A Dictionary for the Modern Clarinetist
DICTIONARIES FOR THE MODERN MUSICIAN Series Editor: David Daniels
Contributions to Dictionaries for the Modern Musician offer both the novice and the advanced artist lists of key terms designed to fully cover the field of study and performance for major instruments and classes of instruments, as well as the workings of musicians in areas from conducting to composing. Focusing primarily on the knowledge required by the contemporary musical student and teacher, performer, and professional, each dictionary is a must-have for any musician’s personal library! A Dictionary for for the Modern Singer by Matthew Hoch, 2014 by Jane Ellsworth, 2015 A Dictionary for the the Modern Clarinetist by
A Dictionary for the Modern Clarinetist
Jane Ellsworth
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD Lanham • Boulder • New New York York • London
Published by Rowman & Littlefield A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowman.com Unit A, Whitacre Mews, 26-34 Stannary Street, London SE11 4AB Copyright © 2015 by Jane Ellsworth ll rights reserved . No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a review.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ellsworth, Jane, author aut hor.. A dictionary for the modern clarinetist / Jane Ellsworth. pages cm. — (Dictionaries for the modern musician) Includes bibliographical references. Summary: “In A Dictionary for the Modern Clarinet, scholar and musician Jane Ellsworth offers lovers of the clarinet the premiere reference book for information about this remarkable instrument. Containing over 400 terms, Ellsworth covers the clarinet’s history (including both modern and historical instruments, common and rare), acoustics, construction, fingering systems and mechanisms, and techniques, as well as its more important performers, makers, and scholars”—Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-0-8108-8647-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-8648-3 (ebook) 1. Clarinet—Dictionaries. 2. Clarinetists—Dictionaries. 3. Music— Terminology. ermino logy. I. Title.
ML102.C54E45 2014 788.6'203—dc23 2014030453 The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Printed in the United States of America
Contents
List of Illustrations Foreword by Foreword by Albert R. Rice Acknowledgments Ackno wledgments Introduction The Dictionary Appendix 1: The Clarinet Family Appendix 2: Boehm, German, and Albert Systems: Key and Tone Tone Hole Names Appendix 3: Historical Instruments and Their Parts Appendix 4: Key Parts and Mounting Types Appendix 5: The Clarinet Mouthpiece Selected Bibliography About the Author
List of Illustrations
Figure Figure 1. Figur Figuree 2. Figur Figuree 3. Figu Figure re 4. Figur Figuree 5. Figur Figuree 6. Figur Figuree 7. Figu Figure re 8. Figur Figuree 9. Figur Figuree 10. 10. Figu Figure re 11. Figur Figuree 12. 12. Figu Figure re 13. 13. Figur Figuree 14. 14. Figure Figure 15. Figu Figure re 16. 16. Figure Figure 17.
Scienti Scientific fic pitch pitch nomenc nomenclatu lature re used used in this diction dictionary ary.. (Illustr (Illustrati ation on by William Conable) Fing Finger er numb number ering ing used used in this this dicti diction onar ary y. (Pho (Photo to by Larry Larry Co Conb nboy oy)) The The acou acousti sticc lengt length h of a close closed d pipe. pipe. (Illus (Illustra trati tion on by Jane Jane Ellsworth) Adju Adjust stin ing g scre screws ws.. (Pho (Photo to by Larr Larry y Co Conb nboy oy)) Appo Appogg ggia iatur tura. a. (Illu (Illustr strati ation on by Willia illiam m Co Cona nabl ble) e) Artic Articul ulate ated d key key. (Draw (Drawing ing from from Rend Rendal all; l; used used with with permi permiss ssion ion from from W. W. Norton) The The articu articula lated ted C♯ C♯/G /G♯ ♯ mech mechan anism ism.. (Pho (Photo to court courtesy esy of Jerry Jerry Disn Disney ey)) The The brid bridge ge mech mechan anis ism. m. (Pho (Photo to by Larr Larry y Co Conb nboy oy)) The The brille brille,, or spec spectac tacle le,, key key. (Pho (Photo to cour courtes tesy y of Noph Nophac acha haii Cholthitchanta) Cran Cranke ked d F♯/C F♯/C♯ ♯ key key. (Pho (Photo to by Larry Larry Co Conb nboy oy)) Cros Crosso sove verr vers versus us Side Side A♭/G♯4 key. (Constant Pierre, La facture instrumentale, Paris, 1890) Bass Bass clari clarine nett endp endpin. in. (Pho (Photo to by Larry Larry Co Conb nboy oy)) Stan Standa dard rd vers versus us fork forked ed B♭5. (Photo by Larry Conboy) Harm Harmon onic ic serie series. s. (Illu (Illustr strati ation on by William illiam Co Cona nabl ble) e) Hinge Hinge key. key. (Drawi (Drawing ng from from Rendall Rendall;; used used with with permis permission sion from from W. W. Norton) Liga Ligatu ture res. s. (Pho (Photo to by Larr Larry y Co Conb nboy oy)) Long-t Long-tenon enon versus versus standar standard d mouthp mouthpiece ieces. s. (Photo (Photo by Larry Larry Conboy Conboy))
Figur Figuree 18. 18. Figur Figuree 19. 19. Figure Figure 20. Figure Figure 21. Figur Figuree 22. 22. Figur Figuree 23. 23. Figur Figuree 24. 24. Figu Figure re 25. 25. Figur Figuree 26. 26. Figur Figuree 27. 27. Figur Figuree 28. 28. Figure Figure 29. Figur Figuree 30. 30. Figure Figure 31.
Figure Figure 32.
Figure Figure 33.
Figure Figure 34. Figure Figure 35. Figure Figure 36. Figure Figure 37. Figure Figure 38. Figure Figure 39.
Morde Mordent nt.. (Illus (Illustra trati tion on by Willia illiam m Co Cona nable ble)) Bass Bass clari clarine nett neck neck.. (Phot (Photo o by Larr Larry y Co Conb nboy oy)) Pivot Pivot screw screw. (Drawi (Drawing ng from Rendal Rendall; l; used used with with permis permission sion from W. W. Norton) Reed Reed with parts parts labeled labeled.. (Illustr (Illustratio ation n courtes courtesy y of Howard Howard Klug, Klug, modified by Jane Ellsworth) Salts Saltspo poon on keys keys and and rolle rollers. rs. (Pho (Photo to court courtes esy y of Nopha Nophach chai ai Cholthitchanta) Slide Slide.. (Illu (Illustr strati ation on by William illiam Co Cona nabl ble) e) Tenon enon-an -andd-so socke ckett join joint. t. (Pho (Photo to by Larr Larry y Co Conb nboy) oy) Thum Thumb b rest rest.. (Pho (Photo to by Larr Larry y Co Conb nboy oy)) Tremo remolo lo.. (Illus (Illustra tratio tion n by Willia illiam m Co Cona nable ble)) Trill. rill. (Illu (Illustr strat ation ion by William illiam Co Cona nable ble)) Turn. urn. (Illus (Illustra tratio tion n by Willia illiam m Co Cona nable ble)) Straigh Straightt versus versus underc undercut ut tone holes. holes. (Illustr (Illustratio ation n by Jane Ellswor Ellsworth th and William Conable) The The clarin clarinet et fami family ly.. (Phot (Photo o cour courtes tesy y of Co Conn nn-S -Selm elmer) er) BoehmBoehm-syst system em clarine clarinet: t: Keys Keys and tone holes. holes. (Photo (Photo courtesy courtesy of Eric Hoeprich; diagram from Anthony Baines, used with permission from W. W. Norton) German German-sys -system tem clarine clarinet: t: Keys Keys and tone tone holes. holes. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of Eric Hoeprich; diagram from Anthony Baines, used with permission from W. W. Norton) AlbertAlbert-syst system em clarine clarinet: t: Keys Keys and tone tone holes. holes. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments; diagram from Anthony Anthon y Baines, used with permission from W. W. W. W. Norton) Tenor enor chalum chalumeau eau by J. C. Denner Denner.. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of David David Ros Ross) s) Two-key wo-key clarine clarinett by Seggel Seggelke, ke, after after Denner Denner.. (Photo (Photo by Larry Larry Conboy) Five-ke Five-key y clarinet clarinet by Gouldin Goulding, g, ca. 1805. 1805. (Photo (Photo by Larry Larry Conboy Conboy)) Thirtee Thirteen-k n-key ey clarine clarinett by Bauman Baumann, n, ca. 1825. 1825. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of Nophachai Cholthitchanta) Basset Basset horn by Griesb Griesbache acherr, ca. 1800. 1800. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments) Bass Bass clarine clarinet, t, anonym anonymous, ous, ca. 1850. 1850. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of Bruno Bruno Kampmann)
Figure Figure 40. Figure Figure 41. Figure Figure 42. Figur Figuree 43. 43. Figur Figuree 44. 44. Figu Figure re 45. 45. Figur Figuree 46. 46. Figur Figuree 47. 47. Figure Figure 48. Figur Figuree 49. 49. Figur Figuree 50. 50.
Twelve-k welve-key ey clarinet clarinet by Tauber auber,, ca. 1810. 1810. (Photo (Photo courtesy courtesy of the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments) Hinge Hinge key. key. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of the Edinbu Edinburg rgh h Univer University sity Collect Collection ion of Historic Musical Instruments) Rollers Rollers and saltspoo saltspoon n keys. keys. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of the Edinbu Edinburg rgh h University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments) Key Key parts parts and and screw screws. s. (Pho (Photo to by Larr Larry y Co Conb nboy) oy) Need Needle le sprin spring. g. (Pho (Photo to by Larry Larry Co Conb nboy oy)) Flat Flat sp spri ring ng.. (Pho (Photo to by Larr Larry y Co Conb nboy oy)) Histo Histori rica call mo moun untt type types. s. (Dra (Drawi wing ng from from Rend Rendal all; l; used used with with permission from W. W. Norton) Keys Keys mo moun unte ted d in a swell swelling ing.. (Pho (Photo to by Larry Larry Co Conb nboy oy)) Saddle Saddle mount. mount. (Photo (Photo courtes courtesy y of the Edinbu Edinburgh rgh Univers University ity Collection of Historic Musical Instruments) The The histo historic rical al deve develop lopme ment nt of mo mout uthp hpiec ieces es.. (Dra (Drawi wing ng from from Rendall; used with permission from W. W. W. W. Norton) Comp Co mpon onen ents ts of a mo moder dern n mo mout uthp hpiec iece. e. (Illu (Illustr strati ation on by Jane Jane Ellsworth)
Foreword
Jane Ellsworth is a perfect choice to write A Dictionary for the the Modern Clarinetist . She is a fine clarinetist and a meticulous scholar with both a DMA in clarinet performance and a PhD in musicology. Her DMA dissertation is a thorough study of “Clarinet Music by British Composers, 1800–1914: A Repertoiral Survey” (The Ohio State University, 1991) and her PhD dissertation is the groundbreaking study “The Clarinet in Early America, 1758–1820” (The Ohio State University, 2004). Ellsworth has also been active for years with the International Clarinet Association, judging and coordinating their research competition. She has performed and lectured in Europe, Asia, and South America as well as throughout the United States. She also plays with the Spokane Symphony Orchestra and currently serves as treasurer of the Haydn Society of North America. This book is modelled after A Dictionary for the (2009) by Susan J. the Modern Flutist (2009) Maclagan, but treats items relating only to the clarinet. Ellsworth includes clearly written and concise dictionary references to many fascinating, unusual, and sometimes neglected topics. These include clarinet acoustics, materials, unusual instruments, and fingering systems. There are also entries on clarinetists, composers, inventors, and makers such as Carl Baermann, Heinrich Baermann, Richard Mühlfeld, Georg Ottensteiner, Louis-Auguste Buffet, Adolphe Sax, Anton Stadler, Stadl er, Josef Beer, Simeon Bellison, Arthur Benade, Daniel Bonade, Ernesto Cavallini, Eric Hoeprich, Iwan Müller, Bernhard Crusell, Selmer, and many others. Appendixes present illustrations of parts of the clarinet, mouthpiece, keys, and springs. Ellsworth’s book provides quick answers on many topics and it reflects her careful research and quick mind. It is a pleasure to have it at my side with other reference books. —Albert R. Rice
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to numerous individuals who gave generously of their time to assist in various ways with this dictionary. First and foremost I thank Albert Rice, who proofed a number of entries related to the organological history of the clarinet, shared photographs and other materials, and gave constant encouragement about the project. His unstinting help (not only to me, but to the many other clarinetists around the world with whom he is always in correspondence) is much valued and appreciated by the clarinet community at large. Expert repair technicians and instrument/mouthpiece makers Clark Fobes, Stephen Fox, Walter Walter Grabner, and Larry Naylor helped to untangle some terms related to clarinet keywork, maintenance, and repair. Stephen Fox also reviewed the acousticsrelated entries for accuracy and readability. Larry Conboy, of the Eastern Washington Washington University Graphics Department, produced many of the excellent photos used throughout this dictionary. Other individuals who provided photographs, illustrations, or other types of help were Michael Bryant, Deborah Check Reeves, Nophachai Cholthitchanta, Jerry Disney, Eric Hoeprich, Mike Kamphuis and Stephanie Richards of Conn-Selmer, Bruno Kampmann, Howard Klug, Arnold Myers of the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments, and David Ross. I am grateful for the assistance of all these individuals, and they are further credited in the captions of the images they provided. My husband Bill Conable contributed hours of proofreading and help with the creation of several illustrations, as well as limitless patience and encouragement during the time I spent writing this dictionary. In addition to these wonderful colleagues and friends, I am indebted to numerous individuals at Scarecrow Press— especially Bennett Graff, who invited me to write this dictionary in the first place, and David Daniels, the series editor for these instrument dictionaries. Their help has been invaluable.
Introduction “When I took the first survey of my undertaking, I found our speech copious without order, and energetick without rules: wherever I turned my view there was perplexity to be disentangled, and confusion to be regulated.” —Samuel Johnson, preface to A Dictionary of the the English Language, 1755
It has been more than 250 years since Samuel Johnson undertook to write a comprehensive English dictionary. Although much has changed about the task of lexicography since his day, many of the essential questions and challenges remain the same. What is the proper scope of a dictionary? Who decides what terms will be included, or what a “correct” definition is, and how? Should the definitions be descriptive (reflective of current use in all its “wild exuberance,” to use Johnson’s colorful phrase) or prescriptive (attempting to bring some order to unstandardized usage by recommending some uses over others)? The answers to such questions depend on the type of dictionary, its intended audience, and the lexicographical philosophy adopted by the writer. I offer an explanation of my approach below.
ABOUT THIS DICTIONARY This is the first dictionary of clarinet terms to be published. As a special-subject dictionary, its scope is narrowly circumscribed, but within that scope the intent is to cover as many aspects of the subject as possible: the clarinet’s structure and mechanism, acoustics, history hi story,, pedagogy, performance, and to some extent biography b iography.. The terms have been chosen through close examination of the extensive literature on the clarinet; by consultation with a variety of professionals engaged in clarinet-related activities (performers, makers, repair technicians, and scholars); and through the author’s practical knowledge, gained over forty years of intensive activity as a clarinetist and musicologist. In general the approach has been descriptive—the terms appearing as headwords represent the usage that seems to be the most common. Less commonly used terms are mentioned within these main entries, or are given a separate
headword that redirects the reader to the more commonly used term (see “How Entry Terms Are Shown”). It will come as no surprise to anyone conversant in “clarinetspeak,” however, that there are often multiple terms used equally commonly for the same object or concept. This is sometimes the result of national differences (especially American versus British English), but it also reflects the fact that there has never been any kind of forum for agreement between users of this terminology. Perhaps this dictionary can serve such a purpose. This dictionary also contains some general musical terms that the clarinetist is likely to come across and some that may not be directly related to the clarinet but serve to complete a “cluster” of related terms. Nevertheless, there is no substitute for a good general music dictionary, which every musician should have on the studio shelf. The biographical entries in this volume require special explanation. Thousands of individuals have contributed to the history of the clarinet, in large and small ways and in many diverse areas. Within the somewhat confined space of a single-volume dictionary, this makes decisions of inclusion and exclusion particularly difficult and inevitably subjective. I have tried to include entries for people who have had an especially significant impact on the clarinet as a physical object (inventors, designers of key systems, manufacturers), who have exerted a wide influence not just as performers but also as teachers, and who have added to our knowledge through the scholarly study of the instrument. Another author might well have chosen to include at least some biographies that are different from those found here. Fortunately the field of clarinet biography is well served by other literature (see the selected bibliography), so it is possible to find information about the many important individuals who do not appear in this volume. Entries have also been included for a few composers who have contributed importantly to the clarinet’s repertoire. Here again the choice has been subjective, and because of limited space, quite selective; I have included composers who have written solo or chamber works that have remained at the very top of the standard concert repertoire over time. The clarinet’s repertoire is rich, though, and there are many fine composers and works not mentioned here. Interested readers should consult the reference works by Brixel, Heim, and Opperman listed in the “Repertoire” section of the selected bibliography at the end of this dictionary.
HOW ENTRY TERMS ARE SHOWN Headwords are listed in bold type. A slash between two words in the headword—for example, “throat tones/register”—indicates that either word may be used without altering the essential meaning. Parentheses around a portion of the headword—for example, “block (mount)”—indicate that the enclosed word may or may not be present in a given use of that term, or serve to clarify the context in which that
particular term is being defined. Immediately following the headword, where applicable, are alternative spellings, translations of non-English terms, and a listing of the term in other languages. Within each entry, terms in bold may be found as separate headwords, with their own definitions. Where multiple meanings are given for a term, the first is the primary meaning. Related terms that may enhance the reader’s understanding of an entry or provide additional context are listed at the end of the entry. A number of terms are in fairly common use but, for various reasons, have not been judged to be the most accurate or correct terms for the object or concept they purport to represent. These terms have been given their own headwords, but their entries redirect the reader to the headword that has been deemed more appropriate.
OCTAVE DESIGNATIONS AND PITCH TRANSPOSITION The style used in this dictionary for pitch names is that recommended by the Acoustical Society of America, called scientific pitch notation. It is shown in figure 1.
William Conable Figure 1. Scientific pitch nomenclature used in this dictionary. Illustration by William
Nearly all members of the clarinet family are transposing instruments; in this dictionary, references will be to the written rather than sounding pitches unless otherwise noted. Thus, for example, the lowest standard pitch of most of the clarinet family is given as E3. In addition, because clarinet pitch names for the same fingering differ depending on register, pitches will frequently be referred to using both register names as context demands; for example, “E3/B4 key” refers to a key that produces E3 in the lower register and B4 in the higher.
FINGERING DESIGNATIONS When it is necessary to refer to holes or keys operated by particular fingers, the hands
will be referred to as L (or LH) for the left hand and R (or RH) for the right. Fingers will be numbered starting with the thumb as 0 (zero) and proceeding in numerical order toward the little fingers, as shown in figure 2. Thus “L0” refers to the left thumb, “L1” to the left index finger, and so on.
Figure 2. Finger numbering used in this dictionary. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
CLARINET AND PART NAMES As noted above, most members of the clarinet family are transposing instruments. All members of the family share largely similar fingerings, however; therefore, generic references to “the clarinet” may usually be understood to apply to all members of the family. When it is necessary to differentiate between clarinets of various sizes or pitched in various keys (see the term nominal pitch), references will be more specific (e.g., “alto clarinet in E-flat,” “basset horn in F,” etc.). The context of individual entries will also clarify these types of references. Directional references are as follows: The “top” of the clarinet is understood to be toward the mouthpiece, and the “bottom” toward the bell. The “underside” of the clarinet is the side where the thumbs (L0 and R0) are placed. The standard segments of the modern clarinet are (from top to bottom) the mouthpiece, barrel, upper joint, lower joint, and bell; historical clarinets are sometimes segmented differently. See appendixes 2 and 3 for illustrations of modern and historical clarinets and their parts.
THE DICTIONARY
A
abdominal breathing. See breathing. abdominal vibrato. A type of vibrato said to be initiated by a pulsing of the abdominal muscles. There is some disagreement among players and researchers as to the exact involvement of the abdominal muscles in this type of vibrato; recent scientific studies seem to show that even when a performer perceives the vibrato as originating with these muscles, the actual source of vibrato production is in the larynx, with small movements of the vocal folds that narrow and expand the glottis. Various thoracic muscles also seem to engage in supportive s upportive movement, leading some researchers to propose the term “thoraco-abdominal” vibrato. The older term “diaphragmatic vibrato” is now viewed as inaccurate, since the diaphragm has little to no involvement in the process. See also finger vibrato, jaw vibrato, laryngeal vibrato, lip vibrato. absolute pitch. The ability to hear a pitch and identify it exactly without comparing it to, or measuring it against, another reference pitch. This ability is usually innate (although some claim it can be learned), and is not confined to musicians. It should not be confused with relative pitch, which is the ability to identify one pitch in relation to another; this is a skill that is readily developed through training. Absolute pitch is relatively rare. ABS plastic. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene. A material used in the manufacture of plastic clarinets. It can be injection-molded and is valued for its impact resistance, hence its use primarily for inexpensive clarinets for beginning students. See student clarinet. acoustic impedance. The resistance of an acoustic medium to any force applied to it that results in the generation of a sound wave. In the case of the clarinet the medium is air, while the force applied to it originates in the vibration of the reed against the mouthpiece. Impedance can be measured by calculating the ratio of the applied force or
pressure to the speed of the wave displacement (i.e., particle velocity). The level of impedance will be higher for a denser medium than for a less dense one. On wind instruments, including the clarinet, where the wave propagates inside a tube, the area of the tube must also be factored into the calculation of impedance; this is called volume velocity (particle velocity multiplied by the tube area). When a sound wave travels through a clarinet, it meets a change in impedance at any opening it encounters (i.e., an open tone hole or the bell), since at that point it emerges from a confined tube into open air. The result is a reflection of most of the wave’s energy back into the tube at a point just beyond the opening (see end effect), setting up a standing wave in the air column; the exact amount of reflection depends on the ratio of the wavelength to the bore diameter. The small amount of the wave that is not reflected emerges as audible sound. Acoustic impedance can be calculated for each note on the clarinet, producing an acoustic impedance spectrum, which can provide important information about the s tability, intonation, and timbre of any given fingering. response, stability,
acoustic impedance spectrum. A graphic representation of the acoustic impedance for each pitch and fingering on a wind instrument. The graph displays wave amplitude on the y axis in decibels, and frequency on the x axis in hertz; the peaks of impedance occur at the natural resonance frequencies of the pipe. acoustic length. The length of the sound wave enclosed within a given length of pipe. The acoustic length of an open pipe with a cylindrical bore (for example, a flute) is a half wavelength, with pressure nodes at approximately each end of the pipe and a pressure anti-node in the middle. Because the clarinet is a closed pipe with a cylindrical bore, its acoustic length is one-quarter of a complete wavelength, from the wave’s pressure node at the mouthpiece to the antinode just slightly beyond the first open tone hole (or the bell, in the case where all tone holes are closed). The physical or sounding length of a pitch produced by any given fingering on the clarinet is therefore roughly four times its acoustic length.
Ellsworth Figure 3. The acoustic length of a closed pipe. Illustration by Jane Ellsworth
acoustics. 1. The branch of physics pertaining to the properties and behaviors of sound waves. 2. In more casual usage, the sound quality of any environment where sound production, such as music making, takes place (e.g., room acoustics). action. A general term referring to the quality of movement in a musical instrument’s key mechanism. A clarinet’s action can be said to be “stiff” if the keys take a great deal of finger effort to operate or “soft” if they if feel too easy to operate; this is mainly a result of how the springs are regulated. The degree of stiffness or softness in the action is largely a matter of personal preference, although closed keys must have enough spring strength that they do not leak. The action can be said to be “loose,” or to have play, if the keywork does not fit snugly in its mounting, or if interlinked keys do not move in a precisely synchronized manner. acute register. See altissimo (register) . adjusting screws. Small screws mounted above certain keys or pad cups that allow for easy adjusting of the closure of those keys or cups. A common adjustment screw found on all clarinets regulates the relationship between the throat A♭ and A keys. Another type of adjustment screw regulates the closing of two or more pad cups that are linked together in a series and need to close simultaneously, as with the pinky keys operated by L4 and R4; not all clarinets are made with this type of screw, screw, however. Both types are shown in figure 4.
Figure 4. Adjusting screws. On the left the adjusting screw is positioned over the pad cup of the F♯3 key; on the right it is positioned over the A4 key. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
adjustment. The regulation of the clarinet’s key mechanism. A clarinet in good adjustment will have pads that sit at correct heights above tone holes and seal tightly when closed, linked pad cups that close simultaneously, key tubing that fits between posts without excess looseness or play, and keys that move freely and quietly. The pinky keys on the Boehm system clarinet, because of their interlocking nature, are particularly susceptible to maladjustment through everyday use. Also common is the misalignment of the bridge mechanism connecting the keys on the upper and lower joints lower joints. Since small defects in adjustment can cause major problems in sound production, clarinetists usually schedule regular appointments with a repair technician to keep their instruments in top working order. order. See also al so overhaul. aerophone. In the Hornbostel-Sachs system of musical instrument classification, any instrument that sounds by means of a vibrating body of air. The clarinet belongs to the Hornbostel-Sachs class labeled 422, reed aerophones of the nonfree type (wind instruments in which the air is set in motion by a vibrating reed, and in which the vibrating air is contained inside the instrument itself); specifically, the HornbostelSachs number for the th e standard Western clarinet is 422.211.2. melanoxylon; also sometimes African blackwood. Scientific name Dalbergia melanoxylon referred to as grenadilla or mpingo. The most common type of wood used in the manufacture of clarinets. The tree is found primarily in the savannah areas of east and southeast Africa, especially in Tanzania and Mozambique. It grows extremely slowly, producing wood that is ideal for wind instrument manufacture because of its density and resistance to moisture retention and cracking. The color of the wood ranges from dark red or purple to deep black. African blackwood should not be confused with ebony ( Diospyros Diospyros melanoxylon melanoxylon), which belongs to a different genus. African blackwood is becoming threatened because of overharvesting, but several organizations have been formed for its conservation, and there has even been some success growing it in appropriate climates outside Africa. In addition, the French clarinet manufacturer Buffet-Crampon produces a clarinet (the “Greenline” model) made of a composite material that consists of 95 percent African blackwood powder (ground from the abundant scraps left over when billets of wood are turned on a lathe) mixed with a carbon fiber. This model has proven to be a successful alternative to traditional whole wood.
“senior.” In musical instrument i nstrument making, a term te rm ainé . French (fem. ainée), “elder,” “senior.” appended to a maker’s name to distinguish him from younger members of the same family who may carry the same name. An example is Clair Godefroy, ainé . See also jeune.
air column. The air enclosed within the bore of the clarinet as it is played. The term is also often extended to include the air being exhaled through the player’s respiratory system, although this is also (and perhaps more appropriately) called the airstream. airstream. See air column. Albert system. The name of a clarinet fingering system, popular from the 1840s until World War War II (and even later in some countries). The system s ystem is based on o n Adolphe Sax’s design of the 1840s, generally with right-hand ring keys for R2 and R3 (socalled spectacle keys or Brille), and on slightly later instruments a patent C♯ key for L4. Many Albert-system clarinets (especially those intended for the English market) also had a long A ♭4 touchpiece played by L2 rather than L1, and a wraparound register key. The Belgian instrument maker Eugène Albert (1816– 1890) adopted this key system by 1848 for the clarinets he made, which were sold widely in Europe and elsewhere. Although the system was not unique to Albert’s clarinets, in America it was known as the Albert system by 1890; English manufacturers also used this name, while English players called it the simple system. Albert’s own firm advertised it simply as “Clarinet system, 13 keys with two rings.” The Albert system is no longer manufactured since it has been largely superseded by the Boehm system, although old Albert-system clarinets are still used by folk musicians musi cians in Greece, Turkey, and some Eastern European countries, and also by some American jazz musicians. In addition to their specific key mechanism, Albert-system clarinets also generally had a larger bore size, larger tone holes, and a higher pitch level than modern Boehm-system instruments. See the illustration in appendix 2. alloy. A combination of two or more metals, or of a metal with a nonmetallic substance. Clarinet keys, key tubing, posts, and ferrules are often made of nickel silver, an alloy of copper, zinc, and nickel. alternate fingerings. 1. Fingerings that are used in cases where a standard fingering is not ideal. Alternate fingerings can be used to improve the intonation of a note, to make the fingering pattern of a technical passage smoother or more feasible, to facilitate a trill or tremolo, or to achieve a different tone quality from the standard fingering. 2. The design of the Boehm-system clarinet incorporates dual fingering possibilities for most of the notes produced by the pinky keys. This means that either left-hand or right-hand keys are available for the notes E3/B4, F3/C5, and F♯3/C♯5 on Boehm-system clarinets. The key for A ♭3/E♭5 is usually available only on the right hand, although some clarinets have a left-hand key for this note as well
(see, for example, full Boehm system). See duplicate keys.
altissimo (register). The highest register on the clarinet, from C♯6 upward. Less commonly called the extreme or acute register. alto clarinet. A member of the clarinet family, usually pitched in E-flat (a fifth below the standard B-flat soprano clarinet), which covers a range midway between the soprano and bass instruments of the family. Its written range extends from E3 (or sometimes E♭3) below the treble clef staff to at least G6 above. Its curved neck and upturned bell, both made of metal, make the alto clarinet look something like a small bass clarinet, although the alto clarinet’s neck has only a single gentle curve. Also in common with the bass clarinet, the alto clarinet usually has plateau keys rather than open holes, and an automatic double register-key mechanism. Numerous alto clarinets survive from the mid to late eighteenth century. They are pitched in G (a minor third below the soprano clarinet in B-flat) and have a small brass neck or a curved wooden barrel, a straight body with three to five keys, and a downward-facing flared bell. In 1808 Iwan Müller, in conjunction with the maker Heinrich Grenser, designed and built an alto clarinet (although the term “alto” was not used to describe the instrument until 1812) with sixteen keys and pitched in F, on which he played extensively as a soloist in concertos and chamber music. In the second decade of the century, when Müller developed his famous 13key mechanism for the soprano clarinet (see Müller system), he applied it also to the alto clarinet, and it was that instrument (rather than the soprano clarinet) that was approved by the committee of the Paris Conservatory. (For the importance of this decision, see the entry on Müller.) As the nineteenth century progressed, the alto clarinet became common in wind bands, both military and civilian. It is still found in bands today, but its use is in decline. It continues to play an important role in clarinet choirs, however. See the illustration in appendix 1. See also basset horn, clarinet d’amour, tenor clarinet. anchor tonguing. A type of tonguing in which the tip of the tongue is anchored on or behind the bottom teeth, and the portion of the tongue contacting the reed is farther back from the tip. This contrasts with the more standard method of tonguing, in which it is the tip of the tongue itself that contacts the reed. The consensus among most clarinet teachers and players is that anchor tonguing is to be avoided; the practice is not uncommon, however, and several clarinetists of high artistic reputation are known to have tongued successfully in this way. It is sometimes used by players with unusually long tongues. android clarinetist. A mechanical clarinet player built in 1838 in the Netherlands by
Cornelis Jacobus Van Oeckelen. It was exhibited in the United States in 1850, and in 1855 the impresario i mpresario P. P. T. T. Barnum bought it for his museum. Later it was housed (in pieces) at the University of Michigan. It was purchased and restored in 1998 by a collector in California.
antinode. A point of maximum amplitude in a standing wave pattern (such as that which exists in the clarinet when it is played). See also node. appoggiatura. From the Italian appoggiare, “to lean.” A musical ornament consisting of a dissonant pitch on a strong beat or portion of a beat, which resolves to a consonant pitch on a weak beat or portion of a beat. The dissonant pitch is usually a semitone or tone from the consonant one, and may be above or below it; it may be notated normally or as a smaller-sized note, with or without a diagonal slash through the note’s stem; and it may be short or long in duration, depending on the regional and chronological origin of the music in which it appears. See figure 5 for examples. Long appoggiaturas generally took half of the value of the note to which they were attached (unless that note was dotted, in which case the appoggiatura took two-thirds of its value). During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and even for the first half of the nineteenth, most treatises indicated that the short appoggiatura, like the long, occurred on the beat. This practice gradually changed over the course c ourse of the nineteenth century, however, however, and short appoggiaturas were played quickly and before the beat (i.e., in an unstressed rather than in a stressed or strong metrical position).
Figure 5. Appoggiaturas. The illustration shows several ways that appoggiaturas may be notated. Illustration by William Conable
Arnold, Sir Malcolm (1921–2006). English composer. He was known for his light style, verging on that of popular music, but was also capable of writing serious, expressive works. In addition to nine symphonies and many movie scores (including The Bridge on the River Kwai, which won an Oscar), Arnold wrote a great deal of chamber music for winds and contributed a number of important works to the clarinet repertoire . These spanned his entire career, and include the following: Overture for wind octet (1940); Wind Quintet, op. 2 (1942); Three Shanties, op. 4, for wind quintet (1943); Clarinet Concerto no. 1, op. 20, with string orchestra (1948); Sonatina, op. 29, for clarinet and piano (1951); Fantasy for flute and clarinet (1952); Divertimento, op. 37, for flute, oboe, and clarinet (1953);
Scherzettino for clarinet and piano (1954, from the film You Know What Sailors Are); Fantasy, op. 87, for solo clarinet (1966); Trevelyan Suite, op. 96, for ten winds (1967); Clarinet Concerto no. 2, op. 115 (1974); Divertimento for two clarinets, op. 135 (1988); and Divertimento, op. 137, for wind octet (1988).
articulated key. 1. Any key with two or more moving sections connected by joints. Articulated keys are usually used when the depression of a touchpiece must result in the closing, rather than the opening, of a tone hole. Also called a bascule key. Illustrated in figure 6. See also open key. 2. Some clarinets (especially from the early to mid-twentieth century) incorporate a so-called “articulated” C♯/G♯ key mechanism. This mechanism allows any of the right-hand ring keys to close the C♯/G♯ tone hole while L4 depresses the key holding that tone hole open; this allows, for example, for a smooth trill between F♯5 and G♯5. The mechanism necessitates an extra ring key for L3 (connected with the right-hand ring keys), the placement of the C♯/G♯ tone hole lower on the tube (necessitating the drilling of the tone hole through the lower tenon of the upper joint), and the mounting of the C♯/G♯ key on the lower joint rather than the upper. The entire mechanism is governed by two springs: a weaker one that holds the key open and a stronger one that overcomes the weaker spring to close the key. The components are shown in figure 7.
from Rendall; with permission permission from W.W W.W.. Norton Figure 6. An articulated key on an early clarinet. Drawing from
Figure 7. The articulated C♯/G♯ mechanism. A. The extra ring key (for L3); B. The tone hole drilled through the tenon of the upper joint; C. The G♯ key mounted on the lower joint; D. The mechanism linking the upper and lower joints. Photo courtesy of Jerry Jerry Disney
artificial ivory. Any one of a number of plastic materials with the appearance of ivory. It is used on replicas of historic clarinets to replace ferrules and other fittings that would originally have been made from ivory, the harvest of which is now largely illegal. rundo donax. The plant from which clarinet reeds are made. Also called cane. Although Arundo donax can be grown in many locations, the best plants for reed making grow in the Mediterranean basin (southern France— specifically the Var region—and Spain) and parts of South America (especially Argentina). Large commercial plantations have been developed in these areas for the cultivation of Arundo donax.
assistant/associate assistant/associate principal clarinetist. See principal clarinetist. ATG system. sy stem. A system of clarinet reed adjustment invented by Thomas Ridenour. The acronym stands for “against the grain.” The system uses a sandpaper block– like tool that is rubbed along the vamp of the reed from the tip toward the thickest part of the vamp—in contrast to the usual manner of work, which proceeds in the opposite direction. attack. A term commonly used to describe the beginning of a tone. In acoustics, the attack is recognized as a crucial identifying feature of an instrument’s timbre. Acousticians speak of “starting transients,” which are sounds of short duration at
the very beginning of a tone, before the actual tone starts to “speak.” The starting transient may include a weak component of the tone’s fundamental, as well as nonharmonic components. The duration of the starting transient varies according to the type of instrument, and within any given instrument according to register and type of articulation. On the clarinet, for example, the starting transient of a tongued note will be shorter than that of a nontongued note, and somewhat shorter in the high register than in the t he low. The response of the reed also has a significant effect on the duration of the starting transient.
B
Backun, Morrie (b. 1955). Owner of the Canadian firm Backun Musical Services of Vancouver, British Columbia. Backun began as a flute maker and woodwind repair technician, but gained international stature around the year 2000 when he began designing and manufacturing clarinet barrels and bells made from exotic woods. The Backun product line soon expanded to include mouthpieces and, most recently, recently, high-end hi gh-end professional clarinets. From 2006 to 2010, Backun was associated with the Conn-Selmer corporation, for whom he designed a clarinet; he now produces his own models. Backun has become known for sophisticated computer-aided design and manufacturing manufacturin g technology. Baermann, Carl (1810–1885). German clarinetist, son of the virtuoso Heinrich Baermann. Carl Baermann is best remembered today for his method book entitled Vollständige Clarinett-Schule (Complete Clarinet School) of 1864–1875, parts of which are still used in the training of clarinet players. He also composed a large number of concert pieces for the clarinet, and his editions of Weber’s clarinet works transmitted his father’s style of ornamentation to subsequent generations. He collaborated with the Munich instrument maker Georg Ottensteiner on the design of a clarinet that was used by Richard Mühlfeld, among others, and that played an important role in the development of today’s German-system clarinet. See Baermann system. Baermann, Heinrich (1784–1847). Virtuoso German clarinetist of the first half of the nineteenth century. Many of the standard works in the clarinet repertoire from this period were written for him, including most of Weber’s clarinet compositions, Mendelssohn’s Concert Pieces, and Meyerbeer’s Clarinet Quintet, among others. He served in the Munich court orchestra from 1807 to 1834; during this time and for a number of years afterward he also toured extensively as a soloist, traveling to the major continental capitals as well as to England and Russia. He composed a
number of concert works for the clarinet, including at least one concerto.
Baermann system. A clarinet fingering system designed in the 1850s by Carl Baermann, working with the Munich instrument maker Georg Ottensteiner, which established the basis for today’s German-system clarinets. Carl Baermann described his motivation for the design in his Vollständige Clarinett-Schule as “to lighten and simplify the key-mechanism” and to provide both right- and left-hand fingerings for “all the most difficult notes.” He also wanted to relocate the tone holes for better intonation. The system uses seventeen keys and four rings, and combines some of the features of the new systems that Ottensteiner had encountered during his journeyman period in Paris (including the Boehm system) with Ottensteiner’s own ideas. The latter include (1) ring keys for L1 and L2, including a vent that allows the production of a good F♯4 (with L0 only); (2) alternative keys on the upper joint for E♭4/B♭5 and F4/C6; (3) a small, downwardpointing flange attached to the L4 key used for C♯4/G♯5, to enable it to be played by R1 as well; (4) ring keys for R2 and R3 (with a vent) to allow an easy fingering for B3/F♯5; (5) alternative fingerings for B♭3/F5 and A♭3/E♭5 played by L4; and (6) a key for R0 that not only gives an alternative fingering for F♯3/C♯5, but also facilitates an easier trill between E3/B4 and F♯3/C♯5. baffle. The sloping area directly opposite the window on the inside of a mouthpiece. The shape of the baffle (ranging from straight in all directions to slightly convex or concave in one or more areas and directions) has an effect on the “brightness” or “darkness” of the clarinet’s sound, and can have an effect on pitch as well. A straight baffle will tend toward a brighter sound, while a slight concavity will sound darker; a so-called ski-slope baffle, which combines attributes of both types, strikes a middle ground. Baffle shape works in conjunction with the width of the mouthpiece’s chamber and the size of its bore, and a mouthpiece maker must consider all of these factors in relation to each other to design and produce effective mouthpieces. See illustration in appendix 5. Bakelite™. The commercial name for polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride, an early type of plastic. It is a thermosetting phenol formaldehyde developed in 1907 by Leo Baekeland. Because of its electrical nonconductivity and heat resistance, it was used in electrical applications as well as for other nonelectric products. While many types of plastics have been used in the manufacture of clarinets, it seems that Bakelite was not used. Manufacturers often had their own proprietary plastic compounds, some of which had characteristics similar to Bakelite; for example, in the mid-1920s the Conn Company in the United States produced clarinets in a material they called “Zyloid,” which they described as a “new composition developed by our own engineers as a distinct improvement over materials used
heretofore in the bodies of clarinets.” Because of the need to guard trade secrets, the components of such compounds are not usually disclosed by manufacturers, making it difficult to determine the exact relationship of these materials to Bakelite.
bark. 1. The tough outer “skin” of the Arundo donax plant. 2. The area of a finished reed where this skin is left intact. See illustration under reed. Baroque clarinet. A now-common term used to describe clarinets with two and three keys made by the Denner family and other makers from approximately the first half of the eighteenth century. Baroque pitch. A term used by some performers and scholars involved in the historical performance movement to designate a modern, generalized version of the pitch level used in the Baroque period, namely, A = 415 Hz, about a half step lower than modern concert pitch (A = 440 Hz). In reality, Baroque period pitch ranged widely; in modern performances by historically informed players and ensembles, French Baroque music is often played at A = 392 (so-called French Baroque pitch), while some German music, especially that involving vocal parts, might be performed at A = 466 (called Chorton, or choir pitch), about a half step higher than modern concert pitch. Haynes (see bibliography) records eighteenth-century clarinets at pitch pi tch levels ranging from A = 411 411 to A = 469; Baroque clarinets, from the period 1700–1730, are typically near A = 415–417. See also Classical pitch . barrel. The part of the clarinet that connects the mouthpiece to the upper joint. On the earliest clarinets the mouthpiece and barrel were constructed in a single piece; and although the separation of the barrel and mouthpiece into two components occurred around the middle of the eighteenth century, many makers continued to use the single-piece construction through much of the eighteenth century. In outer appearance, barrels on early clarinets usually have a pear shape, with a rounded bulge toward the bottom end; modern barrels typically have a straighter outer contour, although there is still usually a gentle widening from top to bottom. The overall mass of the barrel can affect sound quality; barrels with greater mass generally sound “darker” than barrels with less mass. Internally, the bore of the barrel can take a variety of shapes, from cylindrical to a reverse cone or taper (narrowing very slightly from top to bottom), and this affects intonation and resistance. The barrel is used for tuning purposes (for this reason it is sometimes called the tuning socket) and can be pulled out or pushed in to cause small changes in intonation. The standard barrel is 66 millimeters, but barrels are also made in different lengths, ranging from 62 to 68 millimeters, for use when greater changes in overall intonation are necessary. Because the barrel has such significant effects on the clarinet’s tuning, response, and timbre, many players put considerable effort
into finding a barrel with their preferred characteristics, and makers have responded to this need by producing a host of barrels in varying materials and configurations. It should be noted that some nineteenth-century clarinets (such as Louis-Auguste Buffet’s early Boehm-system models) did not have barrels; the extra length was simply added to the top of the upper joint. See also Moennig barrel.
Barret action. On some clarinets (such as the Clinton-system clarinet), this mechanism is present to allow a single side key on the upper joint upper joint (played by the middle phalange of R1) to produce either E♭4/B♭5 or F4/C6, depending on whether or not the ring for L2 is depressed or raised; a ring for L3 allows the R1 key to remain depressed, enabling otherwise awkward note combinations (for example, C4 to E♭4, D♭4 to E♭4, and E♭4 to F4) to be accomplished more simply s imply,, smoothly, and quickly. Clarinets with the Barret action mechanism were made between the 1860s and about 1930. bascule key. French clef à bascule. See articulated key. base metal. 1. Any nonprecious metal, such as iron, nickel, zinc, copper, or lead. 2. The predominant metal in an alloy. 3. The metal found underneath plating. Clarinet keys, for example, are usually made of a base metal of nickel silver (itself an alloy), which is later plated with a precious metal such as silver, or perhaps with pure nickel. See also gold plating. base plate. See foot plate. bass clarinet. French clarinette basse; German Baßklarinette; Italian clarone; Spanish clarinete bajo. A member of the clarinet family, usually pitched in B-flat and sounding an octave below the standard B-flat soprano clarinet. Bass clarinets in C and A once existed. Those in C appeared early in the instrument’s history but became obsolete during the late nineteenth ninet eenth century. Those in A were offered by a variety of manufacturers and continued to be made into the twentieth century, but are now essentially obsolete (although some makers will manufacture a bass clarinet in A on request). Bass clarinets have been made in a wide variety of shapes and key systems since the mid-eighteenth century, and the instrument’s design was not standardized until the late nineteenth century. The modern bass clarinet has a straight body made of wood, ebonite, or plastic and a curved neck and upturned bell made of metal. Like all members of the clarinet family today, it is commonly available with either a Boehm or a German fingering system. Because the tone holes on the bass clarinet are large, there are no open finger holes; covered plateau keys are used instead. Most modern instruments incorporate an automatic double register key mechanism to provide additional venting for the upper register, and an
extra tone hole for throat B♭ with a mechanism that also works automatically. Student-model bass clarinets generally allow for the normal clarinet range down to low E (or sometimes E ♭), but professional bass clarinetists prefer instruments with extensions to low C, since many important works in the orchestral and solo repertoire require this range. Because of the instrument’s large size, it is usually provided with a neck strap or an endpin for extra support and, in the case of the endpin, for height adjustment. The earliest prototype bass clarinets were made in Germany around or after 1750. A famous sickle-shaped example by the Mayrhofer workshop in Passau can be dated about 1765. The first maker to manufacture a reliable, workable design was Heinrich Grenser of Dresden, whose bass clarinets were bassoon-shaped. He first announced his “invention” in 1793. It is notable that an American maker, George Catlin (Hartford, Connecticut), developed and manufactured a bassoonshaped bass clarinet (which he called a clarion) beginning around 1810; it is likely that he came up with his design independently, without having seen European models. The bassoon shape was widely adopted for use in military bands, especially because of its suitability for marching. Other types of bass clarinets in the nineteenth century were serpent-shaped, ophicleide-shaped, straight, or straight with a butt joint. Important contributions to the overall design and key mechanism were made by J. H. G. Streitwolf, Louis-Auguste Buffet, and Adolphe Sax, among others. Metal ophicleide-shaped bass clarinets, called “paper clip” models, were made in compact form for marching by Leblanc as late as the 1960s. In addition to its use in military bands, the bass clarinet was used in orchestras (with especially fine use by opera composers), but found a very limited place as a solo or chamber music instrument in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the later twentieth century the solo and chamber repertoire expanded greatly, and there have been a number of specialist solo players who have gained international stature. The bass clarinet is capable of a number of very effective extended techniques (such as slap tonguing), and these have been capitalized on by many contemporary composers for the instrument. The instrument has also found a home in jazz, especially beginning with the work of Eric Dolphy in the early 1960s. Notation for the bass clarinet usually takes one of two forms. The more common is French notation, which uses the treble clef; here the player fingers the pitches as they are written, although they sound a ninth lower. The second type of notation is called “German,” since it is found in many works by German composers (although it is sometimes used by a few non-Germans as well). It uses bass clef sounding a whole step lower than written; when it extends into treble clef, as it sometimes does, it may or may not need to be read by the player as French notation. Reading challenges can be compounded when the part is for bass clarinet in A (as in many
scores by Wagner and Mahler, and in a few commonly played works such as Ravel’s La Valse Valse); these parts are now played on instruments in B-flat, which the player must transpose down a half step in addition to reading in the given clef system. Most bass clarinet players come to the instrument after having played the soprano clarinet for an extended period. Although there are no significant fingering differences between these two instruments (apart from perhaps the altissimo register , and the register below written E3 on instruments with a low C extension), the bass clarinet requires some adjustment of embouchure and hand position in comparison to the soprano clarinet. Generally speaking the embouchure must be relatively relaxed, with careful attention to the proper location of the lower lip against the reed, and the hands must also remain relaxed and flexible. While these are qualities to strive for on any size of clarinet, they are crucial on the bass clarinet to attain a free sound in all registers, to avoid squeaks (a greater challenge on bass clarinet than on soprano), and to play difficult technical passages successfully. See illustration in appendix 1.
basset. French basset ; German Bassett ; Italian bassetto; literally “small bass.” A prefix added to the name of certain members of the clarinet family, indicating an extension of the range below the normal lowest note (written E3), usually to C3. See also basset clarinet, basset horn. basset clarinet. A soprano clarinet, usually pitched in A (there are also early examples in C and B-flat), with an extension of the low range to written C3 (rather than the normal E3). The term itself was coined by the modern scholar Jirí Kratochvíl in analogy with the extended range of the basset horn. The basset clarinet was developed in the 1770s, and its use was limited in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; but because it was associated with Anton Stadler, the clarinetist for whom Mozart wrote his solo clarinet works, it occupies a place of importance in the clarinet’s history. Stadler collaborated with the maker Theodor Lotz to improve the basset clarinet. Fragments of a clarinet quintet in Bflat (K. 516c) by Mozart, probably dating from 1787, descend to low D3, suggesting that Stadler had a B-flat clarinet with some kind of basset extension by that time. The first mention of the instrument in a written source is a concert announcement from February 1788, where it is stated that Stadler will play a concerto on a “Bass-Klarinet” that “has two more tones than the normal clarinet.” Sources from the early 1790s make it clear that, at least by that time, the extension was fully chromatic down to low C. Stadler apparently never paid Lotz for making two basset clarinets for him, and later he claimed that he himself had invented the instrument. Mozart’s basset clarinet music includes various opera arias with basset clarinet
obbligato, the Clarinet Quintet in A (K. 581, 1789), and the Clarinet Concerto in A (K. 622, 1791). Because autographs for the Quintet and Concerto are not extant, and these works were not published until the early nineteenth century (and then in versions for a clarinet with a conventional range), scholars and players have attempted to reconstruct the passages with basset notes, and various editions of the Quintet and Concerto have been issued reflecting differing opinions as to where the basset notes should be used. Basset clarinets continued to be made in small numbers in the nineteenth century. The recent discovery of several 1794 concert programs with engraved depictions of what is presumed to be Stadler’s basset clarinet has enabled period instrument makers to reconstruct that instrument, while several current makers of conventional clarinets have manufactured A clarinets with basset extensions so that players of modern Boehm- and German-system instruments can play the small but important basset clarinet repertoire (which, in addition to Mozart’s works, includes a number of compositions written in the second half of the twentieth century).
basset horn. French Cor de basset ; German Bassetthorn; Italian Corno [di] bassetto. A member of the clarinet family, usually pitched in F, which plays a fourth lower than the standard B-flat soprano clarinet. Its shape is similar to the alto clarinet, with a gently curved metal neck and an upturned bell, both made of metal. Its range also relates it to the alto clarinet, but the basset horn has an extension of the low range to written C3 (rather than the normal E3). Early basset horns had a small bore; modern makers sometimes enlarge it, minimizing or eliminating the difference in timbre from the alto clarinet. The basset horn was used by composers from the second half of the eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth, declining in popularity (but not disappearing) thereafter. The earliest basset horns date from about 1760. The Mayrhofer brothers, whose three surviving instruments date from the 1770s, claimed to have invented the instrument, but other examples are probably earlier. These instruments are sickleshaped, with a block just above the bell called a box (Buch or Kasten in German) through which the bore snakes several times in order to provide the tube length needed for the instrument’s range. They are made of wood covered in leather, with a backward-facing brass bell. Early basset horns have four to seven keys; the nominal pitch is usually F, but some are pitched in G. In the 1780s the maker Theodor Lotz began manufacturing eight-key basset horns consisting of straight sections without a leather covering connected by a knee joint, forming an angle of about 120 degrees, and this design was relatively common for a time. In the eighteenth century the basset horn trio seems to have been a popular combination, especially in and around Vienna, and a good deal of music was written for this grouping—by Mozart, among others. Mozart also wrote important basset horn parts in some of his operas, as well as in the so-called “Gran Partita”
serenade (K. 361/370a), the Maurische Trauermusik (K. 477/479a), and the Trauermusik (K. Requiem (K. 626). The names of a number of virtuoso players are known, including the Bohemians Anton David, Vincent Springer, and Franz Dvořák (or Dworschack), as well as Anton Stadler and his brother Johann. Basset horns continued to be made in the nineteenth century, and the first instructional materials for the instrument (by J. G. H. Backofen and John Mahon) appeared around 1803. New keys were added (some instruments had as many as eighteen total), and new body shapes and configurations were tried. Many nineteenth-century basset horns have a straight body without a box and either an angled barrel or a metal neck; some makers adopted a butt joint in place of the box. The latter instruments have an upward-facing brass bell. Music for the basset horn by nineteenth-century composers exists, including important orchestral parts by Beethoven and others and solo works by Mendelssohn, to name just a few works; but in general the quantity of music is less than in the eighteenth century. There was a small revival of interest in composing for the basset horn in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, most notably by Richard Strauss. Compositions using the basset horn continued to be written throughout the twentieth century, with especially important contributions in the second half of the century by Luciano Berio, Harrison Birtwistle, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and Jean Françaix. See illustrations in appendixes 1 and 3.
batyphon. Also bathyphon. Probably from the Greek words bathýs (low) and phonein (sound). The name of an early contrabass clarinet made by Wieprecht and Skorra of Berlin, patented in 1839. It was made in bassoon form, with eighteen to nineteen keys and a nominal pitch of C. An example of this instrument survives in Berlin. beak. The sloping area on the external profile of a mouthpiece. In a single-lip embouchure, the player’s teeth are placed on the beak, about one-quarter inch beyond the tip. See illustration in appendix 5. bearing. In machinery, any part that supports (“bears”) the movement of another part. The clarinet key mechanism incorporates a number of bearing points. For example, the end of a pivot screw, or a rod screw, is the bearing on which a segment of key tubing rotates. The clarinet also has a number of interlocking key mechanisms that use as bearings small arms with flat surfaces (often covered with bumpers to silence the mechanism), which transfer the motion from one key part to another. beats. An acoustic effect produced when two pitches of very slightly different frequencies are played simultaneously. The effect is caused by the interference of the two wave patterns, and is experienced by the ear as a fluctuation in volume—a
beating—the frequency of which is equal to the difference in frequency of the two pitches. Beats are often used in the tuning of instruments; for example, when two clarinets playing a unison pitch are not quite in tune, the intonation can be corrected by listening for the beats, and adjusting the pitch until they slow and eventually stop. At that point the two instruments will be in tune. See also combination tone.
