286780162-Cambridge-DELTA-Module-1-Terms.pdf

Cambridge DELTA Module 1 Terms Study online at quizlet.com/_rjiza

1.

  accomodation

PHONO LOGY Squeezing PHONOLOGY Squeezing syllables in an a n utterance utterance into the sa me amount amount of time so that they occupy occupy the same length of  time.

2.

  acculturation

SLA The process by which whic h a per person son integrates into a particu particular lar culture. culture. One O ne of the first theories of SLA that atte a ttempt mpted ed to prioritize priorit ize social soci al fa ctors over pure purely ly cognitive cogni tive ones. It has been partly partly rehabilitated under under the name sociali zation.

3.

  accuracy 

SLA The extent to which a learner's use of a second language conforms to the rules of the language. Once thought to be a pre precondition condition for fluency.

4.

  achievement test

TESTING Designed TESTING Desig ned to test what learners have learned over a week, month, term or entire entire course. Because ___ ___s ___s a re directly direct ly related to to the content of the teachin g program, they provide provide feedb feedback ack on the teaching-learning teaching -learning proce process, ss, and are a re therefore useful data for course evaluation.

5.

  achievement test

TESTING A form of ass essment administered TESTING administered at the end of a course to monitor the the learning learnin g process. Also called summative tests.

6.

  action research

METHODOLOGY A form of teacher-driven research, the twin goals of which are to improve classroom practice, and to 'empower'' teachers. Typically motivated 'empower motivated less by the desire desire to answer an swer the 'big ' questions tha n by the need to solve a specific teaching problem in the local context. planning->acting->observing->reflecting

7.

  adolescents

METHODOLOGY The Th e ideal time to to learn a second lan guage. This age g roup tends to outpe outperform rform adults adults and an d to progress progress more rapidly rapidly than younger learners.

8.

  affect

PSYCHOLOGY The general word for emotion or feelings. These factors positively or negatively influence language learning. Often contrasted with cognitive factors such as intelligence and learning style. Low ___ive filter=emotionally   well-disposed to processing processing input Hig High h ___ive=won't ___ive=won't process input so effecitively. effecitively.

9.

  affix, affixation

 VOCABULARY An element that that is adde a dded d to to a word and which chan changes ges its meaning . The process of doing this.

10.  affordance

LINGUISTICS The language learning opportunities that exist in a learner's linguistic 'environment.' Maximized with meaningful activities and giving learners feedback.

11.  agency 

METHODOLOGY Control of your own actions, including your mental activity. A notion from critical pedagogy. Learners are not objects of the teaching process; they are subjects subjects of the learning lea rning process. A factor that contributes contributes to motivation.

12.  allophone

PHONOLOGY A phonetic variation of the same phoneme. Does not affect meaning.

13.  app lie lied d

linguistics

LINGUISTICS LINGUISTIC S Concerned with the application of lin guistic theory to solving l ang anguage-related uage-related problem problemss in the real  world. Language Lan guage planni ng, s pee peech ch therapy, lexcography, transla tion studies, studies, forensic li nguistics .

14.  appraisal

LINGUISTICS Also called stan ce; the way speakers an d writers LINGUISTICS writers use languag la nguagee to express express their personal attitu attitude de to to wh at is being said or written; one of the main ways that language's interpersonal function is realized; consists of 3 categories: affect (personal feelings), judgment (social values and social esteem), appreciation (opinions). These can all be expressed lexically, grammatically or through the use of paralinguistic devices.

15.   appropriacy 

SOCIOLINGUISTICS Using language in a way that is suitable for the context and in a way that meets the expectations of the people you are communicating with. An aspect of sociolinguistic competence, which is a component of a speaker's overall commu communicative nicative competence. competence. (Dell (D ell Hymes)

16.  appropriation

SLA To make something your own. Gaining ownership of a skill by first doing it with someone who is more skilled than you are until you can con trol or regulate the the skill ski ll yourself. A key concept in so ciocultur ciocultural al learning l earning theory. Lang uage is not simply a behavior that is conditioned through through rep repeated eated practice, practice, but that that it is one of colla borative construction, in which skills are transferred in socially-situated activity.

17.  aptitude

PSYCHOLOGY The innate talent or predisposition for language learning. 3 kinds of ability: auditory, linguistic, memory.

18.  ARC

METHODOLOGY Less on design prop proposed osed by Jim Scrivener Scrivener that that focuses on authentic lang uage use, restricted lang uage use and then clarification. These stages can be rearranged and occur many times within one lesson.

19.  aspect

GRAMMAR The way w ay the speaker's 'view' of a n event is expressed by the verb verb phrase, rega rdless of the time of the event itself. 2 of these in Englis English: h: progressive and perfect. perfect.

20.  assi miliatio miliation n

PHONOLOGY When a sound is modified by a neighboring sound, such as when the final /n/ of green is followed by  a /p/, and is pronounced /m/; /t/ /d/=/p//b/; /t//d/=/k//g/

21.   audiolingualism

METHODOLOGY Became widespread in the US in the 1950s and 60s. Distinctive feature=d feature=drilling rilling of sentence patterns. Came from a view of learning as habit formation (behaviorism). Spoken language was prioritized; translation and the use of metala metalanguag nguagee were discouraged; accuracy accuracy wa s considered con sidered a precondition for fluency. Shot down by Chomsky in the early 60s and the birth of mentalism.

22.  authenticity 

LINGUISTICS Became a priority with the communicative approach. LINGUISTICS approach. The idea of "grade the task, n ot the text" was  born. This ki nd of interaction interaction is both more communicative communicative and offers more more affordances affordances for learning .

23.  automaticity 

PSYCHOLOGY The abil ity to perform perform a task tas k without having to focus attention attention on it. This frees a learner's li mite mited d attentional resources for more demanding activities. A process of setting up chunks and associations that link one step with another. This doesn't mean a sacrifice of accuracy. When chunks of language are produced in a preassembled form, the speaker has much less chance of making mistakes.

24.  autonomy 

PSYCHOLOGY Also called self-directed learning. The capacity to take responsibility for your own learning.

25.  avoidance

SLA Abandoning a me message ssage or replacing replacing an original messae with one that is less ambitious. ambitious.

strategy  26.  backwash

TESTING TESTI NG The way a test affects affects the classroom cla ssroom teachin g that tha t leads up to to it.

27.  behaviorism

PSYCHOLOGY A psychol ogica ogicall theory popular popular in the mid-twentieth mid-twentieth century that that viewed learning as a sort s ort of habit formation and positive reinforcement. Audiolingualism is the teaching method that is associated with this. stimulusresponse-reinforcement. This theory rejected any role, in learning, for mental processes such as thought and reasoning.

28.  bilingualism

SLA At one point it was considered a handicap to second language learners since (according to behaviorist theory) the first lang uage interferes interferes with the second. ADD ITIVE=second languag e added to first without threatening threatening the speaker's first lan guage identity; SUBTRACTIVE=t SUBTRACTIVE=the he second la nguag nguagee replaces replaces the first, threatening threatening the speaker's language identity.

29.  broad-band

METHODOLOGY Curriculum Curriculum in wh ich objectives are broadly identified, identified, eg in ter terms ms of general c ompe ompetencies. tencies. All ows each learner to contribute to the best of his/her abilities. Also allows for the teaching and learning of a variety of  lang uage areas concurre concurrently. ntly. Learning is viewed as holi holistic, stic, emergent and concurrent. concurrent. Better Better suited suited to cope with diversity and turn it into a resource.

curriculum

30.  cognitive

learning theory 

PSYCHOLOGY A learning theory that draws upon ideas from cognitive psychology, the branch of psychology that deals with wi th percept perception ion a nd thinking . Pia get first proposed proposed the the view that la nguage develops out of the the child's chi ld's thoughts and growing awareness of the world. A later version suggests that the child acquires language by forming and testing hypotheses about the adult language it hears around it. Has been criticized as being mechanistic, and for ignoring social and affective factors.

31.  coherence

DISCOURSE How the sentences in a text relate to to each other.

32.  cohesion

DISCOURSE The use of grammatical and lexi cal means to achieve connected text. text. LEXICAL: repet repetition, ition, s ynonyms, general words, same thematic field, substitution, ellipsis; GRAMMATICAL: references, substitution, ellipsis, linkers, parallelism

33.  collocation

34.  communication

strategy  35.  communicative

activity  36.  communicative

approach

37.  communicative

competence

 VOCABULARY Words that frequently frequently occur together. together. Can be grammatical grammatical (collocate (col locate with specific prepositions prepositions : "account for") or lexical: "narrow escape." SLA Ways that learners get around the fact that they may may not know how to say somet s omething hing , but that that help h elp the learner achieve their intended message: paraphrase, word coinage, foreignizing a word, approximation, all-purpose words, language-switching, paralinguist paralinguistics, ics, app appealing ealing for help. METHODOLOGY Activity A ctivity in whi ch real commu communica nication tion occurs. Key features: purposefu purposefulness lness,, reciprocity, negotiation, unpr unpredictability, edictability, heterogeneity, heterogeneity, synch ronicity. METHODOLOGY An umb umbrella rella term used used to describe describe a major s hift in lang l anguage uage teaching that occurred occurred in Europe Europe in the 1970s. Shift away from language systems and toward how these systems are used in real communication. Linguistic Linguis tic competience competience replaced with focus on commu communicative nicative competence. competence. Direct Di rectly ly related to functional-notiona l syllabus. LINGUISTICS First proposed by Dell H yme LINGUISTICS ymes, s, wha t you know in orde orderr to be able to communicate communicate effectively. effectively. Th e term contrasts w ith linguistic li nguistic c ompe ompetence tence (Chomsky). Hymes in trod troduced uced the the notion of appropriacy. appropriacy.

38.  community 

language learning

METHODOLOGY Also called counseling learning, a teaching method developed by Charles Curran in the 70s in the US. The learners (clients) sit in a circle having a conversation. They consult with the teacher-knower, who is outside the circle, to h elp formulate each utterance. The conversation i s recorded, played back, translated, transcribed,  boarded and read aloud.

39.  competence

LINGUISTICS What we intuitively know a bout a language in order to be able to use it. Contrasts w ith performance. This motivates he use of corpus data to inform grammars, dictionaries and classroom materials. I language (internalized language) and E language (I language put to use externally).

40.  competency 

METHODOLOGY A specific practial skill. sometimes in the form of 'can do' statements.

41.  complexity 

SLA Gauged by the following factors: amount of subordination, complex sentences, reference, lexical/linking verb ratio, conjunctions

42.  comprehension

PSYCHOLOGY The process of understanding speech or writing . It results from an i nteraction between different kinds of knowledge. Bottom-up vs. top-down processing is involved. Involves different psychologi cal operations, including perception, recognition and inferencing.

43.  computer-

METHODOLOGY Th e use of networked computers in order to communicate. Can be synchronous (people communicate in real time) or asynch ronous (delayed communication).

mediated communication CMC 44.  concord

GRAMMAR Also called ag reement. The name given to the grammatical relationship whereby the form of one word requires a corresponding form in another. In English, it's the case with subjects and verbs (I like, He likes...).

45.  connectionism

PSYCHOLOGY A model of learning which belongs to what are called usage-based accounts of language acquisition. It does not presuppose any innate language-learning faculty, nor any rule-learning and rule-using. It assumes we are mentally predisposed to look for as socia tions between elements a nd create links between them in response to frequently encountered patterns of usage.

46.   consciousness-

PSYCHOLOGY The way that learners become aware, or are made aware, of features of the language they are learning. The term belongs to cognitive learning theory, which claims a central role for conscious mental operations in learning. Things teachers do with this potential: enhancing the input in some way so as to make certain items more salient; asking learners to in fer rules from examples (inductive learning); asking them to compare their own output  with that of more proficient users of the target language (noticing the gap); problematizing the input; pushed output (noticing the holes in the present state of their language.

raising CR 

47.   constructivism

PSYCHOLOGY A theory of learning that claims that individuals actively construct knowledge, rather than passively  receiving it. Supports the case for learner-centered instruction and experiential learning. Underscores the a rgument for personalization. Key figures=Jean Pia get and Jerome Bruner. Contrasts w ith behaviorist theory and is ideologically aligned with cognitive learning theory, mentalism and, most closely, humanism.

