homogenization — process which reduces fat globules to a smaller and approximately equal size. Humectant — substance that absorbs moisture; used to maintain strength of materials such as baking powder and other baking products. Irradiation (ionizing) — ionizing radiation which destroys various microorganisms. Maillard Reaction — also known as the browning reaction or non-enzymatic browning; reaction between amino acids and sugars which brings about a brown color. Nitrates — substances that occur naturally in many foods; added to meat in curing. Osmosis — the transfer of materials that takes place through a semi permeable membrane separating two solutions, or between a solvent and a solution that tends to equalize their concentration. Oxidation — gain in oxygen or loss of hydrogen or in general terms, loss of electrons. Pasteurization — mild heat treatment that destroys many vegetative forms of bacteria. Salinometer — hydrometer used to measure concentration of salt solutions. Smoke point — temperature at which the decomposition products of fat become visible. Stabilizers — substances that keep emulsions of fat and water in equilibrum.

INDEX A Acids 46 Additives 61 Alimentary pastes 159 Antioxidants 2

Crabs 131, 133 Crustaceans 131 Crystallization 175 Cutting Techniques 35 Cutting Tools 28

B Bacteria 48 Bakeware 27 Baking 57 Base 46 Batter 151 Barley 142 Beef cuts 99 Boiling points 9 Bran 143 Broiling 9 Browning reaction 45 Buckwheat 142

D Dehydration 58 Digestibility of food 8 Disaccharides 174 Dough 157

C Canning 56 Carbonations 58 Caramelization 176 Cereals 141 Chemicals 59 Chicken 108 Clams 132 Coagulation 45 Conduction 4 Connective tissue 93 Convection 4 Cooking 3 Cooking Methods 3 Corn 141

E Electronic cooking 114 Emulsifiers 64 Embryo 143 Endosperm 143 Equipment, kitchen 16 Evisceration 114 Enzyme 42 F Fahrenheit Scale 5 Fats 167 Fermentation 58 Fish 121 Fish sauce 128 Fillet 125 Flavor 71 Flour Mixtures 151 Food borne illness 51 Food Poisoning 54 Food preparation Terms 37 Food preservation 41 Food Safety Thermometer 55 Food Spoilage 47 195

196 Freezing point 43 Fruits 69 G Galactose 174 Gelation 161 Germ 143 Grading of meat 92 H Heating 56 Heat, Method of Transfer 4 Herbs 181 Humectants 62, 64 Hydrogenation 45,171 Hygroscopicity 176 I Infections 51 Intoxicants 51 Irradiation 59 J Jam 78 Jelly 76 K Kitchen equipment 24,25,26 Kitchen Work Triangle 14 Kitchen Structure 14 L Lactose 174 Lard 168 Leavening Agents 152 M Macaroni products 162 Mad Cow Disease 52

Index

Maltose 174 Marmalade 80 Measuring technique 33 Meat Cuts 97,99 Melting point 43 Microbial Decomposition 41,42 Microorganism 47,56 Microwave oven 18 Molds 49 Mollusks 132 Monosaccharide 174 N Noodles 162 Nutritive value 8 Nuts 69 O Oats 142 Oil 167 Organ Meats 98 Ovens 17 Oxidation 46 P Packaging 65 Parasites 51 Pasta, types of 162 Pasteurization 56 Pastry tools 31 Pectin 44 Perishable foods 41 Pork Cuts 100 Pots and Pans 21 Poultry 107 Preservatives 61 Preservation methods 56

Index

R Radiation 4 Ranges 16 Recipes, standardized 12 Refining 171 Refrigerator 18 Refrigeration 57 Rice 141 Rodents 50 Rye 142 S Saturation 175 Sealants 64 Shellfish 131 Specific Gravity 43 Spices 181,182 Sequestrants 62 Stabilizers 63 Starch 159 Sugar 174

Surface active agents 63 Sweeteners 64 T Temperature in cooking 6 Tender cuts 97 V Vacuum drying 57 Variety cuts 98 Vegetables 83,84 W Winterizing 171 Wheat 142 Work triangle 14 Y Yeast 49

