PROSES PENGOLAHAN DATA CITRA MODIS UNTUK MENDUGA KONSENTRASI KLOROFIL-A SEBAGAI INDIKATOR TINGKAT KESUBURAN DI PERAIRAN UTARA PAPUA Dilaksanakan di Pusat Data Pengindraan Jauh LAPAN Jakarta Timur LAPORAN PRAKTEK KERJA LAPANGAN
Oleh: BUDI CAHYONO K2A 007 017
FAKULTAS PERIKANAN DAN ILMU KELAUTAN UNIVERSITAS DIPONEGORO SEMARANG 2010
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RINGKASAN Budi Cahyono. K2A 007 017. Proses Pengolahan Data Citra MODIS untuk Menduga Konsentrasi Klorofil-a sebagai Indikator Tingkat Kesuburan di Perairan Utara Papua. (Agus Hartoko)
Klorofil-a merupakan suatu pigmen yang didapatkan dalam fitoplankton, dan mempunyai fungsi sebagai mediator dalam proses fotosintesis. Oleh karena itu, kandungan klorofil-a dalam perairan merupakan salah satu indikator tinggi rendahnya kelimpahan fitoplankton atau tingkat kesuburan suatu perairan. Keterbatasan panca indera manusia untuk memantau kondisi lingkungan laut sudah dapat diatasi dengan perkembangan teknologi satelit, yaitu dengan aplikasi penginderaan jauh dan Sistem Informasi Geografis (SIG). Tujuan Praktek Kerja Lapangan (PKL) ini adalah untuk menduga konsentrasi klorofil-a sebagai indikator tingkat kesuburan di perairan Utara Papua. Metode yang digunakan pada Praktek Kerja Lapangan ini adalah dengan cara men-download data data citra MODIS-Aqua dan mengolahnya ke dalam softwaresoftware SIG seperti Seadas 5.3, Er Mapper 7.1, dan ArcView 3.2., wawancara dengan staf-staf di Pusat Data LAPAN, dan studi pustaka/literatur. Hasil yang diperoleh pada PKL ini yaitu berupa Peta Sebaran Klorofil-a di Wilayah Perairan Utara Papua tanggal 11 Februari 2010, dengan membuat range nilai konsentrasi klorofil-a antara 0 – 3 mg/m 3. Nilai konsentrasi klorofil 0 mg/m 3 artinya pada koordinat tersebut daerah perairan tertutup oleh awan; 0,001 - 0,05 3 3 3 3 mg/m , 0,051 – 0,1 mg/m , 0,11 – 0,3 mg/m , 0,301 – 0,5 mg/m , 0,501 – 1,0 3 3 3 3 mg/m , 1,01 – 1,5 mg/m , 1,501-2 mg/m , dan 2,01 -3 mg/m . Proses klasifikasi ini bertujuan untuk membedakan membedakan warna pada setiap nilai konsentrasi klorofil-a yang ada. Kesimpulan yang diperoleh dari PKL ini yaitu pendugaan konsentrasi klorofil-a pada daerah koordinat perairan utara Papua berdasarkan hasil pengolahan data citra MODIS-Aqua dan layout peta terlihat wilayah yang fitoplanktonnya banyak terdapat di bagian yang cenderung ke arah pantai daripada di bagian lepas pantai, berarti dapat diduga bahwa daerah sebaran klorofil-a tersebut memiliki kesuburan perairan yang tinggi. Kata kunci: Klorofil-a, Penginderaan jauh, SIG, Konsentrasi, Kesuburan Kesuburan
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KATA PENGANTAR
Puji syukur kehadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa yang telah melimpahkan rahmat dan hidayah-Nya sehingga penyusun dapat menyelesaikan Laporan Praktek Kerja Lapangan (PKL) yang berjudul “Proses Pengolaan Data Citra Modis Untuk Menduga konsentrasi Klorofil-A Sebagai Indikator Kesuburan di Perairan Utara papua. Penyusun tidak lupa lupa mengucapkan terima kasih kepada: 1. Dekan Fakultas Perikanan dan Ilmu Kelautan Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang atas izin pelaksanaan Praktek Kerja Lapangan (PKL); 2. Dr. Agus Hartoko, M.Sc., selaku dosen pembimbing yang telah banyak memberikan saran dan bimbingan selama proses penyusunan laporan praktek kerja lapangan (PKL); 3. Drs. Kustiyo, M.Si., selaku Kepala Bidang Produksi Data Penginderaan Jauh LAPAN yang telah memberikan ijin atas pelaksanaan Praktek Kerja Lapangan (PKL); 4. Dipo Yudhatama, ST., dan Gathot Winarso, MSc., selaku pembimbing di LAPAN yang telah banyak membimbing selama pelaksanaan. 5. Heri Sulyantoro, MSc., yang telah membantu segala sesuatunya selama pelaksanaan Praktek Kerja Lapangan (PKL) di LAPAN; 6. Ayah, Ibu, Bunda, dan semua teman-teman yang telah membantu, moral maupun material sehingga terselesaikannya Laporan Praktek Kerja Lapangan ini. Penyusun selalu mengharap kritik dan saran demi kesempurnaan laporan ini. Semoga bermanfaat bagi kita semua dan dapat memberikan kontribusi pada masyarakat pada umumnya, umumnya, serta bagi penyusun penyusun khususnya. khususnya.
