MASTERING ADVANCED ENGLISH LANGUAGE SARA THORNE PART I – Reference – the structure of Englsh! " – The structure of Englsh! #h$t s gr$%%$r& Is the study of the organization of language. Language Language is divided into dierent levels. Within each of these levels there are certain rules and patterns describing how the elements can be combined. Language is said to have a RAN !"AL# because the levels can be arranged hierarchically.
$pen class words% &L#'I"AL W$R(!) have a clearly de*nable meaning. &nouns+ ad,ectives+ verbs+ adverbs)
"losed class words% &-RAA/I"AL W$R(!) they enable us to build up language grammatically. &pronouns+ determiners+ prepositions+ con,unctions)
OPEN CLASS #ORDS' NOUNS' (NAMING #ORDS) /hey name people+ places+ things. • •
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COMMON NOUNS% "lassify things into types or general categories &car+ dog0). PROPER NOUNS% Refer to speci*c people and places &usually written with initial capital letter). CONCRETE NOUNS% Refer to physical things that can be observed and measured. A*STRACT NOUNS% Refer to ideas+ times+ 1ualities+ emotions2 they cannot be touched or seen. COUNT NOUNS% "an be counted and have plural form. NON+COUNT NOUNS% Refer to substances and 1ualities that cannot be counted.
3!ome nouns are both count and non4count. PLURALS' Regular nouns add –s to mar5 it. any noun+ however+ are irregular. •
COLLECTIVE NOUNS' Refer to groups of people+ animals and things.
POSSESSIVES' In written language ‘s or ‘ is added to the noun to mar5 possession. AD,ECTIVES' (DESCRI*ING #ORDS) 6rovide e7tra information about nouns by giving details of physical 1ualities and of psychological 1ualities &emotions). • •
ATTRI*UTIVE AD,ECTIVES' 8efore a noun. PREDICATIVE AD,ECTIVES' After "$69LA :#R8! or LININ- :#R8!.
3Ad,ectives can be graded so that nouns can be compared. 3!ometimes words from other word classes do the ,ob of an ad,ective &i.e.% running boy+ garden wall). A noun describing a noun is called $(I;I#R. VER*S' (DOING #ORDS) "an e7press actions and states.
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STATIVE STATIVE VER*S' #7press states of being or the processes in which there is no obvious action & to 5now+ to believe). D-NAMIC VER*S' #7press a wide range of actions which can be physical or perceptual. TRANSITIVE VER*S'
. /. /
past perfect progressive 4D throughout the summer.
the weeds had been growing
VOICE' /he action of a verb and the person or thing responsible for it can be conveyed in two ways using voice% "! ACTIVE VOICE' #7presses the action of the verb+ directly lin5ing it to the person or thing carrying out the action . 0! PASSIVE VOICE' "hanges the focus of the sentence by reordering the elements. STRUCTURES O/ THE PASSIVE VOICE' "! the sub,ectBactor of the active sentence is moved to the end of the passive sentence and becomes the optional passive agent & by C sub,ect of active sentence). 0! the ob,ect of the active sentence is moved to the front of the passive sentence and becomes the sub,ect. 1! the active verb is replaced by a verb in the passive form% to be C past participle or% have C to be C past participle USAGES O/ THE PASSIVE' "! 9sing by C actor + the sub,ect can be delayed to the end of the sentence creating suspence. 0! if the actor is a long phrase that seems aw5ward at the start of the sentence+ it can be placed at the end for Euency. 1! by omitting the by C actor + it is possible to e7clude the person or thing responsible for the action of the verb. /INITE VER*S' "hange their form to show contrast of number+ tense and person. NON+/INITE VER*S' Never change their form. ADVER*S' Are modifying words. /hey give information about time+ place+ and manner and can e7press a spea5erFs attitude to or evaluation of what is being said. /hey can modify verbs+ ad,ectives+ other adverbs+ sentences. •
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CIRCUMSTANCE ADVER*S' (AD,UNCTS) odify verbs+ by giving details of circumstances li5e manner+ time+ fre1uency and place. DEGREE ADVER*S (MODI/IERS)' odify ad,ectives or adverbs. SENTENCE ADVER*S' modify a whole sentence. =. DIS,UNCT' #7press spea5ersF or writersF attitudes allowing them to comment on what is being said or written. >. CON,UNCT% "an be used to lin5 sentences. /ORMING ADVER*S' any adverbs are formed by adding –ly to ad,ectives. •
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COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE% Although some can ta5e –er and –est endings +most re1uire the use of more and most . IRREGULAR ADVER*S%
THREE MAIN POSITIONS /OR ADVER*S'
"! In front of the sentence. 0! /he middle of the sentence% after the *rst au7iliary+ after the verb to be as a le7ical verb+ or before the le7ical verb. 1! /he end of the sentence.
