THE EXPRESSION INSTRUMENT
UNIT 15 OF MANNER,
MEANS
AND
OUTLINE 1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit. 1.2. Notes on bibliography. 2. A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE NOTIONS OF MANNER, MEANS AND INSTRUMENT. 2.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notions of manner, means and instrument. 2.2. On defining manner, means and instrument: what and how. 2.3. Grammar categories: open vs. closed classes. 3. THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS, AND INSTRUMENT: AN INTRODUCTION. 3.1. Adverbs: main features. 3.2. Manner, means and instrument in terms of other grammatical categories. 3.3. A classification of adverbs: main functions. 3.2.1. The morphological function. 3.2.1.1. Simple adverbs. 3.2.1.2. Adverb formation by means of affixation. 3.2.1.3. Adverb formation by means of compounding. 3.2.1.4. Adverb formation by means of other constructions. 3.2.1.5. Spelling and pronunciation changes. 3.2.2. The syntactic function. 3.2.2.1. The notion of adverbial phrase. 3.2.2.2. Types of grammatical functions. 3.2.2.2.1. Disjuncts. 3.2.2.2.2. Conjuncts. 3.2.2.2.3. Subjuncts. 3.2.2.2.4. Adjuncts. 3.2.2.2.4.1. Predication adjuncts. 3.2.2.2.4.2. Clause adjuncts. 3.2.2.3. Adverbs and word order. 3.2.2.3.1. General considerations. 3.2.2.3.2. Particular cases. 3.2.3. The semantic function. 3.2.3.1. Disjuncts. 3.2.3.1.1. Style disjuncts: manner and modality, and respect. 3.2.3.1.2. Content disjuncts: certainty and evaluation. 3.2.3.2. Conjuncts.
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3.2.3.3. Subjuncts. 3.2.3.3.1. Wide orientation subjuncts: viewpoint and courtesy. 3.2.3.3.2. Narrow orientation subjuncts: item, intensifier, focus. 3.2.3.4. Adjuncts. 3.2.3.4.1. Space. 3.2.3.4.2. Time. 3.2.3.4.3. Degree. 3.2.3.4.4. Interrogative. 3.2.3.4.6. Modality. 3.2.3.4.7. Others. 3.2.3.4.8. Process: manner, means and instrument. 4. THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER. 4.1. By means of adverbs and adverbial phrases. 4.2. By means of other adjuncts. 4.3. By means of prepositional phrases. 4.4. By means of noun phrases. 4.5. By means of clause structures. 5. THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS. 5.1. By means of adverbs and adverbial phrases. 5.2. By means of prepositional phrases. 5.3. By means of noun phrases. 6. THE EXPRESSION OF INSTRUMENT. 7. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS. 8. CONCLUSION. 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
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1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit. Unit 15 is primarily aimed to examine the different ways of expressing manner, means, and instrument in English, namely achieved by means of adverbs, and also by means of prepositions, noun phrases and other grammatical structures. In doing so, the study will be divided into eight main chapters. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a theoretical framework for the notions of manner, means and instrument, and in particular, of those grammatical categories which are involved in it. Moreover, within the field of grammar linguistic theory, some key terminology is defined in syntactic terms so as to prepare the reader for the descriptive account on the expression of manner, means and instrument in subsequent chapters. Chapter 3, then, presents and defines the notion of manner, means and instrument mainly regarding adverbs and other grammatic al categories involved in it, such as prepositions, and other means. Moreover, adverbs are classified according to their three main functions: morphological, in terms of adverb formation processes (one-word phrase, affixation and compounding); syntactic, which is introduced by the notion of adverbial phrase, and moves on to examine adverbs as functioning as disjuncts, conjuncts, subjuncts, and adjuncts; and finally, semantic, in terms of different types of adverbs (place,time, degree, and others). This syntactic and semantic classification allows us to frame the notions of manner, means and instrument within the label of process adjuncts. Once established within the linguistic framework, we are ready to examine them individually. Therefore, Chapter 4 offers a descriptive account of the expression of manner by means of adverbs or adverbial phrases, other adjuncts, prepositional phrases, noun phrases and other types of phrase structures. Similarly, Chapter 5 does the same on the expression of means, and Chapter 6 on the expression of instrument. Chapter 7, then, provides an educational framework for the expression of manner, means and instrument within our current school curriculum, and Chapter 8 draws a conclusion from all the points involved in this study. Finally, in Chapter 9, bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order.
1.2. Notes on bibliography. In order to offer an insightful analysis and survey on the expression of manner, means, and instrument in English, we shall deal with the most relevant works in the field, both old and current, and in particular, influential grammar books which have assisted for years students of English as a foreign language in their study of grammar. For instance, a theoretical framework for the expression of manner, means, and instrument is namely drawn from the field of sentence analysis, that is, from the work of Flor Aarts and Jan Aarts (University of Nijmegen, Holland) in English Syntactic Structures (1988), whose material has been tested in the classroom and developed over a number of
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years; also, another essential work is that of Rodney Huddleston, English Grammar, An Outline (1988). Other classic references which offer an account of the most important and central grammatical constructions and categories in English regarding the expression of manner, means, and instrument, are Quirk & Greenbaum, A University Grammar of English (1973); Thomson & Martinet, A Practical English Grammar (1986); and Greenbaum & Quirk, A Student’s Grammar of the English Language (1990). More current approaches to notional grammar are David Bolton and Noel Goodey, Grammar Practice in Context (1997); John Eastwood, Oxford Practice in Grammar (1999); Sidney Greenbaum, The Oxford Reference Grammar (2000); Gerald Nelson, English: An Essential Grammar (2001); Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002); and. Angela Downing and Philip Locke, A University Course in English Grammar (2002).
2.
A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE NOTION OF MANNER, MEANS, AND INSTRUMENT.
Before describing in detail the different ways of expressing manner, means, and instrument in English, it is relevant to establish first a theoretical framework for these notions, since they must be described in grammatical terms. In fact, this introductory chapter aims at answering questions such as where these notions are to be found within the linguistic level, what they describe and how and which grammar categories are involved in their description at a functional level. Let us examine, then, in which linguistic level these notions are found.
2.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notions of manner, means, and instrument. In order to offer a linguistic description of the notion of manner, means, and instrument, we must confine it to particular levels of analysis so as to focus our attention on this particular aspect of language. Yet, although there is no consensus of opinion on the number of levels to be distinguished, the usual description of a language comprises four major components: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic (Huddleston, 1988). First, the phonology describes the sound level, that is, consonants, vowels, stress, intonation, and so on. Secondly, since the two most basic units of grammar are the word and the sentence, the component of grammar involves the morphological level (i.e. the internal structure of words) and the syntactic level (i.e. the way words are placed in th e sentence). Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, lists vocabulary items, specifying how they are pronounced, how they behave grammatically, 4/29
and what they mean. Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, to which all four of the major components are related. We must not forget that a linguistic description which ignores meaning is obviously incomplete, and in particular, when dealing with the notions of manner, means, and instrument. Therefore, we must point out that each of the linguistic levels discussed above has a corresponding component when analysing these notions. Thus, phonology deals with pronunciation of adverbs (i.e. usually, ever; late-later-the latest); morphology deals with comparative and superlative markers (i.e. –er, -est) or the addition of suffixes to form adverbs (i.e. -ly, -wise, -wards); and syntax deals with which combinations of words constitute grammatical strings and which do not (i.e. She wants to come also vs. She wants to come, too). On the other hand, lexis deals with the expression of manner, means, and instrument regarding the choice between adverbial phrases or prepositional phrases (i.e. He drives carefully vs. He drives in a careful manner), lexical choices regarding different types of adverbs (i.e. source, goal, agency, modality, degree, and so on), the use of specific adverbs (i.e. intensifiers: decreasing or increasing), or other means such as other formal realizations of these notions (i.e. a noun phrase, a verbless clause, a finite clause, etc); and finally, semantics deals with meaning where syntactic and morphological levels do not tell the difference (i.e. ‘He was lying in the room’- But where? This, that, here, or there?).
