A BRIEF HISTORY OF DRUGS Human beings like to feel good and drugs are used to help this happen. It can be legally done with a range of drugs such as a lcohol, caffeine, nicotine and anti-depressants. ant i-depressants. It can be done illegally with an equally wide range o f illicit illicit drugs, including amphetamines, heroin benzos, or ecstasy. The interesting thing is drugs are seen as a modern phenomenon. But down throughout known history, human beings used drugs to play with with the t he pleasure centres of the brain. A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal bodily function. There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government go vernment regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage. In pharmacology, a drug is "a chemical substance used in the treatment, cure, prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise ot herwise enhance physical or mental well-being." Drugs may be prescribed for a limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders. Recreational drugs are chemical substances that affect the central nervous system, such as opioids or hallucinogens. They may be used for perceived beneficial effects o n perception, consciousness, personality, and behavior. So me drugs can cause addiction and habituation. Drugs are usually distinguished from endogenous biochemical b y being introduced from outside the organism. For example, insulin is a hormone that is synthesized in the bod y; it is called a hormone when it is synthesized by the pa ncreas inside the body, but if it is introduced into the body from outside, it is called a drug. dr ug. Many natural substances such as beers, wines, and some mushrooms, blur the line between food and recreational drugs, as when ingested they affect the functioning of both bot h mind and body.
Etymology Drug is thought to originate from Old French "drogue", possibly deriving later into "droge-vate" from Middle Dutch meaning "dry barrels", referring to medicinal plants preserved in them.
Types of Drugs: Booze Today¶s most widespread recreational drug is alcohol, and it appears to have bee n first on the scene. Beer and wine were produced in Persia and in the Med iterranean before recorded history. Chances are it was discovered when rotten fruit was eaten by the f irst human not overly concerned with freshness. Even animals can be observed getting drunk out in the wild, having discovered the alcohol that can arise from fermented fruit. It is interesting to note that in many prisons, alcohol is brewed in buckets of rotting fruit or by leaving fruit juice out in the sun for a few days.
Nicotine Nicotine is the psychoactive constituent of tobacco and although first used by Europeans in the sixteenth century, it was also used ritually in the Americas for centuries. Experts believe the tobacco plant began growing there around 6000 BC, with American inhabitants smoking and chewing tobacco from around 1000 BC.
Grass Cannabis, like alcohol, has been used by virtually every culture in recorded history. The earliest record of cannabis being used is around 6000 BC when cannabis seeds were used as food in China. The first recorded use of cannabis as medicine also arises in China in 2727 BC. Over time cannabis spreads across every part of the world as humankind uses it for recreational, religious or medicinal purposes. In 500 BC, it is introduced into Northern Europe by the Sc ythians. An urn containing leaves and seeds of the Cannabis plant, unearthed near Berlin, is dated to about this time. Around the same time, the Jewish Talmud mentions the euphoriant properties of cannabis. In the 12th century, hashish smoking becomes very popular throughout the Middle East. In the 17th century, use of hashish, alcohol, and opium spreads among the population of what is now Turkey, while the French and British cultivate cannabis for hemp at their colonies in America. From this point o n, it is used increasingly as a source o f fibre for textiles and medicinally. In 1936, a film called µReefer Madness¶ is produced in America, showing young people murdering and raping under the µevil influence¶ of grass.
Opiates: opium, morphine & heroin Evidence suggests that around 30 centuries ago, neanderthals may have used poppy seeds as food, and possibly their psychoactive e ffects as well. In 1300 BC, the Egyptians cultivate opium poppies and trade the item across the Mediterranean into Greece and Europe. Around 300 BC, opium is used by Arabs, Greeks, and Romans as a sedative and soporific.
