INTRODUCTION
A Color Guide to the Petrography of Carbonate Rocks: Grains, textures, porosity, diagenesis
Peter A. Scholle Director, New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, Director, Resou rces, New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology, Technology, Socorro, NM 87801
Dana S. Ulmer Ulmer-Scholle -Scholle Senior Research Scientist, New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology, Socorro, NM 87801
AAPG Memoir 77
Published by The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Tulsa, Oklahoma, U.S.A. 2003
i
Copyright © 2003 By the American Association of Petroleum Geologists All rights reserved Printed in Canada
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About the AuthorS ♦ Peter A. Scholle received his B.S. in Geology from Yale University in 1965. After spending a year on a Fulbright-DAAD fellowship at the University of Munich in Germany, and another year at the University of Texas at Austin (mainly taking petrography classes from Bob Folk), he went to Princeton University, receiving his Ph.D. in geology in 1970. His dissertation work, on deep-water carbonate turbidites in the Italian Apennines, was supervised by Al Fischer. Peter’s professional career has covered a wide range of employment, including state and federal government, the petroleum industry, and academia. He worked for ve years for various oil companies (Cities Service, Gulf and Chevron) and consulted for other oil companies for many years. Nine years were spent with the U. S. Geological Survey in Reston (VA) and Denver (CO), including three years as chief of the Oil and Gas Branch. He taught at the University of Texas at Dallas for three years and was Albritton Professor of Geology at Southern Methodist University in Dallas from 1985 to 1999. At SMU, he taught courses in geology, environmental science, and oceanography and developed computer-based instructional media. He also had the good fortune to teach eld seminars in carbonate sedimentology and reef ecology in places such as the Cayman Islands, B arbados, and the Bahamas. Since 1999, he has been at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology in Socorro where he is the State Geologist and Director of the New Mexico Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources (the state geological survey). Peter also devoted much of his time in those jobs to carbonate research and writing. His major interests were (and remain) in deepwater carbonates (especially chalks) as well as the diagenesis and petroleum potential of Permian carbonate and evaporite deposits in many areas of the world. He has worked in nearly 30 countries and has written, coauthored, or edited eight books, more than 150 papers and abstracts, 23 CD-ROMs, and a number of other computer or audio-visual products. Peter has been a member of AAPG and SEPM since 1976-77; he is a GSA Fellow and a member of IAS, AASG, AIPG, and several local societies. He was an AAPG Distinguished Lecturer (1975-76) and received the AAPG President’s award twice, the Sproule Memorial Award, and the AAPG Certicate of Merit. He served as president and special publications editor of SEPM and is now an honorary member of that society.
Dana S. Ulmer-Scholle developed an early love of carbonate rocks and fossils while growing up on the classic Upper Ordovician outcrops around Cincinnati, Ohio. She received a B.S. degree in 1981 from the University of Cincinnati (under the tutelage of Drs. Wayne Pryor and Paul Potter). While at the University of Cincinnati, an Amoco Fellowship provided her with an opportunity to work at Amoco Oil and Gas Co. each summer during her undergraduate career. Dana completed an M.S. degree at Southern Methodist University in Dallas, TX, in 1983, working on the Mississippian Arroyo Peñasco Group of New Mexico (with Robert Laury). After a stint working for ARCO Exploration Co., she returned to SMU for a Ph.D. (received in 1992). Her dissertation research, done with Peter Scholle and Robert Laury, concentrated on evaporite-related diagenesis in upper Paleozoic carbonate rocks from New Mexico, Wyoming and Greenland. Dana has worked, or consulted, for a number of companies including ARCO Exploration, ARCO International, Mobil Research, and Maersk Oil and Gas. She was the technical editor for SEPM Special Publications from 1994-1997 and managed SMU’s student computer labs for several years where she developed an interest in computer-based learning. She had co-led student trips to the Cayman Islands as well as AAPG Field Seminars (with Peter and Robert Goldstein) to the Permian Reef Complex in West Texas/New Mexico and Mississippian and Pennsylvanian bioherms in New Mexico. Dana is a Senior Research Scientist at the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology and is an adjunct faculty member in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences. She currently teaches carbonate-related courses including petrography, depositional/diagenetic models, and eld studies. Her research interests continue to include carbonate sedimentology and diagenesis, petrography, low-temperature isotope and trace element geochemistry, uid inclusion analysis, and uid ow histories in carbonate rocks. Since arriving at New Mexico Tech, however, she has also become involved in environmental investigations that include heavy-metals bioremediation.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction .............................................................................vi Primary Constituents Skeletal Grains/Bioclasts 1. Microbes and Calcareous Algae ...................................1
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Calcimicrobes and cyanobacteria ....................................................2 Marine green algae ........................................................................12 Charophytes ...................................................................................18 Red algae .......................................................................................22 Phylloid algae ................................................................................28
