UNIT 23 THE STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS. OUTLINE 1.
INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit. 1.2. Notes on bibliography.
2.
A LINGUISTIC FRAMEWORK FOR SENTENCE STRUCTURES. 2.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notion of sentence structure. 2.2. On defining the notion of sentence: what and how. 2.3. Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes.
3.
A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 3.1. The structure of the sentence: categorial vs. functional description. 3.1.1. Categorial description: main sentence constituents. 3.1.2. Functional description : main syntactic functions. 3.2. Phrase, sentence and clause structure. 3.2.1. The phrase structure. 3.2.2. Sentence vs. clause structure. 3.3. Simple, complex and compound sentences. 3.3.1. Simple sentences. 3.3.2. Complex sentences. 3.3.3. Compound sentences. 3.4. The notion of ‘collocation’: sentence word order. 3.5. Main types of sentence structure. 3.5.1. Sentences and their grammatical form. 3.5.2. Sentences and their main functions in communication. 3.6. Main structural features of sentence types: form, function and use.
4.
STATEMENTS. 4.1. Statements: morphology and syntax. 4.2. Statements: phonology and semantics.
5.
QUESTIONS. 5.1. Questions: morphology and syntax. 5.2. Questions: phonology and semantics.
6.
COMMANDS. 6.1. Commands: morphology and syntax. 6.2. Commands: phonology and semantics.
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7.
EXCLAMATIONS. 7.1. Commands: morphology and syntax. 7.2. Commands: phonology and semantics.
8.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
9.
CONCLUSION.
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit. Unit 23 is primarily aimed to examine the English the structure of the sentence regarding positive and negative statements, questions , commands and exclamations in terms of their main structural features regarding form, function and main uses in order to provide a relevant and detailed account of this issue. However, we have dared to include the analysis of commands, though not stated in the title , because it is included in the traditional classification of sentence structures: Then, the study will be divided into nine chapters. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a linguistic framework for sentence structures, by answering questions such as, first, which linguistic levels are involved in the notion of sentence structure; second, what it describes and how; and third, which grammar categories are involved in its description at a functional level. Once we have set up sentence structures within a linguistic framework, we shall continue on offering the reader in Chapter 3 a general introduction to the structure of sentences regarding some previous considerations which are closely related to the notion of sentence structure and which prove to be relevant in our analysis in subsequent chapters. Thus, we shall start by revising some important notions which are closely related to the description of sentence structures: for instance, (1) the basis to analyse the structure of the sentence: functional vs. categorial description; and therefore, (2) the difference between phrase, clause and sentence since these three notions may lead us to misunderstandings; (3) the difference between simple, comp lex and compound sentences; (4) the sentence structure in terms of word order; (5) a brief typology of sentence structures following the main grammatical forms and functions in communication; and finally, we shall offer (6) the main structural features of sentence types regarding form, function and uses. The latter will be fully described in the subsequent chapters. Chapters 4, 5, 6 and 7 will offer a descriptive account of the main structural features of the four sentence structures under study in terms of form, function and uses, namely following morphological, phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic guidelines. Thus we shall examine the structure of statements, questions, commands and exclamations regarding their form regarding morphology (subject-verb structures) and phonology (pronunciation) whereas function will be approached in terms of syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (different meanings = different uses). Chapter 8 provides an educational framework for the structural features of sentence structure within our current school curriculum, and Chapter 9 draws on a summary of all the points involved in this study. Finally, in Chapter 10 bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order.
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1.2. Notes on bibliography. In order to offer an insightful analysis and survey on the sentence structure in English regarding positive and negative statements, questions and exclamations, we shall deal with the most relevant works in the field, both old and current, and in particular, influential grammar books which have assisted for years students of English as a foreign language in their study of grammar. For instance, a theoretical framework for this type of verbs is namely drawn from the field of sentence analysis, that is, from the work of Thomson & Martinet in A Practical English Grammar (1986); Flor Aarts and Jan Aarts (University of Nijmegen, Holland) in English Syntactic Structures (1988); and also, Rodney Huddleston with his book entitled English Grammar, An Outline (1988). Other classic references which offer an account of the most important and central grammatical constructions and categories in English regarding sentence structure, are Quirk & Greenbaum, A University Grammar of English (1973); Sánchez Benedito, Gramática Inglesa (1975); Greenbaum & Quirk, A Student’s Grammar of the English Language (1990). More current approaches to notional grammar are taken from Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002); and Angela Downing and Philip Locke, A University Course in English Grammar (2002)
2.
A LINGUISTIC FRAMEWORK FOR SENTENCE STRUCTURES.
Before examining in detail the notion of sentence structure in English in terms of form, main functions and uses, it is relevant to establish first a theoretical framework in order to fully understand the subsequent chapters on the main types of sentence structure regarding positive and negative statements, questions, commands and exclamations since they must be described in grammatical terms. In fact, this introductory chapter aims at answering questions such as, first, which linguistic levels are involved in the notion of sentence structure; second, what it describes and how; and third, which grammar categories are involved in its description at a functional level.
2.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notion of sentence structure. In order to offer a linguistic description of the notion of sentence structure, we must confine it to particular levels of analysis so as to focus our attention on this particular aspect of language. Yet, although there is no consensus of opinion on the number of levels to be distinguished, the usual description of a language comprises four major components: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic (Huddleston, 1988).