Jakarta Timur,
Maret 2010
Penyusun
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DAFTAR ISI
Halaman HALAMAN JUDUL
........................................... ................................................................. .......................................... ....................
LEMBAR PENGESAHAN RINGKASAN
iii
............................................ .................................................................. ....................................... .................
iv
......................................... ............................................................... ............................................ ................................... .............
DAFTAR TABEL
............................................ .................................................................. ............................................ ........................ ..
DAFTAR GAMBAR
........................................... ................................................................. .......................................... ....................
DAFTAR LAMPIRAN BAB I.
BAB II.
2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5.
v vii viii xi
........................................................................ Latar Belakang ......................................... ............................................................... ............................ ...... Pendekatan dan Perumusan Masalah ................................... ................................... Tujuan dan Manfaat ............................................ ............................................................. ................. Waktu dan Tempat ........................................... ............................................................... ....................
1 1 3 3 4
.............................................................. Gambaran Umum propinsi Papua ......................................... ......................................... 2.1.1.Kondisi Oceanografis Perairan Utara Papua ................ Klorofil-a ............................................ .................................................................. ................................... ............. Penginderaan Jauh ......................................... ............................................................... ........................ .. Sistem Informasi Geografis (SIG) ........................................ ........................................ Satelit MODIS ........................................... ................................................................. ............................ ......
5 5 6 7 9 10 10
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
2.1.
BAB III.
.......................................... ................................................................ ....................................... .................
PENDAHULUAN
1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4.
ii
........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................... .........
KATA PENGANTAR DAFTAR ISI
........................................... ................................................................. ............................... .........
i
.......................................................... 15 3.1. Materi ............................................ .................................................................. ....................................... ................. 15 3.1.1.Alat............................................ .................................................................. ................................... ............. 15 3.1.2.Bahan ............................................ .................................................................. ............................... ......... 16 3.2. Metode ........................................... ................................................................. ....................................... ................. 16 3.2.1. Data primer ........................................... ............................................................... .................... 16 3.2.2. Data sekunder .......................................... ........................................................... ................. 16 3.3. Tahap Pengolahan Data Citra................................................ Citra................................................ 17 3.3.1.1. pra analisa data ............................. ................................................... ............................. ....... 17 17 3.3.1.2. proses analisa data .......................................... ..................................................... ........... 17 3.3.1.3. pembuatan peta sebaran klorofil-a ............................ ............................ 18
MATERI DAN METODE
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BAB V.
4.1.1. Langkah kerja pembuatan Peta Sebaran Klorofil-a di Pusdata LAPAN ................................... ................................... 4.1.2. Perekaman data klorofil-a ......................................... ......................................... 4.1.3. Pengolahan data ........................................... ........................................................ ............. 4.1.3.1. pengolahan data pada SeaDAS 5.3 ............ 4.1.3.2. koreksi geometri (rektifikasi) pada pada ER Mapper 7.1 ............................................ ................................................. ..... 4.1.3.3. interpretasi data citra pada ArcView GIS 3.2 .......................................... ....................................................... ............. 4.2. Pembahasan ........................................... ................................................................. ............................... .........