48.  content

METHODOLOGY CLIL Teaching a subject through English. Also called content-based teaching. A strong form of the communicative approach i n that there is no predetermined language sylla bus.

49.  contingency 

PSYCHOLOGY The sense that what is happening is connected to what has just happened and what is about to happen.

50.  contrastive

SLA The wa y the the linguistic s ystems of two lang uages are compared and contrasted. Used to be thought that a comparison between a l earner's L1 and L2 w ould predict the errors that a learner would make; the underlying ass umption was a behaviorist one--that L1 interference was to blame. Many errors are now a ttributed to developmental causes, not in terference. The best predictions of this are in the area of phon ology.

and language integrated learning

analysis

51.  conversational

DISCOURSE The ability to infer from what has been said what has not been said.

implicature 52.  conversation

analysis

DISCOURSE Concerned with describing the structure of conversationa l interaction, including the sequential organization of talk and the ways that speakers repair communication problems. The basic unit of talk is the turn. Managed by turn taking, includes adjacency pairs, conversational openings and closings, backchanneling and repair strategies. Li mited in that it divorces con versation from its context.

53.  co-

operative principle

DISCOURSE The principle that speakers try to co-operate with one another. W hen people take part in a conversation they  do so on the ass umption that the other speakers w ill observe certain unstated rules. First articulated by H.P. Grice, included 4 maxims: maxim of quantity: make your contribution as informative as required maxim of quality: make your contribution one that is true maxim of relation: make your contribution relevant maxim of man ner: avoid obscurity and ambiguity. be brief and orderly. Has been criticized as being culturally biased.

54.  corpus

LINGUISTICS A collection of a ctually occurring texts (either spoken or written) stored and access ed by means of  computers, and useful for investigating l anguage use.

55.  corpus

LINGUISTICS The use of corpora for researching lang uage structure and use; has lead to the development of grammars and dictionaries tha t claim to be more reliable than their forbears, in that they are based on a ttested data. Has been criticized on the grounds that the information it reveals relates only to lang uage performance.

linguistics 56.  course

design 57.  criterion-

METHODOLOGY The design of a language teaching program and of the specific materials to be used on a program. Stages include needs analysis, goal setting, syllabus design, materials choice, assessment instruments, evaluation procedures. TESTING Test in which the candidate has to achieve a certain a greed standard in order to pass.

referenced test 58.  critical

pedagogy 

59.  critical

period hypothesis 60.  Culture 61.  culture

METHODOLOGY Has roots in progressive education and is also sometimes called transformative education. Gained prominence through Paulo Freire. Assumes tha t education can never be purely disinterested or neutral. It either functions to maintain the s tatus quo or it works to chang e the status quo. Has been influenced by humanism, lea rner autonomy, literacy training, critical discourse analysis, identity politics and cultural studies. PSYCHOLOGY Neurologica l factors occurring at puberty mean that thereafter you can't just pick up a la nguage as you did  when you were a child. LINGUISTICS Refers to thos e highly valued activities and a rtifacts related to the arts. LINGUISTICS Addresses these questions:  Wha t is the relationsh ip between languag e and culture and to what extent do languag es express cultural values? Does learning a second language involve learning a new set of cultural values? Does teaching a second language involve teaching the culture of the language? Is there a homogeneous English culture? How do cultural factors i mpact on methodology? How and to wha t extent should methodology adapt to take account of  local cultural practices? Is there such a thing as i ntercultural competence, analogous to communicative competence, and if so, how is it fostered?

62.   curriculum

METHODOLOGY The whole complex of ideological, social and administrative factors which contribute to the planning of  its teaching program. Embodies several decisions: 1. about the objectives or goals of the program 2. about the content--from these decision s the syllabus will be derived 3. a bout the method of in struction 4. about how the program is evaluated Concerned with the beliefs, values and theory, not wi th how they are realized.

63.  deductive

PSYCHOLOGY Occurs w hen a rule or a generaliza tion is first presented to the learners, a nd then they go on to apply it in practice activities. Associated with approaches such as grammar-translation. Can be very effective in teaching form of the language.

learning 64.  deixis

GRAMMAR The way language points to spatial, temporal and personal features of the context. The speaker's location is the _____ center, and these expressions distinguish between 'near' the speaker and 'awa y' from the speaker. Can be expressed by certain verbs, w hich have direction built into their meaning: come, go, bring, take.

65.  descriptive

LINGUISTICS Describes, in a systematic wa y, the rules that govern how words are combined and sequenced in order to form sentences in a given language. Deal with morphology and syntax. Can be formal or functional.

grammar 66.   diagnostic

test 67.  dialect

TESTING A form of assess ment given before the entry of a course to identify a learner's particular needs (a s in needs analysis). SOCIOLINGUISTICS A regional or social variety of a language.

68.  di ctogloss

METHODOLOGY A form of dictation in w hich students hear the complete text (short) and then reconstruct it from memory. Learners first work in dividually, then in pairs, then in groups, each time comparing their versions of the text and negotiating cha nges.

69.  direct

METHODOLOGY Argues that the characteristic features of conversation, as identified in conversation analysis, should approach to  be taught explicitly and in isol ation, before being integrated into freer practice activities. These features include conversation conversational gambits, turn-taking, use of discourse markers, appraisal language, vague language, etc.

70.  direct

method

71.  discourse

analysis 72.  discourse

marker 73.  discrete-

METHODOLOGY An umbrella term for a wide range of la nguage teaching methods that emerged in the later part of the 19th century. They sha red the belief that only the target lang uage should be used in the clas sroom and that therefore translation should  be avoided at all cos ts. Started with Maxmilian Berlitz. Borne out of the demand for learning lang uages for international commerce and tourism. La id the foundations of applied linguistics . In the US, it ingested behaviorist theory and became audiolingualism. DISCOURSE Any connected piece of speech or writing. Th e study of how such stretches of lan guage achieve both cohesion and coherence. DISCOURSE Also called pragmatic markers. Words or expressions that normally come at the beginning of an utterance, and function to orient the listener to what will follow. Can indicate some kind of cane of direction in the talk or appeal to the listener in some way. TESTING Test that tests individual components in is olation.

point test 74.  discussion

METHODOLOGY O pportunity for learners to interact freely and spontaneously, to cope with unpredictability, to voice opinions using language that is both complex and fluent. More structured than conversation. Risks: might get out of  hand, learners migh t feel unduly constrained by the TL, some learners might dominate.

75.  display 

METHODOLOGY Questions asked by the teachers in order that learners can 'display' their knowledge. They typically  initiate a 3 part exchange that is characteristic of classroom interaction and is called IRF (interaction, response, followup). Usually aimed at finding out what learners can say in the TL. Contrast with real questions.

question 76.  dogme

ELT

METHODOLOGY The name of a loose collective of teachers who challenge what they consider to be an over-reliance on materials, including published coursebooks, in current language teaching. Based on DOGME 95, a group of Danish filmmakers who vowed to make films usin g minimal means for maximum effect. Proponents say they are not so much anti-materials a s they are pro-learner, and thus ali gn themselves with other forms of learner-centered instruction and critical pedagogy.

77.  drama

METHODOLOGY Can provide entertaining practice opportunities, as well as offering a useful springboard into real-life language use. A greater range of registers can be practised than are normally available in classroom talk. Can include roleplays and simulations.

78.  drill

METHODOLOGY Repetitive oral practice of a lan guage item, whether a word, a s ound, a phras e or a sentence structure. Follow a prompt-response sequence. Were a defining feature of the audioling ual method and were designed to reinforce good language 'habits.' Can still be communicative with an information gap type element built in ('find someone who...').

79.  dynamics

METHODOLOGY The actions and interactions, both conscious and unconscious, that take place between members of a group, whether the whole class or sub-group. Instrumental in forging a productive and motivating classroom environment. Determined by the composition of the g roup (age, sex, status), the patterns of relationships between group members, physical factors such as group size, the task itself.

80.  eclecticism

METHODOLOGY Combining techniques and a ctivities from different methods in your teaching. Motivated by different reasons, one being a general distrust of a 'one size fits all' method. Ts sometimes think that certain methods are not sensitive enough to such variables as the context, culture and learning styles of the students. Has been criticized on the grounds that it lacks principle and encourages an 'anything goes' approach to teaching. Principled ____ subscribes to a 'post-method' philosophy.

81.  elision

PHONOLOGY This happens when a sound is omitted, because another, similars, sound follows. This is common when two plosive sounds occur togeher. walked to=walktuh; baked beans= bakebeans; last week=lasweek; next, please=neksplease

82.  ellipsis

DISCOURSE Leaving elements out of a sentence because they are either unnecessary or because their sens e can be  worked out from the immediate context. Very common in spoken languag e and is also a common feature of certain text types where brevity is a priority (i.e. postcards).

83.   end-weight

DISCOURSE A principle in which new information is placed at the end of a sentence rather than at the beginning, which is n ormally reserved for given information.

84.  error

SLA An instance of the learner's language that does not conform to accepted norms of usage, and which is attributed to incomplete or faulty learning . Us ually defined in terms of adult native speakers. Sometimes distinguis hed from mistakes, the former being due ot lack of knowledge (i.e. competence), and the latter being due to the demands of performance. Categorized in a number of ways: pronunciation, vocabulary, g rammar or discourse; or according to the way they depart from the norm (omission , addition, mis-selection, misformation, misordering); also categorized according to their cause.

85.  evaluation

METHODOLOGY Not to be confused with as sessment. Can be ongoing (formative): getting feedback on the curriculum in action. Can be final (summative): when the outcomes of the program are evaluated according to the g oals that were established at the outset. Procedures involve the use of questionnaires, interviews, observation, meetings and focus groups.

86.  examination

METHODOLOGY A formal test that is usually administered by some examining body.

87.  exercise

METHODOLOGY An activity that involves the controlled manipulation of the forms of the lan guage. Contrasts with more meaning-focused, and less tightly controlled, activities such as tasks. Usually written, like the equivalent of drills. Closed=only 1 answer; open=more than one possible. include gap fills, sentence transformations, ordering exercises, matching exercises, insertion exercises, deletion exercises, translation exercises, error-correction exercises.

88.  experiential

METHODOLOGY A general term for 'deep end' approaches to learni ng that rate direct practical experience over the learning and application of abstract rules. This might take the form of TBL, discovery learning or content-based learning. Belongs to the constructivist school of learning theory in which knowledge is a mental construct which is subject to constant re-evaluation and reconstruction. The cycle consists of alternating stages of action and reflection. Shares with mentalis t theory a belief in the value of inductive learning. Shares with humanism a commitment to whole-person learning and with critical pedagog y a belief in the transformative power of direct experience. Particularly appropriate in teaching young learners.

learning

89.  face

DISCOURSE The desire to be appreciated (called positive __) or the desire not to be imposed upon (negative ___).

90.  face

DISCOURSE Requests and invitations are these because they expose both the speaker and the a ddressee to the risk of a refusal. Often prefaced by a question whi ch g ives the addressee a let-out.

threatening acts 91.  facilitation

METHODOLOGY A way of thinking about teaching that recognizes the fact that teachers do not directly cause learning,  but that they can provide the conditions in wh ich learning happens. The notion comes from humanist theory and partly  from critical pedagogy, both of which credit the learner with agency in the learning process. Community Language Learning is a good example of this.

92.  feedback 

SLA The information, either immediate or delayed, that learners g et on their performance. Traditiona lly takes the form of  correction. Can be explicit or i mplicit.