2.2. On defining manner, means, and instrument: what and how. On defining the terms ‘manner, means, and instrument’, we must link these notions (what they are) to the grammar categories which express them (how they are showed). Actually, the terms ‘manner, means, and instrument’ are intended to add information about ‘how’ a situation has happened, by describing in detail ‘in which manner’, ‘by which means’ and ‘with which instruments’ an event took place. We must point out that this function is mainly carried out by adverbs, but other grammatical categories can also function like an adverb, thus prepositional phrases, adjectival phrases, noun phrases or other grammatical expressions (to be developed further on). Following Traditional Grammar guidelines, adverbs are classified according to their main semantic roles: space (position, direction, goal, source, distance), time (position, forward and backward position, relationship in time), respect, contingency (cause, reason, purpose, result, condition, concession), modality (emphasis, approximation, restriction), degree (or quantity) (emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners), sentence (affirmative, negative, interrogative), doubt (relative adverbs: where, when, why) and finally, for our purposes, the notion of process which includes the expression of manner, means, instrument, and agency. Moreover, these notions are also classified according to their syntactic function (conjuncts, disjuncts, adjuncts), among which we shall deal with the category of process adjuncts, whose function is to denote the process of the verb by describing manner, means, and instrument. These 5/29
adverbs, then, answer to questions such as How did he react to your proposal?: with great courtesy (manner), by means of a bribe (means), and with a gun pointing at me (instrument).Note that the expression of manner, means, and instrument is mainly achieved by means of adverbial, prepositional, adjectival and noun phrases (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973).
2.3. Grammar categories: open vs. closed classes. In order to confine the notion of manner, means, and instrument to particular grammatical categories, we must review first the difference between open and closed classes. Yet, grammar categories in English can be divided into two major sets called open and closed classes. The open classes are verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and are said to be unrestricted since they allow the addition of new members to their membership, whereas the closed classes are the rest: prepositions, conjunctions, articles (definite and indefinite), numerals, pronouns, quantifiers and interjections, which belong to a restricted class since they do not allow the creation of new members. Then, as we can see, when expressing manner, means, and instrument we are mainly dealing with adverbs that, when taken to phrase and sentence level, may be substituted by other grammatical categories, in particular, prepositional phrases, noun phrases and specific syntactic structures. The classification of phrases reflects an established syntactic order which is found for all four of the open word classes (i.e. verb, noun, adjective, and adverb) where it is very often possible to replace open classes by an equivalent expression of another class (i.e. noun, adjective, preposition or another adverb), and also closed classes (i.e. prepositions, conjunctions, quantifiers) as we shall see later.
3.
THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS, AND INSTRUMENT: AN INTRODUCTION.
As stated before, the expression of manner, means, and instrument will be first examined through the category of adverbs, and then we shall offer a descriptive approach through other grammatical categories related to it, such as prepositions, adjectives, nouns and other grammatical structures like periphrastic phrases, idiomatic expressions or verbless sentences as possible answers to the question of How ...? Moreover, before we continue, we must note that, although adverbs are mainly classified in two groups following syntactic and semantic rules, as stated before, our study will be primarily based on the notion of process adjuncts since it is this category that is constituent or a clause or sentence and will lead us to the expression of manner, means, and instrument further on.
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In the following chapters, then, we shall examine the main issues that will provide the base for the whole unit. Thus, (1) main features of adverbs; (2) the expression of manner, means, and instrument in terms of other grammatical categories, (3) a classification of adverbs according to their main functions, thus morphological, syntactic, and semantic. First, within the morphological function, we shall examine the formation of adverbs. Second, within the syntactic function, we shall examine the different types of syntactic organization. And finally, within the semantic function, we sha ll examine the main issue of this unit.
3.1. Adverbs: main features. First of all, in order to understand the main features of adverbs, we must trace back to the origin of the word. From Latin ‘adverbium’, this word means ad + verbum, that is, ‘next to the verb’. In other words, an adverb is ‘the invariable part of the sentence which modifies verbs, adjectives, nouns, and also other adverbs in order to change their meanings’ (Larousse, 2000). Adverbs in general are intended to give information about the way something is done by someone by offering a description or identification of the situation with a wide range of details which answer to the question ‘How...?, thus in which manner, by which means, and with which instruments something happened. According to Huddleston (1988), adverbs have the following properties: (1) first, they modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs 1 (i.e. He ate yesterday, extremely unpolite, and really fast); (2) second, adverbs commonly express manner, degree, time, place, and so on according to their semantic role (i.e. very, no, last year, here, more, rather well); (3) Third, it is commonly the case that many members, especially those belonging to the manner subclass, are morphologically derived from adjectives (i.e. quick-quickly; usual-usually); and (4) finally, their syntactic similarity with prepositional phrases, sharing the same function and essentially the same meaning (i.e. carefully vs. with care/in a careful way; soon vs. in a short while, usually, on most occasions).
3.2. Manner, means, and instrument in terms of other grammatical categories. Adverbs denoting manner, means, and instrument, then, play their role within a larger linguistic structure in order to modify verbs, adjectives, nouns, or other adverbs by means of other categories as well. For instance, the answer to How did you get out of that hole? may be drawn not only from the grammatical category of verbs (i.e. crawling), but also from other categories, such as adjectives (i.e. extraordinarily nervous), other adverbs (i.e. rather well), or other grammatical structures (i.e. wishing to see the light again ). Therefore, the functions of the adverbial are also realized by:
1
Note that in languages which distinguish between adjectives and adverbs the primary difference is that adjectives modify nouns while adverbs modify verbs. The modifiers of verbs, in turn, can to a large degree, also modify adjectives and adverbs, so that we then extend the definition of adverb to cover modifiers of all three open classes other than nouns (Huddleston, 1988).
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(1) Another major kind of expression which can function like an adverb, that is, prepos itions, which belong to the closed-class category and which connect two units in a sentence, specifying a relationship between them (i.e. Adverbial: I don’t like to drink out of a cracked glass; Adjective complement: I was very grateful for your help ; and manner: the woman in the red dress). (2) Adverbialisation (Huddleston, 1988) is also realized by means of noun phrases, although it is not common (i.e. He came last week). However, ‘time’ reference is not included in our study as a main issue. (3) Another kind of syntactic structure involves clause subordination, where we find two types. Thus (a) the non-finite verb clauses (or infinitival clauses) which function as modifier of the verbal phrase, and in which the verb is (i) an infinitive, as in ‘He left at nine to catch the nine-thirty bus’, (ii) present participle –ing, as in ‘Hoping to see him as soon as possible’, and (iii) past participle – ed, as in ‘If urged by you, we’ll stay in’. Secondly, (b) we may find the finite content clause as modifier of an adjectival phrase, as in ‘I was so broke that I couldn’t buy any food’ or ‘The child was playing although he was very tired’. (4) And finally, we may find another type of syntactic structure realized by verbless clauses, as in ‘She was shopping, unaware of the time’. Then, as we can see, all these items have the same function but belong to different grammatical categories or class (i.e. noun, adjective, finite clauses, and so on ). We may observe that the degree of adverbialisation is significantly less than in prepositional phrases in that although such subordinate clauses have broadly the same function as adverbs, we do not normally find anything like the close semantic equivalence to adverbs illustrated above for prepositional phrases. Then, since both function and word class are relevant for our present purposes, we must examine the expression of manner, means, and instrument through them. These expressions can be grouped together into word classes (also called parts of speech) following morphological, syntactic, and semantic rules but bearing in mind the phonological one when pronouncing adverbs or other periphrastic expressions (i.e. in th e air).