Beer, Johann Joseph (1744–1812). The earliest clarinet virtuoso of international renown. He was born in Bohemia but spent his early career in Paris, where he made his solo debut at the Concert Spirituel in 1771. Beer toured widely throughout all of Europe, including during the periods when he had steady job appointments; beginning in 1783 he was employed at the Imperial Theater in Moscow, and by 1792 he was employed at Potsdam in the court of Friedrich Wilhelm II. He was also an important clarinet teacher, numbering among his students some of the important virtuosi of the next generation, among them Michel Yost and Heinrich Baermann. Beer wrote three clarinet concertos and was the dedicatee of most of Carl Stamitz’s clarinet concertos. Beer played on a five-key clarinet and may have adopted a reed-below technique in the late 1770s. Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770–1827). German composer, active for most of his career in Vienna. Along with Haydn and Mozart, a member of the great triumvirate of late Classical-period composers, and also a pioneer of the early Romantic style. His works for clarinet include several early pieces of Harmoniemusik: the Trio, op. 11, for clarinet, cello, and piano; the Quintet for piano and winds, op. 16; and the Septet, op. 20, for winds and strings. He also arranged the Septet for clarinet trio as op. 38. In addition to these soloistic works, Beethoven wrote extensively for the clarinet in his orchestral music, and in works for chorus and orchestra. The three duets for clarinet and bassoon, WoO 27, long attributed to Beethoven, are now thought to be spurious. Beethoven’s Harmoniemusik includes the Octet for winds, op. 103, composed in Bonn before 1792; a Rondino for the same instruments, WoO 25, which was originally written as a finale to op. 103; a Sextet for winds, op. 71, probably composed around or before 1796; and a March in B-flat for wind sextet, WoO 29, composed in 1797–1798. The technical demands for the players in some of these works are quite challenging. The Quintet (1796), the t he op. 11 Trio (1797, nicknamed the “Gassenhauer” Trio), and the Septet (1800) were all premiered by the Viennese clarinetist Joseph Bähr (1770–1819). The Septet was especially popular, a fact which Beethoven (according to his friend, the pianist Czerny) apparently resented. All three of these works are standard in the repertoire of the modern clarinetist. Beethoven wrote for the basset horn only once, as part of the orchestra for the
ballet The Creatures of Prometheus, op. 43. It should be noted, however, that the clarinetist Joseph Friedlowsky, a friend and contemporary of Beethoven, made an arrangement of Beethoven’s Horn Sonata, op. 17, that substitutes basset horn for French horn.
beginner clarinet. See student clarinet. bell. The lowermost portion of the clarinet’s body, so called because of its shape: narrow at the top, with a gradual but pronounced curved flare along its length. On modern soprano clarinets the bell is a single piece, with a socket at its narrow end (allowing the bell to be attached to the tenon of the clarinet’s lower joint) and metal ferrules around the socket and at the wide bottom rim of the bell for strengthening and protection. On Baroque and early Classical clarinets the lowest portion of the instrument is a one-piece combination of stock and bell. The stock carries the socket, the tone hole for F/C, and the tone hole and swelling mount for the E/B key (if present). The separation of the stock and bell occurred during the later eighteenth century, and the stock section had largely disappeared (or, more properly stated, had been integrated into the lower joint) by 1810. Bell shape varies on the lower members of the clarinet family. Now obsolete is the clarinet d’amour, with its distinctive bulbous bell; the earliest basset clarinet may also have had this type of bell. The upturned bell, made most commonly of metal but sometimes of wood, has been prevalent on bass and contrabass clarinets since about the mid-nineteenth century. The purpose of the bell is to add length to the clarinet, and to allow for better tone quality and intonation on the so-called bell notes, primarily E3/B4, F3/C5, and F♯3/C♯5. The bell has also been found to have a subtle but noticeable effect on the overall timbre and response of the clarinet, and several makers have specialized in manufacturing bells in a variety of designs and wood types in order to allow players to choose bells that match their preferences. Bellison, Simeon (1881–1953). Russian-American clarinetist and pedagogue. Bellison was trained on the clarinet as a boy by his father, and between the ages of eleven and eighteen attended the Imperial Moscow Conservatory, where he graduated with a bachelor’s degree. He made his early career by playing in opera and symphony orchestras in Moscow, and by teaching. In 1902 he founded the Moscow Quintet for National Jewish Music, which toured throughout Russia, Latvia, and Poland. In 1915 he was named principal clarinet of the Imperial Opera Orchestra in St. Petersburg. He formed the group Zimro (clarinet, string quartet, and piano) in 1918, also for the performance of Jewish music, and this group toured extensively for three years through Russia, Asia, and North America. Prokofiev’s Overture on Hebrew Themes was written for Zimro.
While Zimro was on tour in the United States in 1920 Bellison was offered, and accepted, the position of principal clarinet in the New York Philharmonic, a post he occupied for twenty-eight years. In New York York he founded a chamber group, the Stringwood ensemble, with the same instrumentation as Zimro (the pianist was Arthur Loesser); this group gave programs that mixed Jewish music with nonJewish “classical” music. Bellison also continued his teaching activities, opening a private studio from his home and organizing a large clarinet choir under the auspices of the New York York Philharmonic Society. Throughout his life he was active as an arranger of clarinet music, including educational works and a great deal of music for clarinet choir. He was a lifelong Zionist and supporter of the cause of Jewish music and art; today the Rubin Academy of Music and Dance in Jerusalem houses an important collection of Bellison’s music.
bell notes. Pitches that use the full or almost full length of the clarinet when produced: E3/B4, F3/C5, and F♯3/C♯5. Benade, Arthur (1925–1987). American physicist. Also a flutist and clarinetist, Benade engaged in important research on the acoustics of wind instruments. For most of his career he was a professor at the Case Institute of Technology (now Case Western Reserve University) in Cleveland, Ohio. His activities as a practicing musician informed his research and gave him a noteworthy ability to convey his ideas in terms comprehensible to the layman. His writings include the books Horns, Strings and Harmony and Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics Acoustics, as well as articles published in Scientific American , Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , Galpin Society Journal, and elsewhere. He owned a collection of over 130 historical wind instruments. Benade developed the NX clarinet, an instrument with modifications to the key mechanism and a distinct bore shape (especially in the upper joint, which contains many deviations from the traditional cylindrical or polycylindrical shape of most clarinets). bending. See note bending. beta-blockers. A group of drugs, such as propranolol, sometimes used to ameliorate the symptoms of performance anxiety. The mechanism of these drugs involves inhibiting epinephrine and other stress hormones from binding to the beta receptors that are found on certain organs, muscles, and other tissues that are part of the body’s sympathetic nervous system. The original use of this type of drug was to treat several types of heart disease and hypertension; however, since about the mid1970s they have been used by musicians and other performers to treat the common symptoms of performance anxiety, including elevated heart rate, shortness of breath, sweating, trembling, and so on. Beta blockers are available by prescription
only, and decisions about their use should be made circumspectly and with medical advice and supervision. Anecdotal evidence suggests that they are very effective for some people, but that they may also have some negative effect on the performer’s ability to connect emotionally with the music and the audience.
bevel/beveled/beveling. When two surfaces of a solid meet at an angle that is not a right angle, the surfaces are said to be beveled. Reed knives usually have beveled edges. billet. In woodcutting, a piece of wood, roughly cut into a square or rectangular length, that is then shaped into a finished product. The joints of a clarinet begin as seasoned billets that are turned on a lathe to produce the rounded shape of the clarinet’s tube and flaring bell. To be constrained from moving freely. Clarinet keys sometimes bind because of bind. To dirt or dust in the mechanism, or because the posts at either end of a span of hinge tubing have shifted position slightly due to wood shrinkage or to impact damage (if the clarinet is bumped hard or dropped).
Binda clarinet. A design for a combination clarinet patented by Carl Binda in 1884. Unlike other combination clarinets, which operated on the principle of changing the length of the instrument, Binda’s design changed the bore volume. Its main feature was a series of ten outward-projecting cylinders, placed along the body on the right side of the instrument, each equipped with a moveable plunger. The plungers were connected to each other by bars and were pushed in or pulled to lower or raise the pitch of the entire instrument. Examples were made by Eugène Albert, but few survive and the clarinet was not a success. See also Clinton combination clarinet, Lässig clarinet, Leonesi system. biting. The use of too much lower jaw pressure in the embouchure. Biting is a common habit among young clarinetists; it causes the sound to become pinched and colorless (and in extreme cases can cut off the sound altogether) and limits a player’s dynamic range. It can also cause physical problems in the jaw and lower lip, and can add to unnecessary tension elsewhere in the body. bladder skin. See fish skin. blank. 1. An unfinished mouthpiece used by a mouthpiece maker to craft a final product. This is done by applying a particular facing and shaping the tip, rails, baffle, and bore to conform to manufacturer specifications or to the needs of an individual player pla yer..
2. A piece of cane that has been shaped into the basic form of a reed without the vamp. Commercial reed blanks can be purchased by players who want to finish them into final reeds that are tailored to their own playing preferences; some players cut their own blanks from tube cane.
block (mount). An early method for mounting certain types of keys. In constructing a block mount, the wood turner leaves a small knob or block of wood standing out from the main tube of the clarinet’s cl arinet’s body, body, in proximity to the tone hole that will be closed by the key. A channel is cut through the block to accept the shank of the key. A small hole is drilled through the block on either side of the channel, and through the key itself (either through its shank or through a rocker or metal lug extending down from the shank), and a brass pin is inserted through these holes to hold the key in place. Particularly long keys may require two or more blocks in their mounting, especially if they are articulated keys. See illustration in appendix 4. blue steel. High-carbon steel that has been tempered (heated and cooled) to a blue color, indicating a particular state of tensility. Blue steel is commonly used for clarinet springs. Also called blued steel. Boehm system. A clarinet fingering system developed by the maker Louis-Auguste Buffet jeune and the clarinetist Hyacinthe Klosé, first exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1839 and patented in 1844. It took as its starting point the clarinet design of Iwan Müller but also incorporated some features from Theobald Boehm’s flute; hence the name of the system. Boehm-system clarinets are the most widely used in the world today. In the 1844 patent Buffet called his clarinet a clarinette à anneaux mobiles — a clarinet with moving rings. Ring keys had been used on earlier clarinets; Adolphe Sax had received a patent for a clarinet with five rings in 1840. Buffet’s design placed the ring keys differently, as well as providing duplicate, interlocking keys for L4 and R4 (eliminating the need for sliding the pinky fingers between keys) and providing several alternate keys and fingerings for E♭4/B♭5. In Buffet’s design most of the forked fingerings are eliminated and the tone holes are placed in positions that are more acoustically correct, thus producing a timbre that is more even throughout all registers than it was on earlier clarinets. Buffet also mounted keys in a manner effective enough that it has changed in only minor ways since: screwing posts directly into the wooden body of the clarinet, rather than onto metal foot plates; using key tubing that pivots between posts for mounting the rings; and using needle springs for many of the keys. See illustration in appendix 2. Bohlen-Pierce clarinet. A clarinet that uses the Bohlen-Pierce scale, a scale based on
a division of the justly tuned twelfth (3:1) into thirteen steps. Such an instrument has been designed and built by Stephen Fox. It is outwardly a simple instrument, with mostly open finger holes plus the pinky-key mechanism of the Boehm clarinet, a throat key for L1, a register key, and one trill key on the right side.
Bonade, Daniel (1896–1976). French clarinetist and teacher of Swiss birth. He spent much of his career in the United States, where he served as principal clarinetist of the Philadelphia (1917–1922 and 1924–1930) and Cleveland (1933–1941) orchestras, among others. He was also the first clarinet teacher at the Curtis Institute of Music beginning in 1924, and later taught at the Cleveland Institute of Music (1933–1942) and Juilliard (1948–1960). Bonade taught many students who themselves became important American clarinet players and teachers, including Robert Marcellus, Mitchell Lurie, Anthony Gigliotti, and Bernard Portnoy, among many others. Bonade developed a mouthpiece model and reeds, which he sold to his students; from the late 1940s he was associated with the Leblanc Company and with them developed and marketed the Bonade ligature, which is still used by some clarinetists today. today. Boosey and Hawkes. English music publishers and instrument makers. Starting as a bookshop run by Thomas Boosey in 1792, the sheet music aspect of the business began in 1816, and the instrument manufacturing in 1851. In 1930 the firm merged with Hawkes and Son, also music publishers and instrument makers. In 2003 the instrument division was sold, and the company is now exclusively a publishing house. An important clarinet made by Boosey and Hawkes was the 1010 model, a large-bore instrument (15.2 millimeters) made between about 1930 and 1950, which was adopted by many of the finest English clarinetists and was the main source of their unique sound. Players of the 1010 model included Frederick Thurston, Jack Brymer, and Gervase de Peyer, among many others. clar inet’s body, body, in which the air column oscillates. bore. 1. The inner chamber of the clarinet’s The size of the bore usually increases with the length of the clarinet (the larger members of the clarinet family having correspondingly larger bore sizes), but even among similar-sized family members, bore sizes have varied over time and by maker. The bore size has a crucial and significant effect on a clarinet’s timbre, response, and intonation. The clarinet’s bore is approximately cylindrical (as opposed to the conical bore of the oboe and many other instruments). In most clarinets, however, there is some degree of deviation from precise cylindricality (bore perturbation) to correct the intonation of the twelfths. For example, a typical Boehm-system clarinet will usually have a slight narrowing (i.e., a reverse cone) from the top of the upper joint to about the tone hole for A4, and a flare from about the A ♭3/E♭5 tone hole to
the bottom of the lower joint. German clarinets traditionally have a more cylindrical lower joint, with the flare (or, more properly, a cone shape) occurring only at the very bottom of the joint. Bore sizes of modern B-flat soprano clarinets range from about 14.35 to 15.3 millimeters. The bore of the typical French Boehm-system clarinet used by most modern players measures approximately 14.6 millimeters; the typical Germansystem clarinet is 14.6–14.8 millimeters. A very small change in bore size has a large effect on a clarinet’s playing qualities; smaller bores produce stronger high partials and a more focused sound, while larger bores have the opposite tendency. tendency. Clarinet makers obviously avoid extremes that produce unacceptable tone quality and intonation, but because some players prefer larger or smaller bores for their particular playing qualities, a number of makers manufacture clarinets in the variety of bore sizes mentioned above. See also polycylindrical (bore). 2. The portion of the mouthpiece below the chamber. The mouthpiece bore is usually slightly conical, and the larger end connecting directly with the barrel is called the exit bore. See illustration in appendix 5.
bore oil. Any of a number of types of oils used to ameliorate drying of the wood of a clarinet. Most commercial bore oil is petroleum-based, but many clarinetists prefer to use vegetable-based oils (such as almond oil), and a few small companies produce vegetable-based bore oil commercially. See also oil/oiling. bore perturbation. Any decrease or enlargement of the basic bore of a wind instrument over a portion of its length. Types of bore perturbation in a clarinet include changes of bore dimension for tuning purposes, for example in a polycylindrical bore; the speaker tube; tone holes; and bell flare. boss. See swelling. bottom register. The lowest register of the clarinet, usually referred to as the chalumeau register. box. German Buch (“book”) or Kasten (“chest/box”). On many early basset horns, the square-shaped area just above the bell that contains the extension of the bore required for the lower pitches of the instrument. Like the body of these instruments, the box is usually made of wood and covered with leather. Inside the box, the bore takes two 180-degree turns before emerging into the bell. See illustration in appendix 3. boxwood. Scientific name Buxus sempervirens. A slow-growing hardwood used in the manufacture of clarinets during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and in
the twentieth century for the manufacture of replicas of historical clarinets.
Brahms, Johannes (1833–1897). Important German composer of the second half of the nineteenth century. He was born in Hamburg, where he spent his early career as a pianist, conductor, and composer, all activities he continued throughout his life. In the 1860s he began to spend increasing amounts of time in Vienna, eventually moving there permanently. In 1863–1864 he conducted the Vienna Singakademie, and from 1872 to 1875 he directed the concerts of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde. Brahms has often been viewed as a musical “Classicist” or a “conservative” Romantic, poised in opposition to the progressive compositional tendencies of Liszt (whom he admired as a pianist) and Wagner; Arnold Schoenberg, however, wrote a famous essay entitled “Brahms the Progressive,” in which he emphasizes Brahms’s innovations. Brahms declared his retirement from composition in 1890 and again in 1894; both times he was inspired out of his inactivity by the clarinetist Richard Mühlfeld, the clarinetist of the Meiningen Court Orchestra. For Mühlfeld Brahms composed four works that are staples of the clarinet repertoire: the Trio, op. 114, for clarinet, cello, and piano; the Quintet, op. 115, for clarinet and string quartet; and the two sonatas, op. 120, for clarinet and piano. Brahms composed the Trio and Quintet in the summer of 1891, while taking his annual holiday in the Austrian spa town of Bad Ischl. Both works were premiered at a private concert in November of the same year, with Mühlfeld on clarinet. His coperformers on the Trio were Brahms himself at the piano, and Robert Hausmann as the cellist; and for the Quintet, the Joachim Quartet, led by Brahms’s admired colleague, Joseph Joachim. The latter work is an especially fine example of Brahms’s most mature chamber-music style. It is in four thematically interconnected movements; the slow second movement includes an extraordinary middle section in a rhapsodic “gypsy” style. The two sonatas, in F minor and E-flat major, respectively, were also composed at Bad Ischl, in the summer of 1894. Their premiere occurred in January 1895 at the Tonkünstlerverein Tonkünstlerverein in Vienna, with Mühlfeld on clarinet and Brahms at the piano. When they were published later in the year, Brahms included transcriptions of the clarinet part for viola. Both the engraver’s copy and an autograph score are extant for the sonatas, and they differ in interesting ways, as noted by Eric Hoeprich (see bibliography) and others. brass. A metal that is an alloy of copper and zinc. In clarinet making, brass was used for keys and springs on early clarinets and also for crooks, bells, and other fittings on early low clarinets. The earliest all-metal clarinets were also made of brass. Because of its relatively low melting point, it is easily worked; this also makes it somewhat soft, however, although its hardness can be regulated to a
certain extent by altering the proportions of copper and zinc in the alloy.
break. The area of the clarinet’s scalar range where the lower and higher registers of the clarinet meet, and where the player must proceed from having very few fingers (or none) on the clarinet to having many (or all), or vice versa. The specific location of the break is between B♭4 and B♮4, but players use the phrase “crossing the break” more generally to refer to any successive fingering positions that move from the throat tones to the lower clarion register, or vice versa. Because of the change in the number of fingers used below and above the break, and because of the difference in resistance between pitches using few fingers and pitches using many, there can be a lack of connectedness in sound while crossing the break (especially ascending), and players usually spend a good deal of practice time working on efficient use of air, hands, and fingers to smooth out this connection. Most clarinetists also recognize a second break, between the top of the clarion register and the bottom of the altissimo register (that is, between C6 and C♯6). Also called the register break. slow, gradual process by which a wooden breaking in. A phrase referring to the slow, clarinet, or a reed, is acclimatized to being played. Because both wood and cane are subject to expansion and contraction as a result of heat and moisture from the player’s breath, a careful breaking-in period is necessary to ensure that a new clarinet will not crack or that a new reed reaches a state of stability where its playing qualities are optimized. The breaking-in process usually takes place over a length of time. At the beginning, the clarinet or reed is played for very short periods (say, ten minutes per day) and is then left to “rest” until the following day. The playing periods are gradually increased by small increments until the instrument or reed can be played continuously for the desired period of time with no ill effects.
Breath Builder. A device for increasing a woodwind player’s capacity to control the airstream. The device is a clear cylindrical plastic tube about 6 inches long containing a ping-pong ball of a size slightly less than the diameter of the tube. One end of the tube is sealed; the other end is pierced by four holes. A straw through which the player inhales and exhales is attached to the rim of one of these holes, while one or more of the other holes may be closed to vary resistance. Two straws are provided—one narrower than the other—to vary the amount of pressure applied by the user. The goal is to use air to displace the ping-pong ball to the top of the tube and to maintain the ping-pong ball in this displaced position for a length of time. The Breath Builder was invented by the bassoonist Harold Hansen. breathing. The process of inhalation and exhalation of air, by which life is sustained. For wind instrument players, including clarinetists, it also signifies the more
specialized use of air to set the air column in vibration, producing and sustaining tone on the instrument. Because there are a number of persistent myths and misconceptions about the breathing process as it pertains to the production of musical tone, the aim of this entry is to describe this process in terms that are physiologically and functionally accurate. Breathing involves various organs (principally the lungs, but also indirectly the viscera, which shift position slightly as the muscles around them contract and release), the moveable bony structure of the ribs (with joints connecting them to the thoracic vertebrae of the spine at the back, and cartilage connecting most of them to the sternum at the front), and muscles (the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles, the abdominal muscles, and the muscles of the pelvic floor). For the wind player, breathing is a natural but consciously controlled process; the physical mechanism is the same as in everyday, “normal” breathing, but the components are more exaggerated. Inhalation is the expansion of the chest cavity to allow air to fill the low-pressure state of the lungs. As they fill, the rib cage moves at all its joints, in all directions, to allow for this expansion. This multidirectional movement is the source of several interrelated misconceptions, which are often expressed pedagogically as follows: (1) “Don’t allow your shoulders to rise when you breathe.” This statement is usually meant to discourage chest breathing: the shallow breathing that occurs when some of the muscles of the breathing mechanism (particularly the intercostals and abdominals) are not allowed to move freely. When all muscles are working as they should, and the bony structure of the chest cavity is allowed to expand freely, there will in fact be a gentle movement of the shoulders. Artificially holding the shoulders down while breathing only restricts the ability of the lungs to expand to their full capacity. capacity. (2) “Breathe into your stomach/abdomen.” This statement, or one of its many variants, refers to a term commonly called abdominal breathing by wind players and teachers. It is physically impossible, of course, since air is taken into the lungs, not the stomach (when small amounts of air do make their way into the stomach, they can be uncomfortable and usually come out as a burp). What most teachers mean by this statement is that the abdominal muscles should be allowed to relax and expand outward as a result of the downward excursion of the diaphragm. (3) “Use your diaphragm to breathe,” or “support the air with your diaphragm.” These phrases are not wrong, strictly speaking, but do cause considerable confusion. The diaphragm is a large, dome-shaped muscle situated below the heart and lungs and above the abdominal viscera (stomach, liver, etc.). The bottom of the lungs connects to the top of the diaphragm via the pleura (a double-walled sac that encloses the lungs), and the diaphragm is connected by fibers to the front of the lumbar vertebrae of the spine and to the lowest of the ribs. The diaphragm contracts
(i.e., the dome becomes shallower) on inhalation, pulling the lungs down while pushing the lower ribs out and up, thus expanding the entire thoracic area and causing the low-pressure state that is filled by incoming air, as noted above. The diaphragm also pushes down on the viscera and muscles of the abdomen, causing a noticeable outward expansion as these shift position. This happens naturally and automatically; one can’t not use use the diaphragm. A phrase like “use your diaphragm to breathe” is a pedagogical tool that sometimes causes confusion on the part of students, who feel that they must somehow control the diaphragm on inhalation; what is actually needed is for the abdominal muscles to release to allow the diaphragm its full excursion. The release of air into the instrument to produce sound is a process that is more conscious and regulated than that of simple exhalation; the volume and rate of air flow need to be controlled to achieve nuances of timbre and dynamics. For the clarinetist, some of this control is created by the resistance inherent in the reed and mouthpiece, and to a lesser extent in the clarinet itself. Apart from this, however, it is the diaphragm that, in combination with the abdominal muscles, manages the speed and volume of air as it is released through the clarinet. This is what is usually known as breath support.
breath support. See breathing. bridge mechanism. A mechanism on the modern clarinet that connects the rings of the upper and lower joints with each other. Correct adjustment of the bridge mechanism is necessary to ensure that vent keys on both joints seal completely, and to enable the forked fingerings that are still sometimes used—especially one-andone B-flat.
Figure 8. The bridge mechanism. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
bright tone. A clarinet tone is said to be “bright” when it contains a large proportion of high-frequency partials. As with most words or phrases that describe timbre, the meaning is subjective and imprecise; there is no universally agreed-upon measurement that defines the range of partials in a bright tone, nor a consensus on whether the term is positive or negative. See also centered tone, covered tone, dark tone, spread tone. Brille. German “spectacles.” The name given to the early set of two ring keys on the lower joint of the clarinet, invented by Adolphe Sax, so called because they resemble a pair of spectacles. Also called spectacle keys. The Brille, situated over the tone holes for R2 and R3, enabled three fingers (R1, R2, and R3) to control four holes, and allowed for a B3/F♯5 and B ♭3/F5 that were well tuned and had simple fingerings. See ring (1).
Figure 9. The brille, or spectacle, key. Photo courtesy of Nophachai Nophachai Cholthitchanta
Brymer, Jack (1915–2003). One of the most important English clarinetists of the post–World War II era. He served as principal clarinetist of most of the major London orchestras: the Royal Philharmonic (1947–1963), the BBC Symphony (1963–1972), and the London Philharmonic (1972–1985). He taught at the Royal Academy of Music, the Guildhall School, and the Royal Military School of Music (Kneller Hall). Brymer made many recordings with these orchestras and also as a soloist. In addition he wrote three books: The Clarinet (1976), (1976), In the Orchestra Orchestra (1987), and an autobiography entitled From Where (1979). As equally at home Where I Sit (1979). in jazz and light music as he was in the classical style, Brymer was known for his floating, vibrato-filled tone. Buffet-Crampon. French manufacturer of wind instruments, including clarinets. The first member of the family, Denis Buffet-Auger (1783–1841), began his
workshop in Paris in 1825; the Buffet-Crampon brand name was created when his son, Jean-Louis Buffet (1813–1865), married Zoé Crampon in 1836. By 1850 a second workshop had been created in Mantes-la-Ville. In partnership with Pierre Goumas (b. 1827), the firm became Buffet-Crampon and Cie. in 1859. Goumas sold his portion of the business to Paul Evette and Ernest Schaeffer in 1885, who began their own company; after the death of Evette’s son a new company, again under the name Buffet-Crampon, was begun. In recent years the company has undergone several changes of ownership; in 1970 it was purchased by the Tolchin Group, which in turn was purchased in 1981 by Boosey and Hawkes. The latter joined The Music Group in 2003. By 2005 Buffet-Crampon was again an independent company and became the Groupe Buffet-Crampon in 2006 when it acquired the brass-instrument makers Antoine Courtois and Besson. Buffet-Crampon has led the clarinet market in sales since 1950, when it developed the highly successful R-13 model professional clarinet. It should be noted that Louis-Auguste Buffet (inventor in the 1840s, along with Hyacinthe Klosé, of the Boehm-system clarinet), though a member of the Buffet family, operated his business separately and independently from the BuffetCrampon firm.
Buffet, Louis-Auguste (1789–1864). French instrument maker, usually referred to simply as Auguste Buffet; in his lifetime he used the name Buffet jeune on his mark to distinguish himself from his older brother Denis (b. 1783), who sometimes used the name Buffet ainé . Auguste Buffet established an independent workshop in Paris in 1830, where he specialized in woodwind instruments. He was one of the most important figures in the nineteenth-century history of the clarinet; together with Hyacinthe Klosé he developed the Boehm-system clarinet in the 1840s. buffing. A finishing process that applies a smooth, polished surface to the wood of a clarinet or the metal of clarinet keys. Buffing is usually accomplished by hand rubbing the surface with a cloth (usually one to which a mild abrasive compound has been applied) or by pressing the surface against a motorized wheel with a similar cloth. The surface is then cleaned to produce a shine. bulbous bell. A type of bell found on clarinets d’amour. Instead of the outward flare found on a standard clarinet bell, a bulbous bell has a rounded, bulb-like shape (like that of an English horn). This type of bell affects the timbre of the instrument, giving it a darker, more covered sound. bumper. A small piece of cork, felt, or other similar material applied to parts of the clarinet mechanism to silence the movement of keys, to control key rise, or to manage the smooth interaction of interlocked key parts. See also shim.
bushing. See tone hole bushing. butt. The bottom end of a reed, opposite the tip. See illustration under the term reed. butt joint. On early bassoon-shaped low clarinets (bass and contrabass clarinets), and on some basset horns, the butt joint is the lowermost section of the instrument, containing the U-shaped portion of the bore —that is, where the descending section of the bore turns around and ascends. See illustration in appendix 3.
C
cadenza. A composed or improvised passage of music, often without bar lines and typically performed in a free, unmeasured rhythmic style. Instrumental cadenzas are usually found in types of music where a soloist is accompanied by an orchestra, piano, or other instruments; they are most common in concertos, usually occurring near the end of the first movement, but may also be found elsewhere in concertos or in other types of music. In many concertos (especially those from the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) the beginning of a cadenza is signaled by a tonic chord in second inversion, sustained under a fermata by the orchestra, which then drops out while the soloist plays the cadenza alone. At the end of the cadenza (which may be of any length), the orchestra reenters to play the final bars of the movement. The original intent of the cadenza was to give the soloist an opportunity to display technical prowess and emotional expression through improvisation. By about the second quarter of the nineteenth century the improvised cadenza was a thing of the past, and cadenzas were written out by composers. It is unusual for a sonata to incorporate a cadenza, but not infrequently they appear in other types of works with piano accompaniment (such as character pieces and solos de concours). These works may incorporate one or more cadenzas at various points in the movement structure. See also Eingang, ornament. calandrone. A term used by the Italian writer Buonanni (Gabinetto Armonico, 1722) to describe an instrument that seems to be identical to a two-keyed chalumeau. Buonanni also describes a keyless chalumeau, which he phoneticizes into Italian as scialumò. cane. 1. The common term for Arundo donax, the plant used to produce clarinet reeds. 2. An individual stalk of the Arundo donax plant. card-backed pad. See pad.
case. A protective container into which a clarinet is placed in order to be transported without damage. Early clarinet cases consisted of nothing more than soft leather or sheepskin, which was rolled around the clarinet joints and tied with a string or leather thong. Greater protection was afforded by early wooden cases, consisting of a box with some kind of padding (cloth, leather, or felt) and a hinged lid. Modern clarinet cases come in a variety of forms, most in the basic shape of a box with a handle; the interior usually has padded indentations shaped to fit the clarinet’s joints and further padding in the lid to prevent movement when the case is closed. Most cases also have a small interior compartment for the storage of reeds, cork grease, swabs, pencils, and other items. Some cases also allow for the interior storage of larger items such as music. Cases must allow not only for protection from impact damage, but also from extremes of heat or cold; a few manufacturers even produce high-end cases that provide a degree of humidity control through the insertion of humidifying devices and hygrometers. Temperature Temperature extremes may also be guarded against through the use of a case cover made from an insulating material. Many professional clarinetists have cases that accommodate two or more clarinets—in B-flat and A, and sometimes an E-flat clarinet. See also combination case. casting. A method of producing metal parts in desired shapes by pouring or injecting a molten alloy into a mold, or die, which is in the shape of the part needed. This process is sometimes used in the manufacture of clarinet key parts; it is generally thought to be inferior to the more expensive process of forging, however, because it results in parts that are somewhat weaker and more brittle than forged key parts. Catlin, George (1778–1852). American musical instrument maker, active in Hartford, Connecticut, from 1799 to about 1815, and thereafter in Philadelphia until 1852. Around 1810 Catlin developed a bassoon-shaped bass clarinet called the clarion. His invention is noteworthy because he seems to have been unaware of similar designs by European makers around the same time and to have developed the clarion independently. Catlin also made tenor clarinets. For a time the only extant instruments by Catlin were thought to be several bass clarinets; however, recently a soprano clarinet by him has surfaced in the collection of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation in Virginia. Cavallini, Ernesto (1807–1874). Italian clarinetist and composer. Born and trained in Milan, he performed throughout Italy as a young man and played in the orchestra at La Scala from 1831 to 1851. He toured and concertized all over Europe, even as far as St. Petersburg, where he remained for fifteen years (1854–1869), serving in the court and theater orchestras and as the first clarinet teacher at the St. Petersburg Conservatory (1862–69). On returning to Italy he taught clarinet at the Milan
conservatory. conservatory. His playing was admired by both Rossini and Verdi; Verdi; the latter latt er wrote many of his operatic clarinet solos for Cavallini. Cavallini himself composed a number of works for the clarinet, some of which are still in the repertoire .
cent. A unit of measurement for pitch, developed by the English mathematician Alexander J. Ellis (1814–1890). In equal temperament, every half step measures 100 cents. Cents can be used to measure very small differences between pitches, and it is the unit used in most electronic tuners. Cents should not be confused with hertz, another unit of pitch measurement that pertains to the frequency (number of cycles per second) of a sound wave. centered tone. A clarinet tone quality is said to be centered when it is clear and has a well-focused “core,” without residual noise. Various factors contribute to a centered sound, including the player’s embouchure and breath support and the type of setup and clarinet the player uses. A centered tone is the opposite of a spread tone. See also breathing. chair. A term used to indicate the position of a musician in the hierarchy of an ensemble such as an orchestra or band. The term is typically used with an ordinal number (e.g., first, second, third) and an indication of the type of instrument played (e.g., first-chair clarinet/clarinetist, or first clarinet/clarinetist). Less commonly referred to as a seat or, in British English, also called a desk. See also principal clarinetist, second-chair clarinetist, second clarinetist. chalumeau. Pl. chalumeaux. French, with many spelling variants in old sources; the word is probably derived from the Greek kalamos (Latin calamus), meaning reed pipe. A simple, single-reed instrument that is the most important precursor of the clarinet. The term itself has a complicated history and was often used in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries to refer to various kinds of single- and doublereed pipes, including bagpipe chanters. The chalumeau as a single-reed instrument used in art music appeared in the last two decades of the seventeenth century and flourished through most of the eighteenth. Like the recorder, which it outwardly resembles, it was made in several sizes corresponding to vocal ranges: soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. From contemporary descriptions of the instrument, and from the ten surviving specimens, two features can be deduced that differentiate the chalumeau from the early clarinet: (1) The chalumeau bore is cylindrical straight through to its end, culminating in a foot joint rather than a flaring bell; and (2) The chalumeau functions almost exclusively in its fundamental register; it is not intended to overblow. This limits its range to anywhere from a ninth to an eleventh above the fundamental note, depending on whether keys for L0 and L1 are present (all surviving instruments have at least these two keys, although chalumeaux with
one key, or none at all, are documented). The inability of the chalumeau to overblow successfully is caused by the fact that on these instruments, the two keys operated by L0 and L1 open tone holes that are diametrically opposite each other on the tube, and therefore the L0 key cannot function acoustically as a register key. (On early clarinets, the tone hole for the L0 key is placed higher up and a speaker tube is inserted, allowing the instrument to overblow and function much more effectively in the upper register.) Chalumeaux were made by a number of makers in the eighteenth century, such as the Denner family, Eichentopf, Klenig, Liebau, Kress, Schlegel, and others. Surviving instruments have up to seven keys and are pitched in F or C (again, like recorders). Music for the chalumeau includes solo and ensemble works by Vivaldi, Telemann, Graupner, Fasch, Dittersdorf, and other composers less well known today. Chalumeaux were frequently used in the orchestra as well, especially by opera and oratorio composers associated with the Viennese court from about 1700 to the 1760s (most notably Gluck, but also many others). Music continued to be composed for the instrument as late as the early nineteenth century, when Hoffmeister’s chalumeau concerto was written; by this time, however, the chalumeau had generally fallen into disuse. An early written source (Doppelmayr, 1730) has sometimes been interpreted as proof that the clarinet developed as an extension or improvement of the chalumeau, but the degree to which this is true has been debated by scholars. The instruments are clearly related to each other; however, significant differences in structure and function, along with use of the two instruments separately and concurrently (and in very different musical idioms) by composers, have led to the recent consensus that the chalumeau ought to be considered the “cousin” rather than the “parent” of the early clarinet. See illustration in appendix 3. See also calandrone, mock trumpet.
chalumeau register. The lowest register of the clarinet, from E3 to F♯4. chamber. The portion of a mouthpiece bounded by the baffle and side walls. Also called the tone chamber or the windway. See illustration in appendix 5. chamber music. French musique de chambre; German Kammermusik ; Italian musica da camera. A type of music written for a small ensemble of instrumentalists— anywhere from two to twelve, approximately—with a single player per part, usually performed without a conductor. The term originates in the fact that in the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries such music was usually performed in relatively small rooms, or chambers, rather than in large concert halls. The clarinet has traditionally participated in many types of chamber music. See also clarinet choir, clarinet quartet, clarinet quintet, clarinet trio, duet/duo, nonet, octet, quartet, quintet, reed quintet, reed trio, septet, sextet.
channel. A narrow slot or passageway, used in certain types of key mounting on early clarinets (e.g., in block mounts, ring mounts, or saddle mounts), into which the key shank fits. The pin is then inserted into the wood or metal of the mount, through the shank, and into the other side of the mount, acting as a fulcrum. On certain long keys, there may be a second block, ring, or saddle further along the shank, with a channel that serves to prevent lateral movement of the key. character piece. A small-scale composition, often for solo piano but also for an instrument with piano accompaniment, that is meant to convey a certain mood or character. In contrast to a sonata, which tends to be abstract in conception, character pieces usually have descriptive (or at least nongeneric) titles and are often published in sets of three or more. Character pieces for clarinet and piano were especially popular in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Important examples include Berg’s Berg’s Vier Stücke, Finzi’s Five Bagatelles, Gade’s Fantasiestycker, Hurlstone’s Four Characteristic Pieces, Löwe’s Schottische Stanf ord’s Three Intermezzi. Countless Bilder, Schumann’s Fantasiestücke, and Stanford’s others, both sets and individual works, have been published since about the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Charles, Mr. Mr. (flourished first half of the eighteenth century). One of the earliest clarinet virtuosi. He also played the horn, as well as the chalumeau and the oboe d’amour. His first name is not known; he may have been Hungarian, according to a 1742 newspaper advertisement for one of his concerts. He is first mentioned in 1738 in a London newspaper advertisement for a concert in which two of his horn pupils played. By 1742 he was in Dublin, where he remained for about a year, giving lessons and playing concerts. He returned to London in 1743. The subsequent record of his activities is slim, but he seems to have traveled to some extent, giving concerts in Salisbury in November 1743 and in Edinburgh in 1755. Nothing more of him is heard after that time. chasing. A decorative metalworking technique used on some metal clarinets to imprint a delicate design onto the body or certain parts of the instrument, or to imprint the maker’s mark onto the bell. The process may involve small chisels that are used to indent the heated metal, or it may involve the use of roller dies, through which heated sheet metal is drawn. Unlike engraving, chasing does not result in the removal of any metal. chest breathing. A type of breathing where the chest expands and the shoulders rise visibly on inhalation. Players of wind instruments, including the clarinet, are discouraged from this type of breathing, since it is shallow and does not provide the degree of support from the abdominal muscles to sustain a full, resonant tone. See
also breathing.
Child system. A clarinet fingering system designed by the Englishman G. H. Child and patented in 1924. In a manner not unlike that of the Romero system, Child situated the tone holes for the throat tones in a straight line at the top of the upper joint, and these were opened by keys operated mainly by the right-hand rings; this mechanism is cancelled by the rings for L1 and L2 (while on the Romero system it is cancelled by L0). There are only two keys operated by L4, the uppermost of the two producing both C♯4/G♯5 and F♯3/C♯5 (in the manner of a simplified Pupeschi mechanism). chimney. The term is used variously by repair technicians and makers, as follows: (1) the walls of a tone hole; (2) a lining or bushing that stabilizes or controls the size of the tone hole; (3) a tone hole with a raised rim, allowing it to be more effectively sealed by a finger or a pad (as with the tone holes surrounded by ring keys, or the raised tone hole often found on clarinets with wraparound register keys). chops. A colloquial term used to describe exceptional technical ability on an instrument. A performer with such technique is said to “have chops.” The term is probably derived from—and also may indicate—well-developed embouchure muscles, stemming from the colloquial term for the mouth; a player may remark that a particular piece or concert “busted my chops,” meaning that it required exceptional endurance as well as technical prowess. circular breathing. A breathing method by which a player inhales air through the nose while simultaneously exhaling air that has been stored in the cheeks. Circular breathing allows wind players to play long musical phrases without the interruption of a normal breath, which must be taken by disrupting the embouchure and inhaling through the mouth. clareto. Probably a chalumeau. The term is found in the title of an eighteenth-century solo concerto in B♭ “per il clareto” by Giuseppe Antonio Paganelli (1710–1763). Clarineo. See Lyons C Clarinet. clarinet. French Clarinette; German Klarinette; Italian Clarinetto; Spanish Clarinete. Other common historical spelling variants are Clarinett and and Clarionet . HornbostelSach classification number: 422.211.2. 1. With small modification, no better short definition may be found than that of Rendall: A woodwind instrument of mostly cylindrical bore sounded with a single beating reed and made in many pitches and dimensions ( The Clarinet: Some Notes
on its History and Construction , 1954). The name of the instrument is probably a diminutive of the Italian clarino (“trumpet”), an instrument that the earliest clarinets were said to resemble in sound. Sound on the clarinet is generated by a single reed attached to a mouthpiece. When air is blown through this sound-generating mechanism, the reed vibrates and produces a standing wave inside the clarinet. The wave works in conjunction with the resonance frequencies of the clarinet bore to produce a sound that has the characteristic timbre of the clarinet. The clarinet is unique among the orchestral woodwinds in that it overblows at the interval of a twelfth instead of an octave. Two factors are responsible for this phenomenon: the clarinet’s acoustic behavior as a closed pipe and its cylindrical bore shape. The clarinet’s sound spectrum thus shows an emphasis on the odd-numbered harmonics. Specific pitches are produced on the clarinet through the opening and closing of tone holes, either directly by the fingers or by means of keys. The history of the clarinet proper is the shortest of any of the woodwind instruments except the saxophone; it begins around the year 1700. As early as 1730 the “invention” of the instrument was attributed to Johann Christoph Denner (1655–1707), a maker of woodwind instruments and bird calls in Nürnberg, and no evidence has come to light to contradict this. Over the course of its history the clarinet has appeared in many shapes and sizes, and a variety of key systems have been applied to it. On the modern instrument, two key systems prevail: the French Boehm system and the German system (the former by far the more widely played of the two). See also clarinet family. 2. The register of the clarinet from B4 to C6; more commonly referred to as the regist er.. clarion register
clarinet choir. An ensemble made up entirely of various members of the clarinet family , usually with more than one player on a part. The standard instrumentation today consists of soprano clarinets in E-flat and B-flat, alto clarinet, bass clarinet, and contra-alto or contrabass clarinets. The number of each type of instrument varies; the whole group may consist of anywhere from five to fifty or more players. The earliest clarinet choir—though not then so called—was probably that of Gustave Poncelet (1844–1903) at the Brussels Conservatory in the late nineteenth century. Simeon Bellison formed a clarinet choir under the aegis of the New York Philharmonic in 1927, which lasted until 1938 and counted among its members numerous young players who would become important American players and teachers of the next generation, such as Leon Russianoff, Kalman Bloch, David Weber, and Sidney Forrest. The term “clarinet choir” originated in 1952, coined by Hal Palmer, who (with Russell Howland) began a clarinet choir at a summer music camp in Kansas. The first original work for such a group was Caribbean Suite, written by Alfred Reed in
1955. By the late 1950s clarinet choirs had been established at a number of American universities, among them the University of Illinois, with an ensemble led by Harvey Hermann, who was to become one of the main proponents of the grouping. Since that time the popularity of the clarinet choir has grown, so that today there are at least twenty-eight professional and serious amateur clarinet choirs across the world, as well as countless university ensembles and casual groups. The repertoire for the clarinet choir, while naturally consisting of many transcriptions, has also grown to include a great number of original works. Litera lly,, clarinet d’amour. French, clarinette d’amour; Italian, clarinetto d’amore. Literally “clarinet of love.” An alto-range clarinet, usually pitched in G (more rarely in other nominal pitches) and sounding a minor third lower than the standard B-flat soprano clarinet, with the bulbous bell that characterizes all woodwind instruments with the suffix “d’amour” or “d’amore.” The body is straight, with a curved brass neck or a curved wooden barrel. The written range is the same as most other members of the clarinet family, from E3 to G6 and above. The instrument is now obsolete, but was made in some quantity from about 1740 to 1850 and used by composers such as Gossec, Gluck, Michael Haydn, and J. C. Bach, among others. Clarinets in low G have been common in Turkey since the days of Giuseppe Donizetti (1788–1856), who, as instructor of Imperial Ottoman music to Mahmud II from 1828 to 1839, introduced the aşk klârneti (Turkish, “love clarinet”) to bands there. Modern G clarinets played in Turkey no longer have the bulbous bell.
clarinet family. Collective term encompassing all the instruments that can be defined as clarinets used in Western art and popular music. The clarinet family includes both historical instruments that are now obsolete and modern instruments in more or less common current use. Almost all the members are transposing instruments. The clarinet family has been categorized in a variety of ways, usually according to range; writers have not always agreed on the dividing points between sopranino and soprano instruments and some have made a distinction between alto and tenor instruments. A categorization including only the most commonly used modern instruments might be as follows (from high to low): soprano clarinets in E-flat, D, C, B-flat, and A; basset horn in F; alto clarinet in E-flat; bass clarinet in B-flat; contraalto clarinet in E-flat; and contrabass clarinet in B-flat. Rendall’s comprehensive list, encompassing both historical and modern instruments, included many more members, and is presented below. Table 1. Rendall’s List of Clarinet Family Members Octave
Sopranino
Soprano
Alto
Clar Clarin inet et in F Clar Clarin inet et in C Clarinet d’amour Clarinet in C d’amour in A♭ Clarinet in B♭ Clar Clarin inet et in E Clar Clarin inet et in B Clar Clarin inet et d’am d’amou ourr in G Clarinet in A♭ Clarinet in E♭ Clarinet in B♭ Clarinet in G Clar Clarin inet et in D Clar Clarin inet et in A Clarinet in G Tenor Baritone Bass Bass clarinet in C Contrabasset-horn in G Clarinet in F Basset horn in G Bass clarinet in B♭ Contrabasset-horn in F Basset horn in F Bass clarinet in A Contrabasset-horn in E♭ Contrabass clarinet in C Clarinet in E♭ Contrabass clarinet in B♭ Rendall’s list of clarinet family members (taken from F. F. Geoffrey Rendall, The Clarinet: Some Notes on its History and Construction [London: Williams and Norgate, 1954]). Names in italics are instruments that were “obsolete or obsolescent” in Rendall’s time. The table has been altered slightly in format, but not in substance, from Rendall’s original.