93.  finite

GRAMMAR Show tha t they are related to a s ubject by having person, number and tense. "Brad works for his uncle."

verbs

94.  first

language acquisition

PSYCHOLOGY It takes place rela tively quickly. It is systematically stag ed. It happens despite the 'poverty of the stimulus.' It results from contact and interaction and not from any formal teachin g. Given a reasonable a mount of exposure, it is always 100% successful. We are hard-wired to learn a first language.

95.  fluency 

SLA The ability to speak a language idiomatically and accurately, without undue pausing, without an intrusive accent, and in a manner appropriate to the context. The abili ty to produced and maintain s peech in real time. This i nvolves: appropriate pausing, long runs, formulaic language, production strategies. Can also be called "communicative effectiveness" regardless of formal accuracvy or s peed of delivery.

96.  focus

SLA When conscious attention is directed to some formal feature of the languag e input. It has been argued that this is a necessary condition for language learning. Meaning is not enough. It can occur at any stage in classroom instruction. Correction is also a kind of this.

form 97.  form

on

LINGUISTICS The way a w ord, phrase or s entence is written or pronounced, independent of its meaning . Often contrasted with function.

98.

  formal language

SOCIOLINGUISTICS A style of lang uage that is appropriate in situations where there is socia l distance between speakers, or wh ere the situation or topic requires a degree of seriousness. Not to be confused with politeness. It is more common in print, such as in official documents. Characterized by: complex sentences, frequent use of the passive, reported speech, fast modals, long and complex noun phras es, lon g  words with Greek or Latin roots.

99.

  formulaic language

LINGUISTICS Those s entences of two or more words tha t operate as a s ingle unit. They are n ot generated word by word,  but are stored in the memory and retrieved as if they were one-word vocabulary items. Also called lexical chunks , multi word units, ready-mades, prefabricated lang uage and holophras es. Can be class ified in the following ca tegories: collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms, sentence frames, social formulae, discourse markers. They make for easy access in real-time speaking conditions a nd aid fluency because of the low plann ing time required. Can a lso help make speaker sound idiomatic, a feature of the target speech community. The central platform of the Lexical Approach.

100.   fossilization

101.  function

102.  functional

syllabus 103.  function

 words

SLA When an error becomes a permanent feature of a learner's i nterlanguage. In theory such errors are resistant to correction. It has been hypothesized that the lack of ins truction (and therefore the lack of a focus on form) is the main cause. May also be due to a lack of nega tive feedback on errors or the lack of a push to make learners' output more accurate. Some learners also h ave no social motivation to improve their interlanguage. LINGUISTICS The communicative purpose of a la nguage item. It is also the communicative uses to whi ch forms and meanings are put. To a ssign a ____ to a text or an utterance requires knowledge of the context in wh ich the text is used. Can be micro (s peech a cts with +ing) or macro (expressive purposes, regulatory purposes, etc). Differ from notions,  which describe areas of meaning. METHODOLOGY A syllabus based around a list of language functions. Often combined with notions. They were developed to support a communicative approach. If these have survived at all, it's as on e strand in a multi-layered syllabus. GRAMMAR Those words which have a mainly grammatical function (also called grammar words). Includes auxiliary   verbs, determiners, pronouns, prepositions, con junctions an d some adverbs. Contrast with content words. Of the 50 most common words in English, 49 are these.

104.  futurity 

FUNCTION Expressed by   will + infi nitive going to + infinitive present simple present progressive  will + be + present participle  will + ha ve + past participle Sometimes determined by speaker's perception of, or attitude to, the future event being referred to.

105.  genre

LINGUISTICS Any type of spoken or written discourse whic h is used and recognized by members of a particular culture or sub-culture. As these become established, they acquire a con ventionalized structure and often a ch aracteristic  vocabulary and grammar. Involves features at macro level (overall organi zation) an d micro level (specific grammatical and functional features).

106.  genre-based

approach to  writing 107.  grammaring

108.  grammar-

translation method 109.  highlighting

form

METHODOLOGY An approach that is similar to a product approach. Starts with a model text (authentic) that is subjected to analysis and replication. These are closely associated with their contexts of use, and they are analyzed in functional terms as much as in linguistic ones. Has been particularly influential in the teaching of academic writing. LINGUISTICS A term coined by the applied ling uist Dian e Larsen-Freeman in order to capture the notion of grammar  being more a skill than an inert body of knowledge. The process by which a sequence of words if fine-tuned in order to create a more complex message than mere words can ex press. Has also been used to describe the wa y the learner's mental grammar develops, over time, from a mainly l exical mode into a fuller mode (mirrors L1 a cquisition). METHODOLOGY Developed out of a way that classical languages (Greek and Latin) were traditionally taught. It wasn't fully formalized until the mid-19th century, when it became institutionalized in schools in Germany. First known as the Prussian Method. Grammar is taugh t deductively (rules first) an d accuracy is h ighly prioritized. Seriously chal lenged by  the Reform movement of the late 19th century. METHODOLOGY When a teacher draws learners' attention to features of spoken or written language using: modelling, finger-coding, cuisenaire rods, boardwork, substitution tables. Takes place in close association with the meaning of the item.

110.  homographs

 VOCABULARY Words that are written the same way, but pronounced differently, and which have different meaning s.  A long a nd windy road. A windy night.

111.  homonyms

 VOCABULARY Words that are written and pronounced the same way, but have different meanings . I like pizza. What does she look like?

112.  humanistic

METHODOLOGY Learning approaches that assert the central role of the 'whole person' in the learning process. Emerged in the mid-20th century as a reaction to behaviorism and to counterbalance the excl usive intellectualis m of  mentalism. Identifies with the a utonomy movement, learner-centered instruction, wh ole language learning and critical pedagogy. Most closely associated with the Silent Way, Community Language Learning and Suggestopaedia. In recent  years, has come to include NLP and the theory of multiple intelligences.

approaches

113.  hyponym 114.  hypothetical

meaning 115.  identity 

116.  idiom

 VOCABULARY A specific item of a larger category. An orang e is a fruit (orange is the specific item). FUNCTION Contrasts w ith factual meanin g and refers to situations tha t are assumed to be improbable or impossible. Sometimes the term counterfactual is used to describe impossibility. Frequently expressed by conditional constructions. PSYCHOLOGY One of the most important functions of lang uage is as a marker of _____. Speakers make accent and dialect choices in order to align themselves with particular socially and geographically defined groups. Learners can also try to identify with a discourse community. L2 ___ may either support or threaten their first lan guage ___, a nd this in turn will affect their success. Multiple factors affect the learner's notion of this: gender, ethnicity, job, family  relationship, etc.  VOCABULARY A word sequence whos e meaning is not literal (cannot be easily worked out from its individual words. Can be classified in a variety of ways: metaphorical: a hot potato, the tip of the iceberg restricted collocations: pitch black, fat chance phrasal verbs: pick up, get on frozen similes: as old as the hills, a s easy as pie  binomials a nd trinomials : hook, lin e and sinker, spick and span proverbs and catchphrases: waste not, want not euphemisms: pass away  true idioms (fixed and non-literal): spill the beans, fly off the handle More in informal spoken language and often with an interpersonal function.

117.  idi omaticity 

LINGUISTICS The extent to which a person's lang uage sounds na tive-like. Has been a key influence on the development of the lexical approach.

118.  immersion

SLA When children, as a group, are taught some or all of their school subjects in a language that is not their mother tongue. It is aimed at fostering bilingualism. Can be total (when all curriculum subjects are taught in the second language) or partial (when only some subjects are taught in the second language). Should be distinguished from submersion (only individuals, not a group).

119.  indirect

METHODOLOGY Argues that conversation is best learned by having conversations. Syllabus might consist of a list of  topics to talk about or of situations wh ere conversations are likely to occur.

approach to conversation 120.  individual

learner differences 121.  inductive

learning 122.  input

123.  input

PSYCHOLOGY Variations based on learning styles, abilities, needs and drives. Reflected in the differences in the rate at  which learners learn an d in their eventual levels of attainment. Key factors are biological , personality, cogn itive and affective. Outcomes of this research were: learner training procedures, learning strategies, one-to-one teaching and selfaccess centers. PSYCHOLOGY The process of working out rules on the basis of examples. Also called discovery learning. Has been a core principle in such natural methods as the direct method and audiolinguali sm. More recently has been promoted as a means of consciousness-raising. SLA the spoken or written language that learners are exposed to. You cannot learn a language without this. Krashen argues that this is all that is necessary for language acquisition to take place, but it must be comprehensible and one step above the learner's interlanguage.

flood

SLA To include an item lots of times in a text to increase the chances of learners noticing it.

124.  i nstructions

METHODOLOGY The way that teachers manage classroom learning. Usually verbal. Will normally include some of  the following features: a frame, a brief summary, the orga nization, the procedure, the mode, the outcome, a s trategy, the timing , a cue Have a directive function and a re typically realiz ed using the imperative.

125.  intake

SLA According to cognitive learning theory, the conscious process of noticing features of input results in this. The part that wa s taken into sh ort-term memory, the first s tep in the process off acco mmodating it into the learner's developing interlanguage system.

126.  integrative

TESTING Test that combines various components of a skill.

test 127.  i ntelligibility 

PHONOLOGY When other people can understand what you are saying. Has resulted in the phonological core--features of phonology that are crucial.

128.  interaction

SLA When learners communicate with one a nother, or with their teacher, or w ith the other speakers of the target lang uage. Learner-learner ____ is a defining feature of the communicative approach, promotes good group dynamics and is a step toward learner autonomy.

129.  interaction

hypothesis 130.  interlanguage

SLA Michael Long's theory that tasks that promote negotiation of meaning are beneficial. Exchanges where learners  jointly resolve a communication problem provide a source of comprehensible input. Long a rgues for the need for interaction, primarily because it is a site for negotiating meaning, called discourse repair strategies. SLA The grammatical system that a learner creates in the course of learning another language. it is neither their first language system, nor the target language system, but occupies a transitional point between the two. Seen as an independent system in its own rright, and not simply a degenerate form of the target lang uage. Reflects the learner's evolving system of rules. It follows particular stages, no matter what the learner's first language is. Initially called the  basic learner variety. Partial competence is a valid objective in second languag e learning.

131.  intonation

PHONOLOGY The music of speech. A suprasegmental feature of pronunciation, meaning that it is a property of whole stretches of speech rather than of individual segments. Functions of this are: grammatical function: i ndicating the difference between statements and questions attitudinal function: indicating interest, surprise, boredom; what is called high and low involvement discoursal function: contrasting new information with information that is already known, hence shared between speakers Serves both to separate the stream of speech into blocks of information (tone units), a nd to mark information within these units as being s ignificant. High key=implies a contrast in attitude with respect to the preceding utterance Low key=Speaker is adding something that is obvious or by the way 

132.  juncture

PHONOLOGY This is the pausing (or lack of pausing) at the boundary between two sounds, which accounts for the difference between ice cream and I scream.