!ometimes the same word can be both an ad,ective and an adverb. In order to distinguish between them+ it is important to loo5 at the conte7t of the word and its function in a sentence. CLOSED CLASS #ORDS' PRONOUNS' Are used instead of nouns+ noun phrases or noun clauses. /here are seven types of pronouns% "! PERSONAL PRONOUNS' SU*,ECT PRONOUNS' Are used when it is clear who the actor of the sentence is &I+ you+ heBsheBit+ we+ you+ they). O*,ECT PRONOUNS' It replaces the noun that receives the action of the verb &me+ you+ himBherBit+ us+ you+ them). >. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS' Are used when you need to show possession of something &mine+ yours+ hisBhers+ ours+ yours+ theirs). ?. RE/LE.IVE PRONOUNS' Are used when the same person is the actor and the receiver of the action in a sentence &myself+ yourself+ himselfBherselfBitself+ ourselves+ yourselves+ themselves). @. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS' Are used to point to the relationship between the spea5er and a person or a thing &thisBthese+ thatBthose). . INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS' Are used to as5 1uestions. /here are *ve types% what+ which+ who+ whom+ whose. G. RELATIVE PRONOUNS' ;ollow directly the nouns they describe. /hey introduce relative clauses+ although sometimes the pronoun itself is omitted. /here are *ve forms% that+ which+ who+ whom+ whose. H. INDE/INITE PRONOUNS'
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DETERMINERS' 6recede nouns. /here are *ve main types%
=. ARTICLES' DE/INITE or INDE/INITE. /he former speci*es something particular+ while the latter does not. >. POSSESSIVE DETERMINERS' Are used to suggest the ownership of a noun. /here are seven forms% my+ your+ his+ her+ its+ our+ their. ?. DEMONSTRATIVE DETERMINERS' #7press a contrast+ establishing either a close or a more distant relationship. @. INDE/INITE DETERMINERS' "onvey a range of meaning. /he most common ones are% all+ some+ any+ no2 every+ each+ either+ neither+ one+ another etc0 . NUM*ERS' If precede a noun they are functioning as determiners. 8oth cardinals and ordinals can be used as determiners.
It is important to loo5 closely at the conte7t to distinguish between pronouns and determiners. A determiner precedes a noun2 a pronoun replaces a noun+ noun4phrase or noun clause. PREPOSITIONS' (escribe relationships that e7ist between elements in sentences. /hey convey the following relationships% • • • • • •
PLACE' at+ on+ by+ opposite DIRECTION' towards+ past+ out of+ through TIME' at+ before+ in+ on COMPARISON' as0as+ li5e SOURCE' from+ out PURPOSE' for
CON,UNCTIONS' Are ,oining words •
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CO+ORDINATING CON,UNCTIONS' &and+ but+ or+ neither0nor+ either0or)Lin5 le7ical units of e1ual value. SU*ORDINATING CON,UNCTIONS' oin a subordinate clause to a main clause. /hey often give information on when+ where+ why+ how or if an action ta5es place.
MORPHOLOG- MORPHOLOG-' Is the study of morphemes+ the smallest units of grammar. • •
/REE MORPHEME' "an stand alone and is understandable in isolation. *OUND MORPHEME (A//I.ES)' "annot occur alone and can occur at the beginning or the end of a free morpheme. =. PRE/I.ES' 6recedes a free morpheme. >. SU//I.ES' ;ollows a free morpheme.
Words can have multiple aJ7es. DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOG-' Words can be created by using pre*7es+ suJ7es or both. •
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PRE/I.ES' Alter the meaning of a word +but they do not always change the word class. SU//I.ES' 9sually change the class of the free morpheme to which they are attached.
SU//I.ES ASSOCIATED #ITH NOUNS' 4acy+ 4ation+ 4erBor+ 4ess+ 4ity+ 4ment+ 4ness+ 4ship. SU//I.ES ASSOCIATED #ITH AD,ECTIVES' 4able+ 4ful+ 4ical+ 4less+ 4li5e+ 4ous+ 4y. SU//I.ES ASSOCIATED #ITH VER*S' 4ise+ 4ize. SU//I.ES ASSOCIATED #ITH ADVER*ES' 4 ly. #ORDS /ORMED #ITH T#O /REE MORPHEMES' duty C free K dutyfree
sign C post K signpost IN/LECTIONAL MORPHOLOG-' #ven if a suJ7 is added+ the word class doesnFt change. • • • • •
6L9RAL! of nouns 6$!!#!!I:#! of all nouns 6R#!#N/ /#N!# of the regular third person singular &4s+ 4ies) 6R#!#N/ 6AR/I"I6L# of verbs &4ing) 6A!/ /#N!# AN( 6A!/ 6AR/I"I6L# of regular verbs &4ed)
PHRASES PHRASE' Is a single word or a group of words that act together as a unit but that do not usually contain a *nite verb. NOUN PHRASES' 9sually begins with a determiner and normally has a noun as its most important word. •
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NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS HEAD#ORD' 8oth can be headwords. AD,ECTIVES AS HEAD#ORDS CONSTITUENTS O/ A NOUN PHRASE' A noun phrase can be made up of either a single noun or a noun with one or more pre4modi*ers and post4 modi*ers or 1uali*ers.
