CHAPTER 3: DIVISIONS/ DISCIPLINES OF PHILOSOPHY WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON LOGIC AND ETHICS 1. DIVISION OF PHILOSOPHY
The following are the disciplines or branches of philosophy 1. Axiology 2. Epis Episte temo molo logy gy 3. Cosmo smolog logy 4. Ontology . !eta !etaph phys ysic ics s ". Theodic odicy y #. psyc psycho holo logy gy $. %ogic st 1 diaga!!ati" #$s$%tati&%s &' #(i)&s&#(i"a) Dis"i#)i%$s Theory of being
P(i)&s&#(+
Theory of knowledge
Theory of value
Theory of Valid reasoning
!etaphysics* Ontology Cosmology Theodicy Epistemology ,sychology Ethics
Logic
*%d diaga!!ati" P$s$%tati&%s &' #(i)&s&#(i"a) Dis"i#)i%$ The diagram below shows the rele&ance of philosophical in'(iry to those engaged in the ac'(isition of scientific and technical s)ills in o(r world today.
The diagram shows also the rele&ance of the philosophical in'(iry e&en in physical science* li)e medicine and engineering and other areas li)e economics and commerce etc. The diagram with a cl(ster of disciplines here below ad&ances two con&ictions of worth in o(r modern world namely+ ,hilosophy as lo&e of wisdom and search for the (ltimate fo(ndation of all things it is !OT-E s(b/ect of all other disciplines on higher le&el of learning or tho(ght pattern. ,hilosophy was rele&ant from the times of the 0ree)s as it is now in that it was and still is a fo(ndation for a better (nderstanding of any coherent discipline of learning.
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=at(ral ,hilosophy
,hilosophy
Technical ,hilosophy ;iological
,hysical
Engineering !edicine
Ethics* Technology* !(sic* Aesthetics* Aesthetics* %ogic %ogic liberal Arts* 6Arithmetic* !athematics
!etaphysics* Epistemology* Theology Theolo gy** psychology* psychiatry etc
Economic* Commerce etc
A. A,IOLOGY i) Etymological definition Axiology comes from from two G$$- words+ ai&s which means &t(+ and )&g&s which means t($ st0d+ &'
ii) Basic meaning of Axiology Axiology means st(dy st(dy of &al(es+ &al(es+ the in&estigation in&estigation of its its nat(re* nat(re* criteria* criteria* and metaphysical stat(s. The analysis of &al(es to determine their meaning* characteristics* origins* types* criteria* and epistemological stat(s.
1. W$ "a% i$')+ $)a&at$ as '&))&s. a Nat0$ &' 2a)0$: is &al(e a f(lfillment of desire* a pleas(re* a preference* or simply an interest5 b Cit$ia &' 2a)0$: de g(stib(s non 6est disp(tand(m or do standards apply5 c Stat0s &' 2a)0$: how are &al(es related to 6scientific facts5 7hat (ltimate worth* if any* do h(man &al(es ha&e5 2. Axiology is sub-divided into two main part s. a Et(i"s
morality 8. i Et(i"s is a general term for what is often described as the 8 science 6st(dy of morality8. 9n philosophy* philosophy * ethical beha&ior is is that which is 8 good8 good8 or 8right 8right.8 .8 The 7estern tradition of ethics is sometimes called !&a) #(i)&s&#(+ . This is one part of &al(e theory 6 theory 6axiology axiology : the other part is aesthetics : aesthetics : of the fo(r ma/or branches of philosophy* alongside metaphysics* metaphysics * epistemology* epistemology * and logic. logic. ii T($ T$! M&a): The English word moral is deri&ed from %atin words !ores and !oralis. ;oth of them are translated from 0ree) by the famo(s oman Orator Cicero. The 0ree) word from which the term M&a) is deri&ed from is Et(i-&s which means C0st&! or #$tai%i%g to Character. 2
=at(ral ,hilosophy
,hilosophy
Technical ,hilosophy ;iological
,hysical
Engineering !edicine
Ethics* Technology* !(sic* Aesthetics* Aesthetics* %ogic %ogic liberal Arts* 6Arithmetic* !athematics
!etaphysics* Epistemology* Theology Theolo gy** psychology* psychiatry etc
Economic* Commerce etc
A. A,IOLOGY i) Etymological definition Axiology comes from from two G$$- words+ ai&s which means &t(+ and )&g&s which means t($ st0d+ &'
ii) Basic meaning of Axiology Axiology means st(dy st(dy of &al(es+ &al(es+ the in&estigation in&estigation of its its nat(re* nat(re* criteria* criteria* and metaphysical stat(s. The analysis of &al(es to determine their meaning* characteristics* origins* types* criteria* and epistemological stat(s.
1. W$ "a% i$')+ $)a&at$ as '&))&s. a Nat0$ &' 2a)0$: is &al(e a f(lfillment of desire* a pleas(re* a preference* or simply an interest5 b Cit$ia &' 2a)0$: de g(stib(s non 6est disp(tand(m or do standards apply5 c Stat0s &' 2a)0$: how are &al(es related to 6scientific facts5 7hat (ltimate worth* if any* do h(man &al(es ha&e5 2. Axiology is sub-divided into two main part s. a Et(i"s
morality 8. i Et(i"s is a general term for what is often described as the 8 science 6st(dy of morality8. 9n philosophy* philosophy * ethical beha&ior is is that which is 8 good8 good8 or 8right 8right.8 .8 The 7estern tradition of ethics is sometimes called !&a) #(i)&s&#(+ . This is one part of &al(e theory 6 theory 6axiology axiology : the other part is aesthetics : aesthetics : of the fo(r ma/or branches of philosophy* alongside metaphysics* metaphysics * epistemology* epistemology * and logic. logic. ii T($ T$! M&a): The English word moral is deri&ed from %atin words !ores and !oralis. ;oth of them are translated from 0ree) by the famo(s oman Orator Cicero. The 0ree) word from which the term M&a) is deri&ed from is Et(i-&s which means C0st&! or #$tai%i%g to Character. 2
Ethics is also the st(dy of &al(es in h(man beha&ior or the st(dy of moral problems e.g.* 61 the rightness and wrongness of actions* 62 the )inds of things which are good or desirable* and 63 blameworthy and praiseworthy actions. A$st($ti"s comes from 0ree) word aist($ti-&s* one who is percepti&e of things thro(gh his sensations* feelings* and int(itions the word aesthesis means primary* r(dimentary sensation this is the st(dy of bea(ty* and of related concepts s(ch as the s(blime* the tragic* the (gly* the h(moro(s* the drab* the pretty. The analysis of the &al(es* tastes* attit(des* ands standards in&ol&ed in o(r experience of and /(dgments abo(t things made by h(mans or fo(nd in nat(re which we call bea(tif(l.
Therefore* Aesthetics is the st(dy of &al(e in the arts or the in'(iry into feelings* /(dgments* or standards of bea(ty and related concepts. 4. EPISTEMOLOGY > Epistemology is the science or theory of )nowledge. Episteme? means )nowledge* and %ogos means theory@science@st(dy@disc(ssion of. > This is the branch or discipline of philosophy which in&estigates the origin* str(ct(re* method and &alidity of )nowledge. > 9t responds to '(estions s(ch as
7hat are the so(rces and gro(nds of )nowledge5 7hat is the scope and extent of )nowledge5
7hen do we ha&e ass(rance that we )now5
7hat is the difference between )nowledge and faith5
7hat is faith5
ls faith the will to belie&e5
ls faith an expectation based on experience in h(man )nowledge5
-ow important is lang(age in )nowledge5
7hat role do symbols* int(ition* and empirical science play in )nowledge5
> The term epistemology seems. to ha&e been (sed for the first time by .B. Berrier in his instit(te of !etaphysics 61$4* when he disting(ished two branches of philosophy* epistemology and ontology 6which we shall see later. > Epistemology in another sense is an en'(iry into the nat(re and gro(nd of experience* belief and )nowledge.
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> 7hat can we )now* and how do we )now it5 Are the '(estions central to philosophy5 And )nowledge forms the main topic of epistemology along with other cogniti&e notions li)e belief* (nderstanding* reason* /(dgment* sensation* imagination* s(pposing* g(essing* learning and forgetting. T+#$s &' 5%&)$dg$ '&! ' &! t($ P&i%t &' 2i$ &' E#ist$!&)&g+ E#ist$!&)&g + The types of )nowledge often occ(r in pairs i) a priori (analytic) knowledge This is )nowledge by definition e.g.* by definition only* a triangle is a fig(re with three sides and three angles 9t is analytical )nowledge. ii) A posteriori A posteriori knowledge This is )nowledge 6empirical )nowledge based (pon 6sense experience?it is synthetic )nowledge.
A priori and and ,ostenori ,ostenori 6empirical 6empirical )nowledge )nowledge ha&e ha&e long been contrasted contrasted on the basis basis of origins analytical@synthetic distinction is rele&ant here. The philosopher 9mman(el ant* arg(es that is a priori )nowledge is analytic+ it ris)s ha&ing no content ant post(lated synthetic a priori propositions )nown as Transcendental Arg(ments or notions for o(r co(rse* these are contro&ersial waters which we do not want to test in o(r introd(ctory co(rse on philosophy. P&#&siti&%a) 5%&)$dg$ This entails )nowing facts e.g. )nowing that =airobi is the capital of enya. This type of )nowledge is contrasted with )nowing ob/ects 6connected with =airobi?what ma)e =airobi to be the capital of enya. 5%&i%g H& a%d 5%&i%g T(at 0ilbert yle contrasts nowing how and )nowing that and the distinction has been widely (sed in for instance* Ethics and ,hilosophy of mind for example moral )nowledge might consist in )nowing how to beha&e and scientific )nowledge might consist in )nowing the earth is spherical rather than flat. C. COSMOLOGY Etymological d$'i%iti&%6 the name comes from two 0ree) words namely+ -!osmos-order" the form or str(ct(re of a thing and -#ogos-means st(dy of the ordered (ni&erse or harmony of the word* of the (ni&erse?as contrasted with Chaos. The (ni&erse here is ta)en as a single integrated whole and not chaotic and disorderly. > 9t is the st(dy of philosophy which deals with the science of the (ni&erse as a whole?the earth?the globe? > Cosmology also co&ers spec(lations abo(t the cosmos? the world as an orderly systematic whole. > 9t also deals with the nat(re of cosmos for instance+ the possibility of a form of life existing on the planets is a cosmological '(estion. > The scientists who na&igate aro(nd the world in search for )nowledge abo(t it? are called C&s!&%&0ts. 4
$. ONTOLOGY > The word Ontology comes from two 0ree) words namely %nta-t&e really existing things* tr(e reality and #ogos-t&e st(dy of the theory which acco(nts of. > Ontology refers to the st(dy of the essential characteristic of being in itself apart from the st(dy of partic(lar existing things. > 9n st(dying being in its most abstract from it as)s '(estions s(ch as+ what is ;eing?in? itself5 > 7hat is the nat(re of being?as ;eing5 > Ontology is the branch of philosophy which attempts
a to describe the nat(re of (ltimate being 6the one* the absol(te* the perfect eternal form. b To show that all things depend (pon it or their existence c To indicate how this dependence is manifested in reality to relate. d To relate h(man tho(ghts and actions to this reality on an indi&id(al and historical bases. e That branch of philosophy which as)s the '(estion+ what does to be to exist mean5 f 7hich analysis the &ariety of meaning 6ways in which things can be said to be* Exists %ntology is close to meta-physics and Epistemology.