133.  language

SLA The non-conscious and natural process of internalizing the rules of a language, as in L1. What is popularly called picking up a language. Learners will construct a mental grammar of the language naturally by a process called creative construction.

acquisition 134.  language

analysis 135.  language

awareness 136.  learner-

centered instruction 137.  learner

training

LINGUISTICS The study of the systems of a l anguage, such as grammar and phonolo gy, for the purposes of the language. Typical topic areas are tense, modality, vocabulary, discourse analysis, phonemes, stress and intonation. LINGUISTICS A teacher's or learner's explicit knowledge about language, often gained through language analysis. Includes not only systems of the subject language, such as its grammar and phonology, but also knowledge of its social and cultural role. Helps inform the design and choice of materials, syllabuses, classroom teaching methods and tests. METHODOLOGY Ai ms to give learners more say in a reas that are traditionally con sidered the domain of the teacher or of the institution. Movement toward learner autonomy. Also describes ways of organizing classroom interaction so that the focus is directed away from the teacher. METHODOLOGY The aim of this is to help learners make the most of the learnin g opportunities that are availa ble to them. in the long term, it is directed at achieving autonomy in lang uage learning. Typical procedures include: having learners complete questionnaires designed to help them identify their own learnin g style showing learners how to get the most out of available resources training learners in effective reading and listening strategies experimenting with techniques to ai d memorization

138.  learning

strategy 

139.  learning

style

140.  lesson

plan

142.  lexical

approach

143.  lexical

PSYCHOLOGY Your preferred way of learnin g. Can be influenced by biographical fa ctors or by innately endowed factors. Usually presented in polarities. In cludes: analytic, g lobal, rule-users, data-gatherers, reflective, impulsive, g roup-oriented, solitary, extroverted, introverted,  verbal, visual, passive, active. METHODOLOGY The way that individual lessons are structured. Provides a secure framework within which a certain amount of spontaneity and improvisation ca n be accommodated. Includes PPP, TTT, TBL.

design 141.  lesson

PSYCHOLOGY Techniques or behaviors that learners consciously apply in order to enhance their learning. Becomes a  ___ ____ when the intention is lon g-term learning rather than s olely immediate understanding . Some characteristics of  good learners in clude: actively seeking out real-li fe opportunities to use the L2 not being afraid of appearing foolish in using the L2 paying attention to the formal properties of the L2 monitoring their ow n performance in the L2 a nd trying to learn from their errors making intelligent guesses Often grouped according to w hether they are cognitive, metacognitive or socia l/affective strategies.

item

144.  lexical

priming

METHODOLOGY A document that maps out the teacher's intentions for the lesson. It reflects the teacher's planning decisions as well as the teacher's understanding of the principles of lesson design. METHODOLOGY An approach to language teaching that has chosen vocabulary (including collocations and formulaic lang uage/chunks) as the main focus for sylla bus design and classroom teaching . Emerged out of development of corpus linguistics, especially with frequency and collocations. Michael Lewis argues that language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar. Jane and Dave Willis worked on the assumption that the most frequent words in any  language express its most frequent meanings. In their view, words are really 'small grammar' and grammar is 'big  words.' Willis' favored TBL; Lewis a rgues for a more analytic, text-based approach.  VOCABULARY A term used to get around the fuzziness of the word 'word.' Any item that functions a s a single meaning unit, regardless of its different derived forms, or of the number of words that make it up. LINGUISTICS First elaborated by Michael Hoey, suggests that learning a language is essentially learning the primings of its words. This includes its grammar, which itself is the accumulated effect o the primings of function words.  According to this approach, learners need massive exposure to input, and guidance in extracting patterns from it.

145.  lexical

set

 VOCABULARY Sets of words that sha re a meanin g relationsh ip. menu, starter, napkin, w ine glass, tip, bill all sh are a meaning relationship. Sometimes a close association can cause 'interference'.

146.  lexical

verb

GRAMMAR A content verb, not a function verb. It has a dictionary meaning, rather than serving any sort of grammatical function.

147.  lexis

LINGUSTICS A technical term for the vocabulary of a lang uage, as opposed to its grammar.

148.  liaison

PHONOLOGY This is where a sound is introduced at word boundaries, especially after words ending in a vowel, as in law and order=lohrandorder

149.  linguistic

SOCIOLINGUISTICS The often destructive effect that majority la nguages ha ve on minority lang uages a nd cultures. Some scholars, such as Robert Phillipson and Alistair Pennycook, argue that the teaching of English not only threatens local lang uages, but does so in was that perpetuate colonial attitudes and practices.

imperialism 150.  linguistics

LINGUISTICS The study of human language in general. Includes not only the structure of language (g rammar, phonetics, semantics), but also the purposes for which language is used (pragmatics). Prior to the 20th century, was called 'philology' and was primarily focused with the comparative study of languages (always written and often dead). Early 20th century, Swiss philologist Ferdinand de Sausseure shifted the focus on to the principles governing the structure of living languages. His primary concern was semiotics. Lead to the Prague School-->functional approaches +  behaviorist theory--> structuralis m, which was concerned with describing linguistic structures, with little or no reference to their meaning or use. 1950s=Noam Chomskky and mentalism. Still a focus on forms that how they're realized in real use. Michael Halliday was one linguist who accounted for the way linguistic forms related to their contexts.

151.  linker

DISCOURSE Words that join what has already been said or written to what follows. Show the sense relationship  between the two linked elements and include: additives (and, firstly), summatives (in sum), appositives (namely, in other words), contrastives (but, instead), concessives (however), resultatives (so, therefore), temporals (then, next). Discursive texts often have a high frequency of linkers to achieve cohesion.

152.  linkers

DISCOURSE Used to connect what has been said to what follows. and, but, or, so, because

153.  listening

METHODOLOGY The skill of understanding spoken language; can be practiced through comprehension activities,  bottom-up processing activities, top-down processing activities,

subskills 154.  literacy 

SOCIOLINGUISTICS The ability to read and write in a language, usually one's own. Increasingly becoming a necessary skill in ESL/EFL.

155.  literature

DISCOURSE Refers to texts that have a mainly expressive function and which are highly valued in a particular culture. These texts do n ot feature much in ELT material because they are cons idered difficult.

156.  long

GRAMMAR A pass ive construction followed by a by-phrase, identifying the ag ent.

passive

157.  materials

METHODOLOGY Anything that is used to support the learning process. Includes coursebooks, workbooks, visual aids, charts, etc. They relieve the teacher of having to do copious preparation; they are a stimulus to language production; they provide immersion-like lang uage exposure; they allow learners to continue studying outside class; they provide variety and entertainment.

158.  meaning

LINGUISTICS Languag e consis ts of forms that express certain ____s. The study of ____ is called semantics. Establishing this is one of the most important functions of a language teacher. Can be literal (denotation) or simply  associated or cultural (connotation).

159.  memorization

METHODOLOGY To intentionally commit something to memory. Has been out of favor in language teaching because it's associated with rote learning. It doesn't necessarily have to be mindless or meaningless, though. A speaker's fluency depends on having a bank of chunks. 3 key processes that aid in this: elaboration: processing new in formation more elaborately improves its chances of being remembered. rehearsal: mental recycling of material retrieval: the more times a word is retrieved from long-term memory, the easier it will be to access in the future. Best  way is through distributed practice. Mnemonics, keyword technique and word cards are al l useful techniques.

160.  memory 

PSYCHOLOGY Distinguish between: sensory: An echo or visual impression that lasts only a few seconds  working: holds and processes information in the short term long-term: the part that stores information more permanently.

161.  mental

grammar 162.  mentalism

163.  metaphor

164.  method

165.  minimal

166.  mixed

LINGUISTICS The way that a language is represented in your mind: it is the in ternalized, and usually implicit, knowledge about the wa y the lang uage works. It is part of every user's competence. Should not be confused with accuracy. PSYCHOLOGY The theory that language is an innate property of mind. Primarily associated with the work of Noam Chomsky, and represents a reaction to a purely behaviorist view of lang uage acquisition and a return to the rational ist philosophy of Descartes: "I think, therefore I am." Assumes the existence of a built-in universal grammar and presupposes an inborn language acquisition device. LINGUISTICS A figure of speech where one thing is s tated in terms of another. Tends to be ass ociated with literary  language. They structure the way we think about, and perceive, the world. Can help learners make sense of phrasal  verbs and the way prepositions are used in time expressions. Includes a lot of formulaic language and colloca tions. Grammatical: the way in which concepts that are normally expressed in one grammatical form (such as verbs), are expressed in another (such as nouns). Can sometimes thinly mask a particular ideology or mindset (a flood of  immigrants=disastrous). METHODOLOGY A system for the teaching of a language that is based either on a particular theory of language or on a particular theory of learning, or both. These theories underpin syllabus type, materials and activities. Should not be confused with coursebook or methodology. Nowadays, the term 'approach' is used almost exclusi vely because ha d been too prescriptive and too insens itive to loca l contextual factors.

pair

ability 

PHONOLOGY A pair of words which differ in meaning when only one sound (one phoneme) is changed. The differences can be either vowels or consonants. METHODOLOGY A marked difference among learners in terms of aptitude, learning style and/or motivation. Should  be distinguis hed from mixed levels. Can be viewed as either a classroom manag ement issue or as a sylla bus and materials issue. More acute problem in narrow-band curriculum than in broad-band curriculum.

167.  modality 

168.  modal

verb

169.  model

muddle meddle 170.  monitoring

GRAMMAR The lexical and grammatical ways used by speakers to express their attitude to what they are saying. Can be divided into two groups: extrinsic and intrinsic. intrinsic: reflects speaker's attitude to the necessity or desirability of the situation; allows us to express a ran ge of  interpersonal meanings. extrinsic: the speaker's assessment of the likelihood of the situation; allows us to talk about 'the world out there.' GRAMMAR A cla ss of auxiliary verb. There are nine 'pure'. Pure in the sense that they fulfill the formal requirements of  auxiliary verbs: form their negatives with 'not'; form questions by inversion with their subject; no infinitive forms, participles or the 3rd person; always 1st in the verb phrase. Can express 2 kinds of meaning: likelihood/possibility  (extrinsic) or s peaker's attitude (intrinsic).  A number of other single-word and multi-word verbs that combine with other verbs to express modal meaning . Semi-___ or marginal ____. METHODOLOGY Lesson design in which the teacher models a task; learners attempt to do the same task in pairs or small groups, while the teacher monitors, intervening where necessary in order to help the learners perform the task  effectively; finally, individuals perform the task to the w hole g roup. SLA When speakers attend to what they are saying as they say it. Often involves repairing (either by self-correcting or clarifying). Krashen's ____ hypothesis claims that learners use knowledge that they have learned in order to edit utterances that are generated by knowledge that they have acquired. He claims that this is the only use of learned knowledge. Can be monitor over users and under users.

171.  morpheme

PHONOLOGY The smallest meaningful unit in a language. Mean ing ful. Mean can stand on its own (free morpheme),  but ing and ful can't (bound morphemes). Bound morphemes are mainly affixes.

172.  morphology 

GRAMMAR The area of grammar concerned with the formation of words. Contrasts with syntax. Divided into two  branches: inflectiona l and derivational . inflectional=describes the wa y that words, such a s verbs, are in flected in order to convey different grammatical meanings. She works, she worked, she is working; where s, ed, and ing are different inflectional affixes. derivational=the way lexical words are formed, by, for example, affixation and compounding. Thus, the words inflection and in flectional are derived from inflect.

173.  motivation

PSYCHOLOGY What drives learners to achieve a goal; a key factor in determining success or failure in language learning. A distinction is made between 2 orientations: instrumental and integrative. instrumental=when the learner has a functional objective, such as passing an exam or getting a job. integrative=when the learner wa nts to be identified wit the target languag e community. Sources: intrinsic or extrinsic. intrinsic=pleasure of doing a task for its own sake. extrinsic=receiving some sort of reward. Factors that contribute: attitudes, goals, value learner attaches to achieving the goals, expectancy of success, self-esteem, intrinsic interest, g roup dynamic, teacher's attitude

174.  multiple

PSYCHOLOGY First proposed by Howa rd Gardner, views intellig ence as being multi-dimensiona l. Incl udes: intelligences  verbal/ling uistic, logi cal/mathematical, vis ual/spatial, bodily/kinasthetic, musical/rhythmic, interpersonal, intrapersonal.  Advocates argue that learning is optimized when these different intelligences are engaged. Belongs to humanis tic approaches with a 'new age' flavor.

175.  narrating

FUNCTION Telling stories. A universal function of language. Covers many sub-genres: anecdotes, fables, jokes, urban legends, etc. Serves an interpersona l function. Structure has been broken down into the follow ing components: abstract, orientation, complicating event, resolution, coda. Sequence varies a ccording to genre.

