Ésta Ésta es una traduc traducció ción n del document documento o origina originall que está en idioma idioma inglés, inglés, por lo que el número número de páginas no coincide. Por lo anterior, solo se enumera la primera página como referencia para indicar que ahí inicia el documento original
Designación: E 112 - 96 Métodos de Prueba para Determinar el Tamaño de rano Promedio1 Esta norma está editada bajo la designación E 112; el número que le sigue inmediatamente a la designación indica el año de adopción original o, en el caso de revisión, el año de la última revisión. Un número dentro de parntesis indica el año de la última ve! que "ue reaprobado. Una psilon de super#ndice $e% indica un cambio editorial desde la última revisión a reaprobación. Este estándar estándar ha sido aprobado aprobado para su uso por agencias agencias del Departament Departamento o de Defensa Defensa para reemplaar los métodos !" "." # !"$ del %étodo Estándar de Prueba &ederal 'o. "("b. )onsulte )onsulte el *ndice *ndice DoD de Especificacio Especificaciones nes # Estándares Estándares para el a+o específico específico de edición edición en que fue adoptado por el Departamento de Defensa.
!"T#$D%&&!'" Estos mtodos de prueba de determinación del tamaño de grano promedio en materiales metálicos son primariamente procedimientos de medición &, debido a sus bases puramente geom geomt tri rica cas, s, son son inde indepe pend ndie ient ntes es del del meta metall o alea aleaci ción ón conc concer erni nien ente te.. 'e (ec( (ec(o, o, los los procedimientos básicos tambin pueden ser utili!ados para la estimación de grano promedio, cristal o tamaño de celda en materiales no metálicos. El mtodo de comparación puede ser util utili! i!ad ado o si la estr estruc uctu tura ra del del mate materi rial al mues muestr tra a la apar aparie ienc ncia ia de una una de las las grá" grá"ic icas as de comparación de normas. )os mtodos de intersección & planimtrico son siempre aplicables para determinar el tamaño de grano promedio. *in embargo, las grá"icas de comparación no pueden ser utili!adas para la medición de granos individuales.
1( )lcance 1.1 Estos mtodos mtodos de prueba abarcan la medición medición del tamaño tamaño de grano promedio promedio e inclu&en inclu&en el procedimiento de comparación, el procedimiento planimtrico $o +e""ries%, & los mtodos de intercepción. Estos mtodos de prueba tambin pueden ser aplicados a materiales no metálicos con estructuras que tengan apariencia similar a aquellas de las estructuras metálicas mostradas en las grá"icas de comparación. Estos mtodos de prueba aplican principalmente a estructuras de grano de "ase individual pero pueden ser aplicadas para determinar el tamaño promedio de un tipo particular de estructura de grano en una probeta multi"actica o multicomponente. 1.2 Estos mtodos mtodos de prueba son utili!ados utili!ados para determinar determinar el tamaño de grano promedio con una distribución unimodal de áreas de grano, diámetros o longitudes de intercepción. Estas distri distribuc bucion iones es son aproi aproimad madame amente nte logar# logar#tmi tmicam cament ente e normal normales. es. Estos Estos mtodo mtodoss de prueba no abarcan mtodos para caracteri!ar la naturale!a de estas distribuciones. )a caracteri!ación de tamaño de grano en probetas con distribuciones de tamaño de grano dúple dúple es descrita en los -todos -todos de rueba E 11/1. )a medición de granos individuale individualess mu& gruesos en una matri! granular se describe en los -todos de rueba E 0. Estos mtodos de prueba están bajo la jurisdicción del 3omit E45 de -etalogra"#a de 6*7- & so responsabilidad directa del subcomit en 7amaño de 8rano E5./. )a edición corriente "ue aprobada aprobada el 1 de -a&o de 1009. ublicada en +ulio de 1009. :riginalmente :riginalmente publicada como E 112 <<. =ltima edición anterior E 112 0<.