This is the branch of philosophy which deals with spec(lations concerning p(re being 60od as well as the realm of -(man existence. Bor instance* the nat(re of life and death is a concern for ontology. E. METAPHYSICS78St0d+ METAPHYSICS78 St0d+ &' t(i%gs7 t (i%gs7& & $i%gs $i%gs > The term metaphysics comes from two 0ree) words names !$ta7 9a't$6 9$+&%d6 a%d #(+si-&s6 9#$tai%i%g t& %at0$6 & #(+sis6 9%at0$6 9%at0a)
!etaphysics is the branch of philosophy which st(dies the (ltimate reality of things. An attempt to find a tr(e acco(nt of reality. 9t is the st(dy of the first principles and (ltimate problems. > 7hile drawing (p a list of AristotleDs wor)s aro(nd the year # AF* Andronic(s of hodes named some of his boo)s 6Aristotle metaphysics* things they came after his physics boo). > The name* howe&er* perfectly fits this field of st(dy+ since it see)s the (ltimate ca(se of the being of things* it has risen abo&e what is material and sensible and reached o(t to spirit(al realities. > !etaphysics st(dies all reality* since e&erything real has being. > 9t is not limited to some type of being* (nli)e the other branches of philosophy. > Th(s* the man(al ob/ect of metaphysics is all reality. >
The term being 6ens in %atin denotes e&erything that is 9t is something that has 6habet an act of being 6esse* and has a specific manner of being. >
> !etaphysics st(dies 0od as the first ca(se 6(ltimate ca(se or the act of being of all things. 'ause and 'ausality according to Aist&t)$ 9n hisD physics and more in his metaphysics* Aristotle has elaborated his doctrine of ca(sality. 9n doing so* he is p(tting into a systematic and profo(nd form the philosophy of the (ltimate ca(se which emerged from the pre? Aristotle disting(ishes fo(r types of causes. Each ca(se can briefly be defined as follows a aterial cause it is that matter o(t of which something is made+ it is the intrinsic constit(ti&e element of something 6e.g.* the wood of the stat(e b) *ormal 'ause it is the form or shape of something+ its essence to be what it is 6the shape of the stat(e " Efficient 'ause it is the being in act who brings abo(t the change 6the sc(lptor who ma)es the stat(e d *inal 'ause it is that for the sa)e of which the change ta)es place. 9t is what constit(tes the perfection of the being 6in the case of the stat(e* this is the p(rpose for which the stat(e was made Aristotle regards the final ca(se as the most important of all ca(se as all the other ca(se are (ltimately fo(nded on the final ca(se.
&a"erial Cause Wood Final Cause Purpose !os" i!#or"an" cause$
For!al cause Shape %fficien" Cause The Sculptor
N4: %ater on we shall the pre?
ii The form or pattern* i.e. the definition of the essence and the genera which incl(de this 6e.g. the ratio 21 and the n(mber in general are ca(ses of the octa&e in m(sic.
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iii That form which the change or the resting from change first begins* e.g. the ad&iser is a ca(se of the action* and the father a ca(se of the child. i& The end i.e.* that for the sa)e of which a thing is e.g. -ealth is the ca(se of wal)ing. F. THEODICY > Etymologically* Theodicy "&!$s '&! two G$$- &ds namely+ +&eos-,od $ike-ustice" right* hence theodicy refers to /(stice rightness of 0od. > 9t is the st(dy that attempt to /(stify the ways of 0od to h(manly. > The attempt to &indicate the goodness and /(stice of 0od in ordaining or allowing moral and eternal e&il and h(man s(ffering. > Any coherently organiHed body of doctrine concerning the nat(re of 0od and his relationship with h(mans and the (ni&erse. > The systematic attempt present* interprets* and /(stifies in a consistent and meaningf(l way the belief in gods and@or 0od. > 9t is a branch of theology which deals with the st(dy of 0od from a nat(ral point of &iew 6not from faith > 9t st(dies 0od not only from the point of his existence the p(re being b(t as the ca(se of all beings and origin of h(man life and the end of the cond(ct and actions of h(man being. G. Ps+"(&)&g+ > Etymological definition ,sychology comes from two 0ree) words* namely syc&e- ,syche was (sed originally to refer to the state of being ali&e+ then to the principle of life 6breath?spirit* so(l in all things that ca(se life. Ps+"(&)&g+ is the science that in&estigates mental states directly. 9t (ses generally empirical methods to in&estigate concrete mental states li)e /oy* fear or obsessions. ,sychology in&estigates the laws that bind these mental states to each other or with inp(ts and o(tp(ts to the h(man organism. 9t also came to refer to the so(rce of conscience and also to conscience to the world so(l. > 9t is also called !eta?,sychology. > ,sychology deals with the mind@so(l and personality. Bor instance* whether dreams can foretell the f(t(re is a '(estion for metaphysical psychology. Brom psyche? so(l@mind and logos?st(dy.
LOGIC A. I%t&d0"t&+ R$!aThe great ad&ances made by science and technology and the &ast amo(nt of )nowledge acc(m(lating e&ery day are a direct res(lt of logical thin)ing. %ogic is that branch of learning that tells how h(man experiences and spec(lations are to be e&al(ated. %ogic lays fairly strict g(idelines to e&al(ate the processes by which )nowledge is obtained. '
B(rther* it helps one in e&al(ating this )nowledge itself. %ogic helps (s disting(ish the good from the bad. <(perstition is )nowledge ded(ced or obtained witho(t logic* and spec(lation is ded(ction made witho(t proof. ;oth of these methods are li)e castles b(ilt on the sea shore. All it ta)es is one wa&e of logic to wash them away* yet people (se these flimsy methods all the time to s(pport their positions or to /(stify their beha&iors. On the other hand* science is )nowledge obtained by an ob/ecti&e combination of logic and repetiti&e experiments. Tr(e logical arg(ments b(ild (pward or o(tward from a solid fo(ndation* with each step 6called a premise connected to another. Compare this to s(perstition or spec(lation* which is often* random and disconnected. Birst* a st(dy of logic helps the apologist to thin) and present his position ob/ecti&ely and acc(rately.
4. D$'i%iti&% &' L&gi" LOGIC: (at is it< %ogic is the branch of philosophy which treats all forms of thin)ing in general and partic(larly 9nferences and scientific method. 9t is the f(ndamental science of tho(ght. %iterary logic is the science or art or reasoning as applied to a department of )nowledge. %ogical arg(mentation which is a mode of reasoning is &iewed as good or bad according to its conformity or want of conformity to logical pertinence or propriety. -ence* an arg(ment is logical if* and only if it is in conformity with the laws of correct reasoning. %ogic* simply p(t* is the art of &alid reasoning and arg(mentation An arg(ment is either logical 6right or illogical 6false %ogic st(dies concepts* proposition 6premises and syllogisms The ob/ect of st(dy of logic is h(man )nowledge in so for as it respects reality. 7e can disting(ish three operations on o(r process of )nowing+
1. Si!#)$ A##$($%si&%
? -ence there are three general Farts of %ogic+ logic of concept* logic of /(dgment or of the propositions and logic of reasoning or of syllogism. ? 7hat is the Central topic of logic5 The central topic of logic is &alid reasoning* its systematiHation and the st(dy of notions rele&ant to it. C. L&gi" a%d Ot($ S"i$%"$s All branches of learning can be di&ided into two gro(ps analytical and normati&e 6r(le laying.
Analytical sciences deal only with describing and analyHing information. =ormati&e sciences* howe&er* pro&ide the basic norms and tools that are necessary for reliable analysis and concl(sions. ,hysical sciences li)e ,hysics* Chemistry and ;otany and sociological sciences li)e ,sychology* sociology* and history etc. are analytical sciences. On the other hand* logic and mathematics are normati&e sciences. The first category of information needs the second one for &alidating and establishing tr(th. )
Consider the widely p(bliciHed model of the atom. Atoms are physical realities while the atomic model is an in&isible mathematical model that tries to represent act(al atoms. The model in itself is only a description of the way an atom might be made of. One needs logic both to de&elop the model as well as to ded(ce how close it might be to the physical atom. Or consider the pro&erbial story of =ewton and the falling apple. Apples ha&e always been falling and e&eryone accepted it till that time as a fact of nat(re. ;(t it is the application of logical thin)ing that made =ewton ded(ce what might be happening. This means that %ogic is that branch of learning that deals with ind(ctions and ded(ctions in e&ery in&estigation. -ence %ogic can e&en be called 8the science of sciences8. Ob&io(sly* no one can ignore the st(dy of logic if he is serio(s abo(t defending the Christian faith. D. D$d0"ti2$/I%d0"ti2$ L&gi"
There are two types of logic i) D$d0"ti2$ L&gi" ii) I%d0"ti2$ L&gi" Fed(ction and ind(ction are the two basic approaches (sed in %ogic to arri&e at &alid concl(sions. 9n ded(ction one arri&es at partic(lar statements from general statements. 9nd(ction on the other hand starts from partic(lars and ad&ances to general concl(sions* ;oth approaches are e'(ally &alid and important for sciences. Bor the apologist practicing in the modern world* howe&er* ded(cti&e logic is needed more fre'(ently than the ind(cti&e co(nterpart. A large n(mber of technical terms are re'(ired to gi&e a complete introd(ction to ded(cti&e logic* b(t in this disc(ssion we will restrict o(rsel&es to few words &ery important for the apologist. The first two terms are ,E!9 An arg(ment is ded(cti&e if it draws a concl(sion from certain premises@propositions that to deny the concl(sion wo(ld be to contradict the premises@proposition. 1*
9t is an inference in which a concl(sion follows necessarily from one or more gi&en premises. > 9n ded(cti&e %ogic* one arg(es from (ni&ersal to partic(lar concl(sion.
1st Ea!#)$ 1st premise@proposition+ all eats eat rats
2nd
this is a cat
C&%")0si&% this cat eats rats. *%d Ea!#)$ 1. =o athletes are &egetarians 2. All football players are Athletes. C&%")0si&% therefore* no football players are &egetarians ii IND;CTIVE LOGIC 9n ind(cti&e logic* one arg(es from partic(lar cases to a (ni&ersal concl(sion Ea!#)$ 9nd(cti&e logic is (sed by positi&e or $!#ii"a) s"i$%"$s which tests a n(mber of cases before ma)ing a concl(sion. 9nd(cti&e logic is concerned with the critical in&estigation of facts it is sometimes called M$t(&d&)&g+ & a##)i$d )&gi" .
An arg(ment is ind(cti&e in a strict sense if it draws s(ch general concl(sions from s(ch premises directly in a single step. 9f this step consists in arg(ing that beca(se some 6or all obser&ed maiHe are rotten* therefore f(rther 6or all obser&ed maiHe are rotten* we ha&e simple or en(merati&e ind(ction. > There is another type of logic which is called
Algebraic E'(ation of lang(age The signifier or symboliHerK prod(ction of meaning which is %A=0IA0E 11
<@s K! 7hat is more important5 The signifier with capital < or the signified with small s in the meaning of a partic(lar %ang(age. H& "a% #&'$ssi&%a)s $.g. 8La+$s a%d #&)iti"ia%s 0ti)i>$ )&gi" i% t($i #&'$ssi&%. ,oliticians and lawyers (tiliHe lang(age and pers(asi&e lang(age in their careers They o are re'(ired to pers(ade their clients thro(gh logical arg(ment and not mere rhetoric. o
o
o
o
o
%ogical arg(mentation is a mode of reasoning which is &iewed as good or bad according to conformity or want of conformity to logical pertinence and * and propriety. -ence politicians and lawyers worthy of their names sho(ld engage themsel&es in logical arg(ment which is conformity with the laws of correct reasoning in order to arri&e at tr(thf(l and fair concl(sion. This is the only way in which they can maintain their integrity by &alidly con&incing and empowering people or in case of lawyer &alidly winning a case. %ogic will enable especially a lawyer to show the necessary connection between the tangible e&idence and ded(cti&e or ind(cti&e arg(mentation and concl(sion. =o wonder that both professionals in normal circ(mstances st(dy philosophy so that it can open (p their minds and engage themsel&es in &alid reasoning. 9n this also to be noted that both %awyers and politicians may (se fallacio(s reasoning in order to win a case or &otes. And in some instances* this illogical arg(mentation has wor)ed in their fa&or .