Rendall’s categories of octave and sopranino clarinets include very highpitched instruments that are rarely found today, as well as the more common high clarinets in E-flat and D (now usually classified as soprano instruments). High clarinets in A-flat and F were used in nineteenth-century military bands. The high clarinet in G was used in late-nineteenth-century Austrian Schrammelmusik, and has been resurrected by a very small number of specialists for the modern reconstruction of that music. The clarinet in E-flat has been used by composers since Berlioz and is a standard member of the modern orchestra. Its slightly lower counterpart in D was used by Wagner, Wagner, Strauss, and Stravinsky Strav insky,, among others, and although many clarinetists today transpose these parts to E-flat clarinet, modern makers do produce D clarinets for the increasing number of players who want to remain faithful to the composers’ original sound ideals. The soprano clarinet in B-flat is the most commonly played clarinet today, and most student and amateur players own only this instrument. In addition, however, a soprano clarinet in A is an essential part of the serious clarinetist’s tool kit, since many important solo and orchestral works require this instrument. The soprano clarinet in C, although less common now, was widely used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and solo and orchestral parts for it were written by Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Berlioz, and many others. These parts are nowadays usually transposed to the B-flat clarinet, but many modern professional clarinetists, especially those in opera orchestras, prefer the brighter sound and more convenient fingering patterns of the C clarinet, and most makers provide these instruments as a fairly standard part of their product lines. Rendall omits any mention in his table of the basset clarinet, an important historical member of the soprano branch of the clarinet family with an extension of its range downward to written C3. Modern basset clarinets are usually pitched in A. Rendall’s alto, tenor, baritone, and bass categories are now more usually subsumed under the single category of “low” or “large” clarinets. The clarinet
d’amour, basset horn, alto clarinet (Rendall’s tenor clarinet in E-flat), bass clarinet, contra-alto clarinet in E-flat, and contrabass clarinet in B-flat are all important enough to warrant their own separate entries in this dictionary, so little more will be said about them here. Rendall’s use of the term “contrabasset-horn” is problematic. Instruments that may properly be referred to by this name (i.e., clarinets playing an octave below the basset horn in F or E-flat, and having a range down to written C3) were made in the nineteenth century, but modern instruments of this type, pitched in E-flat, are usually referred to as contra-alto clarinets, and their ranges extend only to written E♭3. The contrabass clarinet is also sometimes called the pedal clarinet. It should be noted that a few clarinets have been made with ranges lower than the contrabass clarinet; these are called the octocontra-alto clarinet and octocontrabass clarinet. Although a variety of key systems have been applied to members of the clarinet family over the course of its history, two prevail today: the Boehm system, played by most clarinetists worldwide, and the German system, favored mostly by German and Austrian clarinetists. Within either system, all sizes of clarinets are fingered in basically the same way, so that, for example, a bass clarinet is playable (with some adjustments in embouchure, air use, and playing position) by a person well versed on the common B-flat soprano clarinet. Likewise, the written pitch range is the same for most members of the clarinet family, from E3 to at least G6. Exceptions to this are the basset instruments and some bass clarinets, which have a low range that extends down to C3. Modern clarinets may be constructed of wood, (usually African blackwood), ebonite, ABS or other types of plastic, or a composite wood-resin material (as on the “Greenline” model made by Buffet-Crampon). They usually have keys, fittings , and other parts (such as necks and bells on larger-sized clarinets) made of metal, most often nickel silver. All-metal soprano clarinets were not uncommon in military bands in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and some were even intended for nonmilitary use, but these were never taken up by serious professional players (except perhaps by some early jazz performers). Some contra-alto and contrabass clarinets are made entirely of metal. Early clarinets were often made from boxwood or fruitwoods. Ivory was used as a body material for some early clarinets but was never successful; it was, however, used for ferrules on many early clarinets. Commercial clarinet manufacturers offer models in a range of prices to suit various needs, including those of students, serious amateurs, and professionals. See student clarinet, intermediate clarinet, and professional clarinet. See the illustration of the modern clarinet family in appendix 1. “clarinet in . . . ”. As used in phrases such as “clarinet in B-flat.” See also nominal pitch.
clarinetist. British clarinettist . A person who plays the clarinet. clarinet quartet. 1. An ensemble consisting of clarinet and string trio (violin, viola, cello), or a work written for such an ensemble. The clarinet quartet was especially popular in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, when hundreds of these types of works were written by composers such as Baermann, Blasius, Bochsa, Crusell, Devienne, Druschetzky, Druschetzky, Fuchs, Goepfert, Goepfert , Hoffmeister, Hummel, Krommer, Kreutzer, Müller, Pichl, Pleyel, Stamitz, Vanhal, Winter, Wranitzky, and many others. Later examples are rare, but include twentieth-century works by Rawsthorne and Penderecki. 2. An ensemble consisting of four clarinets, or a work written for such an ensemble. Music for this type of clarinet quartet was written as early as the second half of the nineteenth century—for example, there is a quartet by the English composer James Waterson (1834–1893)— but the combination began to flourish in the twentieth century. Many original works for the combination have been written, along with countless arrangements of existing works. This ensemble usually consists of three soprano clarinets in B-flat and bass clarinet, but may also consist of all soprano instruments or may have a mix of clarinets of different ranges (including E-flat soprano clarinet and alto clarinet, though these are less commonly found). Important clarinet quartets have been written in the twentieth century by Seymour Barab, Yvonne Desportes, Paul Harvey, Harvey, Robert Stark, Alfred Alfr ed Uhl, and others. See also quartet. clarinet quintet. 1. An ensemble consisting of clarinet and string quartet (usually two violins, viola, and cello, although there are examples using violin, two violas, and cello), or a work written for such an ensemble. The clarinet quintet was popular beginning in the late eighteenth century, the outstanding example from that period being Mozart’s K. 581. Nineteenth-century clarinet quintets include those by Backofen, Baermann, Blatt, Brahms, Krommer, Küffner, Küffner, Meyerberr, Neukomm, Reicha, Romberg, and Weber; in the twentieth century the genre has been taken up by Bliss, Coleridge-T Coler idge-Taylor, aylor, Cooke, Françaix, Frankel, Fuchs, Hindemith, Holbrooke, Horovitz, Howells, Jacob, Krehl, Lindberg, Maconchy, Maxwell Davies, Reger, Scott, Sheng, and Stanford, among others. 2. Much less commonly, an ensemble consisting of five clarinets, or a work written for such an ensemble. This ensemble may consist of a mix of clarinets of different ranges. Perhaps the most famous example of this type of clarinet quintet is Mozart’s Adagio, K. 411/484a, for two clarinets and three basset horns. clarinette. French spelling for clarinet. clarinette à anneaux mobiles. French “clarinet with moving rings.” The name given
by Louis-Auguste Buffet jeune in his 1844 patent for what is now called the Boehm-system clarinet. See also ring.
clarinette omnitonique. French “omnitonic clarinet.” Iwan Müller used this term to describe the clarinet he designed, which he presented to a committee of Paris Conservatory faculty in 1812. The term emphasizes that his clarinet could play well in any key, thus obviating the need for clarinets to be manufactured in a variety of nominal pitches or to have corps de rechange. The Conservatory committee rejected the invention, voicing a preference for the subtle differences in timbre produced by clarinets in a variety of pitches. See also Müller system, Inventions-clarinette. clarinet trio. 1. An ensemble usually consisting of clarinet, cello, and piano, or a work written for such an ensemble. The clarinet trio was popular beginning in the early nineteenth century, with important compositions by Beethoven and Eberl. The genre grew in popularity as the century wore on; later nineteenth-century examples include those by Berger, Blanc, Brahms, D’Indy, D’Indy, Farrenc, Frühling, Hartmann, Ries, Skroup, and Zemlinsky. In the twentieth century the genre has been taken up by Frankel, Juon, Kahn, Kubizek, Muczynski, Nørgard, Rota, Scott, and others. 2. The term is sometimes used for an ensemble that includes clarinet, violin, and piano, or a work written for such an ensemble. Most of the repertoire for this ensemble originated in the twentieth century; a large number of works since the late 1970s have been commissioned by the Verdehr Verdehr Trio, an American chamber ensemble. Composers of works for this combination include Arutiunian, Bartók, Berg, Bolcom, Gal, Harbison, Hovhaness, Husa, Ives, Khachaturian, Menotti, Milhaud, Musgrave, Rorem, Schuller, Schickele, Sheng, Sierra, Larsen, Tower, and many others. 3. An ensemble consisting of three clarinets, or a work written for such an ensemble. This ensemble often consists of three soprano clarinets in B-flat, but may also be made up of a mix of clarinets of different ranges. Clarinet trios of this type have been written since the late eighteenth century; early examples include basset horn trios by Mozart, Nudera, and others, and trios for soprano clarinets by Bouffil and Waterson. Many clarinet trios have been written for recreational purposes rather than concert performance. See also trio. clarinete. Spanish spelling for clarinet. clarion (register). The register of the clarinet from B4 to C6. Also sometimes called the clarinet register, less frequently the clarino register.
clarone. 1. In Italian or Portuguese, a bass clarinet. 2. A term used by Buonanni ( Gabinetto Harmonico, 1722) to describe what was probably an early two-key clarinet. Classical clarinet. The term used to describe the clarinet of the so-called Classical period—usually understood by clarinet historians to mean the era when soprano clarinets with four to six keys were prevalent (from the late 1750s through the first decade or two of the nineteenth century). This is somewhat later than the usual dates used by musicologists to define the Classical era as a style period (1730– 1800). Albert Rice, in his important book The Clarinet in the Classical Period (2003), extends the period up to 1830, including clarinets with the improvements made by Iwan Müller; other writers prefer to consider Müller-system clarinets in relation to the Romantic period and its expanding musical requirements. See also five-key clarinet. Classical pitch. A term used by some performers and scholars involved in the historical performance movement to designate a modern, generalized version of the pitch level used in the Classical period, namely, A = 430 Hz, somewhat lower than modern concert pitch (A = 440 Hz). In reality, pitches ranged widely. In the period 1770–1800, woodwinds were made in i n pitches ranging from A = 386 to A = 445 or higher. Haynes (see bibliography) records eighteenth-century clarinets at pitch levels ranging from A = 411 411 to A = 469 and early-nineteenth-century early-ninete enth-century clarinets from A= 400 to A = 448. From about 1730 to 1770 the average pitch for clarinets was around A = 427; it rose slightly sli ghtly,, to about A = 433–436, in the period 1770–1830. Clinton-Boehm system. A key system that combines the features of the Clinton system with some features of the Boehm system, including the Boehm arrangement for the little fingers (L4 and R4). Clinton combination clarinet. A combination clarinet invented by the English clarinetist James Clinton (1852– 1897). In the earliest patent for this instrument, from 1891, the mechanism uses a metal liner perforated with two sets of holes— one for a nominal pitch of B-flat, the other for A. The liner is attached to the barrel for the upper joint and to the bell for the lower joint; by twisting the barrel in one direction and the bell in the other, the instrument was adjusted to the appropriate length and the correct set of holes came into position. A few examples of this design were produced by Jacques Albert of Brussels. In 1899 a patent was issued to Clinton and Harry Edmund Winter for an improved version of this instrument. It had a different method of extending the length and a metal liner attached only to the barrel and extending only to the finger holes of the lower joint, with a very short bell. The holes on the outer portion of the clarinet’s body were
large enough that either set of holes in the liner could appear through them when the barrel was twisted. Examples of this clarinet were produced and demonstrated, but the intonation was apparently deficient and the instrument was not successful. Other combination clarinets with mechanisms different from that of the Clinton model include the Binda clarinet, Lässig clarinet, and Leonesi system.
Clinton system. A key system developed and used by the English clarinetist George Clinton (1850–1913), brother of James Clinton (see Clinton combination clarinet). The Clinton-system clarinet incorporated a wide plateau key for L2, which covered a tone hole placed slightly lower on the tube to produce a wellvented forked F4; an improved position for the tone hole for C♯4/G♯5, achieved by drilling the tone hole through the tenon and socket connecting the upper and lower joints lower joints; Barret action (adapted from the oboe) for R1, giving a single side key for producing E♭4/B♭5 and F4/C6; and a longer side key for A ♭4, so that it could be played by either L1 or L2. Clarinets with this system were made by Boosey and Co. in London, with the technical assistance of D. J. Blaikley. closed key. A key that is sprung to keep the tone hole closed when at rest. When the key’s touchpiece is pressed, it opens the hole. The majority of keys on the modern clarinet are closed keys. See also open key. closed pipe. In acoustics, a pipe that is closed at one end and open at the other (as opposed to an open pipe, which is open at both ends). The clarinet is for all practical purposes a closed pipe: open at the bell end and closed (or nearly so) at the other end by the reed, mouthpiece, and the player’s mouth. The two types of pipes behave acoustically in very different ways. When a standing wave is produced in a cylindrical closed pipe, as when a clarinet is blown, it can complete only a quarter of a wavelength before reaching the open end (the bell) and returning; in an open pipe (such as a flute), it can complete a half wavelength. For this reason, the clarinet sounds an octave lower than its physical length would imply. For example, a C clarinet sounds an octave lower than a C flute (a cylindrical open pipe), even though the two instruments are approximately the same length. See also acoustic length. Another crucial acoustic feature of a cylindrical closed pipe is that it does not produce a complete harmonic series, as does an open pipe; in a cylindrical closed pipe, the even harmonics are missing. This means that the clarinet cannot overblow at the octave, as the flute can (or as the oboe and saxophone, with their closed conical bores, can). Rather, it overblows at the twelfth. In practice, this means that adding the register key to the fingering of any given fundamental pitch produces a pitch that is an octave and a fifth above the fundamental (C4àG5, D4àA5, etc.). The clarinet is the only orchestral woodwind instrument with this property.
closed throat. A term indicating that the oral cavity is maintained in a relatively closed or narrow position during playing. See also larynx, open throat, voicing. cocoa. See cocus wood. cocobolo. Scientific name Dalbergia retusa. A dense tropical hardwood from Central America, sometimes used in the manufacture of clarinets. It is reddish brown in color. har dwood from the West cocus wood. Scientific name Byra ebanus. A dense tropical hardwood Indies, sometimes used in the manufacture of clarinets and mouthpieces. It was especially popular in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but even today there are some mouthpiece makers offering cocus wood mouthpieces. Cocus wood is usually dark brown in color. In older musical instrument descriptions it is sometimes called cocoa wood.
combination case. A clarinet case designed to hold more than one size of clarinet. The most common type of combination case is one that holds soprano clarinets pitched in A and B-flat, used by most orchestral clarinetists. Other combination cases may hold these instruments plus an E-flat clarinet or a bass clarinet; there are also combination cases that include room for both clarinets and other woodwind instruments. Combination cases are sometimes specially designed and manufactured for the needs of a particular player. combination clarinet. Any soprano clarinet with a mechanism that allows it to function with a nominal pitch of either B-flat or A. There have been many designs for combination clarinets since the early nineteenth century, but none has successfully taken hold with performers. See also Binda clarinet, Clinton combination clarinet,Lässig clarinet, Leonesi system. combination tone. When two pitches are played simultaneously, a third pitch can sometimes be heard. This third pitch is the sum or difference of the frequency of the two main tones, and is called a combination tone (or sometimes a sum tone, a difference tone, or a Tartini tone—the latter because the phenomenon was first recognized by the Baroque composer Giuseppe Tartini). See also beats. compound tonguing. See multiple tonguing. concertino. Literally, a small concerto. A concertino is a work for clarinet and orchestra, often composed as a single movement rather than in the three-movement form of the standard concerto. Important clarinet works entitled concertino have been written by Busoni, Donizetti, Molique, Reissinger, Weber, Weber, and others.
concerto. From approximately the late seventeenth century onward, a work featuring a solo instrument (or a group of solo instruments) accompanied by an orchestral ensemble. The earliest concertos featuring a clarinet may be those by Johann Valentin Rathgeber (1682–1750), published in a collection in 1728; two of the twenty-four concertos in the collection (nos. 19 and 20) call for an obbligato clarinet. Vivaldi wrote three concerti (RV (RV 556, 559, and 560) using us ing pairs of clarinets as members of larger soloist groups. Another early concerto, by the Italian Giuseppe Antonio Paganelli (1710–ca. 1763), was composed around 1733 and carries the designation clareto for the solo instrument; it may have been for soprano chalumeau rather than clarinet. There are also two concertos for two clarinets by Italian composers, one by Giovanni Chinzer (ca. 1700–after 1749) and the other anonymous. Perhaps the most well known of the early clarinet concertos are six written around 1745 by Johann Melchior Molter (1696–1765), all of which have been published in modern editions. Shortly after the middle of the eighteenth century, the clarinet began to be used more frequently as a concerto instrument. Johann Stamitz (1717–1757) wrote one concerto, while his son Carl (1745–1801) wrote at least ten. Other composers of clarinet concertos from the second half of the century include Blasius, Beer, Cartellieri, Duvernoy, Eybler, Goepfert, J. F. Grenser, Hoffmeister, Kozeluch, Krommer, Lefèvre, Mahon, Meissner, Meis sner, Michel (Yost), (Yost), Pichl, Pleyel, Pokorny, Rosetti, Solère, Süssmayr, Tausch, Vanderhagen, Vanhal, Vogel, and Winter, among others; the high point of the eighteenth-century concerto repertoire is reached in Mozart’s Clarinet Concerto, K. 622, written in 1791 for the virtuoso Anton Stadler. The clarinet concerto continued to be popular in the first decades of the nineteenth century, coinciding with the emergence of some of the instrument’s most well-known performers (some of whom were also composers, as in the eighteenth century). The most important clarinet concertos of this period were written by Bernhard Crusell, Carl Maria von Weber, and Louis (Ludwig) Spohr. Others composers of clarinet concertos at this time were Backofen, Berr, Canongia, Cavallini, Carulli, Dacosta, Gambaro, Hook, Krommer, Kurpinski, Mercadante, Müller, Procksch, Radicati, Reicha, Rietz, and others. The composition of clarinet concertos dropped off in the second half of the nineteenth century; the next outstanding examples appear in the early twentieth century, beginning with the concerto by Charles Villiers Stanford (1852–1924) in 1902. From that time onward, the clarinet has enjoyed great popularity as a concerto instrument, with concertos in the first half of the century by Arnold, Cooke, Copland, Finzi, Hindemith, Milhaud, Nielsen, Rawsthorne, and many others and in the second half of the century by Carter, Corigliano, Denisov, Foss, Françaix, Hoddinott, Holmboe, Lindberg, Maconchy, Musgrave, Rautavaarra,
Penderecki, Siegmeister, Tomasi, Tower, Williams, and Yun, to name just a few. Many works for clarinet and orchestra have been written that do not carry the title “concerto.” These may be entitled concertino, Konzertstück (German “concert piece”), “theme and variations” (or variants such as “air and variations”), “fantasia,” “romanza,” or any of a large number of other such titles. These works— too numerous to list comprehensively here, and probably even outnumbering concertos—were popular in concerts in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Famous examples from this period include Rossini’s Introduction, Introducti on, Theme, and Variations Variations and Mendelssohn’s two Concert Pieces for clarinet c larinet and basset horn. More recent examples include Debussy’s Première Première Rapsodie (in its orchestrated version), Richard Strauss’s Duett-Concertino for clarinet and bassoon, Toru Takemitsu’s akemit su’s Fantasma/Cantos, and John Adams’s Adams’s Gnarly Buttons.
concert pitch. 1. The reference pitch to which an instrument is tuned (also called standard pitch). Since 1939 the internationally agreed-upon standard for A4 has been 440 hertz (Hz), but modern orchestras continue to play at varying pitch levels, from 440 to 444. A survey of pitch standards before 1939 is beyond the scope of this entry, but Bruce Haynes has provided an admirable overview of this complicated topic (see bibliography under the heading “Performance Practice”). It suffices here to say that in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries there was no single standardized pitch; A4 seems to have ranged anywhere from a step below to a step above 440 Hz, depending on the time, location, and type of music (choral or instrumental). Clarinet makers had to manufacture clarinets that conformed to their local pitch standard, and traveling clarinetists had to cope as best they could by carrying barrels of varying lengths and clarinets in different nominal pitches. As the nineteenth century progressed, pitch started to vary less widely. In 1858 the French adopted a standard pitch of A4 = 435 Hz (so-called diapason normal), at a time when the mean pitch across Europe was A4 = 446. This was an attempt to stop what had been a general rise in instrumental pitch over the previous decades; in Victorian England A4 had risen to about 452 Hz, and at La Scala in Milan it was 450 Hz in 1856. Even since 1939, the general tendency of orchestras is to play somewhat higher than A4 = 440, but the difference between the standard and reality is not nearly so great today as it was in earlier times. Modern makers of professional-quality clarinets generally manufacture their instruments at A4 = 440– 442, and professional clarinetists with good instruments can manage reasonably well with a standard 66-millimeter barrel and another of a slightly shorter length. See also Baroque pitch, Classical pitch . 2. The actual sounding pitch of an instrument. On nontransposing instruments (such as the piano, or the standard C flute) the sounding pitch and the written pitch are the same; on transposing instruments (including most of the clarinet family), the sounding and written pitches are different. The nominal pitch of the instrument
indicates the exact degree of difference. For example, a soprano clarinet with the nominal pitch of B-flat sounds a whole step lower than its written pitch; a soprano clarinet in A sounds a minor third lower than written; and so on. In order to sound at “concert pitch” (i.e., “in C”), the clarinetist’s music is transposed, either by the composer, copyist, or publisher of the music, so that the player need only read and play the notated pitches. There are, however, several situations in which a clarinetist might need to transpose at sight from the notated pitches: (1) if a part is marked “Clarinet in C,” as is sometimes the case in Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and others; (2) if a part is for soprano clarinet in A and only a B-flat clarinet is to hand; and (3) if a bass clarinet part is written for an instrument pitched in A (not uncommon in Wagner, Wagner, Mahler, Mahler, and some other standard orchestral repertoire).
conical. Cone-shaped. The bore of some woodwind instruments (such as the oboe, bassoon, and saxophone) is conical, starting narrow at the top end and expanding gradually toward the bell. Conical bores, unlike the closed, mainly cylindrical bore of the clarinet, produce a sound spectrum that is rich in both odd and even harmonics, and conically bored instruments overblow at the octave. Conservatoire de Paris. See Paris Conservatory. contra-alto clarinet. The next-to-lowest member of the standard clarinet family. The modern contra-alto clarinet is pitched in E-flat and plays an octave lower than the alto clarinet in E-flat (a fifth lower than the bass clarinet in B-flat), with a range extending to written E♭3. The now-common distinction between contra-alto and contrabass clarinets was not always made, and early terminology for the instrument varies. The first attempt at an instrument playing lower than the bass clarinet seems to have been made by the Frenchman Dumas; he is known to have manufactured a contrebasse-guerierre in 1808, but its nominal pitch is not known. Streitwolf, Adolphe Sax, and Maldura in Milan also produced instruments in E-flat that are properly termed contra-alto clarinets, and these instruments were meant to provide a resonant, projecting bass sound in wind bands. The modern contra-alto clarinet is still used primarily in bands and in clarinet choirs. See illustration in appendix 1. contrabass clarinet. The lowest member of the standard clarinet family. The modern contrabass clarinet is pitched in B-flat and plays an octave lower than the bass clarinet, with a range extending to written C3. The now-common distinction between contra-alto and contrabass clarinets was not always made, and early terminology for the instrument varies. In addition to the contrebasse-guerrière made by Dumas in 1808 (see contra-alto clarinet), the nominal pitch of which is not known, several makers in the middle of the nineteenth century attempted to
produce contrabass clarinets pitched in C or B-flat. Wieprecht and Skorra of Berlin made one they called the batyphon, and an example of this instrument survives today; other makers included Franz Karl Kruspe, Louis Müller, and Adolphe Sax. Each of these instruments seems to have had its defects, however. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries progress was made toward better designs by Fontaine-Besson in Paris and Heckel in Germany, and by the 1930s successful instruments were being made by Buffet, Selmer, and Leblanc. The instrument has been used primarily in wind bands and in the clarinet choir, but a few operas and orchestral works also exist with contrabass clarinet parts, among them D’Indy’s Chauss on’ss King Arthur, Schoenberg’s Schoenberg’s 5 Orchesterstücke and Moses und Fervaal, Chausson’ Ligeti ’s Lontano. See illustration in appendix 1. Aaron, and Ligeti’
Copland, Aaron (1900–1990). American composer. He studied in Paris with Nadia Boulanger, who encouraged him and the other American students she taught to develop a truly “American” compositional voice. Copland was lauded by critics for having accomplished this, in works such as Rodeo, Lincoln Portrait , Appalachian Spring, and many others. Copland wrote several compositions using the clarinet as a solo instrument. The earliest of these was the song “As it fell upon a day” (1923) for soprano, flute, and clarinet, written as an assignment for Boulanger. The text is from the seventeenth-century English poet Richard Barnefield. In 1937 Copland arranged his Second (“Short”) Symphony (1932–1933) as a sextet for clarinet, string quartet, and piano, with the hope that the work would garner more performances in its chamber version than it had as an orchestral piece. The original version of the ballet Appalachian Spring (1943–1944) was for a chamber group of thirteen instruments, including the clarinet. The most significant work Copland wrote for the clarinet, however, was the jazz-flavored Clarinet Concerto of 1947–1948. The work was commissioned by Benny Goodman, who gave the piece its first performance in November 1950. The delay between the completion of the work and its premiere was due to Goodman’s health problems and busy schedule. In the rehearsal process, with Copland at the piano, Goodman requested some simplifications of the work, which Copland assented to. The concerto was premiered on a radio broadcast, with Fritz Reiner conducting the NBC Symphony of the Air, and has since become part of the standard concerto repertoire for the clarinet. cork. A substance obtained from the cork oak tree (Quercus suber), which grows in southwestern Europe (mainly Portugal and Spain) and north Africa. Cork is light, flexible, and water resistant. In clarinet manufacture, cork is used for wrapping tenons to ensure a tight seal with sockets, and for small shims or bumpers inserted in the key mechanism to ensure good adjustment and eliminate noise.
corners. The extreme left and right sides of the tip of a clarinet reed. Also sometimes called the “ears” of the reed. See illustration under the term reed. alt ernative body, exchangeable body. A set of alternative corps de rechange. French, alternative right- and left-hand joints of a larger or smaller size that could be exchanged to alter the nominal pitch of a clarinet (for example, from B-flat to A). Clarinets were often sold with such corps de rechange in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The other pieces of the clarinet would remain the unchanged; the keys for L4, mounted on the stock, were often made with sliding extensions to allow these keys to be lengthened when larger corps de rechange were used, keeping the touchpieces within easy reach of the left-hand little finger. After the invention of clarinets that were playable in all tonalities (such as Iwan Müller’s clarinet omnitonique), corps de rechange fell out of use. Also called pièces de rechange.
countersunk (tone hole). In woodworking, countersinking is a process by which a hole is drilled in such a way that the head of a screw (or other object) inserted into or on that hole is sunk some distance into the surface of the wood into which the hole was drilled. All modern clarinets have countersunk tone holes, usually with a slightly raised rim around the hole itself, so that the pads covering them will form a tight seal. Countersunk tone holes were put into use on clarinets by Iwan Müller in the second decade of the nineteenth century and covered by a newly designed round, stuffed pad in a round pad cup. Earlier clarinets had flat leather pads set on key flaps, which covered a flat hole; this design did not always seal completely and reliably. See illustration under tone hole. See also key, saltspoon key. cover. The degree to which a pad seals its associated tone hole. A pad is said to cover well if it does not allow any air leakage from the tone hole when the key governing the pad is closed. See also leak, seating. covered tone. A common phrase referring to a clarinet timbre in which the lower partials are more prominent than the high ones in the sound spectrum. As with most words or phrases that describe timbre, the meaning is subjective and imprecise; there is no universally agreed-upon measurement that defines the range of partials in a covered tone, nor a consensus on whether the term is positive or negative. Commonly used synonyms may be “dark,” “veiled,” or “woody.” “woody.” See also bright tone, dark tone. crack/cracking. A fracture appearing in the surface of a wooden clarinet, usually running parallel to the grain of the wood, and resulting from the stresses that occur as the clarinet is exposed to changing degrees of heat and humidity. Cracks may appear for a variety of reasons, such as improper seasoning of the wood before the
clarinet is made, lack of a careful period of breaking in by the player when the clarinet is new, or exposure to extremes of temperature or dryness. Although there are a number of procedures that may reduce the possibility of cracking, the player cannot always prevent it. For example, experts do not agree on the effectiveness of applying bore oil to the surface of the clarinet, nor on methods of maintaining humidity. There are a number of procedures for repairing a crack, depending on how deep it is (for example, if it penetrates through to the bore of the clarinet) or whether it runs through tone holes; these procedures include pinning and filling, and the use of tone hole inserts. If the crack is repaired skillfully the sound, intonation, and appearance of the instrument need not suffer, but much depends on the severity of the crack and the expertise of the repair technician. If a crack is detected the instrument should not be played further, since this may exacerbate the problem; the player should mark the ends of the crack with a pencil (under certain conditions the crack may close and not be visible) and take the clarinet immediately for repair.
cranked F♯/C♯ key. key. On some early clarinets (especially by British makers), the F♯3/C♯5 key operated by L4 was made with a “zigzag” in the key shaft, rather than with the more usual straight key shaft. This modification allowed the touch of the key to be more easily reached by L4.
Figure 10. Cranked F♯/C♯ key. The instrument is a five-key clarinet by Goulding, ca. 1805, owned by the author. Photo courtesy of Larry Larry Conboy
crescent key. A sickle-shaped key partially surrounding an open tone hole. Essentially partial rings, they were used on clarinets by Munich makers such as Wilhelm Hess and Benedikt Pentenrieder between 1830 and 1840, several years before the application of full rings to the clarinet by Louis-Auguste Buffet and half- moon key. key. Hyacinthe Klosé in France. Also called a half-moon critical edition. A scholarly edition of music, prepared by a musicologist or other trained expert, that presents an authoritative score of a work based on a critical evaluation of all of the work’s existing sources, as well as reflecting the editor’s extensive knowledge of historical context and related repertoire. In addition to the musical text of the work, a critical edition will contain an extensive report on the state of the sources, the editorial method used, the nature of any editorial emendations and how those are indicated in the edition, and a listing of significant ways in which the final score may differ from one or more of the sources. The
purpose of a critical edition is to present a score for study, rather than for performance (although performing decisions may be made based on the consultation of a critical edition, and some recent critical editions aspire to use in practical performance). A crucial aspect of a critical edition is its editorial transparency: it allows the user to distinguish musical text that is original to a source from that which is the result of an editor’s intervention. See also facsimile, performing edition, urtext.
crook. See neck. cross fingering. See forked fingering. ext ends across the clarinet’s body, body, perpendicular to cross key. A short closed key that extends the axis of the tube. The C♯4/G♯5 key is an example of a cross key.
crossover A♭ /G♯ key. key. Throughout much of the nineteenth century, the tone hole for the throat tone pitch A♭/G♯4 could be located either toward the left or the right side of the clarinet’s body, each position necessitating a different configuration for the key mechanism covering that hole. In either configuration, however, the key’s touchpiece needed to be on the left side of the instrument, since its location on the upper joint meant that it would be played with the left hand. If the tone hole was located on the left side, a simple key with a straight shaft running from touchpiece to pad cup sufficed. If the tone hole was located on the right side, however, the touchpiece required an extension that crossed laterally over the existing A key to reach the pad cup. This latter crossover design is the configuration used on all modern clarinets. See figure 11.
Figure 11. Cross-over A♭/G♯4 key (left) vs. side A ♭/G♯4 key (right). Constant Pierre, La facture instrumentale, Paris, 1890
clarine t’ss key mechanism that connects the crow’s foot. A small component of the clarinet’ two rows of pinky keys played by R4. Specifically, it links the F3/C5 key on the top row with those thos e for E3/B4 and F♯3/C♯5 on the bottom bott om row. row. The crow’s foot enables the closing of the tone hole for F3/C5 by itself when either of those notes is played, but couples the closing of that tone hole with the closing of the E3/B4 tone hole or the opening of the F♯3/C♯5 when those notes are played. The name of this mechanism comes from its shape, which vaguely resembles a bird’s foot.
Crusell, Bernhard (1775–1838). Finnish clarinet virtuoso and composer who spent most of his career in Sweden, where from 1793 to 1833 he was clarinetist in the court orchestra in Stockholm. He studied in Germany with Franz Tausch and in Paris with Jean-Xavier Lefèvre. He was recognized as one of the most important
clarinetists of his time. Among his compositions are three clarinet concertos (all part of today’s standard repertoire); Introduction et air suedois for clarinet and orchestra; a symphonie concertante for clarinet, bassoon, horn, and orchestra; three quartets for clarinet and string trio; a trio for clarinet, bassoon, and horn; and a set of three clarinet duets.
cue. 1. In music for an ensemble, a cue is a short excerpt of notated music from one part that is placed in another part as a prompt. Cues are often given in a part after a large period of rest, serving as a signal of an upcoming entrance to ensure that the performer has counted the rests properly. They may also be written in a part to be played by one instrument substituting for or reinforcing another. 2. A physical signal, such as a hand gesture or a nod of the head, given by the conductor of an ensemble or by an ensemble musician to control the entrance and synchronization of parts as a composition is performed. Cues may be used to ensure that all performers start and stop together, to reinforce a dynamic or expression mark in the music, or to signal the entrance of a particular section or musician in the midst of a piece. cup. See pad cup. curing. See seasoning. cushion. 1. A small piece of rubber or foam attached to the thumb rest of a clarinet to make it more comfortable for the player’s right-hand thumb, which bears much of the weight of the clarinet. 2. The soft filling of a pad, usually made of felt. 3. A synonym for bumper. cutoff frequency. When a tone hole is opened on a wood-wind instrument, it has the effect of shortening the tube length, thus producing a higher pitch. Low-frequency sound waves are reflected back at some point below the first open tone hole, but the higher the frequency of the wave’s oscillation, the more the wave extends beyond the first open tone hole (this is called an end effect). Very Very high-frequency waves “ignore” the open tone holes and continue past them; the frequency at which they do so is called the cutoff frequency. The cutoff frequency has implications for both the timbre of a sound and for intonation between the registers: a high cutoff frequency produces a “brighter” sound, a low one a “darker” sound, and low cutoff frequencies can flatten overblown notes in relation to their fundamentals. Cutoff frequency is influenced by a number of factors, including tone hole diameter in relation to bore size, the spacing of tone holes, tone hole depth, and the height of the pad above a tone hole. Larger and shallower tone holes, short spacing between
them, and low pad height all create a higher cutoff frequency, and vice versa. The undercutting of tone holes can mitigate the undesirable effects of both high and low cutoff frequencies. The player also has some control of cutoff frequencies through how close the fingers are kept to an open tone hole.
cylindrical. Cylinder-shaped. The bore of some woodwind instruments, including the clarinet, is largely cylindrical. This, along with the fact that the clarinet is acoustically a closed pipe, is the reason that the clarinet’s harmonic series emphasizes the odd-numbered harmonics, causing the instrument to overblow at the twelfth instead of the octave (as wind instruments with conical bores do). The flute is also cylindrical, but overblows at the octave because it is an open pipe. The clarinet is not cylindrical for its entire length. The mouthpiece bore is conical, and the bell flares outward. Even in the portion of the clarinet’s length that is roughly cylindrical (the barrel and the upper and lower joints), makers have frequently introduced small deviations from exact cylindricality to correct intonational defects. See also bore, bore perturbation, conical,polycylindrical.
D
Dampit. A type of humidifier made for use with wooden musical instruments. It is a thin rubber tube, perforated with holes, that surrounds a spongelike center. The Dampit is submerged in water until the sponge is saturated; excess water is then squeezed out, and the Dampit is placed in the instrument (for example in the joint of a clarinet) or in the instrument’s case, where it gradually releases its moisture. dark tone. A clarinet tone is said to be “dark” when the low- and medium- frequency partials are more prominent in the sound than the high frequencies. As with most words or phrases that describe timbre, the meaning is subjective and imprecise; there is no universally agreed-upon measurement that defines the range of partials in a dark tone, nor a consensus on whether the term is positive or negative. See also bright tone, centered tone, covered tone, spread tone. Debussy, Claude (1862–1918). French composer of the so-called “Impressionist” school. His important work for the clarinet was the Première Première Rapsodie for clarinet and piano, written in 1910 as that year’s solo de concours for the examinations at the Paris Conservatory. The work was dedicated to Prospère Mimart, clarinet professor at the conservatory at that time. When the Première Première Rapsodie was published in 1911, Debussy provided it with orchestral accompaniment. It has since become a staple in the clarinet repertoire . Delrin. A brand name for polyoxymethylene, a stiff, stable thermoplastic material sometimes used for tone hole bushings, barrels, ligatures, liners, and even entire clarinets (the Bohlen-Pierce clarinet made by Stephen Fox is made of Delrin). Denner, Jakob (1681–1735). Woodwind instrument maker in Nürnberg, son of Johann Christoph Denner. He was employed for a time by the Medici family in Florence, but spent most of his career in Germany. He was making clarinets by at
least 1710. Three two-key clarinets survive with Jacob Denner’s mark; documentary evidence suggests that he made many more.
Denner, Johann Christoph (1655–1707). Woodwind instrument maker in Nürnberg and the probable inventor of the clarinet. He also made recorders and chalumeaux and was the first German instrument maker to manufacture “French-style” woodwind instruments. The invention of the clarinet is attributed to him by J. G. Doppelmayr ( Historische Historische Nachricht von den Nürnbergischen Nürnbergischen Mathematicis und Künstlern, 1730). The general reliability of Doppelmayr as a source has sometimes been questioned; nevertheless, no evidence has come to light to contradict his assertion. One tenor chalumeau and one three-key clarinet with the mark “I. C. Denner” have survived, but the clarinet has not been accepted as authentic by all scholars. Other clarinets by J. C. Denner are documented as having existed, but were destroyed in World War War II, stolen, or otherwise lost. lost . J. C. Denner is the main character of an operetta by Friedrich Weigmann and G. R. Kruse, Der Klarinettenmacher (1912). desk. See chair. Mol lenhauer, in Deutsche Normalklarinette. A clarinet designed by Thomas Mollenhauer, collaboration with the performer Hermann Kunze, in 1889. The idea was similar to that of the later reform-Boehm-system clarinet: to combine the features of French and German systems. In this case, the designers borrowed the Boehm system’s four pinky keys operated by R4; the rest of the key mechanism, and the bore configuration, were typical of the German system of the time.
diaphragm. In human anatomy, the muscle separating the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. The diaphragm is sheet-like and dome-shaped and located just below the lungs. It plays an important role in respiration in general and in the type of breathing used to play wind instruments such as the clarinet. diaphragmatic breathing. See breathing. difference tone. See combination tone. Dorus key. A key mechanism normally used on early flutes, but also (rarely) found on a few nineteenth-century clarinets. Named after its inventor, the French flutist Louis Dorus (1812–1896), the mechanism allows the C♯4/G♯5 key played by L4 to remain open in its rest position, acting as a vent. When the ring key for L2 is depressed, the C♯4/G♯5 key (governed by a strong spring) is closed; when L4 depresses the C♯4/G♯5 key (which is governed by a weaker spring), it opens. The
advantage of such a mechanism is that it retains an open vent for certain forked fingerings. The mechanism is difficult to maintain, however, because the two springs must be carefully regulated in strength, and perhaps for this reason it was not widely adopted. See also Mollenhauer system.
double-Boehm clarinet. A fingering system patented in 1948 by Charles Houvenaghel (1878–1966) of Leblanc. In this system the lower joint is that of a normal Boehm-system clarinet. On the upper joint there is a plateau key for L1 which, when depressed along with L0, produces E ♭4 (rather than E4, as on the normal Boehm system). This means that the pattern of intervals produced by each hand is the same: a whole step followed by a half step. On the double Boehm, E4 is produced by L0 and L2. The plateau key is also pierced with a small hole, to facilitate the pitches of the altissimo register . The instrument had refinements of tone hole size and shape and omitted the bridge key between the upper and lower joints. double holes. A pair of small, side-by-side tone holes, one or both of which may be covered by a single finger. Covering both holes provides a diatonic note, while covering the outermost of the two holes by itself provides a raised half step to that diatonic note. On early clarinets double holes were sometimes provided for L3, R1, R3, and R4, to allow for the production of C♯4/G♯5, B3/F♯5, A ♭3/E♭5, and F♯3/C♯5, respectively respe ctively.. Later, keys were added to produce these notes with better intonation, response, and fluency. double lip (embouchure). See embouchure. double-skin pads. A pad covered with two layers of fish skin for extra strength and prolonged life. double tonguing. See multiple tonguing. doubling. 1. Playing more than one instrument. Clarinetists usually have the ability to double on other members of the clarinet family, since the fingerings are essentially the same from instrument to instrument; they may also double on other woodwind instruments, especially the saxophone, the fingering of which is also similar to the clarinet. 2. Playing a musical line in unison or at the octave with another instrument in an ensemble. duet/duo. An ensemble consisting of two players, or a piece of music written for such an ensemble. As a type of composition, duets for two clarinets have a long
history; the earliest known musical work specifically for the clarinet was a set of duets entitled Airs à Deux Chalumeaux, Deux Trompettes, Trompettes, deux Hautbois, deux Violons, deux Flutes, deux Clarinelles [sic], ou Cors de Chasse, published between about 1712 and 1715 by Etienne Roger of Amsterdam. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of clarinet duets have been written and arranged since then, usually for recreational playing rather than concert performance. Of the duets written for concert performance, the most important examples are by Richard Rodney Bennett, Cavallini, Crusell, Dahl, Devienne, Gambaro, Poulenc, Schuller, and Waterson. There are also many duets combining clarinet with another instrument, including important works by Rebecca Clarke (clarinet and viola), Poulenc (clarinet and bassoon), Villa Lobos (clarinet and flute), and others.
duplicate keys. Two keys that produce the same pitch. These are usually present for ease of fingering, and the player’s choice of which key to use usually depends on the fingering of the preceding or following notes. The modern Boehm-system clarinet has a number of duplicate keys, most prominently those for R4 and L4 that provide alternate fingerings for E3/B4, F3/C5, and F♯3/C♯5; there are also duplicate keys for B3/F♯5 and E♭4/B♭5. The modern German system has fewer duplicate keys.
E
early clarinet. A very general term usually referring to pre– Boehm-system Boehm-system clarinets; it is also sometimes used to refer to any clarinet from the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries. See also Albert system, Baermann system, Baroque clarinet, chalumeau, Classical clarinet , mock trumpet, Müller system. ear training. The process, undertaken by all music students during their education, of learning to hear and identify musical intervals, chords, melodies, rhythms, and other musical elements. Ear training is a rigorous endeavor that involves exercises such as dictation (real-time notation of the pitches and/or rhythms of a played or sung melody), the immediate identification of intervals and chord qualities, and sight singing (the singing of melodies at first sight). ebonite. German, Kautschuk (from the Amazonian Indian word caoutchouc); other historical synonyms include vulcanite, gutta percha, india rubber, gum, and gum elastic. The brand name for a hard type of vulcanized rubber with a sulfur content of 30–40 percent. The term ebonite referred to the fact that it was meant to be used as an artificial substitute for ebony wood. First developed in the 1840s, it has been used as a material materi al for clarinet bodies (especially, today, today, for student clarinets) and mouthpieces. ebony. Scientific name Diospyros melanoxylon. A dense black wood used in the past for the manufacture of some clarinets and mouthpieces. It is rarely used today; African blackwood ( Dalbergia Dalbergia melanoxylon melanoxylon) has been found to be preferable. Modern clarinets made of African black-wood are often mistakenly said to be made of ebony. edit. To prepare the musical text of a composition for publication and/or performance. The person preparing the text is called an editor. The editor’s job varies depending
on the type of edition that is being produced. For a critical edition, the editor must locate and examine all the possible sources (both manuscript and print) of a work; compare those sources, identifying their relative importance and any discrepancies between them; establish a final text based on one or more of those sources (called a “best text” or an “eclectic text,” respectively); and produce a critical report giving details of sources, editorial method, and a rationale for any emendations that were made. For a performing edition, editorial methods and standards vary widely from publisher to publisher. Some performing editions clearly distinguish between what is original to the sources and what is inserted by the editor through the use of annotations or printing styles (for example, the use of dotted slurs, dynamics in square brackets, and so on); others do not. A relatively recent development is the hybrid edition, which attempts to blend the rigor of the critical edition with the practicality of the performing edition. See also facsimile, urtext.
Eingang. German, entrance; opening through which one enters. Pl. Eingänge. A short, cadenza-like passage connecting the end of one phrase with the beginning of another. An Eingang is usually shorter than a cadenza and is commonly signaled by a dominant chord sustained under a fermata (rather than a tonic second-inversion chord, as in the concerto). Like the cadenza, the Eingang was originally improvised. It is most commonly found in eighteenth-century music; later use is rare. See also ornament. E-flat clarinet. Although several sizes of instrument in the clarinet family have the nominal pitch of E-flat, this term used by itself usually refers to the soprano clarinet in E-flat, pitched a fourth above the soprano clarinet in B-flat and commonly used in bands and orchestras. See also piccolo clarinets, sopranino clarinets. elastic plug. See stuffed pad. embellishment. See ornament. embouchure. From French la bouche (mouth). The formation of the mouth on the mouthpiece and reed of the clarinet, using the muscles of the jaw, chin, lips, and cheeks to allow the reed to vibrate properly. Two Two basic types of embouchure are used today. The more common is the single-lip embouchure, where the bottom lip is curled over the bottom teeth in order to cushion the reed. In this type of embouchure the upper lip does not curl under the upper teeth; rather, the teeth themselves come into contact with the beak of the mouthpiece, while the upper lip presses down to form a tight seal in front of them along the beak. In the less common double-lip embouchure, both lips curl over the teeth, much like the
embouchure routinely used by oboe and bassoon players. The double lip embouchure was always used in the early part of the clarinet’s history, especially when the reed was positioned against the top lip. In both types of embouchure, the corners of the mouth form a tight seal, while the chin is drawn downward. The amount of upward pressure brought to bear on the reed by the jaw must be controlled; too little jaw pressure may result in a raucous squeak, while too much may cut off the reed’s vibration (and thus the sound) completely. Forming an embouchure with the correct balance of muscle activity is crucial to the production of sound on the clarinet. See also biting, reed-above position, reed-below position.
end correction. The difference between the physical length of a pipe and its effective length due to end effects. For any pitch produced on the clarinet, the effective length of the wave is slightly longer than the physical length of tube used to produce it; this difference must be added when a clarinet maker calculates the length of the tube, its bore size, and the placement of the tone holes. end effect. An acoustic phenomenon whereby a sound wave proceeding through the tube of a woodwind instrument travels some distance past the beginning of the first open tone hole (or the bell, in the case of fingerings with all of the tone holes closed) before being reflected back up the tube. Unless this end effect is accounted for in the design and manufacture of the instrument, the upper- register pitches will be somewhat flat in relation to their fundamentals. See also cutoff frequency, end correction. endpin. A device used on large members of the clarinet family (typically on the basset horn and lower) to support the extra weight of the instrument and to allow the seated performer to raise or lower the instrument to a comfortable playing height. Usually a housing with a screw adjustment is attached to the metal bell of the instrument, and the endpin (a long metal rod, often with some kind of rubber bumper at the bottom where it will meet the floor) is inserted into that housing and adjusted to the proper height for the player. Tightening the housing screw ensures that the instrument stays at the chosen height.
Figure 12. Bass clarinet endpin. The Instrument is by Buffet-Crampon, owned by the author. Photo by Larry Conboy
engraving. A decorative metalworking technique used on some metal clarinets to incise a delicate design onto the body or certain parts of the instrument, or the maker’s mark onto the bell. The engraving process involves the use of a sharp tool called a graver (or burin) to carve out small furrows in the metal. A few nineteenthcentury wooden clarinets survive with intricate engraving on the top of the pad cups and around the ferrules. ensemble. A grouping of instrumentalists and/or vocalists gathered together for the purpose of performing music. Ensembles may be large or small. Large ensembles include orchestras and many types of bands and choruses; small ensembles include those that perform chamber music. Clarinets are used in varying numbers in most
kinds of ensembles; in the typical concert band they form the largest section of woodwinds, while in the orchestra they generally occupy only two seats (or, in large works, perhaps four) in the woodwind section. Chamber ensembles may include clarinets only, or a mix of clarinet(s) and other instruments. See also clarinet choir, clarinet quartet, clarinet quintet, clarinet trio, duet/duo, nonet, octet, quartet, quintet, reed quintet, reed trio, septet, sextet.
equal temperament. A tuning system in which all twelve semitones in the octave are of equal measurement. This has been the commonly accepted tuning system for Western music since about the second half of the eighteenth century. In equal temperament, the only interval that is precisely in tune is the octave; the other eleven half steps within the octave are adjusted (tempered) slightly away from the ideal arithmetical sequence they have in just intonation intonation. These small tuning discrepancies in the scales are tolerated in exchange for the ability, in equal temperament, to transpose or modulate to any of the twelve keys in the circle of fifths with acceptable tuning (something that is not possible in just intonation). In essence, all of the keys are equally out of tune in a small way, so that none are out of tune in a grave way. Important exceptions to equal temperament may sometimes be found when musicians are striving for a historically informed performance, in which they may choose to adopt a tuning system appropriate to the period of the repertoire they are performing. See also intonation, meantone temperament. even tone. A common phrase referring to similarity of timbre across the entire range of the clarinet’s registers. Each of the registers— chalumeau chalumeau, throat tones, clarion, and altissimo —has its own characteristic quality of sound, and individual notes within each of these registers may also have a timbre that does not completely blend with that of adjacent notes; however, players of modern clarinets strive to smooth over these differences and achieve as much uniformity of tone as possible throughout the instrument’s range. Such uniformity is not possible on early clarinets because of the use of forked fingerings, but there is historical evidence (for example, in the clarinet treatise by Backofen) indicating that differences of tone from note to note were accepted and even valued as part of the color of wind instrument sound. excerpts. A term used to describe the important portions of orchestral works learned by clarinetists and other instrumentalists for orchestra auditions. Excerpts are usually those portions of major works that have important clarinet solos or passages for the entire woodwind section where the clarinet plays a crucial part. Clarinetists are expected to know these excerpts very well for audition purposes. Various collections of essential clarinet excerpts have been published, including those for E-flat and bass clarinet as well as soprano clarinets in A and B-flat; and entire
clarinet parts for major orchestral works are commercially available for purchase both in hard copy and in CD-ROM sets.
exit bore. The bore at the very bottom of the mouthpiece, where it connects to the barrel. Since most mouthpiece bores are slightly conical, the exit bore has the largest measurement. The exit bore must be carefully matched to the bore of the clarinet’s barrel to ensure correct intonation. See illustration in appendix 5. extended techniques. Any kind of performing technique that requires the player to produce nontraditional sounds. On the clarinet, extended techniques may include double or triple tonguing (multiple tonguing), slap tonguing, flutter tonguing, circular breathing, multiphonics, microtones, key clicks, playing through individual parts of a disassembled instrument, inserting tubes of various sizes into the bottom of the clarinet, singing or vocalizing while playing, and so on. extreme register. See altissimo (register) .
