[476.17]. Singh, Rana P.B. 2017. Varanasi, Making of India’s heritage City; in, Kar, Bimal K. and Bhagabati, Abani K. (ed.) Society and Development: Human Geographic Perspectives. EBH Publishers India, Guwahati: pp. 233-261. ISBN: 978-93-86302-01-4.

©Singh, Rana P.B. 2017, Varanasi; in, B.Kar & A. Bhagwati (eds.) H.N. Sharma Fests. Vol.: pp. 233-261. 233

[476.17]. Singh, Rana P.B. 2017. Varanasi, Making of India’s heritage City; in, Kar, Bimal K. and Bhagabati, Abani K. (ed.) Society and Development: Human Geographic Perspectives – in honour of Prof. H.N. Sharma. EBH Publishers India, Guwahati: pp. 233-261. ISBN: 978-93-86302-01-4. © Rana P.B. Singh. [submitted on: 1 April 2013; updated version is here]. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

VARANASI, MAKING OF INDIA’S HERITAGE CITY Rana P. B. Singh [author of 6 books and 121 research papers on Varanasi]

Ex- Professor & Head (2013-2015), Dept. of Geography, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005. INDIA. Cell: (+091)-9838 119474. eM: [email protected] ; eM fb: [email protected]

https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers

The Background Varanasi or Kashi popularly known as Banaras is one of the oldest living cities of the world. Its history goes back to several millennia. Mark Twain (1898: 480), the famous English litterateur once wrote: “Banaras is older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend and looks twice as old as all of them put together.” Banaras is not the story of bricks and stones; it is in fact a living history in itself (Singh and Rana, 2006: 21). No other city of the world is like Varanasi, not even in India. Its place in Hindu mythology is virtually unrivalled. The city got its name from the two river-tributaries Varana and Asi meeting the Ganga in the north and south, respectively. The Kashi Khanda (of Skanda Purana; 30.17-23) says that the two rivers were created by the gods and placed in position to guard against the entrance of evil; one was named ‘The Sword’ (Asi) and the other ‘The Averter’ (Varana). The land lying between them is the holiest of all holy places in India (cf. Singh, 2009 b: 18). According to the Vamana Purana (2.26-29), the Varana and the Asi, originated from the body of primordial Purusha at the beginning of time itself (cf. Eck, 1982: 27). The Varana issued from the right foot of the cosmic giant and the Asi issued from its left foot; the peer of the sacred land between these two rivers does not exist in heaven, earth, and the netherworld”. That is why Varanasi is known as ‘Eternal City’. Situated on the river Ganga in its middle reaches, it has always been a great centre of learning, religion, art and culture attracting people from all over the world – rich and poor, men and women, young and old, and even sick and dead. Hindus perceive Banaras as such a sacred place that if one leaves this world in Varanasi then his or her soul undoubtedly goes to heaven (Singh, 2004: 29). Located at a distance of 764 km from Delhi, 677 km from Kolkata and 1476 km from Mumbai, in the eastern half of the state of Uttar Pradesh, Varanasi lies on the elevated crescent shaped left bank of Ganga (Fig. 1). Being located on a high ground, the city has rarely witnessed devastating floods, which the other cities along the river Ganga experience from time to time. The Ghats with sandstone


stairs buttress the built up area. One has to see to appreciate the grandeur of the Ganga at Varanasi. At a distance of just 8 km, from city centre, lies Sarnath, where Lord Buddha preached his first sermon. Here he revealed the eightfold path that leads to the attainment of inner peace, enlightenment and ultimate bliss.

Fig. 1. Varanasi: the Setting (© the author, Rana P.B. Singh) The average height of the city from mean sea level is 77m which is around 72m in the south along the Asi stream, and 83m at the high ground near the confluence of the Varana to the Ganga river in the north (known as Rajghat plateau). The nature and the character of the bank of the Ganga has made the position of Banaras so stable and enviable that it is amongst the few cities of the world which shows little shifting in its site. The city proper is built on a high ridge


of kankar (lime concretion) that forms the left bank of the Ganga for a distance of 5km, being quite above normal flood level. To a large extent no doubt the city owes its importance to its peculiar site. The topography, which influences, nay even controls, the lay out of the city, is stable; but the anthropogenic forces have altered the landscape through time to extend the city outside the old core. The city enjoys sub-Tropical monsoon climate, recording three distinct seasons: the cold from November to February, the hot from March to mid-June, and the rainy from mid-June to September, while October is regarded as strictly transitional month. The diurnal range of temperature ranges on average between 13ºC and 14.5ºC in the cold and hot months. The highest monthly temperature is recorded in May, varying between 32ºC and 42ºC. During December to January relative humidity ranges between 75% and 80% due to the approach of western disturbances (Singh and Rana, 2006: 25). Perceived as a site of ‘vigour and rigor’, and vividness and multiplicity, diversity and unity are easily envisioned in its religion, culture, society and economy – altogether making a mosaic, called “microcosmic India” (cf. Eck, 1982: 283, also Singh, 1994: 223). The 3,000 Hindu temples and shrines (cf. Singh, Pratibha, 2004), and 1,400 mosques and Muslim shrines (cf. Singh, 2013) together with 6 universities, 3 deemed universities, 55 secondary and degree colleges, 155 Muslim schools, and around 100 Sanskrit pathashalas (traditional schools), make it a city of culture and learning. Shiva’s liquid energy flows in the form of the Ganga river, and he is represented in the iconographic form of the linga. The residents of Banaras believe that Lord Shiva and his associates live invisibly in the rhythm of the city, and that only the enlightened one can experience and reveal this. Diana Eck writes (1982: 6), “There are few cities in India as traditionally Hindu and as symbolic of the whole of Hindu culture as the city of Banaras. And there are few cities in India, or in the world for that matter, as challenging and bewildering to Western visitors as Banaras. It is a city as rich as all India. But it is not an easy city to comprehend for those of us who stand outside the Hindu tradition”. Varanasi: the city that is a prayer. On the banks of the river that is almost a faith, the flowing Ganga, stands Hinduism’s greatest city: Varanasi. For several thousand years, pilgrims have cleansed themselves of their sins here and sought release from the cycle of rebirth (cf. Rana, 2014). Hinduism, deep and mystical, is perceptible everywhere here: in a decorated doorway, in a glimpse of glittering temple, in the sound of a sacred bell, in the chant of the priests and in the fragrance of flower oblations. The sense and spirit of holiness embedded in Banaras has attracted people from various sects and religions. For many of the adherents, this is a special place of pilgrimage. In the course of time, people from all parts of India came and settled here to have the experience of that spirit (cf. Singh, 2014). Says Richard Lannoy (2002: 58), “Banaras, in its unimaginable antiquity, belongs not just to Hindus, but to Muslims, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains and Christians. But it is also belongs to everybody. … A sacred city dreamed into existence over the ages, it is also a state of mind. As an old saying puts it: Banaras is wherever you are”. It is a city where the past and the present mingle so beautifully that the joy of visiting and even living is unforgettable. It has now become a large city with more than a million people but the basic culture of the city has remained alive. Today Varanasi is a complex web of old and new, stability and change, industry and agriculture, and business and spirituality. Devout Hindus believe that ‘to be in


Varanasi is an extraordinary experience, an experience in self-discovery, an eternal oneness of the body and soul. It is city where experience and discovery reach the ultimate bliss’ (see Singh and Rana, 2016 a and b, 2017 a and b).