FALLACIES > Criteria for rele&ance and ambig(ity cannot be made formal beca(se of the many ways in which an attempted inference may fall.
> 7hen an attempted inference fails beca(se the premises are irrele&ant or ambig(o(s* we shall describe the arg(ment containing inference as a BA%%ACL. > The p(rpose of any inference in %O09C is to establish Tr(th of a Concl(sion. > An arg(ment whose attempted inference fails to establish the tr(th of its concl(sion is a fallacy. > BA%%AC9E< in %O09C are incorrect forms of arg(ments they may appear to be correct since a fallacy cannot inform (s of the tr(th of its concl(sion* yet can seem correct* its aim m(st be to ca(se (s to accept or agree to its concl(sion. 7e ha&e seen that* while a literal (se of words can inform (s* the (se of emoti&e terms can infl(ence o(r attit(de or feelings. This one way in which an arg(ment may attempt fallacio(sly to ca(se (s to accept or agree to its concl(sion is thro(gh the (se of emoti&e lang(age. > O(r first criterion of rele&ance is now the presence of an emoti&e appeal in premises. Ballacies of this sort may be called fallacies of emoti&e appeal 12
S0"( 'a))a"i$s &' a##$a) a$: o Appeal to force? Arg(ment(m ad ;ac(l(m o Ab(si&e M Arg(mentin(m ad -ominem o Circ(mstantial appeal to personDs circ(mstances? arg(ment(m ad -ominem o Appeal to pity? arg(ment(m ad !isericordiam o Appeal to 9gnorance? Arg(ment(m ad 9gnoratiam o Appeal to the p(blic? Arg(ment(m ad pop(l(m o Appeal to A(thority? Arg(ment(m ad Nerc(ndi(m.
> 7here fallacies contain threat of harm or p(nishment* the fallacy is that of appeal to force > To attempt to gain assent thro(gh reference to lac) of e&idence is to commit the fallacy of an appeal to ignorance Arg(ment(m ad ignorantiam. > 7e might not hear that in the legal context+ the innocence of the acc(sed is ass(med or affirmed. -ence* lac) of e&idence of g(ilt does not pro&e innocence b(t simply constit(tes the fail(re to pro&e g(ilt and the original ass(mption stands. Ea!#)$s &' Fa))a"+ i ag0!$%tati&% ad Mis$i"&di0! 8#it+ a ,assing this co(rse means a great deal to me. it will enable me to stay in school and ma)e my parents &ery happy.
& Ag0!$%t0! ad V$$ "0%d0! 8a##$a) t& A0t(&it+ The error in fallacio(s appeal to a(thority consists in the attempt to associate something or someone already appro&ed by or with some claim to a(thority or concl(sion. 13
E.g. The president* ministers ha&e agreed that the -armoniHed Fraft constit(tion is good for enya and there is no need for any single amendment change to it.
Fa))a"i$s &' C&!#&siti&% a%d Di2isi&% The ambig(ity in the fallacies of composition and di&ision concerns the relations of classes and* properties* or wholes. Examples fallacy of di&ision* enya is )nown for its hospitality. Lo( can be s(re yo( will be welcomed by e&ery mwananchi yo( meet Fa))a"+ &' E?0i2&"ati&% ip eino was a good Athlete. -e sho(ld ma)e a good politician. Fa))a"+ &' C&!#&siti&% ?<(rely we canDt tr(st any organiHation of which he is a member. ? ,ele is the best stri)er in the world. Therefore we expect the Cosmos 6his cl(b to be the best soccer cl(b in the world.
=; A&oid Ballacio(s Arg(mentation and con&ersation. =otice them when they are made by others and correct them. Exercise on fallacies 9ndicate the fallacy committed in each of the following 1. The army is notorio(sly inefficient* so we cannot expect ma/or (&e( to do an efficient /ob. 2. =o mathematician has e&er been able to demonstrate the tr(th of the famo(s last theorem of format* so it m(st be false. 3. Lo( canDt par) yo(r car here. 9 donDt care what the sign says. 9f yo( donDt dri&e on 9 will gi&e yo( a tic)et.
4. 0od exists beca(se the ;ible tells (s so* and we )now that what the ;ible tells m(st be tr(e beca(se it is the re&ealed word of 0od. . America is the wealthiest nation in the world today* so it is abs(rd to say that po&erty is a problem for America. ". Coo)s ha&e been preparing food for generations* so o(r coo) m(st be a real expert. #.
i Et(i"s i% G$%$a)
7hen most people thin) of ethics 6or morals* they thin) of r(les for disting(ishing between right and wrong* s(ch as the 0olden (le 68Fo (nto others as yo( wo(ld ha&e them do (nto yo(8* a code of professional cond(ct li)e the -ippocratic Oath 68Birst of all* do no harm8* a religio(s creed li)e the Ten Commandments 68Tho(
Altho(gh most societies (se laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal r(les (se similar concepts* it is important to remember that ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal b(t (nethical or illegal b(t ethical.
7e can also (se ethical concepts and principles to criticiHe* e&al(ate* propose* or interpret laws. 9ndeed* in the last cent(ry* many social reformers (rged citiHens to disobey laws in order to protest what they regarded as immoral or (n/(st laws. ,eacef(l ci&il disobedience is an ethical way of expressing political &iewpoints. Another way of defining JethicsJ foc(ses on the dis"i#)i%$s t(at st0d+ standards of cond(ct* s(ch as philosophy* theology* law* psychology* or sociology. Bor example* a 8medical ethicist8 is someone who st(dies ethical standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a !$t(&d6 #&"$d0$6 & #$s#$"ti2$ for deciding how to act and for analyHing complex problems and iss(es.
Bor instance* in considering a complex iss(e li)e global warming* one may ta)e an economic* ecological* political* or ethical perspecti&e on the problem. @. 7hile an economist might examine the cost and benefits of &ario(s policies related to global warming* an en&ironmental ethicist co(ld examine the ethical &al(es and principles at sta)e. . !any different disciplines* instit(tions* and professions ha&e norms for beha&ior that s(it their partic(lar aims and goals. These norms also help members of the discipline to
15
coordinate their actions or acti&ities and to establish the p(blicJs tr(st of the discipline. Bor instance* ethical norms go&ern cond(ct in medicine* law* engineering* and b(siness. B. Ethical norms also ser&e the aims or goals of research and apply to people who cond(ct scientific research or other scholarly or creati&e acti&ities. There is e&en a specialiHed discipline* research ethics* which st(dies these norms. ii ETHICS IN PARTIC;LAR 1. Et(i"s is a general term for what is often described as the 8 science 6st(dy of morality8. 9n philosophy* ethical beha&ior is that which is 8good8 or 8right.8 The 7estern tradition of ethics is sometimes called !&a) #(i)&s&#(+ . This is one part of &al(e theory 6axiology : the other part is aesthetics : of the fo(r ma/or branches of philosophy* alongside metaphysics* epistemology* and logic. *. T($ T$! M&a): The English word moral is deri&ed from %atin words !ores and !oralis. ;oth of them are translated from 0ree) by the famo(s oman Orator Cicero. The 0ree) word from which the term M&a) is deri&ed from is Et(i-&s which means C0st&! or #$tai%i%g to Character. a W(at d&$s Et(i"s/M&a)s St0d+<
Ethics and morals st(dy -(man acts and not Acts of man i) /uman acts 0ood actions are praiseworthy o ;ad actions are blamable or blameworthy o o
ii) Acts of men (reflex actions) These are acts which man is not the originator. They are also called reflex actions o !an cannot control them e.g. breathing* blood circ(lation etc o !an cannot be praised or blamed beca(se of them. o " M&a) Ag$%t Bor a person to be praised or blamed for an action he@she m(st be a o responsible moral agent. o
o
o
o
!oral agent m(st ha&e )nowledge and freedom in order to be responsible of the action done The people whom we ha&e to exc(se from the blame in their actions are non? responsible moral agents* e.g. the infant* mad people and the sinile. 9nanimate beings are not moral agents. And to say that action is ethical or moral may mean that it pertains to the lang(age or fields of morals or that is praiseworthy cond(ct of some moral agent
d F$$ Wi)) a%d F$$ C(&i"$ 16
*ree will is the ability of rational agents to exercise control o&er their actions* decisions* or choices. *ree '&oice consists of the mental process of /(dging the merits of m(ltiple options and selecting one of them.
7itho(t freedom of choice* one is not a moral agent and is therefore not morally responsible of his action. -e cannot be blamed or praised for them. $ C&%s"i$%"$ 9s the inner &oice that spea)s to a person* praising or blaming him for the action done.
9n religion* conscience is seen as the &oice of 0od in a person.
9t is an aptit(de* fac(lty* int(ition* or /(dgment of the intellect* that disting(ishes whether oneJs prospecti&e actions are right or wrong by reference to norms 6principles and r(les or &al(es.
' F0%da!$%ta) O#ti&% B(ndamental option is the basic decision that a person ma)es* orienting him towards other persons* incl(ding 0od. Other small choices may erode or strengthen the f(ndamental option. There is positi&e B.O and negati&e B.O in life. ,ositi&e B.O b(ilds a person and others. =egati&e B.O destroys him beca(se it is egocentric
iii ETHICAL/MORAL VAL;E a W(at d&$s t($ t$! 2a)0$ !$a% i% Et(i"s<
The word &al(e comes from a %atin varele* which means* to ha&e worth* to be strong. W&t(+ is the '(ality of a thing which ma)es it desirable* desired* (sef(l or an ob/ect of interest. O' $"$))$%"$ + that which is esteemed* priced or regarded highly* or as a good. The opposite of value is disvalue. The opposite of good is negative good, which is evil . O$"ti2$ 2a)0$ ? the &iew that &al(es are ob/ecti&e in the sense that they can be s(pported by caref(l and consistent rational arg(mentation as being the best (nder the circ(mstances.
Va)0$ i% Et(i"a)/M&a) s$%s$ Three elements are considered essential for the &al(ation of moral acts i.e.?to enable the moral agent 6person* to ma)e a moral /(dgment is rooted in his conscience. They are? T($ &$"t &' t($ a"ti&% + by ob/ect is meant?the )ind of action which in no way harms or distorts neither the personal nat(re* nor that of the other. A being is in order if it does its proper thing* its proper wor). Aristotle said that e&ery being has an End and mo&es towards that end according to its mode of being. A h(man being mo&es li)e h(man being* and an animal li)e an animal.
1'
I%t$%ti&%+ refers to the aim of the person performing an action in p(rs(it of a nat(ral want. 9t is what the moral agent intends to achie&e by the (se of his operati&e powers? his aim* or the end of an agent.
Ci"0!sta%"$s Circ(mstances can modify the moral e&al(ation of an act. 7hat* where* who* how* which* when? of the action and agent.
D. ;NIVERSAL CORE ETHICAL VAL;ES AND THEIR IMPLICATION IN 4;SINESS Ising core ethical &al(es as the basis for ethical thin)ing can help detect sit(ations where we foc(s so hard on (pholding one &al(e that we sacrifice another M e.g. we are loyal to friends and so do not always tell the tr(th abo(t their actions. 1. Tr(stworthiness+ #. espect 13.