3.3. A classification of adverbs: main functions. Adverbs can also be classified according to their main functions whereby we may find three main types: (1) the morphological function, by which adverbs are formed by means of affixation and compounding processes; (2) the syntactic function, which is related to the structure and position of adverbial phrases at the sentence level; and finally, (3) the semantic function, which is related to intrinsic aspects of adverbs. We shall follow five main figures in this field in order to develop this section, thus Quirk & Greenbaum (1973), Thomson & Martinet (1986), Huddleston (1988), Aarts (1988), and Greenbaum & Quirk (1990).
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3.2.1. The morphological function. The adverb class is, then, the most common repository for the expression of process (manner, means and instrument) together with prepositional phrases. As seen before, adverbs may be primary words which do not derive from any other (i.e. ever, just, only, yet, already, etc) or may be derived from other words (i.e. adjectives, other adverbs, verbs) by certain morphological processes. However, there are far fewer affixes forming adverbs than there are forming nouns or adjectives. In fact, similar features of adjectives apply to adverbs, which can be inflected (i.e. hard-harderhardest), and also, many of them are derived from adjectives, adding the suffix -ly to the adjective base (i.e. nice-nicely, coward-cowardly) although not all of them allow this derivational process (i.e. NOT: old -oldly). Huddleston (1988) uses the term ‘adverbialisation’ for this variety of grammatical processes that create adverbs or expressions that bear significant resemblances to adverbs or adverbial phrases among which we namely distinguish between morphological processes yielding words actually belonging to the adverb class (simple words and affixation) and syntactic processes yielding expressions which are merely functionally similar to adverbs (compounding and periphrastical constructions with prepositional phrases). Thus, affixation and compounding are the most straightforward type of creating an adverb by morphological processes, apart from those adverbs which are not related to any other word (simple adverbs). Then, the classification is stated as follows: (1) simple adverbs, (2) adverb formation by means of affixation, (3) adverb formation by means of compounding, and (4) adverb formation by means of other constructions. Finally, (5) we shall examine spelling and pronunciation changes.
3.2.1.1. Simple adverbs. Simple adverbs are a great number of adverbs which occur as one-word adverb phrase only, resisting both pre- and postmodification (Aarts, 1988). These adverbs can be roughly classified into the following groups: (1) Adverbs of place (i.e. in, out, indoors, outdoors, abroad, ashore, hereabouts, home, underfoot, underground, underwater). However, it is worth noting that Huddleston (1988) recognizes some of these simple adverbs as the result of a derivational process of the prefix a-, as in ashore, abroad. (2) Adverbs of time (i.e. already, beforehand, ever, forthwith, henceforth, hitherto, meanwhile, now, nowadays, still, then, today, tomorrow, tonight, yesterday, and so on).
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(3) Interrogative adverbs (i.e. how, whither, when, whence, where, why, and so on). Aarts (1988) points out that these adverbs are occasionally modified by intensifying postmodifiers such as on earth and by the adverb ever. (4) Intensifying adverbs and adverbs of degree (i.e. almost, altogether, enough, even, most, only, quite, rather, somewhat, too, very, and so on ). (5) Conjuncts (i.e. again, also, besides, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, next, therefore, yet, and so on). (6) And finally, Aarts (1988) mentions other adverbs (i.e. askance, just, needs, part-time, perhaps, piecemeal, pointblack, somehow, thus, twofold, and so on).
3.2.1.2. Adverb formation by means of affixation. Many adverbs can be identified on the basis of affixation, that is, typical derivational suffixes whereby some adverbs inflect for comparison. It is worth remembering that some authors, and in particular Huddleston (1988), recognize the process of affixation by means of prefixes (i.e. derivational prefix a-, as in abroad, ashore) although in traditional grammar prefixation is not included in adverb derivational processes since the prefix a- also forms adjectives (i.e. asleep, ablaze). Then, typical derivational suffixes for adverbs are: (a) the suffix –ly, by means of which new adverbs are created from adjectives (including participial adjectives) to indicate manner, as in oddoddly, interesting-interestingly, full-fully, wise-wisely, and so on. Yet, although –ly is the most productive of all suffixes, it should be borne in mind that not all words ending in –ly are adverbs (i.e. beastly, lonely, and friendly, which belong to the class of adjectives). Moreover, other derivational suffixes are: (b) the suffix –ward(s), added to a few adverbs/prepositions, as in backwards, northward(s), homewards, outwards, upward(s), and so on. Note that some simple adverbs may be added to this list, such as afterwards among others; (c) the suffix –wise, forming manner adverbs, such as clockwise, or adverbs in peripheral dependent function, such as healthwise; (d) the suffixes -fashion and –style indicate new trends (i.e. schoolboyfashion, cowboy style); and (e) the suffix –ways, which indicates direction (i.e. sideways).
3.2.1.3. Adverb formation by means of compounding. Compound adverbs are usually formed by an adverb + a preposition/relative pronoun/noun (i.e. herein, somewhat, indoors). The most common compoundings are realized by the adverbs here, there, where + preposition (Sánchez Benedito, 1975). According to him, they are quite old-
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fashioned but still used in legal documents, official reports, and similar writings. Therefore we distinguish three main types: (a) here + preposition (i.e. hitherto, herein, hereto, heretofore, herewith, hereby, hereafter); (b) there + preposition (i.e. therefrom, therein, thereto, therewith, thereby, thereof, thereafter); and (c) where + preposition (i.e. wherein, whereof, wherefore,whereon, whereby, whereupon). Also, we may find compounds of some + how, where, what, and so on (i.e. somehow, somewhere, somewhat, etc).
3.2.1.4. Adverb formation by means of other constructions. As seen before, adverb formation may be realized by other constructions such as prepositional phrases, which keep the same properties as adverbs (i.e. microscopically vs. with a microscope). In general, prepositional phrases only allow a modest amount of modification, less than open classes do, and obviously then cannot function in all occasions as adverbs, as in Who is the guy with the funny hat on? where we cannot substitute the preposition by an adverb. Other type of constructions, already mentioned, are verbless clauses, finite and non-finite clauses, noun phrases, and so on.
3.2.1.5. Spelling and pronunciation changes. It is worth remembering that, when adding these suffixes to the corresponding adjectives, we may find first, spelling changes and second, phonological modification of the stem. Regarding (a) changes in spelling, there are some special spelling rules for the addition of –ly to the base form of the adjective: (1) The general rule to follow is to add the suffix –ly to the positive form of the adjective (i.e. slowslowly; calm-camly). (2) When adjectives end in –e/-ee, they retain the same ending and are only added the suffix –ly (i.e. extreme-extremely, brave-bravely). However, there are some exceptions, such as true vs. truly, due vs. duly, and whole vs. wholly . (2) When adjectives end in –able/-ible, they drop the final –e and add –y (i.e. capable vs. capably, sensible vs. sensibly). (3) When adjectives end in –y, it is changed to –i (i.e. happy – happily; easy-easily).
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(4) Adjectives which end in a vowel + single consonant letter ‘l’, they double the final consonant (i.e. final-finally ; beautiful-beautifully ).