In India around 1000 BC, opium is cultivated, eaten, and drunk by all classes as a household remedy, used by rulers as an indulgence, and given to soldiers to increase their courage. In 1527, opium is reintroduced into European medical literature by Paracelsus as laudanum (opium mixed with alcohol). These black pills or ³Stones of Immortality´ were made of op ium thebaicum, citrus juice and quintessence of gold and prescribed as painkillers. In the 18th century, the British are making money out of trading opium from India to China. The Chinese Emperor prohibits this trade to stem the increase o f dependent users, so the British actually go to war and force China to keep the flood of opium coming in. Meanwhile, in Europe, medicines and opium preparations were available without restrictions. Laudanum was cheaper than beer or wine and read ily within the means of the lowest-paid worker. The 19th century sees the use of opium as a patent medicine increasing steadily in England, Europe and the United States, for a wide variety of ailments. Working-class medicinal use of opiates as sedatives for children was quite high in England. Advertisements told of the benefits of helping cranky young o nes off to sleep. Writers such as Byron, Shelley, Co leridge, De Quincey and Dickens use opium recreationally, with some well known results such as Kubla Kahn and Confessions of an Opium Eater being read by the public. In 1803, morphine is isolated from poppies by 20 year old German pharmacist Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner. Morphine is lauded as ³Go d¶s own medicine´ for its reliability, longlasting effects and safety. 1898 sees The Bayer Co mpany introducing heroin as a substitute for weaning addicts o ff morphine. It does not take long for some doctors to realise that heroin appears to be at least as addictive as morphine. The 20th century sees op iates being steadily restricted or made illegal. World War 2 sees production and trade drop to a historic low. After the war, both production and use of heroin grow. By the early 1990s, heroin is a leading illicit narcotic and becomes something of a world drug. Expansion of established opium areas in Burma and Afghanistan, combined with introduction of the crop into Central Asia and Latin America, lead to a steady increase in world supply. Cocaine
Derived from coca leaves, this drug has a long history as medicine and local anaesthetic. From 3000 BC, coca leaves were used by the Incan Empire of Peru. In Europe, however, its medical usefulness was not fully recognised until the late 1800s when it was used as an anaesthetic. In 1886, a new soft drink called Coca Cola is released, containing both cocaine and nicotine. The first snorting of cocaine for recreational use started around 1905. Cocaine quickly became a popular medicine and tonic in Europe and America, where it was credited with curing a wide variety of diseases and illnesses. However, reports soon started to appear claiming that cocaine was a drug with a high social abuse potential and in America it seemed to underpin growing crime figures.
Freebase cocaine was first developed in the 1970s and was popu larised by dealers and glamorised by Hollywood media. Today, cocaine and its derivatives are still popular local anaesthetics in operations of the ear, nose and throat. Although cocaine has a high public profile as a drug of addictive potential, this drug has also had a long and distinguished history as a medicine and local anaesthetic.
Speed (amphetamines) Amphetamines were first synthesised in 1887 in Germany. Although o f interest to chemists, nothing was done at first as no medicinal purpose could be found. In the 1920s, research began to see if it could help with problems such as epilepsy, schizophrenia, a lcoholism, opiate addiction, migraine, head injuries, and irradiation sickness. It was found to raise blood pressure, enlarge nasal and bronchial passages, and stimulate the central nervous system, so it was first sold over-the-counter as Benzedrine to treat nasal congestion. Methamphetamine was discovered in Japan in 1919. Soluble in water, it was eventually to become ideal for shooting up. In the 1930s, doctors successfully used it to treat narcolepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in small children. When given a mphetamine, some people with ADHD notably improve their concentration and performance. During World War 2, amphetamines were commonly used by the military to keep soldiers awake and energetic over long periods. In the United States in the 1950s, legally manufactured tablets were widely available a nd used by college students, truck drivers, and athletes. Medically, they were used increasingly for weight control and mild depression. Recreationally the drug steadily gained popularity as it was much cheaper than cocaine and easy to obtain. The 1990s saw amphetamines gain popularity in the dance scene as a cheap alternative to ecstasy, and home labs turning the drug out as easy access was restricted.
In the lab: designer drugs The past century has seen a huge variety of drugs synthesised in laboratories arou nd the world. Although done in the name of science and medicine, where a psychoactive effect occurs the drug will often then be used recreationally. This trend has seen the emergence drug s such as ecstasy, ketamine, LSD, and more recently, a wide variety of ³research chemicals´. Space doesn¶t permit a history of all these hybrids or prescription drugs that are used recreationally.
How governments respond to drug use The 20th century largely saw governments initially responding to many drugs by banning them and making their use, supply or trade a criminal offence. During the prohibition era in America, even alcohol had this approach used for some years. However, globalisation has made many governments realise that the use of illicit drugs can no longer truly be eradicated. In many countries such as Australia, there has been a move toward µharm reduction¶, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have the negative effects of their illicit drug use minimised. This has led to the introduction of supplying needle and syringes, information on blood-borne viruses and a gradual move from treating drug dependency as a health issue instead of a legal issue. A history of drug use shows clearly that humans have not only used drugs for a long time, but will continue to do so ² an important fact that all governments need to take into account when forming responses to this complex issue. It is interesting to note t hat the only governments that ever manage to substantially eradicate illicit drug use were repressive authoritarian regimes, a working solution that few in the West would accept. Any democracy that respects human rights and freedoms will need a multi-faceted, equally complex response to illicit drugs.