F
facing. The area of the clarinet’s mouthpiece from the point where it begins to curve away from the reed toward its tip. The degree of the facing’s curvature, and the length over which the curvature is distributed, have a crucial and substantial effect on the mouthpiece’s feel and response; these factors will also determine the size of a mouthpiece’s tip opening and the reed strength that can be used to best effect with a given mouthpiece. Facing length (short, medium, long) and tip-opening size (open, medium, close) work in combination with reed strength in various ways. Played with the same reed, a long facing or close tip will feel less resistant, while a short facing or a more open tip will feel more resistant. Any combination of length and tip opening with more resistance will require a softer reed, relatively speaking, while less resistance will require a harder one. The facing is also commonly called the lay. See illustration in appendix 5. facing gauge. A glass plate marked with measurements in half millimeters, used in conjunction with feeler gauges to measure the facing of a mouthpiece. The facing gauge is placed on the mouthpiece much as a reed would be, and the feeler gauges are dropped between the facing and the glass to measure the degree of curvature at different points. See also tapered wand gauge. facsimile (edition). A detailed reproduction of an original manuscript or printed document. Nowadays facsimiles are usually made through the use of photographic techniques. In the area of music, a facsimile edition may be a photographic reproduction of a manuscript or print that is too old and fragile to be handled, or of a composer’s manuscript, or of a printed edition of a treatise or sheet music that is no longer generally available. Facsimile editions are most often used by scholars, but there are several types that are useful to performers. Chief among these are facsimiles of performing materials of early compositions that were never published; such a facsimile may take the form of a microfilm, photocopy, or digital copy
provided by a library holding an original manuscript or print, or it may be a facsimile edition produced by a commercial publisher. Another type of facsimile useful to performers, especially those interested in historically informed performance practice, is the facsimile of a historical treatise or tutor (method book); see the bibliography for a list of such facsimiles related to the clarinet. See also critical edition, performing edition, urtext.
factory-made clarinet. A clarinet manufactured by means of mass-production techniques. The majority of clarinets for sale today are factory-made. The quality of such clarinets varies widely, especially among different brands of student clarinets, depending on the precision of the manufacturing process. Most professional clarinets are also factory-made, but the level of precision and quality control is much higher, and the manufacturing process includes a certain degree of hand finishing. See also handmade clarinet. feeler gauge. A device used to measure the size of a small gap. In relation to the clarinet, feeler gauges are most often used to measure mouthpiece facings. They are thin strips of metal, of a variety of set thicknesses (usually measured in inches, from 0.0015 to 0.125), and are used in conjunction with a small plate of glass that is marked with measurements in millimeters (called a facing gauge). The glass plate is placed on the mouthpiece much as a reed would be, and the gauges are dropped between the facing and the glass to measure the degree of curvature at different points. See also tapered wand gauge. felt. A type of cloth made by compressing fibers rather than by weaving threads. The fibers used are usually wool, but may also be other animal hair or synthetic materials. Some types of felt are produced by wetting the fibers, while other types are produced through a method using small barbed needles. Felt can be a very strong material. On clarinets, it may be used as a material for the interior of certain types of pads; it may also be used as a material for bumpers, since its fluffy texture makes it ideal for damping sound. ferrule. A ring made of metal (or, on early clarinets, of ivory, horn, or wood) that reinforces and prevents damage to the socket joints on the clarinet, where the body is generally thinner. See also ring (2). filler. 1. A glue or glue-like substance used as an alternative to pinning a crack on a clarinet or other wooden wind instrument. Filler is usually used only for small, shallow cracks that do not penetrate through to the clarinet’s bore, or that do not affect a tone hole. 2. See cushion (2).
finger holes. Holes bored into the tube of the clarinet, which are covered by the pads of the fingers. Throughout its history the clarinet has had seven and sometimes eight finger holes (the finger hole for R4, present on early clarinets, is now placed lower on the instrument and operated by a key). On the modern clarinet most of the finger holes are also surrounded by ring keys, which are depressed by the fingers at the same time the holes are covered. See also tone holes. fingering. The combination of fingers and/or keys used to produce a given pitch on the clarinet. See also fingering chart, fingering system, standard fingerings. fingering chart. A written diagram that uses various forms of graphic representation to demonstrate the fingerings for each pitch on the clarinet. Fingering charts usually appear in printed form as part of clarinet instruction books, but various manuscript fingering charts exist that are of historical interest. The earliest clarinet fingering chart is i s found in J. J . F. F. B. C. Majer’ Majer ’s Museum musicum (1732), for a twokey clarinet. Most charts, historical and modern, consist of a drawing of a clarinet, a chromatic scale that encompasses the range of the clarinet spelled out on a staff, and a graph-like series of darkened or open dots that represent closed and open tone holes, respectively. This graph is usually linked by lines to both the picture of the clarinet and the written-out scale. There may be some kind of numbering system for keys, if the instrument is complicated enough to require it, and for clarinet mechanisms that have keys on the underside of the instrument (such as keys for the right-hand thumb as well as the left) there may also be a drawing of that side. In some early clarinet method books there are separate fingering charts for diatonic and chromatic notes. Fingering charts are intended to help beginning clarinetists learn the standard and alternate fingerings for each note, and sometimes to remind experienced clarinetists of the many possible fingerings that are available for certain notes (especially in the altissimo register ). fingering system. The arrangement of tone holes and keys on a clarinet. Throughout its history the clarinet has undergone changes of fingering system as makers have sought to improve the instrument’s intonation and technical capability. The gradual addition of keys and the development of completely new mechanisms (especially mechanisms that allow for the interconnection of physically separated components, or for the placement of tone holes where fingers cannot reach) have resulted in a variety of fingering systems over time, some of which have not proven successful and some of which have partially or completely remained in use. Today there are two main key systems used on clarinets: the Boehm system and the German system. See also Albert system, Baermann system, Child system, Clinton system, Clinton-Boehm system, Deutsche Normalklarinette, double-Boehm system, full-Boehm system, half-Boehm system,Kruspe system, Louf system,
Marchi system, Mazzeo system, McIntyre system, Mollenhauer system, Müller system, Pupeschi system, reform Boehm system,Romero system, Schaffner system, Schmidt-Kolbe system, Van Perck system. finger vibrato. A type of vibrato produced by a slight wavering of the finger above an open tone hole. Finger vibrato is frequently discussed in early flute tutors, but is not found in any early clarinet tutors; it is, however, mentioned in an earlyeighteenth-century publication for the mock trumpet, where it is referred to as “tingling.” See also abdominal vibrato, laryngeal vibrato, lip vibrato, jaw vibrato. finish/finishing. The process of completing the work on a clarinet that is being manufactured or repaired. The finishing process includes padding, applying cork to the tenons, checking and adjusting intonation, final polishing of the body’s surface (wood or plastic) and keys, checking key adjustment, and refining other aspects of the instrument’s feel and appearance. first-chair clarinetist. The highest-ranked clarinetist in a band, orchestra, or other ensemble including more than one clarinet. The first-chair clarinetist serves as the section leader, and in a band will often be charged with providing an accurate tuning note for the entire ensemble. See also principal clarinetist. first clarinetist. In an orchestra or band, often used as a synonym for first-chair clarinetist. However, the term may also refer to any member of a band’s clarinet section playing the first part, on which there are usually multiple players. fish skin. The name for the material used as the outermost layer on most modern clarinet pads. Despite its misleading common name, it is actually made from the lining of a cow’s intestine. Fish skin is thin and flexible but strong and serves to encase the felt core of the pad while allowing the pad to make a firm seal over the tone hole. Also called bladder skin, goldbeater’s skin. fittings. A general term describing any of the attachments to the clarinet’s body, including keys, ferrules, chimneys, posts, or saddles and decorative elements such as name plates. five-key clarinet. Also called the Classical clarinet, since it was the most common type of clarinet in the Classical period of music history. The five keys on this instrument are the register key and those producing the pitches E3/B4, F♯3/C♯5, A♭3/E♭5, and A4. It should be noted that five-key clarinets continued to be played throughout the entire nineteenth century, even after clarinets with more keys were
produced.
flat. 1. In relation to music notation, a symbol ( ♭) used to indicate that the pitch to which it is applied is to be lowered by a half step. 2. In relation to intonation, an adjective used to describe a pitch that is slightly lower (from just a few cents to perhaps a quarter tone) than a reference pitch to which it is compared. flat spring. A small, flat, thin strip of steel or brass that is attached to a key to allow it to return to its resting position (open or closed) when the key is no longer depressed. On early clarinets flat springs were made of brass, but since this material is easily fatigued and quickly loses its elasticity, it was eventually replaced by tempered steel. Less commonly called a leaf spring. See illustration in appendix 4. See also needle spring, spring. Flatterzunge. German, flutter tongue. See flutter tonguing. floating. A procedure used to install certain types of clarinet pads. The procedure involves setting the pad lightly onto heated glue in the pad cup, not allowing the pad to come into contact with the cup itself (i.e., not pushing the pad snugly into the cup). The key is then replaced on the instrument, the cup reheated to soften the glue, and the pad leveled and seated as necessary to form a secure seal. See also leveling, seating. flutter tonguing. Italian frullato; German Flatterzunge. An extended technique that requires the player to flutter or roll the tip of the tongue (as in the pronunciation of an Italian “r”) while sustaining a note or phrase. The result is a kind of purring sound. It may also be accomplished by using the uvula or the back of the throat to make a kind of growling sound. In both cases the tongue does not actually touch the reed. The usual musical notation for flutter tonguing consists of tremolo markings (short, slightly diagonal strokes) written through the stems of the notes involved, often with the word “flutter” or the abbreviation “flt.” or “flz.” written above or below the passage. focused sound. See centered tone. foot joint. The lowest joint on the chalumeau. This joint cannot properly be called a bell, as on the clarinet, because its slight terminal flare is part of the instrument’s outer shape only and does not affect the bore, which is cylindrical straight through to its end. The bell of the clarinet, on the other hand, has a widely flaring bore. See illustration in appendix 3. See also head joint.
foot plate. A small metal plate to which saddles or posts were soldered in the mounting of keys on some clarinets in the early nineteenth century. The plate was set into the body of the clarinet and secured by small screws. On later clarinets the posts were screwed directly into the wood, and the foot plate disappeared. Also called a base plate. See illustration in appendix 4. forging. A method of working metal into desired shapes using force or compression. The metal is usually heated, although cold forging is also possible. Early clarinet keys were hand forged by skilled workers using hammers and anvils. Today the process has been mechanized and is called drop forging, where a heated piece of metal is forced into a die of the correct shape by mechanical hammers applying very high pressure. While most manufacturers of good-quality clarinets use forged keys, other manufacturers do not, since the process is expensive. The alternative manufacturing process is casting, which produces key parts that are less expensive but also weaker and more brittle. forked fingering. Also commonly called cross fingering. A fingering in which tone holes are not opened sequentially; rather, one or more tone holes below the sounding hole remain closed. On early woodwind instruments with few or no keys, forked fingerings were necessary to produce most chromatic pitches and even some diatonic ones. Forked fingerings often have defects in intonation and timbre, and it was through the addition of keys that instrument makers attempted to solve these problems. Figure 13 shows the fingering for B♭5 on both a modern Boehm-system clarinet (where the note is produced by L1 and L2 plus the opening of a key on the right-hand side by R1) and a five-key Classical clarinet (a forked fingering, since L1 and L3 are closed while L2 remains open). In both cases the register key is opened by L0. Because the forked fingering is essentially a flattening of B♮5 through the addition of a finger lower on the tube, its intonation is imperfect and its timbre veiled. On the modern clarinet the note is a sharpening of A5 through the opening of a correctly placed tone hole via a side key, which improves the intonation and clarifies the timbre. The modern Boehm-system clarinet retains few forked fingerings as standard patterns in its chalumeau, throat, and clarion registers; only B♮3/F♯5 and F♯4 remain, although other pitches are sometimes produced using forked alternate fingerings. The altissimo register is, however, based largely on forked fingerings, since the tone hole for L1 is left open as a kind of second register key to allow most of these notes to be produced. Modern German-system clarinets retain more forked fingerings than do Boehm-system clarinets.
Conboy Figure 13. Standard B♭5 (left) vs. forked B ♭5 (right). Photo by Larry Conboy
Fox, Stephen (b. 1957). Canadian clarinetist and clarinet maker of English birth, residing in the Toronto area. As a maker Fox has specialized in manufacturing a full range of professional clarinets with features not found on instruments by other makers, such as extra keywork, unique bore designs, and alternative body materials (mainly Delrin). He also makes (and performs on) replicas of historical instruments, tárogatós, and the Bohlen-Pierce clarinet. Fox’s particular expertise (he holds a master’s degree in physics) has drawn him toward experimentation in improving the acoustic aspects of the clarinet; following a design pioneered by Arthur Benade, he has produced working examples of the NX clarinet and has incorporated some of the features and principles of that instrument into other clarinets of his own design. fraising. Another term for undercutting. The word “fraise” is derived from the German verb fräsen, to mill or grind. free blowing. An adjective applied to a mouthpiece, reed, overall setup, clarinet, or combination of these things that offers relatively little resistance to the player’s airstream. French clarinet. A synonym for the Boehm-system clarinet. frequency. In acoustics, the number of cycles of a sound wave’s oscillation per second. The pitch of a note is determined by its frequency; a high frequency produces a high pitch, a low frequency a low pitch. The unit of measurement for frequency is hertz (Hz). As an example, the common tuning pitch for a modern
orchestra is A = 440 Hz, which means that the sound wave of that pitch oscillates at 440 cycles per second. On the B-flat soprano clarinet, sounding pitches range from 146.8 Hz (written E3) to 1865 Hz (written C7).
fruitwoods. Wood from any of the family of trees producing fruit. Some fruitwoods, especially pear but also cherry and plum, were used in early clarinet manufacture. Fruit-woods are often beautiful in color and easy to work, but softer and more prone to warping than African black-wood and other tropical hardwoods used today in clarinet making. frullato. Italian, “flutter-tongued.” See flutter tonguing. full-Boehm system. A Boehm-system clarinet with several added features, including a key for low E ♭ (E♭3); a left-hand A♭3/E♭5 key; an articulated key for C♯4/G♯5, allowing easier trills between those notes and the notes a whole step below, and placement of the C♯4/G♯5 key in a more acoustically correct position; and an extra ring key for L3 to enable a forked E♭4/B♭5. Several differing versions of fullBoehm keywork were produced by different manufacturers. The body is sometimes constructed of a single piece of wood, without a separation between the upper and lower joints lower joints. The full-Boehm system was developed in the 1860s and has been used by a small number of players ever since. The raison d’etre of such an instrument is usually said to be that it allows the player of orchestral music to use only a B-flat clarinet even in parts originally written for clarinet in A; it should be noted, however, that full-Boehm clarinets pitched in A were also made. fundamental. The lowest member of the harmonic series of a given pitch. This is usually equivalent to the pitch perceived by the ear. fundamental register. See chalumeau (2).
G
German silver. See nickel silver. German system. One of the two main clarinet fingering systems in use today (the other is the Boehm system). As its name implies, this system is used primarily, though not exclusively, in German-speaking countries. Properly stated, there are a number of related but slightly different German systems in use; the exact number and disposition of keys is somewhat less standardized than on Boehm-system clarinets. The term Oehler system is sometimes used as a synonym, but the Oehler system is actually a specific subtype (albeit a widely used one). Starting in the 1840s, German clarinet makers developed their own methods for solving some of the same problems that the French creators of the Boehm system were grappling with, but the Germans stayed closer to the Müller-system model or, as they called it, the Inventions-clarinette. Müller himself worked with Heckel in Biebrich in 1845, resulting in a clarinet with two rings added to the lower joint. More important to the German effort, however, was the player and teacher Carl Baermann, who collaborated with the Munich makers Benedict Pentenrieder (1809–1849) and Georg Ottensteiner (1815–1879). The partnership with Ottensteiner was particularly fruitful, resulting in the Baermann-system clarinet in the mid-1850s. This system used some of the French developments—such as ring keys—but applied them in new ways, alongside some of Ottensteiner’s own ideas. These include features that have been retained on modern German clarinets, such as simplified fingerings for F♯4 and F♯5; L4 alternatives for A♭3/E♭5 and B♭3/F5; alternative fingerings for E♭4/B♭5 and F4/C6 in the upper joint; and a small flange protruding downward from the C♯4/G♯5 key so that it can be played by R1 as well as L4. Ottensteiner’s improvements were continued in the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by Oskar Oehler. Oehler added a disconnectable patent C♯ mechanism (allowing C♯5 to be fingered by playing D5 and adding the L4 key
normally used for B4), a crossover key for A♭4, a ring key for L3 (allowing a good forked E♭4/B♭5), a plateau key for R2, better venting for many notes, and other features. Carl Kruspe, another German maker of the period, added roller keys for L4 and R4. The modern German key system differs little from these turn-of-thecentury designs; a key for R0 has been added, opening a hole in the bell to raise the pitch of E3 and F3 on most models. Forked fingerings continue to play a larger role on German clarinets than on Boehm instruments. In addition to differences in key system, modern German clarinets also have a bore configuration substantially different than that of Boehm-system clarinets, and it is this that accounts for the difference in timbre between players of the two types of instruments. The German bore is cylindrical for most of its length, with the lower joint’s flare occurring much further down the tube than on Boehm clarinets. In addition German mouthpieces have a slightly narrower window than French mouthpieces, with side walls that are somewhat angled rather than vertical, and because the reed is generally tied on with a length of cord rather than affixed with a screw-type ligature, the outer surface on the main body of the mouthpiece is grooved to prevent the cord from slipping. See illustration of the German system in appendix 2; illustration of a German mouthpiece in appendix 5. a nother. On glissando. From French glisser, to slide. A gliding from one pitch to another. certain instruments (such as the piano or harp), a glissando may preserve the sound of discrete half or whole steps; on others (such as the violin or trombone) the discrete sense of pitch is eliminated and a glissando produces a continuous pitch spectrum (also called a portamento). The clarinet is capable of both types, but the portamento style of glissando is much easier to produce in the clarion and altissimo registers. The technique used to produce such a glissando is a combination of sliding the fingers off the tone holes (rather than lifting them) and manipulating the shape of the oral cavity. The most famous clarinet glissando is probably that at the beginning of George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue (1924). This glissando is notated in discrete pitches, but the original clarinetist in the Paul Whiteman Band, Ross Gorman, improvised a portamento for the top notes in a rehearsal, and this method of playing it has become traditional. A glissando is really an ornament, and like many ornaments its home is in improvisation; jazz clarinetists regularly use glissando as an expressive device, as do players in ethnic or folk traditions.
glue. Any of a number of adhesive substances that are used to attach one material to another. Glues may be natural or synthetic and have different degrees of adherence. Glue is used on clarinets primarily for the purpose of attaching pads to pad cups, small bumpers to various moving key parts, and cork to tenons. It is important that glue used on the clarinet provide a strong but not permanent adherence; pads
and tenon corks, for example, wear out and must be easily removed and replaced, and pads occasionally require reseating. For this reason, pad glue is always of a variety known as a hot-melt adhesive, which can be liquefied through heat. This allows old pads and their glue residue to be removed completely and a new pad properly floated so that it forms an exact seal with its tone hole. Many clarinet repair technicians use shellac for this purpose. Tenon corks are often adhered by contact cement, which is applied to both surfaces and allowed to dry partially before the surfaces are pressed together.
goldbeater’s skin. See fish skin. gold plating. A process of applying a gold surface to objects made of a different base metal. Gold plating is relatively rarely applied to clarinet keys and key parts; more frequently these are plated with silver or nickel. Gold plating is very durable and will not tarnish; it is, however, much more costly than silver or nickel. Goodman, Benny (1909–1986). American jazz clarinetist, also an active player of classical music. Goodman grew gr ew up in Chicago, moving to New York York in the late 1920s and becoming a successful session musician. He started his own band, with which he performed a groundbreaking concert at Carnegie Hall in 1938 (the first time jazz musicians had played in that venue). Goodman’s career was at its height during the so-called Swing Era—he was known as the King of Swing—and this was the style in which he was most comfortable his entire life, although he made some forays into the bebop style in the later 1940s. Goodman’s involvement with classical music began about the same time as the Carnegie Hall concert and included numerous recordings and commissions for works that would become important in the clarinet’s repertoire. Among the latter were Contrasts (1938) for clarinet, violin, and piano by Béla Bartók, and clarinet concertos by Darius Milhaud (1942), Aaron Copland (1947), Paul Hindemith (1947), and Malcolm Arnold (1974). gouging (cane). In reed making, the process of flattening a piece of cane that has been split but still has the slight curvature of the original plant stalk. Gouging is accomplished using a planing machine made for the purpose. grace note. 1. A generic term in English for a variety of ornaments applied before or after a principal note. Grace notes may involve single or multiple pitches and are usually written or printed in a smaller size than that of the main note. The term can be traced back as far as the seventeenth century, when “graces” were ornaments (written out or improvised) that were added to a melody, and “gracing” a melody was a skill every musician was expected to have. See also appoggiatura,
Nachschlag, slide, turn. 2. In some current usage (both scholarly and everyday), the term applies more specifically to “a very short ornament that barely removes anything from the value of the notes between which it stands, and which is so fleetingly heard that the ear may not register whether it comes with or slightly before the beat” (Clive Brown, Classical and Romantic Performing Practice, 1750–1900 , 459). Graessel system. A German-system clarinet with a mechanism to improve the throat tones A4 and B♭4. The mechanism incorporates two tone holes for the register key; the upper one is operated in the normal way by L0 and closed by the key for A4, and the lower one is opened by the A4 key and cancelled when the L0 key is used to overblow. This mechanism serves to improve the clarity and intonation of these problematic notes. Georg Graessel was active in Nürnberg, Germany, Germany, from about 1910 to 1950. grenadilla. See African blackwood. Grenser. A German family of woodwind instrument makers, active in Dresden in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Particularly important for the history of the clarinet were August(in) Grenser (1720–1807) and his nephew Heinrich Grenser (1764–1813). In 1782, Forkel stated in his Musikalisches Almanac that August was among the best wind instrument makers in Germany; a few of his clarinets with four and five keys survive, among them one marked with the date 1777. Heinrich took over August’s workshop and expanded its reputation; twentyeight clarinets by him survive, with five to eleven keys. Grenser clarinets are notable for refinements such as leather silencers to minimize key noise and carefully shaped key touchpieces to facilitate rapid fingering. The virtuoso clarinetist Bernhard Crusell (1775–1838) owned and played a Grenser clarinet, among others. Heinrich Grenser also collaborated with Iwan Müller in 1808 to design an alto clarinet in F with sixteen keys. guide pin. A mechanism present on some early clarinets to enable the F♯3/C♯5 key to return accurately to position when released. Because of the length of this key, it is possible (on clarinets without a guide pin or other controlling feature) that when the key is released after being depressed, the key flap will not seat exactly over the tone hole because of slight lateral movement. A small pin inserted into the body of the clarinet and aligned with a hole in the key shank just above the flap prevents this and guides the key to close precisely over the tone hole.
H
half-Boehm clarinet. A clarinet that combines features of the Albert and Boehm systems. Usually this type of clarinet has an Albert-system top joint and a Boehmsystem lower joint that has alternating pinky keys for L4 and R4. Half-Boehm clarinets were made by several different makers from the 1880s into the first two or three decades of the twentieth century, but they were not common. half holing. A playing technique by which a player covers or uncovers only half of a tone hole with the finger, rather than the entire hole. On the modern clarinet, half holing is most frequently used to create a smooth and subtle connection between certain notes in the clarion register and the altissimo register, by half holing the tone hole for L1. On early clarinets, some chromatic notes may (or often must) be produced by covering or uncovering half of a tone hole, especially if a double hole is not provided. half-moon key. See crescent key. Hammerschmidt. German family of clarinet makers. The firm was founded in 1873 by Martin Hammerschmidt in Schönbach (now in the Czech Republic). Subsequent generations of the family have continued the business to the present time; it is currently led by Klaus Hammerschmidt and located in Burgau. Hammerschmidt clarinets use the German system of keys, but generally have a larger bore size (15 millimeters or more), different vent keys, and a different style of mouthpiece. They have been especially popular with Austrian clarinetists, thanks to a close relationship established with the Vienna Hochschule in the 1930s. handmade clarinet. A clarinet that has been made in a small-scale workshop rather than in a large factory, and where each instrument is handled individually by a small number of specialized craftsmen rather than being manufactured on a
production line. Although the majority of clarinets sold today are factory-made clarinets, there are still a few makers producing handmade instruments in small quantities; see, for example, the entries on Luis Rossi and Schwenk & Seggelke. Modern replicas of historical clarinets are also handmade on a small scale by various makers in Europe and the United States.
hard reed. See reed strength. harmonics. Members of the harmonic series of a fundamental pitch. The fundamental itself is the first harmonic; each harmonic above that is a wholenumber multiple of the frequency of the fundamental. See also overtone, partial. harmonic series. Every pitch that is not a simple sine wave, such as those produced by musical instruments, actually consists of a number of different pitches that are present in the sound, known as a harmonic series. Not all members of the harmonic series are present in equal strength; the ear usually hears one basic pitch more strongly than (and often to the exclusion of) the others, and this is what is perceived as the sounding pitch, or fundamental. The harmonic series of a given fundamental consists of the fundamental itself and a number of overtones that are wholenumber multiples of the fundamental pitch. These are called harmonics (sometimes called partials, although technically that term also includes inharmonic frequencies, i.e., ones that are not whole-number multiples of the fundamental). Harmonics are numbered in sequence starting with the fundamental as the first, followed by an octave above it as the second, and so on. A theoretical model of the harmonic series of a fundamental pitch (in this case E3, the lowest written pitch on most clarinets) can be shown as follows:
Figure 14. Harmonic series. The fundamental is given as E3, the lowest written pitch of most clarinets. Illustration by William Conable
Every pitch has a harmonic series similar to this, and overblowing any fundamental pitch on most wind instruments will produce pitches above it that have the same interval relationships to the fundamental as those shown in figure 13. The clarinet,
however, is unique among the wind instruments in that the even-numbered harmonics of a given fundamental are so weak as to be nonexistent; this is because it behaves acoustically as a closed pipe with a cylindrical bore. Accordingly, the nearest harmonic to the fundamental that can be found by overblowing is the third rather than the second. For example, the fundamental pitch E3 overblows to B4 (the third harmonic, or the interval of a twelfth) rather than to E4 (the second harmonic, the interval of an octave). Also called the overtone series.
Harmoniemusik. Music for a small wind band, usually consisting of pairs of clarinets and/or oboes, French horns, and bassoons (some of the instruments, especially the bassoon, may be present singly rather than in a pair). The word derives from the eighteenth-century use of the term “Harmonie” to describe the wind section of the orchestra. In the eighteenth century royal or noble households often employed, in addition to or in place of a full orchestra, a small wind ensemble to play Harmoniemusik. The performers would have been drawn from the court orchestra, or they might have been members of the band of a military regiment associated with a larger court. Harmoniemusik was also played and enjoyed outside the court and military sphere, for example in the summer pleasure gardens of London and other large cities, and in concerts and celebrations in the communities of the Moravian Brethren in Europe and America. An enormous amount of Harmoniemusik was written in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, by both well-known composers (Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven) and lesser-known ones, and it flourished especially in the Hapsburg lands. harmony clarinets. Clarinets other than the standard soprano clarinet in B-flat. This term is often used as a category in woodwind trade catalogs, but the exact definition may vary; for example, some catalogs include soprano clarinets in A and E-flat in the category, while some do not. See also clarinet family. head joint. The uppermost joint on some chalumeaux, comprising the mouthpiece and a portion of tube connecting to the middle joint of the instrument on which the finger holes are placed. The head joint may also include a swelling or ring for the mounting of keys for L0 and L1, although some chalumeaux have these keys mounted on the middle joint instead. See illustration in appendix 3. See also foot joint. heart. The portion of a reed directly in the center of the vamp. See illustration under reed. Heckelphon-Klarinette. A single-reed instrument invented by the German wind instrument maker Wilhelm Heckel (1856–1909) in 1907. Because of its conical
bore, it overblows at the octave rather than at the twelfth; for that reason it is more properly related to the saxophone or the tárogató, despite its name. The instrument is made of wood, with a single-curved metal neck (like that of an alto clarinet). Its nominal pitch is B-flat, and it has a written range of E3 to D6. It appears that the Heckelphon-Klarinette was intended for military bands, but only about a dozen were ever manufactured. helper key. A term sometimes used to describe a key added to a standard fingering in order to improve the intonation or timbre of the note produced. For example, most notes in the altissimo register of the clarinet often use one of the R4 pinky keys (usually the key for A♭3/E♭5) as a helper h elper key. Hermstedt, Johann Simon (1778–1846). German clarinet virtuoso, for whom Spohr wrote his four clarinet concertos. Like many wind instrumentalists of his day, Hermstedt began his career as a regimental musician. In 1801 he was hired as a court musician by Duke Günther I of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, but he also toured throughout Germany as well as to Vienna and Amsterdam. Spohr’s preface to his first clarinet concerto reveals that Hermstedt had keys added to his clarinet in order to perform the piece successfully; it was probably similar to the eleven-key instrument also described in the preface. Along with Heinrich Baermann and Bernhard Crusell, Hermstedt was considered one of the great clarinet virtuosi of the first half of the nineteenth century. reflecti ng the frequency of the hertz (abbrev. Hz). A unit of measurement for pitch, reflecting oscillation of a sound wave in cycles per second. The term is the surname of Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894), a German scientist who researched electromagnetism. In common musical language the term is most often found in expressions like “A = 440 Hz,” which indicates the sounding pitch A4. The sounding pitches of the B-flat soprano clarinet range from 146.8 Hz (written E3) to 1865 Hz (written C7). Hertz should not be confused with cents, another unit of pitch measurement.
heteroglot. Latin, “different tongue.” The term describes a reed instrument on which the reed is made separately from the body of the instrument and attached to it by means of a string or ligature. The clarinet is a heteroglot reed instrument. Contrasts with idioglot. high (register). An inexact term that may refer to the altissimo register of the clarinet, or may even refer to the upper clarion register and above (for example, from perhaps G5 upwards). Hindemith, Paul (1895–1963). German composer, music theorist, violinist and
violist, and founder and member of the Amar String Quartet. After an experimental period in the late 1910s and early 1920s, when he adopted elements of Expressionism, Hindemith became a champion of the movement known as Neue Sachlichkeit (“New Objectivity”), composing works that were tonal—though often dissonant—and focused on purely musical aims. After the National Socialists came to power, Hindemith’s Hindemith’s music was denounced, denounce d, and in 1940 he emigrated to the United States, where he taught at Yale Yale University. In 1953 he moved to Switzerland, teaching for a time at the University of Zürich and pursuing engagements as a conductor. In later years his compositional style was viewed as too conservative by the younger generation of composers, who were interested in extensions of serialism and electronic music. Hindemith composed a great deal of music using the clarinet in a soloistic fashion. These works span almost the entirety of his compositional career. They include “Die Junge Magd” for alto voice, flute, clarinet, and string quartet (1922); for wind quintet (1923); Clarinet Quintet (1923, rev. Kleine Kammermusik for 1954); Drei Anekdoten Anekdoten for radio, clarinet, trumpet, violin, double bass, and piano (1925); Musikalisches Blumengärtlein und Leyptziger Leyptziger Allerley for clarinet and double bass (1927); Quartet for clarinet, violin, cello, and piano (1938); Clarinet Sonata (1939); Ludus minor for clarinet and cello (1944); Clarinet Concerto (1947, commissioned by Benny Goodman); Septet for flute, oboe, clarinet, trumpet, horn, bass clarinet, and bassoon (1948); Octet for clarinet, bassoon, horn, violin, two violas, cello, and double bass (1958); “Die Schwiegermutter” for male voice, clarinet, three horns, baritone, and bass trombone; and two songs for tenor, two flutes, two clarinets, two horns, and two bassoons. Most of these works have been recorded and remain in the repertoire to some degree, though perhaps only the Wind Quintet and the Sonata can be said to be standard.
hinge key. An open key on which the pivot or fulcrum is located at the end of the key’s shaft, rather than in the middle. The hinge may be either above the tone hole, as shown in figure 15, or below it, as shown in appendix 3. Hinge keys were commonly used for F3/C5 on Müller-system clarinets.
Figure 15. Hinge key. Drawing from Rendall; used with permission permission from W. W. W. W. Norton
hinge screw. See rod screw. hinge tubing. See key tubing. historically informed performance. Sometimes abbreviated as HIP. A modern performance in which an attempt is made to replicate aspects of musical practice from the historical period and place in which the composition being performed originated. A historically informed performance of clarinet music will involve one or more of the following considerations: using the type of instrument (i.e., with the proper nominal pitch, number of keys, tuning level, and basic design) appropriate to the exact time and location of the piece, using appropriate playing techniques (reed position, methods of articulation, etc.), and applying the appropriate stylistic elements (improvisation and ornamentation as called for, articulation
patterns, dynamics, phrasing, etc.). It may also include performance in a historically appropriate physical environment (in terms of function, size, acoustics, and audience). A number of clarinetists have specialized in historically informed performance; see, for example, the entries on Eric Hoeprich and Colin Lawson. See also performance practice.
Hoeprich, Eric (b. 1955). American clarinetist, author, collector, and maker specializing in historical clarinets. After receiving an honors degree in philosophy from Harvard, Hoeprich moved to the Netherlands, where he has largely made his career. He earned a master’s degree at the Royal Conservatory in The Hague and in 1982 became a founding member of the Orchestra of the Eighteenth Century under Franz Brüggen. Since then he has performed and recorded regularly with many of the most important early music ensembles, as well as with modern orchestras, and has made numerous solo and chamber music recordings on period instruments. As a scholar Hoeprich has written articles on organology and performance practice for major journals and a book on the clarinet for Yale University Press (see the bibliography). He has been one of the leading advocates of historical clarinet study and performance, teaching at the Royal Conservatory in The Hague, the Paris Conservatory, and the Jacobs School of Music at Indiana University (Bloomington). horn. 1. Material from the horn of an animal, such as deer, elk, buffalo, etc. Horn was often used for the ferrules on early clarinets. It is darker in color than ivory (also a common material for ferrules) and should not be confused with it; ivory is dentin and comes from animal tusks, especially those of the elephant. 2. Colloquial term for any wind instrument, including the clarinet. humidifier. A device that adds moisture to the air inside an enclosed space, such as a room or the case of a wooden musical instrument. Types of case humidifiers range from homemade (orange peels, perforated pill bottles with a damp sponge inserted) to commercially made devices (Dampit, Humistat). The benefits of humidifying a wooden clarinet in its case have not been conclusively established; in some dry climates or seasons, humidifiers may be helpful in preventing the cracking of wooden clarinets. Recommended humidity levels range from 40 to 60 percent as measured on a hygrometer, with no clear agreement on the optimal number. Humidifiers have also been used successfully to maintain the playing qualities of clarinet reeds, and special reed cases have been developed that use humidifying elements of various types. HW Pad-Saver. A product used to dry out the inside of a woodwind instrument after it has been played. The Pad-Saver is a wire rod to which soft, microfiber “bristles”
are attached. When inserted into the joints of a wind instrument, such as the clarinet, Pad-Savers are designed to absorb the moisture and hold it away from the pads. The Pad-Saver was invented by George Koregolos, a Los Angeles instrument maker and repairer, in 1975. The use of Pad-Savers in clarinets, especially wooden ones, is controversial. Although they are meant to be left in the joints of the instrument, most players of wooden clarinets find that this is harmful, as it keeps the absorbed moisture in contact with the bore; in addition, some clarinetists believe that Pad-Savers also absorb the oils necessary in keeping the wood crackfree. Clarinetists who do use them generally find it best to clean the moisture out of the instrument first with a traditional swab and then insert dry Pad-Savers in the joints as additional protection for the pads. Pad-Savers should be washed occasionally in warm soapy water to prevent the buildup of mildew, then thoroughly rinsed and dried before reuse.
hygrometer. A device for measuring the humidity in an enclosed space, such as an instrument case. Like clocks, hygrometers may be analog or digital. They are calibrated to measure humidity on a percentage scale of zero to one hundred. A hygrometer should be used whenever a humidifier is placed in the case of a wooden instrument, such as a clarinet, to ensure that the level of humidity is neither too little nor too great.
I
idioglot. Latin, from the roots denoting “self” (idio) and “tongue” (glot). The term describes a reed instrument on which the reed is cut from the body of the instrument itself. The reed may be up-cut, with the vibrating end pointing toward the mouth, or down-cut, with the vibrating end pointing away from the mouth. Idioglot reed instruments are still used in the folk and traditional music of some areas of the world, and many of these instruments have histories stretching back thousands of years, constituting the most distant ancestors of the clarinet. Contrasts with heteroglot. in-line trill keys. A design for the four trill keys on the right side of the upper joint of the Boehm-system clarinet that allows the pad cup of each key (and the corresponding tone hole) to be in a straight line with the others. On most clarinets the trill keys are constructed so that each key shaft bends slightly at the end where the pad cup is attached, in order to keep the keys out of each other’s way. In-line trill keys have straight shafts with a small upward curve to allow each one to “jump” over the pad cup of the others; for this reason they are sometimes also called jump keys. The theoretical advantage of this is that the tone holes can be placed slightly more toward the top of the clarinet’s circumference, preventing condensation from collecting in them. The in-line design was originally patented by the Leblanc Corporation, but is now used on some other brands of clarinet as well. insert. See tone hole bushing. intermediate clarinet. A mid-priced clarinet model marketed toward students who are no longer beginning clarinetists, and who would benefit from a better-quality instrument than the student clarinet on which they began their studies, but who do not wish to purchase a more expensive professional clarinet. Intermediate clarinets may be made of plastic, ebonite, or wood, with higher-quality material for the keys
and other fittings (perhaps with silver plating), and will usually be constructed to finer tolerances in bore and tone hole size and key adjustment. Because of this greater attention to detail in manufacture, intermediate clarinets will have more refinement in the areas of timbre, intonation, action, and response.
intonation. The measuring of a pitch in relation to another fixed point of pitch reference. The general subject of intonation is large and complex, including diverse and sometimes inadequately understood topics such as historical temperaments, human pitch perception, neurological aspects of hearing, and other technical fields of science and scholarship. An overview of intonation in this wide sense is beyond the scope of this dictionary. With regard to the clarinet, however, intonation may be discussed in terms specific to the tuning of the instrument’s scale by the maker. The primary characteristics of a clarinet that contribute to its intonation are overall length, bore size and configuration, and tone hole placement and size (diameter, depth, degree of undercutting). All of these characteristics are deeply interrelated; if one dimension is changed, the others must change in response. In addition, the configuration of the clarinet mouthpiece and even reed strength may affect intonation. Given these diverse variables, clarinet makers must devote a considerable amount of effort to designing and building clarinets with a minimum of intonation problems. The main challenges faced by clarinet makers are: 1. Producing well-tuned twelfths between the chalumeau and clarion registers. 2. The throat tones in general, and especially throat B♭ (B♭4). 3. Certain pitches having tone holes that, for reasons of physical design, must must be placed in acoustically “incorrect” positions, or must be smaller in diameter than they ought to be. Despite the best efforts of makers, the perfectly tuned clarinet has yet to be made, and performing clarinetists must learn to adjust for a variety of intonation difficulties, depending on the exact type of clarinet they use. This adjustment may come in different forms, ranging from equipment-related solutions (barrel length, mouthpiece, tone hole size adjustments, etc.) to physical changes (in embouchure or voicing, for example).
in tune. A phrase used to describe accuracy of pitch in relation to a fixed standard. A player of an instrument needs to be in tune not only with other instruments in an ensemble, but also within the scale of his or her own instrument. See also flat, intonation, sharp, tuning note. Inventions-clarinette. German designation for the Müller-system clarinet.
inverted cone. See reverse cone. ivory. The common name for dentin, the material of an animal tooth or tusk. Elephant tusks have been the most common source in the past, but ivory can also be obtained from the hippopotamus, the walrus, and even the narwhal. Ivory is a very hard and durable material, and has been prized for many uses, especially for carving into small items like dice and chess pieces, as well as for decorative purposes. It has had numerous uses in musical instrument manufacture; it was used for the tops of piano keys, and for tips and frogs on bows for stringed instruments, for example. On early clarinets, ferrules were often made from ivory, and occasionally the material was used for the entire body of an instrument, or for mouthpieces. Trade in ivory is banned or severely restricted today because of the declining populations of the animals from which it is taken, which have been slaughtered in great numbers simply for their tusks. On modern replicas of historic clarinets, components that were at one time made of ivory, such as rings, are usually made from artificial ivory.
J
aw vibrato. A type of vibrato produced by a very small, steady pulsing motion of the lower jaw. This type of vibrato is used commonly by clarinetists and saxophonists; it does not produce acceptable results on double-reed instruments and is impossible on the flute. It is sometimes mistakenly called lip vibrato. See also abdominal vibrato, finger vibrato, laryngeal vibrato. eune. French “young,” “junior.” In musical instrument making, a term appended to a maker’s name to distinguish him from older members of the same family who may carry the same name. An example is Louis-Auguste Buffet, jeune. Its opposite is ainé , “elder.”
oint. 1. The parts of the clarinet’s body on which keys are mounted. These are designated as the upper (or left-hand) joint and the lower (or right-hand) joint. 2. More broadly, the point at which two individual components are joined together. There are various types of joints; on the clarinet, the pieces of the body are connected to each other by a tenon-and-socket joint. ump keys. See in-line trill keys . ust intonation. Also called pure intonation. A tuning system based on intervals that are represented by small whole-number ratios, such as 2:1, 3:2, 4:3, and so on. These intervals are present in the harmonic series of a given fundamental pitch. When played harmonically, justly tuned intervals are essentially without beats. When such intervals are ordered in a diatonic scale, it includes a semitone measured as 16:15 and two distinct types of whole tone: a major whole tone (9:8) and a minor whole tone (10:9). A just scale does not produce beatless intervals or chords in all positions, and a fixed-intonation instrument (such as a piano) tuned to a just scale will be able to play reasonably in tune in only a few keys— namely, in
the fundamental key and in perhaps two keys on either side of the fundamental along the circle of fifths. In order to permit the possibility of playing well in tune in all keys, a form of temperament must be applied that, in essence, purposely “mistunes” some intervals slightly away from just intonation. The temperament used today in Western music to achieve this is equal temperament, where all half steps are of exactly equal size (100 cents). In equal temperament, the only interval that is the same size as in just intonation is the octave; all others deviate from their counterparts in just intonation to varying degrees. For example, an equal-tempered minor third is sixteen cents smaller than a just minor third, while an equal-tempered major third is fourteen cents larger than a just major third, and so on. Some intervals have much smaller differences. On instruments with less fixed intonation, such as unfretted stringed instruments, players may adjust the exact size of intervals more freely based on melodic or harmonic context. Wind instruments, such as the clarinet, have relatively fixed intonation—not as fixed as a piano, but more fixed than a violin, for example. It is possible to adjust some notes toward just intonation (when necessary) using changes of embouchure and fingering, but the degree of flexibility varies depending on register, dynamic level, reed strength , and other considerations. See also meantone tuning.
K
Kautschuk. See ebonite. Kell, Reginald (1906–1981). English clarinetist. He was principal clarinetist of the London Philharmonic (under Sir Thomas Beecham), and later of the Royal Philharmonic. He lived in America from 1947 to the end of his life except for 1958–1959, when he returned to England to teach at the Royal Academy of Music. In the United States he made a career as a soloist, recording artist, and teacher; among his pupils was the already-famous Benny Goodman, who studied with him from 1952 to 1958. Kell was known for his generous use of vibrato at a time when it was not common on the clarinet. Kendall, James (1803–1875). The first clarinet virtuoso born on American soil. He was active primarily in Boston, New Orleans, and San Francisco. He visited Europe in 1835 and was appointed leader of the band at West Point in 1840. With his younger brother, the famous Kent bugle player Edward “Ned” Kendall, James founded the Boston Brigade Band in 1823, and the two formed other, more ephemeral groups as well. James was also active with established institutions, such as Boston’s Philharmonic Society and Tremont Theatre, and Macguire’s Opera House in San Francisco. Although he himself was probably self-taught as a clarinetist, in 1845 he published a clarinet tutor, Kendall’s Kendall’s Clarionet Instruction Book . During his lifetime he was lauded as “the best clarinet player in the Union,” and as late as 1890 he was remembered as “the king of the clarinet.” key. On woodwind instruments such as the clarinet, a mechanism for covering or opening a tone hole that is out of reach of the fingers. The shape and size of keys varies depending on where they are located on the instrument and what their exact function is. Keys stand either open or closed. A key normally consists of three components: the touchpiece (or touch), the shank, and the pad cup. The earliest
clarinets had just two keys; more were gradually added to improve chromatic notes and facilitate fingering. In the nineteenth century improved key shapes were designed and entirely new key mechanisms and systems were developed, some of which are still in use today. The modern Boehm-system clarinet typically has seventeen keys, as well as six ring keys; the German system has from twenty-one to twenty-seven keys, five or six ring keys, and sometimes a plateau key for R2 and thumb keys for R0. On early clarinets keys were usually made of brass, more rarely of silver; on modern clarinets the material is nickel silver, sometimes plated with nickel or silver. See illustrations in appendix 4. See also adjustment, articulated key, crescent key, cross key, Dorus key, helper key, hinge key, pinky keys, plateau key,side key, register key, sliver key, thumb key, trill key, vent key.
key click. A type of extended technique that requires the player of an instrument, such as a clarinet, to use the keys of the instrument to produce a percussive effect. This usually involves fingering the keys in an exaggerated way, way, using a harder, more abrupt touch to make the movements of the key mechanism audible. Key clicks may also produce a muted but audible pitch when they result in the closing of a relatively large tone hole. Key clicks are especially effective on larger sizes of clarinet, and when enhanced by a microphone. Also called a key slap. key cup. See pad cup. key extension. A piece of material (usually metal or plastic) that serves to extend the length of a key’s key’s touchpiece in order to make it more easily reachable by the fingers. Key extensions are sometimes used by players with unusually small hands, or may be used therapeutically to ease muscle strain and prevent injury. On the clarinet, the most common key extensions are found on the pinky keys, especially those for E3/B4 and F♯3/C♯5 played by L4. On early clarinets with corps de rechange for nominal pitches of B-flat and A, the keys for L4 mounted on the stock sometimes had simple mechanical extensions so the touchpieces could be lengthened when the longer corps de rechange for A was used. key flap. The flat area of a key to which the pad is affixed on early clarinets. Key flaps were usually square, rectangular, or round, but sometimes were made in unusual shapes (such as the spade shape found on most clarinets by the early American maker George Catlin of Hartford, Connecticut). Also called a key head. See illustration in appendix 3. See also pad cup. key mechanism. The network of the clarinet’s keys and the small structural and mechanical parts that support them, allowing their proper movements and
interconnections. These include adjustment screws, the crow’s foot, key tubing, pins, pivot screws, posts, rod screws, and springs, as well as the keys themselves with their individual components (touchpiece, shank, and pad cup).
key mount. See mount. key rise. The distance between a pad and the tone hole it covers, when the key is standing open. Key rise must be carefully regulated, as it affects the intonation and timbre of the pitches produced by a given tone hole. Key rise of too great a distance may produce a pitch that is sharp, while too small a distance may produce a pitch that is flat or hisses slightly. Key rise also affects the overall feel and performance of the clarinet by influencing how long it takes for a key to close. Key rise is regulated by various means, including adjusting screws, the strategic placement of bumpers or shims of various thicknesses, and the modification of the position of a key cup in relation to other parts of the key mechanism to which it may be attached. key seat. On early clarinets, a flat area cut into the rounded outer surface of the clarinet’s body to allow a flat key flap and its pad to seal a tone hole as securely as possible. key slot. See channel. key slap. See key click. key tubing. The hollow or partially hollow metal rods that act as axles on which keys pivot. On the clarinet, key tubing is generally of two types. The first is a short length that extends between two closely spaced posts, is completely hollow, hollow, and contains a rod screw that secures the key. The second type is longer and spans posts that are more widely spaced; it is not completely hollow, but has conical or cylindrical sockets in each end that accept pivot screws. The second type is used to suspend ring keys and pad cups covering vent holes. See illustration in appendix 4. Kinder Klari. A clarinet designed by clarinetist John Denman (1933–2001) for use by young children. The instrument is small in size (with a nominal pitch of E-flat) but retains almost the full complement of Boehm-system keywork; three of the four side keys played by R1 are omitted. The small size and light weight of the Kinder Klari allow it to be used by children who are too small for a full-sized instrument. Klarinette. German spelling for clarinet.
klarinettfiol. A combination of the clarinet and the violin. An unknown Swedish maker produced the single known example, now in Helsingborg. The tube of the clarinet is essentially the fingerboard of the violin; the mouthpiece is positioned toward the tail of the violin, so that the two instruments might be played simultaneously. The clarinet has nine holes: one underneath for L0 and eight on top, all covered by keys so that they may be manipulated by the left hand in the manner of violin fingering, while the right hand is used to bow the violin. A photo of such an instrument is in Hoeprich, 296 (see bibliography). klarino. The Greek folk clarinet. It is usually an Albert-system, soprano-range instrument, most commonly with a nominal pitch of C but also found in B-flat, A, and G. klezmer. Yiddish, “vessel of song,” from the Hebrew word for musical instrument. 1. A musician in the Ashkenazi Jewish tradition. 2. A type of traditional Ashkenazi instrumental music. The earliest klezmer ensembles (from before the middle of the eighteenth century) did not include the clarinet; in certain areas the clarinet was found as a “second lead” to the violinist in the nineteenth century. The instrument found its most secure place in the ensemble during the twentieth century, particularly in American-style klezmer music beginning in the 1920s. Important figures in this style were the clarinetists Naftule Brandwein (1889– 1963) and Dave Tarras (1897–1989). Tarras, in particular, became the model for American klezmer clarinetists. In the 1970s a klezmer revival occurred, and Giora Feidman (b. 1936), a classically trained clarinetist with the Israel Philharmonic, began to popularize American-style klezmer, along with Andy Statman (b. 1950, a protégé of Tarras). In recent years David Krakauer (b. 1956) has continued this revival and has sometimes combined klezmer with other styles of music. Klezmer clarinet playing is characterized by a flexible approach to tone and intonation, with various sliding effects produced in the throat. Klosé, Hyacinthe (1808–1880). French clarinetist and composer. In 1838 he became professor of clarinet at the Paris Conservatory, succeeding his teacher Frédéric Berr. In the early 1840s he collaborated with the instrument maker Louis-Auguste Buffet jeune to design and produce the now ubiquitous Boehm-system clarinet. Klosé composed many solo works for the clarinet, as well as a clarinet tutor ( Méthode Méthode pour servir à l’enseignement de la clarinette clarinette à anneaux mobiles, 1845) that is still in use today. knee joint. On some early basset horns, the double-socket joint that connects the straight upper and lower sections to each other at an angle of 100–120 degrees. See
illustration in appendix 3.
Kooiman, Ton (b. 1954). Dutch maker of accessories for woodwind instruments. Kooiman specializes in ergonomic thumb rests that reduce hand strain for players of clarinet, oboe, saxophone, and flute. Kroll, Oskar (1908–1945). German clarinetist and clarinet historian. His influential book, Die Klarinette—ihreGeschichte, Klarinette—ihreGeschichte, ihre ihre Literatur, Literatur, ihre grossen Meister, was meant to be published in 1944, but because of Kroll’s untimely death (he was killed in World War II) it did not appear until 1965, in an edition revised by Diethard Riehm. It was translated into English in 1968 (see bibliography). Kruspe system. A clarinet key system patented in 1899 by F. W. Kruspe (1838– 1911), a woodwind maker in Erfurt, Germany. Germany. The Kruspe system shares much in common with the Baermann-system clarinet, but Kruspe designed an upper-joint Brille that improved forked B♭3/F5 and made E4/B5 and F4/C6 better in tune. He continued to tinker with the system, later improving the intonation of F♯4, adding a trill key for A♭4 to A4 and an articulated mechanism for C♯4/G♯5, improving the lower-joint Brille, and adding a right-hand thumb key to make the connections E3– C♯4, B4–G♯5, and C♯5–G♯5 possible. Kruspe-system clarinets were immensely popular in Germany; according to Waterhouse (see bibliography) they were probably the most-used type of clarinet in Germany in the period around 1900.