29 35
................................................... 5.1. Kesimpulan Kesimpulan ........................................... ................................................................. ............................... ......... 5.2. Saran............................................ .................................................................. .......................................... ....................
38 38 38
....................................................................................
40
...................................................................................................
42
KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN
DAFTAR PUSTAKA LAMPIRAN
21 22 23 23 26
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DAFTAR TABEL
Halaman 1.
Spesifikasi teknis satelit MODIS MODIS ......................................... ............................................................... ........................ 7
2.
Karakteristik sensor MODIS .......................................... ................................................................ .............................. ........ 8
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DAFTAR GAMBAR
Halaman 1. Gambar peta potensi perikanan dan kelautan propinsi Papua....................
5
2. Gambar Multi Multi spectral remote sensing ................... sensing ......................................... ................................... .............
9
3. Gambar alur Kerja proses pengolahan nilai klorofil-a menggunakan data citra MODIS ......................................... ............................................................... ............................................ ........................ ..
20
4.
Gambar Langkah Kerja Pembuatan Peta Sebaran Klorofil-a ...................
21
5.
Gambar Tampilan Website NASA.................................... NASA.......................................................... ........................ ..
22
6.
Gambar Tampilan SeaDAS Main Menu ........................................... .................................................... .........
23
7.
Gambar Tampilan Please Tampilan Please Select a File for Reading pada pada SeaDAS 5.3 ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ........................ ..
24
Gambar Tampilan Citra Setelah Diatur Penampilannya pada SeaDAS 5.3 ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................... .........
24
9. Gambar Tampilan “Terminal “Terminal ” pada SeaDAS 5.3. ..................................... .....................................
25
8.
10. Gambar tampilan export pada export pada Microsoft Office Picture Manager......................................................................................................
26
11. Gambar Tampilan Menu Utama ER Mapper 7.1 ...................................... ......................................
27
12. Gambar Tampilan Citra pada ER Mapper 7.1 ......................................... ........................................... ..
27
13. Gambar Tampilan Geocoding Wizard: step 1 of 5 pada 5 pada ER Mapper 7.0 ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ............................................ ........................ ..
28
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19. Gambar Layout Gambar Layout Awal Awal .......................................... ................................................................ ...................................... ................
32
20. Gambar Hasil tampilan proses graticule proses graticule and grid wizard ..................... wizard ....................... ..
33
21. Gambar Layout Setelah Diatur Tampilannya dilengkapi dengan unsur-unsur peta ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ ........................ ..
34
22. Gambar hasil peta setelah di export ke format *JPG ................................. .................................
34
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DAFTAR LAMPIRAN
Halaman 1.
Peta Sebaran Klorofil-a di Wilayah Wila yah Perairan Utara Papua pada bulan Februari 2010 ........................................... ................................................................. ............................................ .............................. ........ 43
2.
Surat Keterangan Selesai PKL dari LAPAN .......................................... ............................................... ..... 44
3.
Surat Keterangan Melaksanakan Tugas ........................................... ....................................................... ............ 45
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1
I.
PENDAHULUAN
1.1. Latar Belakang
Keadaan wilayah nusantara Indonesia sebagian besar terdiri dari perairan, baik perairan yang berada di daratan seperti danau, rawa, sungai, waduk, dan genangan-genangan air lainnya dan perairan laut. Luas perairan perairan laut Indonesia 3,1 juta km2 terdiri dari perairan laut teritorial seluas 0,3 juta km2 dan perairan laut nusantara seluas 2,8 juta km 2. Ditambah lagi dengan perairan laut yang berada di daerah Zona Ekonomi Eksklusif (ZEE) seluas 2,7 juta km2. Jadi, luas seluruhnya 5,8 juta km2. Sedangkan luas perairan yang yang ada di daratan kurang lebih 11 juta ha. Sumberdaya hayati perikanan yang terkandung di dalam perairan Indonesia potensinya sangat besar.