AD,ECTIVE PHRASES'
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AD,ECTIVES AS HEAD#ORD' While attributive ad,ectives precede a noun as pre4modi*ers in a noun phrase+ predicative ad,ectives follow nouns and are the head words of ad,ective phrases. PRE+MODI/ICATION' "an be made by adverbs and some ad,ectives. POST+MODI/ICATION' $f ad,ective phrases can ta5e the following forms% =. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES' Will always begin with a preposition. >. NON+/INITE IN/INITIVE CLAUSES' Will always begin with an in*nitive. ?. NOUN CLAUSES' Will always start with the pronoun that+ although this may be omitted.
VER* PHRASES' -enerally has a le7ical verb as its main verb. It can be made up of one le7ical verb+ or one or more au7iliary verbs and a le7ical verb. •
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LE.ICAL VER*S AS HEAD#ORD' A verb phrase may consist of one le7ical verb as a headword. AU.ILIAR- VER*S' A verb phrase may have up to four au7iliary verbs+ the le7ical verb will always be the last element in a verb phrase. PHRASAL VER*S' 6hrases made up of a verb and an adverb. any phrasal verbs can stand alone. PREPOSITIONAL VER*S' ade up of a verb and a preposition or particle. /hey cannot stand alone% they must be followed by a noun phrase. Are common in informal speech and writing. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES'
information and are therefore optional% the can be omitted without aecting the meaning. /hey can have the following characteristics% =. POST+MODI/ICATION of other phrases. >. ADVER*IALS' 6repositional phrases can function as adverbials providing informations about time+ manner and place. ADVER* PHRASES'
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ADVER*S AS HEAD#ORD E.TRA IN/ORMATION' If omitted+ will still ma5e sense. ADVER*IALS' 6rovide information about time+ manner and place.
CLAUSES CLAUSES' Are the main structures used to compose sentences. A sentence will be made up of at least one main clause &a clause that ma5e sense of its own and that is not dependent on or part of another clause)2 it may also contain one or more subordinate clauses. "lauses may be% • •
/INITE' "ontains a verb mar5ed for tense+ number and person. NON+/INITE' "ontains a present participle+ a past participle or an in*nitive. VER*LESS
CLAUSE ELEMENTS' ;ive types with dierent function and site.
=. SU*,ECT' (escribes the person who or thing which does the action of the verb &actor of the sentence). It is usually a noun phrase or a pronoun+ but it can also be a clause. POSITION IN THE CLAUSE' 6recede the verb in a statement. POSITION IN A 4UESTION' ;ollows the au7iliary verb. E//ECT ON THE VER*' (ictates the form. E//ECT ON THE O*,ECT OR COMPLEMENT' !ometimes control their form. >. VER*' #7press a range of meanings &actions+ processes+ states0). ItFs the most important clause element and it cannot be omitted. ?. O*,ECT' (escribes something that is directly aected by the verb. INDIRECT O*,ECT' !omething indirectly aected by the verb. It can precede or follow the direct ob,ect. 5INDS O/ O*,ECT' It is a noun phrase or a pronoun. POSITION IN THE CLAUSE' It follows the verb. @. COMPLEMENT' -ives e7tra information about the sub,ect or the ob,ect. 5INDS O/ COMPLEMENT' Ad,ective phrase+ noun phrase+ pronoun+ a numeral or a clause. POSITION IN THE CLAUSE' ;ollows a verb. . ADVER*IALS' -ive information about time+ manner and place. 5INDS O/ ADVER*IALS' Adverb phrases+ prepositional phrases+ noun phrases or clauses. NUM*ER O/ ADVER*IALS' ore than one can be added to a clause. POSITION IN THE CLAUSE' "an change to create dierent 5inds of emphasis. • • • •
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CLAUSE STRUCTURE' ost clauses will have a sub,ect and a verb+ other clause elements are optional. It is useful to distinguish between the form of a verb and the function of a verb phrase in a clause. In clause analysis+ linguists call the verb site the predicator. CLAUSE T-PES' !even types%
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sub,ect C verb sub,ect C verb C direct ob,ect sub,ect C verb C indirect ob,ect C direct ob,ect sub,ect C verb C sub,ect complement sub,ect C verb C direct ob,ect C ob,ect complement sub,ect C verb C adverbial sub,ect C verb C direct ob,ect C adverbial
SENTENCES SENTENCE' Is a grammatical construction that ma5es sense on its own. In writing+ it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop or an e7clamation or 1uestion mar5. SIMPLE SENTENCE' "ontains ,ust one clause. It has only one *nite verb and is described as a main clause. COMPOUND SENTENCE' "ontains two or more simple sentences lin5ed by coordinating con,unctions. #ach clause in compound sentence carries e1ual weight and ma5es sense on its own they can therefore both be described as main clauses. When two sentences are lin5ed+ it is usually better to avoid repetition. /his can be achieved by using substitution or ellipsis. • •
SU*STITUTION' A pronoun replaces a noun or a noun phrase. ELLIPSIS' Is the omission of an element of language. As long as the reader can easily recognize what has been deleted+ part of the sentence can be omitted to avoid repetition.