2. Foraminifers .....................................................................33 Agglutinated forms ........................................................................36 Small calcareous benthics ..............................................................38 Large benthics ...............................................................................41 Encrusting forms............................................................................46 Planktics ........................................................................................48
3. Other Micro- and Nannofossils ..................................51 Calpionellids ..................................................................................52 Coccolithophores/calcareous nannoplankton ............................ ....54 Calcispheres ...................................................................................60 Tunicate spicules ...........................................................................63 Radiolarians ...................................................................................64 Diatoms and other siliceous algae .................................................67 Dinoagellates and related groups ................................................72
4. Annelids and Related Groups .....................................75 Serpulids and sabellariids ..............................................................76 Cornulites, tentaculites and styliolinids.........................................80
5. Sponges and Related Groups ......................................83 Archaeocyaths ...........................................................................84 Sponges ..........................................................................................88 Stromatoporoids.............................................................................96
6. Corals, Octocorals, and Hydrozoans .....................101 Tabulate corals .............................................................................102 Rugose corals ..............................................................................107 Scleractinian corals ......................................................................113 Octocorals ....................................................................................118 Hydrozoans ..................................................................................121
7. Bryozoans ........................................................................123 8. Brachiopods .................................................................... 141 9. Mollusks ........................................................................... 153 Gastropods ..................................................................................154 Bivalves (pelecypods) .................................................................160 Cephalopods ................................................................................170 Scaphopods .................................................................................174
10. Echinoderms ................................................. .....................177
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Echinoids .....................................................................................178 Crinoids .......................................................................................184 Blastoids ......................................................................................189 Holothurians ................................................................................190 Asteroids and ophiuroids .............................................................190
11. Arthropods ................................................................. ........193
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Trilobites .....................................................................................194 Ostracodes ...................................................................................198 Barnacles .....................................................................................202
12. Problematica.................................................................207 Receptaculitids ............................................................................208 Nuia .... .........................................................................................209 P alaeoaplysina .. ..........................................................................209 Tubiphytes ...................................................................................211 Lithocodium ................................................................................212 Hensonella...................................................................................213
13. Vertebrate and Plant Remains ................................. 215
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Vertebrate bones, teeth, and scales ............................ ..................216 Conodonts ....................................................................................219 Woody plant remains ...................................................................222 Spores, pollen, and organic matter .............................................224
Non-skeletal Grains 14. Ooids, Pisoids and Other Coated Grains ............227 Ooids ...........................................................................................228 Pisoids and other coated grains ...................................................241
15. Intraclasts and Extraclasts .................................... ...245 16. Pellets and Peloids ........................................................... 253 17. Non-carbonate Constituent Grains ......................259
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Terrigenous grains .......................................................................260 Glauconite ...................................................................................261 Phosphate ....................................................................................262 Iron minerals ...............................................................................263
18. Matrix Micrite, microspar, and micritic precipitates ...............................265
19. Primary Sedimentary Fabrics/Structures......273 Burrows .......................................................................................274 Borings.........................................................................................276 Geopetal fabrics ...........................................................................278 Fenestral fabrics ...........................................................................279 Laminations .................................................................................281