(b) Regarding phonological changes, it is worth remembering that, suffixation (the addition of –ly, wise, -wards) is not only accompanied of changes in spelling but also in pronunciation. For instance, we may observe the following changes: (1) First, the stop consonant /k/, usually pronounced in final position (i.e. clock ), is silent when added the suffix –wise to that word (i.e clockwise). (2) And second, the lateral consonant /l/, usually pronounced as dark ‘l’ in the positive degree, turns into clear ‘l’ when suffixes are added (i.e. final-finally; beautiful-beautifully ).
3.2.2. The syntactic function. Regarding the syntactic function, adverbs, as seen, play their role within a larger linguistic structure in order to modify verbs, adjectives, and nouns by means of other categories as well. For instance, the answer to How did you manage to buy it? may be drawn not only from the grammatical category of verbs (i.e. saving money), but also from other categories, such as prepositional phrases (i.e. with real enthusiasm), or other adverbs (i.e. really fast). As we can see, all these items have the same function although they belong to different grammatical categories or class. Consequently, both function and word class are relevant for our present purposes since we must examine the expression of manner, means and instrument through them. In doing so, we may assign words to the same class which implies they share a number of properties but are placed differently within the sentence structure. Then, following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), in terms of their grammatical functions, adverbs fall into four main categories: disjuncts, conjuncts, subjuncts and adjuncts.
3.2.2.1. The notion of adverbial phrase. However, before classifying and defining adverbs according to their syntactic function, we must address the notion of adverbial phrase since it is an essential element in syntactic analysis. An adverbial phrase is a constituent which can be identified on the basis of the word class membership of adverbs, in this particular case, the relationship it holds among its immediate constituents is referred to as sentence level. Following traditional nomenclature, in the structure of the adverb phrase we can distinguish two functions: head and modifier. The head of an adverb phrase is realized by an adverb, and the 12/ 29
function modifier may be realized by a constituent preceding the head (premodifier), by a constituent following the head (postmodifier) and by an ‘interrupted’ constituent on either side of the head (discontinuous modifier). It should be noted that adverb phrases with postmodification only are rare. On the other hand, heads as adverb phrases are regularly modified by discontinuous modifiers, just like adjectival heads (Aarts, 1988). (a) The premodifiers of the adverb phrase head can only be realized by intensifying adverb phrases (i.e. very seldom, perfectly well, too optimistically, much more carefully, quite soon, etc ). On the other hand, (b) postmodifiers, although rare, may be realized by (i) the adverb enough and (ii) a finite clause (after comparative adverbs in –er). (i) First, adverbial heads can be postmodified by the adverb enough, which, as in the case of adjectival postmodification, can be followed by an infinitive clause (i.e. well enough, intelligently enough to win). Secondly, comparative adverbs in –er can be postmodified by finite clauses introduced by than (i.e. They worked harder than we had expected ). (c) The last type, discontinuous modifiers may modify adverbial heads. Again we distinguish four cases: (i) so + adverb + that-clause/as to -clause (i.e. They worked so hard that they finished before we expected); (ii) as + adverb + as + (reduced) comparative clause or noun phrase (i.e. She loves her husband as much as she did 25 years ago); (iii) more/less + adverb + than + (reduced) comparative clause or noun phrase (i.e. The boys participated more actively than we expected); (iv) and finally, the structure too + adverb + infinitive clause (i.e. We are travelling too slowly to get there by nine). It is worth noting that there are a great number of adverbs which occur as one-word adverb phrases only (simple adverbs), as seen before, which resist both pre- and postmodification, and which are classified into different groups. Thus, adverbs of place (i.e. abroad, ashore); time (i.e. lately, eventually, presently, already); interrogative adverbs (i.e. when, how, where); intensifying and degree adverbs (i.e. almost, hardly, even, mostly, practically, really); conjuncts (i.e. again, consequently, firstly, secondly, etc ); and other adverbs (i.e. just=simply, perhaps, somehow, thus).
3.2.2.2. Types of grammatical functions. Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), in terms of their grammatical functions, adverbs fall into four main categories: disjuncts, conjuncts, subjuncts and adjuncts, which later on will lead us to the semantic classification of process adjuncts. Briefly, we can make a further distinction among them, in which disjuncts and conjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence vs. subjuncts and adjuncts which are relatively more integrated within the structure of the clause. Thus, disjuncts usually function as ‘comment’ words (i.e. frankly, briefly); conjuncts function as connecting links in at a sentence level (i.e. however, because, though); subjuncts work at the sentence level, expressing viewpoint (i.e. in my view), courtesy (i.e. please), and so on; and finally, 13/ 29
adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence (i.e. Sheila dances beautifully) answering to the question ‘How...?’
3.2.2.2.1. Disjuncts. Syntactically, disjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence, being somewhat detached from and superordinate to the rest of the sentence. We identify them because most of them are prepositional phrases or clauses which express the speaker’s authority for, or comment on, the accompanying clause (i.e. Honestly , I want to go home; From my point of view, you should not go). 3.2.2.2.2. Conjuncts. Syntactically, conjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence, being somewhat detached from and superordinate to the rest of the sentence. We identify them because they serve to conjoin two utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do so by expressing at the same time the semantic relationship obtaining between them (listing, result, contrast, etc). Moreover, conjuncts from different sets can appear in the same sentence (i.e. Moreover, he had in addition a headache). 3.2.2.2.3. Subjuncts. Syntactically, as stated before, subjuncts (together with adjuncts) are integrated within the structure of the sentence rather than being a peripheral element. However, subjuncts have a subordinate and parenthetic role in comparison with adjuncts since they lack the grammatical parity with other sentence elements. 3.2.2.2.4. Adjuncts. And finally, as seen before, adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence (i.e. Sheila dances beautifully ) since they are totally integrated in it when answering to the question ‘How...?. They will lead us to the further classification of process adjuncts in order to develop our unit. Adjuncts, more than other adverbials, have grammatical properties resembling the sentence elements subject, complement and object and as such, can be the focus of a cleft sentence (i.e. It was because of the fine that he got so furious; Who helped Sarah?). This means that irrespective of their word order position, adjuncts function like other post-operator elements in coming within the scope of predication ellipsis or pro-forms (i.e. ‘He became a fireman (complement) in 1996 (adjunct) and her wife also became a firewoman (c) in 1996 (a)’ vs. In 1996, he became a fireman and so did her wife’). As we can see, functioning as pro-forms or being ellipted does not change the meaning of adjuncts. In fact, there are four main syntactic features of adjuncts (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973): First, they can come within the scope of predication pro-forms or predication ellipsis, as seen above. Second, 14/ 29
they can be the focus of limiter adverbials such as only (i.e. They only want the car for an hour= for an hour and not for longer). Third, they can be the focus of additive adverbials such as also (i.e. They will also meet afterwards = afterwards in addition to some other time ). And fourth, they can be the focus of a cleft sentence (i.e. It was when we stayed in Miami that we saw Julio Iglesias). Yet, while these characteristics hold generally for all adjuncts, Greembaum & Quirk (1990) distinguish three subcategories ranging in ‘centrality’ from the obligatory predication adjunct (functioning as an object in being both indispensable and fixed in position) to the clause adjunct whose position is more variable and whose presence is always optional. In many cases, it is worth seeing predication adjuncts as ‘obje ct-related’ and clause adjuncts as ‘subject-related’. Hence, we divide adjuncts in (1) predication adjuncts and (2) clause (or sentence) adjuncts.
