TRAINING METHODS AND TECHNIQUES Training methods are, generally, classified by the location of instruction. Training can take place in various situations, on the job or off the job, in the company or outside the company. It necessarily involves the use of a number of tools, methods and tech techni niqu ques. es. Som Some of the the wide widely ly us used ed trai traini ning ng metho ethod d are are as follows:
A. On the Job Training Onn-tthe-j he-job ob-t -tra rain inin ing g is the the heart eart and soul oul of all train rainin ing g in business art industry. OJT as it is known or sometimes called" Shop Training" is the most universal form of employee development development.. This is the traditional traditional method of learning, learning, which is designed to maximise learning while allowing the employee to perform his job under the supervision and guidance of a trained work worker er or in inst stru ruct ctor or,, prov providi iding ng hi him m prac practi tica call appli applica cati tion on and and maki making ng prin princi cipl ples es and and conc concep epts ts of lear learni ning ng meani eaning ngfu full and and rea realist listic ic.. This This is the the most ost effe effect ctiv ive e metho ethod d of deve develo lopm pmen entt applicable at all levels to a wide range of semiskilled, skilled and technica ical jobs, as well as supervisor isory y and managemen ementt development programmes. There are several types of on the job training. Those prominently deployed in use in OJT are as follows:
1. Job Instruction Training (JIT). Commonly known as JIT, this technique of training was developed during World War II. It is a four step instructional! instructional! process. JIT is basically basically used to teach the workers how to do their current jobs. A trainer, supervisor or cowork worker er can can act act as the the coac coach. h. The The four four st step eps s in invo volv lved ed in this this process are: . The trainee receives an overview of the job, its purposes and desired desired outcom outcomes, es, with with a clear clear focus focus on the releva relevance nce of training. . The trainer demonstrates the job in order to give the employee a model to copy. The trainer demonstrates to him the right way of doing the job. . The trainee is then asked to copy the trainer's demonstration. Demonst Demonstrat ration ions s by the trainer trainer and practi practice ce by the trainer trainer are are repeated till the trainee master the right way to perform the job.
. Fina Finall lly y the the empl employ oyee ee does does the the job job in inde depe pend nden entl tly y witho ithout ut supervision.
2. Coach Coaching ing.. On the Job Job coa coachin ching g by the super uperv visor isor is an important important and potentially potentially effective effective approach. approach. It is a kind of daily training and feedback given to employees by their immediate supe su perv rvis isor ors. s. It involv involves es a cont contin inuou uous s proce process ss of lear learni ning ng by doin doing. g. Coa Coachin ching g in inv volv olves di dire rec ct perso ersona nall in inst stru ruct ctio ions ns and guidance, usually with extensive demonstration and continuous crit critic ica al appra pprais isa al and corr orrecti ection on.. It has the advant vanta age of incr in crea eased sed motiv otivat ation ion for for the the trai traine nee e and and minimi inimisa sati tion on of the the prob proble lem m of tran transf sfer er from from theo theory ry of pra practic ctice. e. Howev owever er,, the the method will loose its value if the Coach does not possess the requ requis isit ite e skil skills ls to guid guide e the the train rainee ee in a sy syst stem ema atic tic way. Effec ffecti tive ven ness ess of coa coachin ching g depen epend ds upon pon the pati patien ence ce and communication skills of the coach. He will have to: - Explain appropriate ways of doing things. - Make clear why some actions are taken. - State the observations accurately. - Offer possible alternatives - Give suggestions whenever required - Follow up.
3. Mentor Mentoring ing.. It is a som somewha ewhatt di diff ffer eren entt form form of train rainin ing g method. In mentoring, senior person in the organisation assumes the the resp respon onsi sibil bility ity for for trai trainin ning g as well well as groom grooming ing of a Juni Junior or person. A mentor acts as a teacher, guide, counseller, philosop philosopher her,, exemp exemplar lar,, suppor supporter ter and facilit facilitat ator or of the ju junio niorr person. The basic objective of mentoring is to help an employee gain psychological maturity and effectiveness and get integrated with the organisation. Mentoring can take place both at formal and informal levels depending on the prevailing work culture and commitment from the management. A good mentor has to : -
Listen to the mentee and understand him Challenge his intellect and stimulate the learning process Coach . Build Self Confidence Provide wise counselling Teach by examples Act as the role model Share experiences Offer encouragement
A person can learn a lot from his mentor if he : - Listens - Acts on advice - Shows commitment to learn - Leave ego at the door - Asks for feedback - Is Open minded - Is willing to change - Is proactive Mentoring in India is based on the time honoured Guru-Shishya relations where the guru would do everything to develop the personality of the Shishya Shishya offering offering emotional emotional support and guidance. guidance. Shishya Shishya on the other hand can do anything and everything for the guru. Companies like Coca-Cola, TISCO have used mentoring systems to good effects in recent times.
4. Posi Positi tion on Ro Rota tati tion on.. Posit sition ion rotation ion train inin ing g is the broadening of background of the trainee in the organisation. If the trainee is rotated periodically from one job to another job, he acqu acquir ires es a gene genera rall back backgr grou ound nd.. He unde unders rsta tand nds s the the larg larger er organ organisa isation tional al perspe perspectiv ctive e and differe different nt functio functional nal areas areas.. He attains better sense of his own career objectives and interests. Rotation allows the trainees to build rapport with a large number of individuals within the organisation and facilitates future cooperation among departments. The cross trained personnel will be more flexible in future in case of transfers, promotions or replacements. In position rotations, the productive work suffers because of the disruptions disruptions caused by such changes. changes. As specialisation specialisation advances, rotation becomes less useful as few people have the technical know knowle ledg dge e and skil skills ls to move ove from from one one func functi tion onal al area rea to another. To get the best results out of this method, it should be tailored to the needs, interests and capabilities of the individual train rainee ee and not be a stan tandard dard seq sequenc uence e tha that all train rainee ees s undergo. 5. Apprenticeship. Apprenticeship training may be traced back to medieval times when those who wanted to learn trade skills used to bind themselves to master craftsman to learn by doing the work under his guidance. During earlier periods, apprenticesh apprenticeship ip was not restricted to artisans artisans only. It was used in
trainin training g for the profess profession ions s includi including ng medici medicine, ne, law, law, teachin teaching g etc. . In today's organisations, apprenticeship training is a structured proc proces ess s by whic which h peop people le beco becom me skil skille led d work worker ers s throu hrough gh a combination combination of classroom classroom instructions instructions and on-the-job training. training. It is widely used to train individuals for many occupations. Many organisations have apprenticeship laws with supervised plans for such training.