176.  narrow-

METHODOLOGY Curriculum in which each stage of the syllabus is highly specified, usually in terms of discrete items of  grammar, and where mastery of one stage is a prerequisite for the next. Learning is viewed as segmented, incremental and sequential.

 band curriculum 177.  natural

approach

METHODOLOGY F irst used in the 19th century to describe teaching methods such as the direct method, that a ttempted to mirror the process of learning a first language. Translation and grammar explanations were rejected, learners were exposed to sequences of actions and the spoken form was taught before the written form. Term was resurrected by Tracy  Terrell in the 70s. Endorsed by Krashen and shared principles with TPR.

178.  naturalistic

language acquisition 179.  needs

SLA Language acquisition that takes place in naturalistic (ie, non-classroom) settings. Contrasts with instructed language acquisition. METHODOLOGY The process of specifying the learners' language needs in advance of designing a course for them, especially an ESP course. Data are usually col lected by means of questionna ires or interviews.

analysis 180.  negative

politeness 181.  neuro-

linguistic programming 182.  no-interface

DISCOURSE Social behavior which avoids imposing on others. Achieved by saying please or acknowledging imposition and then apologizing. PSYCHOLOGY A theory about the way the mind processes experience and la nguage. Concerned with the brain, lang uage and learning. Shares with the theory of multiple intelligences the view that the mind is predisposed to process experience in different ways/modalities. L earners have preferred thinking styles, or metaprograms. Many of its w ays of  establishing rapport are already well-established in literature on affect and in humanistic approaches. SLA The claim that acquisition and learning are separate, independent processes, that do not influence one another.

position 183.  non-finite

 verbs 184.  norm-

referenced test 185.  noticing

186.  noticing

GRAMMAR Do not s how person, number or tense contrasts. The in finitive, present and past participles are forms of  these. "Before working for his uncle, Brad used to work for his father." TESTING Test in wh ich there is no criterion for passin g, but a candidate's results are interpreted in relation to the results of other candidates. SLA Wh en your attention is attracted to a feature of the lang uage that you are exposed to and you make a mental note of  it. Proponents of cog nitive learning theory believe that it's a prerequisite for learni ng, but not the only one. Turns 'noise' into input before it becomes intake (before it's moved into long-term memory).

the

gap 187.  notional

syllabus 188.  object

189.  one

to one teaching

190.  order

of  acquisition

191.  output

hypothesis

192.  pairwork 

193.  paradigm

SLA When learners are made aware of a gap in their language knowledge. Can trigger the restructuring of  interlanguage. METHODOLOGY A syllabus that is organized according to general areas of meaning that are used in most grammars.  A reversal of the form to meaning organization. When combined with functions, forms the backbone of the communicative approach. Survives now as just one strand of what are known as multi-layered syllabuses. GRAMMAR The person or thing in a sentence or clause that is affected by the action of the verb. Usually a noun phrase or a pronoun. METHODOLOGY Individualized instruction, in contrast to the teaching of small or large groups. Usually occurs face to face, and at times, over the phone, or at a distanc e.  Advantages for the student: undivided attention of the teacher, optimal opportunities for participation, cla sses ca n be tailored to their particular needs, pace a nd learning style.  Advantages for the teacher: no mixed levels, mixed abilities, diverse interests or different learning s tyles. Teacher can allow learner some choice in lesson content and direction. Disa dvantages: can be intensive, tiring experiences for both the learner and the teacher. Limited possibilities for communication (only 1 channel). SLA The order in wh ich g rammar items are thought to be acquired. It is also called the natural order and the order of  development. Research w as first carried out in L1 acquisition by means of morpheme studies. In the 70s, applied to SLA. The order is the sa me, irrespective of the learner's L1 , ag e, or the order in which they are taught these items. Prompted Krashen to formulate his natural order hypothesis. According to this view, teaching can't change the route of  acquisition, but it can speed up the rate of acquisition. SLA The theory that output, especially spoken output, is a necessary condition for la nguage acquisition. Contradicts Krashen's input hypothesis. Merrill Swain argues that learners have to be pushed to produce comprehensible output as  well. Forces learners to pay attention to features of the grammar that they might otherwise not notice. Puts them in a  better position to notice the gaps in their lan guage knowledge. Developed out of immersion teaching in Canada. METHODOLOGY A form of classroom interaction in which learners work in pairs to achieve a task. Open pairs, closed pairs. Can be organized around mingling or milling, dyadic circles, parallel lines, poster carousel LINGUISTICS A wa y of displaying the different forms of a word in the form of a lis t or table. The relationshi p between elements in a chain is called a syntagmatic relationship: This little pig went to market; this little pig stayed at home.  Went and stayed have the same paradigmatic relationsh ip, as do the words market and home. These are typically displa yed in substitution tables.

194.  paragraph

DISCOURSE A way of orga nizin g written texts into a s equence of topic-related sentences. The division of a text into these is an indication of its macro-s tructure. These contribute to the overall coh erence of a text.

195.  pa ralinguistics

LINGUISTICS The study of non-linguis tic means of vocal communication. This includes the different kinds of voice quality, as w ell as the use of loudness, intona tion and tempo to convey particular emotions and attitudes. Also used to describe non-vocal features of communication--such as the use of gesture, facial expression an d eye contact. Body  language=kinesics. A related area is proxemics--the study of how speakers use and interpret variations in interpersonal distance, posture and touch, during fa ce-to-face communication.

196.  parameter

SLA One of the 2 components of Chomsky's universal grammar. Different languag es cons truct phrases differently. The limited choice of variants is controlled by ____s. These are switched to one setting or another when the child is first exposed to lan guage data. English is head-first (verbs before their complements). The choice between head-first and head-last is governed by a ____. Principles are universal, but ___s are language-specific. Learning a second language involves learning its particular ___ settings.

197.  parsing

GRAMMAR The process of analyzing sentences into their component parts. Once a staple activity in traditional grammar teaching . Also the term used to describe the largely unconsc ious mental processes by whi ch a reader or listener works out the grammatical structure of sentences or utterances.

198.  participle

GRAMMAR Non-finite forms of verbs. That is, they don't show contrasts of tense, n umber or person, and they can't occur alone a s the main verb of the sentence. There are two types: present and past. Generally, present ___ expresses the course of a process; past ___ describes its result or effects.

199.  passive

GRAMMAR Contrasts with a ctive, and together they make up the system called voice. Voice i s the wa y that the relationship between the subject and the object of the verb can be changed without changing the basic meaning of  the sentence. Many reasons for this: to distribute information according to what is not known and what is known. Only transi tive verbs can take this voice. Much more common in written languag e.

200.  p ause

DISCOURSE A word or sound used to avoid frequent, long or silent pauses. Us ed to maintain fluency.

filler

201.  pedagogical

grammar 202.  perfect

LINGUISTICS A kind of descriptive grammar designed for teaching and learnin g purposes. Focuses on grammar as a subsystem of overall language proficiency, a s distinct from form, phonology or discourse. More selective than a linguist's grammar. Formal rather than functional. GRAMMAR One of the two verb aspects in English, the other being the progressive. It combines with tense. The  basic meanin g is 'before--and connected to--a point in time.' At least 2 reasons to view an event in this retrospective  way: 1. although finished, it is still relevant. 2. to indicate that an event is unfinished. Why it often combines with expressions of duration.

203.   personalization

METHODOLOGY When someone uses language to talk about their own knowledge, experience and feelings. Good preparation for the kinds of s ituations of genuine la nguage use that learners might encounter outside the class room. Influenced by humanistic a pproaches, which give it more coherent rationale a nd suggest a broader range of activity  types. Creates better classroom dynamics. The mental and emotional effort that is involved in finding persona l associations with a language item is likely to add cognitive and affective depth.

204.  phatic

DISCOURSE Language whose purpose is to smooth the conduct of social relations. Unlike transactional language, this language has an interpersonal function. Typically formulaic, as in the case of greetings, and is a characteristic of what is called small talk. Plays a very important role in the formation and maintenance of social groupings.

language

205.  phoneme

PHONOLOGY One of the distinctive sounds of a particular language. It is not any sound, but it is a sound that, to speakers of a language, cannot be replaced with another sound without causing a change in meaning.

206.  phonetics

PHONOLOGY The science of speech sounds, including the ways that these sounds are produced, transmitted and received. Language teaching is less concerned with this than phonology.

207.  phonics

METHODOLOGY An approach to the teaching of L1 reading that is based on the principle of identifying sound-letter relationships and using this knowledge to 'sound out' unfamiliar words when reading. Has been criticized because it encourages an exclusively bottom-up approach to reading, ignoring the value of recognizing whole word shapes, or using context clues to decode new words. Contrasts with more holistic, top-down approaches to teaching literacy, such as those advocated in whole language learning. In second language teaching, only really applies to young learners.

208.  phonological

core

PHONOLOGY The name given to those features of pronunciation that are cons idered essential in order to be understood when speaking English as an International Language. Features that are crucial in ensuring intelligibility   between non-na tive speakers of English . Includes the following features (as proposed by Jennifer Jenkins): most consonant sounds consonant clusters at beginnings of words, but not necessarily the end  vowel length distinctions (lo ng vs. short vowels) nuclear stress (correct placement of stress in a n utterance)

209.  phonology 

PHONOLOGY The study of the sound system of a particular language, and how this system is used by its speakers to express meaning. Describes the abstract system that allows the speakers of a language to distinguish meaning from mere verbal noise. Concerned with both seg mental (smallest units of s peech) a nd suprasegmental (larger elements) features, such as stress, rhythm an d intonation (s ometimes called prosody of speech).

210.  phrasal

GRAMMAR A combination of a verb and one or two particles. Th e particle is either an adverb or a preposition, or both. Four types: prepositional verbs: V + Prep. particle + object 'Can you deal with it?' intransitive phrasal verbs: V + adv. particle 'A storm blew up.' transitive phrasal verbs: V + adv. particle + object 'I'll pick you up at 8.' phrasal prepositional verbs: V + adv. particle + prep. + object 'We've run out of gas .'

verb

211.  phrase

GRAMMAR A unit of one or more words that form a sing le element of a cla use structure. It occupies the level on the grammatical hierarchy between individual words and clauses. 5 types, each associated with one of the 5 word classes: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition.

212.  placement

TESTING A form of ass essment given at the entry of a course to ascertain a l earner's level.

test 213.  polysemy 

 VOCABULARY "Many meaning s." Refers to the case where one word has more than one related meaning . Thus, the  word "chip" can mean 1) a piece of deep-fried potato, 2) a small piece of wood, 3) an electronic component. The words all have a common, core meaning.

214.  portfolio

TESTING A collection of orig inal work that is put together by a s tudent for the purposes of as sessment. It may inc lude samples of classwork, homework, or even audio/video recordings. May also include some form of self-assessment or reflection.

215.  positive

DISCOURSE Social behavior wh ich expresses positive attitudes to other people. Can take the form of thankin g, paying compliments, showing agreement, using terms of address that increase the hearer's sense of importance, using terms of  familiarity that imply a clos e friendship, even if there isn't one.

politeness 216.  p ossibility 

217.  p racticability 

FUNCTION Degrees of likelih ood of past, present and future events and situations. Degrees range from certainty, through probability, to impossi bility. Expressed by: modal verbs (may, could) adverbials (perhaps, maybe, probably) adjectives (likely, possible) nouns (chance, likelihood)  A distinction is made between factual ___ and theoretical ___. The beach may be crowded. vs. The beach can be crowded. TESTING How easily a test is able to be administered.