Historical Background Archaeological evidences point to a succession of settlements going back to the first millennium BCE. Kosambi (1970: 90) rightly remarked that, “the first cities with full continuity into history lie on the river route. In spite of the difficulty of settling in an alluvial region …. their foundation at the beginning of the first millennium can be explained only on the basis of still earlier navigation on these powerful rivers that flowed swiftly through impenetrable forest and swamps”. Varanasi is one of those cities, which have grown on the bank of mighty Ganga mid-way between its emergence from the Himalayan heights and its eternal rest in the abysmal depths of the Bay of Bengal. It is one of the most frequently visited sacred places of Hindus who form more than 80 per cent of population of India. Based on archaeological evidences and carbon dating, the city was well developed at the confluence of the Varana and Ganga by 8th century BCE (Eidt, 1977: 1332). At the end of 5th century BCE the Shishunaga and Nandas ruled over the kingdom of Kashi for a short period. By 4th century BCE, the Mauryan dynasty took control of the region. Ashoka (272-242 BCE) declared Buddhism a state religion and visited Sarnath, just a few kilometres from the city centre. Under his patronage developed a Buddhist township with many monasteries, stupas and shrines (cf. Singh, 2010a). The Chinese pilgrim Hsüan-tsang paid a visit to Varanasi during the period of Harsha (606-648 CE); he described the city as a conglomerate of congested houses separated by narrow lanes, gardens and groves, and water pools with lotus flowers (Vishvakarma, 1987: 190). By the turn of the 8th century the widespread forests where the sages of the days bygone built their ashrams, and imparted to the youth the spiritual as well secular education. The city started expanding southwards. The area south of the present Dashashvamedh road does not, however, exhibit any remains of history (see, Singh, 2005: 23). The major transformation of landscape of Varanasi and its suburbs took place between 8th and 12th centuries. The initial city was located north of VaranaGanga confluence; it later expanded in the southern side reaching the present Kashi railway station. By the middle of the 10th century, when Pratihara dynasty ruled the city; it expanded further south. The 11th and 12th centuries mark the golden period of Varanasi because it was during this period that many of the Ghats of Varanasi were built. The city was ruled by the Gahadavalas till 1197. Govindachandra (CE 1114-1154), the most renowned king of this dynasty is credited with the development of several Ghats and sacred wells, gardens and groves and water pools in around the city. He repulsed the invasions of Muslim invaders twice during 1114-1118, and patronized Hindu religion (cf. Singh, 2011 b). His wife Queen Kumar Devi had restored several buildings at Sarnath and built a new vihara (hostels for the monks). When the Rajghat Fort was destroyed in 1194 first by Qutb-uddin Aibak and then by Shahabuddin, the inhabitants of this area shifted to the west and southwest of city along with their deities. Aibak brought the entire Ganga valley under his control (1206-10). When Firoz Shah Tughlaq took over the control of Delhi throne (1351-1388), many temples of the city were raised to the ground. The process was


repeated when Sharqi kings of Jaunpur in the neighbourhood of the city became a powerful regional power. Then came the Lodis (1451-1526). Sikander Lodi destroyed not only the temples but also the city. Each wave of destruction was, however, followed by an equally powerful wave of construction by the distraught Hindus. And thus the cycles of destruction and construction continued all through the medieval times until the arrival of Mughal Emperor Akbar (1556-1605) who granted more religious freedom. Two of his ministers, Man Singh and Todar Mal actively participated in constructing, rebuilding and repairing temples and Ghats of Varanasi (Altekar, 1947: 84). The Vishvanatha temple was rebuilt for a third time at a third place under the supervision of Narayana Bhatta, the noted scholar and compiler of the Tristhalisetu (‘Bridge to the Three Sacred Places’). Akbar’s great grandson Aurangzeb (1658-1707) reversed the policy of treating all religions equal; he threw overboard even the policy of liberalism towards religions followed by his father Shah Jehan and grandfather Jahangir. He ordered the destruction of over one thousand temples, including the great temples of Vishveshvara, Krittivasa, and Vindu Madhava. As such there is no major Hindu religious sanctuary in the city of Varanasi that pre-dates Aurangzeb. The city of Puranic glory and beauty as it was known in the 12th century disappeared by the end of 17th century. Of course, the sanctity of and reverence for the city in the lives, minds and hearts of the people of India could not be destroyed and Varanasi continued to be a place of salvation and eternal bliss. With the decline of the Mughal imperial power in Delhi in the early 18th century, Varanasi came under the rule of the Nawab of Oudh in 1722. Balwant Singh (1738-1770), a local chieftain, became a regional potentate and established an independent kingdom in 1739, which for about forty years remained the centre of attention and source of trouble for the rising East India Company. In 1781, Chet Singh (1770-1781), son of Balwant Singh, usurped the throne and put Lord Warren Hastings in serious trouble. However, in 1775 Varanasi was ceded to the East India Company by the Nawab of Oudh thus paving the path for the British to take control of its administration in 1794. The Marathas (1734-1785) too influenced the fortune of the city. It is said that ‘Modern Banaras is largely a creation of the Marathas’. Bajirao Peshva I (172040) patronized the construction of Manikarnika and Dashashvamedh Ghats and nearby residential quarters (Fig. 2), apart from several temples and water ponds. Queen Ahilyabai of Indore built the present Vishvanatha temple in 1775-76. As the array of Ghats lengthened, new ones came up and the city regained its gaiety. Gradually, the traditional educational system too was revitalized. In 1791, the British Resident at Banaras, Jonathan Duncan, proposed the opening of a Sanskrit College. The proposal got the support of the then British Governor-General, Warren Hastings. The present Gothic style building of the College was built in 1853. At present it houses the Sampurnananda Sankrit University. To fuse the classical cultural traditions of India in the then emerging scientific disciplines Annie Besant, the founder of Theosophical Society in India, started a Central Hindu College in 1898, which became the nucleus of one of the largest and most beautiful universities in Asia – the Banaras Hindu University (BHU). The foundation stone of the BHU was laid by Lord Hardinge, the then Viceroy and Governor General of India, in 1916 (cf. Singh, 2010 b, and 2015a). Many other educational institutions were established in Varanasi during the twentieth century. Patrick Geddes, an innovative town planner was involved in the


planning of the city as also of Banaras Hindu University in 1914-15. It was Geddes’s doctrine that every part of the social and cultural heritage of the city should be reflected in its layout and architecture (Singh, 2015a). He wanted to make Banaras a city of learning but his dreams and plans did not fructify; he was removed from the planning process. There is no trace of Geddes’ report and plan but his basic outline of a semi-circular layout following the curves of the left banks of Ganga was fruitfully utilized in developing the Banaras Hindu University in 1916 (Lannoy, 2002: 340).

Fig. 2. A view of Ahilyabai to Shitala Ghats, the southern part of Dashashvamedha Ghat (© the author, Rana P.B. Singh) The Christian missionaries too made substantial contributions. In 1816, the Baptist Society became the first Christian body to introduce a mission in the holy city of the Hindus. The Church Missionary Society of the Church of England started to work in Banaras in 1817 and opened two churches. Similarly, the London Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Missionary Society, and the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission came in. The latter started a hospital for women. With a view to improving the living conditions in the city, a Municipal Board was constituted in 1867 under the Municipal Act XXVI of 1850. The Godaulia Nala, and the tanks and depressions nearby were filled. The Dashashvamedh road appeared as an important landmark in the cultural landscape of the city. Similarly, efforts were made to drain the Benia Talab and the adjoining low-lying areas (Singh, 2005: 28-29, also Singh, 2009 a). The independence of the country in 1947 brought several administrative changes, which had implications for the urban fabric and city morphology of Varanasi. On 15th October 1949 the erstwhile princely State of Kashi became a part of UP and Varanasi became the headquarters of the enlarged district of Varanasi. Several Buddhist institutions were set up at Sarnath during 1960s and 1970s. Important among them were: Central Institute of Tibetan Studies, and a number of Buddhist monasteries built by Chinese, Thai and Japanese adherents. A number of


star hotels, mostly in the Mall area, were constructed to respond to the increasing influx of foreign tourists. In 1999 four road bridges were constructed; two on the Varana river (at the Mall, and at Pulkohna on Varanasi-Sarnath Road), one on the Ganga in the south of the city for the by-pass diversion of the GT Road (NH 2) and another on the Asi drain (Lanka-Ravindrapuri Road).

