INTRODUCTION TO HVAC
Industry Overview
Technical Development Program
Technical Development Programs (TDP) are modules of technical training on HVAC theory, system design, equipment selection and application topics. They are targeted at engineers and designers who wish to develop their knowledge in this field to effectively design, specify, sell or apply HVAC equipment in commercial applications. Although TDP topics have been developed as stand-alone modules, there are logical groupings of topics. The modules within each group begin at an introductory level and progress to advanced levels. The breadth of this offering allows for customization into a complete HVAC curriculum – from a complete HVAC design course at an introductory-level or to an advancedlevel design course. Advanced-level modules assume prerequisite knowledge and do not review basic concepts.
This TDP provides a general overview of the commercial HVAC industry, providing an awareness of: the design process; participants in the design and construction process; documents involved in construction; a typical timeline of activities in the design and construction process; and how these activities are influenced by the different participants in the process. This industry is also influenced by regulatory agencies and legal concerns that are important to designers of HVAC systems.
© 2005 Carrier Corporation. All rights reserved. The information in this manual is offered as a general guide for the use of industry and consulting engineers in designing systems. Judgment is required for application of this information to specific installations and design applications. Carrier is not responsible for any uses made of this information and assumes no responsibility for the performance or desirability of any resulting system design. The information in this publication is subject to change without notice. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, for any purpose, without the express written permission of Carrier Corporation.
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Table of Contents Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1 Participants....................................................................................................................................... 3 Equipment Supplier Organizations .................................................................................................. 5 Industry Associations....................................................................................................................... 6 Legal Concerns ................................................................................................................................ 7 Delivery Methods .......................................................................................................................... 10 Plans and Specifications (Plan and Spec) .................................................................................. 11 Design-Build (D-B) ................................................................................................................... 12 Construction Management (CM) ............................................................................................... 13 Performance Contracting ........................................................................................................... 13 Typical Projects ............................................................................................................................. 13 HVAC Systems.............................................................................................................................. 15 HVAC Products ............................................................................................................................. 17 Summary........................................................................................................................................ 18 Work Session ................................................................................................................................. 19 Work Session Answers .................................................................................................................. 25 Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 27 References.................................................................................................................................. 30
INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Introduction The HVAC (Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning) industry is a large and mature industry that serves many markets. In fact, based on the Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) it is estimated that there were 4,859,000 commercial buildings with 71.6 billion square feet of floor space in the United States in 2003. Table 1 summarizes the number of buildings and floorspace based on market segment.
Table 2 further describes these 4.9 million buildings by size. Looking at the table, we can see that over 50 percent of the buildings are between 1,000 and 5,000 square feet and only 1.5 percent are above 100,000 square feet.
Table 1 Number of Buildings and Floorspace by Principal Building Activity, 2003 Number of Buildings (thousands) All Buildings Education
% of Total
Total Floorspace 2 (million ft )
4,859
-
71,658
-
386
8.0
9,874
13.7
% of Total
Food Sales
226
4.7
1,255
1.8
Food Service
297
6.0
1,654
2.3 4.4
Health Care
129
2.7
3,163
Lodging
142
2.9
5,096
7.1
Mercantile
657
13.5
11,192
15.6
Office
824
17.0
12,208
17
Public Assembly
277
5.7
3,939
5.5
Public Order and Safety
71
1.5
1,090
1.5
Religious Worship
370
7.6
3,754
5.2
Service
622
12.8
4,050
5.7
Warehouse and Storage
597
12.3
10,078
14.0
Other
79
1.6
1,738
2.40
Vacant
182
3.7
2567
3.8
Table 2 Number of Buildings and Floorspace by Size of Building, 2003 (Preliminary) Number of Buildings (thousands)
% of Total
Total Floorspace 2 (million ft )
% of Total
All Buildings
4,859
-
71,658
-
1,001 to 5,000
2,585
53.2
6,922
9.7
5,001 to 10,000
948
19.5
7,033
9.8
10,001 to 25,000
810
16.7
12,659
17.7
25,001 to 50,000
261
5.4
9,382
13.1
50,001 to 100,000
147
3.0
10,291
14.4
100,001 to 200,000
74
1.5
10,217
14.3
200,001 to 500,000
26
0.5
7,494
10.5
Over 500,000
8
0.1
7,660
10.7
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
The HVAC market can be looked at or segmented in different ways. This review can be based on the age of the building, the use of the building, the type of equipment or system, or the contracting arrangement. The existing building market is typically two to three times the size of the new construction market.
Figure 1 By Building Age
The new construction market consists of projects in which the HVAC system is installed when the building is originally constructed. This market includes projects in which the shell of the building is constructed separately, with the HVAC system and other finish work installed later under separate contracts after the tenants and their specific needs are identified. The existing construction market is usually identified as the renovation or replacement market. It includes system replacement projects, in which the air conditioning system replaces a previously installed system, and equipment replacement projects in which some or all of the major equipment is replaced. This market also includes projects in which the air conditioning system is installed many years after the building is constructed and no specific provisions were made for its installation. Figure 2 By Scope of Work
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Where market segment is based upon building usage, the customary commercial market segments include offices, schools, manufacturing, retail, healthcare, lodging, and other, which includes entertainment, correctional facilities, religious buildings, airports, warehouses, etc.
By Building Usage % of Market Office 17%
Other30%
Education 8%
Food Sales and Service 11%
Public Order and Safety 1% Public Assembly 6%
Mercantile 13%
Figure 3 By Building Usage
Where market segment is based upon contracting arrangement, the segments can be designbuild, plan and specification (plan and spec), or construction management. In design-build work, the design and the construction are provided by the same organization. In plan-and-specification work, a design organization performs the design and creates design documents (called plans and specifications) that are then used by a separate contractor organization to construct the building. In construction management work, a third party oversees the design and construction activities to reduce risk and insure project completion, schedule, and cost.