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First, the phonology describes the sound level, that is, the pronunciation, stress and intonation within the sentence structure. Secondly, since the two most basic units of grammar are the word and the sentence, the component of grammar involves the morphological level (i.e. third person singular in positive statements) and the syntactic level (i.e. word order in the sentence). Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, lists vocabulary items, specifying how they are pronounced, how they behave grammatically, and what they mean. Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, to which all four of the major components are related. We must not forget that a linguistic description which ignores meaning is obviously incomplete, and in particular, when dealing with the notion of sentence structure where semantics plays a very important role in order to express the speaker’s attitude. Therefore, we must point out that each of the linguistic levels discussed above has a corresponding component when analysing the notion under study. Thus, phonology deals with the accent, rhythm and intonation on statements, questions, commands and exclamations (i.e. You are studying tonight /Are you studying tonight?/Study tonight!/Pity you are studying tonight!); morphology deals with certain morphological features in the formation of statements either positive (i.e. third person singular in positive statements) or negative (i.e. the auxiliary “doesn’t”), interrogative (i.e. Does he usually cook?) and so on; and syntax deals with those combinations of words which constitute grammatical strings and those which do not (i.e. NOT: the dog she for a walk takes always BUT She always takes the dog for a walk ). On the other hand, lexis deals with the wide range of grammatical categories involved in sentence structure (i.e. verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and so on ); and finally, semantics deals with meaning where syntactic and morphological levels do not tell the difference (i.e. Would you like some coffee?=where a positive answer is expected).
2.2. On defining the notion of ‘sentence’: what and how. On defin ing the notion of sentence structure, we must link this notion (what it is) to the grammar categories which express it (how it is showed). Traditionally, on answering What is a ‘sentence’?, we would define it as ‘the largest unit of grammatical description since it does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself’, that is, on treating the sentence as the highest unit implies that we do not take into account larger stretches of language such as paragraphs and texts since this is the domain of text grammar or discourse analysis. Regarding how multi-word verbs are realized, we must examine the grammar categories related to them, that is, open vs. closed classes which are fully examined in next section.
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2.3. Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes. So far, in order to confine the notion of sentence structure to particular grammatical categories, we must review first the difference between open and closed classes since the structure of the sentence involve both. Yet, grammar categories in English can be divided into two major sets called open and closed classes. The open classes are verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and are said to be unrestricted since they allow the addition of new members to their membership, whereas the closed classes are the rest: prepositions, conjunctions, articles (definite and indefinite ), numerals, pronouns, quantifiers and interjections, which belong to a restricted class since they do not allow the creation of new members. Yet, as we shall see, sente nce structures shall deal with both classes.
3.
A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.
Once we have set up sentence structures within a linguistic framework, we shall continue on offering the reader a general introduction to the structure of sentences regarding some previous considerations which are closely related to the notion of sentence structure and which prove to be relevant in our analysis in subsequent chapters. Thus, we shall start by revising some important notions which are closely related to the description of sentence structures: for instance, (1) the basis to analyse the structure of the sentence: functional vs. categorial description; and therefore, (2) the difference between phrase, clause and sentence since these three notions may lead us to misunderstandings; (3) the difference between simple, comple x and compound sentences; (4) the sentence structure in terms of word order; (5) a brief typology of sentence structures following the main grammatical forms and functions in communication; and finally, we shall offer (6) the main structural features of sentence types regarding form, function and uses. The latter will be fully described in the subsequent chapters.
3.1. The structure of the sentence: categorial vs. functional description. Generally, linguistic units are considered to be constituents of larger structures within the rankscale (sounds-morpheme-word-phrase-sentence-text) and also linguistic objects in their own right. According to Aarts (1988), “with the exception of the sentence, every unit, at every level of analysis can be considered either as an element that plays a role in a larger structure, or as something that has its own individual characteristics”. Hence, if we view a linguistic unit as an element that plays its role in a larger linguistic structure, we are concerned with its function. On the contrary, if we view it as something that has individual 6/22
characteristics which it shares with other units of the same kind, we are concerned with the category or class to which it belongs , and sometimes, with the type of phrase it is embedded in (noun phrase, verb phrase, etc). In other words, when we assign some sort of meaning to each word in a sentence individually, we have to do it in order to make sense of the sequence as a whole. We shall therefore say that, if a sequence of words is to constitute a sentence, it must be meaningful. Apart from being internally coherent, these groups also stand in a certain relation to each other. We refer respectively to the main constituents in a sentence and their syntactic functions in it, that is, the sentence word order. This duality (function-category) is relevant in our study since sentences are best described in functional and categorial terms at the same time, and the notions of phrase and clause (examined in next section) come into force regarding categorial description. This description specifies not only the category of the constituents of which the sentence is composed (i.e. noun phrase, verbal phrase, adjectival phrase, prepositional phrase) but also it shows what function these constituents have (i.e. subject, predicator, complement, etc). Therefore, for our purposes, sentences shall be described in two ways: first, in terms of functional description and second, in terms of categorial description, where we shall review both the sentence constituents (categorial) and their word order within the sentence structure (functional).
3.1.1.
Categorial description: main sentence constituents.