RECOGNISING SU*ORDINATE CLAUSES% 8y identifying the word class of the *rst word in the clause. It may be a subordinating con,unction a wh4word or a non4*nite verb. It is important to remember that subordinate clauses can be used in all the clause sites e7cept the verb. COMPLE. SENTENCE' "lauses do not have e1ual value. $ne is the main clause+ while the others are subordinate or dependant clauses. /here are si7 types of subordinate clause.
=. NOUN CLAUSE' "an *ll the sub,ect or ob,ect site of a clause. /here are two main 5inds% THAT CLAUSES' Will begin with the pronoun that + although this may be elided. #H+CLAUSES' Will begin with a wh4word. >. ADVER*IAL CLAUSE' ;unctions as an adverbial within the main clause. It answers 1uestions such as when?, why?, what for? An adverbial clause can be •
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recognized by the subordinating con,unction that mar5s its beginning &if+ because+ unless+ where+ etc0). RELATIVE CLAUSE' Add e7tra information about one of the nouns in the main clause. /he beginning of a relative clause is usually mar5ed by a relative pronoun &who+ whose+ which+ that)although it can be omitted. /hey follow the nouns they post4modify or 1ualify. COMPARATIVE CLAUSE' !tarts with as &#M9AL "$6ARI!$N) or contains than &9N#M9AL "$6ARI!$N). NON+/INITE CLAUSE' "an be recognized by an in*nitive+ present participle or a past participle at the beginning of the clause. VER*LESS CLAUSE' While verbless main clauses & what about a cup of tea? ) are more li5ely to be used in informal speech+ a verbless subordinate clause is more li5ely to be used in formal written #nglish & If in doubt, call .).
COMPOUND+COMPLE. SENTENCES' "o4ordination and subordination can be used in the same sentence. MA,OR SENTENCES' All the sentences considered so far are regular or ma,or sentences because they are constructed using regular patterns. MINOR SENTENCES' &Also IRREGULAR SENTENCES) Lac5 some of the essential clause elements. inor sentences are often used in everyday conversations+ on posters+ headlines+ advertisements and slogans. inor sentences can be% • • •
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/ORMULAE used in social situations. INTER,ECTIONS used to e7press emotions. A**REVIATED /ORMS often used on postcards or in spo5en commentaries &wish you were here). Words or phrases used as E.CLAMATION+ 4UESTION or COMMANDS &what a day!).
ANAL-SING A SENTENCE'
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9nderline the verbs in the sentence2 if there are none+ it is a minor sentence. Identify the main le7ical verb&s) and mar5 the main clause&s). Label the clause elements. Identify any subordinate clauses. Identify the type of subordinate clause.
MOOD MOOD' !hows the attitude of the spea5er to the action or event referred to in the verb phrase% we can tell+ as5 or command something to someone. • •
DECLARATIVE MOOD' Is used for ma5ing statements. INTERROGATIVE MOOD' Is used for addressing 1uestions. In speech+ if the word order is unchanged and intonation patterns are used to indicate a 1uestion+ the mood is declarative /he only e7amples of interrogative mood in which word order is not inverted+ are in sentences in which wh4words *ll the sub,ect site.
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IMPERATIVE MOOD' Is used for addressing commands or orders &there is no sub,ect and the verb is in the base form). !ometimes the person addressed is named using a VOCATIVE. A vocative has two functions% =. /o call someone in order to gain hisBher attention. >. /o address someone+ e7pressing a particular social relationship or personal attitude. :ocatives are optional and can occur at the beginning+ middle or end of the sentence.