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E 112 1. Estos -todos -todos de prueba tratan solo con la determinación determinación de tamaño de grano plano, plano, eso es, caracteri!ación de las dos secciones de grano dimensionales reveladas por el plano de seccionamiento. )a determinación de tamaño de grano espacial, eso es, la medición del tamaño de los granos tridimensionales en el volumen de la probeta está "uera del alcance de estos mtodos de prueba. 1.5 Estos mtodos mtodos de prueba describen describen tcnicas desarrollada desarrolladass manualmente manualmente utili!ando utili!ando &a sea una serie estándar de imágenes grá"icas graduadas para el mtodo de comparación o simple simpless escant escantill illone oness para para los mtodo mtodoss de conteo conteo manual manual.. )a utili! utili!aci ación ón de tablet tabletas as digitali!adoras o anali!adores de imágenes automático para medir el tamaño de grano es descrita en -todos de rueba E 1/2. 1.< Estos mtodos de prueba tratan solo los mtodos de prueba recomendados & nada en ellos ellos deber#a ser compuesto como lo de"inen o establecen los contornos de aceptabilidad o idoneidad del propósito del material probado. 1.9 )os valores medidos son planteados planteados en unidades *?, que son consideradas como estándar. @alores equivalentes en libra pulgada, cuando se listen, están en parntesis & podrán ser aproimados. ". Esta Esta norma norma no busca busca se+ala se+alarr todos todos los concerni concernient entes es a seguri seguridad dad,, si cualqu cualquier iera, a, esta esta asociado con su uso. Es responsabilidad del usuario de esta norma establecer prácticas adecuadas adecuadas de seguridad seguridad # sanidad sanidad # determinar la aplicación de limitacio limitaciones nes reguladoras reguladoras antes de su uso. 1./ )os párra"os aparecen en el siguiente ordenA
*ección 6lcance 'ocumentos de re"erencia 7erminolog#a *igni"icado & Uso 8eneralidades de 6plicación -uestreo robetas de rueba 3alibración reparación de Botomicrogra"#as rocedimiento de 3omparación rocedimiento lanimtrico $+e""ries% rocedimiento 8eneral de ?ntercepción rocedimiento de ?ntercepción lineal Ce&n rocedimientos de ?ntercepción circular rocedimiento de un 3#rculo de Cilliard rocedimiento de tres c#rculos 6brams 6nálisis Estad#stico robetas con 8rano de "orma no equiaial robetas que contienen dos o más "ases o 3omponentes Deporte recisión & @ariación 3laves
"+mero 1 2 5 < 9 > / 0 1 11 12 1 15 15.2 15. 1< 19 1> 1/ 10 2
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E 112 7amaño de 8rano 6usten#tico, 6ceros 6usten#ticos o Brricos 6 -todo de Bractura de 7amaño de 8rano 65 Dequerimientos para 3obre maleable & 6leaciones con base de 3obre 6< 6plicación a *ituaciones Especiales 69 6pndicesA Desultados de 'eterminaciones de 7amaño de 8rano ?nterlaboratorios G1 6neos de re"erencia G2
2( Docu Docume ment ntos os de #e,e #e,ere renc ncia ia 2.1 Forma 6*7-A E ráctica para preparación de robetas -etalográ"icas2 E> 7erm 7ermin inol olog og#a #a rel relac acio iona nada da a met metal alog ogra ra"# "#a a2 E 5> ráctica ráctica para para ataque ataque de -etales -etales & 6leacione 6leacioness 2 E <92 ráctica ráctica para determinar determinar Bracción Bracción de @olumen @olumen por 3onteo manual manual sistemático sistemático de punto.2 E 901 ráctica ráctica para conducir conducir un Estudio Estudio interlaboratorio interlaboratorio para determinar la precisión precisión de un mtodo de prueba E // 8u#a para para Botomi Botomicrogra crogra"#a "#a de )u! re"leja re"lejada da2 E 0 0 -to -todo doss de rue rueba ba para para esti estima marr el gran grano o más más gran grande de obse observ rvad ado o en una una secc secció ión n -etalográ"ica $6)6 7amaño de 8rano%2. E 11/1-todos de prueba para caracteri!ación de 7amaño de 8rano dúple 2. E 1/2-todos de prueba para determinar el tamaño de grano promedio utili!ando análisis de imagen automático & semiautomático 2 $.$ -neos -neos// 2.2.1 2.2.1 ara ara una lista lista comp complet leta a de aneos aneos,, ver 6pnd 6pndice ice G2. G2.
( Ter Termino inolog. log.aa .1 Definiciones Definiciones ara de"iniciones de trminos utili!ados en estos mtodos de prueba, ver 7erminolog#a E >. .2 Definiciones de 0érminos Específicos de esta 'ormaA 'orma A .2.1 'úme 'úmero ro de 0ama+o 0ama+o de 1ran 1rano o -20% -20% el número de tamaño de grano 6*7-, 8, originalmente "ue de"inido comoA ' -E 3 3 $ 14"
$1%
'onde ' -E es el número de granos por pulgada cuadrada a un aumento de 1G. ara obtener el número por mil#metro cuadrado a 1G, multiplicar por 1<.<. .2.2 1rano aquella aquella área dentro de los con"ines del contorno original $primario% $primario% observado sobre los dos planos dimensionales de la super"icie pulida o aquel volumen encerrado por el contor contorno no origin original al $prima $primario rio%% en el objeto objeto tridim tridimens ension ional. al. En -ateri -ateriale aless que cont contie iene nen n cont contor orno noss geme gemelo los, s, los los cont contor orno noss geme gemelo loss son son igno ignora rado dos, s, eso eso es, es, la estructura en cada lado de un contorno gemelo pertenece al grano.