Regarding a categorial description we shall provide information about the categories to which their constituents belong since sentences can also be described in terms of the phrases of which they are made up (i.e. function: object =category: noun/noun phrase). The main constituents we find in a sentence structure are (1) subject (2) predicate (i.e. The moon rose), and (3) adverbial constituents (i.e. The moon rose at midnight). These three elements are function-labels denoting the relation between the constituents bearing these labels and the sentence as a whole. In other words they are function-labels for immediate constituents of the sentence. Further on, within the predicate we find (a) predicator and (b) complement. Moreover, within the latter one, we find different elements: 1. direct object (i.e. Many students enjoyed the concert=NP-VP-NP); the direct object may be a noun (i.e. I like fruit) or a noun phrase (i.e. They’ve sold their car); a bare infinitive (i.e. He dared not speak to her) or a ‘to-infinitive’ (i.e. He didn’t want to die); an –ing form (i.e. I like swimming); or a subordinate clause (i.e. I saw him do it). 2. indirect object (i.e. The firm has sent him an e-mail=NP-VP-NP-NP); the indirect object may be a pronoun (i.e. He gave him a book); a noun (i.e. He gave Peter a book); or a noun phrase (i.e. He gave my brother a book).
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3. benefactive object (i.e. My boss has bought his daughter a flat=NP-VP-NP-NP); this type of object is similar to the indirect object. 4. subject attribute (i.e. That solutions seems easy=NP-VP-Adj.P ); with verbs such as ‘to be, appear, lie, look, feel, remain, seem, smell, taste, sound, stay, stand, and so on’ or ‘become, fall, get, go, grow, turn’, we may add: a noun or noun phrase (i.e. He became a lawyer; she’s a very good nurse); an adverb or adverbial phrase (i.e. She’s there; she is in Berlin); a subordinate nominal clause (i.e. It seems that we are wrong; the truth is that nobody likes you). 5. object attribute (i.e. Susanne will make her husband very happy=NP-VP-NP-Adj.P); the object attribute may be: an adjective (i.e. You’ll make me angry; they left it empty; serve me the beer cold) or a participle (i.e. I had the car repaired; I got dressed); or a noun (i.e. They elected him Minister) or a noun phrase (i.e. He was appointed Foreign Minister). 6. and predicator complement (i.e. This street reminds me of New York =NP-VP-NP-Prep.P ). Some verb s such as ‘say, ask, explain, cost, buy, cook, get, give, and so on’ may be formed with certain prepositions when accompanying the indirect object at the end of the sentence (i.e. I said it to him; I bought a present for him).
3.1.2.
Functional description: main syntactic functions and word order.
We also need a functional description because a description of a sentence in terms of its constitutent phrases is obviously inadequate because many constructions consist of identical strings of phrases (NP-VP-NP-NP) as it is the case of these two sentences “My boss bought her lover a flat” and The firm has offered me a job”, being the former a Subject-Predicate -Benefactive Object-Direct Object type, and the latter a Subject-Predicate-Indirect Object + Direct Object type, respectively. So we shall specify the functions of the different constituents we find in a sentence structure in a similar way to categorial description (i.e. subject + predicate (predicator; complement –direct object, indirect object, subject attribute, object attribute, etc) + adverbial) where subject and predicate are the two obligatory parts of the sentence. Thus: 1. The function of subject: it may be attributed to a constituent of a sentence on the basis of the following criteria: (a) position (precedes the verb phrase in statements and questions, and follows the first word of the verb phrase in yes/no questions, questions introduced by ‘when, where, why, how and their compounds in –ever’ and in questions introduced by ‘who(m), whose, what, which and their compound in –ever’; (b) concord (it is associated with that constituent which accounts for the presence of a sibilant suffix in the verb phrase (i.e. Peter hates me) or with plural constituents (i.e. Boys love adventure); (c) passivization, since in passive sentences it occurs in the by-phrase (i.e. The pope excommunicated the Cardinal vs. The Cardinal was excommunicated by the pope); (d) repetition in tag-questions, where the subject is pronominalized (i.e. Peter hates cats, doesn’t he?). 8/22
2. The function of predicate is the other obligatory part of the sentence. It consists of two internal parts: predicator or complement, where the former is obligatory and the second is optional (i.e. Birds sing vs. Birds sing at night). Let us concentrate on complements, which can be segmented into six types (already mentioned above): (1) direct object which follows immediately a verb phrase; the indirect object, which may be substituted by a to-phrase following the direct object; benefactive object, which resembles the direct object and precedes immediately the direct object; the subject attribute after certain verbs such as copula verbs; the object attribute, formed by two noun phrases (indirect + direct object); and predicator complement, which makes reference to those constituents that obligatorily complement the verb. 3. The adverbial function is associated with a constituent which occupies a position on the same level as the subject and predicate constituents (prepositions, noun phrases, adverbs). They have two main features: they are optional and they are movable. With the exception of the function predicator, which is invariably realized by a verb phrase, sentence functions can be realized in a variety of ways. Thus the functions subject and direct object can be realized by noun phrases (John; last week) but also, for example, by finite and non-finite clauses, as in “That the men are unwilling to compromise is obvious” and “I regret being unable to come tonight” (Aarts, 1988).