3.2.2.2.4.1. Predication adjuncts. As their name implies, predication adjuncts are mainly integrated within the predication, the postoperator section, and since they function as objects, they become indispensable and fixed in position (normally placed at the end of the sentence it is modifying). Compare then ‘He put the keys on the table’ (obligatory, impossible omission) vs. ‘He found the keys on the table’ (optional, acceptable omission). 3.2.2.2.4.2. Clause adjuncts. On the other hand, clause adjuncts may be more variable and their presence is optional, since the information they add to the sentence is not essential, as in ‘He kissed me on the cheek/at the front door/yesterday, etc’. However, when we have ‘position’ reference, they may be naturally placed at the front of the sentence, as in ‘At the front door, he kissed me’.
3.2.2.3. Adverbs and word order. Before we move on to a semantic classification of adverbs, we shall examine adverb position in the sentence since in our study it is relevant to know where to place the expression of manner, means and instrument in the sentence. As we have seen, both syntactic and semantic classification will be addressed for the placement of adverbs. Therefore, we may distinguish two different types of considerations with respect to syntactic and semantic terms: (1) general considerations and (2) particular cases.
3.2.2.3.1. General considerations. Generally, we observe that English adverbs do not have so much freedom as Spanish ones to be placed within the sentence, for instance, adverbs such as always, yet, already,and just among others, 15/ 29
have their fixed positio n within the sentence structure (i.e. I will always love you; I have just sneezed; he hasn’t appeared yet) whereas some English adverbs, such as now and sometimes are free-positioned. However, it is worth pointing out that it is not sensible to establish strict rules regarding adverb position but general considerations as follows: (1) Following Eastwood (1999), there are three main positions in the sentence where an adverb can go. They are called initial/front position (at the beginning of a sentence), mid position (in the middle of the sentence) and end/final position (at the end of the sentence). We shall see many different types of adverbs in different positions depending on syntanctic and semantic guidelines (i.e. syntactic: I am always happy; semantic: He is playing in the garden). Word order is normally determined by the adverb syntactic function, that is, depending on the grammatical element it modifies. Thus, on modifying a verb, it is placed after it (i.e. they worked very hard; he shaved really fa st); on modifying an adjective/adverb, it is placed before (i.e. extremely good; very well), except with enough, when it is placed after it (i.e. intelligent enough; quick enough); on modifying a sentence by means of an adverbial/prepositional phrase, it has final position (i.e. They will go to Murcia tomorrow/in the morning ), although when found in initial position, it implies emphasis (i.e. Tomorrow they will go to Murcia ). (2) The most common position is the mid one, that is, when adverbs are placed close to the verb (i.e. just, always, often, definitely, really, probably, etc). They are applied in different positions as follows: (a) when there is a first auxiliary (i.e. is, are, has, don’t, etc), the adverbs goes after it (i.e. The visitors are just leaving; He should never cry). (b) If there is no auxiliary, then the adverb comes before the main verb (i.e. She always tells you the same; they never go home on Saturdays). This position is the usual one for adverbs of frequency (i.e. often, always, nor mally, etc) although phrases like every day, once a week or most evenings go in initial or final position (i.e. Every day we go swimming; There’s a news summary every hour). (c) Note that this rule is also applied in questions (i.e. Has he always hated Jenny?; Do you usually go for a walk?). (d) When we are dealing with the verb ‘to be’ or modal verbs, the adverbs usually comes after them (i.e. Your boss is always angry; he must certainly sleep just a few hours). (e) When there is stress or emphasis on the main verb ‘to be’ or on the auxiliary, then the adverb usually comes before it (i.e. You certainly are right; she really has a bad day ). (3) Final position is restricted to certain grammatical categories, such as adverbial and prepositional phrases, and semantically, with non-essential information since emphasis places adverbs in initial
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position. In addition, note that there can be more than one adverb or adverbial phrase in end position (i.e. He turned up at the door entrance(place) in a wet T-shirt (manner) last night (time)). (a) Usually a single -word adverb (i.e. hard) usually comes before a phrase (i.e. It has been a hard day for me). (b) Moreover, when there is a close link in meaning between a verb and an adverb, the adverb goes next to the verb, especially with verbs of movement (i.e. come, go, move, jump, turn, etc), as in ‘My children go to school every day ). It is worth noting that a phrase of place comes before time (i.e. She came here (place) last night (time)). But often two adverbial phrases can go in either order (i.e. The concert was held at the stadium two weeks ago or two weeks ago at the stadium).
3.2.2.3.2. Particular cases. When dealing with particular cases, we shall deal with the placement of the expression of manner, means and instrument although details will be further develop in subsequent sections. Now we shall examine them briefly. (a) First of all, when dealing with verb + object, an adverb does not usually go between the verb and the direct object, so we place it in final position, after the object (i.e. He ate his breakfast very quickly ; she likes rock music very much). Sometimes we may find a long object, and then, we place the adverb before the object (i.e. Tell me quickly everything you know about it; the police examined carefully the accident site). (b) Secondly, when the adverb is to be placed next to a phrasal verb (i.e. sit down), we must avoid placing the adverb in between the verb and its particle (i.e. NOT: she sat impatiently down at the waiting room but She sat down impatiently at the waiting room). The adverb is to be placed after or before the verb, except for degree adverbs (i.e. right and well) which are placed before the particle since they modify it directly (i.e. He knocked him right out). (c) Thirdly, adverbs are placed differently depending on their semantic classification. For instance, (i) adverbs of manner usually go in final position since they tell us additional information about how something happens in predicative position (i.e. We asked permission politely ). However, when adverb end in –ly, they can sometimes go in middle position (i.e. We politely asked permission). (ii) Adverbs of place and time usually go in final positions as well (i.e. Is there a cinema nearby?; We shall meet at the entrance), although sometimes they can go in front position (i.e. Last week we had nothing to do). Moreover, some short adverbs of time can also go in middle position (i.e. He will soon find out the truth; Your cousin is now looking at us ). (iii) Adverbs of frequency, as stated before, usually go in middle position (i.e. Mark is often disappointed with us; I sometimes feel depressed). However, certain adverbs can also go in front or 17/ 29
final position (i.e. normally, sometimes) and certain phrases like every day, twice a month or every evening go in front or final position. (d) Sentence adverbs, which are a word or phrase like certainly, probably, of course, fortunately, etc, can go in initial, middle or final position. Sometimes we put a comma after or before the adverb, especially in front or final position (i.e. Fortunately, the weather is fine today; Michael is late, of course). In a negative sentence, probably and certainly come before auxiliaries (i.e. We probably won’t get there until midnight). Furthermore, the additive adverb ‘also’ usually goes in initial or middle position (i.e. Also, she wants to come; she also wants to come) whereas ‘too’ and ‘well’ go in final position (i.e. She loves cats too/as well).
3.2.3. The semantic function. Following Aarts (1988), the syntactic classification brings about the semantic function, in which disjuncts usually function as ‘comment’ words (i.e. frankly, briefly); conjuncts function as connecting links in at a sentence level (i.e. however, because, though); subjuncts work at the sentence level, expressing viewpoint (i.e. in my view), courtesy (i.e. please), and so on; and finally, adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence (i.e. Sheila dances beautifully) answering to the question ‘How...?’ by adding information to the action about the process, place, time, and other nuances.