L
Langenus, Gustave (1883–1957). Belgian clarinetist and clarinet teacher. He studied under Poncelet at the Brussels conservatory and spent several years in England before moving permanently to the United States in 1910, when Walter Damrosch invited him to be principal clarinet of the New York Symphony Orchestra. He was active in many clarinet-related endeavors, including pedagogy; he composed pieces for beginners, edited the Carl Baermann method book, and wrote his own clarinet tutor (still in print today). He also wrote numerous articles for woodwind players and served as editor of the publications Woodwind News and the Ensemble News. In 1916 he founded the New York York Chamber Music Musi c Society. laryngeal vibrato. A type of vibrato produced by a steady pulsing motion of the muscles on either side of the vocal folds in the larynx. Laryngeal vibrato is commonly used by flutists and double-reed players, especially bassoonists; it may also be used on clarinet and saxophone, although it is not as common as jaw vibrato on these instruments. Recent studies using x-ray and fiberoptic technology seem to indicate that many players produce vibrato using a combination of laryngeal and abdominal muscles, with the laryngeal muscles playing a greater role at faster vibrato speeds. See also abdominal vibrato, finger vibrato, lip vibrato, jaw vibrato. larynx. Commonly called the voice box. The area of the human throat at the top of the trachea, containing the bones, cartilage, muscles, and tissue involved in activities such as breathing and producing sound. Importantly for musicians, the larynx contains the vocal folds (or vocal cords), which are operative in singing and in certain aspects of wind playing (such as voicing and the production of vibrato). Lässig clarinet. A combination clarinet patented by the German clarinetist Theodor Lässig in 1889. Unlike other combination clarinets, which operate on a principle of
extending the length of the tube or enlarging the bore, the Lässig clarinet has two parallel bores within a single piece of wood, both of which end in a single bell. The mouthpiece can be connected to either bore by means of a switch mechanism. There is a single key mechanism. See also Binda clarinet, Clinton combination clarinet, Leonesi system.
lathe. A machine used in woodworking, by means of which an unfinished piece of wood in the form of a billet is rotated on a spindle and shaped using a sharp cutting tool. Much of the shaping of the clarinet’s outer contours, and the drilling of the bore, are done using lathes. Clari net scholar, teacher, author, author, and prominent performer per former Lawson, Colin (b. 1949). Clarinet on historical clarinets. He has taught at the Universities of Aberdeen and Sheffield and at Goldsmith’s College in London and was pro-vice chancellor at Thames Valley University; he is currently the director of the Royal College of Music. Besides maintaining an active career as a soloist and recording artist, Lawson has also served as principal clarinetist of the Hanover Band, the London Classical Players, and the English Concert, among other period instrument groups. Lawson contributed significantly to current knowledge of the history of the chalumeau with his PhD dissertation (published by UMI in 1981) and has continued to publish important works in clarinet history, performance practice, repertoire , and other areas (see bibliography).
lay. See facing. Lazarus, Henry (1815–1895). The most prominent English clarinetist from about the late 1830s through the 1880s. Lazarus learned the clarinet in the military and was a member of the band of the Coldstream Guards. He went on to perform as a soloist and as clarinetist at the Haymarket Theater, the Sacred Harmonic Concerts, the Royal Italian Opera (under Costa), the Birmingham Festival (at which he played in the first performance of Mendelssohn’s Elijah, among other works), the Philharmonic Society, and Louis-Antoine Jullien’s orchestra. He taught at both the Royal Academy and Royal College of Music, as well as at Trinity College and Kneller Hall. He continued to play and teach until late in life, retiring from the stage only in 1891 after becoming blind in one eye. He continued to teach until 1894. He possessed a considerable collection of clarinets at his death. Lazarus was praised as the foremost clarinetist of his day by the public and critics, including George Bernard Shaw. In addition to his activities as a performer and teacher, he also composed several virtuoso works for the clarinet, along with a clarinet tutor ( New publ ished today). Various Various English composers New and Modern Method, 1881, still published dedicated works to him.
leaf spring. See flat spring. leak. In relation to the clarinet, any undesired escape of air due to defects in either equipment or playing technique. Leaks caused by equipment malfunction may occur because of a crack in the body of a wooden clarinet; because of wear in the cork of a tenon; or at a point where, for a variety of possible reasons, a pad does not fully seal a tone hole. Technique-related Technique-related leaks occur when the embouchure does not fully seal around the mouthpiece, or when fingers do not completely cover tone holes. leather. A material produced by subjecting the hide of an animal to the process of tanning to make it durable and supple. Leather has had a number of applications to the clarinet, most importantly as a material for pads but also as a covering for the bodies of some early low clarinets. Leblanc. French clarinet manufacturer, founded in 1904 by Georges Leblanc (1872– 1959), who had taken over the business of the Noblet family. He was joined by his son Léon Leblanc (1900–2000). The Leblanc firm operated in La Couture-Boussey and Paris, and opened an American branch in Kenosha, Wisconsin in 1946 under the management of Vito Pascucci (1922–2003). At first the Kenosha branch simply imported and sold the French instruments; particularly popular in the postwar era was the newly designed student clarinet called the “Vito.” “Vito.” Eventually the Vito instruments were manufactured in Kenosha and sold in the large American market for school band instruments, and Leblanc USA was henceforth active in the area of music education, even appointing a director for music education programs. In 1964 Leblanc acquired the brass instrument manufacturer Holton, and in the period from the late 1960s to the early 1980s bought other musical instrument and accessory companies, including the Martin Band Instrument Inst rument company. company. In the late l ate 1980s Vito Pascucci and his son Leon bought the French arm of the business from Léon Leblanc (a difficult and sensitive business deal that required the approval of the French government and was not complete until 1993). Leon Pascucci became CEO upon his father’s death. In 2004 Leblanc was acquired by Steinway Musical Instruments and is now operated as a division of Conn-Selmer (see Selmer). Leblanc clarinets continue to be played today by both professional and student clarinetists. Lefèvre, Jean-Xavier (1763–1829). French clarinetist of Swiss birth. Lefèvre studied with the Parisian virtuoso Michel Yost before starting his career. He performed as a military musician, as a soloist (including on the Concert Spirituel), and as an orchestral clarinetist (at the Paris Opera and the Imperial Chapel). He taught at the Paris Conservatory from its founding in 1795 until 1824, counting among his
pupils future clarinet virtuosi such as Bernhard Crusell. Lefèvre wrote an influential clarinet tutor ( Méthode Méthode de clarinette, 1802), and composed clarinet sonatas, concertos, and quartets for clarinet and string trio.
legato. Italian, “tied together.” A term indicating that a series of notes is to be played smoothly and with impeccable connection. In clarinet playing, the term may or may not imply that a slur is present; if a series of notes appears without a slur, but legato performance is required, the clarinetist will articulate each note by tonguing, leaving no temporal space between each note and the next. Effective legato on the clarinet depends upon absolute control and support of the airstream and maintaining constant air pressure. The antonym of legato is staccato. Leonesi system. A type of combination clarinet devised by the Italian clarinetist Giuseppe Leonesi and made by Rampone of Milan in 1900. While other combination clarinets worked on the principle of lengthening a tube with the nominal pitch of B-flat, Leonesi began with a length of tube having a nominal pitch of A. This was given two separate sets of tone holes, one for each tonality (except for the register key and the top two trill keys played by R1, which remained single). These tone holes were closed by two sets of keys mounted on sleeves; each set of keys led to a single touchpiece, however. By means of moveable metal strips stri ps with wedges situated underneath the keys, the holes not in use could be closed. The metal strips could be moved all together by a touchpiece near L0, so that quick changes could be made between the two tonalities. Only one example of a clarinet with the Leonesi system was produced. See also Binda clarinet,Clinton combination clarinet, Lässig clarinet. leveling. The process of situating a pad so that it is exactly level with the tone hole it must cover, in order to ensure there is a complete seal when the tone hole is closed by the pad. Pad leveling is usually accomplished with the aid of a simple tool called a pad slick, which allows the repair technician to manipulate any areas of the pad that might be too high or low. See also floating, seating. lever. A mechanism that can be employed to lift a load at some distance from the point of the lifter. Simple levers have three components: the point at which effort is applied, the pivot point or fulcrum, and the load. In relation to the clarinet, lever is a term used to describe the combined touchpiece and shank of a clarinet key (where effort is applied), which operate to open or close a tone hole with a pad cup (the “load”). Most clarinet keys are examples of first-order levers, where the fulcrum is between the effort and the load; some older clarinets have a hinge key for F3 (operated by R4), an example of a second-order lever where the effort and load are on the same side of the fulcrum.
ligature. A device that secures the clarinet reed firmly to the mouthpiece. Early in the history of the clarinet this was accomplished simply by tying the reed to the mouthpiece with a string or cord, and this method (called a Spannschnur or Blattschnur) is still used today by many German players. In 1812 Iwan Müller, in the fingering chart he published for his new clarinet, illustrated a metal ligature that was tightened by means of two screws; many modern ligatures still use this basic design. Besides metal, ligatures are also made from leather, fabric, plastic, and other synthetic materials. Many current designs attempt to hold the reed securely without unduly constraining its ability to vibrate freely, and a wide variety of styles are available. Most players agree that the ligature has a significant effect on the reed’s response and the overall timbre of the sound.
Figure 16. Ligatures. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
lining. At various times in the history of the clarinet, makers have experimented with lining the bore of one or more of the instrument’s joints, or tone hole chimneys, with metal, hard rubber, or other material in order to stabilize the dimensions of these areas. For example, the early-nineteenth-century English clarinet maker James Wood obtained two patents for clarinet designs that incorporated a brass lining for the barrel (1800) and for the main joints (1814). He also used tone hole bushings made of various materials. For a time in the 1990s the South American clarinet maker Luis Rossi used a plastic bore lining for some of his clarinets, and
today there are clarinet barrels that are lined with hard rubber.
lipping. To “lip” a note up or down means to use the embouchure to raise or lower the pitch of a note slightly. On the clarinet, “lipping” is actually more an action of the jaw, the orbicularis oris muscle of the mouth, and the oral cavity, rather than of the lips themselves. A pitch may be lowered to a small degree by a slight opening of the jaw and widening of the oral cavity, while a raising of the pitch is produced by biting slightly with the jaw and narrowing the oral cavity. It should be noted that both actions result in only a very small change in pitch. Lipping should be used for on-the-spot, temporary adjustments of individual problem pitches, and not on a continuous basis to compensate for more general problems of intonation; these may require any of a number of other remedies affecting the clarinetist’s equipment or playing habits. lip vibrato. A type of woodwind vibrato said to originate with small movements of the player’s lips. This may be a misnomer, since several recent physiological studies seem to indicate that players who claim to be using lip vibrato are actually using jaw vibrato. See also abdominal vibrato, finger vibrato, laryngeal vibrato. long fingerings. Any fingerings using all or most fingers of both hands. The term is often applied to specific alternate fingerings that may be substituted for those using fewer fingers; on the clarinet, for example, the pitch F6 has a standard fingering that uses only a few fingers on the left hand; one alternative fingering for the same pitch, often called “long F,” uses nearly all the fingers of both hands. long-tenon mouthpiece. A type of mouthpiece common on many early English clarinets having a separate mouthpiece and barrel. The tenon of the mouthpiece is elongated and the socket of the barrel correspondingly adjusted so that fine tuning is accomplished by pulling out the mouthpiece from the barrel, rather than the barrel from the upper joint (as is common today). The inventor of the long-tenon mouthpiece was probably the London clarinet maker John Hale (fl. 1785–1804).
Figure 17. Long tenon mouthpiece (left) vs. a standard modern mouthpiece (right). Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
long tones. Pitches sustained for a long period of time. Many wind players have a warm-up routine that focuses on long tones, since these are an effective way to gradually acclimatize the muscles of the abdomen, embouchure, and fingers to playing after a period of time away from the instrument. Lotz, Theodor (1746–1792). German clarinetist, composer, and one of the most important woodwind makers of the late eighteenth century. He is known to have worked in the Musique du Roi in Paris and at Versailles in 1769–1770. He had moved to Vienna by 1772, where he performed on public concerts and worked for Cardinal Prince de Rohan. By 1778 he was working in Pressburg (now Bratislava) for Prince Joseph Batthyány; in 1783 he returned to Vienna, where in 1788 he was appointed musical instrument maker to the imperial Hapsburg court. He is perhaps best known for his collaboration in the 1780s with Mozart’s clarinetist, clarinet ist, Anton Stadler, for whom he made not only soprano clarinets but also basset horns and a basset clarinet. Only one complete soprano clarinet and the upper joint of a second by Lotz survive, but ten basset horns with eight to ten keys are extant. He contributed to the development of the basset horn by constructing it in an angled fashion with straight upper and lower joints connected by a knee joint, rather than
using the sickle-shaped design of earlier makers. He also added a D key to the basset notes and mounted the keys in brass saddles. By 1788 Lotz had made basset clarinets in B-flat and A for Stadler, and by 1790 had improved them by making the lower extension fully chromatic; it was the latter instrument for which Mozart wrote his Clarinet Concerto, K. 622. No basset clarinets by Lotz have survived, but a 1794 program of a concert Stadler gave in Riga carries an engraving of an instrument that is presumed to show Stadler’s basset clarinet, and modern replicas have been constructed based on that depiction.
Louf system. An extremely complex clarinet key system developed around 1932 by the Frenchman Gustave Auguste Louf (1888–1957). It uses plateau keys, some of which are divided into two or three separate touchpieces, so that by using different parts of the finger on any given key one can produce several adjacent chromatic pitches. For example, the key operated by L2 produces not only D4 but also D ♭4 or E♭4, depending on which part of the finger depresses which part of the divided plate covering the tone hole. low (register). A general term for the register of an instrument containing pitches with relatively low frequencies. On the clarinet, the low register is usually referred to as the chalumeau register; the term low register may, however, however, sometimes be used in a more restrictive way to refer to the lowest pitches of the chalumeau register, from written E3 (or C3 on certain bass clarinets and basset horns) up to about C4. lower joint. The portion of the clarinet that carries the tone holes operated by R1–R4, as well as keys operated by those fingers and also by L4. In addition, the lower joint carries the thumb rest and any thumb keys for R0 that may be present, as on some early clarinets, some German-system instruments, and some low clarinets. Also called the bottom joint, lower stack, or the right-hand joint (although on many of the earliest clarinets either hand could be positioned lowermost). Lyons C clarinet. A clarinet designed by the English woodwind teacher Graham Lyons in 1991 and meant for use by small children. The instrument was made of plastic, making it lightweight and waterproof, and it was pitched in C, making it somewhat smaller in length than a traditional soprano clarinet in B-flat. Its keywork, although unconventional in appearance, was essentially the Boehm system minus the duplicate keys for L4 and R4, so that the player had to slide the little fingers between these keys. The Lyons C was also designed so that damaged keys could be easily replaced by the owner. It has been superseded by a newer model, called the Clarineo.
M
maillechort. French term for nickel silver. Marcellus, Robert (1928–1996). Influential American clarinetist and clarinet teacher. A student of Daniel Bonade, he held positions as principal clarinetist of the National Symphony Orchestra (Washington, D.C.) and the Cleveland Orchestra; he remained in the latter post for twenty years, from 1953 to 1973, during which time he also taught at the Cleveland Institute of Music. The principal clarinet chair of the Cleveland Orchestra is now endowed in his name. Marcellus taught at Northwestern University from 1974 to 1994. Late in his career he lost his sight due to diabetic retinitis; he continued to teach, however, not only at Northwestern but also at the week-long summer master classes that he had founded in 1974. Many of his students went on to become the most important American clarinetists of the next generation. Marchi system. A clarinet key system developed by Joseph Marchi and produced in 1975 by Selmer as part of their Series 10. The Marchi system is a full-Boehmsystem clarinet with an extra hole pierced in the barrel, and a key mechanism that opens the extra hole in order to facilitate the production of pitches in the altissimo register . This obviates the need for special altissimo fingerings, and instead allows those pitches to be played with the same fingerings used in the chalumeau and clarion registers; the mechanism essentially acts as an additional speaker key, enabling the player to overblow at the interval of a seventeenth from the fundamental (i.e., the fifth harmonic in the harmonic series). The mechanism is designed in such a way that it may be used or not, as the player chooses, and the altissimo register may be played with the standard fingerings. mark. 1. Also called a stamp. A small symbol, name, and/or set of letters, stamped or engraved on the various individual pieces of an instrument, identifying it as the
product of a particular p articular maker, workshop, or company. In earlier times, a maker ’s mark was required by the guilds in many cities; during the eighteenth century, city laws themselves often required a mark. Marks might incorporate one or more of the following: a pictorial symbol (such as a trefoil, sunburst, lyre, or something that was a play on the maker’s name—such as an apple for Appelberg), a scroll, the maker’s initials, a city/court emblem or the name of the city of manufacture, an indication of the maker’s special status (“court instrument maker”), and later a maker address, patent indication, the name of a particular model, and so on. A maker’s mark could indicate the quality of an instrument to potential buyers and also serve as an advertisement for that maker’s wares. In some cities marks were hereditary; for example in Nürnberg (probable location of the invention of the clarinet) the mark was inherited first by the maker’s widow, and next by the (not the eldest) son, although usually the mark had to be “broken”— youngest (not slightly altered in some way. Marks might be purchased if there was no heir to the original maker, and they might also be applied by a wholesaler or merchant rather than by the maker himself. Some of these circumstances complicate the identification of instruments by makers’ marks. See illustration in appendix 3. 2. Besides the maker’s mark, other marks may appear on woodwind instruments. The most common are an indication of nominal pitch —on clarinets the letters B (the German name for B♭), A, E or Es (the German name for E ♭), etc.; signs indicating that separate joints belong together; serial numbers; and stamps of owners. Inspection marks are also sometimes found.
master class. A type of lesson given by a teacher (often a well-known performer) to a group of students, with or without a public audience of amateurs or nonmusicians. A master class usually involves the teaching of a single student at time while the rest of the group observes. The master teacher will listen to the student’s playing and then offer feedback, suggestions, and demonstration. Normally, in a master class lasting an hour or more, several individual students will be taught. The master class concept allows the observers to benefit from the teacher’s advice, along with the student being directly taught. Mazzeo system. A clarinet key system designed by the American clarinetist Rosario Mazzeo (1911–1997) in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The typical Mazzeo system clarinet uses the Boehm system with the following modifications: (1) The problematic throat B♭ (B♭4) is improved by having its own tone hole (rather than using the same hole as the register key) and can be produced by pressing the key for A4 and closing L2 or any of the right-hand fingers, the rings of which are attached to a lever that opens the tone hole; (2) there is a plateau key for the left thumb (L0), allowing that finger greater mobility; and (3) the bell is ringless, giving a more resonant and well-tuned B4. Other Mazzeo-system clarinets with further
modifications include: (1) a left-hand key for A♭3/E♭5; (2) a ring for L3, allowing a fingering for E♭4/B♭5 that uses L0, L1, L3, and the C♯4/G♯5 key, key, producing easy trills from D♭4 to E♭4 or A♭5 to B♭5; (3) a flange attached to the C♯4/G♯5 key that allows it to be played by R1 as well as L4, as on German-system clarinets; and (4) an articulated mechanism that allows an easier slur or trill from E3/B4 to F♯3/C♯5. More than thirteen thousand Mazzeo-system clarinets, including student models, were commercially produced, mostly by Selmer in the 1960s. Mazzeo also had a pair of clarinets produced for his own personal use with additional modifications, known as the California Custom clarinets.
McIntyre system. A clarinet key system developed in the United States in the late 1950s by Thomas F. and Robert J. McIntyre and patented in 1962. The system modifies only the upper joint; the lower joint uses the standard Boehm system. The system has separate tone holes for each of the throat tones, and the keys for these tone holes are operated by three left-hand ring keys: with L0 open, L3 produces A♭4, L2 produces A4, and L1 produces B ♭4. Because the traditional keys for A♭4 and A4 operated by L1 are eliminated, there is also an extra right-hand trill key operated by R1 to produce an easy trill between F4 and G4. The McIntyres were able to have some clarinets produced by Thibouville Frères in France, but the product was never commercially successful. meantone temperament. Any one of a number of temperaments that may be applied to a musical instrument by the maker or the tuner, which enable the instrument to play with acceptable intonation in a variety of different keys. Historically, meantone temperament was common in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries, even extending into the nineteenth in some areas. The basic idea behind meantone temperaments of all types is to rid the circle of fifths of the syntonic comma, which is the small but noticeable difference in pitch (81:80, or about 21.5 cents) between the C at the start of the circle and the C at the end when perfect 3:2 fifths are used (or, alternatively stated, the difference between the two types of whole tone that are present in just intonation To eliminate the syntonic intonation). To comma, some of the fifths are slightly altered, or tempered, from their exact ratio of 3:2; specifically, they are flattened by a predetermined amount, and this amount gives its name to the exact type of meantone temperament being used. For example, the most common type of meantone temperament is called quarter-comma meantone, because all but one of the fifths is reduced by one-quarter of the amount of the syntonic comma. (Other types of meantone tuning, such as one-sixth comma, have been used at various times.) Quarter-comma mean-tone tuning produces acceptable intonation in keys up to perhaps three sharps and flats, but not beyond that due to the presence of one drastically out-of-tune fifth (called the “wolf”). For much of the clarinet’s history meantone tuning has no relevance, since by
the time the clarinet was in common use equal temperament was fairly widespread. For early clarinets, however, for example those made in about the first three-quarters of the eighteenth century, makers may have attempted to tune instruments to some form of meantone or well temperament. See also equal temperament, just intonation.
mechanism. See key mechanism. Meinl system. William Meinl (d. 1916) was active as an instrument maker and seller in the early twentieth century in New York. The Meinl system is a German-system clarinet incorporating an articulated C♯4/G♯5 mechanism similar to that of Pupeschi. Messiaen, Olivier (1908–1992). French composer and organist, also influential as a composition teacher. He was a devout Catholic with mystical leanings, and much of his music is informed by his religious beliefs. Other interests also permeate his music, including birdsong (which, as an avid bird watcher, he notated in the field) and ideas from various Eastern musical traditions. Messiaen was a synesthete, associating colors with sounds. Messiaen’s important contribution to the clarinet repertoire was the Quatuor pour le fin du temps (Quartet for the End of Time) for clarinet, violin, cello, and piano. The work was written in 1940–1941 while Messiaen (who had been called up for military service at the beginning of World War II) was in a Silesian prison camp at Görlitz. The work was written for Messiaen and three fellow prisoners and was premiered in the camp for an audience of about 400 prisoners and guards. The work has eight movements using various combinations of the instrumentation, including one movement for clarinet alone (the third, entitled Abîme des oiseaux or Abyss of the Birds Birds); this movement is often detached from the work as a whole and played as a separate recital piece. In a preface to the score for the Quatuor, Messiaen explains the religious inspiration for the work (from the biblical book of Revelation), and gives a brief description of the spiritual and visual content of each movement. The overarching idea of the “end of time” is suggested in various musical ways throughout the piece, including the use of complex rhythmic patterns and very slow tempos in several of the movements. The piece also incorporates birdsong and a number of concepts unique to Messiaen’s theoretical/compositional system. call ed a tutor. A music book method/method book. In British English, also called containing instruction in the fundamentals of playing a musical instrument. Method books usually contain a fingering chart, scale patterns, exercises, and melodic pieces in an order that progresses from simple to more complex. Method books
may also include instruction in reading musical notation and in basic concepts of music theory. Method books specifically for the clarinet have been in existence since the last quarter of the eighteenth century, starting with two anonymous treatises ( Principes Principes de Clarinette, Paris, ca. 1775; The Clarinet Instructor, London, ca. 1780) and continuing continui ng with works by Abraham (1782), Vanderhagen Vanderhagen (ca. 1785), Blasius (ca. 1796), and others. The nineteenth century saw a marked increase in the publishing of clarinet methods, especially in conjunction with new fingering systems that were being developed; important examples were written by Lefèvre (1802), Backofen (ca. 1803), Mahon (ca. 1803), Müller (1821), Blatt (ca. 1828), Berr (1836), Carulli (ca. 1840), Klosé (1843), Carl Baermann (1864), and many others. New method books continued to be written in the twentieth century, including those by Magnani (1900), Langenus (1913), Gay (1932), Jettel (1949– 1950), and Russianoff (1982); some of the nineteenth-century methods, however, continue to be used extensively in current clarinet pedagogy.
metronome. A mechanical or electronic device that produces an audible pulse to aid the musician in finding exact tempos and developing accurate rhythmic performance. The metronome was invented in the early nineteenth century. Many forms of metronome have been designed since that time, but all share in common the ability to mark a pulse at a wide range of speeds, measured in beats per minute (bpm), as chosen by the user. The design common from the nineteenth century onward (though becoming less common today) used a pendulum rod to which a weight was attached; by sliding the weight along the rod, the tempo of the rod (which produced a clicking sound) could be adjusted along a scale from fast to slow. The pendulum was kept in motion by a spring mechanism that was manually wound. Since the 1960s electronic metronomes have been commercially available, usually with a dial or a digital display rather than a pendulum. The standard tempo scale on most metronomes ranges from 40 to 208 bpm; modern digital metronomes can mark any number within this range, while pendulum-style and some early electronic metronomes marked only even numbers, or from 60 bpm onward, every third, fourth, sixth, or eighth number. Many electronic metronomes have a feature allowing the user to tap a button at a specific rate of speed, and the metronome will identify the number of beats per minute on a digital display. microtonal clarinet. A clarinet designed and made purposefully to produce microtones. The Czech clarinetist and composer Alois Hába (1893–1973) had a quarter-tone clarinet built by the maker Kohlert (patented in 1924), and wrote music for it. A later instrument by Fritz Schüller used two bores with a switch mechanism, allowing the player to choose a standard or microtonal bore using the same fingering system. See also Bohlen-Pierce clarinet.
microtone. Any musical interval smaller than the equal-tempered half step common to Western Western music. Micro-tones Micro- tones are used in some contemporary Western classical music, as well as in the traditional and folk music of many non-Western cultures. They are often very specifically measured and identifiable by trained ears. In relation to the clarinet, traditional music played by clarinetists in India, Turkey, Greece, and the Balkan countries commonly uses microtones. Microtones are usually achieved on the standard clarinet through the use of modified fingerings and embouchure; however, several microtonal clarinets have been made since the early part of the twentieth century. middle (register). A general term for the register of an instrument immediately above the low register. On the clarinet, the middle register is usually referred to as the clarion register; the term middle register may, may, however, sometimes be used in a looser way to refer to pitches from about C4 to G5, which includes the upper part of the chalumeau register and the lower part of the clarion. Milhaud, Darius (1892–1974). French composer, member of the group of composers known as Les Six (“The Six”). He was influenced by neoclassicism, Brazilian popular music (with which he came into contact as the secretary to the French ambassador to Brazil), and early jazz. As a Jew, he had to leave France during the Nazi occupation; he came to the United States and taught composition at Mills College in California beginning in 1940. He returned to France after World War War II and assumed a teaching position at the Paris Conservatory, but he essentially divided the rest of his career between France and the United States, continuing on the faculty at Mills College until 1971 and also teaching at the Aspen Festival and the Music Academy of the West. The intense travel schedule this entailed did nothing to curb his prolific activities as a composer. Milhaud composed extensively for the clarinet throughout his entire career. Important clarinet works include the Sonata, op. 47 for flute, oboe, clarinet, and piano (1918); the chamber ballet La création du monde (The Creation of the World), op. 81 (1923); Sonatina, op. 100, for clarinet and piano (1927); Pastorale, op. 147, for reed trio (1935); Suite, op. 157b, for clarinet, violin, and piano (1936); Suite d’après Corrette, op. 161, for reed trio (1937, based on incidental music for the play Jules César); La cheminée du Roi René ( ( King King René’s René’s Hearth), op. 205, for wind quintet (1939, based on the music for the film Cavalcade d’amour); Clarinet Molière (The Apotheosis of Molière) op. Concerto, op. 230 (1941); L’apothéose de Molière 286, for flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, harpsichord, and strings (1948); Duo Concertante, op. 351, for clarinet and piano (1956); Divertissement , op. 299b, for wind quintet, (1958, based on the score for the film Gauguin, op. 299); and the Wind Quintet, op. 443 (1973). Of these, the op. 205 and op. 443 wind quintets, the Suite, and the works for clarinet and piano are in the clarinet’s standard repertoire .
mock trumpet. An instrument originating in England in the first half of the eighteenth century. No examples survive today (although one existed in the early twentieth century), but early descriptions of the instrument relate it to the chalumeau. It was a small pipe (eight to nine inches long) with an idioglot single reed, six finger holes on top, and one below (for L0). It was made from wood or cane covered with leather. Advertisements for the instrument appeared in English newspapers, and documents show that it was owned by amateur musicians in England, Holland, and even the American colonies. Books of instructions and music for the mock trumpet were published as early as 1700 in London. model number. An identification number used by a manufacturer to indicate a particular “line” or style of an instrument within the range of instruments produced by that manufacturer. For example, the clarinet manufacturer Buffet-Crampon produces a range of types, from student clarinets to professional clarinets, that carry different model numbers: B10, B12, E11, E13, R13, and so on. Each of these numbers represents a line of instruments with features (type of material, key finish, pad type, bore size and shape, pitch level, special keys or fittings) that distinguish it from the others. The model number will usually be stamped into the body of the clarinet near the maker’s mark. It should not be confused with the serial number. modes of vibration. The patterns in which an object or system vibrates. In general modes of vibration do not need to be harmonic (i.e., in whole-number multiples of the fundamental), but in the case of wind instruments they are. When a pitch is sounded on the clarinet, the normal mode of vibration is at the fundamental (i.e., the pitch’s full wavelength) and at odd-integer multiples of the full wavelength; the even-integer multiples are weak or nonexistent because the clarinet is a closed pipe with a cylindrical bore. The same fingering producing the fundamental pitch can also produce pitches at the other modes of vibration; if the register key is applied (or the embouchure is changed), the fingering will overblow at the second mode of vibration, which is at the third harmonic (skipping the second harmonic for the reasons cited above). The third mode of vibration for the same fingering is at the fifth harmonic. See also harmonic series. Moennig barrel. A clarinet barrel designed by Hans Moennig, a prominent woodwind repairman in Philadelphia from the late 1930s through the early 1980s. The bore of the Moennig barrel is a reverse cone. It was developed to enable mouthpieces with larger exit bores (such as Kaspar) to be used with the polycylindrical Buffet R-13 clarinet that became popular in the later 1950s. Mollenhauer system. Most properly called the System Thomas Mollenhauer. A clarinet designed by Thomas Mollenhauer (1840–1914) and produced by the
workshop of J. Mollenhauer und Söhne in Fulda, Germany. Thomas Mollenhauer was trained as a flute maker by Theodore Boehm in Munich, and this fingering system was an attempt to construct a clarinet exactly along the lines of the Boehm flute. It incorporates plateau keys and right-hand pinky keys laid out very much like those of a flute, along with an open key for C♯4/G♯5 similar to the Dorus key. Both thumbs operate keys; the register key is not operated by L0, but by the palm of the left hand. The prototype that was built won an honorable mention at the 1867 Paris Exhibition, even though it was brought to the event too late for the main prize judging. Only that single example was ever made, however, however, and the instrument was never put into general production.
mordent. Also mordant. A type of musical ornament. The term may refer to either of two practices. The first, also sometimes called a lower mordent or pincé , is a quick alternation from the principal note to the note below, and back, and is notated as shown in figure 18. The second, also called an upper mordent, inverted mordent, or Schneller, is a quick alternation from the principal note to the note above, and back, and is written as shown in figure 18. As is the case with all ornaments, specific notational and performance practices varied depending on time period and geographical location; the symbol for an upper mordent was also used in some circumstances for a pralltriller.
William Conable Figure 18. Mordent (left) and inverted mordent (right). Illustration by William
mount/mounting. 1. The method by which a key is attached to the body of a clarinet. A variety of mount types have been used throughout the clarinet’s history, history, including rings, blocks or knobs, saddles, and posts; see individual entries for definitions of these terms. See illustrations in appendix 4. See also block (mount), post (mount), ring mount, saddle (mount). 2. In descriptions of clarinets in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, instruments are sometimes described as “mounted” or “tipped” in ivory (or horn, silver, etc.). This usually refers to the material used for the ferrules around the sockets and the rim of the bell. mouthpiece. The section of the clarinet to which the reed is attached, and which is
inserted in the player’s mouth. The player directs a stream of air through the mouthpiece/reed combination, allowing the reed to vibrate against the mouthpiece and setting up a vibrating air column in the clarinet, producing sound. The structure of the clarinet mouthpiece is acoustically complex, and many players would argue that it is the single most important component controlling the timbre of the instrument. The clarinet mouthpiece and its component parts are shown in appendix 5. The outer structure of the mouthpiece consists of a sloping section called the beak, on which the player’s upper teeth and lip are positioned; a slightly conical section that forms the outer wall of the mouthpiece’s bore; a tenon that allows the mouthpiece to be connected to the barrel of the clarinet; the table, the flat surface on which the reed is placed; and the window, the rectangular opening in the table, framed by the rails at the tip and the sides. The inner components of the mouthpiece comprise the sloping area opposite the window, called the baffle; the side walls extending down from the baffle toward the window (together the baffle and side walls bound the area known as the chamber); and the bore of the mouthpiece, the area between the chamber and the barrel of the clarinet itself. The area covered by the reed includes the table, window, and the side and tip rails. In order that air may be blown into the mouthpiece so that the reed can vibrate and produce sound, the rails must curve away from the reed at some point to make a gap at the mouthpiece tip, called the tip opening. The area from the point where this curvature begins to the tip of the mouthpiece is called the facing (or lay). The degree of the facing’s curvature, and the length over which the curvature is distributed, have a crucial and substantial effect on the mouthpiece’s feel, response, and timbre; the facing will determine the size of a mouthpiece’s tip opening and the reed strength that can be used to best effect with a given mouthpiece. Other areas of the mouthpiece also have a significant effect on intonation, feel, and timbre. Thicker side rails add resistance to the mouthpiece and produce a darker tone. Window size affects the volume of air that can be blown through the instrument, and thus influences resistance and loudness. Inside the mouthpiece, a straight, shallow baffle will produce a brighter tone quality, while a concave, deeper baffle will darken the sound. The distance between the side walls of the chamber, like the window size, governs volume of air and loudness, as well as the sound’s focus; in addition the walls may be exactly parallel to each other or run at some degree of inward angling toward the tip of the mouthpiece (the latter being more characteristic of German mouthpieces), producing a difference in flexibility of sound. The bore of the mouthpiece has a great influence on intonation, with smaller bores playing generally sharper in pitch; bore size will also affect the intonational relationships of the twelfths between the chalumeau and clarion registers of the clarinet. The bore size of the mouthpiece must match the bore size of the
instrument for correct intonation. See illustration in appendix 5.
mouthpiece patch. A small, flat, roughly oval-shaped piece of rubber or flexible plastic that can be glued to the beak of the clarinet mouthpiece. The purpose is to make the beak’s surface less slippery and more comfortable for the player’s upper teeth to rest upon. Mouthpiece patches were once typically homemade, but may now be purchased from commercial manufacturers. Materials and size vary. Not all players use a mouthpiece patch; some feel that it affects the mouthpiece’s sound detrimentally by dampening its vibration. Also called a mouthpiece cushion. Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (1756–1791). Austrian composer, one of the most famous composers in the history of music. Mozart’s works for clarinet, basset clarinet, and basset horn are of central importance to the clarinet repertoire, both historically and for their intrinsic musical value. These include the Concerto, K. 622; the Clarinet Quintet, K. 581; the Trio for clarinet, viola and piano (“Kegelstatt”), K. 498; the Quintet for piano and winds, K. 452; three important works for Harmoniemusik, K. 375, K. 361/370a, and 388/384a; and a number of works including multiple basset horns, some with other instruments and some with voices. Mozart also wrote for the clarinet, basset clarinet, and basset horn in numerous operas (including important solo obbligato parts in La Clemenza di Tito Tito), symphonies, piano concertos, Masses, and other works. Fragmentary works for basset clarinet (K. 516c, K. 581a) and basset horn (K. 621b, KV Anh. 90) also exist. The clarinetist who inspired most of these works was Anton Stadler. It should be noted that autograph manuscripts for many of these works, including the Quintet and Concerto, are lost. According to a letter from Constanze Mozart to the publisher André, written after Mozart’s death, they were originally in Stadler’s possession; Stadler claimed they were stolen, but Constanze believed he had pawned them. The lack of autographs for the Concerto and Quintet has proven problematic for the creation of modern editions, and in particular has given rise to a number of attempts to reconstruct the passages that may have included basset notes beyond the register of the conventional clarinet. The earliest editions of these two works, produced a decade after Mozart’s death, are for instruments with a standard range; this was presumably to increase their marketability, since most players were unlikely to possess instruments with an extended range. Various types of historical and musical evidence, however, indicate that Mozart wrote both these works for a basset clarinet, and some modern editions incorporate the rewriting of passages to include basset notes. Starting with groundbreaking performances in the late 1960s by the Swiss clarinetist Hans Rudolf Stalder and English clarinetist Alan Hacker (1938–2012), many modern performances and recordings of these versions have been done, using replicas of period basset clarinets or modern clarinets with basset extensions.
mpingo. Swahili word for the tree that produces African blackwood or grenadilla ( Dalbergia Dalbergia melanoxylon), the most common wood used today in the manufacture of clarinets. Mühlfeld, Richard (1856–1907). German clarinetist, best known for his association with Johannes Brahms. He made his career at the court in Meiningen, at first as a violinist in the court orchestra, and later as clarinetist in that ensemble as well as in the regimental band. With the Meiningen orchestra, Mühlfeld traveled (including regularly to Bayreuth, where he earned the approbation of Wagner). He also played as a soloist. Despite numerous attempts to lure him elsewhere—St. Petersburg, Budapest, and even Boston—he remained at his post in Meiningen, where he became the official first clarinetist in 1879. Brahms became associated with Meiningen through the enthusiasm for his music shown by the conductor Hans von Bülow (who had become the orchestra’s conductor in 1880) and also by Duke Georg II, and Brahms came to know and admire Mühlfeld’s playing. In 1891 he curtailed his retirement from composing to write music for Mühlfeld, over the next several years producing the Clarinet Trio, op. 114; the Clarinet Quintet, op. 115; and two Sonatas, op. 120. Mühlfeld’s playing was admired all across Europe, and other composers, such as Gustav Gust av Jenner, Carl Reinecke, and Theodor Verhey, erhey, wrote works for him. Müller, Müller, Iwan Iwa n (1786–1854). Russian clarinet virtuoso, composer, and designer of the Müller-system clarinet. Müller was born in Estonia to German parents; by 1800 he had traveled to St. Petersburg and obtained a post in the imperial court. By 1807 he had left Russia and had begun touring throughout Europe, playing concerts and working with various makers to improve the clarinet. His playing was said to be vigorous and robust, perhaps lacking the refinement of some other famous clarinetists; more than one writer commented on his propensity to squeak. Nevertheless, he was a popular soloist. He composed many works for his own performance, including concertos, other works with orchestra (operatic fantasies, etc.), and chamber music. Müller also played frequently on the basset horn and alto clarinet. By 1812 he had developed a new design for what he called a clarinette omnitonique , but his attempt to have it approved by the teachers at the Paris Conservatory failed. Time proved the design successful, however, and by the 1820s it was widely in use. In 1821 Müller published a tutor for the instrument. Müller played with the reed below and invented a metal ligature with screws that held the reed to the mouthpiece. See also countersunk tone holes, pad,saltspoon key, stuffed pad. Müller system. General name for a clarinet designed by Iwan Müller in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Müller sought to provide solutions for some of the
longstanding problems in the clarinet’s intonation, sound quality, and structural design. Müller’s clarinet had thirteen keys; in addition to the five keys that were already standard on the clarinet, he added (from top to bottom): (1) a trill key for A4 to B4 (many clarinets already had this as a sixth key); (2) an A♭4 key that crossed over the A4 key; (3) a side key for F4/C6; (4) cross keys for E♭4/B♭5, C♯4/G♯5, and B♭3/F5; (5) a side key for B3/F♯5; and (6) a key for F3/C5, which had previously been a misplaced open tone hole covered by a finger. Many of these added keys eliminated the need for stuffy and ill-tuned forked fingerings by providing each note with its own tone hole (and these tone holes were placed more in the acoustically correct positions on the tube). Müller also added extensions onto the existing F♯3/C♯5 and A♭3/E♭5 keys that attached them to levers operated by R0, providing alternate fingerings for those notes. In addition to these improvements to the key system and tone hole placement, Müller’s design incorporated changes in key and pad shape. In contrast to the flat key flaps that had been used on clarinets up to that time, with their flat leather or felt pads, Müller’s clarinet had rounded pad cups (called saltspoon keys because of their shape) filled with a ball-shaped pad made of cotton or wool and covered with gut or leather. These pads came into contact with tone holes that were countersunk rather than flat, allowing for a secure seal against the tone hole’s raised rim. Despite its many advantages, Müller’s system did not find immediate acceptance. He believed that the new clarinet’s ability to play well in all keys—he called it a clarinette omnitonique —would appeal to players, who would no longer have to own clarinets in many nominal pitches; this belief was dashed in 1812 when a committee of the Paris Conservatory rejected the instrument on the basis that it eliminated subtle but important distinctions in timbre that were available from differently pitched clarinets. Over time, however, players adopted the system and it became popular throughout Europe (in Germany, it was called the Inventions-clarinette). Although Müller set up an instrument-making workshop in Paris in 1811 (with a professional maker and the financial backing of the clarinetistbanker Marie Pierre Petit), no instruments with his own mark survive. Several other makers produced clarinets with his design, however, and in Paris many thirteen-key clarinets were made from the 1820s onward using his improvements (usually without the right-hand thumb keys).
multiphonics. An extended technique used on the clarinet, whereby the player produces two or more pitches simultaneously. Multiphonics are produced through the use of special fingerings combined with some flexibility in embouchure, oral cavity, and reed strength . Multiphonic fingerings for producing specific pitch combinations have been documented in specialized fingering charts (see bibliography), but individual players may need to discover the fingerings that work
best on their own clarinets, since there can be subtle differences in the acoustic properties of different instruments.
multiple tonguing. A method of tonguing that allows for very quick articulation. On the clarinet there are two basic types of multiple tonguing: double tonguing and triple tonguing. There are several methods for double tonguing on the clarinet. The most common involves the traditional syllables used by brass players: “ta-ka” or another variant, such as “ti-ki” or “da-ga.” In this method, the first tongue stroke is produced in the ordinary manner by the tip of the tongue; the second stroke is produced further back in the mouth, by the back of the tongue coming into contact with the soft palate. Other methods involve the tip of the tongue only, using a syllable sequence such as “tuttle-uttle-uttle” (see Pino in the bibliography). The practice of double tonguing is becoming more widespread among clarinetists, but is still not common. Triple tonguing is used to produce three-note articulated patterns, and may involve the syllables “ta-ta-ka” (or the variants “ti-ti-ki” or “da-da-ga”), or when using the tip of the tongue only, “tuttle-tuh.” Fewer players are skilled at triple tonguing than at double tonguing. It should be noted that while most players think of multiple tonguing on the clarinet as a recent technical development, the practice of double tonguing is documented at least as early as 1840, in the Nouvelle methode de clarinette of Schneider and Detouches. mute. A device used to diminish the volume and soften the timbre of a wind instrument. Mutes are not usually associated with the clarinet, but they are mentioned in documents in the 1780s and 1790s, and were required by some earlynineteenth-century composers, usually in opera or oratorio. The earliest example of this is found in Paer’s Achilles (1801); other examples are in Spontini’s Milton (1804) and Fernand Cortez (1809) and in i n Berlioz’s La mort d’Orphée (1827) and Lélio, ou Le retour retour à la vie (1831–1832). In some of these early scores it is recommended that the bell of the clarinet, or even the entire instrument, be enclosed in a leather bag. On other woodwinds, cotton or wool, or even wooden mutes, were inserted in the bell, and these techniques may also have been used on the clarinet.
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neck. On low clarinets (alto clarinet, basset horn, bass clarinet, contra-alto clarinet, and contrabass clarinet), a metal extension that connects the mouthpiece to the body of the instrument. Because of the length of tube needed for low clarinets the neck is usually curved, to bring the instrument to a feasible playing position; on basset horns and alto clarinets there is a single curve, while the bass clarinet neck is approximately S-shaped, with two curves. The neck is analogous to the barrel on higher clarinets. Also called the crook.
Figure 19. Bass clarinet neck. The Instrument is by Buffet-Crampon, owned by the author. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
neck strap. A cord or band looped around the back of the player’s neck and attached to the clarinet, allowing the weight of the instrument to be supported by the player’s neck, shoulders, and torso, rather by the hands and arms alone. Neck straps come in a variety of forms; the most common are a sturdy cord with a padded area to prevent the cord from cutting into the player’s neck, or a wide elastic band. The former is usually connected to the clarinet by means of a small hook that fits into an eyelet mounted on the thumb rest, while the latter requires no special hook, but has a leather extension with several holes into which the thumb rest may be slipped at the correct distance for the player’s comfort. A neck strap can be of immense help to a player of small stature and strength, or to help alleviate or prevent overuse
injuries to the hands, arms, and shoulders. On some larger clarinets a neck strap is necessary, especially if the instrument is not provided with an endpin, or if the player wishes to perform while standing.
needle spring. A thin, needle-shaped spring used on some clarinet keys to allow them to return to an open or closed position when finger pressure is removed. This type of spring was introduced to the clarinet mechanism by Louis-Auguste Buffet. A typical modern clarinet uses about eleven needle springs to control keys and rings with relatively long axles. They are usually made of blue steel, although stainless steel is also sometimes used. See illustration in appendix 4. See also closed key, flat spring, key, open key. Nielsen, Carl (1865–1931). Danish composer, probably the most important musical figure from that country during his lifetime. His stylistic leanings range from late Romanticism to a rather personal version of early twentieth-century neoclassicism. Early in his career he became determined to create a unique style of modern Danish music, rather than simply copying German style as he believed his forebears had done. Nielsen’s most important contribution to the clarinet repertoire was his Clarinet Concerto, op. 57, written in 1928 for the Danish clarinetist Aage Oxenvad. In a single extended movement with multiple sections, the work was long considered to be the most technically demanding clarinet concerto. Also of central importance is Nielsen’s Wind Quintet, op. 43, from 1922. This work was written for the members of the Copenhagen Wind Quintet (including Oxenvad); the last movement, a theme and variations, was written to reflect the personalities of the individual players in the group. Less frequently played are Nielsen’s early Fantasistykke ( Fantasy Fantasy Piece, ca. 1881) for clarinet and piano and the Seranata in vano (1914) for clarinet, bassoon, horn, cello, and double bass. neoprene. A type of synthetic rubber sometimes used as a substitute for cork in certain areas of the clarinet’s key mechanism, for example, as bumpers on key connections that need to be silenced. clarinet .” A recent modification Neue Deutsche Klarinette. German, “New German clarinet.” of the German-system clarinet by the German company Clarissono. It incorporates acoustic modifications such that all fingerings are usable in both the chalumeau and clarion registers (which is not the case on other German-system clarinets where, for example, the forked C6 fingering does not produce an equally acceptable F4); key and tone hole placement allowing for a less spread hand position; tone holes that are somewhat smaller in diameter, and sometimes bored with a slight slant to facilitate a narrower finger spread; and many improved vent
keys for better resonance.
nickel. A chemical element with the symbol Ni. It is a silver-colored metal that may be used in its pure form, in alloys, or as a material for plating. On the clarinet, keys are usually made of nickel silver, an alloy that contains nickel, and are plated with nickel or silver. It is strong, ductile, and resists corrosion. nickel silver. An alloy consisting of copper (60%), nickel (20%), and zinc (20%). On the clarinet it is frequently used for keys, posts, key tubing, and ferrules. Also called German silver, or in French, maillechort. Noblet. A family of French wind instrument makers established in 1750. The Noblet business was bought by the Leblanc family in 1904; subsequently Leblanc issued an intermediate clarinet model known as the Noblet clarinet. node. A point of minimum amplitude in a standing wave pattern (such as that which exists in the clarinet when it is played). The node is a point of rest or equilibrium. In acoustics as related to wind instruments, there are two types of nodes: a displacement node, where there is no air vibration, and a pressure (or compression) node, where the outgoing air pressure is canceled by the incoming air pressure. These two types of nodes are always opposed to each other; that is, where there is a displacement node there will always be a pressure antinode, and vice versa. For example, at the point where the clarinet reed meets the mouthpiece and begins to vibrate, there is a displacement node (minimum air vibration) but a pressure antinode (maximum pressure); at the bell end, the opposite is true. nominal pitch. The overall key in which a transposing instrument is pitched; the pitch that is sounded when the written note C is fingered. Most of the members of the clarinet family are transposing instruments with a nominal pitch of B-flat or E-flat. This means that, for example, when the written note C4 is fingered on a Bflat soprano clarinet, the sounding pitch is B♭3, a whole step lower. lower. When the same note is fingered on the E-flat soprano clarinet, the sounding pitch is E♭4, a minor third higher. The alto clarinet, also with a nominal pitch of E-flat, sounds an octave lower than the soprano clarinet in E-flat; therefore its sounding pitch for written C4 would be E ♭3, a major sixth si xth below. See also concert pitch. nonet. An ensemble consisting of nine players, or a work written for such an ensemble. Nonets including the clarinet were written by Bax, Coleridge-T Coleri dge-Taylor, aylor, Dubois, Gounod, Rheinberger, Spohr, and others. Some of these works are for winds alone, while others mix winds and strings, with or without piano. Some wind nonets belong to the category of Harmoniemusik, especially those from the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries using pairs of clarinets, oboes, horns, and bassoons; in these instances the ninth instrument is often a flute, contrabassoon, or double bass.
note bending. Altering the pitch of a note up or down by an amount other than a standard whole step or half step. Note bending may require a pitch to be altered by mere microtones, or may require a larger pitch adjustment. Bending a note can be accomplished with the embouchure, the fingers, or a combination of the two. Note bending may be used to correct intonation, or may be a special expressive effect; in the latter case it may be an extended technique notated by the composer, or may be improvised by the performer as it is in styles of music such as jazz or klezmer. See also glissando, lipping. NX clarinet. A clarinet developed by the physicist Arthur Benade, based on his detailed knowledge of both acoustics and the clarinet (he was himself a player). In terms of its key system, the NX clarinet departs from the Boehm system in only three ways: it has an automatic mechanism that operates separate tone holes for the register key and the throat B♭; it has a redesigned mechanism for E♭4/B♭5 (incorporating a plateau key for L2) that reduces the number of holes needed for those notes; and it has a key for R0 that can be used to sharpen the pitch of low F (F3) slightly. The real change Benade made was in the shape of the bore, which incorporates significantly more deviations from a cylinder than any other design. These deviations were arrived at by measuring the resonance frequencies for each fingering to optimize the timbre, response, and stability of each note. Benade also was concerned with minimizing turbulence in the air column and made adjustments in tone hole depth and spacing as well as pad height to accomplish this. The NX clarinet never achieved commercial production in Benade’s lifetime (he played prototypes), but the modern Canadian maker Stephen Fox has built clarinets according to Benade’s specifications as well as producing a simplified version.