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E 112 .2. )uenta de 9ntersección de )ontorno de 1rano 1rano determinación del número de veces que una l#nea de prueba cru!a, o es tangente a los contornos del grano $intersecciones de triple punto son consideradas como intersecciones 141H2%. .2.5 )uenta de 9ntercepción de 1rano 1rano determinación del número de veces que una l#nea de prueba corta a travs de granos individuales sobre el plano de pulido $los golpes tangen tangentes tes son consid considera erados dos como como media media interc intercepc epción ión;; las l#neas l#neas de prueba prueba que terminan dentro de un grano son consideradas media intercepción. .2.< 5ongitud de 9ntercepción 9ntercepción la distancia entre dos puntos de intersección de contornos de grano opuestos & ad&acentes sobre un segmento de l#nea de prueba que cru!a el grano en cualquier locación debido a la colocación aleatoria de la l#nea de prueba. . 2ímbolos/ α I -atri! granular en una microestructura de dos "aces $componentes%. 6 I Jrea de prueba 6 I 8rano medio en la sección del área transversal 6? I radio de elongación del grano o #ndice de anisotrop#a para un plano orientado longitudinalmente. d I di diámetro me medio pl planar de de gra gran no $ $lato ?????%. ' I di diámet ámetro ro medi medio o esp espac acia iall $vo $vollumt umtri ricco% de gran grano. o. f I -ultiplicador +e""ries para mtodo planimtrico. 8 I Fúmero de tamaño de 8rano 6*7I )ongitud media de intersección lineal I )ongi ongitu tud d media edia de int interc ercepci epción ón linea ineall de la "as "ase matri atri!! α en una una α microestructura de dos "ases $componentes% I )ong )ongit itud ud medi media a de inte interc rcep epci ción ón linea ineall en una una super uper"i "iccie orie orient ntad ada a longitudinalmente para una estructura de grano no equiaial. I)on I)ongi gitu tud d medi media a de inte interc rcep epci ción ón line lineal al sobr sobre e una una supe super" r"ic icie ie orie orient ntad ada a t transversalmente para una estructura de grano no equiaial. I )ongitud media de intercepción lineal p I )ongitud de intercepci intercepción ón base de 2.mm 2.mm para de"inir de"inir la relación entre 8 & $& ' 5% tamaño de grano determinado macroscópicamente o microscópicamente por el mtodo de intercepción. 5 I )ongitud de una l#nea de prueba % I 6umento utili!ado I 6umento utili!ado por una serie de grá"icas. % b n 3 Fúmero de campos medidos. ' α α I Fúmero de granos α inte interc rcep epta tado doss por por la l#ne l#nea a de prue prueba ba en una una microestructura de dos "ases $componentes%. ' 3 Fúmero de granos por mm 2 a 1G ' -α 3 Fúme Fúmero ro de granos granos α por mm2 a 1G en una microestructura de dos "ases $componentes%. ' -E I Fúme Fúmero ro de gran granos os por por pulg pulg2 a 1G una una micr microe oest stru ruct ctur ura a de dos dos "ase "asess $componentes%. ' I ' - sobre una super"icie orientada longitudinalmente para una estructura de grano no equiaial. ' ' sobre una super"icie orientada transversalmente para una estructura de
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E 112 ' dentro dentro 3 Fúmero de granos completamente dentro de un c#rculo de prueba. ' 9nterceptado 9nterceptado I Fúmero de granos interceptados por el c#rculo de prueba. ' 5 I Fúmero de intercepciones por unidad longitud de la l#nea de prueba. ' 5 I ' 5 sobre una super"icie orientada longitudinalmente para una estructura de grano no equiaial ' 5t 5t I ' 5 sobre una super"icie orientada transversalmente para una estructura de grano no equiaial ' 5p 5p I ' 5 sobre una super"icie orientada planar para una estructura de grano no equiaial P i i I Fúmero de intersecciones del contorno del grano con una l#nea de prueba. P 5 I Fúmero de intersecciones del contorno del grano por unidad longitud de la l#nea de prueba. I 5 sobre una super"icie orientada longitudinalmente para una estructura de P 5 grano no equiaial P 5t 5t I P 5 sobre una super"icie orientada transversalmente para una estructura de grano no equiaial P 5p 5p I P 5 sobre una super"icie orientada planar para una estructura de grano no equiaial : I Bactor de corrección para apreciación de grá"ica de comparación utili!ando un aumento no estándar para tamaños de grano determinados microscópicamente. :m 3 Bactor de corrección para apreciación de grá"ica de comparación utili!ando un aumento no estándar para tamaños de grano determinados macroscópicamente. s 3 'esviación estándar 26 I Da!ón del 3ontorno de grano a volumen para una estructura de una sola "ase. 26 α α I Da!ón del 3ontorno de grano a volumen para una estructura de dos "ases. t I -ultiplicador t de de estudiantes para determinar el intervalo de con"ian!a. 6 6 I Brac Bracci ción ón de volu volume men n de la "ase "ase α en una microestructura de dos "ases 6α α $componentes% 0
/( *ign *igni, i,ic icad ado o 0 %so %so 5.1 Estos mtodos mtodos de prueba abarcan abarcan procedimientos procedimientos para calcular calcular & reglas para epresar epresar el tama tamaño ño de gran grano o prom promed edio io de todo todoss los los meta metale less que que cons consis iste ten n comp comple leta tame ment nte, e, o principalmente, de una sola "ase. )os mtodos de prueba tambin pueden ser utili!ados para cualqu cualquier ier estruc estructur tura a que tengan tengan aparie aparienci ncia a simila similarr a aquell aquellas as de las estruc estructur turas as metálicas mostradas en las grá"icas de comparación. )os tres procedimientos básicos para el cálculo del tamaño de grano sonA 5.1.1 Procedimiento de )omparación El procedimie procedimiento nto de comparación comparación no requiere conteo &a sea de granos, intercepciones o intersecciones pero, como el nombre lo indica, abarca comparación de la estructura del grano con una serie de imágenes graduadas, &a sea en "orma de una grá"ica de pared, overla&s de plástico claro o una ret#cula ocular. arece (aber una preocupación general en esa queja de las condiciones del tamaño del
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E 112 5.1.2 Procedimiento Planimétrico 4 Planimétrico 4 El mtodo planimtrico abarca un conteo actual del número de granos dentro de una área conocida. El número de granos por unidad de área, ' -, es emitid emitido o para para determ determina inarr el número número de tamaño tamaño de grano grano 6*7-, 6*7-, 1. )a precisión del mtodo mtodo es en "unció "unción n del número número de granos granos contados contados.. Una precisió precisión n de LH4.2 LH4.2< < unid unidad ades es de tama tamaño ño de gran grano o pued puede e ser ser obte obteni nida da con con una una cant cantid idad ad de es"u es"uer er!o !o ra!onable. )os resultados son libres de variación, & la repetibilidad & la reproducibilidad son menores a LH4.< unidades de tamaño de grano. Un conteo preciso requiere la marcación de los granos al momento de ser contados. 5.1. Procedimiento de 9ntercepción 9ntercepción El mtodo de intercepción abarca un conteo actual del número de granos interceptados por una l#nea de prueba o el número de intersecciones del contorno del grano con una l#nea de prueba, por unidad de longitud de la l#nea de prueba utili!ada para calcular la longitud de intercepción media lineal, . es utili!ado para determinar el número de tamaño de grano 6*7-, 8. )a precisión del mtodo es en "unción del número de intercepciones o intersecciones contadas. Una precisión mejor de LH4.2< unidades de tamaño de grano puede obtenerse con una cantidad de es"uer!o ra!onable. )os resultados son libres de variación; la repetibilidad & reproducibilidad son menores menores de LH4.