Carbonate Classication 20. Carbonate Rock/Sediment Classications ............283 Folk (1959/1962)..........................................................................284 Dunham, Embry and Klovan, Wright ..........................................286 Examples .....................................................................................288
21. Carbonate Porosity Types and Classication ...293
Diagenesis 22. Diagenetic Processes and Terminology ...............303 23. Syngenetic/Eogenetic Marine Diagenesis ...........313 Bio-alteration and micrite envelopes ...........................................315 High-Mg calcite cements .............................................................317 Aragonite cements .......................................................................319 Hardgrounds.................................................................................322 Internal sediment .........................................................................323 Botryoidal cements ......................................................................324 Other cements ..............................................................................327
24. Eogenetic Meteoric Diagenesis ..............................331 Vadose fabrics ..............................................................................333 Phreatic fabrics ............................................................................339 Calcrete/caliche/paleosol/paleokarst fabrics................................343 Travertines and other fabrics .......................................................348
25. Mesogenetic/Telogenetic Burial Diagenesis .....351 Mechanical and chemical compaction features ...........................354 Fractures ......................................................................................362 Cements .......................................................................................364 Paragenetic relationships .............................................................367
26. Dolomite and Siderite ...............................................371 Dolomite ......................................................................................373 Baroque (saddle) dolomite ..........................................................386 Leached and/or calcitized dolomite .............................................388 Siderite .........................................................................................391
27. Sulfates and Chlorides ..............................................393 28. Silica Replacement and Cementation .................407 29. Other Diagenetic Materials .....................................417 Suldes and oxides ......................................................................419 Fluorite.........................................................................................422 Phosphate and glauconite ............................................................423 Authigenic feldspar......................................................................425 Hydrocarbons...............................................................................425
30. Techniques ...........................................................................429 Staining, peels, impregnation, and illumination techniques ........430 Cathodoluminescence microscopy ..............................................435 Epi-uorescence microscopy.......................................................437 Fluid inclusion studies .................................................................438 SEM X-ray dispersive analysis....................................................441 Electron microprobe analysis ......................................................442 X-ray diffraction analysis ............................................................443 Stable isotopic geochemistry .......................................................444 Strontium isotope geochemistry ..................................................446
Glossary.....................................................................................................449 Index .............................................................................................................461
viii
PETROGRAPHY
OF
CARBONATE ROCKS
INTRODUCTION Carbonate petrography — the study of limestones, dolomites and associated deposits under optical or electron microscopes —greatly enhances eld studies or core observations and can provide a frame of reference for geochemical studies. Petrography is an especially powerful tool because it enables the identication of constituent grains, the detailed classication of sediments and rocks, the interpretation of environments of deposition, and the determination of the often complex history of post-depositional alteration (diagenesis). The last of these, the ability to determine the timing of diagenetic events such as cementation or secondary porosity development relative to the emplacement of hydrocarbons or metallic ores, makes petrography an important component of geochemical and sedimentologic studies in energy- and mineralresource exploration applications as well as in academic research. The petrographic study of carbonate rocks is particularly useful because carbonate grains, unlike clastic terrigenous ones, normally are produced in close proximity (from less than a meter to hundreds of meters) to the site of their ultimate deposition. In addition, carbonate grains are formed mainly by organisms, and thus the grains convey ecological information about the environment of formation as well as stratigraphical information on the age of the deposit. In some ways, carbonate petrography is not a very complex undertaking, especially when compared to the petrography of clastic terrigenous deposits. Most carbonate rocks are dominated by just one or two common carbonate minerals (mainly calcite and dolomite) plus a limited number of accompanying minerals — silica, detrital grains, phosphate, glauconite, and a few evaporite precipitates. The diagram below shows the general compositions of the full spectrum of carbonate minerals found in modern and ancient strata.