Yang
dimaksudkan dengan sumberdaya perikanan adalah semua jenis ikan termasuk biota perairan lainnya. Menurut hasil evaluasi berdasarkan data dan informasi yang ada sampai saat ini secara keseluruhan menunjukkan perkiraan potensi lestari, sumberdaya perikanan laut sebesar 6,6 juta ton/tahun dengan perkiraan sebesar 4,5 juta ton/tahun terdapat di perairan ZEE Indonesia (Murrachman, 2006). Salah satu parameter yang sangat berpengaruh terhadap keberadaan ikan di
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2
Klorofil-a merupakan salah satu dari parameter yang sangat menentukan produktivitas primer di perairan pantai atau laut. Klorofil-a merupakan suatu pigmen yang didapatkan dalam fitoplankton, dan mempunyai fungsi sebagai mediator dalam proses fotosintesis. Oleh karena itu, kandungan kandungan klorofil-a dalam perairan merupakan salah satu indikator tinggi rendahnya kelimpahan fitoplankton atau tingkat kesuburan kesuburan suatu perairan. Sebaran dan tinggi tinggi rendahnya konsentrasi klorofil-a sangat terkait dengan kondisi oseanografis suatu perairan. Beberapa parameter fisika kimia yang mengontrol dan mempengaruhi sebaran klorofil-a, adalah intensitas cahaya dan nutrien (terutama nitrat, fosfat, dan silikat) (Wyrtki, 1961; Yamaji, 1966). Klorofil-a dapat diukur dengan memanfaatkan sifat-sifatnya yang memijar jika dirangsang oleh cahaya pada gelombang tertentu, hal inilah yang dimanfaatkan dalam dunia penginderaan jauh untuk mengestimasi kandungan klorofil-a suatu perairan.
Pada kegiatan Praktek Kerja Lapangan Lapangan (PKL) (PKL) ini ini
dilakukan dengan menganalisis data penginderaan jarak jauh ocean color dari Satelit Aqua yang menggunakan sensor MODIS, sensor ocean colour mengukur mengukur radiasi visible yang berada dalam spektrum sinar tampak (400-700 nm) dari gelombang elektromagnetik yang dipantulkan oleh lapisan permukaan perairan,
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3
Berdasarkan informasi di atas dapat dikaitkan dengan teknologi penginderaan jauh yang merupakan ilmu dan seni untuk memperoleh informasi tentang obyek daerah atau gejala dengan jalan menganalisis data yang diperoleh dengan menggunakan alat tanpa kontak langsung terhadap obyek, daerah, atau gejala yang dikaji. Teknologi ini memiliki beberapa beberapa kelebihan, salah satunya berdasarkan informasi dari literatur di atas yaitu tidak perlu jauh-jauh ke daerah/obyek yang akan dikaji untuk melakukan sampling .
1.2. Pendekatan dan Perumusan Masalah
Perairan Utara Papua termasuk Perairan yang belum banyak di eksploitasi hasil perikanannya. Selain itu kurangnya informasi tentang pemetaan sebaran klorofil-a yang merupakan indikator kesuburan perairan tersebut. Dengan aplikasi penginderaan jauh dan Sistem Informasi Geografis (SIG) dapat menduga konsentrasi klorofil-a sebagai indikator tingkat kesuburan di perairan tersebut,
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4
dilaksanakan pada instansi terkait, yaitu Pusat Pengembangan Pengembangan dan Pemanfaatan Teknologi Pengindraan Jauh LAPAN dengan menggunakan software SeaDAS 5.0, ER Mapper 7.0, dan ArcView GIS 3.3. Praktek Kerja Lapangan (PKL) ini dapat bermanfaat bagi berbagai kalangan, khususnya: 1. Mahasiswa, memberi tambahan pengetahuan mengenai klorofil-a sebagai indikator tingkat kesuburan perairan menggunakan teknologi penginderaan jauh citra MODIS-Aqua; 2. Lembaga atau instansi terkait, memperoleh/menambah informasi, konsentrasi klorofil-a, yang bermanfaat untuk pengembangan dan pengolahan perairan Indonesia, khususnya perairan Utara Papua; dan 3. Perguruan tinggi, sebagai bahan informasi dan pengetahuan tambahan mengenai teknologi penginderaan jauh.
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5
II.
TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
2.1. Gambaran Umum propinsi Papua
Provinsi Papua terletak pada koordinat 130º-140º BT dan 9,0º - 10,45º LS merupakan wilayah paling timur Indonesia dan berbatasan langsung dengan Negara Papua New Guinea. Provinsi Papua memiliki memi liki garis pantai sepanjang 1.170 mil laut dengan luas perairan territorial mencapai 45.510 km² yang didalamnya mengandung berbagai jenis biota laut yang bernilai ekonomis penting.Secara umum potensi lestari sumberdaya perikanan laut sebesar 1.524.800 ton/tahun dan perikanan darat sebesar 268.100 ton/tahun (belum termasuk potensi lahan untuk pengembangan budidaya laut dan tambak diperkirakan sebesar 1.663.200 Ha) (DKP Papua, 2008).
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6
2.1.1.Kondisi Oceanografis Perairan Utara Papua
Perairan Utara Papua merupakan perairan yang memiliki karakteristik massa air yang berbeda dengan perairan wilayah Indonesia lainnya. Hal ini disebabkan oleh letak geografis perairan tersebut yang terbuka dengan Samudra Pasifik. Pada wilayah ini angin pasat yang mantap ( steady) terjadi sepanjang tahun. Di sepanjang perairan tropis Pasifik angin pasat ini menyeret massa air hangat tropis ke bagian barat samudra dan selanjutnya mengumpul mengumpul di wilayah tropis barat Samudera Pasifik (perairan utara Irian). Oleh karena itu wilayah perairan ini dikenal dengan kolam air hangat (warm pool ). ). Kondisi ini menyebabkan tinggi muka laut rata-rata perairan tropis barat Pasifik lebih tinggi dibanding tinggi muka laut rata-rata di Samudera Hindia. Air permukaan ini kemudian masuk ke perairan nusantara yang selanjutnya disebut Arus Lintas Indonesia (Arlindo). Massa air ini dikenal memiliki suhu hangat hangat (diatas 29ºC) dan berkadar garam rendah (kurang dari 32 ‰). Hal ini sangat berbeda dengan air
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informasi ini dapat membantu dalam menentukan daerah fishing ground bagi perikanan komersial penting (Atmodipoera, 2003). 2003). Variasi musiman terhadap nilai kesuburan perairan selama musim timur juga diperkuat oleh Sutomo (1992) yang yang menyebutkan bahwa bahwa nilai klorofil-a tinggi pada daerah oseanik dibanding pada daerah daerah neritik. Hasil penelitian yang dilakukan Hasegawa (2009) menunjukan bahwa secara musiman perairan utara Papua sangat subur yang dipicu dipicu ketika muncul Madden Julian Oscilation (MJO) dalam variasi skala 60-90 harian. Ketika MJO muncul, angin baratan akan membangkitkan gelombang Kelvin ( downwelling Kelvin Wave) ke arah timur dan ketika mencapai kepulauan Bismarc gelombang ini
selanjutnya terbentur oleh massa daratan kepulauan Bismarc yang selanjutnya berubah menjadi gelombang Coastally Trapped
Kelvin Wave (CTKW).
Gelombang ini merambat menyusur pantai sepanjang rangkaian kepulauan Bismarc selanjutnya pantai utara Papua hingga bertemu arus permukaan yang
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fotosintesis seperti karoten dan xantofil . Dari ketiga ketiga pigmen tersebut, klorofil-a merupakan pigmen yang paling umum terdapat pada fitoplankton sehingga kelimpahan fitoplankton dapat dilihat melalui pengukuran konsentrasi klorofil- a di perairan (Parsons et al ., ., 1984 dalam Realino et al ., ., 2005). Sebaran klorofil-a di laut bervariasi secara geografis maupun berdasarkan kedalaman perairan. Variasi tersebut diakibatkan oleh perbedaan intensitas cahaya matahari, dan konsentrasi nutrien yang terdapat di dalam suatu perairan. Di Laut, sebaran klorofil-a lebih tinggi konsentrasinya pada perairan pantai dan pesisir, serta rendah di perairan lepas pantai. Tingginya sebaran konsentrasi klorofil-a di
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terjadi pada kisaran panjang gelombang 425-450 nm dan 665-680 nm. Klorofil-a murni dalam acetone mempunyai absorbsi maksimum pada panjang gelombang 420 nm dan 663 nm.