( enera eneralid lidade adess de de )pli )plicac cación ión <.1 Es importante, importante, en el uso de estos mtodos de prueba, reconocer reconocer que el cálculo de tamaño de grano promedio no es una medición precisa. Una estructura metálica es un conjunto
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E 112 corte cada cristal individual. Evidentemente, dos campos de observación no pueden ser eactamente lo mismo. <.2 <.2 El tama tamaño ño & loca localili!a !aci ción ón de los los gran granos os en una una micr microe oest stru ruct ctur ura a son son norm normal alme ment nte e comple completam tament ente e aleato aleatorio rios. s. El proces proceso o no nomina nominalme lmente nte aleato aleatorio rio de posici posiciona onarr un patrón de prueba prueba puede mejorar la aleatoriedad, aleatoriedad, pero los procesos procesos aleatorios aleatorios pueden pueden producir una pobre representación al concentrar mediciones en parte de una probeta.
6( Muestreo 9.1 )as probetas deberán ser seleccionadas seleccionadas para representar representar las condiciones condiciones promedio dentro de un lote de colada, lote en tratamiento, o producto, o para determinar las variaciones anti antici cipa pada dass a trav travs s o a lo larg largo o de un prod produc ucto to o comp compon onen ente te,, depe depend ndie iend ndo o de la naturale!a del material que está siendo sometido a prueba & el propósito del estudio. )a locali!ación & "recuencia del muestreo deber#a basarse en acuerdos entre los "abricantes & los usuarios. 9.2 )as probetas no deberán ser tomadas de áreas a"ectadas a"ectadas por ci!allamiento, cocción u otros procesos que alterarán la estructura del grano.
(
Probetas de Prueba
>.1
En genera general,l, si si la estru estruct ctura ura del del grano grano es es equia equiaial ial,, ningun ninguna a orient orientaci ación ón de la la probet probeta a es aceptable. *in embargo, la presencia de una estructura de grano equiaial es una
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E 112
>. >.
>.5 >.5
)a supe super" r"ic icie ie a ser puli pulida da deber deber#a #a ser ser lo su"ic su"icie ient ntem emen ente te larg larga a en cuant cuanto o a área área para para permitir la medición de al menos cinco campos al aumento deseado. En la ma&or#a de los los caso casos, s, ece ecept pto o para para prob probet etas as de (oja (ojass delg delgad adas as o alam alambre bre,, es adec adecua uada da un super"icie poco pulida de un área de 19 mm 2 $.2< pulg. 2%. )a probe probeta ta deber deberá á ser ser secc seccio iona nada da,, mont montad ada a $si $si es neces necesar ario io%, %, apo&a apo&ada da & puli pulida da de acuerdo acuerdo a los procedimien procedimientos tos recomendados recomendados en la ráctica E . )a probeta probeta deberá ser atacada utili!ando un reactivo, tal como se lista en la práctica E 5> para delinear la ma&or#a, o todos, los contornos del grano $@er tambin aneo 6%.
3(
&alibración
/.1
Utili! Utili!ar ar un micr micróme ómetro tro del del porta portaobj objeto etoss para para determ determina inarr el aumen aumento to linea lineall verdad verdadero ero para para cada objetivo, ocular & "uelle, o ajuste de !oom para ser utili!ado dentro de LH42K. Utili! Utili!ar ar una una regla regla con con escal escala a milim milimtr trica ica para para dete determi rminar nar la la longit longitud ud actua actuall de l#ne l#neas as de prueba derec(as o el diámetro de c#rculos de prueba utili!ados como rejilla.
/.2
9(
Preparación de 4otomicrogra,.as
0.1
3uando 3uando se se utili! utili!an an "otom "otomicr icrogr ogra"# a"#as as para para calcu calcular lar el tamaño tamaño de de grano grano prome promedio dio,, deberá deberán n estar preparadas de acuerdo con la 8u#a E //.