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In other ways, however, carbonate petrography can be quite complicated. Many different organisms produce carbonate material and that requires learning how to recognize a wide
variety of shell morphologies and wall structures. The changing assemblages of organisms through time (see diagram near the end of this introduction), coupled with the randomness of thin section cuts through complex shell forms, add to the difculty of identifying skeletal grains. Furthermore, because many primary carbonate grains are composed of unstable minerals (especially aragonite and high-Mg calcite), diagenetic alteration commonly is quite extensive in carbonate rocks. The variability of inorganic and biogenic carbonate mineralogy through time, however, complicates prediction of patterns of diagenetic alteration. This book is designed to help deal with such challenges. It is by no means a complete treatise or textbook — that would be essentially impossible in a single volume. It does, however, include a wide variety of examples of commonly encountered skeletal and nonskeletal grains, cements, fabrics, and porosity types. It also encompasses a number of noncarbonate grains, that occur as accessory minerals in carbonate rocks or that may provide important biostratigraphic or paleoenvironmental information in carbonate strata. With this guide, students and other workers with little formal petrographic training should be able to examine thin sections or acetate peels under the microscope and interpret the main rock constituents and their depositional and diagenetic history. Carbonate petrography is primarily a qualitative skill. One must learn to recognize the distinguishing characteristics of skeletal grains of various ages, cut in various orientations, and preserved in various stages of alteration. There are no simple diagnostic tests (such as measuring birefringence or an optic gure) that can be used to identify a bryozoan, for example. It is simply a question of experience. Comparison of grains in thin sections with photographs of identied grains, in this and other books, allows geologists to readily identify the majority of the rock-forming grains in their samples. A selected bibliography is provided to permit the interested reader to pursue details that are only briey covered in this book and to supplement the interpretive aspects of petrographic work. A chart is also provided at the end of this chapter to facilitate accurate estimation of abundances of grains. For greater accuracy, however, quantitative point counting or image analysis should be done and references to these methods are provided in the Techniques chapter. Most pictures in this book were chosen to illustrate typical rather than spectacular, but unusual, examples of grains and fabrics. For example, grains that were originally composed of aragonite normally undergo wholesale diagenetic alteration and extensive destruction of primary structural features. Therefore, we show examples of these grains in their extensively altered state because that is the norm for what the user will encounter. Introductory text in each chapter provides the reader with details about original grain mineralogies in order to help the reader anticipate such preservation problems. Examples also were specically chosen from a variety of countries, basins, and units to provide a sense of the global consistency of carbonate fabrics. Furthermore, examples have been included from rocks of Precambrian to
INTRODUCTION
Holocene age because of the enormous evolutionary changes in organisms (and, therefore, carbonate deposits and their alteration) through time. In terms of the overall costs of energy exploration or academic geoscience today, the nancial investment needed for petrographic work is relatively insignicant. A basic polarizing microscope can be purchased currently for $2000 to $25,000 depending on optical quality, accessories, and other factors. Thin sections can be purchased for $8 to $20 each from a number of commercial labs. Acetate peels (see technique section of the bibliography) can be made in any ofce in minutes from polished rock slabs, and can provide a remarkable amount of information. Outcrop samples, conventional cores, sidewall cores, and cuttings samples all can be examined microscopically, although the quality of textural information decreases with decreasing sample size. Even the investment of time involved in petrographic work need not be great relative to the potential for problem solving. Few other techniques are as valuable and accurate for the identication of preserved, destroyed, or created porosity, or the prediction of depositional and diagenetic trends. Research conducted over the past several decades has outlined many principles of deposition and diagenesis in carbonate sediments. Facies models have been established for modern (as well as ancient) reefs and other bank-margin deposits, for tidal-at and sabkha sedimentation, for basinal deposition, and for other environments. Diagenetic studies have pointed out the inuence of syndepositional marine cementation, early freshwater diagenesis, and later subsurface compaction-dissolution phenomena. This work has clearly shown that, although carbonate depositional and diagenetic patterns may be complex, commonly there is a large volume of information recorded in the rocks, which can be used to decipher this record. Petrography, when used in close conjunction with well-log analysis, seismic interpretation, regional geology, and other studies, can be an invaluable tool for applying these recently developed principles of carbonate sedimentology to ancient rocks. Furthermore, it is best applied by the explorationist who is deeply involved in techniques other than petrography, for that person is in the best position to ask the right questions — questions that petrography may be able to answer. That is the goal of this volume.