COHESION COHESION' Is the way in which sentences are lin5ed to create te7t. /here are *ve forms%
=. LE.ICAL COHESION' Is a 5ind of te7tual lin5ing dependent on a writerFs or spea5erFs choice of words. COLLOCATION' Words are associated within phrases. 8ecause they are often well 5nown+ they are predictable &idioms+ clichOs). REPETITION' #ither words or phrases are directly repeated or !PN$NP! are used. SUPERORDINATES AND H-PON-MS' !uperordinates are general words+ while hyponyms are subdivisions of the general categories &speci*c words). >. SU*STITUTION' $ne linguistic item is replaced by a shorter one. !everal parts of sentence can be replaced. NOUN PHRASES' "an be replaced by personal pronouns+ inde*nite pronouns or by the noun phrase the same . Also superordinates and hyponyms can be substitutes. VER* PHRASE' "an be replaced by the au7iliary verb do. CLAUSES' "an be replaced using so as a substitute for a positive clause+ and not as a substitute for a negative clause. ?. ELLIPSIS' 6art of the sentence is left out. It must be clear what the omitted words are+ so that the sentence remains meaningful. NOUN PHRASES' "an be omitted the head of the phrase. VER* PHRASES' Repeated le7ical and au7iliary verbs can be omitted. CLAUSES' Whole clauses can be omitted within sentence boundaries. @. RE/ERENCING' References cannot be interpreted alone because they point to something else in a discourse. ANAPHORIC RE/ERENCE' 6oint bac5wards in a te7t. CATAPHORIC RE/ERENCE' 6oint forwards in a te7t. E.OPHORIC RE/ERENCE' 6oint beyond a te7t+ ma5e a connection with something outside the discourse. . LIN5ING ADVER*S AND CON,UNCTIONS' Are ,oining words that provide lin5s either within a sentence or within the larger conte7t of discourse. /here are four main types% ADDITIVE ADVER*S AND CON,UNCTIONS' Add on information+ possibly as an afterthought &and+ furthermore0). ADVERSATIVE ADVER*S AND CON,UNCTIONS'
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CASUAL ADVER*S AND CON,UNCTIONS' Lin5 two clauses or sentences by suggesting that one has been the result of the other &because+ since+ therefore0). TEMPORAL ADVER*S AND CON,UNCTIONS' "reate a time lin5 between one clause or sentence and another &before+ while+ then+ after that0).
/OCUS' In a traditional simple declarative sentence+ the sub,ect will come *rst+ followed by predicator and other clause elements. In linguistic terms+ whatever comes *rst in the sentence is called the THEME which usually will be the sub,ect.
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MAR5ED THEME' !ome elements of the clause can be moved to the front of a sentence & /RONTING or /OREGROUNDING) replacing the usual thematic sub,ect. Adverbials are the most Ee7ible clause element and therefore thematic adverbials are most common. /he clause element that has replaced the sub,ect in the initial position is called mar5ed theme. It is also possible to ma5e ob,ect and complement mar5ed themes. END /OCUS' It is possible to put new information towards the end of sentence+ thus emphasizing the end rather than the beginning. !ometimes it is stylistically more Euent to place the longest clause element at the end of a sentence. E.ISTENTIAL THERE' It is also possible to create an end focus by using the e7istential there. !uch sentences often point to the general e7istence of some state of aairs and they are therefore called E.ISTENTIAL SENTENCES. /here is called a DUMM- SU*,ECT because it has no meaning in itself+ instead+ its function is to put the real sub,ect in a more prominent position &DELA-ED SU*,ECT). PASSIVE VOICE' Another way to alter the focus of a sentence is to use the passive voice instead of the active.
RHETORIC% Is the art of persuasive discourse. It is used in everyday life to persuade people to do or believe things and in literature to help the readers to engage with and believe in the *ctional world which they are presented. •
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ETHOS% Is a form of persuasion which is dependent upon the individual character of the spea5er or writer. PATHOS% It wor5s on the emotions of the audience. LOGOS' Is based on reasoned argument2 the structure is important since it will help convince the audience of the logic of what is being said or written.
It is useful to categorize the most common rhetoric techni1ues into four 5ey areas% =. LE.ICAL CHOICE' /his may be inEuenced by the viewpoint and tone adopted for a particular sub,ect or situation2 it may be dictated by the particular emotive response a writer or spea5er wishes to evo5e in the audience2 or it may be governed by the sub,ect4speci*c nature of a topic which re1uires technical le7is. >. SOUND PATTERNING% Writers and spea5ers can use a range of devices for playing on the patterns and sounds of words to create certain stylistic eects% ALLITERATION' Is the repetition of a consonant+ often in the initial position. In advertisements+ captions and headlines this device can be used to ma5e the te7t more eye4catching. ASSONANCE' Is the repetition of a vowel in a medial position. /his poetic device ma5es words sound sonorous and musical and is often used to create a grave or pensive tone •