218.  practice

METHODOLOGY To do s omething a number of times in order to gain co ntrol of it. Fundamental to cognitive learning theory. Through ___, a skill becomes automatic. Sociocultural learning theory also finds room for __: performing a skill  with the ass istance of someone who is good at it can help in the appropriation of the skill . Different types: Controlled: can be controlled in lang uage or in interaction. Main tains a focus on accuracy and pre-empts or corrects errors. Free: allows learners a meas ure of creativity, and the opportunity to integrate the new i tem into their existing lang uage 'pool.' mechanical: form of controlled where the focus is less on the meaning of an item than on manipulating its component parts. meaningful: requires learners to displa y some understanding o f wha t the item that they are using actually means. communicative: learners interacting to complete some kind of task  receptive: involve the learners in identifying, s electing, or discrimina ting between lang uage items but not actually  producing them. productive: learners have to produce the target items.

219.  pr agmatic

competence

LINGUISTICS The knowl edge that la nguage users have that enables them to take contextual factors into account wh en using and interpreting language.

220.   pragmatics

LINGUISTICS The study of how lang uage is used and interpreted by its learners in real-world situations.

221.  prescriptive

LINGUISTICS A manual that states rules for how language shoudl be used, rather than how it is used. Many traditional grammars were of this type, and most manuals of correct usag e and style guides still a re. This type of grammar is considered at best a curiosity and a t worst reactionary.

grammar 222.  prescriptive

grammar

LINGUISTICS Prescribes correct usage, a ccording to the standards of s ome group. Wh at you ought or ought not to say. Seen as a marker of group membership. Not what we mean in the context of EFL/ESL.

223.  presentation

METHODOLOGY The stage of a lesson in which a new language item--typically a grammar structure, but can also be  vocabulary, pronunciation or features of discourse--is introduced to the learners. Can be either deductive or inductive.  Aimed at matching a l anguage form with a meanin g. Should normall incl ude some check on the learners' understanding (CCQs). Should be a short stage of the less on, to allow maximum time for communicative practice.

224.  presentation

METHODOLOGY Less on design in which a pre-selected grammar item is first presented using direct method techniques, then practised in a controlled way, then practised by means of a freer, productive activity such a s a roleplay. The design tha t has prevailed in ELT methodology for the past ha lf century. Final stage reinforced by the advent of the communicative approach. Th is design ha s been criticized because the first two pha ses receive undue emphasis. To some it's a very mechanical model of learning.

practice production

225.  priming

LINGUISTICS The process by which, through repeated encounters, a word gathers particular associations. These associations may be with other words, as is the case with collocations. Or may be semantic associations (particular meanings ), colligtions (grammatical patterns). These patterns are strengthened through repeated encounters.

226.  process

METHODOLOGY Approach in which writers do not in fact start with a clear idea of the finished product. The text emerges out of a creative process which includes: planning, drafting and re-drafting, reviewing, publishing. It's a more organic sequence of classroom activities. Has a lot in common with the communicative approach in that the writer interacts with a reader for a particular purpose.

approach to  writing 227.  product

approach to  writing 228.   proficiency  229.  progressive

230.  progress

231.  project

METHODOLOGY An approach in w hich the focus is exclusively on producing a text that reproduces the model learners are initially given. Involves a nalyzin g and imitating models of particular text types. Each of the features is practiced in isola tion, then recombined in tasks aimed first at reproducing the origi nal and then at producing similar texts incorporating different content. SLA The degree of skill with which a learner can use the language. GRAMMAR One of the two verb aspects in English. Combines with tense to tell us what an action is/was like. The event is viewed as being 'in progress' (in the present or in the past, depending on the tense). Not usually possible with stative  verbs.

test

TESTING A form of ass essment administered periodically during a course to monitor the learning process. Als o called formative tests. These are set because they encourage revision.

work 

METHODOLOGY The preparation and presentation of a project, either by an individual or (more usually) a group. The rationale is essentially the same as TBL. The preparation of these usually extends over more than one lesson.

232.  pronoun

233.  p ronunciation

teaching

234.   quanitifiers

GRAMMAR The relatively small word clas s of w ords that can be used to substitute for a noun or a noun phrase. They  include: personal pronouns possessive pronouns demonstrative pronouns interrogative pronouns relative pronouns indefinite pronouns reflexive pronouns reciprocal pronouns quantifiers They aid in the overall cohesion of a text. PHONOLOGY The general term for that part of language classes and courses that deals with aspects of phonology in English. Includes segmental a nd suprasegmental features. Can be either integrated or segregated. Integrated=dealt  with as part of the teaching of skills of grammar and vocabulary, or of speaking a nd listening. Segregated=treated in isolation. Pre-emptive or reactive. GRAMMAR Words or phras es wh ich specify quantity or amount. They either precede nouns (as determiners) or stand on their own (as pronouns). The choice of these is often determined by whether the noun that follows is countable or uncountable; and if, countable whether it is singular or plural. These can be categorized as being: inclusive (all, both, each, every) an indefinite quantity (some, several, an y) a la rge quantity (most, much, lots of) a small quantity (a few, a little, a bit of) a comparative quantity (more, less) negative quantities (no, neither, none) numbers partitives (a piece, a bottle)

235.  question

GRAMMAR The basic distinction between asking and telling. This is the main way of performing the asking function. Contrasts with statements. Classified as:  yes-no  wh alternative (Shall, Did) tag declarative: "You're sure you're okay?" rhetorical indirect and reported Basic operation in forming questions in English is the inversion of the subject and the (first) auxiliary of the verb

236.  reading

METHODOLOGY A receptive skill, but it doesn't mean tha t it's pass ive. It's an active, even interactive process. Learners need to be able to decode the letters, words a nd grammatical structures of the individual s entences (bottomup processing). They also enlist top-down processes, such as drawing on discourse and schematic knowledge, as well as on immediate contextual knowl edge. Involves an in teraction between these different levels of knowledge, where knowledge at one level can compensate for lack of knowledge at another. Different subskills incluce: skimming (gist) scanning (searching for specific information and ignoring everything else) detailed (extracting the maximum detail from a text) aloud (a prepared speech or lecture, or a story or extract from a n ewspaper)

237.  received

PHONOLOGY The type of pronunciation of British English that is considered the regionally neutral standard. pronunciation Provides the model most widely used in the teaching of British English. The argument for using this English in recent  years has been chal lenged, especially with the growth of Englis h as an internationa l lang uage.

238.  reference

DISCOURSE The relation between language forms and things in the real world. Also has a narrower sense, and describes the relation between lang uage forms and their referents in discourse.  Anaphoric: back reference cataphroic: forward reference exophoric: direct reference to the non- linguistic context These all aid in cohesion. Deicitic terms typically have exophoric reference.

239.  reflection

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT A key stage in an experiential learning cycle that also includes planning, action andlearning. Th is involves more than simply remembering. Being able to think critical ly about experience, to identify  problems, a nd to 're-frame' these problems. Als o a component of the action research model.

240.  register

LINGUISTICS The way that language use varies according to variations in the context. It is a term that is used particularly by proponents of sys temic functional linguistics. Th ey argue that there is a correlation between the forms of  language and features of the social context. Key factors are the field of discourse (what is being talked or written about) the tenor (the relationship between the participants) the mode (whether the lang uage is written or spoken). These cons titute the ___ variables of a s ituation. It is of particular relevance in the teaching of genres.

241.  reliability 

TESTING When a test gives consis tent results. Often an effect of the test design. Also at risk the more subjective the scoring is.

242.  repair

DISCOURSE To correct or modify wha t you have just said, so as to make it more accurate or more intelligible. Ca n be self-initia ted or other-initiated.

243.  repetition

METHODOLOGY Underlies many language learning strategies, and it has always been considered a sound learning strategy. Audiolingual ism helped make __ scientific a nd developed a sophis ticated repertoire of drills. Pos t-behaviorist approaches continued to promote ___, believing that it helps fix lang uage in the memory. The way the item is processed is more important than the number of times it is repeated.

244.  requesting

FUNCTION Belongs to the general class of speech acts that are about getting people to do things, such as commanding, persuading, and asking favors. Most of these involve the use of modal verbs.

245.   restructuring

SLA Responding to new information by re-organizin g to accommodate it. The term in cognitive learning theory used to describe what s eemed to happen to the learner's developing interlanguag e system as i t adapted to new input. At some point, a rule for regular past tense formation is applied to all verbs in past contexts. The s ystem has now sped up processing, but it may result in what is called backsliding, which is what happens when the learner overapplies the rule (or overgeneralizes it). Without ____, fossilization can occur.

246.  revision

TESTING The process of reviewing previously studied material, especially in advance of a test. The most effective forms involve revisiting previously studied material and processing it in a novel way. This should happen as soon as possible after first meeting it, and then a t successively long er intervals of time.

247.  rhythm

PHONOLOGY The wa y that some words are emphasized so a s to give the effect of regular beats. Can be stress-timed (English) or syllable-timed (French and Spanish). Interacts with stress and intonation to help speakers organize speech into meaningful units.

248.  routine

METHODOLOGY Regula r procedures tha t impart a sense of structure, rhythm and flow to the c lass . Some are management-oriented, s ome are teaching-oriented. Expert teachers regularly use a relatively small number of these in their class es, but they are performed fluidly and purposefully. Learning to teach is primarily a case of a cquiring a repertoire of these that ca n be adapted to different clas ses, levels and circumstances.

249.  rubric

METHODOLOGY The set of instructions (usually written) that tells students wh at they have to do for a test or an exercise.

250.  scaffolding

SLA The temporary interactional s upport that is given to learners wh ile their lang uage system is under construction. It is this support that enables them to perform a task at a level beyond their present competence. The term derives from sociocultural learning theory, which views learning as being jointly constructed. it not only provides a conversational framework, but it is believed to shape lang uage acquisition itself.

251.  schemata

PSYCHOLOGY The way that know ledge about a topic or a concept is represented and organized in the mind. Th ey help us to make sens e of experience, and h ence they are crucial in comprehension. Also used to refer to the temporary mental picture that a reader or listener constructs when processing a text.

252.  second

language 253.  second

language acquisition

254.  self-access

center

SLA Any language that has been learned subsequent to the acquisition of the first language. The term additional lang uage is sometimes preferred. SLA The study of how s econd (or additional) la nguages are acquired. It is a relatively new field of study, emerging in the  wake of behaviorism to offer a satisfactory explanation of either first or second lang uage acquisition. To what extent are the processes the same as those of FLA?  Why is it seldom, if ever, as s uccessful as FLA?  Why do some learners learn better and/or faster than others?  Why do learners make errors? How does the L1 affect the learning of the L2? Does instruction help? And if so, how? Researchers use as data learner output, the input they're exposed to, age, aptitude, motivation a nd learning style. 3 areas account for this study: UG, cognitive learning theory and sociocultural learning theory. METHODOLOGY That part of a lan guage teaching institution that is allocated to self-directed study. Popular at the heigh t of the learner autonomy movement. Many are re-absorbed into the i nstution's l ibrary or turned into internet rooms.

255.  semantics

LINGUISTICS The study of meaning , including the wa y words relate to the thing s that they refer to in the real world. In language teaching the focus is on the meaning relationship between words, such as similarity and oppositeness. Often contrasted with pragmatic meaning, in that it focuses on the literal meaning instead of the effect.

256.  sentence

GRAMMAR the largest purely grammatical unit in a la nguage. Everything beyond the ___ is only weak ly linked in grammatical terms. In speakin g, speech is s ometimes broken into utterances instead.

257.  short

GRAMMAR A passive construction without a by-phrase. Used when the agent is not known, is obvious or because the speaker doesn't wish to identify the agent.

passive 258.  silent

period

SLA The lengthy period of time children learning their first languag e go through w hen they simply listen before they   venture their first words. Some researchers ha ve argued that this is a necessa ry stage in lang uage acquisition. It provides an d opportunity to comprehend input. Methods based on this are TPR a nd the na tural a pproach. Some evidence suggests that learners use this period to engage in private speech (a kin d of silent or sub-vocablized rehearsal phase).