Participants Many different entitles are mvolved in a typical construction project. Their usual relationships are shown in Figure 4. An owner provides the money to construct a project, and assumes most of the financial risk. A developer provides the concept and the business plan, and usually manages the overall project. The owner and developer functions are frequently provided by the same organization and referred to as the Owner/Developer. Figure 4 Typical Construction Project Organization
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The prime contractor is usually responsible for coordinating all construction activity and other contractual items relating to project cost and timing. Large or critical projects are frequently constructed on a fast-track schedule when the major equipment is purchased and the construction work is begun before the overall project design is completed. These projects may have a project manager or a construction manager. A project manager coordinates the entire project, including both design and construction work. A construction manager coordinates the construction activities, that must begin before the prime contract is awarded and continues until the project is complete. Large developers and general contractors usually have project or construction management departments that operate independently of their normal business. An architect provides the building design services for the project. The design of the HV AC, structural, electrical, plumbing and other trades is provided by engineers in each specialty, by contract with the architect. If these engineers are employed by the architect, the architect becomes an Architect/Engineer.
Contractors provide the construction work. The contract for a prime contractor is a purchase commitment from the owner or developer. A subcontractor has a contract with the prime contractor or a higher-level subcontractor. The prime contractor usually assumes responsibility for all work at the job site, performs some of the work with his own employees, and provides the rest of the work through use of subcontractors. A general contractor is usually the prime contractor on a project. If the majority of the work is of a special nature, such as replacement of air conditioning, the mechanical contractor may serve as the prime contractor, with the general contractor becoming a subcontractor to the mechanical contractor. The general contractor usually performs the work of constructing the building shell, such as foundations, masonry and concrete work. The mechanical contractor, electrical contractor and automatic controls contractors are typical subcontractors. Subcontractors also perform some work, and arrange for other items through additional subcontractors. The test and balance subcontractor may work for the HVAC subcontractor, who works for the mechanical subcontractor, who works for the prime contractor, etc. The construction contract usually includes the commissioning, or startup phase of a project. A commissioning agent or contractor is sometimes employed directly by the owner to provide a more objective effort to identify and correct errors made during construction. Test and balance contractors are specialists in measuring air and water flows and checking the performance of equipment after it is placed in service. The startup of some equipment, especially chillers and boilers, is performed by or supervised by a representative of the manufacturer, who is expected to be most familiar with the proper procedures. The building operations manager is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the HVAC system. This is usually done by contract with a building management service on small buildings. Large buildings usually have a full-time HVAC operation and maintenance staff on site.
Service contractors provide either preventative maintenance or emergency repairs after the system is in operation. Most construction contracts provide a 12-month warranty period. The construction contractor must correct all failures or deficiencies, which are identified during the warranty period, without charge.
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Equipment Supplier Organizations Every HVAC product is produced by a manufacturer and sold to an "end user." The end user is the person or entity that finally pays for and uses the product, such as a homeowner or a shopping center operator. Some end users have enough purchase volume to jusManufacturer tify a direct purchase relationship between the manufacturer and the end Design, Production, Marketing user, but most users are better served Direct Sales Warehouse by purchasing the equipment through a supply chain which can furnish the marketing, warehousing, installation Sales Distributor Representative Sales & Marketing and service functions which are related to the purchase. Some of the common supply chain organizations are shown in Figure 5. Manufacturers provide design, production and marketing (product concept, advertising, sales literature, etc.) for their products. Sometimes they maintain warehouses for finished products or provide their own sales Figure 5 staff, but an "equipment supplier" HVA C Equipment Suppliers usually provides these functions in the local sales area.
Equipment suppliers handle the sale of equipment for a project. The supplier may be a direct sales office of the manufacturer, or a manufacturer's representative, who is an independently owned company that typically sells several different types of equipment made by several different manufacturers. A typical manufacturer' s representative may sell pumps from one manufacturer, fans from another, etc. A distributor buys equipment in large quantities from a manufacturer, and resells them to dealers or independent contractors. Distributors tend to emphasize the products of one manufacturer and provide warehousing of products, marketing and training for their dealers. Some distributors are independently owned, while some are owned by manufacturers.
Dealers are independently owned contractors who are franchised by distributors to install equipment purchased from the distributor. The franchise arrangement may require the dealer to be exclusive, in which case they buy all their equipment from one distributor in return for marketing, training and financial assistance from that distributor.
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Industry Associations Industry associations are formed to provide cooperative solutions to industry wide problems that are best solved by collective effort. The following associations are typical of those involving the HVAC industry. ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers) is primarily concerned with creating information for the design of projects. They publish the ASHRAE Handbook and create many of the recommended minimum standards, which influence project design.
@
®
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
llD~ Air Conditioning
.~
.. U
& Refrigeration Institute
f':'M l• J
National Fire Protection Association
NFPA®
Iii:\ \:!!:J
Underwriters' Laboratories
ARI (Air Conditioning and Re-
International
Code Council frigeration Institute) is primarily • cout:wt:xue concerned with creating standards for testing and rating the various types of equipment. Equipment ratings, which Figure 6 are ARI certified, are more likely to Industry Associations be correct and less likely -to be misleading. ARI also provides marketing statistics for air conditioning equipment manufacturers. L\."ffll' -\lll.IX.U .