197

Author

MARIA NORA SORIANO Illustrator

Philippine Copyright 2010 by Rex Book Store, Inc. and Nora Narvaez-Soriano RBS A Guide to Food Selecon, Preparaon and Preservaon Second Edion ISBN 978-971-23-5645-2 Classificaon: Textbook (04-HE-00015) Published, copyrighted 2010, and distributed by Rex Book Store, Inc. (RBSI) with main office at 856 Nicanor Reyes Sr. St., Sampaloc, Manila / Tel. Nos.: 735-1364, 736-0567 RBSI Branches: LUZON •MORAYTA: 856 N. Reyes Sr. St., Sampaloc, Manila / Tel. Nos.: 736-0567, 735-1364; Telefax: 736-4191 •RECTO: 1977 C.M. Recto Ave., Sampaloc, Manila / Tel. Nos.: 735-5527, 736-3063; Telefax: 735-5534 •MAKATI: Unit UG2, Star Centrum Bldg., Sen. Gil Puyat Ave., Maka City / Tel. No.: 818-5363; Telefax: 893-3744 •ROCKWELL: 1st Floor, Ateneo Professional School, Rockwell Center, Bel-Air, Maka City / Tel. No.: 729-2015 •CUBAO: 36 Shopwise Arcade, Araneta Center, Cubao, Quezon City / Telefax: 911-1070 •SHAW: 548 Facilies Center Bldg., Shaw Blvd., Mandaluyong City / Tel. No.: 531-1306; Telefax: 531-1339 •CAVITE: Block 4, Lot 20 Don Gregorio Heights 2, Zone 1-A Aguinaldo Hi-way, Dasmariñas, Cavite / Telefax: (046) 416-1824 •NAGA: Rodson Bldg. I-II, J. Hernandez Ave., Naga City, Camarines Sur / Telefax: (054) 811-6878 •LEGAZPI: 3rd Floor Bichara Mall, Magallanes cor. Alonzo St., Legazpi City, Albay / Telefax: (052) 480-2244 •CALAPAN: Brgy. Salong, Naonal Hi-way, Calapan City, Oriental Mindoro / Telefax: (043) 288-1650 •BATANES: L. Lopez St., Kaywalungan, Basco, Batanes •TUGUEGARAO: 10 Arellano St., Brgy. Ugac Sur, Tuguegarao, Cagayan / Telefax: (078) 844-8072 •CABANATUAN: Fontelera Building, 1271 Del Pilar Ext., Sangitan East, Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija / Tel. No.: (044) 464-2151; Telefax: (044) 600-5684 •URDANETA: Zone 6, Pinmaludpod, Urdaneta City, Pangasinan / Telefax: (075) 568-3975 •ANGELES: 259 (Stall B) Sto. Rosario St., San Jose, Angeles City, Pampanga / Telefax: (045) 887-5371 VISAYAS •TACLOBAN: Brgy. 74 Marasbaras, Tacloban City, Leyte / Tel. No.: (053) 323-8976; Telefax: (053) 523-1784 •ILOILO: 75 Lopez Jaena St., Brgy. San Isidro, Jaro, Iloilo City, Iloilo / Tel. No.: (033) 329-0332; Telefax: (033) 329-0336 •BACOLOD: 28 Brgy. 36, Purok Immaculada, Quezon Ave., Bacolod City, Negros Occidental •CEBU: 11 Sanciangko St., Cebu City / Tel. Nos.: (032) 416-9684, 254-6773; Telefax: (032) 254-6466 MINDANAO •CAGAYAN DE ORO: J. Seriña St. cor. Vamenta Blvd., Carmen, Cagayan de Oro City, Misamis Oriental / Telefax: (088) 858-6775 •DAVAO: 156 C.M. Recto St., Davao City, Davao / Tel. Nos.: (082) 225-3167, 221-7840; Telefax: (082) 2210272 •GENERAL SANTOS: Aparante St., Dadiangas Heights, General Santos City, South Cotabato / Telefax: (083) 554-7102 www.rexpublishing.com.ph

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Since the publication of the first edition of this book, new developments have evolved such as new methods of processing foods, new food products and new cooking equipment. These new developments are discussed in this new edition and all needed materials are updated; new recipes are added and new concepts and ideas are discussed in details. In response to the present changes in Information Technology, websites are listed for those who wish to avail of the latest information and data regarding food preparation and preservation. The scope and plan of the original book remain the same however. This Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Food Preservation is written as answer to the need for a simplified reference for students majoring in Food Technology, Home Economics or Technology and Livelihood Education, Hotel and Restaurant Management, and Culinary Arts. Homemakers, teachers of Food Courses and Food Processing, and other individuals may also use this book as a guide to their experimental attempts at food preservation. Part I of this book introduces the readers to Kitchen Efficiency. The basic foundation for cooking and food preservation starts with the orientation to the principles, techniques and methods of cooking, equipment, tools and utensils to be used, and the terms and symbols used in following the recipe effectively. Part II deals with the conceptual framework in food preservation, namely, food spoilage, techniques of food preservation and more importantly, the role that food packaging and additives play in food processing. Proper selection of a particular food material for processing is necessary to obtain quality product. The nature, nutritive value and the principles of selection and cooking of selected food groups are comprehensively discussed in Part III. For laboratory purposes, more recipes are added after each food group. Focus is on the use of Filipino food resources with an eye for future entrepreneurship in food processing. The author recognizes that the level of treatment of this book is centered on individuals who have had no previous extensive background in Chemistry. The technical aspects of food preservation are discussed simply with emphasis on the more practical aspects, and on the simplifications of scientific concepts to a more understandable form related to everyday living. It is hoped that the users of this book will find valuable information in it. Nora Narvaez-Soriano iii