15 15((
Proc Proced edim imie ien nto de &o &ompar mparac aciión
1.1 1.1
El proc proced edim imie ient nto o de comp compar arac ació ión n debe debe apli aplica carr para para mate materi rial ales es comp comple leta tame ment nte e recristali!ados o "undidos con granos equiaiales. 3uando 3uando los cálculos cálculos de tamaño tamaño de grano grano son son (ec(os (ec(os por por el mtodo mtodo de comparación comparación más apropiado, apropiado, c(equeos repetidos repetidos por individuos individuos as# como por pruebas pruebas de laboratorio laboratorio (an mostrado que a menos que la aparición de la norma aproime ra!onablemente eso de la mues muestr tra, a, pued pueden en ocur ocurri rirr erro errore res. s. ara ara mini minimi mi!a !arr tale taless erro errore res, s, las las grá" grá"ic icas as de 5 comparación son presentadas en cuatro categor#as como a continuaciónA
1.2
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E 112 T)7) 1 r8,icas de &omparación sugeridas para Materiales Met8licos "$T) Estas sugerencias están basadas en las prácticas comunes en la industria. ara probetas preparadas de acuerdo a tcnicas especiales, las normas de comparación adecuadas deber#an ser seleccionadas con base en una apariencia estructural de acuerdo con el punto /.2. -aterial
Fúmero de laca 6luminio ? 3obre & aleaciones a base de cobre $@er aneo ??? o ?@ 65% Cierro & 6ceroA 6usten#tico ?? o ?@ Brrico ? 3arburi!ado ?@ ?noidable ?? -agnesio & aleaciones a base de magnesio ? o ?? F#quel & aleaciones a base de n#quel ?? 6leaciones de superresistencia ? o ?? Oinc & aleaciones a base de !inc ? o ?? 1. 1.
6umento ásico 1 ><, 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
)a tabla tabla 1 lista lista un número número de materi materiale aless & las grá"ica grá"icass de compara comparació ción n sugerid sugeridas as para para uso para calcular el tamaño de grano promedio. or ejemplo, para cobre maclado & cobre con un ataque de contraste, utili!ar lato ???.
F:76 1A Ejemplos de estándares de tamaño de grano de las placas ?, ??, ??? ??? & ?@ son mostrados en las "iguras 1, 2, & 5. 1.5
El cálculo cálculo del tamaño tamaño de grano grano determi determinado nado microsc microscópica ópicamente mente usualmente usualmente deber#a deber#a ser (ec(o (ec(o por compa comparac ración ión direct directa a al mismo mismo aument aumento o que la grá"ic grá"ica a adecua adecuada. da. Esto Esto acompañado de comparar una imagen pro&ectada o una "otomicrogra"#a de un campo representativo de la probeta de prueba con las microgra"#as de las series de tamaño de grano de la norma apropiada o con reproducciones o transparencias de ellas adecuadas & seleccionar la microgra"#a que más se ajuste a la ilustración de la probeta de prueba o interpole entre dos estándares. Deportar este tamaño de grano calculado como el
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E 112
4!( 1 Eemplo de ranos no gemelos ;ata
4!( Eemplo de ranos gemelos ;ata
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E 112 1.> 1.>
3uan 3uando do los grano granoss son son de un tamaño tamaño "uera "uera del rango rango que abarca abarcan n las las "oto "otogr gra" a"#a #ass estándar, o cuando el aumento es de >< o 1G no son satis"actorios, otros aumentos pueden ser utili!ados para comparación utili!ando las relaciones proporcionadas en la Fota 2 & 7abla 2. 'ebe notarse que aumentos alternativos usualmente son simples múltiplos de los aumentos básicos.
T)7) 2 #elaciones de Tamaño de rano determinadas Microscópicamente Microscópicamente utili@ando la Placa !!! a Di,erentes )umentos F:76 1 rimera l#nea diámetro medio del grano, d, en mm, en parntesis equivalente al número de tamaño de grano 6*7-, 8. F:76 2 El aumento para la laca laca ??? es >
"+mero de !lustración ;Placa !!!=
F:76 2 *i el tamaño de grano está reportado en los números 6*7-, es conveniente utili!ar la relaciónA : I 2 log 2 $%=% $%=% b% I 9.95 log1 $%=% $%=% b%
$2%
donde : es un "actor de corrección corrección que es agregado al tamaño tamaño aparente del micrograno micrograno de la probeta, como se vio en el aumento, % , en lugar de en el aumento básico, % b $>
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E 112
1.0 El uso de trasparencias < o láminas de los estándares, con el estándar & la incógnita colocadas ad&acentes a cada una, será pre"erible al uso de comparación de grá"icas de pared con la imagen pro&ectada en la pantalla del microscopio. 1.1 1.1 Fo se le debe deber# r#a a atri atribu buir ir un sign signi"i"ic icad ado o part partic icul ular ar al (ec( (ec(o o de que que di"e di"ere rent ntes es observ observado adores res a menudo menudo obteng obtengan an result resultado adoss ligera ligeramen mente te di"eren di"erentes tes,, provis provistos tos los di"erentes resultados cae dentro de los l#mites de con"ian!a ra!onablemente esperados con el mtodo utili!ado. 1.11 Ca& una posibilidad cuando un operador (ace c(equeos repetidos en la misma probeta utili!ando el mtodo de comparación que serán perjudicados por su primer cálculo. Esta desventaja puede ser superada, cuando sea necesario, por medio de cambios en el aumento, a travs de etensión de los "uelles, o rempla!o de objetivo u ocular entre cálculos ;1=.9 1. 1.12 Cacer acer el cálc cálcul ulo o de tama tamaño ñoss de gran grano o dete determ rmiinado nadoss macro acrosscópi cópiccamen amente te $etremadamente gruesos% por comparación directa, a un aumento de 1G, de la probeta prepar preparada ada adecua adecuadam dament ente, e, o de una "otogr "otogra"# a"#a a de un campo campo represe representa ntativ tivo o de la probeta, probeta, con "otogra"#a "otogra"#ass de las series de grano estándar estándar mostradas en la laca ? $para material no gemelo% & las lacas ?? & ??? $para material gemelo%. 'esde que las "otogra"#as de las series de tamaño de grano estándar "ueron (ec(as a un aumento de diámetro de >< & 1, los tamaños de grano estimados de esta "orma no caen dentro de las series de tamaño de grano estándar de 6*7- & por esto, de pre"erencia, deber#an ser epresados &a sea como diámetro del grano promedio o como uno de los números de tamaño de macrograno listados en la 7abla . ara los tamaños de grano macroscópicos más pequeños, podr#a ser pre"erible usar un aumento ma&or & el "actor de corrección dado en la Fota , particularmente si se desea continuar con este mtodo de reporte.