Population Growth and Composition Varanasi became a million-city in 1991. According to 2001 census returns, it had 1,211,749 people, which reached to 1,435,113 people in 2011 (cf. Table 3). Historical data regarding the number of people in Varanasi had at different times is difficult to ascertain. Using a crude method of geometric progression and on the basis of the books written from time to time, the estimates of its population since 1500 BCE is given in Table 1. Pt. Damodara’s Kuttanimatam (CE 735-810) reports a very peaceful and harmonious life of the courtesans of the city. Varanasi continued to flourish during the reign of Pratiharas (9th century) and Chedis (10th century). The population of the city appears to have grown from 8,000 in 1000 CE to about 90,000 in 1100 CE. As the number of inhabitants increased, the city grew spatially. But it suffered a major set back when Ahmed Nialtagin invaded it in 1013 CE and destroyed many of its temples. The assumption of power by the Gahadavalas (1137-1183) led to its rebuilding and recovery. But this relief was short-lived. Successive invasions and consequent destruction made it bleed for more than three centuries. Qutb-uddin Aibak invaded Varanasi in 1194 and demolished the temples of Vishvanatha and Vishnu. Before the wounds could be healed, Sultan Ahmed destroyed it in 1197; Mohammad Ghori in 1248; and Firoz Shah in 1375. And finally, Babur demolished whatever was left intact in 1526. Each of these invasions was, however, followed by hectic reconstruction. These invasions apart, the population of the city continued to grow especially during 14th and 15th centuries. The trend was, however, reversed when plague pandemic of 1623 killed thousands of its residents. According to some literary sources, the plague took away one-third of the population of Varanasi (Motichand, 1985: 210). According to another estimate the population of the city fell from 150,280 in 1600 to 110,304 in 1623 (loss of 26.6%). Thereafter, the population of Varanasi increased at an unprecedented rate. In 1700 it stood at 170,966 (see table 1). The quick recovery after invasions and diseases can be traced to a very strong cultural and economic base of the city. Being an important river port and a major manufacturing centre of cotton, silk (tussore) and other fabrics (Kosambi, 1970: 123), it attracted not only the people interested in religion but also those interested in manufacturing and business. It was particularly so during the Mughal period (Hambly, 1982: 438). In late 17th century communications with the Deccan improved and a large body of Deccani and Western Indian teachers began to come and settle in Varanasi (Bayly, 1983: 186). Varanasi and Lucknow achieved a sort of dominant position (cf. Naqvi, 1968; Bayly, 1983: 112) at a time when primate cities like Delhi, Agra and Lahore were losing their importance. After 1735, the population of Banaras changed in response to the new developments that took place under the patronage of Marathas. The Peshavas constructed many Ghats along the Ganga. The mahalas (neighbourhoods) like Chaukhambha and Thatheri Bazaar came up in 1765 when the woodlands covering the area were cleared. By early 19th century, Varanasi grew to be one of the largest


cities of northern India (Varady, 1989: 231). Based on ancient folklore, James Prinsep opines that prior to the construction of the palace of Man Singh, the Commander-in-chief of Akbar (1556-1605), there was no palatial building in the city (Prinsep, 1832: 11; also Singh, R. L. 1955: 10). Table 1. Varanasi: Estimated Population, 1500 BCE - CE 1901. Year 2001 1901 1800 1700 1623 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 CE 500 0 BCE 500 1000 1500

Population 1,211,749 215,223 190,583 170,966 110,304 150,280 133,965 120,540 108,625 98,105 88,245 51,960 30,595 18,815 12,150 8,180 5,600

Growth rate, % 17.6 12.9 12.1 13.7 – 26.6 12.2 11.1 11.0 10.7 11.2 69.8 69.8 62.6 54.8 48.5 46.1 ---

(Source: Singh, 1993: 280, ibid. 2009 a: 42)

The first detailed census of population of Varanasi was carried out by James Prinsep in 1828-29 (1832: 472; Bhattacharya and Bhattacharya, 1965). At that time the city had 30,205 houses scattered in 369 mahalas. It had 181,482 persons, excluding 11,876 Indians and 7,092 Europeans living in Secrole (Army Cantonment). Thus Banaras had a total population of 200,450 in 1928-29. According to Bishop Heber (1828, I: 270) the population of Varanasi was larger than that of any European city in mid-nineteenth century. Hamilton’s (1820: 306) estimate of 582,000 appeared to be an over-statement. The caste composition of the city population as in 1827-28 is given in table 2. Table 2. Varanasi City: Caste Structure, 1827-28 (based on Prinsep) Religion / Caste Hindus Shudras Brahmins Kshatriyas & Bhumihars Vaisyas Hindu Fakirs Muslims Julahas Sheikh, Saiyyad, and Pathans Fakirs & Chandals Others Children & Visitors (not mentioned) Omissions TOTAL

Persons 122,446 60,302 32,381 14,292 8,300 7,171 31,248 10,000 10,000 1,200 10,048 26,387 1,401 181,482

Per cent 67.5 33.2 17.8 7.9 4.6 4.0 17.2 5.5 5.0 0.7 5.5 14.5 0.8 100.0


The population density per house in Banaras in 1928 varied between 4.5 and 7.0, with an average of 6.0 per household. One to two-storey houses accounted for 81 per cent of all houses. In addition to these houses, there were 1498 dilapidated houses, and spaces marked out for buildings; 174 gardens and ponds, etc., 1000 Shivalas and Hindu temples, and 333 mosques. Prinsep made a detailed survey of the caste structure of the city (cf. Table 2). Including all those who were left out of the enumeration (1401 persons), the total population of the city excluding Secrole (Cantonment) area was 181,482. After Prinsep’s survey (1827-28, 1829) the next census was taken in 1853, recording a slight decrease in population (185,984 persons in City and Cantonment). The declining trend continued until 1870s. The first reliable and detailed census was taken in 1881. According to this census the city had 218, 573 persons. During the decades 1891-1921, the population of Banaras declined by 11.2 per cent mainly due to factors like droughts, floods, epidemics and the after effects of World War I. In fact, during 1901-1925, the city was one of the most deadly cities in northern India (Arnold, 1989: 248). The epidemics of 1878, 1884, 1889, 1897, 1926, 1930, 1934, 1944-45 and 1951-52 took a heavy toll of life (Joshi, 1965: 353). On the other hand, surprisingly thousands of persons from eastern and southern provinces of India came to this city during the first decade of twentieth century largely to escape from the plague epidemic, believing that the dreaded disease could never enter such a sacred place like Kashi (Nevill, 1909: 27). Table 3. Varanasi: Population Growth, CE 1853 – 2031. Year 1853 1865 1872 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021* 2031*

Population 185,984 173,352 187,347 218,573 223,375 215,223 205,420 200,022 207,650 266,002 369,799 505,952 635,175 815,366 1,030,863 1,211,749 1,435,113 1,709,937 2,022,172

Growth rate, % --- 6.79 8.07 16.67 2.20 - 3.64 - 4.55 - 2.63 + 3.81 28.10 39.02 36.82 25.54 28.37 26.43 17.55 18.43 19.15 18.26

(Source: Based on Census of India reports. *Low projection estimates)

Since 1921 the city has recorded constant growth of population (Table 3) reaching to 1,211,749 in 2001, recording a growth of 17.55 per cent per decade (1991-2001). The growth rate in the decade 1981-91 was 26.43 per cent. The decline resulted from urban sprawl in peri-urban areas, which were not counted as part of the city. When compared to 1821-31 decadal growth (3.81 %), it was high indeed. The highest growth rate (28.10 %) was recorded during 1931-41. The


depression of 1931 must have given ‘a stimulus to the city-ward drift of the population’ (Singh, R.L., 1955: 56). The impact of the World War II also prompted the rural people to move to neighbouring cities as did the post-war reconstruction work. The partition of the country in 1947 brought a large number of refugees from Pakistan to the city. The situation, however, changed during 1951-61 when its population declined even if only slightly. This trend continued until 1971-81 (Table 3). It picked up again during the decade 1981-91. By 1991, Varanasi had become a million plus metropolis. Recent acceleration in growth population can be attributed to widening development gap between rural and urban areas in the country. And since there is no visible change in the rural development policy, urban explosion would continue in decades ahead. The city has grown but only slowly when compared to other large cities of the country. In 1961 it ranked 12th among the large cities of India. In subsequent decades its rank came down to 15th in 1971, 18th in 1981, 22nd in 1991, 23rd in 2001, and 32nd in 2011 among the 53 Urban Agglomerations. This happened because industrialization, which worked as the engine of growth, almost bypassed Varanasi. It is to be noted that populate data before 1991 (cf. Table 3) are not comparable, as the figures for earlier years relate to the Municipal Corporation only. The 1991 population figures relate to the Urban Agglomeration (VUA), which consists of seven urban units of different categories including the Varanasi Municipal Corporation. The population of different units of VUA is given in table 4. It is estimated that the growth of Varanasi UA would slowly decline since 2001 onwards, as recorded in 2011, i.e. only 17.55 per cent; however, according standard projections it is estimated that the decadal growth rate will be 19.15 percent in 2021, and 18.26 in 2031. Table 4. Varanasi UA and Mughalsarai UA: Total Population and Decadal Growth Urban unit (Uttar Pradesh code 66) Varanasi U.A. (Varanasi Dt.) (1) Varanasi i. Varanasi (MC)

Population, 2001 1,211,749

1961-71 25.54

1,092,445 1,029,961

23.04 23.89

22.45 22.45

28.95 28.57

17.58 10.83

ii. Lahartara (OG) iii. Lohta (CT) iv. Kandwa (CT) (2) Varanasi Cantt. (CB)

5,223 19,706 7,555 17,259

------81.99

------65.73

53.46 44.71 98.50 1.64

67.03 52.56 21.80 18.03

(3) Maruadih Rly. Sett. (NA) (4) Ramanagar (MB) (5) Sheodaspur (CT) (6) Phulwaria (CT) (7) Banaras Hindu University (NA) Mughalsarai U.A. (Chandauli Dt.) (1) Mughalsarai (MB)

18,739

85.38

17.56

–23.45

35.13 ----26.12

28.26 85.43 61.87 6.63

34.87 50.08 22.60 – 6.24

(2) Mughalsarai Rly Settlement (NAC)

---

40,619 7.17 11,420 --11,971 --10,788 40.90

Decadal Growth Rate, % 1971-81 1981-91 1991-01 28.37 26.43 17.55

116,308

35.69

141.94

32.19

27.11

88,387

28.14

25.38

38.42

32.85

27,921

43.32

40.80

18.79

11.79


(Source: Census of India 2001, Series-1, INDIA. Registrar General of India Office, New Delhi, 2003).