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) addresses building fire and smoke concerns, including fire and smoke dampers, duct and equipment construction materials and range hood exhaust systems. UL (Underwriters' Laboratories) is a non-profit organization divided into two parts. The first
section develops standards for the design and testing of product safety. These standards are widely accepted as the benchmarks to be used in product safety testing. The second section of UL is responsible for certification of products to the safety standards. Products may be tested by UL for certification are listed in the UL directory and bear the UL label. Products tested to UL standards by an organization other than UL, such as CSA (Canadian Standards Association), AGA (American Gas Association), and Intertech (ETL) are called UL accepted and are listed in that organization' s directory and bear the label of the listing organization. UL may also test products for specific applications that are not listed in its directory. These products are known as UL recognized products. Local code officials generally accept the testing of these agencies to UL standards as meeting the requirements for safety testing. The International Code Council (ICC) is a non-profit association of building code officials who develop building safety, energy efficiency, and fire prevention codes used for residential and commercial construction. ICC has replaced other model code writing agencies such as Building Officials and Code Administrators (BOCA), Southern Building Codes Congress (SBCC), and the International Conference of Building Code Officials (ICBCO). The ICC model code is now used as the basis of most all state and local building energy codes.
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Legal Concerns The importance of legal issues to an equipment supplier depends upon the amount of money involved and the organizational relationship of the HYAC supplier on the particular project. The responsibilities of the supplier must be clearly identified. The construction and operation of a building must be in accordance with the applicable local and state building codes. These codes are usually based upon one of the model codes such as ICC, which are written and sponsored by various associations of building code officials. The National Electric Code (NEC) is an example of a model code, which is written by an industry association. Codes also include reference standards, which are written by industry associations such as ASHRAE and ARI. ASHRAE Standard 15, for example, is the refrigeration safety standard that governs the design and installation of refrigeration systems. A model code or a reference standard becomes part of the state or local building code when it is legally adopted by the appropriate governing body. The designer is responsible for meeting the elements of the design codes, the contractor for meeting the construction elements of the codes, etc. The equipment supplier is generally responsible for meeting HY AC equipment safety codes. This responsibility is absolute when the construction documents identify the codes that must be met and when the purchase order for the equipment requires that the equipment be furnished in compliance with the construction documents. The official having jurisdiction is the government official who is responsible for enforcement of the code item being considered. This official may be the fire marshal, the building inspector, etc. Their interpretation of a code item is final, and they have the authority to enforce their decision by refusing to issue a certificate of occupancy for the building, which is necessary before the building can be placed in use. The HVAC systems are addressed in a number of building construction codes, mainly relating to life safety, layout, design features, and performance (energy conservation). Across the United States, the International Code Council's family of publications has been adopted almost universally. It is safe to say that familiarity with the International Building Code (IBC), International Mechanical Code (IMC), International Energy Conservation Code (IECC), and International Fire Code (IFC) will cover most of the code-related requirements for HYAC systems. See Figure 7. Always verify your general understanding of the code Figure 7 requirements with the specific project Codes, Standards, and Guidelines program before finalizing system se- (Reproduced with permission of I CC. All rights reserved.) lection or closing out a design phase.
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW Figure 8 shows the relationships involved in building codes. Licenses and pem1its for work at the job site are usually obtained by the contractors. The equipment supplier is generally not responsible unless job site labor is included and a special license is required for this labor. The construction documents for a project are prepared by the designers of the project, and include the plans (drawings) and specifications. ArchiEquipment tects and engineers who are properly Manufacturer registered by the local authorities to perform such work must sign the con- Figure 8 struction documents for large projects. Legal Issues - Codes Equipment specifications and equipment selection criteria are included in the construction documents for "plan and specification" projects, but may be issued separately for design-build projects. Rather than copying the entire codes and reference standards that apply to a project, a typical specification will simply state that all equipment must comply with the requirements related to that item. The codes and reference standards for a project are usually listed at the beginning of each major section of the specifications. An addendum is a change or addition to the construction documents for a project. Addendum #1 might change the capacity of a chiller, for example, and Addendum #2 might add an electronic variable speed drive to the air-handling unit. Failure to identify addendums and include the changes in a quotation for the project may result in the delivery of the wrong equipment to the job. The resulting expense and construction delay will create a very difficult situation for everyone involved. A contract is the legal agreement between the participants on a project. A contract can be created by the purchaser writing a purchase order that identifies the conditions of the sale. Acceptance of this purchase order by a vendor constitutes an agreement by the seller to all of these conditions. A contract can also be created by the supplier making a proposal (an offer to sell), which identifies the conditions of the sale. Acceptance of this proposal by a buyer constitutes an agreement by the buyer to all of these conditions. The terms and conditions of proposals and purchase orders include the "fine print," which is usually on the back of the first page. Contractors and equipment suppliers who do a lot of business together usually agree upon a standard proposal and purchase order format.
A change notice is a revision to the contract between the owner and the prime contractor. A change notice may include the changes resulting from several addenda that have been issued by the designers of the project. For example, Change Notice 1 may include Addenda 1, 3, 4, and 9, while Change Notice 2 may include Addenda 2 and 5 through 8. Some addenda are issued, but never incorporated into the project because the cost is excessive or for some other reason.
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW Submittals and approvals are required for large projects, in order to confirm that the equipment being furnished is in accordance with the plans and specifications. The submittal and approval requirements are described in the project specifications. The equipment being submitted may have been the "basis of design," which is the exact equipment that the designer used to determine the size of the mechanical room, the arrangement of the piping and wiring, and the features described in the specifications. Construction Documents Addendums to (Plans and Specifications)
Equipment, which was not the basis of design, will almost always be Proposal or Quotation different in some respect. These items should be resolved during the bidding and submittal processes. Considerable experience is necessary in order to identify what constitutes a significant deviation, and how to either obtain approval of the deviation or modify the equipment to meet the specified requirements. If incorrect equipment Figure 9 is installed, it may have to be removed Legal Issues - Purchase Contract and replaced without charge by the contractor, probably at the expense of the supplier.