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E 112 1.1 El procedimie procedimiento nto de comparació comparación n deberá ser ser aplicable aplicable para calcular calcular el tamaño tamaño de grano grano austen#tico en acero "rrico despus de una prueba -cNuaid4E(n $@er 6neo 6, 6.2%, o despus de que los granos austen#ticos (an sido revelados por cualquier otro medio $@er 6neo 6, 6.%. Cacer la medición de tamaño de grano comparando la imagen microscópica, a un aumento de 1G, con la ilustración del tamaño de grano estándar en la laca ?@, para grano sometidos a una prueba -cNuaid4E(n $@er 6neo 6%; para la medici medición ón de granos granos austen austen#ti #ticos cos tratad tratados os por otros otros medios medios $@er $@er 6neo 6neo 6%, 6%, medir medir comparando la imagen microscópica con la placa que tengan la estructura lo más comparable observada en las lacas ?, ?? o ?@. 1.15 El denominado P-todo de 7amaño de 8rano de Bractura *(ep(erdQ de ju!gar el tamaño tamaño del grano grano a partir partir de la aparie aparienci ncia a de la "ractu "ractura ra de acero acero endurecid endurecido o ;2=, comprende la comparación de la probeta bajo investigación con un conjunto de "racturas estándar.> *e (a descubierto que las series de tamaño de grano de "ractura numeradas arbi arbitr trar aria iame ment nte e conc concue uerd rdan an con con los los tama tamaño ñoss de gran grano o 6*76*7- nume numera rado doss correspondiente en la 7abla 5. Esta coincidencia (ace los tamaños de grano de "ractura intercambiables con los tamaños de grano austen#ticos determinados microscópicamente.
T)7) #elaciones de Tamaño de rano Macroscópico &omputadas para ranos E
N A ranos%nidad de 8rea
Ā 8rea de rano Promedio
d Di8metro Promedio
!ntersección Media
N L
N
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E 112 11.1 11.1
En un proce procedi dimi mien ento to plani planim mtr tric ico o inscri inscribi birr un c#rcu c#rculo lo / o rectángulo del área conocida 2 $usualmente < mm para simpli"icar los cálculos% en una microgra"#as o en la pantalla de vidrio deslustrado del metalógra"o. *eleccionar un aumento que proporcionará al meno menoss < gran granos os en el camp campo o a ser ser cont contad ado. o. 3uan 3uando do la imag imagen en es en"o en"oca cada da apropiadamente, cuente el número de granos dentro de esta área. )a suma de todos los granos incluidos completamente dentro del área conocida más una mitad del número de granos interceptados por la circun"erencia del área da el número de todos los granos equivalentes, medidos al aumento utili!ado dentro del área. *i este número se multiplica por el multiplicador +e""ries, f , en la segunda columna de la 7abla < opuesto al aumento apropiado, el producto será el número de granos por mil#metro cuadrado ' -. 3uente un m#nimo de tres campos para asegurar un promedio ra!onable. El número de granos por mil#metro cuadrado a 1G, ' -, es calculadoA ' - I f ' dentro dentro >
' 9nterceptado
$5%
2
'onde onde f es el mult multip iplilica cado dorr +e"" +e""ri ries es $@er $@er 7abl 7abla a <%, <%, ' dentro dentro es el número de granos comp comple leta tame ment nte e aden adentr tro o del del c#rc c#rcul ulo o de prue prueba ba & ' 9nterceptado número ro de grano granoss que que 9nterceptado es el núme interceptan interceptan el c#rculo de prueba. prueba. El área de grano promedio, promedio, -,, es el rec#proco de ' -, que es, 1H' 1H' -, mientras el diámetro de grano promedio, d, como se lista en la laca ??? $@er 1.2.%, es la ra#! cuadrada de de -.. Este diámetro de grano no tiene signi"icado "#sico porque representa el lado de un grano cuadrado de área área -,, & las secciones de cruce de grano no son cuadradas.