3.2.3.1. Disjuncts. As stated before, semantically, disjuncts express an evaluation of what is being said either with respect to the form of the communication or to its meanin g. They usually function as ‘comment’ words, whereby they provide the speaker’s comment on the content or form of the utterance (i.e. Frankly, unfortunately, wisely). There are two main types of disjuncts, each with subtypes. First, we have the relatively small class of (1) style disjuncts, conveying the speaker’s comment on the style and form of what is being said and defining in some way the conditions under which ‘authority’ is being assumed for the statement, which can be subdivided into (a) the expression of manner and modality, and (b) respect. Secondly, (2) we find content disjuncts, which may relate to the expression of (a) certainty and (b) evaluation. 3.2.3.1.1. Style disjuncts: manner and modality, and respect. Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), many style disjuncts can be seen as abbreviated clauses in which the adverbial has the role of manner adjunct. For instance, ‘Frankly, I am tired’ meaning ‘I tell you frankly that I am tired’. Sometimes, the disjunct may be realized by a clause, as in ‘If I may 18/ 29
say so, I think your house looks awful’. More often, it may be realized by other type of constructions, such as that of non-finite clauses (i.e. to be frank, considered candidly ). Semantically speaking, the semantic roles of disjuncts fall under two main headings: manner and modality, and respect. Regarding (1) manner and modality, we find disjuncts such as crudely, frankly, honestly, seriously, personally, strictly speaking, to be honest, to be precise, to put it briefly, in all honesty, and so on. Regarding (2) respect, they often appear in metalinguistic comments. For instance, strictly, generally, from what he said, in a word, in other words, and so on. 3.2.3.1.2. Contenct disjuncts: certainty and evaluation. Content disjuncts may be of two kinds, first, expressing certainty, and second, expressing evaluation in declarative clauses. Regarding (1) certainty, these disjuncts comment on the truth value of what is said, firmly endorsing it, expressing doubt, or posing contingencies such as condit ions or reasons, as in undoubtedly, apparently, perhaps, obviously, of course, to be sure, which is not surprising, and so on. Regarding (2) evaluation, these disjuncts express an attitude to an utterance by way of evaluation, expressing a judgment on the utterance as a whole, including its subject, as in correctly, foolishly, rightly, stupidly, certainly, unquestionably, possible, presumably, theoretically, technically, hopefully, wrongly, wisely, and so on.
3.2.3.2. Conjuncts. As stated before, conjuncts function as the connecting link between the sentence in which they occur and the preceding context. Semantically, they may express listing (in the first place, secondly; furthermore, moreover), summative (therefore, in sum, to sum up), appositive (for example, that is, i.e., specifically, in particular), resultive (as a result, in consequence), inferential (in that case, then), contrastive (better; on the contrary, on the other hand; however, nevertheless, yet), and transitional references (by the way, now; meanwhile, eventually). As we can see manner, means and instrument are not reflected in them.
3.2.3.3. Subjuncts. In semantic terms, subjuncts work at the sentence level answering to the question ‘How...?’ by expressing viewpoint (i.e. in my view) and courtesy (i.e. please), among others. Hence, they show their subjunct character by trying to establish a link with the rest of the sentence through a particular relationship with one of the clause elements, especially the subject. Thus, there are two main types of relationship: wide and narrow orientation (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990). (1) Wide orientation adverbs refer to (a) viewpoint and (b) courtesy; on the other hand, (2) narrow orientation adverbs
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refer to (a) items (subject and predication), (b) intensifiers and emphasizers, and (c) focusing subjuncts.
3.2.3.3.1. Wide orientation subjuncts: viewpoint and courtesy. Wide orientation subjuncts express either a viewpoint or a courtesy formulaic tone of politeness. Both of them may involve the semantic category of manner but are quite distinct from manner adjuncts. Thus, within the first one, (a) viewpoint, manner is expressed by non gradable adverb phrases (i.e. from a personal point of view, looked at politically, etc ), and also by adverbs ending in –wise (i.e Weatherwise, healthwise, etc ), as in ‘Weatherwise, the outlook is dismal’. Within the second one, (b) courtesy, a small number of adverbs in –ly, along with please, serve to convey a tone of politeness (i.e. You are cordially invited; Would you please check it?). Again, courtesy subjuncts obviously involve the semantic category of manner but differ strongly from manner adjuncts, as in ‘He kindly invited me for dinner’ (subjunct meaning: ‘He was so kind to invite me for dinner’) vs. ‘He invited me for dinner kindly’ (adjunct meaning: ‘He invited me for dinner in a kind manner). In this case, it is adverb word order which tells us the difference.
3.2.3.3.2. Narrow orientation subjuncts: item, intensifiers, focus. Narrow orientation subjuncts inclu des items, intensifiers and focusing ones. Within the firt class, (a) item subjuncts, the commonest item to be associated to subjuncts is the subject of a clause, with the subjunct operating in the semantic area of manner but distinguished from the corresponding manner adjunct by being placed at initial and medial position, as in ‘They have repeatedly rejected my proposal (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990). Regarding (b) intensifiers, they mainly deal with the semantic category of degree (i.e. amplifiers: fully, completely, badly, very much, etc; downtoners: practically, rather, sort of, only, in the least, etc) whereas emphasizers mainly deal with the semantic category of modality (i.e. just, really, simply, always, well, etc), so they shall not be considered in our study. Finally, regarding (c) focusing subjuncts, special attention may be called to place them in close proximity to the part required (i.e merely, only, also, not, even, etc). The usual position is immediately before the part to be focused (i.e. I merely wanted to know her name).
3.2.3.4. Adjuncts. Semantically, adjuncts add extra information to the action or process by means of descriptions about place (at the station), time (yesterday morning), manner (with patience/in jeans), means (by 20/ 29
bike), or instrument (with a fork ) among others. Since our study will focus on manner, means and instrument, we shall review them in depth whereas the rest of the classification will be briefly examined. Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), we may classify adjuncts according to: (1) place (or space) adjuncts; (2) time adjuncts, including time-position, duration and span, time-frequency, and time relationship adjuncts; (3) degree (intensifiers, emphasizers); (4) interrogative; (5) other adjuncts; and finally, (6) process adjuncts, including manner, means, instrument, and agency, respect, and contingency.
3.2.3.4.1. Place adjuncts. Place adjuncts are mainly realized by means of prepositional phrases (i.e. in the park, out of my house, etc) since these roles can be clearly and conveniently specified through the respective prepositional meaning (i.e. in-out, from-to, up-down, through, onto, etc) although sometimes we need noun phrases to amplify meaning (i.e. a very long way, several miles away). Place adjuncts mainly refer to position (where?), direction (where?), source (where from?), and distance (how far?) with stative or dynamic verbs. For instance, position and distance use stative verbs (live, stay) whereas direction and source use dynamic verbs (go to, come fro m). 3.2.3.4.2. Time adjuncts. Time adjuncts refer to figurative spacial dimensions which are mainly realized by means of prepositional phrases, with figurative adaptation of the prepositional meaning, for instance, ‘the music stopped at midnight’ or ‘on the following day, we decided to set out at two’. Time expressions make reference to time-position (some hours ago; at 14.15), duration and span (for several years, for three weeks, until five o’clock; since we arrived), time-frequency (twice, daily, usually, continually), and time-relationship (previously, again, once more). 3.2.3.4.3. Degree adjuncts Degree adjuncts include the use of intensifiers to ‘measure’ the action (i.e. definitely, kind of, etc). They are divided into three main types: emphasizers (definitely, actuallly, clearly, obviously, plainly, and so on); amplifiers (completely, absolutely, entirely, fully, quite, etc), and downtoners (partly, hardly, almost, slightly, in part, to some extent, etc). Note that some of them indicate manner, and how the action takes place: completely, quite, fully, slightly, and so on. 3.2.3.4.4. Interrogative adjuncts. Interrogative adjuncts are those which state the question to the action. For our purposes, the most relevant interrogative adjunct is ‘How...?’ since manner, means and instrument answer to this 21/ 29
question. Other interrogative particles are ‘How far...?’ (distance), ‘How long...?(duration)’, ‘When...? (time), ‘Why ...?’(purpose), and so on. 3.2.3.4.5. Other adjuncts. Sánchez Benedito (1975) distinguishes other types of semantic classification, such as (a) quantity (i.e. little, much, once); probability (i.e. maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably); and affirmative and negative adjuncts (i.e. affirmative: certainly, indeed, naturally, of course, surely, yes, and negative: never, no, not, not at all). Note that some of these adverbs have been previously classified according to Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) in syntactic terms. 3.2.3.4.6. Process adjuncts. And finally, process adjuncts are those which define in some way the process denoted by the verb. They are mainly realized by adverbs or adverbial phrases, by like-phrases, as-clauses, and by prepositional or noun phrases involving such nouns as way and manner. Common pro-forms for process adjuncts answering to the question ‘How...?’ are in that way, that way (informal), and like that. Process adjuncts are divided into the semantic subclasses of (a) manner, (b) means, instrument and agency, (c) respect, and (d) contingency, but we shall only focus on the expression of manner, means and instrument in our study. Following Quirk & Greenbaum (1973), we may mention the general features for all of them: (1) They co-occur with dynamic verbs, but not with stative verbs (i.e. He ran away awkwardly but NOT he liked them awkwardly). (2) They favour final position, since they usually receive the information focus. Indeed, no other position is likely if the process adjunct is obligatory for the verb (i.e. They live frugally but not they frugally live). (3) Since the passive is often used when the need is felt to focus attention on the verb, process adjuncts are commonly placed in middle position rather than finally when the verb is in the passive (i.e. Tear gas was indiscriminately sprayed on the protesters). (4) Process adjuncts realize d by units other than adverb phrases often occur initially, that position being preferred if the focus of information is required on another part of the sentence (i.e. By pressing this button you can stop the coffee machine). (5) Co-occurrence of process adjuncts is by no means unusual (i.e. She was accidentally (manner) wounded with a racket (instrument) by her partner (agent)).