Spatial Spread Lying in the fertile Middle Ganga Plain, Varanasi developed as a collection and distribution centre for Eastern Uttar Pradesh. River Ganga being the main highway of transportation of people and goods until the CE 1800, Varanasi became a nodal centre for transport, manufacturing, and marketing. It is well connected with different parts of the country by air, rail and road. Among the major manufactures of Varanasi in medieval tomes were silk and brocade fabrics, and ivory and brass works. Sculpture too flourished in the city. Varanasi experienced unprecedented growth when it was made the district headquarters. To accommodate the civil and military officers, both British and Indian, military Cantonment and Civil Lines with broad and well-laid road network were constructed. Soon the city regained its economic base and became an important regional centre of transport, commerce and trade. Culturally, it was and continues to be a major national centre. People from all over the country congregate in Varanasi for a dip in the Ganga followed by the darshan (auspicious sight) of Vishvanatha all through the year. As the city has grown in area, population, business and administrative functions, its influence extended beyond the municipal limits. From a city with a single core (CBD), it has now acquired the character of an Urban Agglomeration (UA) spread over an area of 115.27 km2. And then there is a much larger area called Varanasi Urban Region over which it has no formal control but to which it sends its products and from which it draws its food and other requirements. What happens in the region has implications for the city and its people and the vice versa is also true. With further improvement of the GT road into a super highway, the future expansion of the city will continue to be on the southern side. Administratively, the VUA (82º 56’E – 83º 03’E and 25º 14’N – 25º 23.5’N) consists of a Municipal Corporation (MC), an Out Growth (OG), four Contiguous Towns (CT), two Notified Areas (NA), one Municipal Board (MB), and one Cantonment Board (CB). According to the Comprehensive twenty year Master Plan of Varanasi: 1991 –2011, the Varanasi Urban Development Region (VDR) consists of the following areas (Fig. 3, Singh, 2009 a: 31): Varanasi City Municipal Corporation:

84.55 km2;

Varanasi Urban Agglomeration, (VUA): 119.52 km2; Varanasi Master Plan - Operative Area: 144.94 km2; Varanasi Master Plan - Projected Area:

179.27 km2; and

Varanasi Development Region, (VDR): 477.34 km2. Presently (2011 census), Varanasi Urban Agglomeration consists of twenty urban units, viz. 1. Varanasi (CB), 2. Maruadih Railway Settlement (ITS), 3. Varanasi (M Corp.), 4. Ramnagar (NPP), 5. Chandpur (CT), 6. Maheshpur (CT), 7. Kakarmatta (CT), 8. Susuwahi (CT), 9. Sir Gobardhan (CT), 10. Chhitpur (CT), 11. Bhagawanpur (CT), 12. Lerhupur (CT), 13. Asapur (CT), 14. Salarpur (CT), 15. Sarai Mohana (CT), 16. Kotwa (CT), 17. Phulwaria (CT), 18. Shivdaspur (CT), 19. Lahartara (CT), and 20. Maruadih (CT).


Fig. 3. Varanasi Master Plan 2011: Areal Units (© the author, Rana P.B. Singh)

Planning and Development The post-World War II craze for master planning led to the creation of Banaras Improvement Trust in 1948. The first Master Plan of Varanasi was prepared in 1951. To further institutionalise the planning and development activities, the Varanasi Development Authority (VDA) was created in 1974. After making an assessment of the past efforts, a comprehensive Master Plan of Varanasi - 1991-2011 was prepared by the VDA, with assistance of Town & County Planning Organization, (TCPO), Government of India.


Table 5. Varanasi Master Plans: Land Use 1961-91 and 1991-2011. Se

Land Use Category

Residential Commercial Industrial Public & Community facilities 5. Recreation (Park/ Open ground) 6. Services & Utilities 7. Govt. & SemiGovernment 8. Tourism (area) & Heritage zone 9. Transport & Communication 10. Other (agriculture & open space) 11. TOTAL Area 1. 2. 3. 4.

I: MP, as in 1999 II: MP, as in 2011 Area, ha % of Area, ha % area area 5,457.24 37.65 9,254.61 51.62 475.10 3.28 618.23 3.45 981.37 6.77 656.19 3.66 450.42 3.11 1,309.07 7.30

Change,

2,615.64 176.08 195.31 261.05

1988 % of area 46.16 3.11 3.45 4.61

53.04

0.94

2,705.76

18.67

948.47

5.49

I – II, % + 69.58 + 30.13 - 33.13 + 190.63 - 64.95

----

----

----

----

103.97

0.58

---

56.69

1.00

292.18

2.01

1,433.15

7.99

----

----

----

----

423.73

2.37

+ 390.50 ---

914.30

16.13

1300.27

8.97

1,460.35

8.15

+ 12.31

1,393.79

24.60

2,832.06

19.54

1,683.45

9.39

- 40.56

100.00 14,494.40

100.00

17,927.22

100.00

+ 23.68

Area, ha

5,665.90

(Source : Varanasi Master Plan - 2011. Varanasi Development Authority, & Town & Country Planning Organisation, Varanasi Uttar Pradesh. 13 July 2001; ref. page 5)

As per the Master Plan 1991-2011 (cf. Fig. 4) the expanded area proposed for the Greater Varanasi is 179.27 km2, fitting the land use categories to the standard ecological norms. The planning area has been increased by 55.5 per cent. The major changes since the implementation of the plan began in 1998, point to unprecedented increase in land under government and semi-government uses (390.50 %), and under public and community facilities (190.63 %). With the increase in population, the area under residential uses also increased by 253.63 per cent since 1988 (Table 5). This rapid change in the land use has its impact on the ecology of the city region. The park and open spaces have shrunk by 60 per cent since 1999. Similarly agricultural and fallow land, which provided lung space for the city has decreased by 40 per cent. At the same time not only the permanent population has increased but also the floating one. Each day about 40,000 commuters enter the city; it increases to 60,000 commuters during the festive season. The plan came into force on July 10, 2001. It identifies five cultural zones for special care. For the first time in the planning history of Varanasi, some strategies for the protection of urban heritage through heritage zoning were proposed in the Master Plan 1991-2011 (Table 5). A little over two per cent of the area was earmarked for this purpose. It aimed at maintaining and preserving the religious and cultural symbols of the city, and to develop the infrastructure in the identified zones (cf. Singh, 1997, 2011 a, 2015b, and 2016).


Fig. 4. Varanasi, Development Plan 2011: Cultural Heritage Zone (© the author, Rana P.B. Singh) The zoning plan has identified five heritage zones (Fig. 4): Riverfront Ghats (stairways to the riverbank). Along the crescent-shaped 6.8 km bank of the Ganga, from the confluence of Asi drain in the south to the confluence of the river Varana in the north, lie eighty-four ghats built in eighteenth and twentieth centuries (Fig. 5). Each ghat constitutes the riverfront of a lofty palatial building built mostly by kings and zamindars hailing from different parts of India (cf. Singh 2011 c). Among the 84 ghats Dashashvamedha Ghat is the most important place for visitation, festivities and architectural grandeur (Fig. 6). Durgakund-Sankatmochan Area. It consists of about twenty temples and shrines and the historical water pools of Durgakund, Kurukshetra and Lolark kundas. Kamachcha-Bhelupura Area. It has some of the old monasteries, ancient shrines and a site associated with the Jain Tirthankara Parshvanath, together with many buildings of the British period (18th – 19th centuries). Kabir Math (Lahartara) Area. It has monasteries related to the life of Kabir, one of the great saint poets of the Mughal Period of Indian history; and Sarnath. At this place the Buddha gave his first sermon in 532 BCE, and Ashoka developed Vihara in 2nd century BCE (see Fig. 4).