6. Committee Assignments. In this method, the trainees are aske asked d to perf perfor orm m sp spec ecia iall assi assign gnm ments ents and and to solv solve e actu actual al orga organis nisat ation ional al prob problem lems. s. Some Sometim times, es, a task task forc force e is crea created ted which which consist consists s of a number number of train trainees ees repre represen sentin ting g differe different nt functio functions ns in the organ organisa isation tion.. In this this metho method, d, trainer trainers s acquir acquire e knowledge about the assigned activities and learn how to work with others. They also understand the personalities, issues and proc proces esse ses s gove govern rnin ing g the the orga organi nisa sati tion on.. Howev owever er,, manag anager ers s should very well understand that committee assignments could become notorious time wasting activities. Merits. The main advantages of (on-the-job training OJT) are as follows: (i) The trainee learns on the actual machine in use and in real env environme nment of the job. He gets a feel of the actual ual job. Therefore, he is better motivated to learn and there. is no problem of transfer of training skills on the job. (ii) OJT is the type of training which can be tailored to suit the specific requ requir irem emen ents ts of each each tra train inee ee,, in term terms s of hi his s back backgr grou ound nd,, attitudes, needs, expectations, goals and future assignments. (iii) This (iii) This method is very economical because no additional space, equipment, personnel or other facilities are required for training. The trainee produces while he learns. (iv) The trainee learns the rules, regulations and procedures by observing their day to day applications. (v) OJT is specific, practical and tangible. (vi) OJT is most suitable for unskilled and semi-skilled jobs where the
job operations are simple, easy to explain and demonstrate within a short span of time. (vii) -The supervisors feel greater responsibility and work more willingly and zealously for the development of their subordinates, while imparting OJT.
Demerits. Some of the demerits from which OJT suffers are: (i) In OJT there is a tendency to neglect, disregard and even to do away with, in some cases, the essentials of principles and theory in favour of immediate production. (ii) Trainee while learning may damage equipment, waste materials, cause accidents frequently. (iii) The work place, with environments charged with hustle and noise and and the the pace pace of skil skille led d worke orkers rs,, is most ost like likely ly to affe affect ct the the learning and may create a feeling of frustration in the mind of a trainee. (iv) Experienced workers cannot use the machinery while it is being used for training. In order to make this training successful, some conditions must be satisfied: (a) What and how to teach should be carefully decided. (b) The (b) The instructor should be carefully selected and trained. (c) A definite follow up schedule should be used to judge the results of training.
B. Off-the job Training In off-the-Job training methods the trainees have to leave their workplace and devote their entire time to the training. A few offthe-job training techniques are as follows: 1. Vestibule Training
In this method, a training centre called vestibule is set up and actual job conditions are duplicated or stimulated in it. Expert trai traine ners rs are empl employ oyed ed to prov provid ide e trai traini ning ng with ith the the help help of equipment and machines which are identical with those used at the work place. This method of training is used primarily when large number of employees must be trained quickly, as needed, as a resul esultt of expa expans nsio ion n of bus usin ines ess s activ ctivit itie ies s by firm firms s or industries, although it is also helpful as a preliminary to on the job-training. Merits. The important merits of vestibule training are: (i) . This method has the fundamental advantage of training a number of people in a short period of time, without causing any interruption or disturbance in the normal flow of work. (it) The trainee can concentrate on learning without disturbance of the workplace noise. (iii) This method is essential where on the job training might result in a seri seriou ous s in inju jury ry,, a cost costly ly even eventt or the the dest destru ruct ction ion of valua valuable ble equipment and material. (iv) It permits the trainee to practise without the fear of being observed and indicribed by the supervisor/coworker. (v) It is a specialised superior method of instructions, free from any pressures of getting out production. (vi) The interest and motivation of the trainee are high as the real job conditions are duplicated. (vil) This method provides possibility of frequent lectures, or discussions and greater personal attention to individual trainees.
Demerits. This This metho ethod, d, howe howeve ver, r, su suffe ffers rs from from the the foll follow owing ing demerits:
(i) The use of this method is limited more or less to those jobs, in which there is a high turnover or there is a continuously increasing demand for workers. (ii) Vestibule training is the most expensive method because of additional investment in class-room, equipment and expert trainers. (iii) The training situation is somewhat artificial and the trainee does not get a feel of the real job.
2. Apprenticeship 2. Apprenticeship Training The' Apprenticeship' system is perhaps the oldest and most commonly used method for training in industrial crafts, trades and technical areas. In this method, theoretical knowledge and practical learning are provided to trainees in training institutes. In India India,, the the gove govern rnme ment nt has has esta establi blishe shed d Indu Indust stria riall Trai Trainin ning g Institutes (ITIs) for this purpose. The aim of this training is to develop all round craftsmen. Generally, a stipend is paid during the training period. Thus, it is an 'earn while you learn' scheme. Merits. The main merits of this method are: (i) The main advantage of this method is that it combines theory and practice. The trainee becomes productive immediately. (ii) It ensures the maintenance of a skilled work force. (iii) It greatly improves workmanship. (iv) This fosters a sense of belongingness and loyalty in the minds of emplo employe yees es and and open opens s up oppo opport rtun unit ities ies for for their their grow growth th and and development.