Once we have examined the very origin of the expression of manner, means and instrument, that is, process adjuncts, we are ready for analysing them individually.
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4.
THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER.
As stated before, the expression of manner may be mainly realized by adverbs, adverbial phrases, and prepositional phrases but also by other semantic types of adjuncts, noun phrases, or clauses (i.e. like phrases, as-clauses, etc ). They are usually placed in mid position (i.e. ‘She was accidentally struck’ because of the emphasis on how the action took place). We must bear in mind that thus associated with the greatest rhetorical weight in a clause, there is no simple interrogative device for eliciting them. In this section we shall provide a general overview on all types of manner expression.
4.1. By means of adverbs and adverbial phrases. First of all, we shall deal with the expression of manner in terms of adverb or adverbial phrases (i.e. She always drive carefully/in a careful manner). An adverb manner adjunct can usually be paraphrased by ‘in a ... manner’ or ‘in a ... way’ with its adjective base in the vacant position. Where an adverb form exists, it is usually preferred over a corresponding prepositional phrase with manner or way. Hence, ‘She always drives carefully’ is more usual than ‘She drives in a careful manner’. Adverbs as heads of manner phrase adjuncts are an open class. The main method of forming manner adverbs is by adding a –ly suffix to an adjective. Three minor methods are also used by adding –wise, -style, or –fashion to a noun (i.e. snake-wise, clown-style, peasant-fashion ). With these forms the prepositional paraphrase would include postmodification: ‘in the manner of a snake, in the style of clowns, in the fashion of peasants’.
4.2. By means of other adjuncts. Manner may also be expressed by other type of adjuncts, such as manner with result and intensification (i.e. The soldiers wounded him badly=to such extent that it resulted in his being in a bad condition); manner with time expressing duration (i.e. He was walking slowly = in such a way that each step took a long time); manner with time ‘when’ (i.e. Put it together again=in the way that it was before). Semantically speaking, not only disjuncts may express manner, such as crudely, frankly, honestly, seriously, personally, strictly speaking, to be honest, to be precise, to put it briefly, in all honesty, and so on. Moreover, also subjuncts may express manner through narrow and wide orientation types. Narrow orientation subjuncts operate in the semantic area of manner by being placed at initial and medial position, as in ‘They have repeatedly rejected my proposal (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990).
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Wide orientation subjuncts also involve the semantic category of manner by non gradable adverb phrases (i.e. from a personal point of view, looked at politically, etc ), and also by adverbs ending in –wise (i.e Weatherwise, healthwise, etc), as in ‘Weatherwise, the outlook is dismal’: Moreover, courtesy subjuncts obviously involve the semantic category of manner but differ strongly from manner adjuncts, as in ‘He kindly invited me for dinner’ (subjunct meaning: ‘He was so kind to invite me for dinner’) vs. ‘He invited me for dinner kindly’ (adjunct meaning: ‘He invited me for dinner in a kind manner).
4.3. By means of prepositional phrases. Another major kind of expression which can function like an adverb, that is, prepositions, which belong to the closed-class category and which connect two units in a sentence, specifying a relationship between them (i.e. Adverbial: I don’t like to drink out of a cracked glass; Adjective complement: I was very grateful for your help ; and manner: th e woman in the red dress). Similarly to adverbs, prepositional phrases may be morphologically simple (i.e. on) or complex (i.e. onto); syntactically, they may function as complement of an open class item (i.e. grateful for your help; The house that you bough –relative pronoun-) or a whole sentence (i.e. In my view, you shouldn’t do it); and semantically, they also refer to a wide-range of meaning (i.e. place, time, degree, and so on), among which we highlight the reference to manner (i.e. microscopically vs. with a microscope; there vs. to/at that place); means (i.e. by train, by looking at her); and instrument (i.e. with a pen; without her husband). Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) claims that ‘deferred prepositions’, that is, prepositions which cannot precede their complements due to certain circumstances (i.e. passive: we have paid for the car vs. the car has been paid for; thematization: It is unpleasant to work with that woman vs. that woman is unpleasant to work with), are ‘superficially resembling preposit ional adverbs. Although these adverbs are identical in form with the corresponding prepositions, they are never unstressed (i.e. You must stay in the house vs. You must stay in). Moreover, prepositional phrases can also function like adjectives since the sharp distinction between adjectives and adverbs is not retained in the process of adjectivalisation/adverbialisation by means of prepositions (i.e. Compare a patient woman vs. a woman with a lot of patience). However, not all prepositional phrases may function as an adverb (i.e. with temporal prepositions: before, after, because, since, and so on). Note the case of adjuncts of manner that can be gradable, for instance ‘in microscopic detail’ = ‘microscopically’, we may find ‘(quite) microscopically’.
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4.4. By means of noun phrases. Following Huddleston (1988), adverbialisation is also realized by means of noun phrases, although it is not common (i.e. He came last week). However, ‘time’ reference is not included in our study as a main issue.
4.5. By means of clause structures. Another kind of syntactic structure involves clause subordination, where we find two types. Thus (a) the non-finite verb clauses (or infinitival clauses) which function as modifier of the verbal phrase, and in which the verb is (i) an infinitive, as in ‘He left at nine to catch the nine-thirty bus’, (ii) present participle –ing, as in ‘Hoping to see him as soon as possible’, and (iii) past participle – ed, as in ‘If urged by you, we’ll stay in’. Secondly, (b) we may find the finite content clause as modifier of an adjectival phrase, as in ‘I was so broke that I couldn’t buy any food’ or ‘The child was playing although he was very tired’. Also, we may find another type of syntactic structure realized by verbless clauses, as in ‘She was shopping, unaware of the time’.
5.
THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS.