ARTICLES REGARDING DRUG TRAFFICK ING:
Philippines: Government response to drug trafficking, and state protection available to police officers involved in the investigation of drug trafficking (2004 - 2006) In its 2006 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report ( INCSR 2006 ), the United States (US) Department of State described the Philippines as "a drug smuggler's paradise" as a result of its extensive coastline, most of which is unpatro lled or uninhabited, and as having "deficits in equipment, training and intelligence sharing" wh ich hamper law enforcement efforts against the drug trade (Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). According to the US Department of State, the illegal drug trade in the Philippines has become a billion-dollar industry involving organized crime in China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, insurgency groups based in the Philippines, and co rrupt government officials involved in money laundering (Mar. 2006, Vol. 2). Along with China, Hong Kong, Thailand and Vietnam, the Philippines is considered a high-r isk country for illegal drug smuggling (The Philippine Star 10 Mar. 2006) and is known as a source country for methamphetamine [commonly known as "shabu" in the Philippines (ibid.)], that is consumed in North America (UN 2006, 129). In response to claims made in the INCSR 2006 , the Philippine president's office commented that law enforcement officers continued to crack down on drug traffickers (The Philippine Star 9 Mar. 2006). While the Press Secretary acknowledged that the Philippines had a "serious drug problem," he stated that labelling the co untry a "haven" for drug smugglers was "stretching it too far" (ibid.). For its part, the Philippine National Bureau of Investigation confirmed that terrorist organizations such as the Abu Sa yyaf Group (ASG) were securing funds through connect ions with the drug trade (The Philippine Star 10 Mar. 2006). The Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, which replaces a 20-year-old statute on illicit drugs (AP 30 May 2002), makes the possession of 10 grams of heroin or cocaine, as well as the possession of 50 grams of "shabu," punishable by life imprisonment or death (Philippines 7 June 2002, Sec. 11). The same penalties apply to persons convicted of unlawfully selling or trading illicit drugs (ibid., Sec. 5). According to Senator Robert Barbers, one of the authors of the Act , the 2002 legislation is "the toughest and most potent anti-drug law in Asia" (AP 30 Ma y 2002; see also BusinessWorld 23 May 2002). In 2006, however, Philippine president Gloria Arroyo called for the abolition of the death penalty, arguing that the reinstatement of capital punishment in 1994 to deal with "heinous" crimes such as rape and drug t rafficking had failed to prevent the proliferation of "syndicated crimes" in the Philippines (The Manila Times 8 June 2006). In 2006, the House of
Representatives and the Senate bot h approved a house bill to "prohibit the imposition of the death penalty law" ( BusinessWorld 7 June 2006; see also The Manila Times 8 June 2006). According to a 7 June 2006 BusinessWorld article, all those sentenced to death would receive a sentence of life imprisonment instead. Under the 2002 Act , law enforcement officers, along with other pub lic officials (Philippines 7 June 2002, Sec. 36 (d) (e)), are required to undergo yearly mandatory drug testing and are liable to criminal charges for involvement in the illegal drug trade or for benefiting from the seizure of illicit drugs (ibid., Sec. 27, 28). Although Philippine authorities consider the fight against drugs a top priority, the INCSR 2006 states that a lack of resources has translated into weak enforcement of the 2002 Act (Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). According to the INCSR 2006 , the investigation and prosecution of drug cases is further hampered by obstacles in gathering evidence and by law enforcement and criminal justice systems plagued by corruption, low morale and a high turnover rate (ibid.). The Deputy Director of the Philippine National Police (PNP) and Head of the Anti-Illegal Drugs Special Operations Task Force (AID-SOTF) told the Manila Bulletin that the involvement of some police officers in the illegal drug trade has impeded the PNP's efforts to counter the trade (27 Feb. 2005). An article in the Manila Times reported that some of the police officers in Pasig City who had successfully raided a large illegal "drug den" c laimed that some of their colleagues had been involved in the operation ( Manila Times 21 Feb. 2006). Ernesto F. Herrera stated that, in his capacity as Chairperson of the Citizens DrugWatch Foundation and previously as the Chairperson of the Senate Ad Ho c Committee on Illicit Drugs, he had "frequently exposed" a number of police officers, public officials and members of the judiciary who were involved in drug trafficking or had acted as "protectors" of drug dealers and traffickers (ibid.). According to the INCSR 2006, however, few arrests of police or other d rug enforcement officers involved in dealing drugs or in selling confiscated chemicals were made in 2005 (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). The INCSR 2006 also reported that, due to a backlog of cases before the co urts and the provision in the 2002 Act that drug cases be heard only in "Special Drug Courts," the pace of judicial proceedings has been slow (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). In 2003, amendments were made to the Anti-Money Laundering Act of 2001 after it came under heavy criticism from outside observers for failing to meet international standards (ibid., Vo