Nirt(e is a positi&e@good action which has been repeated for a long time by a comm(nity or has come thro(gh a partic(lar tradition. 9t has stood the test of time in h(man life and practice. Nirt(es are cross?c(tting &al(es* regardless of race* religion or age. The &irt(es do not go o(t of fashion as might happen to bl(e /eans. 0ood h(man habits are indispensable to a person who wants self f(lfillment and that of others. -(man mat(rity therefore is a state of &irt(es. 9t is a sit(ation of a person who has ac'(ired good habits* is trying to de&elop them by exercising them as well as to ac'(ire those that he is lac)ing.
ii A 2it0$ as #&$/'a"0)t+
Nirt(es can be said to be a power or fac(lty which has been bro(ght to perfection. <(ch a capacity enables a person to do good acts easily* promptly* gladly and nat(rally in a habit(al or stable !anner. The word virtue is related to %atin Nis which means strength+ it empowers a person to carry o(t proper acts effecti&ely. Nirt(es are important in leadership.
iii List &' M&a) Vit0$s
1(
!ee)ness* Co(rage* o o !odesty* o Temperance o (st anger o
The /(st o %iberality o
i2 St Pa0)s )ist &' t($ '0its &' t($ S#iit "a% $ )i-$%$d t& 2it0$s
i %o&e ii oy iii ,eace 2 C&%'0"i0s &' C(i%a
i& & &i
,atience indness 0enerosity
&ii &iii ix
Baithf(lness 0entleness
9n the Bo(r ;oo) Of Conf(ci(s* fo(r o(tstanding gifts of hea&en6TAOare gi&en+ ;ene&olence 6)indness of heart 0entleness 6as abiding sign and c(lt(ral heritage* bene&olence o (stice o 7isdom o 6
1$"14 2i T($ S"i#t0$s $!#(asi>$ t($$ $2a%g$)i"a) C&0%s$)s/2it0$s
Baith
? -ope
?%o&e 6charity
81st C&i%t(ia%s C(a#t$ 13
F. VICES IN LIFE. i W(at is a Vi"$<
Absence of d(e disposition
A h(man act which is repeated se&eral &ice and becomes li)e second nat(re@habit in a person
Inder each cardinal &irt(e* there is a &ice.
A &ise leads a person away from the goal of h(man life.
A &ice destroys a person and society.
According to t&e ,reek p&ilosop&er Aristotle" virtue is in t&e middle of t&e two extremes (as illustrated in t&e following c&art) ii) 34+5E6 A7$ '%44E6%7$37, 3'E6 VICE 8E,CESS o Anger o ashness@boldness o
VIRT;E VICE 8DEFECT !ee)ness* %ac) of energy of will Co(rage* Cowardice !odesty Timidity Temperance Fr(n)enness /(st anger ?no name? The /(st %oss %iberality !iserliness
iii) #ist of vices according to $ante(3talian t&inker and literary Artist They are the ones commonly )nown in traditional Christianity+ 1+ ,ride or &anity 5+ 0l(ttony 2+ A&arice 6co&eto(sness* greed 6+ En&y or /ealo(sy 3+ %(st '+ ,olitical philosophy is the st(dy of city 6town* go&ernment* politics* liberty* /(stice* property** rights* law and enforcement of a legal code by a(thority. > 7hat they are* why 6or e&en if they are needed > 7hat ma)es a go&ernment legitimate5 > 7hat right and freedom it sho(ld protect and why > 7hat form it sho(ld ta)e and why > 7hat law is* > 7hat d(ties citiHens owe to a legitimate go&ernment if any > 7hen it may be legitimately o&erthrown if e&er* *. I% a 2$%a"0)a s$%s$ The term political philosophy often refers to a general &iew or specific ethic* political belief or attit(de abo(t politics that does not necessarily belong to the technical discipline of philosophy. 3. P&)iti"a) #(i)&s&#(+ 8 a%a)+ti"a) > Can also 1e (nderstood by analyHing it thro(gh the general perspecti&es of metaphysics* epistemology and axiology thereby (nearthing the a(thentic reality side > The )nowledge or methodological side the &al(e aspect of politics
4. T($$ "$%ta) "&%"$%s &' #&)iti"a) #(i)&s&#(+ (a2$ $$% > The political economy by which property rights are defined* and access to capital is reg(lated. > The demands of /(stice in destr(ction and p(nishment > PThe r(les of tr(th and e&idence that determines /(dgments in the law. HISTORY OF POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY 1. A%ti?0it+
a W$st$% P(i)&s&#(+ i 9t has its origin in ancient 0ree) society where city states were experimenting with &ario(s form of political arg(ments incl(ding monarchy* oligarchy and democracy. One of the first extremely important classical wor)s of political philosophy is ,lato the ep(blic which was followed by Aristotle ,O%9T9C< and =9C-O!AC-EA= ET-9C<. ii oman political philosophy was infl(enced by the
the need of Fiscipline in ac'(iring &irt(e. These ci&iliHations had tany similarities with the ancient 0ree) ci&iliHation in that there was a (nified c(lt(re di&ided into &ital states. " M$di$2a) C(istia% E0&#$ P&)iti"a) P(i)&s&#(+ 9n medie&al E(rope political philosophy was shaped by the wor)s of
!edie&al 9slam+ had a great infl(ence in political philosophy from the "th cent(ry onwards* especially in Arab co(ntries which accepted -is boo) the ,9=CE 6111?12 and p(blished in 132 had a great infl(ence in E(rope. > Tho(gh the wor) was written for the medici family in Blorence 69taly* !acha&elli s(pported the rep(blic of Blorence rather than the oligarchy of the medici family > According to machia&elli* good and e&il are means (sed to bring abo(t an end i.e. the sec(re and powerf(l state. > -e did not belie&e in the di&ine right of )ings. -e shows how consent of a pop(lace is reg(lated between and among (lers rather than simply a nat(ralistic or theological gro(p of the str(ct(re of society. > -e 6as later English Thomas -obbes beli&eral in the inherent selfishness of the indi&id(al > -e strongly s(pported central power as the only means of pre&enting the disintegration of the social order !e ne&er fa&ored a de&ol&ed go&ernment that empowers the people at the bottom. E%)ig(t$%!$%t P$i&d 81 t(71 t( "$%t0+7E0&#$ > The thin)ers of the age li)e 9mman(el ant* E(gene Felacrosis@ liberty leading the people 61$3 Noltaire 6Brance* ohn
,owers 6r(le by another incl(ding The ings o The ,opes 6eligio(s@Ch(rch o o And god 6eligion They worshiped h(man EA
Analyse and disc(ss the enyan state and the positi&e and negati&e political philosophy 6ies that has 6&e been (sing it since decoloniHation and (shering in independence in 1"3 (ntil today. ,ropose the best way forward.
GENERAL RELEVANCE OF PHILOSOPHY TODAY
8W(at Ca% Y&0 D& it( P(i)&s&#(+< W(at Ca% Y&0 D& Wit(&0t ItJ I%t&d0"ti&% 1. a !any st(dents do not (nderstand the importance of philosophy today and especially in the b(siness world. They thin) that philosophy sho(ld be con&ened to those who are st(dying philosophical st(dies if yo( are becoming philosophers. 9t is generally seen as irrele&ant and has no &al(e in some (ni&ersities and especially in some s(b/ects. The p(rpose of this section is to explain to the st(dents the rele&ance of philosophy in all spheres of h(man life* in the (ni&ersity st(dies and indeed in b(siness* art* law and politics. That is why in well )nown world (ni&ersities philosophy is ta)en as a basic common ca(se or an electi&e to those who are st(dying most of the programmes incl(ding engineering and physics. " 9nfact at the end of this (nit of philosophy the st(dent will (nderstand that philosophy is the mother of all s(b/ects incl(ding chemistry* engineering* mathematics etc.
(lie Nan Camp* one of the contemporary philosophers is con&inced that philosophy is rele&ant in o(r modern world for more than before.
This dependence of good applied wor) on theoretical* 8p(re8 research is tr(e in all disciplines ? the sciences* the h(manities* mathematics. 3. S$$!i%g !agi%a)i>ati&% &' #(i)&s&#(+ t&da+ a "&%"$% (lie Nan Camp who is a philosopher of Art and %aw is &ery concerned li)e many philosophers today concern abo(t what appears to be an increasing marginali8ation of philosophy as a discipline within the academy 6Elitist fields of st(dy.
7hy doesnJt the rest of the world (nderstand that5 7hy donDt the st(dents of b(siness* engineering* 9T* Telecomm(nication* ,(re
The fear of some philosophers 6which is a positi&e fear is that philosophy will go the way of classics* 0ree) and %atin. Once at the heart of a liberal arts ed(cation* they now rarely e&en ha&e the stat(s of a department* and are not ta(ght at all at many schools and Ini&ersities. . Li$a) Ats a%d P&siti2$ S"i$%"$s
The concern is+ an warranted war between empirical sciences and liberal arts. ,rofessor 7an/ohi has written many boo)s on ,hilosophy and liberal Arts* he has also written many articles on warranted fear of these perspecti&es of st(dy. -is con&iction is that s(ch a fear sho(ld not exist beca(se liberal Arts has something to gi&e to empirical sciences and &ise &ersa. 7e m(st not be complacent. ,hilosophy departments are too easily merged with religion* history* or worse ? amorpho(s 8h(manities8 departments. These are tight fiscal times ? and we can ass(me this will be a permanent fact of life as the state shifts its priorities to b(ilding more prisons at the expense of ed(cation.
B. T($ st0gg)$ "&%ti%0$s The responsibility for a&oiding the fate of classics lies with those of (s in philosophy. 7e m(st ens(re that the rest of the academy (nderstands the importance of what we do as m(ch as we do. This is o(r responsibility. -ow do we meet that responsibility5 ,hilosophy can enrich all the disciplines at the (ni&ersity* b(t it is o(r responsibility to show them this eternal tr(th. . P(i)&s&#(+ is 2ita) t& a)) $s#$"ia))+ t& 40si%$ss!$% a%d La+$s 7e are better '(alified than anybody else in the (ni&ersity to teach aspiring lawyers* and b(siness people* and doctors* and n(rses how to approach ethical problems in their chosen careers. 7e m(st not abdicate that challenge to others who toss aro(nd words li)e 8&al(es8 witho(t ha&ing the foggiest idea what they are tal)ing abo(t. . P(i)&s&#(+ a%d its &)$s i% t($ ;%i2$sit+ 7e are better '(alified than anybody else in the (ni&ersity to teach aspiring artists and m(sicians and dancers how to tal) abo(t the nat(re of art and the meaning of the word 8good8 as it is (sed to e&al(ate art. 7e m(st not abdicate that challenge to others who toss aro(nd words li)e 8philosophy8 and 8theory8 and 8&al(es8 witho(t ha&ing the foggiest idea what they are tal)ing abo(t. 7e are better '(alified than anybody else in the (ni&ersity to teach aspiring scientists and engineers and mathematicians how to thin) abo(t the ethical dilemmas they face in their careers and to thin) abo(t the nat(re of the reality they are exploring. 7e m(st not abdicate that challenge. K. P(i)&s&#($s s(&0)d sta%d t($i g&0%ds 'i!)+ it(&0t '$a 9t is not eno(gh for (s to say that o(r department is listed in the camp(s phone boo)s and if somebody has an ethical '(estion* weJll answer the phone. 9f we are nothing b(t a bargain? basement 8answer line8 we ha&e abdicated o(r responsibilities. 9t is not eno(gh for (s to say that those st(dents can come to (s ? o(r co(rses are listed in the catalog. =ot if we want to a&oid the near?extinction of classics and %atin and 0ree). 1. O%$ g&&d $a!#)$ &' a !a% (& t&&- t($ "(a))$%g$ 9f we loo) at the greatest practitioners in all the &ario(s specialties in the academy ? art* m(sic* science ? we see that they do not sit complacently in their laboratories and their offices and their rehearsal halls and wait for the world to come to them. The great composer and cond(ctor %eonard ;ernstein was a tireless salesman for the importance of the arts in the li&es of e&ery citiHen. -e lobbied constantly before Congress and state legislat(res+ he ga&e genero(sly of his time to spea) on the importance of art ed(cation in the schools. 11. L$g$%da+ da%"$
ac'(es dJAmboise* the legendary dancer for 0eorge ;alanchine* has extended himself contin(o(sly into the p(blic sphere ? teaching in the p(blic schools* lobbying the Congress* constantly spea)ing o(t* reaching o(t abo(t the importance of art in the li&es of ordinary people. The late and pre?eminently great choreographer Agnes de !ille did li)ewise ? writing* testifying* lect(ring abo(t the art form she cherished. 1*. S"i$%tists7St$2$% Ha-i%g 9n the sciences* thin) of the enormo(s p(blic impact of some of o(r greatest scientists ? the physicist
;eca(se e&ery discipline whether economic* commerce* %aw* technology* information technology m(st ha&e elements of arg(mentation* logical order and clarity* meaning and application which philosophy st(dies sho(ld embrace philosophy in its co(rses. ,hilosophy can pro&ide and enhance these disciplines with its method of systematic search and artic(lation of ideas. 7hen a st(dent is well gro(nded in philosophy he@she will get the s)ills of artic(lating iss(es in a coherent and a systematic manner. This is needed especially by st(dents of commerce@b(siness* administration* mar)eting and medicine beca(se specialists need to artic(late in a coherent way how their area of st(dy has &al(e to society and the indi&id(al in contemporary wor). Co(nselling is another s(b/ect which has great &al(e in o(r times and sho(ld gain from philosophy. ,hilosophy will help scientists and ca(se them to present their research findings to the ordinary person (sing a lang(age which is well systematiHed and logical in s(ch a way that an ordinary person can appreciate their )nowledge and benefit from it.