2.3. Pengindraan Jauh
Pengindraan jauh (remote sensing ) adalah ilmu dan seni untuk memperoleh informasi tentang suatu subjek, daerah, atau fenomena melalui analisa data yang diperoleh dengan suatu alat tanpa kontak langsung dengan objek, daerah, atau fenomena yang dikaji. (Lillesand dan Kiefer, 1990). JARS (1993) dalam pentury
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10
2.4. Sistem Informasi Geografis (SIG)
Sistem Informasi Geografis (SIG) adalah suatu sistem informasi yang dirancang untuk bekerja dengan data yang bereferensi spasial atau berkoordinat geografi.
Sistem Informasi Informasi Geografis Geografis dapat dapat diasosiasikan sebagai peta yang yang
berorde tinggi yang juga mengoperasikan dan menyimpan data non-spasial. Disebutkan juga SIG telah terbukti kehandalannya untuk mengumpulkan, menyimpan, mengelola, menganalisa, dan menampilkan data spasial baik biofisik maupun sosial sosial ekonomi. Secara umum SIG menyediakan fasilitas-fasilitas fasilitas-fasilita s untuk mengambil, mengelola, memanipulasi, dan manganalisa data serta menyediakan
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11
Tabel 1. Spesifikasi teknis satelit MODIS Orbit 705 km, 10:30 a.m. descending node (AM-1) or 1:30 p.m. ascending node (PM-1), sun-syinchronous, near polar, circular Scan Rate
20.3 rpm, cross track
Swath Dimensions
2330 km (cross track) by 10 km (along track at nadir)
Telescope
17.78 c. Diam, off-axis, afocal (collimated), with intermediate field stop
Size
1.0 x 1.6 x 1.0 m
Weight
228.7 kg
Power
162.5 W (singel orbit average)
Data Rate
10.6 Mbps (peak daytime); 6.1 Mbps (orbital average)
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12
250 m (kanal 1-2), 500 m (kanal 3-7) dan 1.000 m (kanal 8-36). Di dalam dunia penginderaan jauh, hal ini dikenal dengan nama resolusi spasial. MODIS dapat mengamati tempat yang sama di permukaan bumi setiap hari, untuk kawasan di atas Lintang 30°, dan setiap 2 hari untuk kawasan di bawah Lintang 30°, termasuk Indonesia (Mustafa, 2004). Tabel 2. Karakteristik Sensor http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/about/specs.html) KANAL SPEKTRUM 1
620 - 670 nm
2
841 - 876 nm
3
459 - 479 nm
MODIS KEGUNAAN
Lahan/ Awan/ Aerosol Boundaris
(Sumber:
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13
23
4.020 – 4.080 um
24
4.433 – 4.498 um
25
4.482 – 4.549 um
26
1.360 – 1.390 um
27
6.535 – 6.895 um
28
7.175 – 7.457 um
Temperatur Atmosfir Awan Cirrus/ Uap Air
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14
3. Level 3, merupakan data level 2 yang dikumpulkan dan dipaketkan dalam periode 1 hari, 8 hari, 1 bulan, dan dan 1 tahun.
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15
III. MATERI DAN METODE
3.1. Materi 3.1.1.Alat
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5. Microsoft Office Excel 2003 dan Microsoft Office Excel 2007, untuk membuka data ASCII dari citra satelit; dan 6. Microsoft Office Picture Manager, untuk merubah format citra dari *.png ke *.jpg. 3.1.2.Bahan
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studi literatur ialah menemukan variabel-variabel yang akan diteliti, membedakan hal-hal yang sudah dilakukan dan menentukan hal-hal yang perlu dilakukan, melakukan sintesa dan memperoleh perspektif baru, serta menentukan makna dan hubungan antar variabel. Studi literatur sangat sangat dibutuhkan sebagai acuan dalam proses pembuatan Peta Sebaran Klorofil-a. Data sekunder ini biasanya telah
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Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
Trusted by over 1 million members
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
Trusted by over 1 million members
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
Trusted by over 1 million members
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
Trusted by over 1 million members
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
Trusted by over 1 million members
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.