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CONSONANCE' Repetition of a consonant in the medial or *nal position. It draws attention to a product name in advertising or enhance the meaning of literary language by creating a hard sound. ONOMATOPOEIA' Is the term used when the sound of a word is directly lin5ed to its meaning. /he emphasis on the sound 1uality of words focuses the readerFs or listenerFs attention on the aural aspect of the discourse+ thus creating another dimension to the meaning. RH-ME' Rhyme or half4rhyme are e7act or partial repetitions of a sound+ usually at the end of a poetic line. It draws attention to certain words. It creates a 5ind of end focus and can be used in a conclusive way to signal the end of a poem or a speech in verse drama emphatically. ?. METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE' Is an important part of successful persuasive discourse because it allows a spea5er or writer to combine everyday language with devices that create special semantic eects. IRON-' Is the use of a word+ phrase or paragraph turned from its usual meaning to a contradictory or opposing one+ usually to satirize or deEate the person or issue. METAPHOR' (escribes one thing in terms of another+ creating an implicit comparison. METON-M-' Is the term used when the name of an attribute or thing is substituted for the thing itself &e.g.% the "rown 4 D the monarchy) O.-MORON' 9ses two apparently contradictory words put together to create a special eect. PARADO.' "onsists of an apparently self4contradictory statement which contains some 5ind of deeper meaning below the surface. PERSONI/ICATION' Is the term used when an ob,ect or idea is given human 1ualities. SIMILE% In a simile two things are e7plicitly compared by using a mar5er such as the preposition like or as. S-M*OLISM% Is the use of an ob,ect to represent or stand for something else &e.g.% dove 4D peace) S-NECDOCHE% Is a rhetorical device in which the part stands for the whole &e.g.% bars 4D prison) @. STRUCTURAL DEVICES% In order to be successful in persuading an audience a writer or spea5er also ma5e s conscious decisions about the structural patterns of discourse% ANTITHESIS% Is the techni1ue of placing two words or ideas in opposition to create a contrary eect. LISTING% If con,unctions are used to co4ordinate groups of words+ a list is said to be S-NDETIC2 if commas are used instead+ the list is described as AS-NDETIC. Listing always has an accumulative eect and enables a writer or spea5er to create a range of impressions. A list can convey confusion and chaos or logic and reason+ depending on its conte7t. #1ually a writer or spea5er can build towards a CLIMA. or defy e7pectations by concluding in an ANTI+CLIMA.. OVERSTATEMENT' (H-PER*OLE) Is a form of persuasive e7aggeration. UNDERSTATEMENT' (LITOTES) Leaves the audience to recognize that the writer or spea5er could have put the point more strongly. PUNS' Is a play upon words% •
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HOMON-MS'
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3 – SOME *ASIC CONCEPTS STANDARD ENGLISH' Is a form of #nglish which has been accepted as a norm. It is the variety with which other forms are compared. #ven !tandard #nglish e7ist in a variety of forms% spo5en+ written+ formal+ informal+ personal and impersonal. It is what we usually hear on the television and radio news. In its written form+ is found in print and in formal written varieties li5e essays and business letters. It is also called 88" #nglish or /he MueenFs #nglish. Any varieties which does not use the same vocabulary or grammar as !tandard #nglish is called N$N4!/AN(AR( #N-LI!<. RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION' Is the standard form of pronunciation. It is associated with respectability+ good education and high social status. /oday although R6 still e7ist+ only >4? of the 8ritish population spea5 it in its original pure form. Now it most commonly e7ists as $(I;I#( R#"#I:#( 6R$N9N"IA/I$N. PRESCRIPTIVISM' 6rescriptivists believe that #nglish is governed by a set of rules which dictate a proper and correct use of language. /hey regard one particular form of #nglish as the best and disli5e linguistic change because they see it as a process of decay which erodes standards and leads to a debased form of #nglish. DESCRIPTIVISM' (escriptivists observe language as it is spo5en or written in dierent situations. /hey aim to describe the ways in which language varies according to the user+ the use and the conte7t. /hey see language change as inevitable. Although they believe that some usage is wrong+ they are more interested in describing variations from the standard as non4standard than as incorrect. AUDIENCE6 PURPOSE AND CONTE.T% All spea5ers and writers ma5e decisions about the 5inds of language they use. /hey thin5 about who they will be addressing &A9(I#N"#) and the 5ind of relationship they need to create. /hey assess the formality or informality of the occasion &"$N/#'/) and the reason for the speech or writing &69R6$!#). 8y assessing what is e7pected of us according to our audience+ purpose and conte7t+ we regularly ma5e decisions about what is appropriate or suitable. /he term A66R$6RIA/#N#!! encourages a recognition of the variety and Ee7ibility of language+ and recognizes that there are dierent linguistic e7pectations for dierent situations. REGISTER' Is the term used to describe variations in language according to use &medical register+ religious register0).
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MODE' "an be either spo5en or written. MANNER' (escribes the relationship between the participants and the formality or informality of the conte7t in which communication ta5es place. /IELD% Is lin5ed to the sub,ect matter% by loo5ing at the 5ind of words used+ we can come to the conclusion about the topic or focus of communication.