Dis"0ssi&% 0$sti&%s 1. 9n yo(r considered &iew explain the role that philosophy and critical thin)ing can assist the realiHation and s(stainability of enyaDs &ision 23 and !illenni(m Fe&elopment 0oals.
2. a Fisc(ss the positi&e and negati&e aspects of logic and fallacies in the following professions i %awyers iii
& %ect(rers@professors in Ini&ersity teaching b
CHAPTER @: HISTORICAL CRITICAL INTROD;CTION OF PHILOSOPHY FROM MYTHICAL CONSCIO;S OF ANCIENT GREE5S TO CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY IMPACT OF DISCIPLINE ON GEMEINDESCHAFT 8COMM;NITY AND GESSELLSCHAFT 8SOCIETY A. HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY: 1. THE FO;R PERIODS/EPOCHS The history of philosophy is di&ided into fo(r periods@epochs as follows+
A. ;. C. F.
Ancient ,hilosophy?from " ;C to " AF !iddle Ages? from # AF? 1" th Ct ;C !odern philosophy from 1# th Ct to 1th Cent(ry Contemporary philosophy? from 1th Cent(ry (p to date
*. 1ST PERIOD: ANCIENT GREE5 PHILOSOPHY FROM MYTHICAL CONSCIO;SNESS TO FORMAL PHILOSOPHY A. PRELIMINARY REMAR5S 1. 7hen we loo) at the earliest writings from aro(nd the globe* we find that &ario(s regions had their own spec(lati&e traditions? s(ch as those East Asia* the 9ndian s(b content* the !iddle East* and Africa. *. The story of 7estern ,hilosophy begins in a series of 0ree) islands and colonies d(ring the Cent(ry ;C. The Ancient thin)ers* called -ow was the world formed5 > 7hat are things really li)e5 > -ow can we explain the process of change in things5 > 9s there a world beyond the earthly* one s(rro(nding them5 > 9s man (ni'(e among the animals5 > 7hat is the (ltimate ca(se of all things5 > 7hat is common in e&erything5 Etc 3. The sol(tions they ga&e to these p(HHles were shortly thereafter d(bbed philosophy* the lo&e of wisdom. Appearance often differs from reality. There are br(te facts of birth* death* growth and decay coming into being and passing away. These e&ents p(HHled the 0ree) and they so(ght explanations. 4. MYTHICAL CONSCIO;SNESS IN HOMER HESOIDS TIMES Earlier* lonia had prod(ced -omer* #;C* A(thor of the 9liad and odyssey. -e was a great poet. 9n these poetic times* -omer describes the scene of mo(nt Olymp(s* where the gods p(rs(ed li&es '(ite similar to that of their h(man co(nterparts on earth.
This poetic &iew of the world also depicted ways in which the gods intr(ded into people+ affairs. 9n partic(lar the -omeric gods wo(ld p(nish the people for their lac) of moderation and especially for their pride or ins(bordination.
2)
9t is not that homer gods were exceptionally moral beings. 9nstead* they were merely stranger than homers and demanded obedience. They were immoral as h(man were b(t h(mans were worse according to the 0ree) mythical conscio(sness. -omer s(ggests that there is a power called f to which the gods are s(b/ect+ and to which e&erything else m(st be s(bordinate. 9t was -esiod 6li&ing the same time with -omer* who altered this concept of the gods and fate. -e th(s remo&ed from gods* all capricio(sness and inscribes in them a moral consistency. The moral order is still the prod(ct of a Qews. -e commands the (ni&erse a moral order witho(t any reference to the gods.
H$))as 8G$$"$ As it has been pro&en* the earliest thin)ers of -ellas among the 0ree)s were poets* the interpreters of traditional eligions M+t( Ma-$s: li)e -omer and -esiod and sometimes prophets li)e Epi?menides of Cnossos who p(rified Athens from pestilence by erecting alters to (nnamed di&inities* were renown wise men. 0ree) philosophy* as Aristotle later showed started with Thales of !iletes.
C. THE SEVEN ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS AND THE ;EST FOR THE ;LTIMATE CA;SE 1. THALES FROM MILET;S 8B*@7@ B 4C7WA TER a 7ature of t&ings Thales as)ed '(estions ? ? 7hat is e&erything made of5 ? Or what )ind of st(ff goes into the composition of things5 ;y things* he referred to the earth* clo(ds* oceans etc from time to time* some of these things change into something else* and yet they still resemble each other in certain ways. %ne and t&e any Thales (ni'(e contrib(tion to tho(ght was his notion that* inspite of the differences between things* there is ne&ertheless a basic similarity between them all. The many are related to each other by one. -e ass(med that some single element* some st(ffD* a st(ff which contained its own principle of action or change lay the fo(ndation of all physical reality is in all things. To him* the one* the st(ff water. That is to say for Thales* water is the ca(se of all things. " /is conclusion 9nfl(enced by the traditional myths which deri&ed all things from the primordial waters and arg(ing from the fact that germ of animal life is moist he concl(ded that water is the sole s(bstance* preser&ing its identity thro(gh the transformation of bodies. 7ater is the origin of the nat(re of moist things.
d +&ales greatness is raising t&e 9uestion of t&e nature of t&e world universe This '(estion acts the stage for a new )ind and in'(iry. 7ith that starting point* others were to
3*
follow with alternati&e sol(tions* b(t always with Thales problem before them 6for -eraclit(s 4? # ;C this s(bstance was B9E. *. ANA,IMANDER OF MILET;S 8B17@ 4C74O;NDLESS/INFINITE a -e was the p(pil of Thales. -e agreed with Thales that there is some single st(ff o(t of which e&erybody comes.
b Inli)e him howe&er* Anaximander said that this basic st(ff is neither water nor any other specific element. 7ater is only one specific thing among many other elements. i I%d$'i%it$ & &0%d)$ss R$a)! According to Anaximander* the primary 6sit which all specific things come* is an indefinite or bo(ndless realm. This is indefinite bo(ndless. The so(rce of things is indeterminate. ii 7here as act(al things are specific* their so(rce is indeterminate* and whereas things are finite* their original st(ff is infinite or bo(ndless. iii Oigi% &' t(i%gs a%d (0!a% Li'$ T(rning to the origin of h(man life* Anaximander said that life comes from the sea and that in the co(rse of time+ li&ing things come o(t of the sea to dry land. -e s(ggested that people e&ol&ed from creat(re of a different )ind 6fishes. -e arg(ed followed from the fact that other creat(res are '(ic)ly self s(pporting* where h(mans alone need prolonged n(rsing and that therefore we wo(ld not ha&e s(r&i&ed if this had been o(r original form. !an was formed within the bodies of fishes where he de&eloped being e/ected as soon as he became s(fficiently large to pro&ide for himself. 3. ANA,IMENES 87* 4C 7AIR i The third and last of the !ilesian philosophers was Anaximenes who was a yo(ng associate of Anaximander in answer to '(estion concerning the composition of nat(ral things b(t was dissatisfied with it. ii Bor him* the bo(ndless and infinite had not specific meaning. -e chose to foc(s (pon a defmite s(bstance as Thales did 6not something &ag(e iii Attempting to meditate between Thales and Anaximander* he designed air as the primary s(bstance from which things come. 9t is the root of all things. 7e li&e only as we can breath* air holds (s together. Air is spread e&erywhere altho(gh (nli)e the bo(ndless* it is specific and tangible material s(bstance that can be identified. i2 0a)it+ a%d 0a%tit+ -e introd(ced the import new idea that differences in '(ality are ca(sed by differences in '(antity. 2 The expansion and contraction of air represent '(antities changes* and these changes accr(ing in a single s(bstance acco(nt for the &ariety of different things that we see in the world aro(nd (s. Expansion of air ca(ses warming* while condensation cooling and transformation of air into solids by the way of grad(al transients. The greatest time greeted condensation is to be fo(nd in stones. N4: t($ g$at%$ss &' t($ Mi)$sia% s"(&&) &' t(&0g(t is t(at t($+ ais$d t($ ?0$sti&% a&0t t($ 0)ti!at$ %at0$ &' t(i%gs.
31
@. PYTHAGORAS OF SAMOS 8 *7K 8OF THE ITALIAN SCHOOL7N;M4ERS > -e was the fo(nder of philosophic society of a religio(s and political character which held the rein of go&ernment to se&eral cities of magna 0raecie 6
> This school (nderstood that there existed realities of a higher order than those percei&ed by the senses. ;(t it was the st(dy of n(mbers that he had arri&es at the )nowledge of these in&isible realities* whose imm(table order dominated and determined the process of becoming and hence forward* he had (nderstanding only in n(mbers. > -e ta(ght that n(mbers by which harmony is related in o(r senses? are the so(l tr(e reality* and regarded them as the &ery existence of things. -e was con&ersant with oriental astromonary.
And by his f(ndamental disco&ery of the relationship between pitch of so(nds and the length of &ibrating strings* he red(ced to the rigidly of n(merical a phenomenon li)e so(nd. -e passed from the sign to the ca(se and made symbol the principle of reality. E&ery essence is a n(mber. The n(mber 4 is not only the essence of (stice b(t constit(tes the essence of /(stice. =(mber three constit(te -oliness #* times $* harmony * the (nion of the sexes? 1 perfection. ,ythagoras was howe&er not able to arri&e at the formal ca(se?whose f(ll dedication was reser&ed to Aristotle alone.
> 9t is to ,ythagoras* as we ha&e noted that we awe the philosophy lo&e of wisdom -e said+ -(man life can be compared to the p(blic games* which attract all sorts of men. -e was the first to call the (ni&erse cosmos 6OD !O<* which li)e %atin m(nd(s* con&ey the idea of bea(ty and harmony. . HERACLIT;S OF EPHES;S @ @ 4C. 7 CHANGE -e was a lonely and pro(d geni(s who despised the m(ltit(de and pop(lar region. -e ad&anced from onian philosophers and came o(t with reality of change or becoming. -is &ision was so fixed on the change which things (ndergo that he declares that change alone is real.