O
octave clarinets. See piccolo clarinets. octavin. A clarinet-like instrument patented by Oscar Adler (1862–1922) and Hermann F. F. Jordan (1854–1908) in 1893, which overblows at the octave rather than the twelfth as on most clarinets. It was meant for players of other wind instruments such as the oboe or bassoon, so that they could also play a clarinet with a fingering system similar to that of the instruments they already knew well. The octavin has a slightly conical bore with a U-bend (as on a bassoon) about twothirds of the way along its total length, terminating in a small, outward-facing bell at a level slightly below the mouthpiece. octet. An ensemble consisting of eight players, or a work written for such an ensemble. Octets from the late eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries for pairs of clarinets, oboes, horns, and bassoons are usually categorized as Harmoniemusik. Octets for a different grouping of wind instruments, or a mix of winds and strings, have also been written; works of this nature including the clarinet were composed by Ferguson, Francaix, Hindemith, Reicha, Ries, Rubenstein, Schubert, Spohr, Winter, and numerous others. Stravinsky, Winter, octocontra-alto clarinet. A clarinet with a nominal pitch of E-flat playing an octave lower than the contra-alto clarinet and two octaves lower than the alto clarinet. Only three examples of this very low clarinet have been made, by the Leblanc Corporation, designed by Charles Houvenaghel (1878–1966). The metal body is built with three U-bends for the convenience of fingering, and the lowest note is written C, sounding E♭1. Also called the subcontra-alto clarinet. See illustration in appendix 1. See also clarinet family. octocontrabass clarinet. A clarinet with a nominal pitch of B-flat playing an octave
lower than the contrabass clarinet, two octaves lower than the bass clarinet, and three octaves lower than the standard soprano clarinet in B-flat. This is the lowest member of the clarinet family; only one example was made, by the Leblanc Corporation in 1939, designed by Charles Houvenaghel (1878–1966). It is more than eight feet in length, with three U-bends for the convenience of fingering. The lowest note is written C, sounding B♭0. Despite its rarity, the instrument is called for in several recent compositions written by Terje Lerstad and Adam Gilberti. Also called the subcontrabass clarinet. See illustration in appendix 1.
Oehler, Oskar (1858–1936). German clarinetist and clarinet maker. From 1883 to 1888 he was a member of the Berlin Philharmonic; in 1887 he started a workshop as a woodwind instrument maker specializing in clarinets. He was responsible for important improvements to the German-system clarinet, which is often designated, using his surname, as the Oehler system. Oehler system. See German system. oil/oiling. Oil is any of a number of natural or synthetic viscous liquids that are soluble in alcohol or ethers but not in water. In relation to the clarinet, oil is used in two circumstances: to lubricate parts of the key mechanism, and to maintain and preserve the body of a wooden clarinet. The type of oil used in lubrication is usually a petroleum-based product, such as motor oil, clock oil, or any of a number of commercially made key oils commonly sold at music stores. For wood preservation, vegetable-based oils such as almond, walnut, apricot, or olive oils are preferable to the petroleum-based mineral oil often found in commercial bore oil. one-and-one B-flat. An important alternate fingering for B♭5, so called because it utilizes the first finger of each hand (L1 and R1), plus the left thumb and register key. The one-and-one fingering is useful in leaps to or from F5 and D6, and in certain circumstances for trills from A♯5 to B5. It should be noted that on most clarinets, using the same fingering (without the register key) in the low register for E♭4 is unsatisfactory, because the pitch is too sharp. open G. The written pitch G4 on any standard clarinet, sounded with all tone holes open (no fingers covering tone holes or pressing keys). open key. A key that is sprung to keep the tone hole open when at rest. When the key’s touchpiece is pressed, it closes the hole. The clarinet has relatively few open keys. See also closed key. open pipe. In acoustics, an open pipe is a cylindrical pipe that is open at both ends
(as opposed to a closed pipe, which is open at one end and closed at the other). The flute is an example of an open pipe, and like all open cylindrical pipes, it produces a full harmonic series and overblows at the octave.
open throat. A term indicating that the oral cavity is maintained in a relatively open or wide position during playing. See also closed throat, larynx, voicing. oral cavity. The area encompassing the inside of the mouth all the way back to the pharynx. The shape and size of the oral cavity, governed primarily by the position of the tongue and the soft palate, is an important determinant of clarinet timbre. See also voicing. organology. The study of musical instruments, including their design and construction, development over time, social function, and use in performance. ornaments. Small decorations added to a melody to increase its beauty and expressiveness. Ornaments may be notated by the composer of a work (either as ordinary notes or through the use of special symbols), or improvised by the performer. A wide variety of ornaments and ornamentation practices have occurred throughout the history of music, and their exact nature has varied according to time period and geographic location. In this dictionary, ornaments commonly found in music played by clarinetists are found in individual entries. See also appoggiatura, cadenza, Eingang, grace note, mordent, Nachschlag, pralltriller, slide, tremolo, trill, turn. Ottensteiner, Georg (1815–1879). German maker of woodwind and brass instruments. After years of study in his hometown of Füssen, and in Paris, Ottensteiner settled in Munich. He collaborated with the clarinetist Carl Baermann to produce the Baermann-system clarinet, which was the forerunner of the modern German-system clarinet. out of tune. A phrase used to describe a pitch that is slightly sharp or flat in relation to a fixed reference pitch. See also intonation. overblowing. The process of producing higher registers from the fundamental register of a wind instrument. Overblowing is accomplished on some wind instruments (such as recorder or trumpet) by a change in embouchure shape or angle of airstream; other wind instruments require a key to assist the process. The clarinet belongs in the latter category, using a register key operated by L0 to allow more efficient overblowing into the second register. Because the clarinet is acoustically a closed pipe with a cylindrical bore, it overblows to its second
register at the interval of a twelfth above the fundamental, rather than at an octave (the more usual interval of the overblown second register in other wind instruments). The third register results from overblowing at the interval of a seventeenth above the fundamental.
overhaul. A word used to describe major maintenance work done on a clarinet by an expert repair technician in order to put the instrument in top playing condition. The type of work included in an overhaul may vary depending on the technician, but the term usually implies a general “checkup”: disassembly of the clarinet, cleaning and perhaps oiling of the wood, cleaning and oiling of keys and key-related parts, replacement of pads, tenon corks, shims, and bumpers as necessary neces sary,, replacement and adjustment of springs as necessary, necessary, reassembly, fine adjustment of the key mechanism, and so on. It does not usually include the repair of cracks or other damage, since these are outside the scope of routine maintenance. overtones. In a pitch produced by a musical instrument, frequencies higher than the fundamental frequency of the sounding pitch. The harmonic series of a pitch contains only those overtones that are whole-number multiples of the fundamental; these are called harmonics. The term partial is often used as a synonym, but technically the partials include inharmonic frequencies (those that are not wholenumber multiples of the fundamental) as well as harmonic ones. The term overtone resulted from an early mistranslation into English of the German term “Obertöne,” used by Hermann von Helmholtz in his classic work Die Lehre von den (On the Tonempfindungen als physiologische Grundlage für die Theorie der Musik ( Sensations of Tone, 1863). Alexander J. Ellis, who made a later translation, urged the avoidance of the term and recommended “upper partials”; generally the terms harmonic or partial are used in preference to the term overtone in scholarly discussion. overtone series. See harmonic series. Oxenvad, Aage (1884–1944). Danish clarinetist, most well known as the dedicatee of Nielsen’s Clarinet Concerto (1928). He joined the Royal Danish Orchestra in 1909, becoming solo clarinetist in 1919—a position he held until his death.
P
pad. A piece of flexible material affixed to the pad cup on a key, allowing a firm, leak-free seal around the tone hole covered by that key when it is closed. On early clarinets, pads were simply a strip of soft leather, cut to fit the shape of the key flap (usually square, rectangular, or round) and attached to it with wax or shellac. In the first decades of the nineteenth century pad design changed; Iwan Müller developed a ball-shaped pad (called a stuffed pad or sometimes an elastic plug) made of cotton or wool covered by leather, which fitted into the round pad cup of a saltspoon key and closed snugly over a countersunk tone hole. At least one maker, the Englishman James Wood, Wood, experimented with “pads” “pads ” made of brass, which closed over tone holes lined with brass bushings, but this design was not widely adopted. By the 1840s makers had flattened the profile of the pad cup and pad, a shape maintained on modern clarinets. Standard modern pads consist of a circular cardboard backing to which is glued a cushion of felt; this is covered by an extremely thin but sturdy material called fish skin (really the lining of a cow’s intestine). The best fish skin pads are called double-skin pads, which use two layers of fish skin for added durability. Cork and leather may also be used as a pad material, and in recent years pads have been made successfully using silicone, Gore-Tex, and other synthetic materials (or combinations of them). Pads must be checked regularly for any signs of wear or leakage and replaced when necessary, since a pad that does not seal completely over a tone hole can adversely affect the functioning of the clarinet. pad cup. The part of a key in which the pad is seated. Also called a key cup. See illustration in appendix 4. pad slick. A simple tool that allows a clarinet pad to be leveled with the tone hole it covers. Pad slicks come in a number of different shapes and sizes, but the basic design is a thin, flat piece of metal that can be pressed against the pad or inserted
between the pad and the tone hole to achieve the desired result. See also leveling.
palate. The area of the oral cavity commonly referred to as the “roof” of the mouth. The palate has two sections: the hard palate, situated in the front, and the soft palate toward the back. Of particular importance to clarinetists is the soft palate, which is controlled by muscles and can be manipulated to widen or narrow the oral cavity, affecting the timbre of the clarinet sound. See also closed throat, open throat, voicing. Paris Conservatory. A music school founded in Paris in 1795 as part of the general education reform that took place after the French Revolution. It was the earliest secular institution of its kind, offering instruction for singers and instrumentalists and courses in music theory, history, history, and composition. Although Alt hough the original intent was to train amateurs and professionals alike, the Paris Conservatory became the model for the education of professional musicians. One of its innovations was providing a uniform, systematic music curriculum and rigorous examinations, in contrast to the more informal, apprentice-style education received by most musicians up to that time. It also maintained its own publishing house for the publication of methods and textbooks used in the curriculum. The Paris Conservatory employed clarinet teachers from the very beginning, usually maintaining more than one at a time on the faculty. Among these were some of the most important clarinetist-pedagogues of the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, including (along with their years of professorship) JeanXavier Lefèvre (1795–1824), Louis Lefèvre (1824–1833), Frédéric Berr (1833– 1838), Hyacinthe Klosé (1839–1868), Adolphe Leroy (1868–1876), and Cyrille Rose (1876–1900). In the twentieth century, teachers included Charles Turban (1900–1905), Prospère Mimart (1905–1918), Auguste Périer (1919–1947), Ulysse Delécluse (1948–1978), Guy Deplus (1978–1989), Michel Arrignon (1989–2010), and Philippe Berrod (2011–present). A whole repertoire of compositions for the clarinet has emerged from the Paris Conservatory, Conservatory, in the form for m of works called solos de concours, or contest solos, used in the yearly performance examinations required of all clarinet students. From 1824 (the earliest date for which records are available) through 1868, these were composed by the clarinet teachers. From 1868 until 1876 new works were not written, but older works were reused, and beginning in 1876 older works by other composers (especially Weber and Spohr) were also admitted. Since 1897 the tradition has been to commission a new composition from a well-known composer for each year’s examination, and this has expanded the clarinet’s repertoire with a number of pieces that have become standard concert fare, including works by Widor ( Introduction Introduction et Rondo, 1898), Messager (Solo de Concours, 1899), Rabaud (Solo de Concours, 1901), Debussy ( Première Première Rapsodie, 1910), Tomasi (Concerto,
1953), Milhaud ( Duo Duo concertante, 1956), and Françaix (Tema con variazioni, 1974), among others.
partial. A term often used as a synonym for harmonic, the members of the harmonic Technically, however, the term “partial” includes inclu des series of a fundamental pitch. Technically, the inharmonic frequencies of the fundamental as well as the harmonic ones. See also overtone. patent C♯ mechanism. A key mechanism appearing on Albert- and Germansystem clarinets from about the 1860s onward. It was invented by the English clarinetist Joseph Tyler (1811–1902), who sold his 1861 English patent the next year to the London maker and dealer Samuel Arthur Chappell. The mechanism allows a trill from E3/B4 to F♯3/C♯5 without the necessity of sliding between the levers for L4. It involves a duplicate tone hole for F♯3/C♯5, controlled by the key for F3/C5 played by R4. Pressing that key along with the E3/B4 played by L4 results in the pitch E3/B4; pressing the key for E3/B4 alone results in the pitch F♯3/C♯5. On most modern German-system clarinets this mechanism can be disconnected by rotating a metal lever. Patricola. Italian manufacturer of clarinets and oboes. The firm was started in 1976 by three brothers, Francesco, Pietro, and Biagino Patricola. pedal clarinet. Another name for the contrabass clarinet. See also clarinet family. Pentenrieder, Benedikt (1809–1849). German musical instrument maker, active in Munich. He achieved the status of master craftsman in 1836, having already submitted a “newly designed clarinet of ebony, with silver keys” to the Munich Industry Exhibit in 1835. In 1840 Pentenrieder sought a patent from the government for a new fingering system for the clarinet, flute, and oboe. Although this patent was opposed by several other local instrument makers, who disputed Pentenrieder’s claim to have invented the F♯ Brille on the lower joint of the clarinet, it was nevertheless granted. The system was never successful (only a prototype was ever made), and even Pentenrieder’s supporter Carl Baermann expressed doubt about it, stating that its mechanism was “horribly complicated” and that when it was played softly one heard more key noise than actual tone. The patent drawing shows that the clarinet employed crescent keys, multiple keys for each thumb, and duplicate key levers for numerous pitches in order to avoid an excessive number of tone holes. Apart from this forward-looking but failed design, Pentenrieder also made successful clarinets that incorporated many of the newest features of the time.
perfect pitch. See absolute pitch. performance anxiety. anxiety. A condition experienced by some public speakers and performers, including musicians, in which symptoms of fear occur before, during, or even after a performance. Performance anxiety ranges from mild to severe, and may include physical symptoms such as trembling, dry mouth, shortness of breath, stomach upset, and even vomiting, and psychological symptoms such as lack of confidence, negative self-talk, and fear of failure or catastrophe. Most musicians experience mild symptoms that can be brought under control using various relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing. For some, however, the condition can be debilitating and have negative effects on performance; treatment in these cases may include professional counseling and/or the use of drugs called beta blockers to ease symptoms. Some researchers categorize the milder symptoms experienced by many musicians under the term stage fright, reserving the term performance anxiety for a more severe condition requiring cognitive-behavioral or pharmaceutical treatment. performance practice. The performing techniques and practices specific to a particular historical period, geographic location, or style of music. The term is often used in a narrow sense to refer to historical performance practice—that is, the study and recreation of musical practices of the period in which a given piece originated, in order to approximate something of the sound of the music as it existed in that period. Aspects of performance practice include type of instrument, pitch level and temperament, ornamentation (notated and improvised), manner of articulation and phrasing, and so on. See also historically informed performance. performing edition. An edition of music intended for use by performers, rather than for scholarly study. Performing editions are often edited by a well-known musician, who will insert interpretive markings (which may not be present in the composer’s original score or other authoritative sources) that are meant to assist the performer with technical challenges and musical interpretation. These may include articulation markings, dynamics, expression markings, ornaments, fingering suggestions, and the like. In contrast to a critical edition, editorial insertions in a performing edition are not always transparent; a performer may not know which markings are original to the composer and which are the work of the editor. Editorial attitudes in performing editions run the gamut from careful and discerning to heavy-handed and arbitrary, and performers should take care to educate themselves as thoroughly as possible about editorial practices in different kinds of editions. See also edit, facsimile, urtext. period instrument. A general term for a musical instrument original to, or replicated
from, a particular historic period. Musicians concerned with historically informed performance generally try to incorporate the use of period instruments.
phrasing. The process of shaping a musical thought (a “phrase”) in a manner that effectively demonstrates its grammatical, syntactical, and rhetorical coherence. Attention to phrasing is one of the performer’s most vital tasks. Like well-spoken sentences, well-phrased melodies have inflections of emphasis that serve to express the logic and the emotional content of what the composer has written, conveying a musical idea in which the listener may find meaning. On a practical level, performers must learn to identify beginnings and endings of phrases, as well as important goals or evasions within them (often defined by harmonic progressions), and perform those phrases with subtle gradations of dynamics and timing that lead toward and away from the identified points of importance. The composer may sometimes assist this process by providing articulation, dynamic, or expression markings that help the performer understand the phrase’s shape and direction; however, even in the absence of such markings, the performer’s job is to find the phrasing inherent in the musical line. piccolo clarinets. A term sometimes used to describe the highest members of the clarinet family, specifically those with nominal pitches of G, A-flat, B-flat, and C. All of these are obsolete except for the high clarinet in G, which is used rarely (mostly in Schrammelmusik). Clarinets in E-flat and D are also sometimes referred to as piccolo clarinets, but are more commonly classified as soprano clarinets. See also sopranino clarinets. Picksüßes Hölzl. German, picksüß (sickly sweet) and Hölzl (little piece of wood). Austrian colloquial term for the high G clarinet. See Schrammelmusik. piece. 1. A casual term for a complete musical composition. Pieces may be of any length, but generally consist of a unit long enough to have a clear sense of a beginning (where thematic material is introduced), middle (where new thematic material appears or previous material is developed further), and end (usually with some repetition of thematic material and a sense of closure). A longer piece may be called a “work,” but the two terms are often used as synonyms. 2. See joint. pièce de rechange. See corps de rechange. pillar. See post. pin. 1. On early clarinets, the stiff piece of wire (usually brass) that holds a key in
place in its mount. See illustration in appendix 3. 2. See pinning.
pinky keys. The clarinet keys, on either the right- or left-hand side of the instrument, operated by the “pinky” (i.e., little) fingers of either hand (L4 and R4). pinning. A process used to close a crack on a wooden clarinet. A thin pin (usually made of stainless steel) is inserted across the axis of a crack, holding the two sides of the crack together and stabilizing it. Glue is then used to fill the crack and the pin holes, and the area is buffed to return it to its original cosmetic appearance. Pinning is a process that must be done by a skilled repair technician. pipe. In music, a general term for any hollow tube into which air may be introduced and caused to vibrate, producing a sound. All wind instruments, including the clarinet, belong to this very general category. pitch. A sound having a wavelength frequency that is regular and stable enough to be distinguished from noise. A pitch is measured objectively by the number of vibrations per second of its wavelength (called its frequency, and measured in hertz); in relation to other pitches, a given pitch may be said to be “high” when it has a more rapid frequency or “low” when the frequency is slower. Pitch is also, however, a perceived phenomenon involving some elements of subjectivity subject ivity.. Duration, loudness, and timbre, for example, can affect the exact perception of a pitch in complex ways. The human ear seems to be able to differentiate about 1,400 pitches within the range of hearing, but the modern Western scale in equal temperament uses just 120 of these. See also beats, cent, combination tone, concert pitch, flat, fundamental, harmonics, harmonic series, intonation, in tune, just intonation intonation, meantone temperament, microtone, modes of vibration, nominal pitch, note bending, overtones, partials, “pitched in,” sharp, sounding hole, sounding pitch, temperament, transposing instruments, tuner. pitch bending. See note bending. pivot screw. A small screw inserted through a post and into the socket at the end of a length of key tubing. Pivot screws come in different shapes and sizes, but the most common types used on the clarinet have a head that sits flush with the surface of the post when tightened, a short threaded segment, and either a cylindrical or pointed tip. They are usually used at the ends of relatively long lengths of key tubing. The screw’s design allows for adjusting when wear occurs, especially in the case of the type with a pointed tip, which can be driven further into the key tubing to take up play (after the post is suitably reamed). A cylindrically tipped screw,
because of its wear pattern, is more difficult to adjust; the socket of the hinge tubing that receives the screw must be swedged, or alternatively alternativel y, filled and redrilled. Also called a point screw. See also rod screw.
Figure 20. Pivot screw, shown here by the arrow, arrow, inserted into a post. Drawing from Rendall; used with permission permission from W. W. Norton
plate. 1. The solid, flat, metal cover for the tone hole on a plateau key. 2. See foot plate. 3. See plating. plateau keys. Ring keys with a solid surface (a plate) that covers the tone hole, as opposed to an open ring that surrounds the tone hole and leaves the hole itself to be covered by the pad of the finger. Plateau keys are not common on modern soprano clarinets; the standard Boehm-system instrument has none, although plateau-model clarinets have been made in small numbers by most of the major clarinet manufacturers. These are sometimes used by saxophone players who double on clarinet and are habituated to the saxophone’s plateau keys, and by players with small hands, arthritis, or other hand disabilities that do not allow the flexibility needed for covering open tone holes. Plateau keys are also found occasionally on
German-system clarinets for the tone hole covered by R2, and have been used in some nontraditional key systems such as the Mazzeo system or the NX clarinet. All of the low clarinets have plateau keys because of the large size of the tone holes. plating. The process of coating a conductive surface with metal. In woodwind instrument manufacture, parts such as keys, posts, and ferrules—made of a base metal, usually nickel silver —are plated with nickel or silver (or, rarely, gold) for a shinier finish. play. A term used to describe excess motion in the clarinet’s key mechanism. A key mechanism with play will feel loose and uncomfortable to the performer, and may result in the clarinet not functioning correctly. playing in. See breaking in. point screw. See pivot screw. polycylindrical bore. A bore configuration originally designed by Robert Carré in 1950 for the R-13 clarinet made by Buffet-Crampon and now used by other makers as well. As the name implies, this bore consists of a series of gradually smaller cylinders proceeding downward from the barrel to about the middle of the upper joint. The difference in size of the individual cylinders is very small, but results in more precise tuning between the fundamental and overblown registers of the clarinet. portato. A term describing an articulation that is semistaccato. post. A small metal pillar that protrudes from the body of the clarinet. Keys are mounted between posts. Posts are usually made of nickel silver and have a slightly bulbous top section with a threaded hole to accept a small pivot screw or a rod screw. In some cases, the key’s shank incorporates a short section of key tubing that fits between the two pillars, and a rod screw serves to secure the key in place and act as its axle. In other cases, a longer piece of key tubing serves as a rod to which rings or other parts of a key mechanism are attached, and the entire length of tubing is suspended between posts and held in place by pivot screws. Post mounting was introduced in the early nineteenth century, and the posts were originally soldered to a small metal foot plate that was attached to the body; by the 1840s the foot plate was done away with and the posts screwed directly into the wood of the clarinet. Also called a pillar. See illustration under pivot screw. Poulenc, Francis (1899–1963). French composer, member of the group of composers
known as Les Six (“The Six”). His style was largely tonal (though complicated at times by bitonality and pandiatonicism), and his music often reflects the popular influence of the Parisian café. Poulenc wrote a sizable number of works that have become essential to the clarinet repertoire. These include the Sonata for two clarinets (1918; rev. 1945); Sonata for clarinet and bassoon (1922; rev. 1945); Sextet for wind quintet and piano (1932–1939); and above all, the Sonata for clarinet and piano (1962). He also wrote several compositions for voice and a chamber ensemble including clarinet: Rapsodie nègre (baritone voice, flute, clarinet, string quartet, piano, 1917, rev. 1933); Le bestiaire (voice, flute, clarinet, bassoon, string quartet, 1919); and Le bal masqué (baritone (baritone or mezzo-soprano voice, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, piano, percussion, violin, and cello, 1932). Frustratingly, there are a number of chamber works with clarinet that have been lost or destroyed, including a sonata for wind quintet and cimbalom (1918); a trio for clarinet, cello, and piano (1921); a clarinet quintet (1923); and a sonata for flute, clarinet, and English horn (1923).
pralltriller. An ornament used primarily in the second half of the eighteenth century. It is a quick trill consisting of only four notes: the first note, usually tied over from a previous beat, is the upper auxiliary to the second, principal note; these two are then repeated. The pralltriller was indicated by the standard abbreviation for a trill (tr), by a plus sign (+), or by the symbol also used for an upper or inverted pralltriller er is closely related. mordent ( ) to which the pralltrill pressure. In the physical sciences, the ratio of force to area (p = F/A). In relation to music, one may speak of sound pressure: the small, local deviation in pressure caused by a sound wave relative to the surrounding atmospheric pressure. In relation to a wind instrument such as the clarinet, one may also speak of air pressure: the difference, at various points in the “system” that is the player and the instrument, between the force of the air used to produce sound and atmospheric pressure. For example, in the inhalation stage of the breathing process, the contraction of the diaphragm causes the chest cavity to expand, producing a state where the air pressure inside the lungs is less than atmospheric pressure and air is pulled into the lungs to bring their pressure to a state of equilibrium (or beyond) with the surrounding atmosphere. On exhalation, the abdominal muscles exert muscular pressure on the lungs and the air is expelled at a rate that exceeds atmospheric pressure. The pressure of the resulting airstream is used to set the reed, and thus the internal air column of the clarinet, into vibration. Pressure is also a concept in relation to the amount of effort used by the finger muscles to depress a key or cover an open tone hole. Excess finger pressure may hamper the clarinetist’s ability to move quickly from one note to the next, and in extreme cases may cause injury to the hand over time.
principal clarinetist. The highest-ranking clarinetist in an orchestra. In a professional orchestra, the principal clarinetist is likely to have the highest salary in the section, and also the responsibility of the playing the parts containing the greatest number of exposed, soloistic passages. In European orchestras, the principal clarinetist is often called the solo clarinetist. A major, major, well-funded orchestra orchestr a will generally also have an assistant or associate principal clarinetist (the terms are often used interchangeably). The duties of the assistant/associate principal vary depending on the orchestra; this player will generally be available to play parts that the principal player declines to play (for example, smaller pieces on a concert where there is also a demanding piece that the principal may want to reserve strength for), or in the case of the principal player’s absence. The assistant/associate principal may also be asked to double certain parts on large works, or to play an extra part on a work that has more than the standard number of clarinet parts. Often the assistant/associate principal clarinetist is also the orchestra’s E-flat clarinet player. principal note. The main note in an ornament, to which the ornamental notes are attached. The principal note is usually consonant with the underlying harmony. In musical notation, the principal note appears at a normal size, while the surrounding ornamental notes are often notated at a smaller size; or, if the ornament is notated as a symbol (as in a mordent, trill, or turn), the symbol will be placed above the principal note. Also called the main note. See also appoggiatura, grace note, Nachschlag, pralltriller, slide, turn. professional clarinet. A high-quality clarinet marketed toward advanced amateur or professional players, manufactured to exacting standards of tone quality, intonation, and feel. Professional clarinets are made of wood (usually African blackwood, but sometimes other suitable hardwoods), with the highest-quality material for the keys and other fittings , and will usually be constructed to extremely fine tolerances in bore and tone hole size and key adjustment. The manufacture of professional clarinets, while largely a mechanized (or even computerized) assembly-line process, usually requires a greater degree of hand finishing by individual craftsmen, and the price of a professional instrument is accordingly higher. In addition to these factory-made professional clarinets, a few small workshops still sell handmade clarinets of exceptional quality. See also intermediate clarinet,student clarinet. profiling machine. A mechanical device that shapes the vamp of a reed to the desired contours. Commercially available profiling machines come in various designs; one example is the Reedual, popular in the United States. Most clarinet reed-profiling machines duplicate a model reed, using as a model either a metal or plastic prototype or an actual reed.
projection. The capacity of a musical sound to carry over a long distance, or to be audible in the midst of a large ensemble. Projection is related to loudness, but also to other qualities in the sound, such as timbre and resonance, since a player must be able to project the sound at soft dynamic levels as well as loud ones. Where the clarinet is concerned, various factors contribute to projection. The performer must first and foremost use a sufficient amount of air to produce the sound, and that air must be supported adequately by the abdominal muscles and focused effectively by the embouchure. The player’s equipment (clarinet, mouthpiece, reed) will also have a significant effect on projection, and players often spend a great deal of time and effort in finding a combination of these components that optimizes projection. Pupeschi system. A fingering system designed by Italian instrument maker M. Pupo Pupeschi (1859–1932). He removed the L4 key for C♯4/G♯5, replacing it with a mechanism that allowed those notes to be played by pressing any of the lower joint’s long keys (also normally operated by L4). It was adopted by at least one maker by 1890, and was used by a number of others thereafter, but it never gained popularity. pure interval. An interval that is measured according to one of the small wholenumber ratios found in the harmonic series, such as 2:1 (a pure octave), 3:2 (a pure fifth), 4:3 (a pure fourth), and so on. See also equal temperament, just intonation, meantone temperament. pure tone. 1. In acoustics, a sound with only a fundamental and no overtones. Such a sound takes the form of a sine wave. Pure tones are usually generated artificially, but some instruments (such as the flute) may at times approach a pure tone. Most musical instruments produce sounds that are much more harmonically complex than a pure tone. See also harmonic series, timbre. 2. In casual usage, a musical tone or timbre is said to be pure if it is well in cl ear.. tune, centered, and clear
Q
quarter-tone quarter-tone clarinet. See microtonal clarinet. quartet. An ensemble consisting of four players, or a work written for such an ensemble. The clarinet is commonly involved in various quartet groupings, including four members of the clarinet family (see clarinet quartet (2)); clarinet and string trio (see clarinet quartet (1)); and other mixed groupings with winds, strings, and/or piano. Of special importance in the quartet repertoire is the ensemble of clarinet, violin, cello, and piano. The best-known piece for this combination is Messiaen’s Quartet for the End of Time , but other works have also been written for the same instruments by Castelnuovo-Tedesco, Hindemith, Rabl, and Schickele, among others. Quartets with other instrumentation including the clarinet have been written by Berwald (clarinet, bassoon, horn, piano), Czerny (clarinet, horn, cello, piano), Fibich (clarinet, horn, violin, cello), Holmboe (flute, oboe, clarinet, piano), Martinů (clarinet, horn, cello, percussion), Milhaud (flute, oboe, clarinet, piano), Saint-Saëns (flute, oboe, clarinet, piano), Webern (violin, clarinet, tenor saxophone, piano), and others. quenching. The rapid cooling of a piece of heated material, usually metal, to a desired temperature. The medium in which the piece is cooled may be air, oil, brine, or water. The temperature and the rate of cooling will affect the ultimate hardness of the metal and the durability of the finished product. quintet. An ensemble consisting of five players, or a work written for such an ensemble. Three types of quintet involving the clarinet have separate entries in this dictionary: the clarinet quintet, the reed quintet, and the wind quintet. Along with these the clarinet has been used in quintets with mixed instrumentation. Important works include quintets for winds and piano by Danzi, Beethoven, Mozart, Onslow, Rawsthorne, and Rimsky-Korsakov; and for winds, strings, and
piano by Dunhill, Fibich, Hummel, Rawsthorne, and Schoenberg (arranged by Webern).
R
rails. The narrow, flattened edges that surround the window of the mouthpiece at the sides and tip. See illustration in appendix 5. See also facing, side rails, tip rail. Ramos system. A clarinet fingering system patented in 1910 by Francisco Ramos. The system incorporated several improvements on the Albert system, most importantly: (1) a mechanism to facilitate the finger movements for the intervals from B4 or C5 to D♯/E ♭5, obviating the need for sliding the finger R4 between adjacent keys; (2) an unusual pattern of keys (including two quasi-crescent keys) for playing G♯5 and A♯5, allowing easier trills from G♯5 to A5 and providing seven possible fingerings for A♯5 while eliminating an extra tone hole for that note; and (3) a mechanism improving the venting for the notes F♯4 and C♯6. reaming. The process of shaping and smoothing the inner walls of a hole or tube. The tool used for this process, called a reamer, may be used as a hand tool or attached to a machine, and may be cylindrical or tapered. In relation to the clarinet, reaming is used to produce the precise size and configuration of the bore and tone holes, and also the bore of the mouthpiece. reed. A piece of firm but flexible material affixed to the clarinet mouthpiece which, when properly gripped by the embouchure and set in vibration by the player’s airstream, produces sound on the clarinet. Most clarinet reeds are made out of Arundo donax, a bamboo-like material more commonly called cane. Clarinet reeds have sometimes been made of other materials in the past, however, including ivory, wood, and even silver; synthetic materials have also been developed—with varying degrees of success—to simulate the qualities of reed cane. Reeds have been commercially manufactured and sold from early in the clarinet’s history (newspaper advertisements for them first appear in the 1760s), but it is not uncommon for players to acquire raw tube cane or reed blanks and make their reeds by hand.
A clarinet reed must be shaped to fit the dimensions of the mouthpiece to which it is to be attached. Regardless of size, however, all clarinet reeds have approximately the design and features shown in figure 21. Reeds are cut to produce varying degrees of resistance when they are activated by the player’s airstream. A “soft” reed has little resistance, a “hard” reed more. The resistance is primarily a factor of the degree of sloping in the vamp and the thickness of the tip, corners, and shoulders of the reed. Softer reeds are generally used by beginning players, and as the embouchure strengthens and develops the player proceeds to increasingly harder reeds, eventually reaching a comfortable level of resistance that produces the desired tone quality and response. Softer or harder reeds may also be used to achieve certain playing effects or extended techniques. It should be noted that the feel of a reed’s resistance is closely tied to the facing or lay of the mouthpiece, so that the identical reed may feel as though it has more or less resistance when paired with different mouthpieces. Most serious clarinetists devote considerable time and effort to finding their ideal setup, that is, the combination of mouthpiece, reed, and ligature that works best for them. Other factors also contribute to the reed’s feel and behavior. Because conventional cane reeds are made of a natural material that is quite porous, they respond in sometimes unpredictable ways to the fluctuating levels of heat and humidity that are an unavoidable part of everyday playing conditions, which makes them a source of constant concern (and often vexation) to players. In particular, since there must be a leak-free seal between the flat back of the reed and the table of the mouthpiece, the tendency of the reed to warp away from the mouthpiece table must be prevented or counteracted. Commercially made reeds may be purchased singly or in boxes (usually of five or ten) from music merchandisers. Most reeds do not function ideally when new and must undergo a process of being “played in” or “broken in” by the player before they reach a stable playing condition. While this process varies greatly from player to player, it usually starts with very brief periods of use, with concomitant cycles of wetting and drying on a flat surface, followed by gradually lengthening playing periods until stabilization occurs and consistent levels of tone and response are reached. Once this state is attained, many players make further adjustments to the reed by hand, using any of a number of reed-working tools to effect nuances of resistance in different areas of the reed. Many publications have appeared with the aim of instructing clarinetists in various methods of making and adjusting reeds (see bibliography). See also blank (2), reed clipper, reed knife, reed rush, reed strength .
Figure 21. Reed with parts labeled. A. Vamp; B. Corners; C. Shoulders. Other components as labeled. Illustration courtesy of Howard Klug, modified by Jane Ellsworth
reed-above position. A historical reed position that places the reed against the player’s upper lip, rather than against the bottom lip (as is universal today). The reed-above position seems to have been the most common method for playing the clarinet in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, as many pictorial representations of the clarinet and clarinetists from that period show. Evidence for this is also found in the location of maker’s marks on clarinets, which should align along the front, or key side, of the clarinet; many one-piece mouthpiece/barrel joints on early clarinets have the mark on the “reed-up” side of the joint. There is evidence that reed-above position was not universal at this time, however; it may have been less common among German players than elsewhere. While reed-below position started to become predominant sometime in the first two decades of the nineteenth century, some players continued to place the reed against the upper lip. Backofen, in his 1824 clarinet tutor, stated that about half of the players in his day used each reed position. The English player Thomas Lindsay Willman (1784– 1840) played with the reed above for his entire career, and some Italian players advocated reed-above position through the 1880s. reed-below position. A historical reed position that places the reed against the player’s lower lip. This practice is universal today, but was not always so. See also reed-above position. reed blank. See blank (2). reed clipper cl ipper.. A simple mechanical device that allows the player to remove a small amount of the tip of a reed. This is done when the reed strength is too soft and the player desires a bit more resistance. See also soft reed.
reed knife. A knife used to scrape small amounts of cane from the vamp of a reed that is too resistant, in order to allow it vibrate more freely. Most reed knives are specially made for the purpose, with a flat, hollow-ground edge; other shapes and edge grinds are available, however. See also reed strength. reed position. 1. The exact manner in which the reed is positioned on the mouthpiece itself. Generally speaking, the reed should be aligned as straight as possible over the table and window, and even with the tip. Small deviations from this position may be necessary, however, to compensate for a reed that is too soft or hard (positioning the reed slightly higher or lower, respectively, in relation to the tip) or is unbalanced (harder on one side than on the other). See also facing, reed strength . 2. In the historical study of the clarinet, the term refers to whether the reed was placed against the top lip (reed-above position) or the bottom ( reed-below position). reed quintet. An ensemble consisting of oboe, clarinet, bass clarinet, saxophone, and bassoon, or a work written for such an ensemble. The reed quintet is a relatively new grouping of instruments. It emerged in the Netherlands around 1985 with a group called Calefax, which is still active; since then, other similar groups have been formed, and a substantial repertoire of original works as well as arrangements have appeared for the reed quintet. See also quintet. reed rush. Scientific name Equisetum hyemale. A plant, usually growing at the edge of a pond or stream, the stems of which (because of their rough surface) can be used to scrape minute amounts of cane from the vamp of a clarinet reed in order to soften it. The plant is harvested, dried, and cut into small sections; these are sold commercially in boxes. The sections must be wetted slightly before use. Also called Dutch rush or horsetail rush. reed strength. A term describing the relative resistance of a clarinet reed when it is secured on the mouthpiece and blown. A “soft” reed has little resistance, a “hard” or “stiff” reed more. The resistance is primarily a factor of the degree of sloping in the vamp and the thickness of the tip, corners, and shoulders of the reed. Commercial reed manufacturers use various systems to indicate the strength of a reed; it is usually stamped on the back of the reed as a number (1–5, with fractions indicating half or quarter strengths), or a letter standing for an adjective (“S” for soft, “M” for medium, etc.). Because of the natural variability of the cane from which the reed is made, there is little consistency of strength measurement between brands; indeed, there is often some degree of inconsistency within a given strength marking even in a single brand, though manufacturers try to minimize this. In
addition, a reed of any given strength will feel softer or harder depending on the facing of the mouthpiece with which it is paired. Softer reeds are generally used by beginning players, and as the embouchure strengthens and develops the player proceeds to increasingly harder reeds, eventually reaching a comfortable level of resistance that produces the desired tone quality and response. Softer or harder reeds may also be used to achieve certain playing effects or extended techniques.
reed trio. An ensemble consisting of oboe, clarinet, and bassoon, or a work written for such an ensemble. The reed trio has an extensive repertoire of music, including important works by Françaix, Ibert, Koechlin, Lutoslawski, Milhaud, Villa-Lobos, and others. Since much of the repertoire for this combination is French, the group is often referred to by its French name, trio d’anches. Reedual. A profiling machine that assists in the manufacture of handmade clarinet reeds. It was invented by amateur clarinetist Sol Rabinowitz, who patented it in 1963. Upon his death the patent was taken over and manufacture continued by George Crossman; in 2012 the company passed into the hands of Rick Sayre and Terry Dolan. The Reedual allows the duplication of a model reed, somewhat in the manner of a key-cutting machine; the model reed and a reed blank are placed beside each other on a moveable table and fixed in place. The table is moved so that the surface of the model reed is positioned against a guide and the blank against a rotating wheel covered by sandpaper. By following the pattern of the model reed, a close copy is created. reform Boehm system. A clarinet developed after 1935 by Ernst Schmidt of Mannheim with Friedrich Rösch of Heidelberg. It combines a German bore, with its limited flare at the very bottom of the lower joint, with a mainly Boehm-system key mechanism. The key mechanism retains some features of a German clarinet; these include rollers for F3/C5 and A ♭3/E♭5 operated by R4 (although duplicate fingerings for those notes operated by L4 are also available), a vent hole in the bell —or a thumb key for R0 that opens such a vent hole—to raise the pitch of E3 and F3 (available on the most recent models only by request), a ring for L3, separate tone holes for the speaker key and throat B♭4, a patent C♯ mechanism for L4 that allows easy trills from B3/F♯5 to C♯4/G♯5, and in general more venting. ReformBoehm-system clarinets are often used by Boehm-system players who want to achieve a characteristically dark, compact German sound without having to adopt the German key system. They have been especially widely used by Dutch clarinetists. See also Schmidt-Kolbe system. register. A specific range of adjacent pitches. On the clarinet there are four distinct registers, each with its own identifying timbral characteristics: chalumeau, throat,
clarion, and altissimo. See also high (register), low (register), middle (register), throat tones/register. register break. See break. t he speaker key. key. A key on the clarinet, operated register key. Also commonly called the by L0, which when added to fingerings in the chalumeau register allows those fingerings to overblow a twelfth higher and sound as clarion-register pitches. Note that the register key on the clarinet should not be called the octave key (a common misnomer), since it does not produce an octave as on the other woodwind instruments.
regulating screw. See adjusting screw. relative pitch. The ability to identify a specific pitch in relation to a reference pitch. Most people can acquire relative pitch through ear training, and it is a crucial skill learned by musicians. See also absolute pitch. Rendall, F. Geoffrey (1890–1953). British writer, amateur clarinetist, and woodwind instrument collector. Apart from a period of service in the army during World War War I, he worked at the British Museum Library in the department of printed books. In 1946 he was appointed as deputy keeper and superintendent of the Reading Room, and shortly afterward as keeper of printed books. Rendall was a founding member of the Galpin Society in 1947 and corresponded with researchers around the world. He wrote an influential book on the history of the clarinet, The Clarinet: Some Notes on its History and Construction Construction, published posthumously in 1954 (see bibliography). repadding. The process of replacing all of the pads on a clarinet. Since pads deteriorate over time, they occasionally need to be replaced. This often happens to one pad, or a few, at a time; however, in cases of neglect, or when an instrument has not been played for a long period of time, it is possible that the entire set of pads will need to be replaced at once. Repadding is usually done by a skilled repair technician to ensure that all the new pads are correctly seated and free of leaks. repertoire. 1. The aggregate of all music composed for a particular instrument or medium. One may speak of the clarinet repertoire, for example, which would include all the works written for the clarinet. 2. In a more specific sense, the word may refer to a subset of a larger group of compositions. For example, the repertoire of an individual clarinetist consists of the works that particular player knows well. One may also speak of “audition
repertoire,” which might refer to the list of specific works that must be learned for a competition, or the set of excerpts that must be mastered for an orchestra audition.
resistance. A term describing the degree to which a clarinet, reed, mouthpiece, or combination of these opposes the player’s airstream. The source of resistance can be located in the strength of the reed (hard or soft), the construction of the mouthpiece (length of facing, size of tip opening, size of window, width of rails, type of baffle and bore), or the clarinet itself (bore size and configuration). Resistance affects the timbre of the clarinet sound—less resistance can result in more “brightness,” and vice versa—and also influences the ease with which the player can articulate. Players may differ widely in the amount of resistance they prefer, as well as the component of the system in which they prefer it to be located. See also reed strength, response. resonance. 1. In acoustics, the state in which strong vibrations are produced in an object when it is excited by a force, the frequency of which is the same (or nearly so) as the natural frequency of the object itself. When the clarinet is played, the player’s air is the force that causes the reed to vibrate, which in turn excites the air column inside the clarinet; standing waves are created when the frequencies of the vibrating reed and the air column are in resonance with one another. 2. In more casual usage, a sound is said to have resonance when it is rich and ringing in quality, as opposed to muted or damped. resonite. A type of plastic used in the manufacture of student clarinets. At one time the term was trademarked by the Selmer Company, Company, but that trademark t rademark has expired and was not renewed. response. 1. The way in which a reed, mouthpiece, or overall setup reacts to the input of air and the action of the tongue. An efficient response will be immediate, allow a gradual decrease in sound to niente, and allow for ease and variety in articulation; an inefficient response will result in a delay of sound at the beginning of a note (i.e., the note does not speak), an abrupt cutoff of sound in a diminuendo, and sluggish articulation. Response is affected by reed strength and condition, mouthpiece structure, and even ligature type, as well as by the physical mechanisms of embouchure and tonguing. Among the main causes of inefficient response are a reed that is too hard, a mouthpiece that is too resistant, a ligature that does not allow the reed to vibrate freely enough, a warped or chipped reed or mouthpiece, misalignment of the reed on the mouthpiece, biting, misuse of the tongue in articulation, or a combination of these factors. See also reed strength, resistance . 2. Sometimes used to describe the quality of action in the key mechanism of a
clarinet.
reverse cone. A section of the clarinet bore that gets smaller as it proceeds from the top (mouthpiece end) to the bottom (bell end) of the instrument, rather than the reverse. The bore of the clarinet is essentially cylindrical, but often incorporates segments that have a gentle reverse cone shape; for example, the upper joint of many clarinets incorporates a reverse cone at the top of the joint for tuning purposes. In addition, most modern barrels use a reverse cone bore. Also known as an inverted cone. Rice, Albert (b. 1951). American clarinetist, musicologist, and organologist specializing in the history of the clarinet. Rice earned his PhD in musicology from the Claremont Graduate University in 1987. He has published extensively on the history of the clarinet, including three major books with Oxford University Press, and has received the Curt Sachs Award from the American Musical Instrument Society. From 1986 to 2008 he was the curator of the Fiske Museum of Musical Instruments at Pomona College. Rice has taught and performed professionally on the clarinet, and is also a librarian with the Los Angeles Public Libraries and an independent appraiser of musical instruments. Rico. An American company mainly producing clarinet reeds and reed accessories. The firm was started in 1928 by Frank De Michele, a Los Angeles clarinetist, who named the company after his uncle, Joseph Rico. Out of frustration at the lack of good reeds De Michele wrote to his uncle, a musician in Paris, for help; Rico eventually sent him tube cane from near his hi s vacation home in i n the Var Var region of southern France. De Michele then found partners and founded the Rico Corporation. They began their own cane plantations in the Var (and now also in Argentina), producing reed styles in various price ranges. In 2004 the company was purchased by D’Addario, which invested significantly in upgrading the firm’s reedmaking equipment, and Rico now produces not only reeds but reed cases, ligatures, and mouthpieces for both clarinet and saxophone. ring. 1. A round key surrounding the raised chimney of a tone hole and allowing that tone hole to be covered by the finger pad while at the same time closing tone holes further down the tube. See illustration in appendix 4. 2. See ferrule. 3. See resonance (2). 4. See tuning rings. ring key. See ring (1).
ring mount. A method of mounting a key on the clarinet in which, as the body of the clarinet is turned on a lathe, an enlarged, square-edged ring is left in the area where the key is to be mounted. A channel is cut in the ring to accept the shank of the key, and a pin is inserted through the ring and shank to secure the key and provide an axle on which the key rotates. This method of mounting was used in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, but was eventually supplanted by saddle mounting and, ultimately, mounting between posts. See illustration in appendix 4. rod. See key tubing. rod screw sc rew.. A thin, cylindrical piece of steel with a slot in one end and screw threads in the other. Rod screws are inserted in some of the key tubing of the clarinet key screw. See mechanism, acting as axles on which keys pivot. Also called a hinge screw. illustration in appendix 4. See also pivot screw. rollers. Small rotating cylinders added to the touchpieces of some of the keys operated by L4 and R4, enabling the player to slide the finger laterally from one key to the other. Rollers were invented in 1823 by the clarinetist César Janssen (1781–after 1834) and were used on clarinets by a number of makers in the nineteenth century; the Boehm-system clarinet, with its alternate fingerings for L4 and R4, was meant to eliminate the need for them, but they continued to be used on non-Boehm-system instruments and are still found today on German-system clarinets. See illustrations in figure 21 and appendices 2 (German-system clarinet) and 3. Romero system. A key system developed by the Spanish clarinetist Antonio Romero y Andía (1815–1885) in the 1850s and patented (with the assistance of the French maker Paul Bié) in 1862 and 1867. The main thrust of Romero’s design was to improve the throat tones. Modifying a basic Boehm-system instrument, he added tone holes for these notes at the top of upper joint, in a straight line above L1. The keys for these tone holes were operated by the right-hand ring keys, with R1 producing A4, R2 producing A♭4, and R3 producing G4 (all with L0 open). When no tone holes or keys were closed B ♭4 was produced, rather than the normal open G (G4). On the lower joint, F♯3 is an open key to allow additional venting for G3. The Romero system functioned well but required a considerable change of finger technique on the part of the player, and because of this it was not widely accepted. See also Child system. nigra; also called Brazilian rosewood. An rosewood. Scientific name Dalbergia nigra exotic hardwood, now endangered, that has sometimes been used for the manufacture of clarinets. As its name suggests, rosewood is reddish brown in color,
but the true origin of the name is from the sweet scent that it emits when it is cut or turned. Some modern clarinets (such as those made by Luis Rossi) are made from a nonendangered type of rosewood, Dalbergia Stevensonee Stevensonee, also called Honduran rosewood.
Rossi, Luis (b. 1947). Argentine clarinetist and clarinet maker, active in Chile. Since the late 1960s Rossi has been one of the most prominent South American clarinetists, playing in major orchestras in Lima, Buenos Aires, Caracas, and Santiago. He has also been active as a soloist and chamber musician, introducing major works from the clarinet repertoire to South American audiences and performing with such distinguished ensembles as the Amadeus Quartet. Rossi was named Chile’s Musician of the Year Year in 1980. He is well known as a teacher, attracting students from all over South America, many of whom are now themselves leading clarinetists. Rossi took postgraduate study in England with John McCaw, who not only inspired him as a player but also sparked his interest in making clarinets. Since 1986 he has been active as a clarinet maker, designing and producing unique instruments in a variety of wood types and bore sizes. One of the signature features of Rossi clarinets is the unibody construction of the upper and lower joints. Rossi is one of the few remaining handcrafters of clarinets in the world. Rossini, Gioachino (1792–1868). Italian composer, known primarily for his operas. Rossini was arguably the most popular composer in Europe in from about 1810 to his early retirement around 1830. His operas, both comic and serious, were immediate successes, and many are still in the standard operatic repertoire today. He also wrote a significant amount of sacred vocal music. In addition to these vocal works, however, Rossini also wrote instrumental music, including several works that use the clarinet in a soloistic way. These include the following works: Variazioni a più istrumenti obbligati for two violins, viola, cello, clarinet, and orchestra (ca. 1809); Variazioni a clarinetto for clarinet (in C) and orchestra (ca. 1809); Andante e Tema Tema con variazioni for flute, clarinet, horn, and bassoon (1812); Introduction, Theme, and Variations Variations for clarinet and orchestra (ca. 1822); and Fantasie for clarinet and piano (1829). Of these, only the Introduction, Theme, Theme, and Variations is played with any frequency today. Although the authenticity of this work has been questioned, the latest evidence suggests that it was indeed written by Rossini, for the Neapolitan clarinetist Alessandro Abate. The Introduction uses a theme from Rossini’s opera Mosé in Egitto (1818), and the main theme itself is from La Donna del Lago (1819). roughing. The process of cutting a billet of wood into the approximate length and cylindrical shape needed for the joints of a clarinet’s clari net’s body. body. Also called roughing r oughing
out.
run. A musical passage containing quick, usually scale-wise notes.