259.  si lent way 

METHODOLOGY A method that wa s developed by Caleb Gattegno in the '60s. Normall y grouped among the humanis tic approaches to language learning. Gattegno believed language learning was self-initiated and self-directed. T's role was as a facilitator. Learning is largely mediated through the use of two aids: Fidel charts of color-coded sounds of the language, and cuisinaire rods--small, colored blocks of wood of varying length. Rods and charts were used to create and reflect upon basic sentence patterns. This method deliberately keeps the vocab load low. It has only ever had fringe status.

260.  skills

METHODOLOGY A way in which language is used. Language ___ contrast with language systems. These are divided into receptive (reading and listening) and productive (speaking and writing). This division has been fundamental in course design and lesson planning. The separation into discrete skills overlooks the fact that mot communication is interactive, involving both reception and production, a nd often in equal measure. To s eparate these distorts how  language is really used.

261.   socialization

SLA The process by wh cih w e become members of a particular group. It means adopting--or adapting to--the values and customs of the target group. A growing school of thought views L2 learning as a process of this, not of acquisition. The dominant metaphor is that of apprenticeship, in which the learner is g radually inducted into the target culture, including its language. This makes more sense in an EFL context than and ESL one.

262.  sociocultural

PSYCHOLOGY Comes from the pioneering work of Lev Vygotsky, a child psychologist in the 30s in the then USSR. Saw  learning as a social process: through social interaction the learner is assisted from dependency toward autonomy. This theory situates the learning process firmly in its social context (as opposed to mentalism). All learning--including L1 and L2--is mediated through social an d cultural activity. Mediation typically takes the form of assis ted performance with scaffolding until learner is a ble to appropriate the know ledge. Learner graduates from a state of other-regulation to selfregulation.

learning theory 

263.   sociolinguistics

264.  songs

SOCIOLINGUISTICS The study of the way la nguage and society are interrelated, and in particular the w ay different social contexts influence language use. The major contribution to language teaching was the impetus it gave to the development of the communicative approach. Descriptions of h ow language is used in different communities prompted scholars to re-think the goals of L2 teaching a nd to describe these in terms of functions rather than structures. Bilingualism, language and gender, language and power and language planning all fall under this umbrella. METHODOLOGY An entertaining and often memorable way of contextualizing language. Have inbuilt repetition,  which adds to their potential as sources for incidental learning. Ma ny display instances of hi gh frequency idiomatic language, including formulaic language. Downside=often ungraded, colloquial, and even ungrammatical.

265.  speaking

METHODOLOGY Generally though t to be the most important of the 4 skil ls. Often equated with proficiency in the language. Main difficulties include: takes place spontaneously and in real time, so planning and production overlap. If too much time is spent planning, production suffers. If too much focus on production, accuracy suffers, wh ich could prejudice intelligibility. Speaker needs to have ach ieved a degree of automaticity in both plann ing and production. A core vocabulary of 1000-1500 high-frequency words and expressions will provide most learners with a solid basis.

266.  speech

DISCOURSE "Doing s omething " with w ords. Most require their purpose/illocutionary force to be inferred. The conditions tha t determine the appropriacy a nd interpretation of these are the con cerns of pragmatics . Can be 1 of 5 types: representatives: describe states or events in the world. directives: aimed at getting people to do things. commissives: commit the speaker to a course of a ction. expressives: express feelings and attitudes. declaratives: by uttering these, s peaker changes the situation. This theory originated in philosophy with JL Austin and John Searle.

act

267.  spoken

grammar

268.  standard

English

269.  stative

verb

270.  stress

GRAMMAR Shares the sa me basic structure as that of w ritten English, but because of its on-li ne production, there are some significan t differences. Speech is built up clause by clause an d phrase by phrase, rather than s entence by  sentence. Utterance boundaries are less clearly defined in spoken lan guage, and wh y co-ordination is preferred to subordination. Typically consi sts of frequent sequences of s hort clauses j oined by and, but, then, because. In utterances, con tent can be added before or after (heads and tails ) the main body of the message in ways that sentence grammar does not allow . Also shows a preference for direct speech rather than reported speech. There is also the use of vague language. SOCIOLINGUISTICS The variety of English that is usually used in writing, taught in schools, and used as the model for teaching non-native speakers. Each major English-speaking country has its on variety. The linguistic features are codified in its grammar and vocabulary, including its spelling. Pronunciation may vary. There are arguments both for and against using this as the norm. For: even if not all English speakers speak it, they can understand it. There is also no real viable alternative. Against: It is too closely associated with native speakers. GRAMMAR Refer to states: I a m curious. It's a wonderful life. Refer to ina ctive emotional, cognitive or perceptual processes: I wa nt to live. I kn ow w hat you did las t summer. These cannot normally be used in the continuous. PHONOLOGY The effect of emphasizing certain syllables by increasing their loudness, length or pitch. Can be at  word level or sentence level. Learners start working this out on the basis of intuition, but highl ighting it can be a useful memory aid. There is some evidence that words are stored and recalled according to their 'sha pe.'

271.  stress-timed

PHONOLOGY Stressed sylla bles tend to recur at different intervals, a nd the intervening syllables are accommodated.

language 272.  strong

CLT

273.  structure

METHODOLOGY An emphasis on deep-end communication. You learn language by using it. Led to task-based learning. LINGUISTICS A pattern that a language has for generating specific instances. Now loosely used to mean any  grammar item that appears on a syllabus, and in particular the different combinations of tense a nd aspect. The communicative approach tried to replace these w ith functions, but these are easier than functions to gra de.

274.  style

LINGUISTICS A usually deliberate choice of a particular wa y of saying or writing s omething . There is often more than one way of conveying the same message. The choice is determined by 1) specific contextual factors; 2) a particular effect the person wants to achieve. Ranges from formal to informal. These choices affect both grammar and  vocabulary. Can include literary, old-fashio ned, humorous and medical. If these are related to particular fields, they're called registers.

275.  stylistics

LINGUISTICS The study of style, or the way la nguage is used to create particular effects, especially those a ssociated  with the expressive and literary uses of language. Rather than s imply interpreting s tyles, it aims to explain them by  employing the concepts and analytical techniques of linguistics and applying these to literary texts. Has a lot in common with genre analysis.

276.   subordination

GRAMMAR One way of linking clauses so that one clause is embedded in another. This embedded clause is said to be dependent on the other clause. The conjunctions when, even if, although, because, while, after, unless are all used for this. There are 3 clauses: adverbial: act like an adverbial in a sentence and give extra info about time, manner, reason, conditions, etc. relative: attached to a noun phras e, which they modify by providing extra information. reported: report statements, questions, thoughts and which typically begin w ith that or if or a wh word.

277.  substitution

DISCOURSE The replacing of a noun phrase or a whole clause by a single word. This is done in order to avoid repetition, or to make a text more cohesive.

278.  substitution

METHODOLOGY A way of displaying the w ay the different elements of a structure relate to one another, both on a horizontal axis, and on a vertical one. Horizontally (syntagmatic), the table displays the order of elements. Vertically  (paradigmatic), it displays the items that may be substituted for one another. These were a popular aid to learning in audiolingual ism, s ince they displayed the structural patterns of the language.

table

279.  sub-

PSYCHOLOGY Wh en learners repeat, under their breath, w hat they ha ve just heard.

 vocalization 280.  suggesting

FUNCTION Attempting to influence the behavior of people. Less forceful than a command, although it may be a way  of disguising a command.

281.  suggestopaedia

METHODOLOGY A method that applies principles of suggestion to teaching. Georgi Lozanov believes that, in the right conditions, the human mind is highly suggestible and capable of prodigious feats of learning (superlearning or accelerated learning). Any negative feelings associated with learning need to be eliminated by a process called desuggestion, which involves background music, adopting fictitious names and personae, and the T in control. It is assumed that learning takes place subliminally. Emphasis on affect makes it highly humanistic. It anticipated NLP.

282.  sup erordinate

 VOCABULARY A la rger category with specific items under its umbrella. An oran ge is a fruit (fruit is the larger category).

283.  syllable

PHONOLOGY A unit of pronunciation that is typically larger than a sound but smaller than a word. Consist of vowel sounds or combinations of vowels and consonants. Some consonants can form these on their own. It is difficult to say where one ends and another begins.

284.  syllable-timed

PHONOLOGY Syllables in the language are given equal length.

language 285.  syllabus

METHODOLOGY An item-by-item description of the teaching content of a course. On the basis of this a timetable/scheme of work can be drawn up. Helps specify what s hould be tested. A distinction is sometimes made  between this and the curriculum. The ___ is one way that the curriculum is operationalized. To design this , involves at least 2 sets of decisions: selecting and grading. Tradition also plays a part in the design. There are many kinds of  these: semantic, s tructural, topic-based, situational, task-based, test-based, g enre-driven, multi-layered.

286.  synonym

 VOCABULARY A word that has the sa me meaning as, or a very similar meaning to, a nother one. This relations hip contrasts with other sense relations, such as antonymy and hyponymy. Words may have a similar meaning, but differ in style, in their geographical distribution, in their connotations or in their collocations.

287.  syntax

GRAMMAR The rules for sequencing words so as to show their relationships of meaning within sentences. Contrasts  with morphology. Together these make up wha t is traditionally known as grammar. Traditionally taught by the process of parsing sentences.

288.  systemic

functional linguistics

LINGUSTICS A model for linguistic analysis developed by Michael Halliday. It describes language as a network of a small fixed set of choices. It also describes the conditions for choosing among each set of choices. Identifies language as having 3 main (mega) functions that are realized at every level of analysis: experiential (ideational): language expresses the way we experience the world. interpersonal: language is used to act upon the world and to interact with other people. textual: language can be used to make connections between a text and its context, or to make connections within the text. Underlying this model of language is the claim that the grammatical system is determined by the social functions for  which langauge is used.

289.  task 

METHODOLOGY A classroom activity whose focus is on communicating meaning. In contrast, practising a preselected item of languag e for its own sake w ould not be a valid __ objective. In the performance of the __, learners are expected to make use of their own language resources. May be receptive or productive and may be done individually or in pairs or small groups. Factors w hich influence the degree of difficulty include: linguistic factors: How complex is the language learners will need to draw on? How much help will they get with their language needs? cognitive factors: Does the tas k require the processin g of complex data? Is the tas k type familiar to learners? performance factors: Do the l earners have to interact in real time in order to do the task? Do they h ave time to rehearse? Do they have to 'go public?'

290.  task-based

METHODOLOGY An approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching. Rationale originated in the communicative approach, particularly in the deep-end version. You learn a language by using i t. One of the first experiments took place in the 70s in southern India (Bangalore project; N.S. Prabhu). Classroom instruction involved the demonstration (by the T) and the performance (by the Learners) of these tasks . Prabhu rejected any focus on form, either before, during or after the task, o n the grounds tha t it might detract from meaning. Some argue that feedback  should happen pre, during or post task. Shares many principles with whole language learning. It has been more theoretically influential than practically.

learning

291.  teacher

development

292.  teacher

talk 

PROFESSIONAL Refers to the ongoing professional growth of teachers, particularly that which takes place after their initial training. May take the form of in-service training of a more formal kind, such as attendance on course. Incorporates cycles of classroom practice and reflection, which might include: a mentoring sys tem classroom observation keeping a teaching journal action research locally-based workshops and seminars guided reading, and discussion Often contrasted with teacher training. TT has more technical goals. ____ has a more holistic orientation, aimed at developing the T's capacity for self-directed growth and professiona l well-being. METHODOLOGY The term used to describe the variety of lang uage used by teachers when addressing learners. Sha res qualities with the way speakers often adapt their language when talking to non-native speakers and the way that parents talk to children. Generally refers to the way that teachers interact with their learners. T provides a source of input as w ell as feedback. Has a number of different functions: managing: giving instructions, nominating turns explaining: giving definitions, presenting grammar checking understanding modelling giving feedback  eliciting providing input interpersonal talk  Being intelligible as a teacher is less a question of grading language than of being sensitive to, and know how to resolve, misunderstandings.