Construction Documents
Figure 9 shows the relationship of the various documents that are most frequently encountered by equipment suppliers.
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Delivery Methods There are many different methods of taking a project from the needs identification phase to the completed building. The various design elements are not always completed in the same sequence or by the same members of the design team. Design is a shared, ongoing process that is not always done by the HV AC designer. System selection needs to be responsive to this fact, along with the many other criteria placed upon the process. Four common methods are shown below. Features are shown in Figure 10.
Typical Projects
All types of buildings
Complex or schedule constrained
Complex or budget constrained
Energy conservation or system retrofits
When are Design Details Worked
Before bidding for construction
Completed after bidding
Before or after bidding
Completed after bidding
Who Works on Them?
HVAC Designer
HVAC Designer and Contractor
Either HVAC Designer or Contractor
Contractor
Who is Responsible for HVAC Design?
HVAC Designer
D-B Contractor
Either HVAC Designer or Contractor
Contractor
Level of Design Team Continuity
Complete through process
Can become fragmented
May change during process
Depends on Contractor control
Who Controls Integrity of Design?
Controlled by HVAC Designer
Often forced to adjust to competing needs
Often forced to adjust to competing needs
Contractor
Degree of Process Burden
Greatest
Less than Normal
Moderate to High
Least
Level of Owner Involvement
Highest
Moderate
Moderate to Limited
Very Limited
Length of Schedule
1 to 4 years typical
15 to 25% less than Plan and Spec
Like Plan and Spec
3 to1 2 Months
Relative Cost to Owner
Average to High depends on bidding climate
Greatest - caused by shortened schedule
Average to High CM fees and bidding climate
Least - paid out of savings
Figure 10 Comparison of the Features of Delivery Methods
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Plans and Specifications (Plan and Spec) A typical Plan and Spec project organization is shown in Figure 11. This delivery method has dominated the public money segments of the industry for quite some time. A detailed set of contract drawings and specifications are prepared by the HVAC designer, then bid by mechanical contractors, either publicly or by invitation. Once a contract is awarded, the construction team executes the design and turns Other Other over the building to the client for use. Desi ners
HVAC Design Engineer
Subcontractors
HVAC Subcontractors
therVendor HVAC Equipment Supplier
HVAC Service
Figure 11 Typical Construction Project Organization
Plan and Spec project delivery offers system selection as an up-front activity led by the HVAC system designer (Figure 12). The designer completes drawings and specifications that document what will eventually be P lan and Spec Project Structure ( Fig 11) provided by the construction contractor, often with minimal input by the architect and client, and seldom if at all from the eventual occupants.
Figure 12 Plan and Spec Project Structure
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
A negative feature of Plan and Spec is that only during bidding does the potential construction contractor have a chance to review the design and communicate concerns to the designer. Changes to the design are difficult to bring about.
During System Design Process Q,) C)
c:
(I)
.s::.
0
0 ~
:i
~
i5 'O
c:
(I)
tl 0
0
Criteria
System Concept
Design Calculations and Equipment Selection
Plans and Specs
Figure 13 Cost and Difficulty of Making Changes
Design-Build (D-B) Design-Build differs from Plan and Spec in that the construction bidding phase is moved up to the front of the design process (Figure 14). Properly done, the client prepares building systems performance plans and specifications that are bid by contractor teams with Owner-Prepared "Performance" Bid Package design capability that carry forward E~~ineerj with the design process, meshing it Warranty Period Single-Line Review of with the construction activities to Layouts Contractor Bid Packages Owner Takes shorten the overall project delivery and Beneficial Occupancy Equipment Contract Award schedule. Selections J
The HVAC system selection ocCompletion Dates curs right up front, along with the Update Layout, Confirm Equip. other building systems, as the perCoordinate Selections Contractor formance documents are prepared. If Drawings good communication and documentaEquipment ' - - - - . . i Owner Approval Installation tion occurs during the performance I Possible 3rd Party Reviews - Arch/Engr V phase, the initial system selection will carry forward in the remaining phases Figure 14 of the design process and be properly Design-Build Project Structure implemented during construction. Often, the original architect and engineer who worked on the performance specifications, if not on the winning bid team, will be retained as consultants to ensure that the client's needs are met as the building design takes shape and construction is completed.
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Construction Management (CM) In the construction management delivery method, an additional person is added to the team the construction manager (also called the CM). Traditionally hired by the client, the CM oversees the design and construction process, streamlining both efforts. The construction manager relieves the client of watching over the complexities of the project and ensures that the design process and construction results will be responsive to the client's program. Many times the CM will operate at risk, having guaranteed an overall project maximum cost or a construction schedule, or both. When a client hires a construction manager, the final selection of the architect and engineers may be the decision of the CM.
Performance Contracting The performance contracting method of project delivery puts the greatest amount of decision-making in the contractor's hands. Usually a client is interested in lowering their energy costs by replacing or upgrading a building system (like lighting, HVAC, or high-use motors), but is not willing or able to provide the capital financing. Performance contracting transfers the financing responsibility from the client to the contractor, who is then paid a percentage of the future savings in energy costs. Potential savings in energy costs are discovered during an energy audit of the facility and proposed to the client by the contractor. HV AC systems are often a source of the energy savings, both because of how much energy they use, and the savings that occur through improvements in maintenance and operations. When significant upgrades in HVAC systems or a retrofit to another system are suggested, the client needs to carefully review the impact on their employee comfort and productivity to make sure it is a net gain. Many clients will bring in an HVAC systems consultant to review the recommended changes before authorizing the performance contractor to proceed with the work.