3.2. Phrase, sentence and clause structure. “So far we have assumed that the sentence, being the largest unit of grammatical description, does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself. Units are not alw ays consistently composed of units of the next lowest rank. Quite frequently, a unit of a given rank functions as a constituent of a unit of the same rank or even of a unit which is one step lower down the rankscale. We refer to two further possibilities within sentence formation: first, when a sentence can function in the structure of another sentence, that is in the structure of a unit of the same rank; and secondly, when a sentence can function in the structure of a phrase, that is in the structure of a unit lower than itself” (Aarts, 1988). We refer to the distinction between phrase, sentence and clause structure at a functional level where they will function first, in terms of single units of syntactic description within the structure of the phrase (noun phrase, adjective phrase, verb phrase, etc) and second, in terms of larger units as part of the structure of the sentence (subject and predicate) or embedded in the sentence structure, that is, clauses (subordinate). Following Aarts (1988), these larger structures are, apart form the morpheme and the word, “two major units of grammatical description”. But let us examine their main differences.
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3.2.1.
The phrase structure.
The phrase structure is defined as a constituent which can be identified on the basis of the word class membership of at least one of its constituent words which is called the ‘head’ of the phrase (i.e. a noun phrase is a phrase which has a noun as its most important constituent and similarly with an adjective or adverbial phrase). Note tha t the other elements show a relation of dependency or subordination to the head (in noun phrases we find: determiners which are divided into pre-centralpost determiners and modifiers: pre or post modifiers). However, the factors which determine which of the words of a phrase constitutes its principal part are not the same for all five phrase types. Thus, in three types, the noun, adjective and adverb phrase, the dominant element is that which can replace the whole phrase without affecting the structure of the sentence (i.e. We like medieval stories = we like stories). However, a fourth type of phrase, the verb phrase, differs from the former in that the essential element, mainly taken from semantic considerations, cannot replace the whole phrase without causing serious harm to syntactic structure (i.e. John has phoned Cristine vs. John phoned Cristine). On the other hand, the fifth type of phrase, the prepositional phrase, differs from the rest in that the element that gives its name to the phrase cannot be called its head since it cannot replace the whole phrase. In addition, only one of its constituents is a preposition and therefore, its relation is not one of subordination but one of government.
3.2.2.
Sentence vs. clause structure.
In order to clarify the difference between sentence and clause syntactic differences, we must review the hierarchy of units of linguistic description when dealing with this duality. For instance, we observe that morphemes function as constituents of words, words function as constitutents of phrases and phrases as constituents of sentences. But then, what is the difference between sentence and clause structure? Aren’t they the same? The sentence is actually identifiable on the basis of the relations holding among its immediate constituents (subject, predicate, direct/indirect object, complement, adverbial, and so on). Yet, “the sentence is placed at the other extreme of the rank scale and regarded as the largest unit of grammatical description since it does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself” (Aarts, 1988:79). Once we have assumed that the sentence is the largest unit of grammatical description and that it does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself, we are ready to understand the duality sentence vs. clause by means of two further possibilities. First, when a sentence functions in the structure of another sentence of the same rank (i.e. I believe that he is quite loyal; what she says is false); and secondly, when a sentence functions in the structure of a phrase, that is in the structure of
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a unit lower than itself (i.e. as postmodifier: the man that came yesterday was a politician; she is afraid of what may happen here). Hence, when sentences are embedded in the structure of other sentences or in the structure of phrases we call them ‘clauses’, which usually corresponds to the notions of subordination (or embedding) and coordination. Note that clauses can have other clauses embedded in them, as in ‘That she is rich is obvious’ or ‘The problem is that they have no money left’.
3.3. Simple, complex and compound sentences. Up to this point, we shall approach the notion of sentence regarding the established typology between simple, complex and coumpound sentences since quite often, the sentence has been described as an indeterminate unit in the sense that it is difficult to establish where one sentence ends and another begins. Some grammarians (Jesperson, Allerton, Huddleston, Aarts) affirm that a sentence is a unit capable of occuring itself as long as there is no change in prosodic patterns (accent, intonation) in spoken English (i.e. I told him. I won the lottery vs. I told him (that) I won the lottery) and that it may be formed by one or more words (i.e. Stop! =. Can you stop, please?).
3.3.1. Simple sentences. Simple sentences can be defined as “a sentence in which none of the functions are realized by a clause” (Aarts, 1988), that is, a simple sentence does not contain an embedded (or subordinate) sentence as realization of one of its functions (i.e. He likes science fiction films). In addition, a simple sentence is always an independent sentence which can occur on its own (i.e. John is a bachelor vs. He says that John is a bachelor ).
3.3.2. Complex sentences. On the other hand, the complex sentence is defined as “those sentences in which one or more sentence functions are realized by a clause (finite or non-finite)” (Aarts, 1988). Then a complex sentence (or a clause) may contain one or more clauses in a relationship of coordination (i.e. I believe that she is English) or subordination (i.e. I wonder if you would tell me where my keys are). As sentences show, clauses can, in turn, contain more deeply embedded clauses (i.e. She was angry because he went away). Hence clauses can be classified in two ways. First, from a structural point of view by distinguishing three types: finite clauses (i.e. We discovered who sent the e-mail); non-finite clauses (i.e. I don’t remember saying that); and verbless clauses (i.e. A staunch liberal, George did not believe in state ownership). Secondly, in terms of the functions they play in the structure of the sentence: subject 11/ 22
clauses (i.e. Having a hot shower is rather nice), direct object clauses (i.e. He didn’t know what to say), indirect object clauses (i.e. She gave whoever came in an angry look), benefactive object clauses (i.e. She bought whoever came in a drink), subject attribute clauses (i.e. My feeling is that she doesn’t want to study), object attribute clauses (i.e. I call that killing two birds with one stone), predicator complement clauses (i.e. I promised to come back) and adverbial clauses (i.e. To speak frankly, I don’t like this soup).