Fig. 5. Varanasi: Riverfront Ghats along the Ganga river (© the author, Rana P.B. Singh)


Fig. 6. Varanasi: A view of Shitala to Manmandir Ghat (© the author, Rana P.B. Singh) Among the above five, Varanasi’s Old City and Riverfront has been attempting to become listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site since 2001, but its nomination process has been marred with conflicts between Hindu and Muslim factions, in addition with the lack of the public awareness and active participation, the complex web of bureaucracy and the rise of both individualism and consumerism, thus altogether it seems little hope for the proper implementation of the plans (cf. Singh, 2011 a and 2011 d). As time passed, as officials at the State and Central governments changed, and after many of the local officials had been transferred to other cities, it seems the whole intense exercise for inscribing the ‘Riverfront and Old City Heritage Zone of Varanasi’ has been in vain (cf. Fig. 5).


Of course, some initiative attempts from the UNESCO Delhi branch, coupled with pressure from the Central government, have been made to restart the process. However, only bureaucratic formalities and proclamations have thus far been made; nothing consequential has come out of it (Singh, 2011 a: 247). Table 6. Varanasi Region: Population across the Ganga from Varanasi Year

1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Ramanagar (MB)

(a) Mughalsarai Nagar Palika

(b) Mughalsarai Rly. Settlement

Mughalsarai UA (a) + (b)

Population

Growth, %

Population

Growth ,%

Population

Population

Growth, %

12,493 12,953 14,022 16,088 17,242 23,298 30,118 40,619 48,378

----3.68 8. 25 14.73 7.17 35.13 29.27 34.87 19.10

3,545 5,567 7,332 10,600 13,583 48,063 66,529 88,387 123,110

----57.04 31.70 44.57 28.14 25.38 38.42 32.85 39.39

3,545 5,567 15,485 21,086 28,612 69,224 91,505 116,308 154,692

-----57.04 178.16 36.15 35.69 141.94 32.19 27.11 33.00

--------8,153 10,486 15,029 21,161 24,976 27,921 31,582

Growth ,%

------------28.62 43.32 40.80 18.02 11.79 13.11

(Based on Master Plan projection; source: VDA, Vision 2025 Draft Final Report. Feb. 2004, and provisional Census 2011)

The Ganga is so polluted now that very few would venture to take bath in it. The Ganga River as an environmental milieu is not simply a creature that flows across the land. The Ganga is what the Hindu culture knows to be true ― and knows this in a certain way. It is not simply a question of how the river matters to society at present (in a strict sense), it is more important to see the meanings and cultural values which have been sustained for centuries. It is our moral obligation to revere the deeper attitude and maintain it in the context of the present needs, searching for a balanced relationship between man and nature within the microcosm of the Ganga river. This ideal brings together both Hindu culture and the vision of a sustainable society (cf. Singh, 1996: 100). The drastic increase in the population in Ramnagar and Mughalsarai across the Ganga, just 5km and 18km, respectively east of the main city has made the problems of Varanasi more serious. During 1991-2001 these cities grew at the rate of 35 and 27 per cent, and by 19 and 33 per cent, respectively during 2001-11 (cf. Table 6). It is further estimated that the filling of the vacant land between Varanasi and these cities is so fast that they would become a part of the metropolitan region by 2031.

Tourism The growing pressure of tourism, and the consequential development of built structures, are a testimony to current economic gains which often ignores sustainability and processes of harmonious coexistence. All these institutions have their own agendas for promoting development in their own ways, however they are weakly coordinated when dealing with the tourism industry The lack of a mass awakening and the public’s inactivity are hurdles to the progress of ‘civic culture: civic sense’, while such civic sensibilities is the vital aspect of a conservation and preservation programme. ‘A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity,


stability and beauty of the heritagescapes as living organism’ (Singh, 2011 d: 289290). There seems to be an ethical gap somewhere in the promotion of (cultural) tourism too. Varanasi is one of the top tourist destinations in India; about five per cent of all overseas tourists coming to India pay visit to Varanasi. Like any other heritage city, Varanasi is also a product of a unique set of historical, cultural and functional circumstances; it presents to the devout Hindus as a sacred place for many pilgrimages that grant solace (see Singh and Rana, 2016, 2017). Tourists’ arrival in recent years in Varanasi shows continuous increase (Table 7). Table 7. Varanasi: Tourist Influx, 1998 - 2012. Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Domestic 287,606 341,974 431,901 454,832 496,539 534,269 597,543 792,630 1,455,492 2,552,365 2,932,446 3,416,300 4,089,311 4,960,334 5,835,945

Growth, % -----+ 18.9 + 26.3 + 5.3 + 9.2 + 7.6 + 11.8 + 32.6 + 83.6 + 75.4 + 14.9 + 16.5 + 19.7 + 21.3 + 17.7

International 132,588 112,141 115,254 108,546 86,267 89,658 121,942 165,714 199,010 243,320 302,933 380,787 466,083 567,223 697,345

Growth, % -----– 15.4 + 2.8 – 5.8 – 20.5 + 3.9 +11.2 + 35.9 + 20.1 + 22.3 + 24.5 + 25.7 + 22.4 + 21.7 + 22.9

TOTAL 420,194 454,115 547,155 563,378 582,806 623,927 719,485 958,344 1,654,502 2,795,685 3,235,379 3,797,087 4,555,394 5,527,557 6,533,290

(Source: UP Tourism, Varanasi) Tourism is an industry that thrives when there is peace in the world. It is obvious that the major international catastrophes have directly affected the inflow. The terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, New York on 11 September 2001, which produced an atmosphere of insecurity and fear, had directly checked the inflow of international tourists. Thus in 2002 there was a decline of 20.5% in tourist influx in Varanasi (cf. Table 7). This had a severe and multiple bad affect, resulting in the great loss of number of tourists. The estimated number of international tourists to Varanasi in 2001 was 130,000; it means that there was loss of 65,000. This threat had a strong inverse impact in the following year, i.e. loss of 20.5%. In 2002, tourism industry in Varanasi gained a little but again faced great loss in 2003 due to the spread of SARS disease in Southeast countries (cf. Singh and Rana, 2011). However, since 2004 the tourist flow to Varanasi has recorded an appreciable growth, domestic and international both. A good number of foreign tourists visit the city and live in cheaper guest houses, and in many cases their data are not recorded. Under the current Master Plan the idea of Heritage Zoning and its special plans are taken into account, and five areas are identified as heritage zones ― their package for cultural tourism and heritage planning is in process. Recently, the increasing pace of modern facilities of transport and organisation and package programmes, together with the increasing consciousness of religious activities as good means of healing and solace, have


promoted a drastic increase of domestic visitors, especially since the turn of this century (cf. Table 7). Among the international tourists to the city Japan maintains its predominance, although in percentile share it has tendency of decline. Due to long historical and cultural linkages, recognition of Buddhism and cultural ties the Japanese prefer to visit this city from where the first message of Buddha was proclaimed. France, U.K., U.S.A. and Germany are the other countries that record high share of tourists. Economic development and an increased Buddhist consciousness have encouraged pilgrimage to Sarnath and Varanasi from the Buddhist countries of Southeast and East Asia (viz. Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar). The recent agreement between Andalusia (Spain) and Varanasi has also promoted increase of tourists from Spain, thus recording a little less than three percent of total tourists in Varanasi (Singh, 2009b: 44-45). The city of Varanasi and its surrounding region (‘Kashi Kshetra’) are visited by thousands of Hindu and Buddhist pilgrims, Jains, Sufi saints and foreign visitors each day. Known the world over as the “sacred city” and “one of the ancient most continuously living cities”, Varanasi and its region is rich in architectural and cultural heritage (comprising temples, shrines, palaces, maths, mosques, ashrams, etc. Its fairs, festivals, musical performances, wrestling matches, handicrafts, silk weaving, sari, and Rama Lilas (‘theatrical performance of Rama’s story’) attract thousands of people. Its natural aesthetics (e.g. half-moon-shaped northerly flow of the Ganga) is enchanting. The local religious and cultural life of Varanasi together with its built architectural heritage and the natural landscape constitute an immense resource for heritage and sustainable tourism, both Indian and foreign. Sarnath is the second most important tourist attraction in Varanasi; the first being the Ghats. Sarnath is a major attraction for Buddhists.