iv

PART I – INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION ...... 1 Methods of Cooking Food .................................................. 3 Use of Heat in Cooking ...................................................... 3 Purpose of Cooking ............................................................. 7 Cooking Mediums ............................................................... 9 The Standardized Recipe ..................................................... 12 The Kitchen, Its Structure, Use, and Care ......................... 14 The Kitchen Equipment ...................................................... 16 Suggested Basic Kitchen Utensils and Tools....................... 21 Small Equipment for Food Preparation .............................. 23 Measuring Food Materials ................................................... 33 Measurements and Conversions ......................................... 34 Cooking Terms .................................................................... 36 Food Preparation Terms ..................................................... 37

PART II – FOOD PRESERVATION .............................................. 39 Value of Food Preservation ................................................. 41 Principles of Food Preservation .......................................... 41 Physical and Chemical Properties of Food ......................... 43 Causes of Food Spoilage ...................................................... 47 Food-Borne Illnesses ............................................................ 51 Tips to Avoid Food Poisoning ............................................. 54 Methods of Food Preservation ............................................ 56 Food Additives ..................................................................... 61 Food Packaging .................................................................... 65 v

PART III – SELECTION, PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF SELECTED FOOD GROUPS ..................................................................... 67 Fruits ................................................................................... 69 Vegetables ........................................................................... 83 Meat and Meat Products ................................................... 92 Poultry ................................................................................ 107 Fish ..................................................................................... 121 Shellfish .............................................................................. 131 Cereals ................................................................................ 141 Flour ................................................................................... 147 Starch and Alimentary Pastes ............................................ 159 Fats and Oils ...................................................................... 167 Sugar................................................................................... 174 Herbs and spices ................................................................ 181 APPENDICES A.

List of Philippine Fruits and their Local Names ............... 185

B.

List of Philippine Vegetables ............................................. 186

C.

A Guide to Daily Food Choices (The Food Pyramid) ..... 187

D.

Common Names of Philippine Fishes ............................... 188

REFERENCES ................................................................................. 190 GLOSSARY OF TERMS................................................................ 193 INDEX ............................................................................................... 195

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Important Temperature in Preparing Foods ..................... Bubble Size and Movement differ during Poaching, Simmering, and Boiling ............................................... The Kitchen Structure ....................................................... Useful Kitchen Equipment ................................................ Bake Ware .......................................................................... Knives: The Basic Cutting Tools ...................................... Pots and Pans ..................................................................... Bakeware Accessories ........................................................ Pastry Tools ........................................................................ Measuring Techniques ....................................................... Cutting Techniques ............................................................ Food Safety Thermometer................................................. Types of Food Packaging Materials .................................. Kinds of Fruits ................................................................... Fruit Cutting ...................................................................... Classification of Vegetables................................................ Meat Cuts of Beef and Carabeef ....................................... Pork Cuts ........................................................................... Classification of Poultry ..................................................... How to Bone the Chicken ................................................. Poultry Cuts ....................................................................... Nutritive Value of Fish....................................................... Market Forms of Fish ........................................................ Fishery Products and By-Products .................................... Types of Shellfish ............................................................... Physical Structure of Cereal Grain .................................... Flour Mixture Ingredients ................................................. One Bowl-Cake Method ................................................... Type of Noodles ................................................................. Selected Herbs .................................................................... The Food Pyramid ............................................................. Common Names of Philippine Fishes ............................... vii

6 10 14 24 27 28 29 30 31 32 35 55 66 70 72 84 99 100 107 111 113 123 125 128 134 143 151 158 164 184 187 188

LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Proximate Composition of Selected Fruits ...... 73 2. Proximate Composition of Some Common Vegetables ......................................................... 85 3. Proximate Composition of Lean Meat from Pork, Beef and Carabeef ......................... 94 4. Proximate Composition of the Dark Meat of Chicken, Turkey, Duck, and Pigeon ........... 110 5. Classification of Philippine Shellfish ................ 133 6. Proximate Composition of Local Clams, Snails, Mussels, and Oysters ........................... 135 7. Proximate Composition of Local Types of Fresh Crabs ...................................................... 135 8. Approximate Composition of Whole Cereal Grain in Percentage .......................................... 144 9. Amount of Nutrients per 100 Grams Flour ................................................................. 149 10. Amount of Starch Present in Common Food Sources .................................................... 159

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A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

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