3.3.3. Compound sentences. Following Aarts (1988), compound sentences are defined as “a sentence in which two or more sentences (called conjoins) have been coordinated”. Note that each of the conjoins is independents since there is no question of embedding. Coordination may be then asyndetic, in which case it is not marked overtly (i.e. She was an odd woman, her life was always a mystery); or syndetic (quite frequent) where at least two sentences are involved, being indicated by means of one the coordinators ‘and, or, for, but’ (i.e. He got up at six o’clock but he still missed the bus). To sum up, a com pound sentence may consist of (1) two (or more) simple sentences (i.e.Oil is now more expensive and that will affect our economy); (2) a combination of simple and complex sentences (i.e. If he believes that, he must be mad); and (3) two (or more) complex sentences (i.e. He must believe what I say about the case and that is what matters now.
3.4. Word order and sentence structure. Word order is closely related to the way verbs and particles are combined and therefore, to the notion of sentence structure.. However, word order is not the only factor that determines, but the way words co-occur together and their varying degrees of exclusivity”. We refer to “the tendency of two or more words to co-occur in discourse” (Schmidt, 2000:76). These degrees of exclusivity refer to specific types of collocations which, in our case, refer to the way sentence elements may be combined, for instance, obligatory or optional elements. Following Quirk et al. (1973) “the order in which the elements appear is common but by no means fixed. It is a principle of sentence organization that what is contextually familiar or ‘given’ information comes relatively early, while the part which needs to be stressed or which seems to convey the greatest information is given the special prominence of ‘end-focus’. Therefore, they suggest the following word order: subject + predicator + complement (OI+OD) + adverbials (process-place-time).
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3.5. Main types of sentence structure. Once we saw that in terms of their structural complexity sentences can be divided into three types: simple, complex and compound, this sections will deal with the main types of sentence structures based on their grammatical form and their function in communication (also called the illocutionary force), that is, from their syntactic structures and their association with one particular function in speech situations. Therefore, concerning the sentence grammatical form, the classification comprises four types: declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences and exclamatory sentences whereas the classification concerning their function in communication shows that declarative sentences are chiefly used to make statements, interrogative sentences to ask questions, imperative sentences to give commands and exclamatory sentences to make exclamations, depending on the way speakers express their attitude through phonological, syntactic and semantic cues. Within this classification, the first four types are named under the grammatical category of adjectives: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences whereas the communicative functions are named under the grammatical category of nouns (i.e. statement, question, command and exclamation, respectively). Yet, the grammatical form of sentences shall establish the main morphological and syntactic features under the scope of simple sentences , whose use correlates with dif ferent communicative functions. It must be borne in mind that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the grammatical form of a sentence and its function in communication. This means that sentences with the same grammatical properties need not have the same illocutionary force and, conversely, that grammatically different sentences can have the same illocutionary force. Thus, the following request to have a pizza can be expressed in a variety of ways: ‘Let’s have a pizza’, ‘Shall we have a pizza?; Why don’t we have a pizza?; Would you like to have a pizza?’
3.5.1. Sentences and their grammatical form. The main grammatical forms of declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences are as follows: (1) Declarative sentences always have a subject, which precedes the verb (i.e. Madrid is the capital of Spain; in 1954 my parents emigrated to France) and usually correlates with the communicative function of ‘stating facts’ either positive or negative. Hence, the verb, as an obligatory element, may appear in positive or negative form (i.e. London is not the capital of Spain; in 1954 my parents did not emigrate to France).
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(2) Interrogative sentences make reference to the communicative function of ‘asking for information’ or ‘questions’. They contain a subject and can open the sentence with an auxiliary verb or a WH- word depending on the type of answer we expect. Then, they can be divided into three major classes. For instance, (a) yes-no questions, where the operator is in front of the subject (i.e. Will you come? / Does he live in Bristol?), included question-tags; (b) Wh-questions, where they open with a WH- word and this is positioned initially (i.e. Where do you live?); (c) alternative questions (i.e. Are you going to have milk or coffee?), which are similar to the structure of yes/no questions; In addition, there are other minor types of questions, such as questions (i.e. You go to the cinema?); exclamation questions (i.e. Wasn’t it amazing?); rhetorical questions (i.e. Can anyone avoid loving this woman?); and echo questions (i.e. Have a look at this!- Have a look at what?). (3) Imperative sentences contain a verb in the imperative mood. If a subject is present it is usually ‘you’, but as a rule the subject is lacking (i.e. Shut that door, please/You go in first). This type of sentences are known as commands in their communicative function. (4) Finally, in exclamatory sentences the subject precedes the verb. They are introduced by phrases opening with the words ‘how’ + adjective or ‘what’ + a(n) + (adjective) + noun (i.e. How beautiful she is! / What a wonderful day!). Their communicative function is namely to emphasize how much somebody likes something or appreciates a situation/thing/person/animal/etc.