Demerits. Appre pprent ntic ices eshi hip p trai traini ning ng is time ime cons consum umin ing g and and expensive. expensive. Many Many persons persons leave leave the training programm programme e midway midway as the training period extends from one year to three years. 3. Classroom Training
The classroom training, is the traditional way of education, which places places the the trai traine nee e in a clas class-r s-roo oom. m. Clas Class-r s-room oom trai traini ning ng take takes s place either inside the organisation or at some external selected sites, may be institutes, universities or professional associations, which have no connection with the company. The main aim of class-room training is to take the man away from his working environment, to mix with men in a similar position to his own, and as a result bring about change in his attitude and point of view, capable of looking at problems differently. Lectures, case stud st udies ies,, grou group p di discu scuss ssion ions s and and audi audio-v o-visu isual al aids aids are are us used ed to explain knowledge and skills to the trainees. Classroom training is suitable for teaching concepts and problem solving skills. It is also useful for orientation and safety training prog progra ram mmes. es. It may also also in incl clud ude e cour course ses s in re-t re-tra rain inin ing g and and upgrading.
4. Internship Training In internship training, educational institutions and business firms have a joint programme of training. Selected candidates carry on regular studies for the prescribed period. They also work in some factory or office to acquire practical knowledge and skills. This method helps to provide a good balance between theory and practice. But it involves a long time period due to slow process. Intern Internship ship trainin training g is used used in profes profession sional al course courses s e.g. MBBS, C.A., ICWA etc.
5. Conferences Conference is a favourite training method. Many organisations have have adop adopte ted d guid guided ed di disc scus ussio sion n type type of conf confer eren ence ces s in thei theirr training programmes, in order to escape the limitations of the lecture lecture method. method. In conferences, conferences, the participan participants ts pool their ideas and experiences to arrive at improved methods of dealing with the the prob proble lem ms whic which h are are the the com common su subj bjec ectt of di disc scus ussi sion on.. Conference may include buzz sessions that divide the conf confer eren ence ce in into to smal smalll grou groups ps for for in inte tens nsiv ive e di disc scus ussio sion. n. Thes These e small small groups groups then report report back their conclusions conclusions or questions questions I to the whole conference. Conference method allows the trainees to look at the r problems from a broader angle. However, unless the conference is directed I towards the required needs of the participants, they may feel that the whole exercise is useless. 6. Role Playing
Role Role pl play aying ing is a meth method od of huma human n in inte tera ract ction ions s that that involv involves es realistic realistic behaviour behaviour in imaginary imaginary situations. situations. Role playing involves involves action, doing and practice. The trainees play the role of certain character eg. the different position holders in the organisation. By role playing, a trainee can broaden his experience by trying different different approaches/roles, approaches/roles, while in actual actual practice, practice, he often has only one role to play.
7. Programmed Programmed Learning Programmed instruction is a step by step learning process that consists of three parts : -Presenting questions, facts or problems to the trainees. - Allowing the trainee to respond - Providing feedback on the accuracy of answers. The advantages of this method are: - It reduces the training time. - It facilitates learning since it lets trainees learn at their own pace. - It provides immediate feedback and reduces the risk of errors. The limitation of this method, however, is that the trainee does not learn much more than he would from a traditional text book approach. The management must weigh the cost of developing the programmed instructions against the potentially accelerated but not improved learning.
(c) ELECTRONIC TRAINING Computerised and internet based tools have revolutionised the trai traini ning ng proc proces ess. s. Som Some meth method ods s of elec electr tron onic ic trai traini ning ng are are as follows:
1. Audio-Visuals 1. Audio-Visuals Audio-visuals Audio-visuals include include television television slides, overheads, overheads, films, films, power power points, video conferencing, audio-video tapes etc. These can be very effective effective and are widely widely used as training techniques. techniques. These can be used to provide a wide range of realistic examples of job conditions and situations in the condensed period of time. The qual quality ity of the the pres presen enta tatio tion n can can be cont contro rolle lled d and and will will rema remain in equal for all training groups. Audio-visual aids tend to be more inte in tere res sting ting.. This This metho ethod, d, howev owever er,, is more ore expe expens nsiv ive e as
compared to other traditional methods, Moreover, it constitutes a one one way way sy syst stem em of com communic unicat atio ion n with ith no sc scop ope e for for the the trainees trainees to raise questions questions or doubts doubts for clarification. clarification. There is no flexibility also in this method to change the presentation from audience to audience.
2. Computer Based Training In comput computer er based based trainin training, g, the traine trainee e uses uses comput computer er based based and/or CD. ROM systems to interactively increase his knowledge or skills. In this method, method, the tests are taken on computer computer so that the the manag anagem emen entt can can monit onitor or each each train rainee ee's 's prog progre ress ss and and need needs. s. Thi This prog rogram ramme can can be modif odifie ied d easi easily ly to refl reflec ectt tech techn nolog ologic ica al in inn nova ovations ions in the equip quipm ment ent for for whi hich ch the employee is being trained. This training also tends to be more flexible since the trainees can use the computer almost any time and thus, get training when they prefer. The feedback from this meth method od is as rich rich and and colo colour urfu full as moder odern n elec electr tron onic ic game games, s, complete complete with audio instruction instructions s and video displays. displays. A limitation limitation of this method is its high cost, but repeated use often justifies the cost. 3. Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS). (EPSS). People do not remember everything they learn. The training, in this method, focusses on the skills the employees need every day for performing their jobs. Computer based support systems, then deliver the rest of what they need to know, when they need it. Employers use job aids for this purpose. Job aid is a set of instru instructio ctions, ns, diagra diagrams ms or similar similar metho methods ds avail available able at the job site to guide the workers. workers. EPSS is today's job aid. EPSS are a set of com compute puteri rise sed d tool tools s and and di disp spla lays ys that that autom utomat ate e trai traini ning ng,, docum documenta entation tion and phone phone suppor support, t, integr integrate ate this this autom automati ation on into applications applications and provide support that is faster, faster, cheaper and more effective than traditional methods. 4. Distance and internet based Training. Organisations use various forms of distance learning methods for training. Distance learning methods include traditional paper and pencil pencil corres correspon pondenc dence e course courses s as well well as tele tele train training, ing, videovideoconferencing and internet based classes. In teletraining, a trainer in a central location teacher groups of employ employees ees at remote remote locat locations ions via televi television sion.. Honda Honda Americ America a corporate began by using satellite technology to train engineers and now it uses it for many other types of employee training.