Typical Projects Residential projects are usually design-build projects handled by air conditioning dealers and contractors. The purchaser is usually a developer in new construction, or a homeowner for existing buildings. New small commercial systems are also design-build projects by air conditioning dealers and contractors. The purchaser is usually a developer in new construction, and a business owner or tenant for existing buildings. New large systems, above 100 tons, are usually plan and specification projects. The equipment sale is usually to a contractor, but the owner and the designer can be very influential in determining the equipment supplier. In some cases, the equipment is purchased directly by the owner.
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jNDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Equipment replacement projects are usually negotiated between the owner and a service contractor. Regardless of the type of project, the sequence of events is as shown in Figure 15, which is sometimes referred to as the "time line" of a project. The initial phase is an organizational phase, in which the owner or developer CONCEPT DESIGN CONSTRUCTION WARRANTY AND ORGANIZATION identify the major participants and PHASE PHASE SERVICE PHASE PHASE PHASE decide how the project will be Organization Typo: Project Criteria: Load Pricing Resolve Equipment Calculations Failure and System organized (negotiated, plan and Comfort Level Design/Build Award of Operational Problems Plan and Spec Costs Equipment Contracts specification with competitive Construction Selection Appearance Management Equipment bids, etc.). System Choice Purchase Air Purchase Method :
Distribution
Coordination: Competitive Bid Submittal The conceptual phase begins Space Budgets and Approval Water Negotiation Distribution with the identification of the purCreate Project Installation Team Automatic pose and general criteria for the Controls Commissioning project by the owner. Each of the Construction Documents design professionals then deterCoordinate mines which general concepts are Details most appropriate to meet the established criteria. The Figure 15 requirements for each trade are Typ ical H VAC Proj ect Timeline coordinated. Using the HVAC system as an example, the equipment and duct space is allocated by the architect, the preliminary electrical power requirements are provided to the electrical engineer, the equipment weights to the structural engineer, etc. The budgets for each trade and for the entire project are established.
The HVAC system design phase is dominated by the HVAC designer, either an independent consulting engineer or an employee of the design-build contractor. The designer confirms the criteria for the HVAC system, calculates the cooling and heating loads, selects the equipment, designs the air, water and refrigerant distribution systems and the HVAC control system. Each item must meet the space, cost and service requirements that were agreed upon during the concept phase, or the designer must coordinate the new requirements with all of the affected parties. Design changes become increasingly difficult during this phase. The constmction phase is dominated by the contractor. It includes the purchase of equipment, installation of equipment, air and water distribution and control systems and the commissioning of the HVAC system. To the contractor, timing is extremely important. Delays in equipment submittals or deliveries can result in substantial increased cost to the contractor that may lead to legal damage claims. The warranty and service phase involves the owner and, for commercial projects, the building management and service contractors as well. Everyone, including owner, tenants, contractor, architect and engineer, becomes aware of problems that affect or prevent operation of the HVAC system. Prompt and fair resolution of any problems is extremely important.
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HVAC Systems Many types of HVAC systems have been developed to serve a wide range of different markets and performance requirements. The choice of a suitable type of system is a logical first step toward providing a satisfied client. The choice should be based on the priorities that have been established for that individual project. These priorities include functional performance, costs and many other considerations. HVAC systems differ widely in their ability to provide the normal air conditioning functions, which include the control of temperature, humidity, air motion, air quality (ventilation and air purity) and sound level. Costs include the initial construction cost of the system; the cost of energy, makeup water, water treatment and disposal; the cost of operation labor, maintenance, repair and equipment replacement; the cost of system modification to serve future tenants; and the construction cost of building space for ductwork, piping and mechanical rooms. Other considerations include the architectural appearance of visible system elements, the probability and impact . of HVAC system failures and the disruption of tenant activities related to maintenance of items in tenant areas. From the above, it should be obvious that the lowest construction cost system is inappropriate for most applications. Most owners and system designers are very interested in providing appropriate systems, and are relatively open to discussion of these items. To be successful, these discussions must occur before or during the concept phase of the project. HVAC systems are generally classified by the type of refrigeration and by the type of air system. Refrigeration systems are either direct (called DX for "direct-expansion") or indirect. The cooling coil in a DX system is cooled directly by the expansion of refrigerant inside the tubes of the coil. The cooling coil in an indirect system is cooled by chilled water or brine that is circulated through a piping system between a water chiller and the cooling coil. Packaged DX systems with a single refrigeration compressor, cooling coil and condenser in close proximity to each other generally have low initial cost, and can be very efficient if the components are selected for high efficiency. They are usually simple and trouble-free. Split system DX systems become more complex and prone to refrigerant leakage with increasing numher of components and the length of piping. A single leak can result in loss of the entire refrigerant charge of a system. Chilled-water systems are generally preferred if one or two central water chillers can replace a large number of separate DX systems, or if the refrigeration equipment must be remote from the cooling coils. Water piping between the chiller and the cooling coils is simpler than refrigerant piping. The refrigerant piping system can be factory-installed and tested on practically any size chiller, and the possibility of refrigerant leakage is minimized. Air systems are generally classified as either single or multiple zone systems. Single-zone systems can serve any size building area as long as a single temperature control zone can provide reasonable temperatures throughout the area served by that system. A window air conditioner and a 50,000 cfm central system serving an exhibition hall are examples of single-zone systems. Multiple single-zone systems can be installed to provide separate zones within the building area, with a separate temperature control for each single-zone unit.