According to Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), there are close semantic similarities between means, instrument and agency, which respectively respond to the question ‘How...?’(except for ‘agency’) with by used for means, by used for agency and with/without for instrument. There is also considerable overlap in realization since the means and the agent are both expressed with byphrases, although the latter is grammatically distinct in correlating with the passive, and hence, corresponding to a transitive clause (i.e. He was caught by his father = His father caught him). However, a manner adjunct can easily occur in a transitive clause (i.e. She influenced me by her behaviour). But let us concentrate on the expression of means, which apart from being realized with by-phrases, it is often realized with –ly suffixes or the words ‘by means of ...’ (i.e. ‘He decided to treat her surgically=by means of surgery’, ‘My father goes to work by tube=by means of transport’ or ‘He entered the mob by means of a bribe’). Also, the expression of means is elicited by how-questions, as in ‘How are you travelling to Italy? By air/By Iberia’ whose answers are prepositional phrases but some are adverb phrases and others are noun phrases without an article. With means of transport, on + article implies means and not locative (i.e. I often go to work on the 7.30 bus). In general, the expression of means is realized:
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5.1. By means of adverbs or adverbial phrases. Means adjuncts are mainly realized by adverbs taking the –ly suffixes, but often share realizations with instrument adjuncts, thus means in ‘They decided to treat him surgically = by means of surgery’.
5.2. By means of prepositional phrases. As stated before, prepositiona l phrases are quite useful in the expression of means, especially when substituting adverbs (i.e. microscopically = by means of a microscope or with a microscope).
5.3. By means of noun phrases. Also, we may find realizations by means of noun phrases, which are related to prepositional phrases (i.e. He sent it by air mail; Fly with/by Iberia; He travelled (by) first class).
6. THE EXPRESSION OF INSTRUMENT. The expression of instrument differ from both means and agent adjuncts in generally being realized by with-phrases (i.e. He was shot with a Magnum Parallelum) when answering again to the question ‘How...?’ They may be answered by adverbs or adverbial phrases (i.e. microscopically/with a microscope), in which case instrument adjuncts can share realizations with manner adjuncts, as in ‘She examined the species microscopically = with a microscope’. Other realizations emerge from prepositional phrases (i.e. with that knife, with a rifle), which coincide with noun phrases (i.e. with my horse). It is worth pointing out that means and instrument adjuncts cannot be modified. Hence, ‘microscopically’ in ‘very microscopically’ can only be a manner adjunct when premodified by an intensifier ‘very’. Without the premodifier it can be a means or instrument adjunct.
7. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS. The various aspects of the expression of manner, means and instrument dealt with in this study is relevant to the learning of the vocabulary of a foreign language since differences between the vocabulary of the learner's native language (L1) and that of the foreign language (L2) may lead to 26/ 29
several problems, such as the incorrect use of process adjuncts expressions, especially because of the syntactic, morphological, and semantic processes implied in these categories. This study has looked at the expression of process adjuncts within lexical semantics, morphology and syntax in order to establish a relative similarity between the two languages that Spanishspeaking students would find it useful for learning English if these connections were brought to their attention, especially when different categories may be overlapped (means and instrument). It has been suggested that a methodology grounded in part in the application of explicit linguistic knowledge enhances the second language learning process. In the Spanish curriculum (B.O.E. 2002), the expression of manner, means and instrument is envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in terms of simple descriptions of people, things, and places, up to higher stages of Bachillerato, towards more complex descriptions of people, things, and situations, asking teenagers for detailed descriptions. The expression of manner, means and instrument that is, describing items, has been considered an important element of language teaching becaus e of its high-frequency in speech. We must not forget that the expression of process adjuncts is mainly drawn from closed class categories, such as adverbs, adjectives, and nouns, and open class categories such as prepositions which have a high frequency of use when speaking or writing. Hence, the importance of how to handle these expressions cannot be understated since you cannot communicate without it. Current communicative methods foster the ‘teaching’ of this kind of specific linguistic information to help students recognize new L2 words. Learners cannot do it all on their own. Language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, do not automatically recognize similiarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have these associations brought to their attention. So far, we have attempted in this discussion to provide a broad account of the expression of manner, means and instrument in order to set it up within the linguistic theory, going through the localization of process adjuncts in syntactic structures, and finally, once correctly framed, a brief presentation of the three main process adjuncts under study. We hope students are able to understand the relevance of handling correctly the expression of process adjuncts in everyday life communication.
8. CONCLUSION Although the questions How did you go home yesterday? may appear simple and straightforward, they imply a broad description of the manner, means and instrument that make an appropriate answer suitable for students and teachers, which may be so simple if we are dealing with ESO students, using simple grammatical structures and basic vocabulary, or so complex if we are dealing
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with Bachillerato students, who must be able to describe people, places, and things using more complex vocabulary and grammatical structures. So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of the expression of manner, means and instrument since we are also assuming that there is an intrinsic connexion between its learning and successful communication. Yet, we have provided a descriptive account of Unit 15, untitled The Expression of Manner, Means, and Instrument whose main aim was to introduce the student to the different ways of expressing process in English by means of description. In doing so, the study provided a broad account the notion of manner, means and instrument, starting by a theoretical framework in order to get some key terminology on the issue, and further developed within a grammar linguistic theory, described in syntactic terms as we were dealing with syntactic structures. Once presented, we discussed how adverbs, prepositions and other syntactic constructions reflected this notion. In fact, lexical items and vocabulary, and therefore, the expresin of process adjuncts, is currently considered to be a central element in communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second language since students must be able to describe people, things, and places in their everyday life in many different situations and in detail. As stated before, the teaching of process expressions comprises four major components in our educational curriculum: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic. In fact, for our students to express process properly, they must have a good knowledge at all those levels. First, on phonology which describes the sound level. Secondly, since the two most basic units of grammar are the word and the sentence, they must have good grammatical knowledge, which invoves the morphological level (i.e. the internal structure of adverb formation) and the syntactic level (i.e. where adverbs are placed: frequency, place, time, etc ). Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, lists vocabulary items, that is, different adverbs (frequency, time, place, etc), and other expressions to denote manner, means and instrument, specifying how they are pronounced, how they behave grammatically, and what they mean. Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, in which students must understand when we are dealing with means or agency, for instance. Therefore, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real life situations. The expression of quality proves highly frequent in our everyday speech, and consequently, we must encourage our stude nts to have a good managing of it.
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9. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
- Aarts, F., and J. Aarts. 1988. English Syntactic Structures. Functions & Categories in Sentence Analysis. Prentice Hall Europe. - B.O.E. RD Nº 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre por el que se estable ce el currículo de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria/Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia. - Bolton, D. And N. Goodey. 1997. Grammar Practice in Context. Richmond Publishing. - Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learnin g, Teaching, Assessment. A Common European Framework of reference. - Downing, A. and P. Locke. 2002. A University Course in English Grammar. London: Routledge. - Eastwood, J. 1999. Oxford Practice in Grammar. Oxford University Press. - Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk. 1990. A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. Longman Group UK Limited. - Greenbaum, S. 2000. The Oxford Reference Grammar. Edited by Edmund Weiner. Oxford University Press. - Hymes, D. 1972. On communicative competence. In Sociolinguistics, pp. 269-93. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
J. B. Pride and J. Holmes (eds.),
- Huddleston, R. 1988. English Grammar, An Outline. Cambridge University Press. - Huddleston, R. and G.K. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press. - Nelson, G. 2001. English: An Essential Grammar. London. Routledge. - Quirk, R & S. Greenbaum. 1973. A University Grammar of English. Longman. - Sánchez Benedito, F. 1975. Gramática Inglesa. Editorial Alhambra. - Thomson, A.J. and A.V. Martinet. 1986. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University Press .
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