This method is very cost effective since the employees learn at home and the company does not have to pay for their travel, stay and training.
Video-Conferencing is used by companies to train the employees who are geographically separated from each other or from the trainer. This method allows people in one location to communica icate line via a combinat nation ion of audio and visu sua al equipment with people in another city or country or with groups in several cities. Many firms need the internet and their proprietary intranets to deliv deliver er com compute puterr based based trai traini ning ng.. Emplo Employe yees es can can acces access s the the progra programm mmes, es, whenev whenever er they they want. want. Distri Distribut bution ion costs costs are are zero zero and and chan change ges s can can be made ade in the the prog progra ramm mmes es at the the cent centra rall location whenever 'need arises. Many firms are using Business Portals now-a-days now-a-days.. Training Training is ofte often n foun found d and and deliv deliver ered ed thro throug ugh h trai traini ning ng orie orient nted ed learn learnin ing g port portal als. s. Thes These e port porta als cont contra ract ct with ith empl employ oyer ers s and deli delive verr training options to the firms employees (often web based). Many firms are creating their own learning portals for their employees. They let the company contract with specific training content prov provid ider ers, s, which ich offe offerr their heir train rainin ing g cont conten entt to the the fir firm's employees employees via the portal. portal. The technology technology of the learning learning portals portals puts more and more information into everyone's hands. Instead of limiti limiting ng trai traini ning ng oppo opport rtun uniti ities es to teac teache herr led led conv conven entio tiona nall cla class sses es or to per periodi iodic c train rainin ing g sess sessio ions ns,, train rainin ing g becom ecomes es avai availa labl ble e all all the the tim time. Empl Employ oyee ees s lea learn at thei theirr own own pace pace,, whenever they want to.
METHODS / TECHNIQUES OF EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT The basic purpose of executive development programmes programmes is to help the executive in acquiring and developing different types of manage manageria riall skills skills and and knowl knowledge edge.. Differ Different ent types types of skills skills and knowledge needed by executives are as follows: (i) Decision-making skills (ii) Interpersonal skills (iii) Job (iii) Job Knowledge (iv) Organisational Knowledge (v) General knowledge (vi) Specific Individual needs. The methods/techniques which help the executives in acquiring and I developing these skill are as follows:
(1) DECISION MAKING SKILLS I The basic job of every executive is to take decisions, both strategic and routine. The techniques which help him in developing decision making skills are as follows: 1. In Basket Exercise . After the trainees are given background information on a simulated exercise about a company and its products, organisation and key personnel, they are provided with an in in-b -ba asket sket of ass ssor orte ted d memor emoran anda da,, requ reques estts and data pertaining to the firm. The trainee must make sense out of this mass of paper aper work and prepa repare re memos emos,, make note notes s and delegate tasks within a limited period. The In-basket training involves: - Situational Judgement in being able to recall details, establish priorities, interrelate items and determine need for more information. - Scheduling meetings with involved explaining reasons for action taken.
personnel
- Will Willing ingne ness ss to mak make e a decisi decision on and and take take act actio ion. n.
and
Merits. The In-basket method has the following advantages: (i)
It is is sim simp ple and ea easy to fo follo llow.
(ii) (ii)
It is in inex expe pens nsive ive and and can can be be org organ anise ised d easil easily. y.
(iii (iii))
Train rainee ees s lea learn quickl ickly y as they they have to list list prio priori riti ties es,, make assumptions assign work to others and get things done within a time frame. (iv) (iv) Si Sinc nce e part partic icip ipan ants ts are from from di diff ffer eren entt depa depart rtme ment nts, s, it is easy to put out inter-department fires.
Demerits. On the negative side: (i) This method is somewhat academic and removed from real life situations. (ii) The participants knowing fully well that they are handling an imaginary situation, may not be too excited about the whole exercise and may not fully commit themselves to the task. (iii) It di disc scou oura rage ges s orig origin inal ality ity.. sinc since e the the team teams s have have to adop adoptt themselves to rigid situations. 2. Busin usines ess s Gam Games/M es/Man anag agem emen entt Gam Games. es. Management gam games are bein being g devi devise sed d and and us used ed with ith vary varyin ing g degr degree ees s of success in developmen developmentt programm programmes. es. Managemen Managementt games games are designed to be representative of real life situations. A management game is a classroom exercise, in which teams of students compete against each other to achieve certain common obje object ctiv ives es.. The The tra train inee ees s are asked sked to take take deci decisi sion ons s about bout production, cost, research and development etc. for a stimulated organisation. Since, the trainees are often divided into teams as comp compet eting ing com companie panies, s, expe experi rien ence ce is obta obtaine ined d in team team work work.. Under this method, the trainees learn by analysing problems by usin us ing g som some in intu tuit itio ion n and by taking king trail rail and erro errorr type ype of decisions. Anything wrongly done is corrected by the trainer or sometimes a second chance is given to do something all over again. . Management games are intended to teach trainees how to take take mana manager geria iall deci decisio sions ns in an in inte tegr grat ated ed mann manner er.. Such Such gam games illu illust stra rate te the the exis existe tenc nce e of vari variou ous s grou group p proc proces esse ses s incl in clud udin ing g com communic unica ation tion,, the resol esolut utio ion n of conf confli lict cts, s, the emergence of leadership and development of friendly ties.