3.5.2. Sentences and their main functions in communication. When we deal with sentences and their main functions in communication, we refer to their respective discourse function in the sentence, for instance, statements are namely used to convey information in an assertive or non-assertive way; questions are used to ask for information, sometimes yes/no answers and sometimes specific data; commands are namely used to order somebody to do something; and exclamations are primarily used to express emphasis on the part of the speaker. Again, we insist on the fact that there is no fix correspondence between their grammatical form and their communicative function. The speaker moves on morphological, phonological, syntactic and semantic guidelines in order to state the difference, for instance, a sentence like “She turned down my invitation” is at first sight a declarative sentence (morphologically and syntactically speaking). However, if the speaker deals with phonological and semantic features, suddenly this sentence may turn into a question, both phonologically and semantically speaking (i.e. She turned down my invitation?). Then, different types of sentence structures presented above are going to be examined more in detail in the subsequent chapters, which shall analyse each type in order to express the speakers’ attitude in speech. 14/ 22
3.6. Main structural features of sentence types: form, function and use. With respect to the main structural features of the four sentence structures under study, they will be analysed in terms of form, function and uses, namely following morphological, phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic guidelines. Thus we shall examine the structure of statements, questions, commands and exclamations regarding their form regarding morphology (subject-verb structures) and phonology (pronunciation) whereas function will be approached in terms of syntax (sentence structure) and semantics (different meanings = different uses).
4. STATEMENTS. 4.1. Statements: morphology and syntax. As stated above, statements can be positive or negative, that is, assertive or non-assertive. Hence, in case we want to construct a declarative sentence in the negative form, we may do it by: (a) adding the negative particle ‘not’ to: (i) auxiliary verbs “be, have, shall, will, etc” (i.e. He is not; You are not), with the possibility of contratect forms (isn’t; aren’t); (ii) modal auxiliary verbs “must, can, could, may, etc” (i.e. You must not=you mustn’t); (iii) the first person plural of the imperative form (i.e. Let us play=Let’s play); (b) with (i) the primary auxiliary verb “do + not” and “does + not” (i.e. I don’t like it/He doesn’t like it); (ii) with the second person singular or plural of the imperative (i.e. Don’t speak); (iii) by using “did + not” = “didn’t” when talking in the past tense; (c) with the verb “to fail” (i.e. I fail to understand your ideas); (d) with any negative particle, such as “never, nobody, none, etc”. We must bear in mind that we cannot use a negative particle when the verb is in the negative form (i.e. NOT: There isn’t nobody at home BUT: There isn’t anybody at home / There is nobody at home).
4.2. Statements: phonology and semantics. Statements can convey messages in a variety of ways, for instance, by asserting or not (i.e. He is/isn’t my brother); by making predictions (i.e. I am going to have a baby); by offering apologies (i.e. I am sorry about being late); by stating facts (i.e. Unemployment is said to have decreased this year); opinions (i.e. I think you are right); etc. Declarative sentences may convey the meaning of (1) statements (i.e. I will be 32 in January); commands (i.e. You have to leave this room now); requests (i.e. I would love a martini); and warning (i.e. That plate is really hot). Within each type, one of the most important syntactic devices that play a role in the representation of a message is the focusing of information. Yet, English sentences normally have end-focus, which means that the last open-class item in the sentence is often the most prominent (i.e. Robert is driving to LONDON), usually marked by accent in speech. However, if the context requires this, it 15/ 22
is possible to depart from the normal patter by shifting the focus to other words where again, pronunciation, will play an important role (i.e. Robert is driving TO London = and not FROM London). This is called the contrastive focus. Note how this syntactic device is so closely related to the phonological one. As Gimson (1980:274) states, “The grammatical and attitudinal function of intonation, in addition to its function of providing a means of accentuation, may also serve to distinguish sentence types (i.e. statement vs. question) and to indicate the emotional attitude of the speaker. Such functions apply equally to utterances consisting of more thatn one word and to those of a single word. In these cases, it is not so much the situation of the nucleus which is of importance, but rather the type of nucleus employed, for instance, whether a fall, rise-fall, rise, or fall-rise is used”. Thus, for our purposes, a statement form of words may be made into a question if a rise is used instead of a fall, for instance, “He is ‘not here” (statement) vs. “He is ,not ‘there?” (question). In addition, Palmer (1960) mentions a case in the sentence “He doesn’t lend his books to anybody” which may have two meanings according to whether ‘anybody’ is said with a falling nucleus (i.e. he lends them to nobody) or with a falling-rising nucleus (i.e. he does lend them to some people). This semantic function also applies to the rest of sentence types as we shall see in subsequent sections.
5. QUESTIONS. 5.1. Questions: morphology and syntax. As stated above, questions are ma inly used to ask for information, but depending on the answer we expect on the part of the speaker, they can be divided into three major classes. For instance, (a) yesno questions, where the operator is in front of the subject (i.e. Will you come? / Does he live in Bristol?); (b) Wh-questions, where they open with a WH- word and this is positioned initially (i.e. Where do you live?). Question-tags are included in this type as a minor type of questions; and (c) alternative questions (i.e. Are you going to have milk or coffee?), which are similar to the structure of yes/no questions.