293.  teaching

 young learners

294.  tense

295.

test teach test

296.  test-teach-

test

METHODOLOGY Teaching children of pre-primary and primary school age. Can sometimes include adolescents. Has a long history. The special characteristics of this group can be broken down as cognitive, affective and social. cognitive factors: relatively limited world knowledge, s till developing concepts and memory, s hort attention s pan, preference for holistic learning, etc. affective factors: lack of self-cons ciousness about expressing themselves inacc urately, need for encouragement and support, intrinsically motivated. social factors: lack of social skills, dependency on the teacher. General rules: provide opportunities for learning through doing situate the content in the world of the learners plan s hort, varied activity cycles systematically recycle languag e in different contexts provide plenty of comprehensible input scaffold the learners' talk  establish regular routines Sociocultural l earning theory offers the most support for the above principles. GRAMMAR Refers to the way tha t verbs are inflected to express a relation with time. The relation between time and __ is not an exact match. Grammatical ___ and notional time are not the same thing. There are only really 2 of these in English: the present and the past. This combines with aspect to create the variety of verb structures in English that are commonly mistaken as its different ___s. A focus on them has traditionall y dominated course design. METHODOLOGY Lesson design in which learners first perform a task; the T uses this in order to identify the learners' specific language needs; they are then taught wh atever it is they need in order to re-do the task more effectively. METHODOLOGY An approach to lesson design in which decisions about what to teach are based on the way learners perform particular tasks . Al so ca lled a deep-end strategy, this approach grew out of the communicative approach. In this kind of lesson, the T first diagnoses learners' strengths and weaknesses in some sort of communicative activity. T then teaches the la nguage they need to communicate more effectively. Finally, learners repeat the initial task (or something s imilar). Focused on learners' immediate needs, rather than a theoretical notion of their competence. A  precursor to TBL.

297.  text

DISCOURSE A continuous piece of spoken or written language. Normally cons ists of a number of linked sentences, and has a distinctive internal structure and an identifiable communicative function. Classified into genres. These are not as rule-bound as sentences, there is the expectation that they will be coherent. It is useful to teach lang uage through ___s, ra ther than apart from them.

298.  theme

DISCOURSE The way messag es are cons tructed. This is the 'point of departure' of the messag e. It typicall y expresses known (or given) information, often information that is ca rried over from a previous sentence. The rest of the sentence is ca lled the rheme, and constitutes the new information.

299.  timetable

METHODOLOGY Also called a scheme of work. The plan for a sequence of lessons that takes place over a fixed period of time. Translates the information contained in the syllabus into a series of lesson plans. Decisions need to be made  based on amount and distribution of time availa ble, intensive or part-time course, and how best to alloca te the time.

300.  topic

DISCOURSE What the sentence is a bout. ___ and comment often correspond to what, in grammatical terms, are call ed subject and predicate. They also correspond to theme and rheme. Not alw ays the s ubject. Also a term used in discourse and conversation a nalysi to refer to what people are talking about.

301.   topicalization

DISCOURSE The process of moving an element to the front of a sentence so that it functions a s the topic.

302.  total

METHODOLOGY A language-teaching method that was developed by James Asher in the early 70s. Like the natural approach, it is a comprehension approach, based on the silent period. This method is based on the way that young children receive comprehensible input in their L1. In volves a sequence of commands tha t L1 learners s ee being demonstrated. Belongs firmly in the holistic camp. As a method, it's had only marginal impact, but as a classroom technique it's particularly suited to young learners.

physical response

303.  transfer

SLA The effect that one language--particularly the L1--has on another. Can occur at all levels--pronunciation,  vocabulary, grammar and discourse. Used to be called interference, since, according to behaviorist theory, all instances of this were seen as negative. Now it is accepted that this can be positive as well, particularly as a communication strategy. It's one of many factors that affects a learner's interlanguage.

304.  transitivity 

GRAMMAR The capacity of a verb to take an object. Verbs with thi s capacity can be used in pass ive constructions. Some  verbs can take two objects: a direct and an indirect object. These verbs are called ditransitive: 'Give me some light.' V erbs can be used both ___ and in____. These are sometimes called ergative verbs. Linking verbs (be, feel, seem) take complements, so they don't ha ve this capacity.

305.  translation

METHODOLOGY To produce a version of a written text in another language. In spoken texts, this is called interpretation. Has been central to some teaching methods (g rammar-translation) a nd frowned upon by others (direct method). CONS: encourages dependence on the L1, encourages the notion of equivalence between languages (no 2 are alike), L1 system interferes with development o L2 s ystem, the 'easy' a pproach and therefore less memorable, the 'natural wa y' of acquiring a language is through direct experience/exposure, not feasible in classes of mixed nationalities PROS: new knowledge (L2) is constructed on the basis of existing knowledge (L1), languages have more similarities than differences and translation encourages the positive transfer of similarities, a time-efficient means of conveying meaning, an integral part of being a proficient L2 user (contributes to overall pluralingualism), a natural way of exploiting the inherent bilingualism of lang uage classes.

306.  universal

LINGUISTICS The name given to the theory that al l languages sha re certain fundamental principles. Adopted by Noam Chomsky in order to argue that we are genetically programmed with an innate language leaning faculty (language acquisition device). These principles are adjusted for individual languages according to choices tha t are governed by a narrow range of options (parameters), the choice of one of which determines a whole proliferation of grammatical features. Proponents argue that only this theory can explain the highly sophisticated rule systems that chil dren develop in a relatively short time. Critics argue that it is a 'magical' faculty whose existence hasn't been proven.

grammar

307.  uptake

308.  usage

SLA Wha t learners report to ha ve learned from a language lesson. Typically doesn't match wh at the teacher intended to teach. Can vary from learner to learner. Factors that enhance this are salience (how much emphasis was given to an item or topic) and source (wh ether the item or topic origina ted in the teacher or in a nother learner). Thos e topics generated by  other learners foster better ___. LINGUISTICS The way a community actually uses a lang uage, a s described in descriptive grammars of the lang uage or in  books of lang uage ___. Als o refers to a person's a bstract knowledge of the rules of grammar (competence). This contrasts  with use--using thos e rules to achieve some communicative purpose.

309.  usage-

SLA A way of describing those theories of second language acquisition that argue that acquisition occurs primarily   based through engaging in communication. The bulk of learning is implicit and there is a direct effect of the frequency of  acquisition encounters wi th an item. Learner's grammar is derived from frequent encounters with individual ins tances (exemplars), sometimes called exemplar theory. Learner's grammar emerges, so it is also known as emergentism. Rejects mentalist  views instead embracing g eneral learning processes: pattern extraction, tallying , associa tion learning , chunking and rehearsal. This theory is associated with connectionist models of learning.

310.  utterance

GRAMMAR One speaker's turn or a stretch of speech between pauses, or one that falls under a single intonation co ntour, or one that fulfills a single function. Now generally accepted as preferable to sentence when talking about spoken language.

311.  vague

DISCOURSE A common feature of spoken languag e. It performs an important interpersona l function in tha t it allows speakers to avoid either committing themselves to a proposal or sounding too a ssertive. Can als o be placeholder words used to substitute for more specific terms that the speaker either has forgotten or doesn't w ant to mention. A lso a useful communication strategy that compensates for gaps in lexical knowledge.

language

312.  validity 

TESTING When a test measures accurately wha t it is i ntended to measure. Face, content and cons truct are different factors to consider.

313.   variability 

SLA A characteristic of learners' interlanguage in which they use more than one way of expressing the same idea, more or less interchangeably. May be systematic or free. Systematic=preferred to another in certain conditions, such as when learner is being more careful. F ree=random and unsystematic. Supports the belief that a l earner's interlang uage is inherently unstable. ___ also exists across learners. This could be influenced by attitudes, L1, motivation, learning style, exposure amount/type, etc.

314.  vocabulary 

teaching

315.  voiced

METHODOLOGY Teaching the area of language learning that is concerned with word knowledge. In audiolingualism, this w as subordinated to the teaching of g rammar structures. Words were simply there to fill slots i n the sentence patterns. Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis and the lexical approach started to blur the boundaries between grammar and  vocabulary. The lexical a pproach in particular concerned itself both wit the selection of items and the type of items. Learners need opportunities for incidental learning and constant recycling of newly-learned words is essential. PHONOLOGY One which is produced while the vocal cords are vibrating. All English vowels are ___.

sound 316.  weak

CLT

METHODOLOGY An emphasis on shallow-end communication. You learn language and then you use it. Learn the lang uage systems first a nd then put them to communicative use.

317.  weak

form

PHONOLOGY The non-stressed pronunciation of some words. Most function words in English (of, at, to, can, must, was, have, a nd) have 2 possible pronunciations , depending on wh ether they are stressed or not. Most of these ___ ___ involve replacement of the vowel by schwa, although some consonant deletion can also occur. The use of these helps in achieving an English-sounding rhythm.

318.  webquest

METHODOLOGY An educational task that is carried out by means of the internet. The aim of this is to focus on processing information rather than simply copying it, and thereby to encourage analytic and critical thinking. Developed in 1995 by  Bernie Dodge and Tom March. F its into the frameworks of both project work and TBL.

319.  whole

METHODOLOGY An educational approach to the teaching of literacy. Its guiding principle is that language skills are best learned in authentic, meaningful situations. Teacher=facilitator. Core principles: learning goes from whole to part 4 skills develop together lessons should be learner-centered because learning is the active construction of know ledge learning takes places in social interaction Emphasizes the social and cultural dimension of education. Aims to promote learner's self-realization through learning. Found in a process approach to the teaching of writing and an activity-based approach to teaching young learners.

language learning

320.  word

321.  word

 VOCABULARY The small est languag e item that can occur on its own. The concept has been refined to distinguish  between:  word forms: written or spoken words that are spelled or pronounced as sing le units. lexical items (lexemes): the way w ords are represented in a dictionary: take, to take, taking. class

322.  word

family  323.  word

formation

324.  word

order 325.  world

Englishes

326.  writing

GRAMMAR A group of words that, from a g rammatical point of view, beha ve in the same way. The ___ of pronoun, determiner, preposition and con junction are ca lled closed cla sses because they cannot readily be added to. Nouns, verbs, adjectives a nd adverbs a re open.  VOCABULARY A group of words that sha re the same root but have different affixes: care, careful, careless, ca refree, uncaring, carer. A base word plus its inflections and its most common derivatives.  VOCABULARY The process by which new w ords are created out of elements of existing on es. In Engli sh, there are two main processes by which this is achieved: affixation and compounding. Affixation=adding prefixes or suffixes. Compounding=the joinin g together of two or more words. Other ways include: conversion (a word changes its word class without any change of form), clipping (when a word is shortened), blends (2 words merge to form 1), a bbreviations a nd acronyms. GRAMMAR The way words are sequenced, particularly with rega rd to the sequencing of elements in a clause or sentence.  A frequent source of learner error. As a n uninflected lang uage, English ___ ___ is generally less flexible than that of  many languages. SOCIOLINGUISTICS Varieties of English (also called nativized varieties) that are spoken in countries such as India, Nigeria and Singapore, where, for historical reasons, English plays an important second language role. Deliberately  challenges the notion that English is still 'owned' by its native speakers, or that there is a universal World Standard English. METHODOLOGY A productive skill that involves a hierarchy of sub-skills, including: produce grammatically accurate sentences select and maintain an a ppropriate style signal the direction that the message is taking  Writers need an extensive knowledge base, not only at the level of vocabulary and grammar, but at the level of connected discourse.

327.  zone

of proximal development

PSYCHOLOGY This is the 'w indow of opportunity' where the learner is n ot yet able to solve a problem independently, but can do s o with the assistance of others. A feature of sociocultural learning theory.