SPO5EN AND #RITTEN ENGLISH SPO5EN #RITTEN !peech is spontaneous and often Writing is permanent% the same te7t may transient. ost forms of everyday speech be read repeatedly or by several dierent are not recorded for repeated listening. readers. "onversations usually ta5e place f$ce+to+ Written language may be intended for a particular reader+ but often it will be f$ce with a particular person&s). A telephone conversation is a notable addressed to an un7no8n $u9ence . e7ception. !pea5ers can use :$r$lngustc /here is no %%e9$te fee9;$c7 . fe$tures as well as words to chec5 that Writers must ma5e sure that there is no communication is meaningful. unintentional ambiguity. Dectc e<:ressons &this one+ over All references need to be built into the there) referred to the present situation+ written te7t because the reading conte7t are common. will be dierent for each reader. "ommunication is one+8$>. Although the Interru:tons and o=erl$:s allowing the addressee to participate are common. reader may respond in a written or spo5en form+ the response is rarely immediate. !peech is not usually :l$nne9 in Writing is often :re+:l$nne9 and ideas advance. can therefore be carefully organized. !peech often has a loose structure+ Interruptions during the process of writing mar5ed by repetitions+ rephrasing of are not visible in a *nal copy. Dr$ftng ideas and comment clauses. #rrors once also means that errors can be corrected. uttered cannot be withdrawn. Le<s is often informal and there may be In many conte7ts informal le<c$l e7amples of a personal le7icon developed features li5e contractions will be between familiar spea5ers. In more unacceptable. !ome le7ical items will be formal conte7ts+ vocabulary may be rarely used in spo5en language. sub,ect4speci*c+ but speech is still li5ely to be mar5ed by contractions and comment clauses. Intonation and pauses are used to mar5 6unctuation and layout are used to mar5 the gr$%%$tc$l ;oun9$res of the gr$%%$tc$l ;oun9$res of utterances. /hey are often long+ with sentences. In more formal 5inds of %ult:le co+or9n$ton . Su;or9n$ton writing+ sentences are often mar5ed by %ult:le su;or9n$ton and balanced is used but spea5ers have to ma5e sure that embedded subordinate clauses do s>nt$ctc$l structures! not place too many demands upon listeners who cannot easily reconsider an utterance. Writers use paragraphing and page layout Proso9c fe$tures li5e volume+ pace+ rhythm+ tone and stress patterns as well to organize their te7t. C$:t$l?$ton and
as words communicate meaning.
un9erlnng can be used for stress+ while @ueston %$r7s and e
While prescriptivists see speech as inferior because of its errors and hesitations+ descriptivists use speech as the basis for much of their research. Not only does spo5en language reEect how language is used in society+ but language is *rst and foremost a spo5en phenomenon with written language as a by4product.
B – ENGLISH' A LIVING LANGUAGE
Language cannot e7ist on its own since it is a product of the people who spea5 and write it daily+ and therefore it develops to meet their needs. DIACHRONIC APPROACH% #volution from languageFs early form &$ld #nglish) to its current form &Late odern). S-NCHRONIC APPROACH% "hange considered at a particular moment in time. Linguists analyse a clearly de*ned period in order to identify characteristic features of #nglish at that time. #h$t ch$nges l$ngu$ge& •
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HISTORICAL /ACTORS% Wars+ invasions+ industrial and technological changes all provide the conte7t for the creation of new words. CULTURAL TRANSMISSION% A distinctive form of language can give a cultural group a sense of identity+ uniting SinsidersT and alienating SoutsidersT. SOCIAL /ACTORS% #ducation+ social class+ age+ gender+ ethnic bac5ground inEuence the words and grammar that individual spea5ers use.
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GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION% /he pronunciation of words and the 5inds of words and grammatical structures used will vary and change according to the region a spea5er comes from &(IAL#"/!) THE USE O/ DI//ERENT REGISTERS% /he words+ grammatical structures and formats chosen will vary according to use. (ierent *elds+ li5e law+ advertising and religion+ will each have distinctive characteristic features. THE DEVELOPMENT O/ ENGLISH AS A #ORLD LANGUAGE% #nglish language is aected by change both within the 9 and beyond.
GENDER% "ultural system by which society constructs dierent identities for men and women. ;eminists believe that society instills certain codes of behavior in boys and girls from a young age% men are seen as logical+ rational and ob,ective+ while women are emotional+ intuitive and sub,ective. It is language that teaches individuals to act i n a certain way+ that reinforces societyFs e7pectations+ that ma5es people powerful. •
SE.IST LANGUAGE% Reinforces stereotypical attitudes and e7pectations it often implies male superiority. !uch language can suggest that women are inferior. It is diJcult to change these ingrained habits+ but in an age of political correctness this 5ind of divisive language is often seen as unacceptable. !o+ anti4se7ist alternatives are oered as substitutes for the traditional male4 dominated language &chairman 4D chairperson) Derences n roles %en $n9 8o%en t$7e n nfor%$l con=ers$ton % o
$n the level of discourse% en are more li5ely to interrupt. en will often re,ect topics introduced by women+ while women will tal5 about topics raised by men. Women are more li5ely to use supportive minimal vocalization. While women are more li5ely to initiate conversation+ they succeed less often because males are less willing to co4operate. en are more li5ely to use familiar terms of address even where the relative status and bac5ground of the spea5ers would seem to suggest that a formal+ impersonal tone is more appropriate. -rammatical structures are also dierent% Women use tag 1uestions more fre1uently. odal verbs+ modal adverbs and tentative verbs occur more often in womenFs utterances. en are more li5ely to use commands+ where women do use them they are often framed as interrogatives or as hypothetical statements. Le7ical choices often seem to be related to a spea5erFs gender% Women are more li5ely to use evaluative ad,ectives Adverbs of degree are more common in womenFs speech. Ad,ectives describing appro7imate amounts seem to be more common in womenFs utterances. Reduplicated forms are associated with women because they are lin5ed to baby tal5. en are thought to use slang and swearing more fre1uently.