5.2. Questions: phonology and semantics. As Gimson (1980:274) stated above, the grammatical and attitudinal function of intonation may serve to distinguish statement vs. question sentence types and to indicate the emotional attitude of the speaker when asking for information (low-falling nuclei: curt, impatient, testy, insistence, etc; rising nuclei: politeness, pleading, suspicion, etc; falling-rising: forceful, encouraging, propting; rising intonation). In these cases, it is not so much the situation of the nucleus which is of
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importance, but rather the type of nucleus employed, for instance, whether a fall, rise-fall, rise, or fall-rise is used”. Questions, as statements, can convey messages in a variety of ways, for instance, questions (i.e. Who is the President of Spain?); requests (i.e. Can you sing us a nice song?); exclamations (i.e. Isn’t that wonderful?); and commands (i.e. What are you laughing at?). The structures in which they are embedded in are: (1) yes/no questions (which are usually formed by placing the verb before the subject or by auxiliary + subject + verb) expect an assertive or non-assertive answer (i.e. Have you seen this film?) by using the rising intonation. On the one hand, yes/no questions expecting positive answers are generally neutral, but if they have positive items in between (i.e. Would you like some icecream?/Do you really want to leave now?) they lead us to positive answers in fact. On the other hand, yes/no questions with negative items in between will lead us to negative answers (i.e. Don’t you believe me? = Of course, I don’t believe you). A further and minor type of yes/no questions are question-tags, which can convey the meaning of presuposing agreement calmly (i.e. It is lovely, isn’t it?) when pronounced with low-falling nucleus or demanding agreement when pronounced with high-falling nucleus (i.e. She doesn’t believe me, does she?). (2) Secondly, when questions are open with Wh-pronouns (What, When, Where, Why, How, Who, etc) or nouns sometimes (i.e. What kind of.../What time.../How often...), these Wh-items are positioned initially (i.e. What did you do?) and they are called Wh-questions. They expect a wide range of answers according to the different meanings of Wh-items (place, manner, time, action, duration,...). Unlike yes/no questions, they are pronounced with falling intonation (i.e How did you do it?). (3) Thirdly, alternative questions (i.e. Are you going to have milk or coffee?), which are similar to the structure of yes/no questions, may expect both assertive and non-assertive answers, one out of two options (i.e. Which car is yours, the red or the blue one?). However, unlike yes/no questions, this type of questions do not carry a rising intonation but a falling one. (4) In addition, there are other minor types of questions, such as declarative questions (i.e. You go to the cinema?) which have the syntactic construction of a declarative sentence but have a question intonation, that is, a final rising intonation (i.e. You’ve got the keys); exclamation questions (i.e. Wasn’t it amazing?), which are interrogative in structure but has the illocutionary force of an assertive exclamation, within a final falling intonation (i.e. Hasn’t she said I am wrong?); rhetorical questions (i.e. Can anyone avoid loving this woman?), which have a normal rising intonation of a yes/no question, but combine the interrogative structure and the assertive declarative (i.e. Is that a reason for leaving now?). Finally, we find echo questions, whose main communicative function is to repeat part of the previous question in order to get confirmation of it (i.e. The Smiths are moving tonight?- Tonight?).
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6. COMMANDS.
6.1. Morphology and syntax. As stated before, commands are embedded in the structure of imperative sentences, which contain a verb in the imperative mood, that is, a bare infinitive in initial position (if assertive) and the operator “Don’t + bare infinitive” in initial position (if non-assertive). If a subject is present it is usually ‘you’, but as a rule the subject is lacking (i.e. Shut that door, please/You go in first). They differ from declarative sentences or statements in that they have no subject and are placed in initial position.
6.2. Phonology and semantics. This type of sentences are known as commands in their communicative function because they are namely used to order somebody to do something. If we want to convey the meaning of calm or detachment, we use it with falling intonation (i.e. Count them. Get it then). However, if we want to express gentle command or request, we shall use the rising intonation (i.e. Wait. Hold it). Sometimes, this type of sentence structure is embedded within the exclamation type, but Aarts (1988) and Quirk et al. (1973) are in favour of examining it separately.
7. EXCLAMATIONS.
7.1. Morphology and syntax. As mentioned above, in exclamatory sentences the subject precedes the verb. They are introduced by phrases opening with the words ‘how’ + adjective/adverb/statement (i.e. How beautiful she is!/ How fast you drive!/How I used to like chocolate!) or ‘what’ + a(n) + (adjective) + noun/noun phrase (i.e. What a wonderful day!/What a wonderful day we have had today!). The syntactic order is therefore changed to the extent that the wh- item (who or what) may be taken from its usual position (i.e. statements) to initial prominence to express emphasis. Another structure is “such/so + (adjective) + noun (i.e. He is such a good student!; they are so nic e to me!).
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7.2. Phonology and semantics. Their communicative function is namely to emphasize how much somebody likes something, appreciates a situation/thing/person/animal/etc. or to express how impressed the speaker is by something. These expressions are quite common in everyday usage and we can find them in many different patterns, both formal and informal ones. For instance, the formal ones, “How quickly you run!” or “What a nice time we had today!”, when pronounced with falling intonation, they may convey the meaning of boredom, unconcerned, or even sarcastic (i.e. How annoying the film is!). Often used in ordinary colloquial speech, they may convey the meaning of strong surprise or indignation (i.e. What a surprise!). On the other hand, informal ways of exclamations in colloquial speech are “Really!; Damn!; Bloody dog!; Oh, my God!; Good heavens!; Shit!; and so on.
8. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS. The different verbal paradigms dealt with in this study are so relevant to the learning of a foreign language since differences between sentence structures related to different patterns in the learner's native language (L1) and that of the foreign language (L2) may lead to several problems, such as the incorrect use of verbal structures, especially because of the syntactic, morphological, and semantic processes implied in these categories. This study has looked at the structure of the sentence structure in terms of form and function, that is, regarding morphological and phonological forms and syntactic and semantic functions, all those related by the relevance of usage in everyday speech. This study is mainly intended for teachers to help Spanish-speaking students establish a relative similarity between the two languages that would find it useful for communicating in the European framework we are living in nowadays. According to Thomson & Martinet (1986), a European student may find especially troublesome the use of sentence structure, and particularly those which have double pattern, that is, declarative sentences which are interrogative. In fact, when communicating in English our students must know the specific constructions a verb needs or not in affirmative, interrogative, imperative or exclamatory structure (i.e. Is he a student?/Does he go to school? ) and, second, which sentence structure to use when certain situations are given depending on the speaker’s attitude (command, questions, surprise, incredulity, and so on) and on top of that, how to place noun, adverbs, adjectives in this type of structures (i.e. He is such a good swimmer). This choice becomes problematic for our Spanish students when they deal with the wide range of sentence structures and their semantic offer. For instance, the most common mistakes for Spanish students, both at ESO and Bachillerato level, is to construct the negative and interrogative forms of English modal verbs as the ordinary verbs do (i.e. Does she be able to pay her debts?) or to use 19/ 22
incorrectly question-tags (i.e. He never comes alone, does he?) or sometimes by omitting certain elements (i.e. He lives in New York?). Often, they make serious grammatical mistakes. It has been suggested that a methodology grounded in part in the application of explicit linguistic knowledge enhances the second language learning process. In the Spanish curriculum (B.O.E. 2002), the use of different sentence structures is envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in the use of simple structures (subject + predicate + complement) to talk about their everyday life or any specific topic, up to higher stages of Bachillerato, towards more complex sentence structures, such as exclamations to express emphasis (subject + predicator + object + complement + etc (i.e. My mum is such a good friend that I can’t help loving her as crazy). So, the importance of how to handle these sentence structures cannot be understated since you can communicate but not successfully because of the relevant distinction of meaning between them to express different nuances: asking for things , showing surprise, stating your likes, etc. We must not forget that Spanish students are likely to use the imperative form to ask for things rather than using structures such as ‘Can I use the phone?’, ‘Could you tell me the way to the gym?’, ‘Shall I copy this?’ and so on. Current communicative methods foster the ‘teaching’ of this kind of specific linguistic information to help students recognize the main differences with the L2 words. Learners cannot do it all on their own. Language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, do not automatically recognize similiarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have these associations brought to their attention. So far, we have attempted in this discussion to provide a broad account of sentence structures by means of form, function and use within verb phrase morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics and usage in order to set it up within the linguistic theory, going through the localization of sentence structures at the core of syntax studies, to a broad presentation of the main grammatical categories involved in it. We hope students are able to understand the relevance of handling correctly the different sentence structure to successfully communicate in everyday life.
9. CONCLUSION. The notion of “sentence structure” implies a broad description of the structure of the sentence in terms of form, function and use so as to get to the paradigms of morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics and use which, combined, give way to the study we have presented here. The appropriate answer suitable for students and teachers, may be so simple if we are dealing with ESO students, using simple sentence structures or more complex if we are dealing with Bachillerato students, who must be able to handle with high-level structures.
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So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of sentence structures since we are also assuming that there is an intrinsic connexion between its learning and successful communication. Yet, we have provided a descriptive account of Unit 23 dealing with Sentence structure: posititive and negative statements, questions, commands and exclamations whose main aim was to introduce the student to the different paradigms that shape the whole set of sentence structures in English regarding their form and function. In fact, the correct construction of sentence structures (simple, complex or compound), is currently considered to be a central element in communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second language since students must be able to use and distinguish these forms in their everyday life in many different situations. As stated before, the teaching of them comprises four major components in our educational curriculum: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five major le vels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic. Therefore, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real life situations, now we are part of the European Union. The expression of these verbal paradigms in form and function, proves highly frequent in our everyday speech, and consequently, we must encourage our students to have a good managing of it.
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10. BIBLIOGRAPHY. - Aarts, F., and J. Aarts. 1988. English Syntactic Structures. Functions & Categories in Sentence Analysis. Prentice Hall Europe. - B.O.E. RD Nº 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre por el que se establece el currículo de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria/Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia. - Downing, A. and P. Locke. 2002. A University Course in English Grammar. London: Routledge. - Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk. 1990. A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Longman Group UK Limited. - Huddleston, R. 1988. English Grammar, An Outline. Cambridge University Press. - Huddleston, R. and G.K. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. - Quirk, R & S. Greenbaum. 1973. A University Grammar of English. Longman. - Sánchez Benedito, F. 1975. Gramática Inglesa . Editorial Alhambra. - Thomson, A.J. and A.V. Martinet. 1986. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University Press.
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