Merits. Merits of management games are: 1. There is usually a great sense of excitement and enjoyment in playing the games. This helps to develop problem solving skills. 2. These games compress time. Events that take painfully long periods of time are made to occur in a matter of hours. 3. In these games, one can learn from mistakes. Participants can take a different course of action by looking at the consequences and improve performance. 4. It help helps s in chan changin ging g atti attitu tude des. s. Part Partici icipa pant nts s beco become me more ore tolerant. 5 . Prompt feedback facilitates quick learning. 6. Thes These e game games s focu focus s atte attent ntio ion n on pl plan annin ning g rath rather er than than ju just st putting out fires.
Demerits. The demerits of this method are: 1. The games can be very expensive to develop and implement particularly when the game itself is computerised. 2. Bus Busines iness s games games are are remove removed d from from reality reality.. These These force force the the decision makers to choose his alternatives from a closed list, whereas in real life, managers may get unlimited chances for creating new alternatives. 3. No evidence is available which may indicate that those who are successful successful in business games games will also be successful in a real job. 4. Unort north hodox odox Stra Strate tegi gies es may be advance anced d by innov nnovat ativ ive e participants. But when these strategies do not find acceptance from others, creativity may take a back seat.
5. Part Partic icip ipa ants nts may be so engr engros osse sed d in gett gettin ing g ahea ahead d of all all others that they they fail fail to gras grasp p the the unde underly rlying ing manag anagem ement ent polic policies ies being being taught.
3. Case Study. The case study method of development utilises actual actual case case examp examples les collec collected ted from from variou various s organi organisat sations ions for diagnostic purposes. Under this method, a real or hypothetical problem or situation demanding solution is presented in writing to the trainees. They are required to identify and analyse the problem, suggest and evaluate alternative courses of action and choose choose the the most most appro appropria priate te soluti solution. on. The trainer trainer guides guides the the discuss discussion ion and ensure ensures s that that no releva relevant nt factor factor is overlo overlooke oked. d. Thus, the trainees get an opportunity to apply their skills in the solu soluti tion on of real realis isti tic. c. prob proble lem ms. To make ake the the case case st stud udy y an effective tool, the trainer must: (i) Identify the minor and major problems in the case. (ii) Filter out the significant facts from the insignficant ones. (iii) Analyse the issues and use logic to fill the gaps in the facts. (iv) Arri Arrive ve at som some means eans for for solv solvin ing g the the id iden enti tifi fia abl ble e problems. For the effective use of case studies, group discussions may also be Conducted
Merits. The merits of case study method are: (i) This method improves the problem solving skills of the participants. (ii) This (ii) This method is a way of learning by doing. Trainees can apply theory to practical problems and learn quickly. (iii) Trainees get a feel of how others work at a problem and begin to appreciate and learn from each other's thinking. (iv) If the case reflects a real life situation trainees take keen interest ana,
examine the cross currents with an open and inquisitive mind. Case st stud udy y can can prov provid ide e st stim imul ulat atin ing g di disc scus ussi sion ons s amon among g (v) Case participants a! well well as excel excellen lentt oppo opport rtun uniti ities es for for indiv individu idual als s to defe defend nd thei theirr analyticai and judgemental abilities.
Demerits. The negative points of case study are: (i) It is a cost costly ly and and tim time cons consum umin ing g metho ethod d sinc since e the the case case studies do not originate easily. (ii) Cases, sometimes, are not sufficiently realistic to be useful. (iii) Exam Examin inin ing g the the old old case case st stud udie ies s may fail fail to deve develo lop p the the analytical and reasoning abilities of the participants. (iv) Cases may contain information which may not be appropriate for the kin kind of decis ecisio ions ns that hat the the train rainee ees s would ould take in rea real life life situations. (v) A trainee who is not skilled in this technique may undermine its usefulness.
(ii) INTER-PERSONAL INTER-PERSONAL SKILLS SKILLS The various techniques used to foster and develop interpersonal skills are as follows: 1. Role Role Play Playing ing.. Unde Underr this this metho ethod, d, a conf confli lict ctin ing g situ situat ation ion is arti artifi fici cial ally ly crea create ted d and and two two or more ore train rainee ees s are ass ssig igne ned d different roles to play. No dialogues are given before hand. The role players are provided with either a written or oral description the situation and the roles they are to play. After being allowed suff su ffici icien entt tim time to pl plan an their their actio actions ns,, they they mus ustt then then act act thei theirr parts spontaneously before the class. For example, a role playing situ situat atio ion n may be a sale salesm sman an makin aking g is pres presen enta tati tion on to the the prospective buyer. Role Role playing playing techniq techniques ues is genera generally lly used used for human human relat relations ions
and and lea leaders dershi hip p trai traini ning ng.. The The purp purpos ose e is to gi give ve trai traine nees es an opportunity to learn human relations skill through practice and to develop an insight into one's own behaviour and its effect upon upon othe other. r. Thus Thus is a labo labora rato tory ry metho ethod d which which can can be us used ed rath rather er easil easily y as a su supp pplem lement ent to othe otherr conv conven entio tiona nall trai traini ning ng methods.
Merits. The merits of Role-Playing method are: (i) In this method learning by doing is emphasised. (ii) Human interactions and sensitivity are stressed. (iii) The knowledge of results is immediate. (iv) Training interest and involvement tend to be high. (v) It brings about desired changes in behaviour and attitudes. (vi) Competitive atmosphere spurs active participation.
Demerits. The negative points of Role Playing are: (i) (i) Reali ealism sm is som sometim etimes es lack lackin ing g in role role pl play ayin ing g so that that the the learning experience is diminished. (ii) It is not easy to duplicate the pressures and realities of actual decision making on the job. (iii) Individuals act very differently in real life than they do in acting out a simulated exercise. (iv) Many any tra train inee ees s ofte often n feel feel unco uncomf mfor orta tabl ble e in role role pl play ayin ing g situations.