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WomenFs speech is characterized by the fre1uency of politeness mar5ers. o 6honological dierences% Women are far more li5ely to use high4prestige forms and to ad,ust their accents to match other participants in a formal speech encounter. Women are less li5ely to drop *nal consonants and to spea5 with a broad accent if they feel that they need to ma5e a good impression. 3All these features outlined are+ however+ stereotypical. -ender and language are closely lin5ed because it is through language that we communicate and construct models which help us to understand society. !e7ist language can disparage and trivialize women and many people believe that the words we use should be carefully chosen to promote se7ual e1uality. CULTURAL CHANGES – *LAC5 ENGLISH *LAC5 AMERICAN ENGLISH (*AE)' Is the language used by lower4class 8lac5s in urban communities+ but as 8lac5s have become more integrated and as a 8lac5 middle class has developed+ the language form used by the >U of 8lac5 people has moved closer to !tandard American #nglish. *LAC5 ENGLISH VERNACULAR (*EV)' Is not a regional dialect because it is diJcult to lin5 it directly to a speci*c geographical area. It is classi*ed as a cultural or social variant from the standard form.
/here are dierent theories about the way in which 8lac5 #nglish developed. !ome people believe that because the slaves learned #nglish f rom their masters as a second language+ they passed on to their children a form of American #nglish that was grammatically dierent from American !tandard #nglish. 8ecause of racial segregation+ the dialect features of this variety persisted and are still to be found in Late odern 8lac5 #nglish. PIDGIN LANGUAGE% 6idgins are marginal languages created by people who need to communicate but have no common language. /hey are mar5ed by simpli*ed grammar and a small vocabulary. ost pidgins are based on #uropean languages reEecting #uropeFs history of colonization.
When a pidgin becomes the main language of a community+ it has to become more comple7 and be able to ful*ll a wider range of functions. When later generations learn it as a *rst language+ it is called a CREOLE. /here are two 5inds of creole #nglishes% Atlantic creole. 6aci*c creole. • •
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURES O/ CREOLE LANGUAGES% • • • •
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Absence of plural forms. /hird person singular pronouns are not mar5ed for gender. Nouns can be mar5ed for gender by adding SmanT &man) or SmeriT &woman). :erbs are not mar5ed for person or tense2 all verbs are used in the base form. (ierent timescales are indicated by the addition of au7iliary verbs+ or by creole words. ultiple nagatives are common.
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!ome varieties distinguish between two 5inds of SweT.
"ertain le7ical patterns are distinctive% • • • •
Reduplication of words is used to e7tend a limited vocabulary. Reduplication used to distinguish between two words that sound similar. Reiterated words used to intensify meanings and create emphasis. any nautical words were introduced in the *rst contact languages that evolved as a means of communication between the native language spea5ers and traders.
INTERNATIONAL CHANGES – ENGLISH AS A #ORLD LANGUAGE!
/he world wide status of #nglish is lin5ed to the growth of the 8ritish #mpire and the colonization of places li5e India and !outh Africa from the =Hth century onwards. In the military and commercial contacts that followed+ native languages were often suppressed by the 8ritish rules. In new environment+ #nglish ac1uires local nuances+ particularly in its le7is. AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH% any of the early settlers of Australia were convicts from the lower social classes who were more li5ely to use distinctive regional dialects+ and it is therefore sometimes thought that the distinctive Australian accents resulted from the mi7 of 9 regional accents handed down to descendants of the *rst #nglish spea5ers. Australian #nglish is mar5ed by the number of Aboriginal words that have been assimilated into the language. /hese words *lled gaps where there were no #nglish e1uivalents. AMERICAN ENGLISH% Is a separate form &from 8#) with its own spelling patterns and distinctive pronunciation. !ome idioms+ prepositions and the le7is assimilated from AmericaFs immigrant population are now often heard and sometimes used by 9 #nglish spea5ers. ,E#ISH ENGLISH%
Not all countries welcome the spread of #nglish. /RANCE' /he AcadOmie ;ranVaise &the oJcial body which protects and regulates the ;rench language) banned the use of blended words on the radio2 instead+ ;rench e1uivalents must be used% failure to do so will result in a *ne.