Varanasi Master Plan 2031 Similar to previous Master Plans, a new Master Plan (2011-2031) is prepared (Fig. 7). The new plan is based on the land utilization in the previous Master Plan 2011. The total land estimated in Varanasi Master Plan 2011 was 17,926 ha of which until today only 10,916 ha was made under use in total categories enlisted and rest of the land is pending, and expected to be used in the present Master Plan (2011-2031). Present situation of land use in the delimitated urban area in Varanasi Master Plan 2011 is given in Table 8, which indicate nonused share of land use categories. Table 8. Varanasi: Present Land Use Level of Master Plan 2011* SeNo. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Land use Categories Residential Commercial Industrial Education Health Govt.& Semi Government Traffic & Transport Railways

Area as planned, (ha) 7,127 1,430 12 615 35 212 555 437

%age Land used as scheduled Area 65.00 13.00 0.11 5.60 0.32 1.95 5.10 4.00


9. Cantonment Area 10. Park/ Stadium 11. Temples/ Historical Places 12. Electric substation 13. Graveyard 14. Sewage Treatment Plant 15. Water Tanks Total Land Use up to 2010

274 42 63 33 08 20 71 10,916

2.50 0.39 0.58 0.30 0.07 0.18 0.64 ----

(Based on survey of Town & Country Planning Department, Varanasi 2011 (*tentative)

Fig. 7. Varanasi, Master Plan 2031 (as developed by VDA) Keeping above characteristics as in various land use areas (Master plan 2011), the land left should be used for expanding areas under proposed land uses in


the current Master Plan (2011-2031), which has optimally taking into consideration of 21,000 ha for coverage, i.e. 93.4 per cent increase over the previous plan (cf. Table 8). This planning is to serve the population of 1,929,437 (by 2031), and to get the additional population of 303,500 accommodated by 2041, when the city population is expected to reach 2,298,700 persons. Varanasi Master Plan 2011 had considered nine categories of land uses, while the current Master Plan 2031 will emphasise ten main sectors. The land use distribution and expansion in 2031 Plan is based on utilization of pre-implemented plan and estimated population 1,929,437 in 2031. [*Note that population of 134 pre-included villages is not mentioned due to nonavailability of specific data; however, when added it would be around 1,995,200]. In the distribution of these sectors, the labour force and its area of expertise will also be considered.

Epilogue Varanasi being an ancient and sacred city gives solace to millions of Indians and a sense of wonder to thousands of foreigners each day and year. Its soul lies in its history; the mind in learning and the body in Ganga. If Ganga is gone, Varanasi would lose its existence. It is the body, which houses the mind as well as the soul. Unfortunately, the Ganga is on the way out as river whose waters purify the impure. Ganga is the most polluted major river of India and one of the most polluted rivers of the world. It is a sad reflection on Indian urban planning and let loose industrialization, that the river has been converted into a drain to carry urban and industrial effluents. To paraphrase Carl Jung: The people of India will never find true peace until they can come into a harmonious relationship with and cultivate deeper feelings of reverence for the Ganga River, which is the cradle and identity of India’s culture and civilization since time immemorial (cited by Swan, as in Singh, 1996:105). With the growth of global tourism and a widespread interest in seeing culture in the mirror of history and tradition, religious heritage resource management becomes a critical issue in two primary ways: protection and maintenance of sacred sites and the survival and continuity of pilgrimage ceremonies that preserve centuries-old human interactions with the earth and its mystic powers. Fostering a rediscovery of forgotten (or, about so) common cultural heritage and practices at sacred places that centred on reverence to and harmony with the Earth as source and sustainer of life, the conservation and preservation of such holy sites would put a strong step in this direction (Singh, 2006a: 233). The “Riverfront Heritage and the Old City” of Varanasi is in the process of getting inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List. Let us hope that we will succeed it in a very near future, however the way of preparing dossier is controversial that results into keep this issue out of scene. Moreover, Varanasi’s riverfront heritage is not on the priority list (Singh, 2016: 443). Heritage is the mirror of mankind’s growth, progress, and prospects; it is very important that it should be preserved. One has to remember that the modern way of life and science, and that of ancient wisdom and its messages, can work together to help in searching for a harmonious and peaceful path for mankind’s integration with nature. That this heritage may become a resource for development, it needs to be first documented, then protected, maintained, and finally utilized according to specific heritage guidelines and legislations. Only then, combined with increased citizens’ awareness and participation, will policy efforts and interventions


become sustainable—environmentally, socially, and culturally (Singh 2011a: 251). It is notable that the initiative by local NGOs, experts, and eminent citizens of the city to propose the nomination of the old city center of Varanasi for inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage List has activated a sensitive and positive response in the city administration to think of the preservation of our cultural heritage. A mass movement of awakening (chetna march) is required for reverential development. But this should not turn into fundamentalism, nor should it cause any impacts on secular life (cf. Singh, 2016: 443-444). Varanasi has been a sacred city of scholarship and wisdom. To continue and re-enforce the intellectual and spiritual tradition of the city universities like Banaras Hindu University, Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidya Pith and Central University of Higher Tibetan Studies have been set up in relatively recent times. But it appears to be losing its serenity and its sacredness. The Ganga river, its soul, is polluted. Today it is so polluted as to become unworthy of even bath? The city has become so congested that it is difficult to reach the Ghats and more difficult to have the darshan (‘auspicious sight’) of Vishvanatha? The people of Varanasi, nay the world community has to move against the pollution of Ganga. A movement to bring Ganga back to what it was before it was converted into sewer drain and to modernize the city while preserving its heritages has to be launched. The past is there to inspire; the future is there in dreams; the present is the time to act. Let us hope that the caravan would lengthen and a time will come, sooner than later, to make Varanasi what it deserves to be. The impacts of urban sprawl upon peri-urban society will inevitably enhance the economic efficiency of its people and accelerate their living standard as in the past too. The continuity of these impacts will be in full swing; then undoubtedly these peri-urban villages will be able to join the main stream of the city life. Life in the villages of this zone is in a phase of transition ― the characteristic of peri-urban areas. That is, continuing the age old traditions and, at the same time, adopting the changing socio-economic system and the values associated with it through urban influence, which will be more crucial in the near future trying to achieve a balance with a foot in both camps, i.e. traditional village life and urban life. The traditional life and ethical values, which once well known framework of harmonious life in Indian villages are now transformed to cope with the new waves of changes and valuation of life in which consumerism, individualism and market-oriented lifeways are the common consequences (cf. Singh and Sen, 2001). Huge size of population with reference to area, resources and carrying capacity, turn to be a burden on nature and society. Infrastructure constraints and inefficient governance have the potential to stymie the economic growth the City needs to establish itself as cultural capital of India to raise millions out of subsistence level and unhappy lives. How quickly and comprehensively the City rises above its infrastructural limitations will undoubtedly come to determine its economic and political strength in the years to come; let the Master Plan 2031 should take this vision seriously in chalking out spatial infrastructural developments. Varanasi faces the critical problems of the strong and old traditions, many of them not viable today, like poor public participation, careless and lack of awakening among stakeholders, loose and poor urban governance, low rate of job opportunity, old traffic system, and several such associative and consequential problems obstacle the optimal development of Varanasi on the path of eco-friendly and liveable city.