All things are in a fl(x and men are fools to tr(st in the stability of their false happiness when they are born* they wish to li&e and to meet their doom? or rather to rest? and they lea&e children behind them to meet their doom in t(rn. 7e do not to(ch the same thing twice nor the twice in the same ri&er. The &ery moment we to(ch an ob/ect it has already ceased to be what it was before. 7hat exists changes from the &ery fact of its existence5 7e step* b(t not step in the same ri&er+ we are and not. !oreo&er* contraries m(st be prono(ns identical. The sea is the p(rest and imp(re water good and e&il are one. -eraclites said that yo( do not expect the (nexpected* yo( will not find tr(th for it is hard to be so(ght o(t and diffic(lt. 32
-eraclites is therefore the philosopher of e&ol(tion and becoming. B. PERMENIDES 1 4C74EING ;orn at Elea* the 0reat ,ermenides* as ,lato called him* was the real fo(nder of the Eleatic
Transcending the world of sensible phenomena and e&en that of mathematical forms or essences and n(mbers* he attained to what are things which are )indly and strictly the ob/ect of the intellect that things exist* their being.
The notion of being th(s abstracted impressed ,armenides so powerf(lly that it fascinated him. As his contemporary* -eraclites was a sla&e of change* ,armenides was a sla&e being. -e had eyes for one thing alone+ what is* and cannot be. ;eing is* non being is not* ,ermenides was th(s the first philosopher who obstr(cted and form(lated the principle of identity or non?contradiction* the first principle of all tho(ght. And as he contemplated p(re being* he percei&ed that this being is completely one* absol(te imm(table eternal witho(t becoming* incorr(ptible indi&isible* whole and entire in its (nity* in e&erything e'(al to itself* infinite and containing in itself e&ery perfection.
-e therefore disco&ered the attrib(te of him who is. -e howe&er denied the existence in the (ni&erse of change and m(ltiplicity. Change becoming* as also the di&ersity of things* are b(t an all(sory appearance There existed only being* the One. 9t was in defense of ,armenides doctrine of the impossibility of change that his disciple Qeno of Elea 64$# composed his famo(s arg(ment* by which he claimed to pro&e that the &ery concept of mo&ement is itselfM contradictory.
Th(s* ,ermenides* reaching the opposite pole to -eraclit(s fixed as he did* once and for all one of the extreme limits of spec(lation and error pro&ed that e&ery philosophy of p(re being* for the &ery reason that it denies that )ind of non being* which Aristotle termed potentially* and which necessarily belongs to e&erything created* is obliged to abstract all being and leads therefore to monism or pantheism no less ine&itably than philosophy of becoming.
. DEMOCRIT;S OF A4DERA 8@73B1 4C7F)0 o -e attempted to disco&er the fl(x of sensible phenomena* a permanent and (nchangeable element. ;(t in his search* he made (se of his imagination. o
o
Therefore* the only reality he wo(ld recogniHe was something which tho(gh it is inaccessible to the senses* can ne&ertheless be apprehended by imagination* namely ,IE 0EO!ET9CA% GIA=T9TL as s(ch which is stripped of all '(alities 6colo(rless scentless* tasteless etc. 9t possessed solely of extension in three dimensions of space. Femocrit(s fo(nd the explanation of e&erything in the ,%A=I!* which he identified with ;E9=0 and the NO9F* identified with non entity.
33
o
o
o
The ,len(m was di&ided into indi&isible parts of extensions 6ATO!<* which were separated one from another* by the &oid and in a state of e&erlasting motion* and differed only in shape* order and position. -e attrib(ted the order of the (ni&erse and the str(ct(re of indi&id(al beings* to the blind necessity of chance. Femocrit(s introd(ced into 0ree) philosophy the doctrine of ATO!9
This doctrine professes to explain the organiHation of the (ni&erse by a host of fort(ito(s coincidences. 9n this sense the ,arthenon co(ld be explained as a res(lt of throwing stones one on another o d(ring an indefinite term of years. :uestion /ow did Atomistic idea influence later t&inkers" especially scientists1 o
HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY: THE FO;R PERIODS/EPOCHS The history of philosophy is di&ided into fo(r periods@epochs as follows+ A. A%"i$%t P(i)&s&#(+7'&! B 4C t& B AD Mai% P(i)&s&#($7Aist&t)$783@73**4C /is contribution ? -e synthesiHed the efforts of all the pre?
9n his physics and more in his metaphysics* Aristotle has elaborated his doctrine of ca(sality. According to Aristotle* e&erything that happens has a ca(se that explains its origin* and its end and the manner of its coming to be. E&erything that comes to be is d(e to a ca(se.
F&0 Ca0s$s > Aristotle disting(ishes fo(r types of ca(ses. Each ca(se can briefly be defined as follows a Mat$ia) "a0s$ it is that matter o(t of which something is made+ it is the intrinsic constit(ti&e element of something 6e.g.* the wood of the stat(e F&!a) Ca0s$: it is the form or shape of something+ its essence to be what it is 6the shape of the stat(e Material cause (Wood) in act who brings abo(t the change 6the sc(lptor who ma)es the " E''i"i$%t Ca0s$ it is the being Thales stat(e .na/i!enes
it is that f(r the sa)e of whichFinal the change ta)es place. 9t is what constit(tes the d Fi%a) Ca0s$ Formal Cause Cause perfection ofshape the being 6in the case of the stat(e* this is the p(rpose for which the stat(e was Purpose (Most important cause made ,0ieracli"us ,-er!enindes Efficient Cause The Sculptor , .na/i!andes
, -y"hagoras , -la"o NB: What is written here in relation to the wood
34
Aristotle regards the final ca(se as the most important of all ca(se as all the other ca(se are (ltimately fo(nded on the final ca(se. The notion of the (ltimate ca(ses is the concern of the h(man beings in all c(lt(res. E&en todayDs science and technologies is concerned with the concern of worth which e&ery scholar sho(ld ingrain in areas of specialiHation.
4. Midd)$ Ag$s7 '&! AD7 1B t( Ct 4C O%$ Mai% P(i)&s&#($7 T(&!as A?0i%as o ;ringing@incorporating the Aristotelian tho(ght into the 7est to ser&e his theological p(rposes 6faith and@religion Baith needs real reason in order to be well artic(lated. o -e also presented fi&e proofs of the existence of 0od. o 0race does not destroy nat(re. o Thomas also maintained that the grace of 0od does not destroy nat(re in the sal&ation of man o rather* 0race b(ilds on nat(re of the h(man being** ele&ating it so that man is able to mo&e towards his final end that is hea&en. -ere Thomas is (tiliHing Aristotelian philosophy of the being and its final end. Aristotle had o maintained that e&ery being has an end and it mo&es toward the end in order to f(lfill itself. Thomas A'(inas made the ch(rch in the 7est to incl(de philosophy while doing theology. 9nfact philosophy was referred to as Achilla Theologia* branch of theology in the %atin Catholic ch(rch. C. M&d$% #(i)&s&#(+ '&! 1 Ct t& 1K t( C$%t0+ Mai% P(i)&s&#($ I!!a%0$) 5a%t781*@71@ > A 0erman idealist 6in the 1$ th cent(ry who re&ol(tionalised the notion of )nowledge or epistemology by saying that the h(man mind is the one that determines )nowledge and not the )nowing s(b/ect itself.
> To the '(estions+ how do we )now abo(t the world5 7hat is the nat(re of the world5 ant said that we m(st first gi&e a criti'(e of o(r fac(lties. > -e as)s* what it is possible for any mind li)e h(man mind to )now5 -ence his philosophy is often called the criti'(e philosophy or Criti'(e of ,(re reason. > ant also tried to deri&e morality from reason alone* and to elaborate a notion of the self compatible with o(r position of free will. D. C&%t$!#&a+ #(i)&s&#(+7 '&! 1Kt( C$%t0+ 0# t& dat$ Mai% #(i)&s&#($: A)'$d N&t( W(it$($ad 81B171K@ o o
This period had many schools of tho(ght and fo(nders. 7e shall explain the process tho(ght. A.=. 7hitehead was an Englishman* born in ent* England in 1$"1 and died on 3th Fec 14#.
35
-is process tho(ght was basically infl(enced by the collapse of =ewtonian physics and secondly by the -eraclit(s* a 0ree) Ancient philosopher who arg(ed that things are a fl(x* and that change is the basic constit(ent in all things. One cannot cross the same ri&er twice beca(se the second time him and the ri&er will ha&e changed according to -eraclit(s. The genesis of 7hiteheadDs process philosophy may be attrib(ted to his ha&ing witnessed the shoc)ing collapse of =ewtonian physics* d(e mainly to Albert EinsteinDs wor). 9ndebted as he was to -enri ;ergsonDs philosophy of change* 7hitehead was also a ,latonist who saw the definite character of e&ents as d(e to the ingression of timeless entities. -is article+ ,rocess and eality is famo(s for its defense of theism* altho(gh 7hiteheadDs 0od differs essentially from the re&ealed 0od of Abrahamic religions who is a changeless infinite s(bstance. 7hitehead belie&ed the starting point of his philosophy was the fl of -eraclit(s modified and s(pplemented by the tho(ght of AristotleDs notion of being mo&ing towards its own end. According to Aristotle and his followers* e&ery being has an end and mo&ing towards that end. 7hitehead did not see himself as a process philosopher b(t belie&ed he was (pdating -eraclit(s in the light of the mathematics and mathematical philosophers of his time. The )ey lect(re is reprod(ced in ,rocess and eality. Ising the concept that all things flow as the starting point for a metaphysics of Dfl(x* which he sees as implicit to &ario(s degrees in the philosophies of ohn %oc)e* Fa&id -(me and 9mman(el ant 6b(t not -egel* 7hitehead does not present it as a m(t(ally excl(si&e alternati&e to the metaphysics of Ps(bstanceD b(t as complementary. ,rocess of transforming alien entities into data for a new concrescence is termed a feeling. The comm(nity of act(al things is an organism b(t it is not a static organism. 9t is an incompletion in process of prod(ction. Inli)e the perennial s(bstance philosophers* 7hitehead too) a stand against the changelessness of things. Things change and e&en the infinite 0od changes in the process of being and becoming. The process tho(ght as explained by 7hitehead was anti'(ity re'(ested by many perennial s(bstance philosophers.
S;MMARY AND RELEVANCE OF PRE7SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHICAL THO;GHTS a S0!!a+ The genesis or origin of 7estern philosophical thin)ing* the iss(es raised at the time and their rele&ance. > 7estern ,hilosophical thin)ing originated from 0ree) mythical conscio(sness 6-omeric %iterat(re and 0ree) !ythological tales of -esiod to philosophical explanation of reality. 36
> The first philosophers were from !ilet(s 6Thales* Anaximander and Anaximenes? "th CR;CE and ,ythagoras from Their main iss(e was the (ltimate constit(ent of realities. The fo(r pointed material reality as the final constit(ents of things th(s+ i Thales? 7ater ii Anaximander? indefinite or bo(ndless realm iii Anaxemenes? Air i& ,ythagoras M=(mbers. The main philosophical iss(es raised here by these early sages were > 7hat is the common element in all things5 And what differentiates them5 This is the f(t(re '(estion of one and many differentiated realities 6the problem of One and !any philosophy > There is also being and beings. > The other '(estion raised is that of ca(ses which Aristotle will later raise in his doctrine of this fo(r ca(ses namely > Another iss(e raised was that of being and Change* and m(ltiplicity of things. This was raise d(ring the debate between ,ermenendes 6being and -ieraclit(s 6change Diaga!!ati" i))0stati&% &' t($ '&0 Ca0s$s Material cause Thales .na/i!enes
Formal Cause ,0ieracli"us
Final Cause ,-er!enindes , -y"hagoras , -la"o
Efficient Cause &a""er and for! eing and conce#" of being , .na/i!andes
R$)$2a%"$ , -ow the answers to the (ltimate ca(ses of things by ,re.?
This incl(de the artic(lation of fo(ndation of policies in 0o&ernment* de&elopment and economic* &ision* e.g. li)e &ision 23* millenni(m Fe&elopment 0oals 6!F0s. 7e ha&e here act(al artic(lation fo(ndation.
3'
,
The same '(estion also leads (s to search for meaning in o(r &ario(s disco&eries or import iss(es. These iss(es incl(de allowing 0.!.O or embryonic* cloning etc in o(r lifestyle while we act(ally do not e&al(ate e&en what wo(ld mean to (s and o(r f(t(re generation@posterity.