S
saddle (mount). A method of mounting a key on the clarinet that uses a small brass channel (the saddle) attached to the body of the instrument by means of a foot plate. The key pivots inside this channel, to which it is attached by a pin that acts as an axle. Saddle mounts were used on some clarinets in the first half of the nineteenth century, but this method of key mounting was replaced by a method using steel posts screwed into the wood on either side of the key’s fulcrum. See illustration in appendix 4. See also block (mount), ring mount, swelling. saltspoon key. A key type used on clarinets in the first half of the nineteenth century. The term refers specifically to the rounded pad cup, which causes the key to resemble an old-fashioned salt spoon. This shape was needed to hold the ballshaped stuffed pad, or elastic plug, that was invented by Iwan Müller.
Figure 22. Saltspoon keys. The Instrument is a 13-key clarinet in C by Jacques Baumann, ca. 1825–30. The photo also shows a good example of rollers. Photo courtesy of Nophachai Nophachai Cholthitchanta
Sax, Adolphe (1814–1894). Belgian woodwind player and instrument designer/maker. He is perhaps best remembered for his invention of the saxophone, but he also contributed significantly to the design and manufacture of the clarinet. He was among the first, perhaps even earlier than Louis-Auguste Buffet, to apply ring keys to the clarinet around 1840. He also extended the instrument’s range downward to E♭3 to provide a better over-blown B♭4, and added a double register key to vent the clarion register more effectively. In later models Sax made other improvements as well. He relocated the tone holes for correct intonation, used a plateau key for R1, modified the shape of the touchpieces for the keys played by L4 and R4 to facilitate sliding the finger between them, designed a trill mechanism for A♭4 to B♭4, and developed the flatter pad cups that are still used today. Sax also designed a completely new type of bass clarinet in the 1830s. It was straight in shape, with a curved neck and downward-facing bell (later he turned this upward). Compared to other bass clarinets of the time, Sax’s had a larger bore and larger-sized tone holes, which he covered with plateau keys. He also provided it
with a double register key. The models with the downward-facing bell had a metal sound reflector inserted in the bell to direct the sound upward. Later examples were made completely from metal for use by military bands. Sax developed a contrabass clarinet as well, patented in 1851.
Saxo-Clarinette. A soprano clarinet with a slightly curved metal neck and a small upturned metal bell. This type of instrument was manufactured by several different French and American makers beginning in the 1930s. It was offered with nominal pitches of A, B-flat, or C, and with Albert-system and Boehm-system keywork. Some models had plateau keys; one model, manufactured by Buescher, also came with a traditional-shaped barrel and bell that could be interchanged with the curved ones. Also called a Saxonette, or Sax-o-nette. Saxonette/Sax-o-nette. See Saxo-Clarinette. Schaffner system. A clarinet designed by H. L. Schaffner, a dentist living in Florence, Italy, in the late 1880s, and patented by Carlo Thomas Giorgi. The bore is slightly conical; externally the instrument is square for most of its length, terminating in a small integral bell at the bottom and a rounded mouthpiece socket at the top. The keys are mounted as a series of rectangular flaps running along the front of the instrument (covering oblong or rectangular tone holes of varying size), attached by hinges to steel pushrods that run along each side of the instrument. Some of the key flaps are depressed directly by the fingers, while others are closed via their attachment to the pushrods. The second phalanges of L1 and L3 are sometimes used to operate levers. Two register keys are operated by a rocking motion of L0, using a crutch-like mechanism. The lowest key is controlled by R0. The rationale behind the design was to allow as much venting as possible for each note. An example of this unusual instrument is in the Shackleton Collection at Edinburgh University, Scotland (see bibliography). Schmidt-Kolbe system. A modification of the German-system clarinet of Oskar Oehler designed by the clarinetist Ernst Schmidt (who patented it in 1905) and produced in collaboration with the maker Louis Kolbe of Altenburg. Schmidt believed that the tone holes should be placed according to exact calculations; he also wanted to improve the notes produced by forked fingerings. The SchmidtKolbe system incorporated improved venting for both the left and right hands and a small hole in the bell to raise the pitch of E3 and F3. Many examples also had a mechanism attached either to the throat A key or the left thumb (via a half ring or plate operated by L0) to improve throat B♭ by opening an extra hole. scholarly edition. See critical edition.
Schrammelmusik. A type of Viennese popular music in which the high clarinet in G is featured prominently. It is named after the Schrammel brothers, Johann (1850– 1893) and Josef (1852–1895), violinists who in 1878 formed a group consisting of two violins and contraguitar (a double-necked guitar with extra bass strings). A few years later they were joined by a clarinetist, Georg Dänzer, playing a small clarinet pitched in high G (known in Viennese dialect as a picksüßes Hölzl). In this configuration they performed in Viennese Heurigers and eventually became famous across Europe, even receiving an invitation to play at the Chicago Exposition in 1893. In recent years Schrammelmusik has been revived, often with a different instrumentation that excludes clarinet; there are, however, a few groups that still use the high-G instrument, and a few makers who make them (most notably Schwenk & Seggelke). Schwenk & Seggelke. German firm of clarinet makers, located in Bamberg. The partners are Werner Schwenk and Jochen Seggelke. Schwenk worked independently from 1986 to 1996, when he was joined by Seggelke, who is also a professional clarinet player. The firm makes a wide range of both historical and modern instruments and prides itself on working with each individual player to customize a completely handmade clarinet. Schwenk and Seggelke have pioneered innovations in key and bore design—they offer unique combinations of German bore and Boehm-system fingering, as well as traditional Boehm- and German-system instruments— and make clarinets in a variety of woods, including boxwood (not only for their historical clarinets but also for their modern instruments on request). seasoning. The process of reducing the moisture content of wood before using it. Wood may be seasoned by air-drying or kiln-drying; for woodwind instrument manufacture air-drying is preferable, since it is a more gradual process and results in greater stability. The wood used to make clarinets must be well seasoned to prevent cracks caused by swelling or shrinking in the finished product. The cane used to make reeds also undergoes a seasoning process. Also called curing. seat. The lightly indented ring on the surface of a clarinet pad, caused by its contact with the rim of the tone hole it covers. seating 1. The stage of pad installation where the seat is made. This is usually accomplished by closing the pad over the tone hole with light pressure (perhaps using a clamp) for a short amount of time; the surface of the pad may or may not be dampened first. Not all clarinet repair technicians agree on the necessity of seating a pad; proponents claim that it helps to produce a leak-free seal, while opponents assert that it does more harm than good, causing a leak when the pad inevitably
shifts position slightly and the indentation on the surface no longer exactly matches the rim of the tone hole. 2. More generally, the way a pad comes into contact with the rim of the tone hole it covers. Sometimes used as a synonym for sealing. See also floating, leveling.
Sebastiani, Ferdinando (1803–1860). Italian clarinetist and composer, active in Naples. He was a member of the Neapolitan court orchestra and principal clarinetist at the Teatro San Carlo, where he participated in premiere performances of operas by Rossini and Bellini. He also taught at the Naples Conservatory from 1847 until his death. In addition to his activities in Naples, Sebastiani toured as a soloist, visiting Paris and Vienna. He composed virtuosic showpieces (especially on opera themes) for the clarinet, and authored a clarinet method book ( Metodo Metodo per Clarinetto, 1855). Sebastiani was recognized as one of the great virtuosi of his day. second-chair clarinetist. The second-highest-ranked clarinetist, behind the firstchair clarinetist, in a band, orchestra, or other ensemble including more than one clarinet. In an orchestra, the second clarinetist may also play E-flat or bass clarinet when needed, if these parts are not given to a separate musician. See also utility clarinetist. second clarinetist. In an orchestra or band, often used as a synonym for second-chair clarinetist. However, the term may also refer to any member of a band’s clarinet section playing the second part, on which there are usually multiple players. sectional. A rehearsal involving a single section out of large ensemble. It is common practice, for example, for the clarinet section of a band to rehearse occasionally on its own in order to work on passages that require attention to technique, intonation, or rhythmic synchronization within the section. Sectionals save rehearsal time for the ensemble as a whole and allow a section to hear subtleties that might not be apparent in a full rehearsal due to the volume of sound when the entire ensemble plays together toget her.. section leader. The first-chair or principal player in any section of a musical ensemble. In the clarinet section of a band or orchestra, the section leader is the first-chair or principal clarinetist, whose job is ensure that the section is uniform in matters of articulation, phrasing, style, and the like. The section leader leads both by example and by verbally instructing the section. Selmer. French manufacturer of woodwinds, including clarinets. The company was founded in 1885 by the clarinetist Henri Selmer, who had graduated from the Paris
Conservatory and had played in the band of the Garde Republicaine and at the Paris Opera. At first he made mouthpieces and reeds only, but in 1898 he began manufacturing clarinets. The Selmer family had a presence in the United States through Henri’s brother Alexandre, who was principal clarinetist of the Boston and Cincinnati Symphonies; in 1906 Alexandre moved to New York York and began selling Selmer clarinets there (he also became principal clarinetist of the New York Philharmonic in 1909). A year later Alexandre moved back to Paris to join Henri, leaving the American business in the hands of George Bundy. The Selmer Company was passed down through several generations of the family and expanded by acquiring other instrument manufacturers, including Vincent Bach brass instruments, the Buescher Band Instrument Company, and in 1995, Steinway and Sons. A parent company called Steinway Musical Instruments was formed, with Selmer as a division; and in 2002 the parent company formed the present ConnSelmer. Selmer has produced a wide variety of clarinets over its history, aimed at all levels of player from student to professional. septet. An ensemble consisting of seven players, or a work written for such an ensemble. Septets involving the clarinet with other woodwind instruments were a common form of Harmoniemusik in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; later wind septets, often involving brass in addition to woodwinds (with or without piano), were written by Francaix, Hindemith, Koechlin, Villa-Lobos, and others. Septets using the clarinet in a mixed grouping of winds and strings (with or without piano) were written by Beethoven, Berwald, Hummel, Janaček, Jan aček, Kreutzer, Lachner, Onslow, Ravel (with harp), ha rp), Ries, Schoenberg, Spohr, Stravinsky, VillaMilhaud, Onslow, Lobos, Winter, and others. serial number. A number, or combination of letters and numbers, stamped into the material of a clarinet’s body (usually on the upper and lower joints, but sometimes other joints as well), which identifies the order in which the instrument was manufactured in relation to other instruments by the same maker. Serial numbers can be used to determine the age of a clarinet, and also to identify joints belonging together that have become separated. setup. The combination of mouthpiece, reed, and ligature used by a given player. sextet. An ensemble consisting of six players, or a work written for such an ensemble. Sextets involving the clarinet with other woodwind instruments were a common form of Harmoniemusik in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries; later wind sextets were written by Hindemith, Jettel, Reinicke, and Sutermeister, among others. Sextets using the clarinet in a mixed grouping of winds and strings (with or without piano) were written by Copland, Dohnanyi, Eberl, Eggert, Ireland,
Jacob, Martinů, Onslow, Onslow, Potter, Poulenc, Prokofiev, Ries, Spohr, and others.
Shackleton Collection. Arguably the most important private collection of historic clarinets, compiled over a period of more than forty years by the renowned geologist and clarinetist Sir Nicholas Shackleton (1937–2006). Numbering more than eight hundred instruments, the collection includes clarinets from a wide variety of makers and geographic regions, with examples of nearly all of the known fingering systems and mechanisms. It also includes original mouthpieces, ligatures, and even reeds, as well as a few nonclarinet instruments. The collection was bequeathed to the University of Edinburgh Collection of Historic Musical Instruments upon Shackleton’s death, and it is available for study and use. An extensive catalogue was published in 2007 (see bibliography). Shackleton, Nicholas (1937–2006). Renowned geologist and climatologist who was the owner of the largest private collection of historical clarinets in the world, as well as a clarinetist and a scholar of clarinet organology and history. He wrote numerous articles for the Galpin Society Journal and authored or coauthored the “clarinet” article for both editions of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. He generously corresponded with clarinet scholars worldwide and opened his Cambridge home to those interested in his collection. Upon his death he bequeathed his collection, numbering more than eight hundred instruments, to the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments. shading. To flatten a pitch by a small degree, usually by partially covering an open tone hole with a finger, or by holding the finger very closely above the open tone hole without closing it completely. shake. A synonym for trill. Used mainly in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. shake key. A synonym for trill key. The term was used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (mostly in England, but also in America) to describe keys that were used primarily to produce trills. For example, the sixth key added to most English-made clarinets in the later eighteenth century was a “shake key” to provide a trill from A4 to B4, which was otherwise unplayable. shank. The portion of a key connecting the touchpiece and pad cup. See illustration in appendix 4. sharp. 1. In relation to music notation, a symbol (♯) used to indicate that the pitch to which it is applied is to be raised by a half step.
2. In relation to intonation, an adjective used to describe a pitch that is slightly higher (from just a few cents to perhaps a quarter tone) than a reference pitch to which it is compared. l eader, and composer. composer. Shaw, Artie (1910–2004). American jazz clarinetist, band leader, During the Swing Era he led a popular big band that included the drummer Buddy Rich and (briefly) the singer Billie Holiday. He was an innovator in instrumentation (sometimes, for example, including strings or a harpsichord in his jazz compositions) and style (experimenting with bebop and third-stream jazz). Shaw’s allegedly difficult and domineering personality may have been responsible for the fact that he married and divorced eight times in his life (his wives included the well-known actresses Lana Turner and Ava Ava Gardner). He was brought up before the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1953 because of his left-leaning political beliefs and activities. Throughout his life he openly disdained musicians he felt were aiming at popularity rather than musical integrity. Nevertheless, his own music and playing were extremely popular with the public, and Shaw had amassed considerable wealth by the time he died. His jazz-flavored Clarinet Concerto (1940) has become standard repertoire for classically trained clarinetists.
shellac. A resin produced by the female lac bug, which consumes the sap of trees in certain climates (for example, in Thailand and India) and secretes the resin. It is scraped off the trees, melted and filtered, and formed into flakes or small “buttons.” Shellac may be liquefied by the addition of ethyl alcohol, or melted into a thick, sticky substance. Liquid shellac is a kind of natural plastic that may be used in manufacture (for example, 78 rpm records were made of shellac), and is sometimes used to provide a layer of sealant or varnish on furniture or other wood products. On clarinets it is melted and used for its adhesive properties, as a glue for attaching pads. shim. Also called a spacer. A thin piece of material used to fill in a gap. On the clarinet, small shims are sometimes used to eliminate play in the key mechanism, particularly on the bridge mechanism or in the interlocking pinkykey mechanism. See also bumper. shoulders. The areas on each side of the vamp of a reed, from approximately the junction of the vamp and bark to a level even with the end of the reed’s heart. See illustration under reed. side key. 1. A key that is positioned along the side of the clarinet, on either side of the main finger holes. The trill keys on the right-hand side of the clarinet (operated by R1) are examples of side keys.
2. A clarinet key that runs parallel to the clarinet’s length. cl arinet’s side rails. The narrow flat areas along the sides of the window on the clarinet’s mouthpiece. The mouthpiece’s facing is created by the curvature of the side rails away from the reed. See illustration in appendix 5.
side walls. The areas on the right and left sides of the chamber of a clarinet mouthpiece that connect the window area to the baffle. The walls may run exactly parallel to each other, or may have a slight outward expansion from the tip to the bottom of the chamber; the latter is sometimes referred to as an “A-frame” shape and is found on German and Austrian mouthpieces. The distance between the side walls has an effect on the focus and shape of the sound; a wider distance allows for more breadth of sound, while a narrower distance provides more focus. See illustration in appendix 5. sight reading. The ability to perform a piece of music without having seen it before. Musicians must develop this skill during their training, since it is often part of examinations and auditions; sight-reading skill also shortens the amount of time it takes to learn a new piece in the practice room. silencer. See bumper. silver. A chemical element with the symbol Ag. Silver is a soft, lustrous, precious metal, prized for its shine and decorative quality; because of its high electrical conductivity, it is also used in electrical components and for plating. It was sometimes used as a material for the manufacture of keys and fittings on early clarinets, but because of its softness it is used today only for key plating, while the keys themselves are made from nickel silver. silver solder s older.. Also called hard solder. A material used for high-temperature soldering. See also soft solder. simple system. See Albert system. single lip (embouchure). See embouchure. single-reed instrument. Any wind instrument that produces sound by means of a single reed vibrating against a fixed surface, such as a mouthpiece. The clarinet is a single-reed instrument, as is the saxophone. The term contrasts with double-reed instruments (such as the oboe and bassoon), which produce sound by means of a reed constructed of two pieces of material that vibrate against one another, rather than against a fixed surface.
single tonguing. The standard method of articulating separate tones on the clarinet. At the beginning of a tone, the tip of the tongue is placed on the center of the tip of the reed, and pushes the reed against the tip of the mouthpiece, closing the tip opening completely so that the pressurized airstream produced by the player is prevented from entering the instrument. When the tongue is removed quickly from the reed, the pressurized air is allowed to flow, causing the reed to vibrate and exciting the air column in the instrument, thus producing sound. The tongue may be said to act as a valve, momentarily closing and reopening to produce a series of separately articulated tones. In the notation of clarinet music, pitches are understood to be initiated by the tongue in this way unless they appear under slur markings, in which case the tongue initiates only the first of a group of pitches under a slur, while the following pitches are produced on a sustained airstream without interference from the tongue as the fingers move between the necessary fingerings. See also multiple tonguing, slap tonguing,stopped tonguing, tonguing. slap tonguing. An extended technique on the clarinet in which the player produces a slapping or popping sound, with or without the fingered pitch. This technique is produced by laying the tongue along a larger than normal area of the reed and creating a quasi-vacuum by sucking the air out. This adheres the reed to the facing of the mouthpiece and closes the tip; the tongue is then removed in a quick, downward motion, releasing the suction and producing the slap. The technique is sometimes used by jazz players and is called for in numerous contemporary classical compositions. slide. 1. To slide the pinky finger between two pinky keys on the same side of the instrument. On German-system clarinets, sliding is an ordinary part of playing technique, aided by the presence of rollers on the pinky keys. On the Boehmsystem clarinet, sliding can largely (though not completely) be avoided by alternating between the duplicate keys provided on the right and left sides of the instrument. 2. An ornament consisting of two or three quick notes, usually ascending, leading to a principal note. Some early writers also describe descending slides. The slide is usually placed on the beat, rather than before it, at least in eighteenthcentury music. The slide was also known by the German term Schleifer; the French term was coulé . Clarinetists are most likely to encounter the slide in its written-out form, rather than as a symbol. See ornaments.
Figure 23. Slide. Illustration by William William Conable
sliver key. On a modern Boehm-system clarinet, a narrow cross key that fits between the rings and tone holes closed by L2–3 and R2–3. Modern sliver keys have no touchpiece per se; the player essentially presses the shank of the key to open the cup covering the tone hole. Some early clarinets carry analogous keys that are shaped with a small touchpiece that is simply a slight widening of the shank. Also sometimes called a “banana” key because of its narrow, slightly upward-curving shape. slot. See window. slur. In musical notation, a thin, arched line appearing above or below a series of notes. For a clarinetist, the slur marking indicates that the first note of the slurred group is to be articulated by tonguing, while the remaining notes under the slur are not tongued. socket. One component of a tenon-and-socket joint. The sections of the clarinet fit together by means of this type of joint, in which the socket is the larger in diameter and receives the tenon. See illustration under tenon-and-socket joint. soft reed. See reed strength. soft solder so lder.. A material used for lower-temperature soldering. See also silver solder. soldering. A process where two metal components are joined together by filling the joint with a molten metal filler (called solder) having a melting temperature lower than that of the components being joined, then letting the filler solidify. The solder is usually an alloy, and the exact components of the alloy determine its melting point and strength. There are many different soldering processes, from handwork to industrial scale. Clarinet keys are made by hand soldering together individual components. See also silver solder, soft solder. solo. Italian, “alone.” 1. A generic term for a work that features a prominent singer or instrumentalist, with the accompaniment of a piano or an instrumental ensemble of some kind. A person playing such a work is called a soloist. See also character piece, concertino, concerto, sonata.
2. A work for an unaccompanied instrument. 3. A passage in an ensemble work, especially in a work for a large ensemble such as a band or orchestra, that features one instrument more prominently than the others.
solo clarinetist. 1. A clarinetist who plays a solo, in any of the senses of that term. 2. In European orchestras, a synonym for principal clarinetist. sonata. The term (from the Italian suonare, to sound) has had a variety of meanings relating it to instrumental music; varieties of the word were in use as far back as the thirteenth century, and it has been common since the seventeenth. Where the clarinet is concerned, the applicable meaning of the term is the one that crystallized in the later eighteenth century—namely, a work for a solo instrument accompanied by keyboard. The earliest clarinet sonata is probably that by the Italian composer Gregorio Sciroli (1722–after 1781), perhaps written around 1770. Other sonatas were written in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries by Archduke Rudolph of Austria, Baissière, Blasius, Boieldieu, Danzi, Devienne, Duvernoy, Eberl, Heine, Hoffmeister, Lefèvre, Mendelssohn, Procksch, Pr ocksch, Ries, and Vanhal, to name a few. Clarinet sonatas that can be said to belong to the standard repertoire of modern performers, however, appear rather later in the nineteenth century; one could easily argue that the op. 120 sonatas of Brahms written in 1894 are the earliest important examples. Other sonatas from the mid-nineteenth through the early twentieth centuries cent uries include those by Gouvy, Gouvy, Heap, Jenner, Prout, Reger, Rheinberger, Reinecke, Saint-Saëns, and Stanford; later in the twentieth century, century, important clarinet sonatas were written by Alwyn, Bax, Bernstein, CastelnuovoTedesco, Cooke, Denisov, Gal, Hindemith, Hoddinott, Howells, Ireland, Poulenc, Rota, Tovey, Weinberg, and many others. sonatina/sonatine. Literally, a small sonata. The term is often used as a title, but has no precisely standardized meaning. Works with this title may have fewer movements than a sonata (one to three rather than three to four), may present fewer technical and musical difficulties, or may be lighter in character than a typical sonata; however, sonatinas exist that have none of these features. The term “sonatina form” is sometimes used for a movement in traditional sonata form in which the development section is negligible or absent. Important clarinet sonatinas have been written by Arnold, Genzmer, Heiden, Honneger, Horovitz, Jacob, Martinů, Matthias, Reissinger, and Szalowski, among others. sopranino clarinets. A term sometimes used for the next-to-highest members of the clarinet family, including the instruments with nominal pitches of G, F, E, E-flat, and D (Rendall classified the G clarinet as an octave clarinet). Of these, only
those in E-flat and D are currently used, although the G clarinet is found rarely (mostly in Schrammelmusik). See also piccolo clarinets, soprano clarinets.
soprano clarinets. A term encompassing the most commonly found members of the clarinet family, with nominal pitches in C, B, B-flat, and A. The C clarinet is somewhat rare now, but was common in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The B clarinet was always rare and is now obsolete. Clarinets in B-flat and A are most common today; A clarinets are less so, but are owned by all professional players and by students aspiring to be professionals. Some scholars include the clarinets in A-flat and G as soprano clarinets, while others categorize them as alto clarinets. Both pitches were found as clarinets d’amour in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the G clarinet (without a bulbous bell) is still used commonly today in Turkey. sounding hole. The open tone hole that defines the length of the air column for a given pitch. For many pitches on the clarinet, the sounding hole is the tone hole just below the lowest closed hole of the fingering; for example, the sounding hole for the written pitch C4 (played by closing all the tone holes of the upper joint) is the hole operated by the finger R1, the first tone hole of the lower joint. This phenomenon is more complex for cross fingerings, in which the closing of an additional nonadjacent hole extends the air column further beyond the first open hole. It should be noted that any hole opened in order to change register does not act as a sounding hole, since it serves not to shorten the air column but to weaken the fundamental frequency of the pitch and cause it to overblow to its next available harmonic. sounding length. The length of the clarinet’s air column that is in vibration for any given pitch. The sounding length is essentially the distance from the point of the sound’s initiation at the reed-mouthpiece juncture to the center of the first open tone hole, plus any end effect that may be present. It should be noted that any hole opened in order to change register does not materially affect the sounding length, since it serves not to shorten the air column but to weaken the fundamental frequency of the pitch and cause it to overblow to its next available harmonic. sounding pitch. On transposing instruments, such as the clarinet, the actual pitch heard for any given fingering. For example, when the note D4 is fingered on the Bflat clarinet, the sounding pitch is C4, since the B-flat clarinet sounds a step lower than the written/fingered pitch. Similarly, when the same pitch is fingered on the Eflat soprano clarinet, the sounding pitch is F4. On the C clarinet (the only nontransposing member of the clarinet family) the sounding pitch is the same as the written/fingered pitch. See concert pitch (2), transposing instruments.
sound spectrum. A graphic representation of a sound, showing the relative strengths and weaknesses of its constituent partials. A sound spectrum is usually represented by a graph showing the sound’s power or pressure (measured in decibels) on the y axis and frequency (measured in hertz or kilohertz) on the x axis. A sound spectrum is obtained by using a microphone to capture the sound, an analog-todigital converter to convert the captured information to a series of numbers, and a computer program that performs calculations on those numbers (called a digital Fourier transform) and displays the results as a graph. The analysis of a sound spectrum can reveal a great deal about the acoustic makeup of a sound. speak. A term used to describe the ease with which a sound is emitted from the clarinet. For example, a particular pitch may be said to speak easily, or not. The ease with which a note speaks is affected by a number of factors, including mouthpiece design, reed strength and quality, and the amount of resistance in the player’s overall setup and instrument. See also response. speaker key. See register key. speaker tube. A small tube inserted into the tone hole of the register key to facilitate overblowing and to prevent moisture from accumulating in the tone hole. spectacle key. See Brille. splitting (cane). The process of dividing a tube of seasoned cane into narrow strips so that reeds can be made from them. Splitting is accomplished by placing an open end of the tube on a simple, conical-shaped peg and striking the end with a rubber hammer, driving the tube onto the peg and causing it to split as the peg widens. Spohr, Louis/Ludwig (1784–1859). German composer and virtuoso violinist of the early Romantic period. His music, which included symphonies, concertos, chamber music, opera, and oratorio, was esteemed highly by his contemporaries. Next to the violin, the clarinet was the instrument for which he composed the greatest number of solo works. His clarinet works include four demanding concertos (discussed below); a set of variations on a theme from Spohr’s own opera Alruna, WoO 15, for clarinet and piano (1809); a Potpourri on themes from Peter von Winter for clarinet and orchestra or piano (1811); a Nonet, op. 31, for wind quintet, violin, viola, cello, and double bass (1813); an Octet, op. 32, for clarinet, two horns, violin, two violas, cello, and double bass (1814); Fantasia and Variations Variations on a theme of Danzi, op. 81, for clarinet and string quartet or piano (1814); a Quintet, op. 52, for flute, clarinet, horn, bassoon, and piano (1820); Sechs Deutsche Lieder (Six German Songs), op. 103, for soprano, clarinet, and piano (1837); and a Septet, op. 147, for
flute, clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, cello, and piano (1853). Spohr’s earliest composition for clarinet was the Concerto no. 1 in C minor (1808), commissioned by the Duke of Sondershausen for his brilliant court clarinetist, Simon Hermstedt. It is a work of great technical difficulty and range; Spohr notes in the preface to the score that it is necessary for the clarinetist to play it on a clarinet with eleven keys. Spohr went on to compose three further clarinet concertos: no. 2 in E-flat (1810); no. 3 in F minor, WoO 19 (1821); and no. 4 in E minor, WoO WoO 20 (1828). The last of these is written for clarinet in A. Of the four, the first is probably the most performed today. The Nonet and the Sechs Deutsche Lieder are also very fine works that, if not exactly in the clarinet’s standard repertoire, are nevertheless performed fairly frequently.
spread tone. A clarinet tone quality is said to be spread when it is unclear, unfocused, and not well controlled. A spread tone is the opposite of a centered tone. spring. In relation to the clarinet, a spring is a mechanism that forces a key to return to its resting position when finger pressure is released. This will result in either the opening or closing of a tone hole. Two types of springs are used on the clarinet, depending on the design and position of the keys to which they are attached: flat springs and needle springs (the latter predominating). See illustrations in appendix 4. spring catch/hook. A small tool used to reattach a needle spring that has come away from the small lug on the key or key tubing it controls. Spring hooks are made of a straight, thin piece of metal with a small hook on the end (not unlike a crochet hook) used to catch the needle spring and pull it back into place. squeak. A high-pitched, nonmusical noise produced when the reed oscillates without finding a resonance with the air column in the clarinet. Squeaks can have a variety of causes, including an unbalanced or warped reed, a mouthpiece table that is not completely flat, an excessive portion of mouthpiece inserted into the player’s mouth, incomplete covering of the open tone holes by the fingers, nudging or bumping a key that is not part of a given fingering, a crack or leak in the clarinet, and many other possibilities. Of all the reed instruments the clarinet is the most prone to squeaking, and clarinetists spend a good deal of time learning how to avoid squeaks. The squeak has also been known by colorful names in other times and languages, most of them related onomatopoetically to its sound: canard (French for “duck”), goose, couac or quack, etc. staccato. Italian, “separated, detached.” A term indicating that each note in a series should be played with some amount of temporal space from the others. Staccato is
a type of articulation, and is usually indicated in musical notation by the presence of a small dot (or, in some cases, a thin stroke or wedge) above or below the head of a note. The degree of separation implied by a staccato marking has changed over the course of music history, and is dependent on the style and tempo of the music being performed. Staccato may range from a rather small amount of separation (sometimes referred to as portato, semistaccato, or mezzo staccato) to a very short length of note known as staccatissimo. See also stopped tonguing, tonguing.
Stadler, Anton (1753–1812). Austrian clarinetist, basset horn player, and composer. He was a friend of Mozart and the player for whom Mozart wrote his Clarinet Quintet (K. 581), Clarinet Concerto (K. 622), and other works using the clarinet. Anton Stadler and his brother Johann, also a clarinetist, were appointed to the wind band of the Imperial Court in Vienna in 1783 and to the court orchestra in 1787. Anton Stadler was allowed a year’s leave in 1791; he embarked on a tour that took him as far as St. Petersburg, and he did not in fact return until 1796, by which time his post in the orchestra had (understandably) been given to another musician. Stadler remained in Vienna as a freelance musician; a potential job as a music teacher at an academy in Hungary seems to have come to nothing, although Stadler did write a Musik Plan for it in 1800, which outlines a six-year study plan for music students. Stadler’s own clarinet compositions include a set of three Caprices and a set of ten Variations for solo s olo clarinet, a number of duets, and eighteen trios for three basset horns. Between 1788 and 1790 Stadler collaborated with the instrument maker Theodor Lotz to produce a basset clarinet with a fully chromatic extension down to C3. stage fright. See performance anxiety. (b. 1930). Swiss clarinetist and teacher. He was educated at Stalder, Hans Rudolf (b. conservatories in Zürich, Würzburg, and Paris, later becoming solo clarinetist for the Tonhalle Orchestra (1955–1986) and teaching at the Zürich Conservatory (1960–1970) and the Music Academy in Basel (1975–1996). Throughout his career he was active as a soloist and chamber musician, touring across Europe as well as in North and South America, Japan, and China. He also made many recordings. Stalder championed a wide repertoire, from early works on period instruments (he was one of the first players to perform Mozart’s Clarinet Concerto on basset clarinet, in 1968) to contemporary works written for him by Swiss composers.
Stamitz, Carl (1745–1801). German composer, son of Johann Stamitz, member of the second generation of the so-called Mannheim School. He was also a virtuoso violinist and violist. He spent an important period of his career in Paris, as court conductor and composer to the Duke of Noailles and as a regular performer at the
Concert Spirituel; he also toured throughout continental Europe and England as a performer. Stamitz wrote extensively for the clarinet, inspired by his contact with the clarinet virtuoso Joseph Beer in Paris. These works include at least ten clarinet concertos; a symphonie concertante for clarinet, violin (or a second clarinet), and orchestra; a concerto for seven principal instruments (flute, oboe, clarinet, two horns, violin, and cello) and orchestra; a number of Harmoniemusik compositions; and at least thirteen quartets for clarinet, violin, viola, and basso, distributed in op. 8 (1773), op. 12 (1775), and op. 19 (1779). It should be noted that the well-known symphonie concertante for clarinet and bassoon is a modern arrangement of a work that was originally for oboe and bassoon.
Stamitz, Johann (1717–1757). Bohemian composer and violinist, founder of the socalled Mannheim School of composition. Stamitz was employed in the famous orchestra of the Electoral court at Mannheim, initially as a first violinist and later as concertmaster and director of instrumental music. He composed symphonies and concertos that were important in establishing the new style galant , or early Classical style. Stamitz composed only one clarinet concerto, but it is important as one of the first examples of the genre, and is certainly the first written for a clarinet in B-flat. Dating of the concerto (as of many of Stamitz’s works) is difficult; it may have been written at the time Stamitz was in Paris in the employ of the wealthy Alexandre Le Riche de la Pouplinière (1673–1762), whose fine court orchestra included the clarinetist Gaspard Procksch. stamp. See mark. standard fingerings. Those clarinet fingerings that are taught to beginning clarinetists as the most basic because of their preferable intonation, timbre, and ease under the hand. A fingering chart will usually show these fingerings, along with some alternate fingerings that may be used in certain circumstances. Standard fingerings may also be called “normal” or “regular” fingerings. standing wave. In physics, a wave that oscillates back and forth between two points rather than traveling in one direction. Standing waves are produced when two waves of equal frequency moving in opposite directions meet and find resonance. The excited air column of the clarinet produces a standing wave. step-up clarinet. See intermediate clarinet. sticky pads. A condition in which the surface of one or more of the clarinet’s pads has accumulated a thin and often invisible layer of foreign substances, causing it to stick briefly to the rim of the tone hole when closed and released. A sticky pad may
produce a slight clicking sound when it separates from the tone hole. Sticky pads will reduce the efficiency of the key mechanism. The sticky layer, if not too severe, may be removed from the surface of the pad by inserting a clean, ink-free slip of paper between the pad and the tone hole, closing the pad with a small amount of pressure, and withdrawing the paper against the light resistance produced by the pressure; any sticky substance should be largely transferred to the paper in this process, which may be repeated once or twice if necessary necessar y. A larger degree of stickiness may require the application of small amount of moisture (some commercial products have been developed for this purpose), but if the procedure results in significant compression of the pad’s filler , then the entire pad may need to be replaced.
stock. On early clarinets (through the 1830s), the section just above the bell and below the finger holes of the lower hand. The stock was often a separate piece, with a swelling or boss at its upper end on which the keys for L4 and R4 were mounted, and in which the finger hole for F3 was bored. On some early clarinets the stock and bell are made from a single piece of wood, without a joint; by the 1820s some makers were doing away with a separate stock section and incorporating its features on the lower joint itself, which eventually became the standard design. See illustration in appendix 3. stopped tonguing. A method of articulation by which the player not only starts a tone with the action of the tongue, but also stops the tone by returning the tongue to the reed. Also called stop tonguing. See also multiple tonguing, tonguing. Stravinsky, Igor (1882–1971). Russian composer, one of the most important composers of the twentieth century. After composition studies in Russia with Rimsky-Korsakov and others, he moved to Paris, where he spent many years (apart from a period in i n Switzerland during World War War I). In 1939 Stravinsky emigrated to to the United States, which remained his home base for the rest of his life. His compositional style underwent substantial changes during his career and is generally divided by scholars into three style periods: a “Russian” period up to about 1920; a “neoclassical” period from 1920 until about 1951; and a period of serialism from 1951 until his death. A transitional subperiod coinciding with Stravinsky’s time in Switzerland (1914–1920) is also acknowledged by scholars, and it is precisely in this period that Stravinsky began writing for the clarinet in a soloistic manner. Two individuals were of central importance in relation to Stravinsky’s use of the clarinet: Edmond Allegra, the principal clarinetist of the Zurich Tonhalle Orchestra, and Werner Reinhart, a wealthy Swiss businessman, arts patron, and amateur clarinetist. Reinhart’s financial support enabled the concerts at which many of
Stravinsky’s clarinet works (among others) were performed. For example, he sponsored the September 1918 concert at which Stravinsky’s theater piece (for three actors, dancer, clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, L’Histoire L’Histoire du Soldat (for violin, double bass, and percussion) was first performed. Allegra was the clarinetist. Shortly thereafter Stravinsky composed the Three Pieces for unaccompanied clarinet and dedicated them to Reinhart, in gratitude for the latter’s generosity. These pieces were premiered, again by Allegra, at a concert in November 1919, along with Stravinsky’s own transcription of a suite of pieces from L’Histoire for clarinet, violin, and piano. During this period L’Histoire du Soldat for Stravinsky also wrote several smaller works incorporating the clarinet in a chamber music ensemble, including Ragtime (1917–1918); Berceuses du Chat (1917 original for alto voice and piano, but a 1919 revision has accompaniment for a clarinet quartet of E-flat clarinet, clarinet in B-flat and A, clarinet in A, and bass clarinet); and several other songs for voice and a small ensemble of instruments (Three Japanese Lyrics, Pribaoutki). The Octet for flute, clarinet, two bassoons, two trumpets, and two trombones (1922–1923) was important in Stravinsky’s turn to neoclassicism. In an essay published shortly after the premiere of the work, Stravinsky declared, “my Octet is a musical object”; he also stated that he chose wind instruments for their dry, inexpressive sound. Stravinsky’s long-standing interest in jazz, absent in his compositions since just before 1920, reemerged in the Ebony Concerto (1945), written at the request of Woody Herman and his big band, with a prominent solo clarinet part for Herman. The four clarinet works falling into Stravinsky’s later period are less frequently played than some of those already mentioned. These works include a Septet for clarinet, bassoon, horn, violin, viola, cello, and piano (1954); Three Songs from William Shakespeare for mezzo soprano voice, flute, clarinet, and viola (1954); Epitaphium for flute, clarinet, and harp (1959); and Elegy for JFK , for mezzosoprano or baritone voice and three clarinets (1964).
Stubbins mechanism. Also known as the SK (Stubbins-Kaspar) mechanism. This was a mechanism developed by the American clarinetist and teacher William Stubbins (1911–1975) in collaboration with Frank Kaspar (1903–1989) and patented in 1950. It allowed separate holes for the speaker key and throat B♭ (B♭4), improving the tone quality and intonation of the latter. Leblanc made Noblet and Vito model clarinets with the mechanism beginning in 1959 and continuing into the early 1980s. student clarinet. An inexpensive type of clarinet intended for students just beginning to learn the instrument. Most commercial clarinet manufacturers offer a line of student-level instruments, and some manufacturers specialize in them. Most student
clarinets are the same size and carry the same key mechanism as professional clarinets, although there are some smaller, simplified clarinets meant for very young children (such as the Kinder Klari, the Lyons C clarinet, or the Clarineo). In general, student clarinets are made of ABS plastic or other nonwood materials that require less care and attention and will stand up to hard use. In comparison to professional clarinets, there are larger measurement tolerances in matters of bore, keywork, and other details in the manufacturing process, and little in the way of hand finishing. All of this contributes to the lower cost of student clarinets. Also called a student model or a beginner clarinet.
study. Also called an etude (from the French étudier, to study). A piece of music, the purpose of which is to offer the musician exercise and drill on a particular component of technique. A study may focus on fingering patterns, articulation, rhythm, or other musical elements. stuffed pad. A quasi-spherical pad made of cotton or wool covered by leather, which fitted into the round key cup of a saltspoon key and closed snugly over a countersunk tone hole. Stuffed pads were developed by Iwan Müller and replaced the flat strips of leather that were used as pads on earlier clarinets. Sometimes called an elastic plug. See illustration in appendix 3. subcontrabass clarinet. See octocontrabass clarinet. swab. A cloth attached to a long, weighted cord, which is drawn through the clarinet after a period of playing to remove moisture. Swabs range in size from approximately three inches square to the size of a large handkerchief and may be made of cotton, silk, chamois, or other soft, absorbent materials. swedging. Also frequently spelled “swaging.” The process of diminishing the size of the sleeve in the end of a length of key tubing that receives a point screw or rod play, in the mechanism. A special tool, screw, in order to remove excess motion, or play, called swedging pliers, is used for the purpose of squeezing or narrowing the sleeve. speci fically, swelling. Any small bulge in the outer profile of the clarinet’s tube. More specifically, early clarinets usually have swellings (fusiform or bell-shaped) in the lower joint or stock in which keys are mounted, and early barrels (especially those in one piece with the mouthpiece) usually have a pronounced swelling in their outer shape. Also called a boss. See illustration in appendix 4.
symphonie concertante. A genre of music that flourished from about 1770 to 1830,
employing two to four solo-ists (occasionally more) accompanied by an orchestra. The symphonie concertante began in France, where it was particularly popular at concerts in Paris, and spread to other countries in Europe. This type of work usually had two or three movements and was light in character, though virtuosic for the soloists. Members of the clarinet family were sometimes used as solo instruments in the symphonie concertante, including in works by Johann Christian Bach, Backofen, Blasius, Bréval, Cambini, Crusell, Danzi, Devienne, Jadin, Mozart, Mysliveček, Ozi, Pleyel, Carl Stamitz, Starzer, Widerkehr, Widerkehr, and others. other s.
synthetic pad. A clarinet pad made from synthetic materials rather than from the natural materials (felt, fish skin, cork, leather) used in more traditional pads. A number of different synthetic materials have been used, including silicone, GoreTex, and others. Synthetic pads are waterproof and durable; some players find that they give the key action a somewhat spongy feel, depending on the exact material from which they are made. synthetic reed. A clarinet reed made out of any of a number of man-made materials, rather than from cane. Synthetic reeds are usually made out of some type of plastic fibers suspended in a resin. An early material, Fibercane, was made out of polyester fibers and epoxy resin. Current manufacturers use Kevlar and aramid fibers, or polypropylene, or a mixture of polypropylene and wood fiber. Manufacturers of synthetic reeds include Légère, Forestone, and Fibracell.
T
table. The flat area of the clarinet mouthpiece, below the window, on which the reed is placed. See illustration in appendix 5. Tanaka-clarinet. An instrument that combines a clarinet with a pneumatic keyboard mechanism. It was invented by the Japanese physicist Dr. Shohé Tanaka Tanaka (1862– 1945) and patented in Germany in 1894. tapered wand gauge. A tool used for measuring the tip opening of a mouthpiece. It is a short, slightly curved metal wand, flat on one side and round on the other. It is inserted gently into the tip of a mouthpiece on which a facing gauge has been placed and shows the width of the tip opening, usually in hundredths of a millimeter. Also called a taper gauge. tarnish. A dulling, spotting, or color change of the surface of a metal caused by a chemical reaction with another substance. Although many metals can tarnish, silver is the most prone. If a clarinet has keys with silver plating, these will tarnish over time simply through contact with oxygen and with chemicals in the player’s fingers. Tarnish does not harm the keys except in appearance, and can be removed with a nonabrasive silver polish. tárogató. A single-reed wind instrument with a conical bore (unlike the clarinet’s cylindrical bore), developed in Hungary about 1895 as a “national” instrument (although it is different from the double-reed tárogató that has been used in Hungary since the Middle Ages). It has been made in a variety of nominal pitches, but B-flat is most common. Its tone is often described as a hybrid of the clarinet and the soprano saxophone. The instrument has been used in folk music and, more recently, recently, in jazz. j azz. Tartini tone. See combination tone.
Tausch, Franz (1762–1817). The most well known of a family of clarinetists and one of the earliest clarinet virtuosi. His father Jacob (d. 1803) was employed as a clarinetist in the famous Mannheim court orchestra, where Franz spent most of his childhood. Franz played violin and clarinet in the same orchestra. On a 1780 trip to Vienna (with the violinist Peter von Winter, who would later compose clarinet works for Tausch), and on another to Berlin Berl in in 1784 with wit h his father, Tausch’s Tausch’s playing started to be recognized outside the circle of the Electoral court. In 1789 he was offered employment at the court in Berlin, where he remained for the rest of his career, playing in the orchestra, performing chamber music in concerts he gave from his own home, and teaching a series of pupils who would later become important clarinetists (for example, Bernhard Crusell and Heinrich Baermann). In 1805 he started a school for wind players. His son Friedrich Wilhelm (1790– 1845) was also a clarinetist, as was Tausch’s Tausch’s brother Joseph (b. 1763). Like many performers of his day, day, Franz Tausch was a composer of works for fo r his own instrument, including several concertos and other works for clarinet and orchestra and much chamber music for clarinet with other winds. temperament. A system of tuning in which the intervals of just intonation intonation are altered (tempered) in some way, usually to allow an instrument to play well in tune in a wide range of keys. The common temperament used in Western music today is called equal temperament; other temperaments have been used in different historical periods, including various forms of meantone temperament and socalled well temperament (circulating temperaments that allow acceptable performance in all keys, but in which keys with fewer sharps or flats are better in tune than those with more). See also intonation, tuning. tempering. 1. A process for strengthening metals by heat. After quenching, alloys are heated again to a temperature lower than that at which they were originally hardened, thus removing some of the hardness. The exact temperature is determined by the level of hardness desired in the finished product; a higher temperature will allow more hardness to be retained. On modern clarinets, springs are usually made of tempered blue steel so as to maintain their resilience. 2. A tempered scale has some intervals that have been tuned slightly flatter or sharper than in just intonation (where all intervals are in whole-number ratios) in order to enable performance in all or most tonalities. The most widely accepted temperament today is equal temperament, in which all half steps are exactly the same size. tenon. A protrusion at the end of a clarinet joint (1), somewhat smaller in diameter than the clarinet’ clarinet ’s body, which fits into the socket of another joint when the clarinet is assembled. Tenons are usually covered with cork (or, on early clarinets, waxed
thread). Cork-covered tenons must be lightly coated with cork grease so that the joints of the clarinet fit together easily and smoothly. On some clarinets the end of the tenon is reinforced with metal to inhibit cracking. On modern clarinets with five pieces, tenons are present on the lower end of the mouthpiece, at both ends of the upper joint, and at the bottom of the lower joint. See also tenon-and-socket joint.
tenon-and-socket joint. The type of joint (2) used to connect the individual sections of the clarinet with each other. Each section has either a tenon or a socket, which fit together when the instrument is assembled.
Figure 24. Tenon-and-socket Tenon-and-socket joint. The instrument is by Buffet-Crampon, owned by the author. Photo by Larry Conboy
tenor clarinet. 1. A name sometimes applied (for example, by Rendall) to what are more commonly referred to as alto clarinets. Rendall also classifies basset horns as tenor clarinets. 2. An instrument advertised by the American maker George Catlin (1778– 1852) at the beginning of the nineteenth century, actually a bassoon-shaped alto clarinet. One example survives. tenuto. From Italian tenere, “to hold.” A manner of articulation in which separately notated pitches are sustained for their full rhythmic value, with no temporal space between one note and the next. Tenuto is indicated in notation by a short horizontal line written above or below the note head. See also legato.
theory. The branch of music studies covering the principles of musical structure, including intervals, scales, melody, harmony, harmony, counterpoint, rhythm, and form. Musicians who study theory seek to understand how these musical elements operate within a given system of organization. Many music students, and certainly all those studying to become professional musicians, take courses in music theory and must pass theory exams as part of their training. See also ear training. Thermoclarinet. A clarinet produced by the American musical instrument company Haynes (which otherwise only produced flutes) between 1926 and 1942. The Thermoclarinet was a double-walled metal clarinet. It was designed so that the air space between the walls could be accessed via a small vent, quickly warmed by the player’s breath, and then sealed to retain the warmth. Only 334 examples were manufactured. throat tones/register. The register of the clarinet linking the chalumeau and clarion registers. The throat register is small, consisting of the chromatic pitches from G4 or G♯/A♭4 through A♯/B♭4. Because the clarinet over-blows at the interval of a twelfth rather than an octave, the throat tones serve to bridge the resulting gap between the highest notes of the chalumeau register and the lowest notes of the clarion. The throat tones, especially A♯/B♭4, are often problematic with respect to intonation and tone quality because the length of the tube used to play them is so short in comparison to the width of the bore at that point. throat vibrato. See laryngeal vibrato. thumb key. Any clarinet key operated by the left- or right-hand thumbs (L0 or R0). Most modern soprano clarinets have only left-hand l eft-hand thumb keys—namely, a ring key surrounding the tone hole covered by the thumb and the register key. Modern clarinets descending to written C3, such as basset clarinets, basset horns, and some bass clarinets, also have keys for the right-hand thumb to assist in reaching the lowest notes. The historical ancestors of these low instruments often had righthand thumb keys as well, and even some early soprano clarinets (for example, Iwan Müller’s original design) used them. Some modern clarinets have a righthand thumb key to raise the pitch of F3, since this note tends to be slightly flat, especially at loud dynamic levels. thumb rest. A simple device on the underside of the lower joint of the clarinet that allows the player to support the instrument with the right-hand thumb (R0). Early clarinets did not have thumb rests; the small number of keys meant that the overall weight of the instrument did not require a support mechanism. As greater numbers of keys were applied and the clarinet became heavier, the thumb rest came into use.
The first thumb rests were an integral part of the clarinet’s wooden body, and these were common by 1820. Soon the thumb rest became a separate device, made of wood or metal and attached to the clarinet by screws. Some modern clarinets have an adjustable thumb rest mechanism that allows the individual player to locate the thumb rest in the optimal position. Many players add a small rubber or foam cushion to the thumb rest to make it more comfortable.