Explanation of Captions Each photograph in this book has a description in standard format. The rst lines give the stratigraphic unit (including geologic age) and state or country of origin. Sample localities are in the United States of America unless otherwise noted. This is followed by a description of the photograph. The last line of the caption gives the type of lighting used, any staining or impregnation of the thin section, and the scale of the photograph. The following caption abbreviations are used:
PPL - plane-polarized light XPL - cross-polarized light PXPL - partially cross-polarized light
ix
RL - reected light GP - gypsum plate (Quartz Red I plate) inserted OS - organic matter stained AS - calcite stained red with Alizarin Red S AFeS - stained with a combination of Alizarin Red S and potassium ferricyanide CYS - stained with Clayton Yellow for Mg-calcite BSE - blue- or green-dyed epoxy lling porosity CL - cathodoluminescence photomicrograph FL - uorescence photomicrograph MP - microprobe (back-scattered electron image) SEM - scanning electron micrograph image Mac - macroscopic photograph of rock slab or outcrop
Photographic Scales All dimensions are given as HA = xx where HA is the full horizontal axis of the photograph (including, for the sake of uniformity, any borders within the picture area). L and R are used where left and right pictures occupy the frame; T and B refer to top and bottom pictures. Dimensions are given in micrometers (µm) or millimeters (mm). There are 1000 micrometers in a millimeter.
Acknowledgments Enormous thanks go to Philip W. Choquette, Alfred G. Fischer, Robert L. Folk, Noel P. James, L. Greer Price, and William D. Raatz for reviewing the entire book or large portions thereof. Individual chapters were reviewed by Jack A. Babcock (algae), Merlynd and Galina Nestell (foraminifers), Jeremy Young (miscellaneous microfossils), Stanley A. Kling (siliceous microfossils), Carl W. Stock (stromatoporoids), Ronald A. Johns (sponges), James E. Sorauf (corals), Roger J. Cuffey (bryozoans), Jed E. Day (brachiopods), G. Lynn Brewster-Wingard (mollusks), Bruce R. Wardlaw (conodonts), Leanne Pyle (skeletal grains), H. Curtis Monger (soil fabrics), and Nelia W. Dunbar (techniques). Both groups of reviewers caught many potential errors and made excellent suggestions for improvements. Noel P. James was an invaluable help in sending large numbers of pictures, in helping to organize the book, and as a partner in the production of interactive digital products that will supplement this volume. Roger J. Cuffey (bryozoans), Reinhold R. Leinfelder ( Lithocodium ), Carl W. Stock (stromatoporoids), and Graham R. Young (tabulate corals) were wonderfully generous in providing materials for the digital projects and allowing us to use them in this book — those sections owe muc h to their guidance. Many other scientists also very kindly contributed photographs (each acknowledged individually in specic gure captions). Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to the petrographers who spent many hours looking down a microscope with us and whose teaching and research dedication made this volume possible: A. G. Fischer, R. L. Folk, and R. G. C. Bathurst for P. A. S. and P. E. Potter, R. B. Koepnick, and D. E. Eby for D. S. U.-S. We can only hope that this book will aid another generation of petrographers as effectively as we were helped. Some photographs in this book have been electronically edited or enhanced to accentuate contrast, improve focus, or remove unwanted blemishes (air bubbles or scratches, for example). None of the relevant structures, however, were altered.