T)7) / #elaciones de Tamaño de rano &omputadas para ranos E
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E 112 T)7) #elación entre el )umento utili@ado 0 el Multiplicador Ce,,riesB f B para un rea de 555 mm2 ;un c.rculo con un di8metro de 9(3-mm= ; f = 5(5552 M 2= 6umento Utili!ado -ultiplicador +e""ries , f , para obtener granosHmm 2 1 .2 1 .2 2< .12< < .< R >< 1.12< 1 2. 1< 5.< 2 /. 2< 12.< 1/. < <. >< 112.< 1 2. 6 un aumento de >< diámetros, multiplicador +e""ries, f , se convierte en unidad si el área utili!ada es <92< mm 2 $un c#rculo de diámetro de /5.<4mm%. 11.2 11.2
ara ara obtener obtener un conte conteo o eacta eacta del númer número o de granos granos que están están compl completa etamen mente te dentro dentro del c#rculo de prueba & el número de granos que interceptan el c#rculo, es necesario marcar los granos sobre el escantillón, por ejemplo, con un lápi! de engrase o pluma de punta de "ieltro. )a precisión del mtodo planimtrico es en "unción al número de granos contados $@er sección 10%. El número de granos dentro del c#rculo de pruebas, sin embarg embargo, o, no deber# deber#a a ecede ecederr aproi aproimad madame amente nte 1 porque porque se volver volver#a #a tedios tedioso o e impreciso. )a eperiencia sugiere que un aumento que produce < granos dentro del
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E 112 T)7) 6
E&%)&!$"E* DE T)M)F$ DE #)"$ #E7)&!$")"D$ #E7)&!$")"D$ P)#MET#$* MED!D$* &$" E7 T)M)F$ DE #)"$ )*TM DETE#M!")D$ M!$*&'P!&)ME"TEB M!$*&'P!&)ME"TEB G F:76 1 'eterminar el tamaño de grano 6*7-, utili!ando las siguientes ecuacionesA F:76 2 )as ecuaciones dos & tres son para estructuras de grano de una "ase. F:76 ara convertir de micrómetros a mil#metros, dividir entre 1. F:76 5 Una valor calculado de 1 de 1 corresponde al 6*7- 1I. Ecuación Unidades 1 I $.2102/ log 1' -% 2.0<5 ' - en mm 42 1 I $9.95/<9 log 1' 5% .2// ' 5 en mm 41 1 I $9.95/<9 log 1P 5% .2// P 5 en mm41 en mm 1 I $49.95/<9 log 1 % .2// 12. 12.
Fo (a& una rela relaci ción ón matem matemát átic icam amen ente te direct directa a entr entre e el número número de tama tamaño ño de gran grano o 6*7-, 1, & la intercepción lineal media, a di"erencia de la relación eacta entre 1, ' -E -E , ' - # - ?Eq ?"@@ para el método planimétrico. 5a relación
I
π
1H2
6
$<%
entre la intercepción intercepción lineal media, , & el área de grano promedio, promedio, -,, es eacta para c#rculos pero no tan eacta para una estructura de granos equiaiales uni"ormes $@er 62.2.2%. 3onsecuentemente, la relación entre el número de tamaño de grano 6*7- 1 & la intercepción lineal media (a sido de"inida de manera que el Fo. 6*7- tiene un tamaño de intercepción media de precisamente 2. mm para la escala de tamaño de
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E 112 1( 1( 1.1 1.1
1.2 1.2
Proc Proced edim imie ient nto o de de !!nt nter erce cepc pció ión n 7in 7inea eall Ge0 Ge0n n ;/= ;/= Estima Estimarr el tamaño tamaño de grano promed promedio io contand contando o $ en la pantall pantalla a de vidrio vidrio deslustr deslustrado ado,, en una "otomicrogra"#a de un campo representativo de la probeta, o en la misma probeta% el número de granos interceptados por uno o más l#neas rectas lo su"icientemente largas para soportar al menos < intercepciones. Es deseable seleccionar una combinación de longitud de l#nea de prueba & aumento tal que un campo individual soporte el número de intercepciones requeridas. Una prueba tal permitirá nominalmente el cálculo del tamaño de grano al número entero de tamaño 6*7- más cercano, en la parte evaluada. )#neas adicionales, en una red predeterminada, deber#an ser contadas para obtener la precisión requerida. )a precisión del cálculo de tamaño de grano por el mtodo de intercepción es en "unción del número de intercepciones de grano contadas $@er *ección 10%. 'ebido a que los etremos de l#neas de prueba rectas usualmente caerán dentro de los granos $@er punto 15.%, la precisión será reducida si el conteo promedio por l#nea de prueba es bajo. *i es posible, utili!ar &a sea una l#nea de prueba más larga o un aumento menor. Cace Cacerr cuen cuenta tass prim primer ero o en de a < camp campos os selec selecci cion onad ados os al a!ar a!ar & sepa separa rado doss
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E 112 sobre la imagen. 6lternativamente, una rejilla de pruebas transparente con l#neas de prueba paralelas espaciadas sistemáticamente de longitud conocida puede ser (ec(as & utili!adas.