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Introduction to HVAC - --
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Multiple-zone systems provide several or many temperature control zones from the same central equipment. One central air handler can serve over a thousand separate temperature control zones. Many of these systems use room terminal units to serve each zone. Multiple-zone systems are sub-classified in several ways, as shown below.
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Figure 16 Multiple Zone System Characteristics
All-air systems are systems in which a central air system provides all of the cooling effect to the individual zones. All-water systems do not have a central cold air system, but provide a separate chilled-water fan-and-coil unit to serve each zone. Combination air-water systems provide a central conditioned air system to do a portion of the zone cooling and also provide a chilled-water coil in each zone to supply the remaining zone cooling load. The performance and costs of the multiple-zone systems vary widely and are beyond the scope of this discussion.
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Introduction to HVAC
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
HVAC Products Products are also classified in many ways, beginning with the type of HVAC system for which it is intended. A "room type chilled-water fan-coil unit" is obviously intended for use as the room terminal of that type of system. Products are classified by the degree of factory design, either factory-engineered or customdesigned; and by the degree of factory assembly, such as single-piece, split-system, or fieldassembled component. The design of a factory-engineered system has the advantages of being tested before it is produced for sale and of continual improvement in response to product failures of units previously manufactured. The fabrication of a factory-fabricated system has the advantage of production using properly trained labor with the optimum tooling and materials, plus quality testing of the finished product. A single-piece, factory-engineered assembled unit is inherently the most reliable and least expensive. Split-systems provide the ability to locate the elements in more appropriate locations, but with the possibility of poor refrigerant piping connections. Factory-engineered package equipment is usually designed for the mass market, with commensurate lower equipment price. Field-assembled components provide the ultimate in design flexibility for projects with unusual needs such as extremely low energy consumption or extremely high fabrication quality. Products are classified by the type of condenser, either air-cooled, water-cooled, or evaporative. Air-cooled units have greater electricity demand and consumption, but require much less maintenance and do not require any makeup water, treatment, or disposal. The type of compressor is usually part of the classification, such as reciprocating, scroll, rotary screw, or centrifugal. Finally, products are classified by the components in the product. A condensing unit includes a condenser and a compressor, in order to condense the refrigerant that evaporates in a remote DX cooling coil. A package water chiller is a complete assembly of compressor, chiller, condenser, controls and wiring. The CSI (Construction Specifications Institute) format is used by most specification writers. The above discussion generally follows the CSI classifications of HVAC equipment.
Indoor Unit Furnace And Coil Indoor Unit AHU (Fan Coil) Figure 17 Typical Components ofAir-Cooled Split System
Introduction to HVAC - - - - - - --
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Summary The HVAC industry is a challenging and diverse marketplace. The size of the market is huge considering the 4.9 million building base that might require some type of new HVAC system or upgrade. Selection systems for this varied base can be complicated further by the multiple types of systems that are available and the potential unique requirements of each building. Each participant in the design process is critical in assuring properly functioning systems are delivered to building owners. Compliance with building codes and specifications are also the responsibility of all members of the design and construction team. The HVAC industry is an exciting business to be a part of. Customer requirements continually evolve and drive industry standards. Designers, manufacturers, and contractors must constantly upgrade their knowledge to meet their customers' needs. The Technical Development Program series is presented to help all players in the industry to develop, maintain, and upgrade their skills in meeting customer needs.
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Introduction to HVAC
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Work Session MARKETS 1. For the HVAC industry, identify the two market segments that are based upon the age of the buildings involved.
2. Identify the market segments that are based upon the usage of the building.
3. Identify the market segments that are based upon the type of design and contracting method.
PARTICIPANTS 4. Match the following participants in the HVAC industry: Engineer
Contractor
Architect
provides the money and assumes the primary financial risk of the project.
B.
provides the concept and business plan for the project. May also provide the project management.
C.
provides the architectural design of the building, and coordinates the design services of the engineers and other design specialists for the project. provides the design services for technical portions of the project, such as HVAC, electrical, structural.
D.
Owner
Developer
Commissioning Agent
E.
provide the construction work of purchasing and installing the items needed for the project.
F.
places the equipment and systems in operation after they have been installed by others. A Test and Balance Contractor is a commissioning agent. operates and maintains the HVAC and other building systems.
G.
Dealer
Service Contractor
Equipment Sales Distributor
- -- -
A.
H.
provides maintenance and repair service for the HVAC and other building systems.
I.
handles the sale of equipment to the contractor. Usually sells products manufactured by several different manufacturers. an equipment sales representative who provides local warehousing of products. Often provides training and marketing services for a dealer network. a contractor with a formal ongoing relationship with an equipment distributor.
Equipment Sales Representative
J.
Building Operations Manager
K.
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
INDUSTRY ASSOCIATIONS
5. What is ASHRAE' s primary mission? 6. What is NFPA's primary mission? 7. What is UL's primary mission?
LEGAL CONCERNS
8. Which entity (contractor, engineer, equipment supplier, etc.) has the primary responsible for meeting the following requirements? A. Building design codes B. Building construction work codes C. Equipment construction codes D. Building licenses and pennits 9. What is a "national" building code or standard?