2. Sensitivity Sensitivity Training Training.. This This meth method od is also also calle called d T-Gr T-Grou oup p train rainin ing g and labo labora rattory ory train rainin ing g as it is condu onduct cted ed under der cont contro rolle lled d cond conditi ition ons. s. Sensi Sensiti tivi vity ty trai traini ning ng was was deve develop loped ed by KURT LEWIN. According to Chris Argyris "Sensitivity training is a grou group p expe experi rien ence ce desig esigne ned d to provi rovide de maximum imum possi ossibl ble e opportunity for the individuals to expose their behaviour, give and and rece receiv ive e feed feedba back ck,, expe experi rime ment nt with with new new beha behavi viou ourr and and develop awareness of self and of others. The main features of sensitivity training are as follows:
- T Group consists of 10-12 persons. - A leader acts as the catalyst and provides a free and open environment for discussion. - There is no specified agenda. - Trainees express their ideas, opinions and feelings freely and openly. The focus is on behaviour rather than on duties. - The aim is to achieve behaviour effectiveness in transactions with one's environment.
Merits. Accord Campbel belll and and Dunn Dunnett ettee ee sensitivity According ing to Camp training helps the participants to : - learn more about themselves, especially their own weaknesses an emotions. - Develop insights into how they react to others and how others react to them. - Disco iscov ver how groups work and how to diagn iagnos ose e human relations problems. - Fin ind d out out how how to beha behave ve more ore effe effect ctiv ivel ely y in in inte terr-pe pers rson ona al relations and how to manage people through means other than power. - Develop more 'component' and 'authentic' relations in which feelings are expressed openly. - Confront interpersonal problems directly, so that they may be solve~ and not try to avoid them rather smooth them over or seek a compromise.
After training, the trainees become more sensitive to others and more open. Such training can also result in increased company' performance and profits.
Demertis. The demerits of this training are: - The programme is considered to be a waste of time. Even the trainees' who who them themsel selve ves s are are favo favour urab ably ly impr impres essed sed with with the the trai trainin ning g cann cannot ot poin pointt out out the the speci specific fic bene benefit fits s and and 'neit 'neithe herr can can thei theirr associates. - Sens Sensit itiv ivit ity y trai traini ning ng make make the the trai traine nees es so sens sensit itiv ive e to the the feel feelin ings gs of othe others rs that that he is not not in a posi positi tion on to take take hars harsh h decisions. - Such training induces anxiety among participants. Such anxiety may cause the people to be highly frustrated, unsettled and upset. - T-Gr T-Grou oup p trai trainin ning g when when appli applied ed to tech technic nical al prof profess ession ional als s is often less effective as compared to the conventional methods. - The trainers often create stress situations. There is a danger that training of this sort may do a better job of tearing apart people than of bringing, them together. - The ultimate goals and techniques. of this training are often inconsistent with the business and economic world in which we live.
3. Behaviour Modelling. Behaviour modelling is based on the social social learning learning theory. theory. Behaviour modelling is a more more structured structured appr approa oach ch to teac teach h sp speci ecifi fic c su supe perv rviso isory ry skill skills. s. The The appr approa oach, ch, generally, involves the following stages: - A conceptual presentation is made in the proper handling of a particular problem. The key action step is identified and emphasised.
- A vid ideo eo tape tape of the effec ffecti tiv ve hand handli ling ng of the the probl roblem em is presented. Each key action step is performed. -A behavioural rehearsal period is then undertaken. Though this may look like role playing, the trainee is not free to select a response. Rather he rehearses the behaviour presented to him. - Durin uring g and afte afterr the the rehe rehers rsa al peri period od,, the the trai traine nee e is gi give ven n feedback on perfor performa mance nce and is positiv positively ely reinfo reinforce rced d when when demons demonstra tratin ting g the behaviour model. - Finally, the trainee is encouraged to try the behaviour at the job and report back for discussion of the result of that tryout.
4. Trans ransac acti tion onal al Ana Analysi lysis s (TA) (TA).. TA offers a model of personality and dynamics of self and its relationship to others that that makes makes possib possible le a clear clear and and meani meaningfu ngfull unders understan tandin ding g of behaviour. It is used in industry as a method of analysing and unders understan tanding ding interp interperso ersonal nal behavi behaviour. our. When When people people intera interact, ct, ther there e is a socia sociall tran transa sact ction ion in which which one one pers person on resp respon onds ds to anot anothe her. r. The The st stud udy y of thes these e tran transa sact ctio ions ns betw betwee een n peop people le is called 'Transactional Analysis'. T A was originally developed by Eric Eric Berne Berne,, a psycho psychothe therap rapist, ist, for psycho psychothe therap rapy y in 1950. 1950. He obser observe ved d in hi his s pati patien ents ts that that it was was as if ther there e were were seve severa rall different persons inside one person. He also observed that these several selves transmitted with people in different ways. Later on the application of T A for ordinary transactions was popularised by Harris and Jongeward besides Berne. Transactional analysis is a very popular method of executive deve develo lopm pmen ent. t. By expo exposi sing ng their eir exec execu utiv tives to cou courses rses in transactional analysis, the companies seek to improve their self understanding, interpersonal effectiveness, communication and leadership skills.
5. Multiple Management. This method is for the training of junior executives. Here the Junior executives are encouraged to put their minds minds to work on the business as -a -a whole, rather rather than to conc concen entr trat ate e on thei theirr sp spec ecia ialis lised ed area areas. s. Thou Though gh the the major ajor
objective is training, the organisation is also benefited by the prod produc uctiv tive e id idea eas. s. Unde Underr this this sy syst stem em,, a ju juni nior or boar board d of youn young g execut executive ives s is consti constitut tuted. ed. Major Major problem problems s are are analy analysed sed in the Junior board which makes recommendations to the Board of Directors. The young executives learn decision making skills and the Board of Directors receives the benefit of collective wisdom of the executive team. Vacancies in the Board of Directors can be fille filled d from from the the Juni Junior or boar board d membe embers rs who who have have rece receiv ived ed considerable exposure to problems and other issues. This method has the advantages of being relatively inexpensive, development of team work and group decision making among managers, enabling the managers to see the problems from the orga organi nisa sati tion ona al point oint of view iew rath rather er tha than depa depart rtm menta entall or functional point of view.