l. 2). The Act , which criminalizes money laundering, a lso provides for the establishment of the AntiMoney Laundering Council (ibid.). The Council serves as a financial intelligence agency responsible for monitoring and evaluating suspicious transactions, in addition to investigating and prosecuting money laundering cases (ibid.). According to BusinessWorld , as of 31 March 2006, the Council had filed 92 cases of money laundering with the courts, the Department of Justice and the Ombudsman (18 May 2006). The Council has also reportedly frozen assets following requests from the United Nations (UN) Security Council and foreign governments (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 2). In 2005, the Financial Action Task Force removed the Philippines from its list of countries considered to be lax in the combat against money laundering (ibid.). Recent measures taken by the Philippine government against the drug trade include a 2006 injection of funds into the Philippine Drug E nforcement Agency (PDEA) and the transfer of
responsibility for anti-drug efforts from the PNP to the PDEA ( BusinessWorld 20 June 2006). Funds were also allocated to the PNP to carry out "high-impact anti-illegal drugs operations" (ibid.). In 2002, President Arroyo created t he PNP Anti-Illegal Drugs Special Operations Task Force (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). The focus of law enforcement officers in 2005 continued to be the arrests of major traffickers and large illicit drug operations (ibid.). In 2006, forty police and military officers completed a four-week training program on co untering drug trafficking which was funded by the US government ( Manila Standard 8 May 2006; Xinhua 7 May 2006). As a result of the INCSR 2006 , the Director of the Customs Enforcement S ecurity Service stated that his department would be monitoring all shipment arrivals from China, Hong Kong and ot her countries in South-East Asia identified as "high-risk" for drug trafficking (The Philippine Star 10 Mar. 2006). The Philippines has ratified the 1988 UN Convention against the Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances and the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime as well as its protocols (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1). In addition to having signed a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty (MLAT) with the US to facilitate cooperation on law enforcement matters (US Mar. 2006, Vol. 1), the Philippines has also reportedly concluded two agreements with China to combat transnational crime and the traffic of illicit drugs (The Philippine Star 23 July 2002). Information on state protection available to po lice officers involved in law enforcement efforts against the drug trade could not be found among the sources consulted by the Research Directorate. This Response was prepared after researching publicly acce ssible information currently available to the Research Directorate within time constraints. This Response is not, and does not purport to be, conclusive as to the merit of any particular claim for refugee prot ection. Please find below the list of additional sources consulted in researching this Information Request.
Mandatory
drug testing of congressmen
pushed MANILA, Philippines (UPDATE) - Marikina 2nd District Rep. Romero Federico Qu imbo on Monday said all congressmen should undergo mandatory drug testing to ensure that all lawmakers in the House of Representatives are dr ug-free. In an interview, Quimbo urged Speaker Feliciano Belmonte and the House leadership to implement new rules that would require drug testing for all congressmen and employees of the Lower House. He said lawmakers have already appro ved a provision in the House rules "empower ing the Speaker to carry out a drug scheme or plan among House members and employees." House Majority Leader Rep. Neptali Gonzales II, meanwhile, said he doubts if Congress could impose mandatory drug testing He said Congress had tried to amend the Omnibus Election Code that would require all persons seeking public office to undergo drug testing. The proposal was deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court since it "adds a qualification not provided for by the Constitution." Quimbo said the new proposal for mandatory drug tests of congressmen and House employees was partly brought on by Ilocos Sur Rep. Ronald Singson's arrest in Hong Kong last July after 26 grams of cocaine were found in his luggage. Quimbo was sent by the chamber to Hong Kong in August to gather information on Singson¶s case. Singson's lawyer, John Reading, said the Ilocos Sur congressman will plead guilty to t he charge of trafficking a dangerous drug in a hearing on January 26. He said the defense had offered to admit a lesser charge of "possession" of the dru g on two previous occasions but the deal was rejected by the prosecution who insisted Singson was importing the drug into Hong Kong. This was disputed by Singson's father, Ilocos S ur Gov. Luis "Chavit" Singson, who said his son is only admitting to possession of illegal drugs and not trafficking. He said the admission was a legal strategy so his son would not be jailed before the new year. Several congressmen have called for the Ilocos Sur congressman's expulsion if he is found guilty of drug charges.
References:
http://www.saferinjecting.net/stuff-history-drugs.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/01/04/11/mandatory-drug-testing-congressmen-pushed http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/search/node/drug%20trafficking?page=1 http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/type,QUERYRESPONSE,,PHL,45f147932f,0.html