10. What is a "local" building code?
11. What are "Construction Documents"?
12. What is an Addendum to the construction documents?
13. Describe two ways of creating a contract to purchase HVAC equipment.
14. In question 13 above, why does it make any difference?
15. What is a Change Notice?
16. What is the purpose of an equipment submittal?
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Introduction to HVAC
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
TYPICAL PROJECTS
17. What are the 5 phases of a typical project?
18. Identify some reasons to become involved early in a project.
HVAC SYSTEMS
19. There are many different types of HVAC systems - direct expansion or chilled-water, central or unitary, etc.; and many different applications - offices, hotels, residences, shopping centers, etc. Is any one of these types of systems better than all of the others for all of the different applications? 20. What is a DX system?
21 . What is a chilled-water system?
22. What is likely to be different if one type of HYAC system is chosen instead of another type?
23. What is a "single-zone" system?
24. What is a "multiple-zone" system?
HV AC PRODUCTS
25. Name some typical benefits of a "factory-engineered" product compared to a "custom design" using standard components.
26. Name some typical benefits of a "factory-assembled" product compared to a "field assembly" of components.
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
27. Name an advantage of air-cooled equipment.
28. Name an advantage of water-cooled equipment.
HVAC DESIGN PROCESS
29. Why might a system designer be reluctant to change the concept of a system after it has been agreed upon?
30. Why might a system designer be reluctant to change the selection of HVAC equipment after it has been done?
31. Why might a system designer be reluctant to change the construction documents for a system after they have been issued?
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Notes
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Notes
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Turn to
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Work Session Answers MARKETS 1. A. New Construction B. Existing Buildings 2. A. Residential B. Commercial C. Office D . Industrial E. Institutional (schools, hospitals, prisons) 3. A . Design/build B. Plan and specification PARTICIPANTS 4. Describe the following participants in the HVAC industry: D Engineer K Dealer E Contractor H Service Contractor C Architect J Equipment Sales Distributor A Owner I Equipment Sales Representative B Developer G Building Operations Manager C Commissioning Agent INDUSTRY ASSOCIATIONS 5. create HVAC design information 6. create fire and smoke safety standards 7. test products for safety LEGAL CONCERNS 8. A. Building design codes the designer of the item or system involved, usually the architect and engineer B. Building construction work codes contractor C. Equipment construction codes equipment supplier D. Building licenses and permits contractor 9. A design or construction code prepared by a national code authority, such as ICC, UL, ASHRAE, NFPA, NEC, etc. . 10. A legal document enacted by the local governing body, such as a city, county or state, that describes the minimum requirements for building construction. A local code usually "refers" to the various national codes and standards, instead of copying the items into the local document. 11. Drawings and specifications prepared by the designer of a project to describe the construction work. They are used to obtain building permits and as the basis for construction contracts. 12. a document issued by the designer to describe a change in the drawings or specifications 13. A. The buyer accepts a proposal from a seller B. The seller accepts a purchase order from a buyer 14. The "terms and conditions" of a purchase order usually favor the buyer, while those of a proposal usually favor the seller. 15. A revision to the contract in which the contractor agrees to make the changes described in an Addendum in return for an agreed upon change in the contract price. 16. It is to confirm that the equipment to be furnished is in conformance with the construction documents. The objective is to avoid the project delay and expense that will result if the
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Commercial HVAC Systems
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
wrong equipment is shipped to the job site and must be removed and replaced at the supplier's expense. TYPICAL PROJECTS 17. A. Organize: decide who does what B. Concept: decide what is to be built and the appropriate budget C. Design: determine capacity, arrangement and construction detail D. Construction: Build and commission the project E. Warranty and Service: Prevent or correct problems 18. A. If you have done good work with one of the organizers (owner, engineer, contractor) on a previous project, they can influence the others to favor you when close decisions must be made. B. You may be able to identify situations, which would place you at a competitive disadvantage, and suggest changes to improve your position without hurting the overall cost or performance of the project. HVAC SYSTEMS 19. NO 20. A system in which refrigerant circulates "directly" through the cooling coil. 21. A system in which a water chiller is ·used to cool water. The chilled-water is circulated through the cooling coils in the air-handling units. 22. A. functional performance: temperature, humidity, air quality and sound level B. costs: design and construction, energy consumption, water and water treatment, operation and maintenance C. space: for duct, piping, equipment rooms D. architectural appearance 23. A system that serves an area with one thermostat. 24. A system that serves several different areas and provides a separate temperature control zone for each area. HVAC PRODUCTS 25. less design cost, less chance of design errors 26. lower cost because of tooling and production quantity; better quality because of better supervision and testing. 27. no water consumption or chemical water treatment is necessary 28. lower electricity consumption HVAC DESIGN PROCESS 29. The other designers, such as the architect or electrical engineer, may have to change work they have already done in order to accommodate the new concept. 30. The designer will not be paid for the time required to make the change, and there is risk that this change will require changes to other items that have already been completed. 31. Addendums are time consuming and expensive. They also raise the issue of who is to blame for the change.