(iii) Job Knowledge. In addition to the above mentioned skills, the executives should also also posse possess ss know knowled ledge ge abou aboutt the the jobs jobs to perf perfor orm m thei theirr jobs jobs effe effect ctiv ivel ely y and effi effici cien entl tly. y. Job Job know knowle ledg dge e can can be acqui cquire red d through the following methods:
1. On the Job experience. On the job technique is most useful when hen the the obje object ctiv ive e is to impr improv ove e the job beha ehaviou viourr of the the exec execut utiv ives es.. Such Such trai traini ning ng is in inex expe pens nsiv ive e and time ime savi saving ng.. Training takes place in real job situations and the motivation to learn is high. The success of this technique depends upon the immediate supervisor and his teaching capabilities. This technique is particularly useful for certain groups like scientific and technical personnel. The limitation of this method is that neither the trainer nor the trainee are free from the daily routine and pressures of the job. The costs of training may appear to be low initially, but they may turn out to be high when wastages of all kinds are considered. Desp Despit ite e the the limi limita tatio tions, ns, st stil illl it is the the most ost popu popula larr meth method od of developing the executives.
2. Coaching. Under this method, the immediate superior guides the subordinates subordinates about various methods methods and skills to do the job.
He briefs the trainees in what is expected of them and guides them them how how to get get it. it. He also lso watc watche hes s thei theirr perf perfor orm mance nce and guides them to correct their mistakes. The superior only guides and direct ects but does not teach, alth lthough ugh he extends his ass ssis isttance nce whene henev ver neede eeded d. He peri period odic ica ally lly revie eview ws the the performance and suggests changes required in behaviour and perf perfor orm mance ance.. The The main ain obje object ctiv ive e of coac coachi hing ng is to prov provid ide e diver diversif sified ied know knowled ledge ge.. Coac Coachin hing g is reco recogn gnise ised d as one one of the the responsibilitie responsibilities s of the managers. managers. The manager has an obligation to train train and and develop develop the the subord subordina inates tes worki working ng under under him. him. He guid guides es and train rains s them hem and prep prepa ares res them to hand handle le the the complex situations.
Merits. The merits of coaching are: - Increased motivation of the trainee, since coaching constitutes learning by doing. - Minimi inimisa satio tion n of the the prob problem lems s of tran transf sfer errin ring g learn learnin ing g from from theory to practice. - Least Least centra centralised lised staff staff co-ord co-ordina ination tion is requir required, ed, since since every every executive can can coach oach hi his s men 'ev 'even if no manag nagemen ementt dev develop elopm ment ent programme exists. - Feed back on performance is received quickly. Demerits. This method has the following demerits also: - This method relies on the ability of the coach to be a good teacher, which he may not necessarily be. - In many cases, the learner cannot develop much beyond the limits of his own boss's abilities. - This technique is authoritarian, for a coach tends to familarise his subordinates with his own work habits and beliefs, even though these may be faulty. - The training atmosphere is not available in this method. Coaching method will work well if the coach provides a good
model with whom the trainee can identify, if both can be open with each other, if the coach accepts his responsibility fully and if he provides the trainee with recognition of his improvement and suitable rewards.
3. Understudy. An understudy is the person who is specially designated as the heir apparent. In this method, the trainee is prepared to perf perfor orm m the the work ork or fill ill the the posit ositio ion n of hi his s su sup peri erior. or. Such Such understudy is likely to assume the full duties and responsibilities currently held by his superior as his superior leaves the job due to promotion, retirement or transfer. The department manager picks up one person from the department to become his under stud st udy. y. The The depa depart rtme ment nta al manag anager er rou routes tes much uch of hi his s work ork through the under study, discusses the problems with him and allows him to participate in the decision making process as often as poss possib ible. le. The The ju juni nior or is gene genera rally lly assi assigne gned d task tasks s which which are are closely related to work in his section and he is deputed to attend execu executiv tive e meeting eetings s as a repr repres esen enta tati tive ve of hi his s su supe peri rior or.. The The understudy may even be asked to directly supervise a number of people at work. This will give him an opportunity to try out his leadership skills. Merits. The merits of understudy method are as follows: - This method creates a practical and realistic situation in which the training is conducted. - It is a prac practic tical al and and fairl fairly y quick quick way way of trai traini ning ng desi design gnat ated ed persons for greater management responsibilities. - It emphasises learning by doing. - It relieves the boss of some of his workload by delegating some portion of the workload to the understudy. - It ensures that the organisation will not be in a disadv disadvanta antageou geous s situat situation ion if an execut executive ive suddenl suddenly y leaves leaves his job. The understudy will be in position to hold that position.
Demerits. There are quite a few disadvantages of this method also: - Since the understudy has been specifically designated, it may spark off jealously and rivalry among competing subordinates. The others may feel that the competition for promotion is over. This reduces the motivation level of both the one who is designated and the other personnel. - The understudy may be picked up on the basis of his similarity in thinking and acting with those of his superior and then the understudy will learn the ways. of his superior, who has learnt from his superior. Thus, understudy will perpetuate the existing prac practi tice ces, s, the the bad bad as well well as the the good good.. Ther Theref efor ore, e, outs outsid ide e contacts through other development techniques are essential for the the deve develo lopm pment ent of the the pers person on and and for for the the well well being being of the the organisation. The effectiveness of understudy assignments depends upon the will willing ingnes ness s and and abili ability ty of the the hi high gher er leve levell mana manager ger to sh shar are e expe experi rien ence ces s and to trans ransfe ferr know nowledg ledge e to the und underst erstud udy y manager.
(iv) Organisationl Knowledge. In addition to the job knowledge, the executives should possess through knowledge about the organisation in which they work. There are two techniques of imparting organisational knowledge: Job Rotation and Multiple Management. (Multiple management has been discussed under inter-personal skills).