The establishment of satellite town would be a best option for the decentralization of population and immigrants in the peri-urban areas. The concentration of all cultural and social facilities in a few places leads to the impoverishment of countryside. It inevitably helps to manage the traffic congestion and waste of time in travelling through the great city. From the city of Banaras five small towns Ramanagar, Mughalsarai, Saraimohana, Shivpur and Babatpur have grown up in its neighbourhood and the site of Buddha’s town Sarnath is about 5 km to the north of the city. Shivpur in the north-west along the Jaunpur road has now become a town area. Instead of planning the city’s congested areas, it would be better to recognise and develop the small towns around Varanasi city with infrastructural facilities so that the congestion of the city will automatically release (Pal 2015: 196-197). Sharp (1945: 53) has rightly remarked that, “It is always better to create satellite towns by enlarging existing suitable small town rather than by building new one for nothing”. As regional capital the City is serving as nexus for the economic development and its transactions, and also trying to maintain its status as popular place of pilgrimage and tourism. But think of the period after two decades when population will be double, the requirements will be different and intense, the transportation would require complex network, maintenance of city’s role as bridge between rural and urban culture, and also coping with India’s urban share that would be half by 2031, how the city will take lead in these situations and transformations! Presently the City is unprepared and ill-equipped to tackle the challenges it faces to create new and better landscape and life (cf. Singh, 2016). Land acquisition is one of the biggest, most politically fraught obstacles to industrial growth and expansion of the City. Farmers have fought bitter battles against their land being taken for urban expansion, development of residential colonies, and stalling some projects for years. There is lack of coordination among the three development institutions responsible for making plan and implementing them, viz. Varanasi Development Authority, Varanasi Municipal Corporation, District Urban Development Authority, and their affiliates. The way Master Plan 2031 (Fig. 7) manages its urban transformation will determine the course of its development and economic ascent. Unfortunately, rarely public participation is taken care for making this Master Plan, which is mostly conceived as an extension of the old one and additionally chalked out as manifestation of earlier model plans those have no way concerned with the similar situation. There is another big gap between ‘inside’ (residents) and ‘outside’ (administration) approaches. Theoretically tourism and heritage are also given consideration in preparing development plan, but no way rationales, threshold and land use plans based on ‘pilot projects’ and case studies are yet prepared. The INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art, Culture and Heritage), New Delhi, has been entrusted to work on the issues of heritage development plans, which completely avoided to take any sort of collaboration with the local expert and resources. The situation is turning as unwillingly the residents have to accept all such plans conceived by outsiders and theoreticians those no way have experience or deeper interaction with the local society and culture. Let the authorities realise these and such studies to be taken for making planning strategies. In our temporal frame we have to give respect to the past, search for solutions in the present, and make directions for the future. This attitude should apply to the issue of urban sprawl beyond the corporation boundary and interlinks with the surrounding areas (peri-urban), which were not considered in preparing the


CDP or DPR. Remember, an action is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the site as a living organism. That this heritage may become a resource for development, it needs to be first documented, then protected, maintained, and finally utilized according to specific heritage guidelines and legislations. Only then, combined with an increased stakeholder awareness and participation, will policy efforts and interventions become sustainable— environmentally, socially, and culturally. We may separate ourselves from the web of our heritage in the pursuit of modernity and secularism, but it would always be at the cost of our hearts and souls (Singh, 2016: 444).

References Altekar, Anant Sadasiv 1947. Banaras and Sarnath: Past and Present. 2nd ed. Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. Arnold, David 1989. The ecology and cosmology of disease in Banaras region; in, Freitag, S.B. (ed.) Culture and Power in Banaras. University of California Press, Berkeley: pp. 246-267. Bayly, Chistopher A. 1983. Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Bhattacharya, D.P. and Bhattacharya, B. (eds.) 1965. Census of India 1961. Reports on the Population Estimates of India (1820-1830). Manager of Publications, Government of India, Delhi. City of Benares: pp, 241-278, 280-281. Eck, Diana L. 1983. Banaras. The City of Light. Penguin India, New Delhi (Indian Reprint). Eidt, Robert C. 1977. Detection and examination of anthrosols by phosphate analysis. Science, 197 (30 September): pp. 1327 - 1333. Hambly, Gavin R.G. 1982. Towns and cities: Moghal India; in, Raychaudhuri, Tapan and Habib, Irfan (eds.) The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. I: ca.1200 - ca.1750. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: pp. 434-551. Hamilton, Walter 1820. A Geographical, Statistical and Historical Description of Hindostan and the Adjacent Countries. Vol. I. Reprint, Orient Publishers, Delhi, 1971. Heber, Bishop Reginald 1828. Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, from Calcutta to Bombay, 1824-1825. 2 vols. Carey, Lea, and Carey, Philadelphia. Joshi, Esha Basanti (ed.) 1965. Uttar Pradesh District Gazetteers: VARANASI. Government Press, Allahabad. Kosambi, Damodar D. 1970. The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical Outline. Vikas Publishers, Delhi. Lannoy, Richard 2002. Benares: A World within a World. The Microcosm of Kashi Yesterday and Tomorrow. Indica Books, Varanasi. Michell, George and Singh, Rana P.B. (eds.) 2005. Banaras, The City Revealed. Marg Publs., Mumbai. Motichand 1985. History of Kashi. Varanasi. 2nd ed.

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Naqvi, H. Khan 1968. Progress of urbanisation in the United Provinces, 1550-1800. Journal of the Economic History of the Orient, 10 (1): pp. 81-101. Nevill, Henry Rivers 1909. Benares: A Gazetteer. Vol. XXVI of the District Gazetteers of the UP & Agra & Oudh. Government Press, Allahabad. Pal, Neelam 2015. Varanasi City: Population Changes and Development Strategies. (Foreword by Prof. Rana P.B. Singh). APST Publications, New Delhi. Prinsep, James 1831. Benares Illustrated in a Series of Drawings. Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta. Prinsep, James 1832. Census of the population of the city of Benares. Asiatic Researches (Calcutta), XVII: 470-498. Rana, Pravin S. 2014. Pilgrimage Tourism: A Study of Varanasi. SRME Publishers, Sagar MP (India). Sharp, Thomas W. 1945. Town Planning. Oxford University Press, London. Singh, Pratibha 2004. Shiva-Kashi: Puranic context and Contemporary Reference. Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Varanasi. . Singh, Rana P.B. (eds.) 1993. Banaras (Varanasi). Cosmic Order, Sacred City, Hindu Traditions. Tara Book Agency, Varanasi. Singh, Rana P.B. 1994. Modern Varanasi: Place and Society in Shivprasad Singh’s novel Street Turns Yonder; in, Simpson-Housley, Paul and Preston, Peter (eds.) Writing the City: Eden, Babylon and the New Jerusalem. Routledge, London: pp. 220-240. Singh, Rana P.B. 1996. The Ganga River and the spirit of sustainability in Hinduism; in, Swan, James and Swan, Roberta (eds.) Dialogues with the Living Earth. New Ideas on the Spirit of Place. Quest Books, Wheaton, IL, USA: pp. 86-107. Singh, Rana P.B. 1997. Sacredscape and urban heritage in India: Contestation and perspective; in, Shaw, Brian and Jones, Roy (eds.) Contested Urban Heritage. Voices from the Periphery. Ashgate, London (UK): pp. 101-131. Singh, Rana P.B. 2004. Cultural Landscapes and the Lifeworld. Literary Images of Banaras. Indica Books, Varanasi. Singh, Rana P.B. 2005. Growth of City, Banaras; in, Michell, George and Singh, Rana P.B. (eds.) Banaras, The City Revealed. Marg Publs., Mumbai: 22-29. Singh, Rana P.B. 2006 a. Pilgrimage in Hinduism, Historical Context and Modern Perspectives; in, Timothy, Dallen J. and Olsen, Daniel H. (eds.) Tourism, Religion, and Spiritual Journeys. Routledge, London & New York: 220236. Singh, Rana P.B. 2009 a. Banaras (Varanasi): History, Geography, and Bibliography. Indica Books, Varanasi. Singh, Rana P.B. 2009 b. Banaras: Making of India’s Heritage City. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, Pub. 3. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle u. Tyne U.K.