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PETROGRAPHY
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CARBONATE ROCKS
Useful General References These books provide general background information on carbonate petrography, carbonate sedimentation, paleontology and related subjects that are useful for working with carbonate rocks and sediments under the microscope and interpreting their origin and signicance. Adams, A. E., and W. S. MacKenzie, 1998, A Color Atlas of Carbonate Sediments and Rocks Under the Microscope: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 180 p. Bathurst, R. G. C., 1975, Carbonate Sediments and their Diagenesis [Developments in Sedimentology 12]: New York, Elsevier, 658 p. Blatt, H., 1982, Sedimentary Petrology: San Francisco, W. H. Freeman & Co., 564 p. Boardman, R. S., A. H. Cheetham, and A. J. Rowell, eds., 1987, Fossil Invertebrates: Palo Alto, Blackwell Scientic Publications, 713 p. Brasier, M. D., 1980, Microfossils: Boston, George Allen & Unwin, 193 p. Carozzi, A. V., 1989, Carbonate Rock Depositional Models: A Microfacies Approach: Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 604 p. Carozzi, A. V., 1993, Sedimentary Petrography: Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall, 330 p. Cayeux, M. L., 1935, Les Roches Sédimentaires de France. Roches Carbonatées (calcaires et dolomies): Paris, Masson, 436 p. Cayeux, L., 1970, Carbonate rocks (limestones and dolomites) Sedimentary rocks of France [translated and updated by A. V. Carozzi]: Darien, CT, Hafner Publishing Company, 394 p. Clarkson, E. N. K., 1998, Invertebrate Paleontology and Evolution [4th Edition]: Oxford, Blackwell Science, 452 p. Elf-Aquitaine with A. Reeckmann, and G. M. Friedman, 1982, Exploration for Carbonate Petroleum Reservoirs: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 213 p. Fischer, A. G., S. Honjo, and R. E. Garrison, 1967, Electron Micrographs of Limestones and their Nannofossils: Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 141 p. Flügel, E., 1982, Microfacies Analysis of Limestones: New York, Springer-Verlag, 633 p. Gubler, Y., J. P. Bertrand, L. Mattavelli, A. Rizzini, and R. Passega, 1967, Petrology and petrography of carbonate rocks, in G. V. Chilingar, H. J. Bissell, and R. W. Fairbridge, eds., Carbonate Rocks: Origin, Occurrence and Classication: Developments in Sedimentology 9A: New York, Elsevier, p. 51-86. Harwood, G., 1988, Microscopical techniques: II. Principles of sedimentary petrography, in M. Tucker, ed., Techniques in Sedimentology: Oxf ord, Blackwell Scientic Publications, p. 108-173. Horowitz, A. S., and P. E. Potter, 1971, Introductory Petrography of Fossils: New York, Springer-Verlag, 302 p. Johnson, J. H., 1951, An introduction to the study of organic limestones: Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, v. 46 (2), p. 1-185. Johnson, J. H., ed., 1952, Studies of organic limestones and limestone building organisms: Colorado School of Mines Quarterly, v. 47, 1-94 p. Lippmann, F., 1973, Sedimentary Carbonate Minerals: New York, Springer-Verlag, 228 p. Majewske, O. P., 1969, Recognition of Invertebrate Fossil Fragments in Rocks and Thin Sections [Internat. Sed. Petrog. Series v. 13]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 101 p. Milliman, J. D., 1974, Marine Carbonates. Part 1, Recent Sedimentary Carbonates: New York, Springer-Verlag, 375 p. Moore, C. H., 1989, Carbonate Diagenesis and Porosity [Developments in Sedimentology, 46]: New York, Elsevier, 338 p. Moore, C. H., 2001, Porosity Evolution and Diagenesis in a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework [Developments in Sedimentology, 55]: New York, Elsevier, 460 p. Moore, R. C., C. G. Lalicker, and A. G. Fischer, 1952, Invertebrate Fossils: New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 766 p. Morse, J. W., and F. T. Mackenzie, 1990, Geochemistry of Sedimentary
Carbonates [Developments in Sedimentology, 48]: New York, Elsevier Scientic Publ. Co., 696 p. Murray, J. W., ed., 1985, Atlas of Invertebrate Macrofossils: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 241 p. Reeder, R. J., ed., 1983, Carbonates: Mineralogy and Chemistry: Washington, D.C., Mineralogical Society of America, Reviews in Mineralogy, Vol. 11, 394 p. Scholle, P. A., 1978, A Color Illustrated Guide to Carbonate Rock Constituents, Textures, Cements, and Porosities: Tulsa, OK, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 27, 241 p. Scofn, T. P., 1987, An Introduction to Carbonate Sediments and Rocks: New York, Chapman & Hall, 274 p. Sorby, H. C., 1879, On the structure and origin of limestones: Proceedings of the Geological Society of London, v. 35, p. 56-95. [The original work in this eld] Tucker, M. E., and V. P. Wright, 1990, Carbonate Sedimentology: Oxford, Blackwell Scientic Publications, 482 p. Tucker, M. E., 1991, Carbonate Petrology: An Introduction: 2 nd edition: Oxford, Blackwell Scientic Publications, 272 p. Wilson, J. L., 1975, Carbonate Facies in Geologic History: New York, Springer Verlag, 471 p.