1/( 1/(
Proc Proced edim imie ient ntos os de de !nte !nterc rcep epci ción ón &ir &ircu cula lar r
15.1 15.1
El uso de l#ne l#neas as de prue prueba ba circu circula lare ress en lugar lugar de l#ne l#neas as de prue prueba ba recta rectass (a sido sido de"endido de"endido por UnderSood UnderSood ;=, Cilliard ;6= & 6brams ;=. )as redes de prueba circulares circulares compen compensan san automá automátic ticame amente nte las desvia desviacio ciones nes proven provenien ientes tes de "ormas "ormas de grano grano equia equiaial iales, es, sin sobrec sobrecarg argar ar ningun ninguna a porció porción n local local del campo. campo. )as inters intersecc eccion iones es ambiguas en los etremos de l#neas de prueba son eliminadas. )os procedimientos de intercepción circular son más adecuados para su uso como procedimientos manuales de rutina "ija para estimar el tamaño de grano en control de calidad. 1< mm
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E 112
2.2
l#nea de prueba elimina este problema desde el momento que el c#rculo probará todas las orientaciones igualmente & sin variaciones. Fo se puede puede utili utili!ar !ar ning ningún ún tamañ tamaño o de c#rc c#rculo ulo de de circu circun"e n"eren rencia cia eac eactam tament ente e conoci conocida. da. Usualmente las circun"erencias de 1, 2 o 2< mm son convenientes. El diámetro de c#rculo de prueba nunca deber#a ser menor que los granos más grandes observados. *i el c#rculo de prueba es menor que aproimadamente tres veces las intercepción lineal media, la distribución del número de intercepciones e intersecciones por campo no será 8uassiana. 6demás, el uso de c#rculos de prueba pequeños es más bien ine"iciente como una gran gran cantidad cantidad de campos que deben ser evaluad evaluados os para obtener obtener un alto grado de precisión. Una pequeña re"erencia es usualmente colocada en la parte superior del c#rculo para indicar el lugar donde empe!ar & terminar el conteo. 6leatoriamente aplique el c#rculo seleccionado a la imagen del microscopio a un aumento conocido como conveniente & cuente el número de contornos de grano que intersectan el c#rculo para para cada cada apli aplica caci ción ón.. 6pli 6pliqu que e el c#rc c#rcul ulo o solo solo una una ve! ve! para para cada cada camp campo o ópti óptico co,, agregando campos de manera representativa, (asta obtener cuentas su"icientes para
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E 112 propensos. propensos. 'ebido 'ebido a que la estructura estructura del grano variará un poco de un campo a otro, deber#an seleccionarse al menos cinco campos ampliamente espaciados. 6lgunos metalógra"os se sientes más cómodos contando 1 campos con cerca de 5 a < cuentas por campo. ara la ma&or#a de las estructuras de grano, una cuenta total de 5 a < intercepcion intercepciones es o intersecci intersecciones ones sobre más de < a 1 campos campos produce más del 1K de precisión relativa. )a Bigura 9 muestra la relación entre el conteo de inte interc rcep epci ción ón prom promed edio io & el núme número ro de tama tamaño ño de gran grano o 6*76*7- dete determ rmin inad ado o microscópicamente como una "unción de aumento. #an #an o Pre, Pre,er erido ido
M T S A
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E 112
.5 .5
donde ' i i & P i i son son el número de intercepciones o intersecciones contadas en el campo, 5 es el longitud total de la l#nea de prueba $<mm% & % es es el aumento. 3alc 3alcula ularr el val valor or de de inte interc rcep epci ción ón lin linea eall medi media a para para cad cada a camp campo, o, , porA
I 1 I 1 ' 5 P 5
$11%
El valor promedio de las determinaciones n de ' 5, P 5, o es utili!ado para determinar el tamaño tamaño de grano 6*7- medido medido microscópica microscópicamente mente utili!and utili!ando o las ecuaciones ecuaciones de la 7abla 9, los datos mostrados grá"icamente en la Bigura 9, o los datos de la 7abla 5.
1(
)n8lisis Es Estad.stico
1<.1 1<.1
Fingun Finguna a determin determinaci ación ón de tamaño tamaño de grano grano promedi promedio o puede ser ser una medició medición n eacta. eacta. 'e este modo, ninguna determinación es completa sin tambin calcular la precisión
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E 112 1.9
1.>
*i el KD6 es cons conside iderad rado o como como mu& mu& alto alto para para la apli aplicac cación ión destin destinada ada,, deber# deber#an an medi medirse rse más campos & se deber#an repetir los cálculos de los puntos 1<.1 al 1<.<. 3omo una regla general, una 1KD6 $o menor% es considerada una precisión aceptable para la ma&or#a de los propósitos. 3onvertir el el valor me medio de de ' - o al número de tamaño de grano 6*7- , utili!ando utili!ando la
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E 112 sean c#rculos de prueba en cada uno de los planos principales i l#neas directas de prueba &a sea en tres o seis de las principales direcciones de prueba mostradas en la Bigura >. 19.. 19.. ara ara el caso caso de valor valores es de P 5 o ' 5 determinados aleatoriamente en los tres principales planos, computar el valor promedio de acuerdo aA
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E 112
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E 112
Esto se (ace de semejante manera para ' 5. ara computar la media total de a partir de los valores medios dirigidos, utili!arA (
(
I $$% t$0% p$0% %
1H
$2%
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E 112 1>.<
%étodo %étodo de 9nterc 9ntercepc epción ión )as mismas mismas restri restricci ccione oness tienen tienen aplica aplicabil bilida idad, d, como como se muestra en el punto 1>.5, pertenecen a este mtodo. Fuevamente, la cantidad de la "ase matri! debe ser determinada, como se describe en el punto 1>.5.1 *e utili!a una rejilla de prueba consistente de uno o más c#rculos de prueba, como la mostrada en la Bigura
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