Job Rotation Job rotation implies systematic, planned and coordinated effort to transfer an executive from job to job or from plant to plant. The main aim of job rotation is to broaden the general back backgr grou ound nd of the the trai trainin ning g in the the busi busine ness. ss. The The execu executi tive ve is given all the duties and responsibilities which go along with the job to which he is transferred. This method broadens the outlook of the executive as he comes to appreciate the problems faced by other managers, plants, departments etc. According to W.E. Benett "Job "Job rotat rotation ion is a process process of horizo horizonta ntall movem movement ent that that widens widens the manag manager's er's experie experience nce horizo horizon n beyond beyond the limited limited
confines of his own." A ju juni nior or entr entran antt who who is new new to the the orga organi nisa sati tion on requ requir ires es a conside considerab rable le degree degree of specia specialise lised d knowl knowledg edge e and and skill but a man can never acquire the diversified skill unless he is put in different types of situations.
Merits. Job rotation has many advantages: - It works to bring down the feel eelin ing g of su sup periority of one departmen departmentt over the the others; since since everyone everyone is moved from one one department to other. - It rather develops inter-departmental co-operation. - Boredom, monotony are reduced. - Job rotation rotation injects injects new ideas into the different departments departments of the organisation. - Under this system, an executive is not destined to end up in just one spot but is equipped to step up into any of the several executive posts in any of various functional decisions. - The trainee will learn the nature and significance of management principles by transferring learning from one job to another. - Each Each exec execut utiv ive' e's s abil abilit itie ies s and and tale talent nts s are best best test tested ed in a variety of jobs. So the organisation can secure his best utilisation in the ultimate assignment.
Demerits. The demerits of Job rotation are: - Produ roduct ctiv ive e work ork may su suff ffer er due due to di disr srup upti tion ons s caus caused ed by chance chance and limitations limitations of individuals individuals to adjust to a new job. job. So it is better I lengthen the interval of rotation and to rotate fewer personnel at a time. - The The exec execut utiv ives es can' can'tt gain sp spec ecia iali lise sed d know nowledg ledge e in one particular branch of work during a short span of time. - It upsets home and family life, since many a time transfers are effected to different geographical areas.
- It becomes difficult for the subordinates to adjust themselves to their their new bosses. bosses. Interp Interpers ersona onall relati relations onship hip takes takes time time for adjustment and employees with frequent moves are apt to feel insecure. It deve develop lops s fric fricti tion on,, jeal jealou ousy sy and and othe otherr non-c non-coo oope pera rativ tive e and and dysfunctional forms of human behaviour.
(v) General Knowledge. In addition to the knowledge knowledge about about the job and the organisation, organisation, the executive should also possess general knowledge, as every organisa isation tion is influenced and affecte cted by the external envi enviro ronm nmen ents. ts. He sh shou ould ld have have gene genera rall know knowled ledge ge abou aboutt the the economic, political, legal and international environment of the country. General knowledge can be acquired with the help of the following! methods: 1. Special Courses. The executives can attend the workshops or executive development programmes organised by the management institutes, universities and colleges. These courses will help in improving their general knowledge.
2. Special ial Meeting ings. Some outside organisations like consumer consumer forums, forums, chambers of industry and commerce, and so many other voluntary organisations, organise special meetings from time to time. The executives can attend such meetings to acquire general knowledge. 3. Specif Specific ic Re Read ading ings. s. Specifi Specific c articl articles es publish published ed by vario various us journals, specific portions of important books are provided to the trainees to improve their general knowledge. (vi) Specific Individual Needs Some executives may have to be trained in some specific areas due due to som some sp speci ecifi fic c need needs s or weak weakne nesse sses. s. The. The. metho ethods ds of training for this aspect are: 1. Special Projects Assignments. A special assignment is a highly training device under which a trainee is assigned a project that is closely related to his job. Sometimes, a number of trainee
executives executives are put together together to work on a project directly related to their functional areas. The trainee studies the problems and submits the written recommendations upon it. It provides him a valuable valuable experience experience in tackling tackling the problem problem but would also have the other values of educating the trainees the importance of the problem and to understand the organisational relationship of the problem with different angles. When he works as a member of the team, he not only acquires knowledge, but also learns how to work with others having different points of view.
2. Committee Assignments. This method is similar to project assig signmen nmentt. Under this system an ad-h -ho oc committ ittee is constituted and is assigned a subject related to the business to discuss and to make recommendations. Through discussions in com committe ittee e meeti eeting ngs, s, the the execu xecuti tiv ves get acqua cquain inte ted d with ith diff di ffer eren entt point point of view views s and and alte altern rnat ativ ive e metho ethods ds of prob problem lem solv solvin ing. g. They They also lso lear learn n in inte terp rper erso sona nall skil skills ls.. Gener enera ally, lly, the the exec execut utiv ives es are sele select cted ed from from di diff ffer eren entt depa depart rtm ments ents havi having ng specialised knowledge in different areas. 3. Conferences. A conference is a group meeting conducted according to an organised plan in whcih the members participate in oral discussion of a particular problem and thus, develop their knowledge and understanding. It is an executive training device for conference .members and conference leaders. Both learn a lot lot from from othe others rs view iew poin pointt and com compare pare thei theirr opin opinio ions ns with ith others. The conference leaders may also learn how to develop their their skills skills to motiv motivat ate e people people throu through gh direct direction ion of discuss discussion ion.. The conferences are of three types: (i) Guided or directed conference (ii) Consultative conference and (iii) Problem solving conference. For training purposes, guided or directed conference is used. It is idea id eally lly su suite ited d in deve develo lopin ping g conc concep eptu tual al know knowled ledge, ge, redu reducin cing g dogm dogmat atis ism m and modif odify yin ing g attit ttitud udes es.. The The train inee ee activ ctivel ely y participates and his interest in learning is maintained.