The following books are more limited in their temporal or areal scope, but have many high-quality petrographic plates that effectively show assemblages of organisms through time. Bissell, H. J., 1970, Petrology and Petrography of Lower Triassic Marine Carbonates of Southern Nevada, in [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 14]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, p. 27. Carozzi, A. V., and D. A. Textoris, 1967, Paleozoic Carbonate Microfacies of the Eastern Stable Interior (U.S.A.) [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 11]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 41 p. Cita, M. B., 1965, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary Microfaunas from the Southern Alps (Northern Italy) [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 8]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 99 p. Cuvillier, J., 1961, Stratigraphic Correlation by Microfacies in Western Aquitaine [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 2]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 34 p. Fabricius, F. H., 1966, Beckensedimentation und Riffbildung an der Wende Trias/Jura in den Bayerisch-Tiroler Kalkalpen [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 9]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 143 p. Ford, A., and J. J. H. C. Houbolt, 1963, The Microfacies of the Cretaceous of Western Venezuela [Int. Sed. Petrog. Series, v. 6]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 55 p. Glintzboeckel, C., and J. Rabaté, 1964, Microfaunes et Microfacies du Permo-Carbonifere du Sud Tunisien [Internat. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 7]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 45 p. Grunau, H. R., 1959, Mikrofazies und Schichtung Ausgewählter, Jungmesozoischer, Radiolarit-Führender Sedimentserien der ZentralAlpen [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 4]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 179 p. Hagn, H., 1955, Fazies und Mikrofauna der Gesteine der Bayerischen Alpen [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 1]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 27 p. Hanzawa, S., 1961, Facies and Micro-Organisms of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sediments of Japan and her Adjacent Islands [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 5]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 117 p. Longman, M. W., C. T. Siemers, and C. F. Jordan, Jr., eds., 1993, Modern Carbonates and their Ancient Counterparts in Indonesia: A Guide to Interpreting and Understanding Carbonate Reservoirs: Jakarta, Indonesian Petroleum Association, 123 p. Perconig, E., 1968, Recognition of the Triassic and Jurassic Sediments of Spain [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 10]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 63 p. Rey, M., and G. Nouet, 1958, Microfacies de la Région Prérifaine et de la Moyenne Moulouya (Maroc Septentional) [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 3]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 44 p. Sampò, M., 1969, Microfacies and Microfossils of the Zagros Area, Southwestern Iran (from Pre-Permian to Miocene) [Int. Sed. Petrog. Ser., v. 12]: Leiden, E. J. Brill, 102
INTRODUCTION
xi
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A diagram summarizing the uctuations in approximate diversity and abundance of the major groups of marine The carbonate-producing organisms through time.
diagram was adapted from Horowitz and Potter (1971 and other sources. It should be used only as a general guide to the types of organisms likely to be encountered in rocks of any particular age.
xii
PETROGRAPHY
OF
CARBONATE ROCKS
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Visual comparison charts for estimating abundances of constituents in thin section, peels, and photographic or digital images. Adapted from Baccelle and Bosellini (1965). acing Page: Modern domal, subtidal to lower intertidal, Other such charts can be found in Flügel (1982) and Swanson microbial stromatolites from Carbla Point, Shark Bay, West(1981). All citations given at the end of Chapter 30 - Techniques. ern Australia. Stromatolite heads are 30-60 cm in diameter
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