,
,hilosophical disclos(re wo(ld artic(late the (ltimate meaning of s(ch important life iss(es which come as a res(lt of scientific de&elopment and research.
,
The '(estion here is can man do what he is able to do 6in science...5 This reasoning wo(ld be similar to the preocc(pation of the !ilesan* lonion and Eliatic philosophers at the beginning of 0ree) ,hilosophical tho(ght.
SOPHISM/ SOPHISTS 1. S&#(is! 0).*
4. S&#(ist+ a
3(
The
d Empiricism+ all )nowledge is (ltimately based on o(r direct and immediate experiences as they occ(r to (s in conscio(sness. SOCRATES 4it(
o
o o o o
o
3)
o
The b(sinesses of
*. Stati%g #&i%t &' #(i)&s&#(+
This is a ca(se he raised philosophy from excl(si&e occ(pation with physical matter 6Thales and anaxamander etc li)e 6water* air and fir to the st(dy of h(man nat(re and h(man acti&ities which contain a spirit(al element or a higher order altogether than the stars or the entire (ni&erse of matter 6 see ack artian ;3ntroduction to p&ilosop&y)
3. S&"ati" #(i)&s&#(i"a) M$t(&d
4*
. Once the embarrassment is resol&ed abo(t not ha&ing a real grasp of the concepts being disc(ssed?once h(mility is established?then the serio(s tas) is (nderta)en of beginning to philosophically constr(ct an ade'(ate and acceptable rational fo(ndation for the concept by means of as)ing and answering a series of '(estion* and by means of denying and assenting to ideas as they are presented* (ntil better )nowledge is reached. B. the principal controlling pattern of this process of '(estion@answer* denial@acceptance to points as they are bro(ght (p is that* the )nowledge obtained m(st conform to the general categories 6forms* &al(es of good* s bea(ty and tr(th?none of which for
The concern is to (nco&er tr(th no matter how h(rtf(l it might appear to (s in the beginning. ;ertrand (ssell* a 0erman modern philosopher gi&es the acco(nt of the Athenian charges against
-e belie&ed that )nowledge is &irt(e and &irt(e is happiness.
. S&"at$s D$'$%"$ The concept of corr(ption has been (nderstood to mean warping peopleDs li&es* especially the yo(ng by leading them into e&il ways
“(en of Athens, this reputation of mine has resulted from nothing ut a certain wisdom * possess ++Also young men of the richer classes, who have not much to do, follow me around of their own accord they lie to hear people cross-eamined, and they often imitate me, proceeding to some cross-eamining of their own, there are plenty of people, as they soon discover who thin that they now something ut really now little or nothing and those eamined y them, instead of eing angry with themselves, are angry with me “this damned ocrates ,“they say, villainous misleader of the youth/ and should someone as them, “why, how does he misleads them?/ what evil does he practice or teach? 0they do not now and cannot tell, ut so as not to appear to e at a loss, they are ready to mae charges against all philosophers, aout how they teach thin in the clouds and under the earth, and have no gods and mae the worse argument appear the etter. %eople who do not lie to admit the truth are opposed as pretending to possess nowledge while nowing nothing infact/
Today* progressi&e thin)ers no longer accept that anyone can corr(pt by empowering others 6e&en the yo(th with critical thin)ing and logic !ee %lato, Apology elected 1ialogue 2o 34)
G(estion 7hat does it mean for man to be &irt(o(s5 Ans To be &irt(o(s is to )now what is good thro(gh critical and philosophical reflection.
N4: it is important that a st(dent of
42
2. /is &ilosop&ic +ask The philosophic tas)s of ,lato were to thin) tho(gh and complete the wor) beg(n his master
%et (s explain them one by one a) lato=s +&eory of !nowledge (Epistemology) o -e so(ght to comprehend )nowledge in all its phases?physical* mental and moral?which m(st come from a complete (nderstanding of the nat(re of world. o -e arg(ed that if )nowledge is deri&ed from sense?perception* then the
b /is Background-/is Birt& Aristotle was born in !elet(s 6no Athens* Bo(rteen years after the death of
43
Aristotle remained in the Academy (ntil ,latoDs death.
c As +utor %f Alexander t&e ,reat %ater on Aristotle became the t(tor of the son of )ing of !acedon* a boy aged 13 who later became Alexander the 0reat. Abo(t 33;C* Aristotle ret(rned to Athens and fo(nded his school. Twel&e years later* he was threatened with persec(tion* so he went into exile. -e died in 322 ;C
2. His C&%ti0ti&% &' i% P(i)&s&#(+ a Aristotle +&eory of Et&ics>orality According to Aristotle* the chief good is -appiness. 7hat is -appiness5 Bor Aristotle* happiness is complete self?realiHation. 9t consists of contemplation of Tr(th. 9n his moral theory* Aristotle contends that the great good is not please b(t &irt(e which m(st be made a habit. A &irt(o(s so(l is a well?ordered so(l. 9t is the right relation which exists between reason and desire. A rational attit(de sho(ld be ass(med towards bodily desires or appetites. Aristotle maintained that the &irt(o(s m(st obey or obser&e the ,9=C9,%E OB T-E 0O%FE= I%E in cond(ct. This principle is a law of moderation* )eeping the mean between two extremes. Aristotle* &irt(e is in the middle of the two extremes. 5ample Co(rage is the mean of , Bool hardness 6extreme of excess and , Cowardice 6extreme of deficiency To face a fierce lion with a sta)e is foolhardiness 6an extreme and face a rat with se&eral spears* )ni&es etc is coward ness 6the other extreme According to Aristotle the intellect(al &irt(es aim at the attainment of tr(th. The means for the attainment of tr(th are?
, Art ,
44
OnyangoDs criti'(e of AristotleDs ethics -is '(estion Aristotle doctrine of the mean pro&ide an acc(rate analysis of the concepts of &irt(es5 This is beca(se+ one co(ld concept(aliHe &irt(e which do not lie between extremes eg i 9s there any middle co(rse between )eeping a promise and not )eeping5 Either one )eeps a promise or one does not. ii 7hat is the middle co(rse between tal)ing the tr(th and tal)ing a lie5 Again either on tal)s the tr(th when as)ed abo(t something or one does not. According to Onyango* the two examples ill(strate &irt(es which obey the %aw of Excl(ded middle which is a &ariance with Aristotle* principle of the golden r(le. 9f this criticism is correct* arg(es Onyango* AristotleDs ,rinciple of 0olden mean is too narrow to do /(stice to the many different )inds of &irt(es man recogniHes 1. ;(t atleast Onyango accepts the principle in general. E&en with AristotleDs contrib(tion the iss(es of h(man happiness remains a problem+ it had also to be tac)led by -edomists and others in later years.
b Aristotle political &ilosop&y According to Aristotle* social life is the goal of the h(man existence The state sho(ld prod(ce &irt(e thereby prod(cing good citiHens. The constit(tion of the state m(st be adapted to the character and re'(irements of the people.
c Aristotle=s 6cience i L&gi"
ii P(+si"s According to Aristotle* physics is the science of what the 0ree)s called ,h(sics or physics* a term translated to mean =ATIE. 9n this physics* Aristotle disc(sses the principle of motion in se&eral senses.
Biological 6enses The corn is potentially an oa). The corn by nat(re changes '(alitati&ely and '(alitati&ely into an oa) tree. - #ocomotive 6ense !otion in this sense f(lfils what exists potentially when A mo&es relati&ely to ;* ; mo&es relati&ely to A and therefore* both A and ; are in motion with respect to one another. Bor Aristotle* there is no sense in saying either A or ; is in motion while the other is at rest. Therefore Aristotle arg(es motion in this sense is E%AT9NE. ;%!&2$d Fist M&2$ AristotleDs physics ends with the disc(ssion on (nmo&ed first mo&er 60od in connection with the !etaphysics which we shall now t(rn to for disc(ssion. ,
iii Aist&t)$s M$ta#(+si"s The significance of AristotleDs contrib(tion to )nowledge is registered most when it is (nderstood that Aristotle came at the end of the creation period in the 0ree) tho(ght. And after his death* it too) Two tho(sand years before the world prod(ced any scholar who co(ld be regarded as his e'(al in science as well as in philosophy. ;etrand (ssell has obser&ed+ Aristotle* metaphysics* ro(ghly spea)ing* may be described a ,lato dil(ted by common sense. -e is diffic(lt beca(se ,lato and common sense do not mix easily Bor (ssell* Aristotle is setting forth platonism with a new (nderstanding
i2 Aist&t)$ C&%ti0ti&%s Aristotle has contrib(ted to the theory of (ni&ersal which in simple terms states that , there are proper names and there are also ad/ecti&es , there are proper names apply to things or persons each of which is the only thing or person to which the name refers eg Oniango and enya are proper names which are (ni'(e to partic(lar indi&id(al entities. Bor Aristotle* Ini&ersal are concerns with meanings of words* s(ch as well as ad/ecti&es s(ch as white* soft* sweet etc. The term (ni&ersal means that which is of s(ch a nat(re as to be predicated of many s(b/ects. ;y partic(lar* or indi&id(al* he means that which is not th(s predicated.
2 Aist&t)$ Vi$ &' F&! a%d Matt$ Bor Aristotle metaphysics attempts to disting(ish between form and !atter. -ere we m(st (nderstand matter in the sense in which it is opposed to mind eg+ %et (s ta)e a marble. The marble is the matter while the ro(nd shape 6ball shape is the form 2i D&"ti%$ &' t($ '&0 Ca0s$s Ising the notion of ca(sality bro(ght abo(t by the ancient philosophers before
Aristotle disting(ishes fo(r types of ca(ses. Each ca(se can briefly be defined as follows a aterial cause it is that matter o(t of which something is made+ it is the intrinsic constit(ti&e element of something 6e.g.* the wood of the stat(e b *ormal 'ause it is the form or shape of something+ its essence to be what it is 6the shape of the stat(e c Efficient 'ause it is the being in act who brings abo(t the change 6the sc(lptor who ma)es the stat(e d *inal 'ause it is that for the sa)e of which the change ta)es place. 9t is what constit(tes the perfection of the being 6in the case of the stat(e* this is the p(rpose for which the stat(e was made Aristotle regards the final ca(se as the most important of all ca(se as all the other ca(se are (ltimately fo(nded on the final ca(se.