Singh, Rana P.B. 2010 a. Varanasi, the Heritage City of India: Growth of urban fabrics, visions and strategies for future development. Asian Profile, Asia’s International Journal (ARS, Burnaby, Canada), 38 (3), June: pp. 257-282. Singh, Rana P.B. 2010 b. Mahamana Malaviya’s vision of Ancient Indian Spatial Planning and Archetypal layout of the Banaras Hindu University. National Geographical Journal of India, vol. 56 (1-2), Sept.-Dec.: pp. 1-16. Singh, Rana P.B. 2011 a. Varanasi, India’s Cultural Heritage City: Contestation, Conservation & Planning; in, Singh, Rana P.B. (ed.) Heritagescape & Cultural Landscapes. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, no. 6. Shubhi Publs., New Delhi: pp. 205-254. Singh, Rana P.B. 2011b. Kashi-Kabir-Kyosei: Landscapes of Harmonious Coexistence of Hindus and Muslims in Banaras; in, his: Indo-Kyosei Global Ordering: Gandhi’s Vision, Harmonious Coexistence, & Ecospirituality. Research Center for Kyosei Philosophy, Toyo University. Meitoku Publishing, Tokyo: pp. 53-96. Singh, Rana P.B. 2011 c. The Ganga Riverfront in Varanasi: a heritage zone in contestation; in, Markandey, Kalpana and Simhadri, S. (eds.) Globalization, Environment & Human Development. Rawat Publs., Jaipur and New Delhi: pp. 343-356. Singh, Rana P.B. 2011 d. Politics and Pilgrimage in North India: Varanasi between Communitas and Contestation. Tourism, an International Interdisciplinary Journal [Institute of Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia], vol. 59 (3), October: pp. 287-304. Singh, Rana P.B. 2013. Muslim Shrines and Multi-Religious visitations in Hindus’ city of Banaras, India: Co-existential Scenario; in, Pazos, Antón M. (ed.) Pilgrims and Pilgrimages as Peacemakers in Christianity, Judaism and Islam. Compostela International Studies in Pilgrimage History and Culture, vol. 4. Ashgate Publishing Limited, Farnham, Surrey UK: , pp. 127 - 159. Singh, Rana P.B. 2014. Banāras: Encountering the Experiences and Expositions of the Spirit of Place; in, Keul, István (ed.) Banāras Revisited – Scholarly Pilgrimages to the City of Light (Ethno-Indology vol. 14; ISSN: 1860-2053. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany): pp. 77-93. ISBN: 978-3-44710201-8. Singh, Rana P.B. 2015a. Mahamana Malaviya’s vision of Banaras Hindu University: A frame of Archetypal Architecture and Cosmic Plan. Kashi Journal of Social Sciences [ISSN: 2249-037X, Jhunna Foundation, Varanasi], vol. 5 (nos. 1-2), June-December (special issue on Mahamana and B.H.U.): pp. 301-315. Singh, Rana P.B. 2015b. Banaras, the Cultural Capital of India: Visioning Cultural Heritage and Planning. SANDHI, A Journal of Interfacing ScienceHeritage and Technology-Tradition of India [IIT Kharagpur, India], vol. 1 (no. 1), Feb.: pp. 100-122. ISBN: 978-93-80813-32-5. Addition of 7pp (p. 124-128) recent newspaper references, App. 1- Festivals; App. 2- ICH purview, App.3- Walks.


Singh, Rana P.B. 2016. Urban Heritage and Planning in India: A Study of Banaras; in, Dutt, Ashok K., et al. (eds.) Spatial Diversity and Dynamics in Resources and Urban Development: Vol. II- Urban Development), Dordrecht, New York: Springer Science+Business Media: pp. 423~449. ISBN 978-94-0179785-6. DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-9786-3_21. Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. 2006. Banaras Region. A Spiritual and Cultural Guide. Pilgrimage & Cosmology Series: 1. Indica Books, Varanasi. 2nd ed. Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. 2011. Perceptions and Images of Tourists and Pilgrims in Banaras; in, Singh, Rana P.B. (ed.) Holy Places and Pilgrimages: Essays on India. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, no. 8. Shubhi Publications, New Delhi: pp. 165-206. Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. and 2016a. Kashi and Cosmos: Spatial Manifestation and Five Pilgrimage Journeys of Banaras. International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage (IJRTP, ISSN 2009-7379, an online, open-Access, peer reviewed journal; Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland; vol. 4 (vi), September [article 5]: pp. 1-15; available at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijrtp/vol4/iss6/5 Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. 2016b. Riverfront Varanasi, India: Interfacing Contestation in Heritage Making. Contemporary Geographer [a bi-annual journal of ABG, Association of Bengal Geographers, University of Burdwan, WB, India], vol. 1 (1), January: pp. 49-65. Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. 2017a. Kashi and Cosmos, India: Pilgrimage Circuit of the Panchakroshi Yatra; in, Olsen, Daniel and Trono, Anna (eds.) Religious Pilgrimage Routes and Trails. CABI (Nosworthy Way, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8DE U.K.): ca pp. 101-116 . Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. 2017b. Banaras, the Cultural Capital and Heritage City of India: The Purview of Urban Heritage Planning; in, Vinayak, Bharne and Sandmeier, Trudi (eds.), Routledge Companion of Global Heritage Conservation. Routledge - Taylor & Francis, London & New York. Singh, Rana. P.B. and Sen, Chandra 2001. The Structure of Peri-Urban Agricultural Environment in Varanasi Development Region. National Geographical Journal of India, 47 (1-4): pp. 61-72. Singh, R.L. 1955. Banaras. A Study in Urban Geography. Nand Kishore & Sons, Banaras. Twain, Mark 1898. Following the Equator. A Journey around the World. The American Publishing Co., Hartfort. Varady, Robert G. 1989. Land use and environmental change in the Gangetic plain; in, Freitag, Sandria B. (ed.) Culture and Power in Banaras. University of California Press, Berkeley: pp. 229-245. Vishvakarma, Ishvar Sharan 1987. Historical Geography of Kashi. (From earliest times to 12th century AD). . Ramanand Vidya Bhavan, Delhi. -------------------------------------------


§ The Author Contact Address:

Prof. RANA P.B. SINGH Ex-Professor (spel. Cultural Geography & Heritage Studies) & Head (2013-2015), Dept. of Geography,

Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005. INDIA. Cell: 0-9838 119474. E-mail: [email protected] https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6031-9086 § Rana P.B. Singh (b. 15 Dec. 1950), MA (1971), PhD (1974), FJF (Japan 1980), FIFS (Japan 2003), FAAI (Italy, 2010), FACLA (Korea 2013), ‘Ganga-Ratna’ (Ganga MaSb India) 2014,

has been involved in studying, performing and promoting the heritage planning and cultural landscape studies in the Varanasi region for the last thirty-five years as promoter, collaborator and organiser. On these topics he has given lectures and seminars at various centres in Australia, Austria, Belgium, China PR, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Indonesia (Bali), Italy, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Singapore, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, USA (& Hawaii), USSR. His publications on Varanasi itself include 06 books and 122 articles. His publications include over two hundred fifty research papers and thirty nine books and two regional guidebooks for cultural tourism, like Clan Settlements in the Saran Plain: A Study in Cultural Geography (NGSI, 1977), Rural Development in Indian Environment. A Case of Chamaon Gram Sabha (with R.L. Singh, NGSI, 1977), Rural Habitat Transformation in World Frontiers (with R.L. Singh, NGSI, 1980), Changing Scene of Rural Habitat in Developing Countries (with Shogo Yuihama, Okayama Univ., 1980), Changing Frontiers of Indian Village Ecology. A Bihari Village (with R.B. Singh, NGSI, 1981), Changing Japanese Rural Habitat. The Agricultural Dimension (with Shogo Yuihama, NGSI, 1981), Environmental Appraisal and Rural Habitat Transformation (with R.L. Singh, NGSI, 1984), Banaras (Varanasi), Cosmic Order, Sacred City, Hindu Traditions (1993), Environmental Ethics (1993), The Spirit and Power of Place (1994), Banaras Region: A Spiritual & Cultural Guide (2002, with P.S. Rana), Towards pilgrimage Archetypes: Panchakroshi Yatra of Kashi (2002), Where the Buddha Walked (2003), The Cultural Landscape and the Lifeworld: The Literary Images of Banaras (2004), Banaras, the City Revealed (2005, with George Michell), Banaras, the Heritage City: Geography, History, Bibliography (2009), and the eight books under ‘Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series’: ‒ five from Cambridge Scholars Publishing UK: Uprooting Geographic Thoughts in India (2009), Geographical Thoughts in India: Snapshots and Vision for the 21st Century (2009), Cosmic Order & Cultural Astronomy (2009), Banaras, Making of India’s Heritage City (2009), Sacred Geography of Goddesses in South Asia (2010), and ‒ three from Shubhi Publications (New Delhi): Heritagescapes and Cultural Landscapes (2011), Sacredscapes and Pilgrimage Systems (2011), and Holy Places and Pilgrimages: Essays on India (2011), also Indo-kyosei Global Ordering: Gandhi’s Vision, Harmonious Coexistence, Ecospirituality (2011, Toyo University, Tokyo), and Hindu Tradition of Pilgrimage: Sacred Space and System (2013, New Delhi).

[476.17]. Singh, Rana P.B. 2017. Varanasi, Making of India’s heritage City; in, Kar, Bimal K. and Bhagabati, Abani K. (ed.) Society and Development: Human Geographic Perspectives. EBH Publishers India, Guwahati: pp. 233-261. ISBN: 978-93-86302-01-4.

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