Figure 25. Thumb rest. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
timbre. The quality of a musical sound that allows the ear to perceive the difference between the sound of one voice or musical instrument and another. The timbre of a sound is primarily dependent on the exact makeup and relative strength of the various partials that make up the sound. Other acoustic factors that produce timbre are the characteristics of a sound’s attack and decay (the way the sound begins and ends). Timbre is also commonly called tone color or tone quality. tip. 1. The thinnest part of a clarinet reed, which is aligned with the tip of the mouthpiece (see definition 2) and which vibrates most strongly when activated by the player’s airstream. During tonguing, the tip of the player’s tongue comes into contact with the tip of the reed. See illustration under reed. 2. The portion of a mouthpiece at the end of the beak, which is inserted into the player’s mouth before playing. See illustration in appendix 5. tip opening. The small aperture made when the reed is attached to the mouthpiece, through which the player directs the airstream. The tip opening is a crucial measurement on the mouthpiece, since it affects the resistance the player feels and the reed strength that must be used. The size of the tip opening works in conjunction with the facing to produce the overall feel and response of the mouthpiece. See illustration in appendix 5. tipped. See mount (2). tip rail. The small flat area at the tip (2) of the mouthpiece, just before the slope of the baffle. See illustration in appendix 5. See also rails. tone chamber. See chamber. tone color. See timbre. tone hole. A hole pierced in the body of the clarinet which, when covered by a finger or by the action of a key, results in a specific pitch. The position of each tone hole along the length of the clarinet’s tube, along with its diameter and degree of undercutting, affects the precise intonation of the pitch produced. See also finger hole,sounding hole, sounding length. Tone hole bushings are often made tone hole bushing. A thin lining for a tone hole. Tone from a nonwood material such as brass, ivory, or horn (on early clarinets), or Delrin (on modern clarinets). They may be used for reinforcement or repair and are
not present on all clarinets. Also sometimes called tone hole inserts.
tone quality. See timbre. tonguing. The act of articulating separate sounds on a wind instrument by means of the tongue. On the clarinet, the player’s airstream is continuous and the tip of the tongue acts like a valve, coming into contact with the tip of the reed to stop the airstream and pulling slightly back from the reed to release it. See also anchor tonguing,multiple tonguing, slap tonguing, stopped tonguing. touch. See touchpiece. touchpiece. Also commonly called a touch. The part of a key pressed by the finger. The shape of key touchpieces has changed substantially over time; beginning in the nineteenth century, makers (often at the behest of players) have attempted to design touchpieces that are comfortable and enable more fluent technique. For example, the edge of the register key touchpiece on the earliest clarinets was completely flat; as time went on (and as clarinet technique came to require more frequent shifts between the clarion and chalumeau registers), makers gave a more rounded shape to the edge of this touchpiece to enable the left thumb (L0) to manipulate the key more easily and comfortably co mfortably.. Even on modern clarinets, cl arinets, however, touchpiece shapes may differ from maker to maker and system to system; as an example, the touchpiece for the R1 side key for E♭4/B♭5 on German-system clarinets usually points straight down toward the bell, while on Boehm-system clarinets it is an oval-shaped button positioned perpendicularly to the key shank. See illustration in appendix 4. traditional pad. A clarinet pad with an internal cushion of felt encased by a single or double layer of fish skin and backed with cardboard. Such pads are also called skin pads or bladder pads. See also synthetic pad. transposing instruments. Instruments that have different “sounding” pitches from those fingered and (usually) notated. Transposing instruments are perhaps best understood in comparison with nontransposing (or concert-pitch) instruments, whose notated and sounding pitches are the same. Examples of these are the standard C flute, the violin, and the piano, among others. On transposing instruments, the exact difference between the written and sounding pitches is indicated by the nominal pitch of the instrument as well as by its general range (soprano, alto, tenor, bass, etc.). For example, a soprano clarinet with the nominal pitch of B-flat sounds a whole step lower than its written pitch, and in order to play at concert pitch a B-flat clarinetist must transpose the written pitch a whole step
higher. In most printed music for transposing instruments the part is written in its transposed form, so the player need only finger the notated pitches. Nearly the entire clarinet family consists of transposing instruments; the exceptions are the soprano clarinet in C (popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and still sometimes used today) and the now-obsolete piccolo and bass clarinets in C. Most modern clarinets have nominal pitches of B-flat and E-flat, although the soprano clarinet in A is quite common, and the soprano (or sopranino) clarinet in D and the basset horn in F are also sometimes used. In its early history the clarinet was made in a large number of nominal pitches. This was because the clarinet, like any wind instrument with few keys, could not play well in tune in tonalities with more than one or two sharps or flats. For example, if a clarinetist needed to play a part in the key of D, the intonation was more satisfactory if he used a clarinet in D, thus fingering in the key of C (with no sharps or flats). The same part played on a C clarinet would need to be fingered in D—or, on a B-flat clarinet, in E—and the intonation (not to mention ease of fingering) would suffer accordingly. As keys were added to the clarinet, the need for a wide range of nominal pitches diminished (although some nineteenth-century writers lamented the loss of the distinctive tone colors they produced). Even today, however, most professional clarinetists own clarinets in B-flat and A, the latter to help in tonalities with excessive numbers of sharps.
tremolo. Italian “quivering, trembling.” On wind instruments, such as the clarinet, a musical figure that calls for a rapid, unmeasured alternation between two pitches that are a distance of a minor third or more apart. In musical notation, a tremolo may be notated as two or three horizontal bars between, but not connected to, pitches with specific rhythmic values on either side; or as two or three traditional beams connecting two pitches whose notehead shapes would not normally be part of a beamed rhythm (e.g., two half notes). Depending on the precise pitches involved, some tremolos can be awkward on the clarinet and may require the use of nonstandard fingerings.
Figure 26. Tremolo. The illustration shows several ways that tremolos may be notated, and how each is performed. Illustration by William William Conable
trill. An ornament consisting of a principal note alternating rapidly with the note a half or whole step above it, depending on key signature and context. As with most
ornaments, the exact manner of performing trills has changed over time, and treatises written by performers provide evidence of accepted performance practice in any given period. Where the clarinet and its repertoire are concerned, the relevant periods are the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Writers of the time often discuss the trill as having three parts: the preparation, the trill itself, and the termination. In the eighteenth century the dominant practice was to begin the trill on the upper note rather than the principal note; from about the second quarter of the nineteenth century onward, most writers recommend that the trill begin on the principal note. Practice varied during the early nineteenth century. Throughout the entire period in question, most writers state that, at least on longer note values, the trill should be started slowly, with the rate of oscillation increasing gradually over the duration of the note. The termination of the trill (called a Nachschlag in German treatises) usually consists of a pair of notes, the pitches of which vary depending on whether the trill resolves in an upward or downward direction (see figure 27). The termination may be notated, or may need to be improvised by the performer; on trills of extremely short duration it may be left out altogether. In fact, on short note values in quick tempos, trills may be indistinguishable from inverted mordents or pralltriller. A trill may be noted by the placement of the abbreviation “tr” above a note; this may or may not be followed by a wavy line.
Figure 27. Trill with notated Nachschlag and resolution (left) and one way that it might be played (right). Here the trill is initiated from the upper note. The Nachschlag was not always notated by the composer, but would have been improvised by the performer in eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century music. Illustration by William William Conable
play. trill fingering. A fingering that is employed to make a trill or tremolo easier to play. Some trill fingerings are common enough that they are shown on basic fingering charts, while others may need to be invented by the player. Many trill fingerings on the clarinet involve the use of slightly altered standard fingerings; for example, a finger may be left down on a key or hole that would normally be uncovered in a nontrilling movement between two pitches. There are, however, two keys that have as their sole purpose the facilitation of trills: the top two side keys played by R1 make trills over the break possible, for example from A4 to B4 or B ♭4 to C5. See also trill key.
trill key. A key used primarily for trilling, rather than as a standard fingering for a note. Some trills on the clarinet are difficult or impossible to produce using standard fingerings, and from fairly early in the instrument’s history makers have devised keys to enable these difficult trills. The first trill key on the clarinet was for A4 to B4, over the break; this was added as a sixth key on Classical clarinets made by some British makers beginning about 1765. The modern clarinet, whether Boehm or German system, incorporates four trill keys on the right-hand side (to be played with R1), some of which are also used for standard or alternate fingerings. In some cases trill fingerings cannot be used for sustained, nontrilled notes because their tone holes are not correctly placed, or are too small, and the intonation and tone quality are inadequate. trio. An ensemble consisting of three players, or a work written for such an ensemble. Two types of trio involving the clarinet have separate entries in this dictionary: the clarinet trio and the reed trio. Apart from these groupings, important trios including the clarinet have been written by Arnold (flute, oboe, clarinet), Bruch (clarinet, viola, piano), Dahl (clarinet, violin, cello), Glinka (clarinet, bassoon, piano), Handel (two clarinets and horn), Mozart (clarinet, viola, piano), Reinecke (clarinet, horn, piano), Villa-Lobos (clarinet, bassoon, piano), and others. trio d’anches. See reed trio.
triple tonguing. See multiple tonguing. tube/tubing. 1. A general term for the body of the clarinet without its fittings. The tube is the result of the initial steps in clarinet making: the turning of the billet into a cylinder and the reaming of the basic bore. 2. See key tubing. tube cane. Small sections of whole seasoned cane that are sold to clarinetists who make their own reeds. Because a section of tube cane is still in the natural shape of the plant (i.e., round and hollow), it must be split and further shaped into reed blanks. See splitting. tuner. An electronic device that measures the exact pitch of sound against a fixed standard. Tuners come in a variety of forms, but all include some kind of visual display that indicates the degree to which a pitch matches the standard to which the tuner is calibrated. Often the display shows measurements in cents. Most tuners allow the user to calibrate the device to a chosen pitch standard; depending on the design, they also sometimes provide audible pitches for the player to match. See
also intonation, in tune, out of tune, tuning note.
tuning. 1. The process of pitch matching that must occur anytime two or more instruments play together. Tuning is usually done before or at the very beginning of a rehearsal or performance, when a tuning note is given by a member of an ensemble or by an electronic tuner, but skilled musicians will also be constantly attentive to tuning throughout an entire rehearsal or performance. See also intonation. 2. During the manufacture of a wind instrument, such as the clarinet, the process of placing the tone holes, adjusting tone hole size, and creating the bore size and configuration, which together result in a clarinet that plays as well in tune as possible with both a fixed pitch standard and within the instrument’s own scale. tuning fork. A two-pronged steel fork, designed to resonate at a specific pitch when struck and set in vibration. The tuning fork itself is barely audible when vibrating, but if it is set against an amplifier (such as a simple hollow sounding box; often it is pressed directly against the tragus of the ear), the pitch it emits can be used as a tuning note. Tuning forks can be made at any pitch, but today most are at concert pitch (A = 440 hertz). Since the advent of the electronic tuner, tuning forks are rarely used. tuning note. In an ensemble of two or more instruments, a pitch given as a reference, which must be matched as precisely as possible by all instruments in the ensemble. The tuning pitch may be given by one of the instruments or produced by an electronic tuner. In an orchestra, and in chamber music contexts, the traditional tuning pitch is A4 at 440 hertz; in bands, the tuning pitch is often a half step higher. Tuning pitches are usually given by the principal oboe in an orchestra, the principal clarinet in a band, or the piano in any ensemble involving that instrument. In other combinations the pitch may be taken from whatever instrument is most stable. tuning rings. Small rings that may be inserted between the barrel and the upper joint of the clarinet (or between the upper and lower joints) to flatten the overall pitch slightly. Many clarinetists habitually play with a small space at these joints in order to prevent the clarinet from playing too sharp; tuning rings fill in the small gap in the bore that results from this practice. This not only prevents the joint from being inadvertently pushed back in, but also keeps the relative intonation of certain notes (for example, the throat tones in the case of a tuning ring between the barrel and upper joint) from being inordinately flat in comparison to the rest of the clarinet. Tuning rings may be made from metal, hard rubber, or plastic and must exactly match the bore of the joints between which they are inserted. They may be
handmade, but are also available from commercial manufacturers.
tuning socket. See barrel. tuning system. A conceptual framework for measuring the distance between pitches in a scale. In the Western world various tuning systems have been used throughout the course of history, reflecting the theoretical knowledge and the musical needs of any given period. A choice of tuning system will obviously affect the building and tuning of musical instruments. Wind instruments in particular, with tone holes of fixed position and size, must be designed and constructed with a particular tuning system in mind. Since at least the late eighteenth century the tuning system widely in use for Western music is one of equally spaced half steps, called equal temperament. See also intonation, just intonation, meantone tuning. turn. Italian gruppetto, “little group.” A melodic ornament occurring either on a single note or between two notes and involving a four pitches in the following order: the note above the principal note, the principal note itself, the note below the principal note, and a return to the principal note. The rhythmic pattern taken by these pitches varies depending on the overall rhythmic context.
Figure 28. Turn. The illustration shows two ways that turns may be notated, and three different possibilities for performance. Illustration by William William Conable
turning. The process of working wood on a lathe. In clarinet making, the individual joints of an instrument are produced by putting seasoned billets of wood on a spinning lathe and using a sharp cutting tool to produce the basic columnar shape of the body and the flaring shape of the bell. tutor. See method book. twelfth. The interval between the clarinet’s fundamental pitches in the chalumeau register and the corresponding overblown pitches in the clarion register, produced by adding the register (or speaker) key. For example, a fingered C4 in the chalumeau register will produce a G5 in the clarion register when the register key is added: the interval of a twelfth (equal to an octave plus a fifth). In clarinet manufacture, great care must be taken to regulate the intonation of the twelfths;
although in practice each pair of chalumeau/clarion-register notes will never be precisely in tune, clarinet designers and makers strive to come as close as possible to this ideal.
U
undercutting. A chamfering of the area where the wall of a tone hole meets the bore of the clarinet. This has the effect of enlarging the underside of the tone hole. Acoustically, undercutting lowers the cutoff frequency of a tone hole, thus raising the pitch of the fundamental note produced by it while at the same time reducing some of the high-frequency content of the sound and making it “darker.” Clarinet manufacturers use tone hole undercutting to correct intonation problems and shape tone quality. Also called fraising.
Ellsworth and William William Conable Figure 29. A. Straight-sided tone hole; B. Undercut tone hole. Illustration by Jane Ellsworth
unibody. A term that describes a clarinet design in which the key-bearing portion of the clarinet’s tube is made from a single piece of wood (or other material), rather than in two separate joints as in the usual design. A unibody design allows for more acoustically correct positioning of some tone holes, which otherwise are displaced by the joint itself. Some smaller-sized instruments in the clarinet family, such as the E-flat soprano clarinet, are frequently made with a unibody design; it is also used occasionally for soprano clarinets pitched in B-flat or A. It is impractical to use unibody construction for larger clarinet sizes, since single pieces of wood of the necessary length and quality are difficult to find. upper joint. The portion of the clarinet that carries the tone holes and keys operated by L1 through L4, as well as some keys operated by R1. Also sometimes called the top joint, upper stack, or the left-hand joint (although on many of the earliest clarinets either hand could be positioned uppermost). See joint, lower joint. upper register reg ister.. A general term for the register of an instrument containing pitches with relatively high frequencies. In relation to the clarinet, the term is used loosely and may refer to one of three different possibilities: the clarion register, the altissimo register , or the range from about G5 upwards, a combination of the upper clarion and altissimo registers. See also chalumeau register, low register, middle register. urtext. German, “original text.” A modern edition of music that purports to transmit the unedited musical text of an authentic source. While the concept of an urtext edition was originally meant as a counterweight to the heavy-handed and often arbitrary editing practices found in many nineteenth- and early twentieth-century editions, many scholars now reject the legitimacy of the concept, since it presents many problems. For example, there are frequently a number of authentic sources for a single work, and it is often impossible to determine which of the sources should be given precedence; and even when an authentic source can indisputably be said to embody the composer’s best and final thoughts, it is rarely the case that it can be put into print with no editing whatsoever. utility clarinetist. An orchestral clarinetist who plays parts for E-flat clarinet, bass clarinet, or other members of the clarinet family as needed. The utility clarinetist is not usually a full-time or core member of an orchestra, but is on call for works that use extra clarinets beyond those normally found in the orchestral clarinet section. See also principal clarinetist , second clarinetist. uvula. In the human oral cavity, the flap of tissue hanging at the back of the soft palate. It is sometimes used by clarinetists to achieve a flutter-tonguing effect.
V
Vandoren. French manufacturer of clarinet reeds, mouthpieces, ligatures, and other accessories. The company was founded in 1905 by Eugene Vandoren, Vandoren, a clarinetist clarinetis t in the Paris Opera, and was continued by his son Robert and grandson Bernard. Today the main office is located in Paris, while the manufacturing is located in Bormes-les-Mimosas in the south of France, an area of ideal growing conditions for reed cane. Van Perck system. A clarinet system patented by the Belgian Bernard van Perck in the first decade of the twentieth century. Like the half-Boehm clarinet, the Van Perck system is an attempt to combine features of the Albert and Boehm systems on the upper and lower joints, respectively. Van Perck’s arrangement of keys for L4 is somewhat different than that of the Boehm system, but does provide alternative left-hand fingerings for E3/B4, F3/C5, and F♯3/C♯5; the left-hand pinky keys may be held down continuously by L4 for most fingering patterns involving the right-hand pinky keys. vent. A tone hole that serves to correct the intonation, response, and/or tone quality of a note, or—in the case of the register key —changes the register. Vent Vent holes are usually in addition to the primary tone holes that produce a pitch and are often activated passively through ring keys or other interlocking mechanisms. Differing key systems (both historical and modern) incorporate a varying number and disposition of vents. See venting. vent hole. A tone hole, the primary purpose of which is to correct the intonation or clarify the sound of a pitch produced mainly by another tone hole. See also vent, vent key, venting. venting. 1. The presence of adequate open or closed tone holes to produce pitches
that are tuned well and respond freely and evenly. 2. The regulation of key rise. When a key is pressed to open a tone hole, the pad cup and pad must be situated over the tone hole at a height that allows for accurate intonation and a sound that is neither too open nor too stuffy.
vent key. A key, or more specifically a pad cup operated directly or indirectly by a key or ring, that covers a vent hole. See also vent, venting. vibrato. A relatively rapid, periodic oscillation in the pitch (or sometimes volume) of a tone. It is used to add warmth and expressiveness to the sound. The extent to which vibrato is used has varied; in earlier historical periods it seems to have been used sparingly and considered an ornament, but in the later nineteenth century it came to be used almost continuously, as it is by most singers, string players, and some wind players today t oday.. On wind instruments, vibrato is produced in one of three ways: with the abdominal muscles, with the larynx, or with the lower lip and/or jaw. The extent to which vibrato was used by eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury clarinetists remains unclear; eyewitness accounts describe Richard Mühlfeld as having used substantial vibrato, but he may have been an exception. Today attitudes on clarinet vibrato vary, often regionally. Vibrato Vibrato is not uncommon with French, English, and Dutch players of classical music, but is largely absent in German playing and still relatively rare in America. Jazz clarinetists commonly use vibrato, and it is also part of most ethnic traditions of folk clarinet playing. See also abdominal vibrato, finger vibrato, jaw vibrato, laryngeal vibrato, lip vibrato. voicing. 1. The manipulation of the shape of the oral cavity to change the timbre of a clarinet sound. Voicing involves changing the position of the tongue inside the mouth, primarily by dropping or raising it at the back of the throat; it also involves raising the soft palate. Many clarinet instructors teach students about voicing by analogy with vowel sounds, since these also involve using tongue position to produce a great variety of sounds. There is no widespread agreement on what constitutes “correct” voicing on the clarinet; nevertheless, it has strong effect on the timbre produced by a player and can have implications for intonation and dynamic flexibility as well. See also closed throat, open throat. 2. Some repair technicians refer to “voicing” the clarinet. By this they mean making slight adjustments to tone holes (size, shape, undercutting) in order to improve the timbre of an instrument. Voxman, Himie (1912–2011). American clarinetist and influential music educator. The son of Jewish-Ukrainian Jewish- Ukrainian immigrant parents, Voxman earned bachelor’s bachelor ’s and master’s degrees in chemical engineering from the University of Iowa in the early 1930s. After teaching public school music for several years, he joined the music
faculty of his alma mater in 1939. Over the next four decades he presided over a large clarinet studio; in particular, he encouraged his graduate students to produce significant theses and dissertations on subjects of clarinet history and repertoire . He also served as director of the University of Iowa’s School of Music from 1954 until his retirement in 1980. Thereafter he continued to teach privately and to research and write on various topics. topics . Voxman’ Voxman’ss impact as a music educator was strong and extended far beyond the realm of the clarinet; throughout his career he authored pedagogical materials and compiled, edited, arranged, and published countless editions and collections of music for use by woodwind performers of all skill levels.
W
walking-stick clarinet. Like the flute and other instruments, the clarinet was sometimes made in the shape of a walking stick. Several walking-stick clarinets were made in Germany in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, by makers such as Ulrich Amman (1766–1842), Johan Georg Braun (c. 1790–1833), and G. Schuster; Franz Strobach even made a walking-stick basset horn. walls. 1. The wooden tube of the clarinet after the bore has been drilled. In this sense the term is usually used when discussing wall thickness. 2. The sides of a tone hole. See also chimney. 3. See side walls. warm-up. A routine at the beginning of an individual practice session, or before a rehearsal or concert, that allows the musician to ease gradually into the physical act of playing or singing. For wind instrument players, warm-ups usually consist of long tones, slow scales, and other finger patterns, all of which permit the muscles used in playing to become flexible before any particularly strenuous activity takes place. A warm-up also allows the instrument literally to warm up to playing pitch. warping. The bending of a flat or straight piece of wood (or other woody substance) because of repeated cycles of moisture and dryness. Warping is a frequent problem with clarinet reeds, since they are exposed to constant moisture and heat from the player’s breath and subsequent drying out. It is essential that the back of reed remain as flat as possible to form a seal with the table of the mouthpiece; to achieve this, players may take a number of different measures to prevent warping, or to flatten an already-warped reed. The main preventive measure is to make sure a new reed has a careful period of breaking in, but reeds sometimes warp in spite of the player’s best efforts. In these cases the player must flatten the back of the reed by rubbing it against a flat, mildly abrasive surface (such as a flat bastard file
or a very fine grade of sandpaper). Sometimes the body of the clarinet will warp, but this is more common on old instruments made of boxwood; the types of wood commonly used for modern clarinets are denser and more stable and therefore less prone to warping.
Weber, Carl Maria von (1786–1826). German composer and conductor of the early Romantic era. Weber’s most significant contributions were to opera, but he also wrote instrumental music that is important in the repertoire of certain instruments, including the clarinet. Weber befriended the clarinetist Heinrich Baermann in 1811, and it was for Baermann that most of the important clarinet works were written. The first was the Concertino for clarinet and orchestra, op. 26. This was written in the space of just a few days and was so successful that Baermann commissioned two concertos from Weber. The Concerto no. 1 in F minor, op. 73 was premiered in June 1811, and the Concerto no. 2 in E-flat major, op. 74, in August of the same s ame year. In 1813 Weber Weber wrote the Clarinet Quintet, op. 34, and presented it to Baermann as birthday present. Weber also wrote two works for clarinet and piano: a set of variations (op. 33) on a theme from his own opera, Silvana (1811), and the Grand Duo Concertante for clarinet and piano, op. 48 (1815–1816). All of these works are part of the standard clarinet repertoire today. Weston, Pamela (1921–2009). English clarinetist, teacher, and scholar. She studied clarinet at London’s Royal Academy of Music and at the Guildhall School of Music, where she later taught from 1952 to 1969. Thereafter she taught privately from her home and began an extensive writing career. She edited music, wrote clarinet exercise books and a volume on clarinet pedagogy, and traveled the world giving master classes and doing research. Perhaps Weston’s Weston’s most lasting contributions to clarinet scholarship are her several volumes recounting the biographies of hundreds, if not thousands, of historical and living clarinetists (see bibliography). She also wrote many entries for the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians and contributed articles to the journals of the International Clarinet Association, the Clarinet and Saxophone Society of Great Britain, and elsewhere. Willman, Willman, Thomas Lindsey (1784–1840). The preeminent British clarinetist of the early nineteenth century. He was born in Ireland to a German father who was a military musician. After establishing his reputation as a clarinetist in military and theater bands in Dublin and elsewhere, Willman moved to England in 1816 and took up a post as bandmaster of the Coldstream Guards. Shortly thereafter he assumed the position of principal clarinetist for London’s London’s Philharmonic Society, Society, where he performed frequently as a soloist. In 1823 he was named clarinet professor at the newly founded Royal Academy of Music, and he wrote an important clarinet tutor (Complete Instruction Book for the Clarinet ) in 1826.
Willman espoused a version of the new clarinet design of Iwan Müller, the socalled clarinet omnitonique. He was widely in demand as a soloist (he played the English premiere of Mozart’s Concerto in 1838), and was particularly lauded for his obbligato accompaniments for singers.
wind instrument. Any musical instrument that produces sound through the action of human breath. The term may imply all such instruments, but is often used more specifically to refer to the so-called woodwind instruments: flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and saxophone, and their relatives. See also aerophone. window. The rectangular open area of a clarinet mouthpiece, over which the reed is placed and through which air enters. It is bounded by the table at the bottom and the side and tip rails on the right, left, and top. Also sometimes called the slot. See illustration in appendix 5. wind quintet. An ensemble consisting of flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, and horn, or a piece of music written for such an ensemble. The wind quintet has been an important grouping since the early nineteenth century, and a large repertoire of music has been written for it. Important wind quintets include those by Barber, Cambini, Carter, Danzi, Françaix, Hindemith, Ligeti, Milhaud, Nielsen, Reicha, Schoenberg, Villa-Lobos, Villa-Lobos, and many others. windway. See chamber. Wolff, Andrew (d. 1820). The earliest clarinetist of significance in America. He seems to have come to the colonies in the mid-1780s, probably from Germany. He made his career primarily in Philadelphia, although he lived for a time in Baltimore; as a clarinetist who traveled with theater companies, he also spent time in New York. In all of these cities he performed frequently as a soloist, appearing more than seventy times playing concertos and chamber music that featured the clarinet. wraparound register key. A register key design having the touchpiece in the standard position on the underside of the clarinet (played by L0), while the shank of the key curves around the body of the instrument, ending in a pad cup that closes a tone hole on or toward the front side. The advantage of this design is that moisture cannot accumulate in the tone hole. Wraparound register keys were common on clarinets in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, but are no longer used. See illustrations in figure 11 (clarinet on the right) and in appendix 2 (Albert-system clarinet).
Wright, Harold (1926–1993). American clarinetist, principal of the Boston Symphony Orchestra from 1970 until his death. He studied with Ralph McLane at the Curtis Institute in Philadelphia, and before his tenure in Boston he was a member of orchestras in Houston and Dallas as well as the National Symphony Orchestra in Washington, D.C. He was also an active chamber musician, performing and recording with Rudolf Serkin (with whom he worked for sixteen seasons at the Marlboro Music Festival), the Boston Symphony Chamber Players, and many of the important string quartets of his day, such as the Budapest, Guarneri, and Vermeer Vermeer quartets. He taught t aught at the New England Conservatory, Boston University, and the Tanglewood Music Festival. Wurlitzer. German family of woodwind makers. The family’s business history stretches back to 1820, when it was founded in Wernitzgrün by Johann Friedrich Wurlitzer (1801–1878). Upon his death, the family split into two lines of makers: one active in Wernitzgrün and another anot her in Erlbach. In I n the Wernitzgrün line, various sons and grandsons set up their own individual workshops, the most important of which was that of Clemens (1883–1964). Today this workshop is run by Gerd Wurlitzer (b. 1941). The Erlbach line of the family was founded by Heinrich Eduard (1835–1920), whose sons and grandsons also went on to set up their own workshops. Most important for clarinetists was Fritz Wurlitzer (1888–1984), who founded his workshop in 1930, and his son Herbert (1921–1989), who in 1959 moved to West West Germany, ultimately settling in the t he Bavarian town of Neustadt an der Aisch, where the main workshop is now located. Fritz Wurlitzer specialized not only in German-system clarinets but also in reform-Boehm and Schmidt-Kolbe instruments, and made important contributions to the development of the modern German-system bass clarinet. Since Herbert’s death, the firm has been carried on by his wife Ruth and his son Ulrich. Wurlitzer clarinets have been played by many of the most important German clarinetists of the twentieth century.
Y
Yuste, Miguel (1879–1949). Spanish clarinetist and composer, regarded as the founder of modern clarinet playing in Spain. He studied at the Madrid Conservatory, where he was later the clarinet professor for many years (from 1910 to 1940), during which time he significantly updated the clarinet curriculum. He was also principal clarinetist of the Madrid Symphony Orchestra and the municipal band. He composed numerous works for clarinet and piano.
APPENDIX 1 The Clarinet Family
Figure 30. The clarinet family. family. Photo courtesy of Conn-Selmer Conn-Selmer
APPENDIX 2 Boehm, German, and Albert Systems Key and Tone Hole Names
Figure 31. Left: Boehm system clarinet; Right: Diagram of keys and tone holes for the Boehm system clarinet. Photo courtesy of Eric Hoeprich; diagram from from Anthony Baines, used used with permission from from W. W. W. W. Norton
Figure 32. Left: German system clarinet; Right: Diagram of keys and tone holes for the German system clarinet. Photo courtesy of Eric Hoeprich; diagram from from Anthony Baines, used used with permission from from W. W. W. W. Norton
Figure 33. Left: Albert system clarinet. Right: Diagram of keys and tone holes for the Albert system clarinet. Photo courtesy of the Edinburgh University University Collection of Historic Historic Musical Instruments; diagram from Anthony Baines, used with permission from W. W. Norton
APPENDIX 3 Historical Instruments and Their Parts
Figure 34. Tenor chalumeau by J. C. Denner. Photo courtesy of David David Ross
Figure 35. Replica of a two-key clarinet in D by Denner, made by Jochen Seggelke.
Figure 36. Five-key clarinet in B-flat by Goulding, ca. 1805.
Figure 37. Thirteen-key clarinet in C by Baumann, Paris, ca. 1825–30. Note the saltspoon keys and the rollers on the pinky keys. The keys are mounted on posts attached to foot plates. Photo courtesy of Nophachai Nophachai Cholthitchanta
Figure 38. Basset horn by Griesbacher, Vienna, Vienna, ca. 1800. Fifteen F ifteen keys; originally eight. Photo courtesy of the Edinburgh University University Collection of of Historic Musical Instruments Instruments
Figure 39. Anonymous bass clarinet (attr. to Buffet-Crampon), Buffet-Crampon), ca. 1850. Photo courtesy of Bruno Kampmann
Figure 40. Twelve-key clarinet by Kaspar K aspar Tauber, Tauber, Vienna, ca. 1810. Photo courtesy of the Edinburgh Edinburgh University University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments
Figure 41. Stock of a thirteen-key Müller system clarinet by Clair Godfroy, Paris, ca. 1818. This example shows a Edinburgh University University Collection of Historic Musical hinge key and an articulated key. Photo courtesy of the Edinburgh Instruments
Figure 42. Lower joint of a thirteen-key Müller system clarinet by Kayser, Hamburg. This example shows University Collection of saltspoon keys with stuffed pads, and roller keys for R4. Photo courtesy of the Edinburgh University Historic Musical Instruments Instruments
APPENDIX 4 Key Parts and Mounting Types
Figure 43. Key parts and screws. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
Figure 44. Needle spring. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
Figure 45. Flat spring. Photo by Larry Conboy Conboy
Figure 46. Front and side views of historical mount types. From left to right: ring mount, block mount, posts with from Rendall; used with permission permission from W. W. W. Norton foot plate, posts screwed directly into the wood. Drawing from
Figure 47. Keys mounted in a swelling. The two long keys on the right are additionally stabilized by a block. Replica of a six-key clarinet, Andreas Schöni. Author’s Author’s collection; Photo by Larry Conboy
Figure 48. Saddle mount (circled). Thirteen-key clarinet by Key, London, ca. 1834. Photo courtesy of the Edinburgh University University Collection of of Historic Musical Instruments Instruments
APPENDIX 5 The Clarinet Mouthpiece
Figure 49. The historical development of mouthpieces. Top row, row, left to right: mouthpiece and barrel in one piece, typical of the earliest clarinets; continental mouthpiece ca. 1800, with retaining ring for cord; English mouthpiece with long tenon, early nineteenth century. Bottom row, row, left to right: modern German mouthpiece with metal facing; older French/Belgian mouthpiece, second half of nineteenth century; modern French mouthpiece. Drawing from from Rendall; used with permission permission from W. W. W. Norton
Ellsworth Figure 50. Components of a modern mouthpiece. Illustration by Jane Ellsworth
Selected Bibliography
GENERAL SURVEYS Baines, Anthony. Anthony. Woodwind Instruments and Their History. Rev. ed. New York: W. W. Norton, 1963. ———. European and American American Musical Instruments. New York: Viking Press, 1966. ———. Musical Instruments through through the Ages. Hammond-sworth, UK: Penguin Books, 1969. Birsak, Kurt. Die Klarinette: Eine Kulturgeschichte Kulturgeschichte. Buchloe, Germany: Obermayer, 1992. Translated by G. Schamberger as The Clarinet: A Cultural History. Buchloe, Germany: Obermayer, 1994. Brymer, Jack. Clarinet . London: Macdonald & Jane, 1976. Campbell, Murray, Clive Greated, and Arnold Myers. Musical Instruments: History, History, Technology, & Performance of Instruments of Western Music . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. Carse, Adam. Musical Wind Wind Instruments. London: Macmillan & Co., 1939; repr. New York: Da Capo Press, 1965. Heaton, Roger. The Versatile Clarinet . Oxford: Routledge, 2006. Hoeprich, Eric. The Clarinet . New Haven, CT: Yale Yale University Press, 2008. Kroll, Oscar. The Clarinet . Trans. Hilda Morris, ed. Anthony Baines. London: B. T. Batsford, 1968. Originally Die Klarinette: ihre ihre Geschichte ihre ihre Literatur, Literatur, ihre grossen Meister. Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1965. Lawson, Colin, ed. The Cambridge Companion to the Clarinet . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Mazzeo, Rosario. The Clarinet: Excellence and Artistry . Sherman Oaks, CA: Alfred Publishing, 1981. Page, Janet, K. A. Gourlay, Roger Blench, and Nicholas Shackleton. Shackl eton. “Clarinet.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 2001. 5: 895–910. Pino, David. The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing . New York: York: Charles Scribner’s Sons,
1980. Rendall, F. Geoffrey. The Clarinet: Some Notes on Its History and Construction . London: Williams and Norgate, 1954. 3rd ed. Rev. Rev. Philip Bate. London: Ernest Benn, 1971. Stubbins, William. The Art of Clarinetistry . 2nd ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Publishers, 1965. Van Kalker, Johan. Die Geschichte der Klarinetten: Klarinetten: Eine Dokumentation. Oberems, Switzerland: Verlag Textilwerkstatt, 1997.
HISTORICAL PERIODS AND SPECIFIC CLARINET TYPES Dart, Thurston. “The Mock Trumpet.” Galpin Society Journal 6: 35–40. Grass, Thomas, and Dietrich Demus. Das Bassetthorn: Seine Entwicklung und seine Musik . Privately printed, 2002. Lawson, Colin. “The Basset Clarinet Revived.” Early Music 15, no. 4 (November 1987): 487–501. ———. The Chalumeau in Eighteenth-Century Music. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1981. Newhill, John P. The Basset-Horn and Its Music. Sale, 1983. 3rd ed. Rosewood Publications, 2003. Poulin, Pamela. “Anton Stadler’s Basset Clarinet: Recent Discoveries in Riga.” Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society 22 (1996): 110–27. Rice, Albert. The Baroque Clarinet . Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992. ———. The Clarinet in the Classical Period . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. ———. From the the Clarinet D’Amour to the Contra Contra Bass: A History of Large Large Size Clarinets, 1740–1860. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. Sparnaay, Harry. The Bass Clarinet: A Personal History . Barcelona: Periferia Music, 2001. Stradner, Gerhard. “Die Instrumente der Wiener Schrammeln.” In Studia Organologica: Festschrift für John Henry van der Meer zu seinem fünfundsechzigsten Geburtstag, ed. Friedemann Hellwig. Tutzing: Hans Schneider, 1987, 445–52.
ORGANOLOGY, INSTRUMENT MAKERS, AND COLLECTIONS Baines, Anthony. Anthony. The Bate Collection of Historical Wind Wind Instruments: Catalog of the Instruments. Oxford: University of Oxford, 1976. Birsak, Kurt. Die Holzblasinstrumente im Salzburger Museum Carolino Carolino Augusteum. Salzburg, Austria: Salzburger Museum Carolino Augusteum, 1973.
Check Reeves, Deborah. Historically Speaking. A regular column in Clarinet . 28, no. 1 (December 2000) to present. ———. “Albert and the Albert System.” Clarinet 27, 27, no. 2 (March 2000): 30–32. ———. “The Mazzeo System Clarinet: An Historical Review.” Review.” Clarinet 26, 26, no. 2 (March 1999): 62–64. Dullat, Günter Günt er.. Klarinetten: Grundzüge ihrer ihrer Entwicklung. Frankfurt am Main: Verlag Erwin Bochinsky, 2001. Edwards, Bruce. “The Thomas Mollenhauer System Clarinet.” Clarinet 27, 27, no. 1 (December 1999): 46–51. Fricke, Heike. Catalogue of the Sir Nicholas Shackleton Collection . Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments, 2007. Hoeprich, Eric. “A Trio Trio of Basset Horns by Theodor Lotz Lotz.” .” Galpin Society Journal 50 (March 1997): 228–36 ———. “Finding a Clarinet for the Three Concertos by Vivaldi.” Vivaldi.” Early Music 11, no. 1 (January 1983): 60–64. ———. “A Three-Key Clarinet by J. C. Denner.” Denner.” Galpin Society Journal 34 (March 1981): 21–33. Kostohryz, Milan. “Quarter-Tone “Quarter-Tone Clarinet.” Clarinet 3, 3, no. 3 (May 1976): 12. McGlinchey, McGlinchey, James A. “The McIntyre McIntyr e Clarinet.” Clarinet 28, 28, no. 2 (March 2001): 64–65. Myers, Arnold, ed. Proceedings of the the Clarinet and Wood-wind Wood-wind Colloquium 2007: Celebrating the Collection of Sir Nicholas Shackleton . Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments, 2012. Restle, Conny, Conny, and Heike Fricke, Frick e, eds. Faszination Klarinette. Munich: Prestel, 2004. Ross, David. “A Comprehensive Performance Project in Clarinet Literature with an Organological Study of the Development of the Clarinet in the Eighteenth Century.” Century.” PhD diss., University of Iowa, 1985. Voorhees, Jerry L. Woodwind Fingering Systems in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Hammond, LA: privately printed, 2000. Waterhouse, William. The New Langwill Index: A Dictionary of Musical Wind Instrument Makers and Inventors. London: Tony Bingham, 1993. Young, Phillip Phill ip T. 4900 Historical Woodwind Woodwind Instruments: An Inventory of 200 Makers in International Collections. London: Tony Bingham, 1993. ———. “A Bass Clarinet by the Mayrhofers of Passau.” Journal of the American Musical Instrument Society 7 (1981): 36–46. ———. “Woodwind “Woodwind Instruments by the Denners of Nürnberg.” Galpin Society Journal 20 (1967): 9–16.
PERFORMANCE PRACTICE
Charlton, David. “Classical Clarinet Technique: Documentary Approaches.” Early Music 16 (1988): 396–406. Haynes, Bruce. A History of Performing Performing Pitch: The Story of “A.” “A.” Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2002. Hoeprich, T. T. E. “Clarinet Reed Position in the t he Eighteenth Century.” Early Music 12 (1984): 49–55. Lawson, Colin. The Early Clarinet: A Practical Guide . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Rice, Albert. “Clarinet Fingering Charts, 1732–1816.” Galpin Society Journal 37: 16– 41.
ACOUSTICS Benade, Arthur. Arthur. Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York: York: Oxford University Press, 1976. Campbell, Murray, and Clive Greated. The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. Ferron, Ernest. The Clarinet Revealed . Trans. Jacqueline Rose. Paris: International Music Diffusion, 1996. Gibson, O. Lee. Clarinet Acoustics . Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1994.
REPERTOIRE Brixel, Eugen. Klarinetten Bibliographie I . Wilhelmshaven, Germany: Florian Noetzel, 1997. Dart, Thurston. “The Earliest Collections of Clarinet Music.” Galpin Society Journal 4 (June 1951): 39–41. Dazeley, Dazeley, George. “The Original Text of Mozart’s Clarinet Concerto.” Music Review 9 (August 1948): 166–72. Heim, Norman M. The Clarinet Concerto in Outline . Rev. ed. Las Vegas, NV: Van Cott Information Services, 2007. ———. Clarinet Literature in Outline . Rev. ed. Las Vegas, NV: Van Cott Information Services, 2006. ———. The Clarinet Sonata in Outline . Rev. ed. Las Vegas, NV: NV: Van Van Cott Co tt Information Services, 2005. Lawson, Colin. Mozart Clarinet Concerto. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ———. Brahms Clarinet Quintet . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
Opperman, Kalman. Repertory of the Clarinet: A Listing of Works Works for Study and York: Carl Fischer, 2006. Performance. Milan: Ricordi, 1960. Reprinted New York:
BIOGRAPHY Amore, Adriano. “Ferdinando Sebastiani and the Neapolitan School of Clarinet.” 35, no. 1 (December 2007): 42–43. Clarinet 35, Estock, Joseph James. “A Biographical Dictionary of Clarinetists Born before 1800.” PhD diss., University of Iowa, 1972. Firestone, Ross. Swing, Swing, Swing: The Life and Times of Benny Goodman . New York: W. W. Norton, 1993. Goltz, Maren, and Herta Müller. Richard Mühlfeld, Mühlfeld, Brahms’ Clarinettist . Artivo, 2007. Kycia, Carol Ann. Daniel Bonade: A Founder of the American Style of Clarinet Clarinet Playing. Fort Myers, FL: Captiva Publishing, 1999. Weston, Pamela. Clarinet Virtuosi Virtuosi of the Past . Denham Green, UK: privately printed, 1971. ———. More Clarinet Clarinet Virtuosi Virtuosi of the Past . London: privately printed, 1977. ———. Clarinet Virtuosi of Today . Baldock, UK: Egon Publishers, 1989. ———. Yesterday’s Clarinetists: A Sequel. Ampleforth, UK: Emerson Edition, 2002. ———. Heroes and Heroines Heroines of Clarinettistry. Bloomington, IN: Trafford Publishing, 2008.
PEDAGOGY Bonade, Daniel. The Clarinetist’s Compendium. Kenosha, WI: Leblanc Corporation, 1962. Drushler, Paul. The Altissimo Register: A Partial Approach. Rochester, NY: SHALLu-mo Publications, 1978. Gingras, Michele. Clarinet Secrets: 52 Performance Strategies for the Advanced Clarinetist . Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2006. ———. More Clarinet Clarinet Secrets: 100 Quick Quick Tips Tips for the Advanced Clarinetist . Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2011. Guy, Larry Larr y. Embouchure Building Building for Clarinetists. 10th ed. Stony Point, NY: Rivernote Press, 2011. ———. Hand and Finger Development for Clarinetists Poi nt, NY: NY: Rivernote Clarinetists. Stony Point, Press, 2007. ———. Intonation Training NY: Rivernote Press, 1996. Training for Clarinetists. Stony Point, NY:
Klug, Howard. The Clarinet Doctor. Bloomington, IN: Woodwindiana, 1997. Ridenour, Thomas. The Educator’ Educator ’s Guide to the Clarinet: A Complete Guide to Teaching and Learning. Denton, TX: privately printed, 2000. ———. Clarinet Fingerings: A Comprehensive Guide for the Performer and Educator. Denton, TX: privately printed, 2000. Sim, Alan. Clarinet Fingerings. Buckingham, UK: Queen’s Queen’s Temple Temple Publications, Publications , 1991. Spring, Robert S. Circular Breathing: A Method. Los Angeles, CA: Windplayer Publications, 2006. Stein, Keith. The Art of Clarinet Playing . Evanston, IL: Summy-Birchard, 1958. Thurston, Frederick. Clarinet Technique. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956
FACSIMILES OF HISTORICAL TUTORS Backofen, J. G. H. Anweisung zur Klarinette, nebst einer kurzen Abhandlung Abhandlung über das Bassett-Horn (Leipzig, ca. 1803). Celle, Germany: Moeck, 1986. Blasius, F. Nouvelle méthode de clarinette (Paris, ca. 1796). Geneva: Minkoff, 1972. Clarinette: Méthodes et Traités–Dictionnaires Traités–Dictionnaires. Bressuire, France: Editions J. M. Fuzeau, 2000. Facsimile collection of eighteenth-century French clarinet tutors and other writings on the clarinet by Roeser, Garsault, Francoeur, Corrette, Hotteterre-le romain, Laborde, Abraham, Vanderhagen, Vanderhagen, Framery Fr amery,, Vandenbrock, Vandenbrock, Blasius, and Yost, and one anonymous writer. Eisel, J. P. Musicus Autodidaktos, oder der selbst informierende informierende Musicus (Erfurt, Germany, Germany, 1738). Leipzig: Zentralantiquariat Zent ralantiquariat der DDR, 1976. Francoeur, L. J. Diapason general de tous les instruments à vent (Paris, (Paris, 1772). Geneva: Minkoff, 1972. Lefèvre, J. X. Méthode de clarinette (Paris, 1802). Geneva: Minkoff, 1974. Majer, J. F. B. C. Museum Musicum Theoretico Theoretico Practicum (Schwäbisch Hall, Germany, Germany, 1732). Cassel, Cassel , Germany: Bärenreiter, 1954. Roeser, V. Essai d’instruction a l’usage de ceux qui composent composent pour la clarinette et le cor (Paris, 1764). Geneva: Minkoff, 1972. Vanderhagen, A. Méthode nouvelle et raisonnée pour la clarinette (Paris, 1776). Geneva: Minkoff, 1972.
CONTEMPORARY CLARINET TECHNIQUES Bartolozzi, Bruno. New Sounds for Woodwinds Woodwinds. Trans. and ed. Reginald Smith Brindle. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. 2nd ed. 1982.
Farmer, Gerald. Multiphonics and Other Contemporary Contemporary Clarinet Techniques Techniques. Rochester, NY: NY: SHALL-u-mo Publications, 1982. Raasakka, Mikko. Exploring the Clarinet . Helsinki: Fennica Gehrman, 2010. Rehfeldt, Philip. New Directions Directions for Clarinet . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976. 2nd ed. 1994.
REEDS Bowen, Glen H. Making and Adjusting Clarinet Reeds. Madison, WI: privately printed, 1980, 2000. Grabner, Grabne r, Walter. Walter. Making Clarinet Reeds by Hand. Highland Park, IL: Clarinet Xpress: 1999. Guy, Larry Larr y. Selection, Adjustment, and Care of Single Reeds . Stony Point, NY: Rivernote Press, 1997. Platamone, Vito. Clarinet and Saxophone Reed Adjustments: Finding and Making Adjustments to Reeds. 2nd ed. Prescott, AZ: The Graphic Center, 2001. Opperman, Kalmen. Handbook for Making and Adjusting Single Reeds. New York: Chappell & Co., 1956. Repr. Oyster Bay, NY: M. Baron Company, 2002. Ormand, Fred. The Single Reed Adjustment Manual . Amilcare Publications, 2000. Rehfeldt, Phillip. Making and Adjusting Single Reeds Reeds. Red-lands, CA: privately printed, 1983. Spratt, Jack. How to Make Your Your Own Clarinet Reeds. Stamford, CT: Jack Spratt Woodwind Shop, 1956. Vasquez, Ronald V. A Book for the Clarinet Clarinet Reed-Maker: An Illustrated Single ReedV. Publishing, 1993. Making Manual. Annapolis, MD: R. V.
CARE AND REPAIR Karlsson, Heather. Heather. Care and Feeding of Your Clarinet: A User’s Guide to Basic Maintenance. H. Karlsson Wood-winds, 2008. Schmidt, Robert. A Clarinetist’s Clarinetist’s Notebook, Vol Vol. I: Care and Repair. Ithaca, NY: privately printed, 1971. Rev. Rev. 1978.
BIBLIOGRAPHIES Gee, Harry. Clarinet Solos de Concours, 1897–1980: An Annotated Bibliography. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1981. Rees-Davies, Jo. Bibliography of the Early Clarinet . Brighton, UK: privately printed,
n.d.. Warner, T. E. An Annotated Bibliography of Woodwind Woodwind Instruction Books, 1600–1830. Detroit, MI: Detroit Information Coordinators, 1967.
JOURNALS AND PERIODICALS ustralian Clarinet & Saxophone . 1998–present. The Clarinet . International Clarinet Association. 1973– present. The Clarinet and Saxophone. Clarinet and Saxophone Society of Great Britain. 1976– present. Rohrblatt: Die Zeitschrift für Oboe, Klarinette, Fagott und Saxophon . 1986–1988 as Die Klarinette; 1989–1992 as Oboe—Klarinette—Fagott ; under its present title since 1993.
WEBSITES Australian Clarinet and Saxophone Society, http://www.clarinet-saxophone.asn.au http://www.clarinet-saxophone.asn.au.. Austrian Clarinet Society, Society, http://www.austrian-clarinet-society.at http://www.austrian-clarinet-society.at.. Checklist of Clarinets in the Bate Collection, Oxford, http://www.bate.ox.ac.uk/reeds.html.. http://www.bate.ox.ac.uk/reeds.html Checklists of Clarinets Clarin ets at the National Music Museum, Mus eum, Ver-million, Ver-million, South Dakota, http://orgs.usd.edu/nmm/collect.html#instruments.. http://orgs.usd.edu/nmm/collect.html#instruments Checklist of Clarinets in the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments, http://www.music.ed.ac.uk/euchmi/ubl/ublf1.html#ublf1v http://www.music.ed.ac.uk/euchmi/ubl/ublf1.html#ublf1v.. Clarinet Acoustics: An Introduction, http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/clarinetacoustics.html.. http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/clarinetacoustics.html Clarinet Cache, http://www.clarinetcache.com http://www.clarinetcache.com.. Clarinets in the Edinburgh University Collection of Historic Musical Instruments, http://www.music.ed.ac.uk/euchmi/ugw/ugwf1x.html.. http://www.music.ed.ac.uk/euchmi/ugw/ugwf1x.html Clarinet Pages, http://woodwind.org/clarinet http://woodwind.org/clarinet.. Clarinet and Saxophone Society of Great Britain, http://cassgb.org http://cassgb.org.. Clarinet of the Twenty-first Century (E. Michael Richards), http://userpages.umbc.edu/~emrich/clarinet21.html.. http://userpages.umbc.edu/~emrich/clarinet21.html ClariPeru (The Clarinet in Latin America), http://blog.clariperu.org http://blog.clariperu.org.. European Clarinet Association, http://www.europeanclarinetassociation.org http://www.europeanclarinetassociation.org.. German Clarinet Society (Deutsche Klarinetten-Gesellschaft), http://www.deutscheklarinetten-gesellschaft.de.. klarinetten-gesellschaft.de International Clarinet Association, http://www.clarinet.org http://www.clarinet.org..
Klarinet: The Klarinet Mailing List, http://klarinet-list.serve-music.com http://klarinet-list.serve-music.com.. The Swiss Clarinet Clari net Society, http://www.clarinetsociety.ch http://www.clarinetsociety.ch..
About the Author
Jane Ellsworth is associate professor of music history at Eastern Washington University. She holds doctoral degrees in both musicology and clarinet performance, and has studied at the Cleveland Institute of Music and The Ohio State University. She performs regularly with the Inland Northwest Chamber Music Collective and the Spokane Symphony. Her current research involves the history of the clarinet in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century America.