Diaga!!ati" R$#$s$%tati&% &' t($ '&0 "a0s$s78it( t($ Ea!#)$s &' t($ Stat0$ &a"erial Cause 7ood$ Thales and .na/i!enes Final Cause -ur#ose !os" i!#or"an" cause$ , -er!enindes , -y"hagoras , -la"o
For!al Cause ha#e The notion0ieracli"us of the (ltimate ca(ses is the concern of the h(man beings in all %fficien" Cause The cul#"or$ c(lt(res. E&en todayDs science and technologies is concerned with the concern of .na/i!ender
worth which e&ery scholar sho(ld ingrain in areas of specialiHation. W(at is a "a0s$<
&ii Aist&t)$ 2i$s &% T($&)&g+ Aristotle teaches that there are three )inds of s(bstance , a Those that are sensible and perishable b Those that are sensible b(t not perishable c Those that are neither perishable nor sensible The first )ind incl(des plants and animals , The second incl(des the celestial bodies 6stars , The third incl(des the rational so(l in man and 0od. , According to AristotleDs metaphysics* 0od is the first ca(se* that is* the origin of motion 0od in this respect is the Inmo&er which is eternal
3nfluence this doctrine of Aristotle infl(enced and shaped the philosophy and Theology of
Niii S0!!a+ &' Aist&t)$s P(i)&s&#(+ Its I%')0$%"$ a%d R$)$2a%"$
Aristotle has enormo(sly contrib(ted to specific methodology* logic* metaphysics* ethics* politics* nat(ral science* physics theology and critical thin)ing. All these set the grand for later scholarly thin)ing. Bor instance* circ(lar motion which Aristotle tho(ght of as nat(ral for the hea&enly bodies in&ol&es contin(ed change in the direction of motion and therefore re'(ires a force directed towards the centre* as 9saac =ewton 6of England?&ery far from 0reece and after many years shows later in his law of gra&itation. 9n his metaphysics* Aristotle ta(ght that+ what is a being+ ratness+ manness* goatness etc , E&ery being has an end , E&ery being mo&es towards its own end. , 7hate&er mo&es* does so according to its mode of being. 9.e. , a rat mo&es according to its ratness o o A goat mo&es according to its goatness
A man according to its manness -(man being according to its S.. o e&ery being has a ca(se whate&er is ca(sed cannot ca(se itself+ it has to be ca(sed by something else s(perior to it. 9n the totality of beings there m(st be a being which is the ca(se of all other being+ that is called infinite being?0od. ;eing are di&ided into two finite and infinite o
, , , ,
*urt&er readings on Aristotle 1. Aristotle of !ilet(s =icomachean Ethics* ;xx* ,eng(in* -armands worth or other edition 2. ;etrand (ssell + A history of 7estern ,hilosophy 6simon and
4. Other ecent ;oo)s on or abo(t Aristotle. ALFRED NORTH WHITEHEAD 81 F$ 1B17 3 D$" 1K@ 3ntroduction o A.7. 0&ite&ead was an Englis&man" born in !ent" England in
/is process t&oug&t was basically influenced by t&e collapse of 7ewtonian p&ysics and secondly by t&e /eraclitus" a ,reek Ancient p&ilosop&er w&o argued t&at t&ings are a flux" and t&at c&ange is t&e basic constituent in all t&ings.
rocess p&ilosop&y The genesis of 7hiteheadJs process philosophy may be attrib(ted to his o ha&ing witnessed the shoc)ing collapse of =ewtonian physics* d(e mainly to Albert EinsteinJs wor). o
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-is metaphysical &iews emerged in his 12 The 6oncept of 2ature and expanded in his 12 JJJ 6cience and t&e odern 0orld * also an important st(dy in the history of ideas* and the role of science and mathematics in the rise of 7estern ci&iliHation. 9ndebted as he was to -enri ;ergsonJs philosophy of change* 7hitehead was also a ,latonist who 8saw the definite character of e&ents as d(e to the 8ingression8 of timeless entities.8 9n 12#* 7hitehead was as)ed to gi&e the 0ifford %ect(res at the Ini&ersity of Edinb(rgh. These were p(blished in 12 as %rocess and $eality * the boo) that fo(nded process philosophy* a ma/or contrib(tion to 7estern metaphysics. *n his article on %rocess and $eality is famo(s for its defense of theism* altho(gh 7hiteheadJs 0od differs essentially from the re&ealed 0od of Abrahamic religions.
7hiteheadJs ,hilosophy of Organism ga&e rise to process theology* than)s to -artshorne* ohn ;. Cobb* r * and Fa&id ay 0riffin.
On the other hand* many 7hitehead scholars read his wor) as pro&iding a philosophical fo(ndation for the social liberalism of the =ew %iberal mo&ement that was prominent thro(gho(t 7hiteheadJs ad(lt life. !orris wrote that 8...there is good reason for claiming that 7hitehead shared the social and political ideals of the new liberals.8 0&ite&ead and /eraclitus o 7hitehead belie&ed the starting point of his philosophy was the fl(x of -eraclit(s modified and s(pplemented by the tho(ght of Aristotle. o
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7hitehead did not see himself as a process philosopher b(t belie&ed he was (pdating -eraclit(s in the light of the mathematics and mathematical philosophers of his time. The )ey lect(re is reprod(ced in %rocess and $eality . Ising 8all things flow8 as the starting point for a 8metaphysics of Jfl(xJ8* which he sees as implicit to &ario(s degrees in the philosophies of ohn %oc)e* Fa&id -(me and 9mman(el ant 6b(t not -egel* 7hitehead does not present it as a m(t(ally excl(si&e alternati&e to the 8metaphysics of Js(bstanceJ8 b(t as complementary. The latter 8spatialiHes the (ni&erse8 6according to -enri ;ergson b(t this is 8the shortest ro(te to a clear?c(t philosophy8 s(ch as the Analytic 0eometry of Fescartes. The s(bstance metaphysics is of less interest to 7hitehead. ,roclaiming that =ewton 8br(s'(ely ordered fl(ency bac) into the world8 with his Theory of Bl(xions 6the deri&ati&es of differential calc(l(s 7hitehead la(nches into an inno&ati&e elaboration of -eraclit(sJ (pward?downward way* relying especially on AristotleJs theory of act and potency . The way becomes the sim(ltaneo(s occ(rrence of two processes 8concrescence8 6in place of the (pward and transition 6in place of the downward. The former is the (nification of 8partic(lar existents8 into new partic(lar existents also termed 8act(al occasions8 or 8act(al entities.8 9n this process the final ca(se of the new (nity is predominant. Transition is the 8perishing of the process8 6concrescence in s(ch a way as to lea&e the new existent as an 8original element8 of f(t(re new (nities. This latter process is the 8&ehicle of the efficient ca(ses8 and expresses the 8immortal past.8
As in -eraclit(s* a concrescence ne&er reaches the (nity of its final ca(se+ hence 7hitehead (ses the term 8pres(pposed act(al occasions8* which are 8falsifications.8 An ob/ect therefore is identified with its concrescence+ there is no other.
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The process of transforming 8alien8 entities into 8data8 for a new concrescence is termed a 8feeling.8 7hitehead th(s b(ilds (p statements that are scarcely less obsc(re* if at all* than those of -eraclit(s 8... an act(al occasion is a concrescence affected by a process of feelings.8 9n contrast to the becoming of Aristotle* a concrescence ne&er res(lts in the static act toward which it tends* b(t it does reach a 8c(lmination8 in which 8all indetermination as to the realiHation of possibilities has been eliminated.8 This 8e&aporation of all indetermination8 is the 8satisfaction8 of the feeling. To explain the passage of the act(al moment thro(gh time 6the (pward? downward way 7hitehead th(s resorts to a (ni'(e blend of -eraclit(sJ flow and AristotleJs act and potency. The potency of Aristotle is the s(bstrate in which all possibility resides* from which comes the act(al or determinate and specifically empowered beings by a process called 8to become.8 7hitehead refers to the potency (nder the aegis of the f(t(re* or yet to come* as 8reality.8 The red(ction of the potential to the act(al occ(rs in two processes macroscopic* 8the transition from attained act(ality to act(ality in attainment8 and microscopic 6concrescence* the 8con&ersion of conditions which are merely real into determinate act(alities.8 The past is 8a nex(s of act(ality8* which grows into what is c(rrently the f(t(re. 9n s(mmary The comm(nity of act(al things is an organism+ b(t it is not a static organism. 9t is an incompletion in process of prod(ction. Inli)e the perennial s(bstance philosophers* 7hitehead too) a stand against the changeless of things. Things change e&en the infinite 0od change in the process of being and becoming.
4. IMPACT OF PHILOSOPHY IN GEMEINDESCRAFT 8COMM;NITY AND GESSELLSCHAFT 8SOCIETY
The contemporary 0erman sociologist* 0eorg Tonnies di&ided people into two categories+ a G$!$i%d$s"(a't 8C&!!0%it+ These are treats o
The word ,emeinde is a 0erman word for "&!!0%it+.
According to Tonnies the 0emeindeschaft comm(nity has the following characteristics. The members are in the same geographical location* similar climatic and a common diet* some b(siness or comm(nity transactions The members share a common history and tradition ethical and c(lt(ral &al(es. They may ha&e a common historical parental fig(res explained in a mythical lang(age e.g. the 0i)(y( people of Central enya explain their origin from 0i)(y(?father fig(re and !(mbi?!other fig(re etc. ele&ance can be made of other tribes. The members share common religio(s belief system and way of worship* e&en sh(nnes which are connected to the sacred@the holy. They ha&e similar core &al(es 6li)e* honesty* hospitality* leadership* sacredness of life* instit(tion of marriage* wedding* co(rage* prayer* responsibility* confidentiality* following similar rites of passage from birth* ad(lthood to death. They also ha&e dis&al(es li)e* theft* disobedience* dishonest to 0od* lac) of religio(s conscio(sness and expressions in worship* disrespect to elders* lac) of ancestral worship* po(ring libations to the elders and the li&ing dead. nit relationship of their siblings* families* ho(ses* clan and the entire comm(nity. The relationship is that of+ a Consang(inity? of blood b
APPLICATION i !ost of traditional people* in Africa* Asia* and %atin America and e&en in E(rope* 6before the scientific and professional philosophical idea of indi&id(alism?were basically 0emeindeschaft comm(nities. ii E&en today* some gro(ping of people ha&e 0emeindeschaft '(alities e.g. Ch(rch Associations* ,arishes*
iii 0(ilds* cl(bs clandestine and occ(lt secret comm(nities etc. i2 9n 0emeindeschaft comm(nities 6especially traditional ones* there are some &al(es which ha&e o(tli&ed* their (sef(lness* li)e B0! practices* !oranism for the sa)e of stealing cattle in order to get wealth for marriage etc. Theft is e&il whether fo(nd in 0emeindeschaft or 60essellschaft modem societies. ;ALITIES IN GESSELLSCHAFT 8SOCIETY These are treats+ The members come together in order to achie&e a common ob/ecti&es* goals and targets in order to achie&e these targets they ha&e to follow certain laid down g(idelines* policies etc. The entry point is recr(itment for employment followed by a letter of appointment stip(lating the Terms Of eferences6TOs !embers ha&e an organiHational str(ct(re which has a chain of command and /ob gro(ps. Obedience and respect is from top to bottom and not necessarily the other way ro(nd. The members report in the morning to do the stip(lated d(ty (ntil ,m when they lea&e (nless these are an emergency. All p(ll together to attain the set goals. There is a clear system of em(lation per month per year 6salaries* emollients ,romotion is the way to climb the ladder. 9t is based on certificate and efficient ser&ice deli&ery to the cliental There is one who hires and fires. There co(ld also be boards or co(ncil for appeal There is a code of Ethics and serio(s meas(res are ta)en when one infringes it. There is s(per&ision and coordination of wor). There are set deadlines or timelessness to complete a certain /ob assignment !embers are refers to by societal titles* e.g.
=; example of 0emeindeschaft societies are se&eral today?All the employing bodies are 0emeindeschaft societies* incl(ding go&ernment+ the chain contin(es to parastatals* corporations* ban)s* instit(tions li)e schools and (ni&ersities etc.
? 9n a ban) foe example* the goals is to get profit which helps the instit(tion in this mar)et 9n a Ini&ersity* the goal is to ens(re that the st(dents get '(ality degrees which are rele&ant to /ob mar)et both in the p(blic and pri&ate sector ? 9n these organiHations they will go the best* one who is able to deli&er. ? Age is another factor+ if one is yo(ng and deli&er he@she will get promotion. 9t is not li)e the 0emeindeschaft comm(nity where excellence and wisdom are associated with age and eldership. $iagrammatic presentation of ,emeindesc&aft and ,essellsc&aft (see next page) SI, SOCIAL CONSTRAINTS INSTIT;TION7COMMON TO ALL ;oth 0emeindeschaft comm(nity and 0essellschaft society ha&e
1. P&)iti"a) life?way of go&erning the members+ The leading role 2. R$)igi&% ? A belief system* way of worship* or prayer sessions by a certain eligion* denominations etc. gi&ing informal or formal instr(ctions or ed(cation@handling o&er &al(es or empowering people by ay of c(rric(l(m V co? c(rric(l(m acti&ities. 6