Introduction to HVAC
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
Glossary addendum
change or addition to the construction documents for a project
air-water system
an air conditioning system that controls space conditions by supplying a combination cooled and dehumidified, heated, or neutral, and conditioned air and chilled or heated water from a conditioning unit and central plant equipment located outside the conditioned zone.
all-air system
an air conditioning system that controls space cooling . conditions by supplying cooled, dehumidified, and conditioned air to the zone from a conditioning unit normally located outside the conditioned zone; heated air may also be provided for heating control.
all-water system
an air conditioning system that controls space cooling conditions by supplying chilled-water to the zone from a chiller outside the conditioned zone; heated water may also be provided for heating control.
architect
participant in a typical construction project who provides the building design services; when employing the engineers is called Architect/ Engineer
ARI
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute; concerned with creating standards for testing and rating equipment; provides marketing statistics for air conditioning equipment manufacturers
ASHRAE
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning engineers; organization concerned with creating information for the design of projects; publishes the ASHRAE handbook and establishes minimum standards that influence project design
building operations manager
responsible for the operation and maintenance of the HVAC system
change notice
revision to the contract between the owner and the prime contractor
commissioning agent
employed by the owner to provide an objective perspective to correct errors made during construction
construction management
delivery method where an oversight contractor controls the design, bidding, and construction activities, most often paralleling the sequence used in plan and spec
construction manager
participant in a typical construction project who is responsible for coordinating the construction activities that must begin before the prime contract is awarded and continues until the project is complete; common in a "fast-track" schedule
contract
legal agreement between the participants of a project; can be created by a purchase order, or proposal
contractor
participant in a typical construction project who provides the construction work
dealers
independently owned contractors who are franchised by distributors to install equipment purchased from the distributor; this arrangement may require the deal to be exclusive
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Commercial HVAC Systems
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
design-build
delivery method where building systems performance criteria are documented in a minimal set of drawings and text; contractors bid on the completed building, finished the design while executing the requirements, and then tum over a completed project
developer
participant in a typical construction project who provides the concept and the business plan and typically manages the overall project; commonly the same entity as the owner and referred to as owner/developer
direct expansion
cooling process in which the refrigerant is used directly in the indoor coil.
(DX)
distributor
buys equipment in large quantities from a manufacturer and resells the to dealers or independent contractors
engineer
participant in a typical construction project who design the HVAC, structural, electrical, plumbing, and other trades in their specialty; when employed by the architect is called Architect/Engineer
equipment replacement project
subcategory of the replacement market in which some or all of the major HVAC equipment is replaced
equipment supplier
handles the sale of the equipment for a project
fast-track schedule
construction project schedule typical of large or critical projects in which the major equipment is purchased and the construction work is begun before the overall project design is completed
ICC
International Code Council; association dedicated to building safety and fire prevention; develops codes used to construct residential and commercial buildings; has replaced other model code writing organizations
Multiple wne system
an HVAC system with multiple thermostats controlling temperatures in various spaces served by a single air-handling unit
new construction market
market consisting of projects in which the HVAC system is installed when the building in originally constructed
NFPA
National Fire Protection Association; writes standards,;addresses building fire and smoke concerns
owner
participant in a typical construction project who provides the money for the construction and assumes most of the financial risk; commonly the same entity as the developer and referred to as Owner/Developer
Performance Contracting
Delivery method where an oversight contractor controls the design, bidding, and construction activities of a normally focused set of upgrades or retrofits to an existing building
Plan and Specification
delivery method where building systems criteria are documented in a set of construction drawings and specifications that are bid by contractors who then execute the requirements and tum over a completed project
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Introduction to HVAC
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
prime contractor
participant in a typical construction project responsible for coordinating all construction activity and other contractual items relating to project cost and timing; often the general contractor but may be a subcontractor if most of the work is in their specialty- -
project manager
participant in a typical construction project responsible for coordinating the entire project, including design and construction work
reference standards
standards created by organizations such as ARI arid ASHRAE that govern the design, manufacture, and installation of HVAC equipment and systems
replacement market
market consisting of projects in which a previously installed system or equipment is replaced
service contractors
provide either preventative maintenance or emergency repairs after the system is operational
subcontractor
participant in a typical construction project who has a contract with the prime contractor or a higher-level subcontractor
test and balance contractors
specialists in measuring air and water flows and checking the performance of equipment after it is placed in service
UL
Underwriters' Laboratories; concerned with product safety requirements; a UL label denotes that equipment has been tested to comply with safety standards
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Commercial HVAC Systems
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INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
References 2003 International Building Code. Copyright 2002. Falls Church, Virginia: International Code Council, Inc. 2003 International Energy Conservation Code. Copyright 2003. Falls Church, Virginia: International Code Council, Inc. 2003 International Mechanical Code. Copyright 2003, Falls Church, Virginia: International Code Council, Inc.
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Introduction to HVAC
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Prerequisites: None
Learning Objectives: After reading this module , participants will be able to: Describe the commercial and how its market is served . Describe the participants in the construction process and total HVAC life cycle influencers in the various market categories. Understand the steps in the construction process of typical commercial projects . Describe the commercial new construction process and influencers, plan and specification and design build. Describe the commercial retrofit, replacement and renovation market and how they are influenced by the construction process and decision makers. Understand how codes and regulatory influences impact building decision. Be able to identify how different industry organizations influence HVAC design. Understand how influencers and regulatory influences affect system selection . Understand how various players in the process can work together. Appreciate who does what design in each method of going to market and know when it is their turn to perform.
Supplemental Material:
TOP No. TDP-701
Book Cat. No.
796-067
Instructor CD Cat. No.
797-067
Title
System Selection
Instructor Information Each TDP topic is supported with a number of different items to meet the specific needs of the user. Instructor materials consist of a CD-ROM disk that includes a PowerPoint™ presentation with convenient links to all required support materials required for the topic. This always includes: slides, presenter notes, text file including work sessions and work session solutions, quiz and quiz answers. Depending upon the topic, the instructor CD may also include sound, video, spreadsheets, forms, or other material required to present a complete class . Self-study or student material consists of a text including work sessions and work session answers, and may also include forms , worksheets, calculators, etc.
Turn to the ExpertS. Carrier Corporation Technical Training 800 644-5544 www.training.carrier.com
Form No. TDP-101 Supersedes Form No. TDP-50
Cat. No. 06-796-025
