Yoga in Daily Life This is a compact and yet a complete book on the ancient Indian wisdom of yoga—the science of health and physical well-being, of mental concentration, the dhyana, and serenity. It is a happy blend of the philosophy of yoga, which the author discusses briefly, and how the practice of yoga can be adopted in everyday life to provide the natural and easy way to take care of oneself at every age, to add zest and youthfulness to our lives. The focus of the book is practical. All physical dements of yoga are described and the methods and techniques of performing performing the various various asanas, yogic kriyas and mudras explained with the help of photographs. The language is simple and lucid. Dr. K.S. Joshi is a protagonist of yogic science and culture in India. He is the Head of the Department of Yogic Sciences at Sagar University, India» and has done substantial research on the effects of yoga on body and mind. A consultant as well as a yoga expert at Swami Kuvalayananda Scientific Institute for Yoga Research, Lonavla, Dr. Joshi the author of Yogic Pranayatna: Breathing For For Long Life and God God Health, Health, has published many research papers and is an internationally acknowledged authority on Yoga. "A wonderful book... indispensable for those who wish to know the practical side as well as the correct theory of Y ga ° "Voice of Man
By the Same Author in Orient Paperbacks Yogic Pranayama: Breathing For Long Life & Good Health
Yo Yoga in daily life M.Sc, c, M.A. .A., Ph.D. .D. K.S. Joshi, M.S Head of the DeptL of Yoga Yoga University of Sugar, M.P.
ORIENT PAPERBACKS A Divison of Vision Books Pvt. Ltd. New Oelhi • Mumbai • Hyderabad
To the ever-inspiring memory of MAHARANA PRATAP CHHATRAPATI SHIVAJI and GURU GOVIND SINGH
ISBN 81-222-0049-4 1st Published in Orient Paperbacks 1968 9th Printing 1980 Completely Revised & Enlarged Edition 1985 18th Printing 2000 Yoga in Daily Life С Vision Books Pvt. Ltd. 1985 Cover design by Vision Studio Studio Published by Orient Paperbacks (A division of Vision Books Pvt. Ltd.) Madarsa Road, Kashmere Gate, Delhi-! Delhi-! 10 006 Printed in India at Kay Kay Printers. Delhi-110 007 Cover Printed at Ravindra Printing Press» Delhi-110 006
Contents 1.
Yoga—An Introduction 7 Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Hatha Yoga
2.
Preparing for Yoga
24
The Digestive System, The Circulatory System, The Respiratory System, The Excretory System, The Endocrine System, The Nervous System, The Nature of Yogic Exercises: Physical Condition of the Individual/ Right Advice/Age and Sex/Place and Surroundings/Timc/Dict/Intcrval/Clothing/The Seat/The Order of Different Techniques/ General Hints 3.
Yoga for Better Health
57
Preliminary Exorcises to Limber-up Muscles and Joints, Bhadrasana, Uttanaman-dukasana, Gomukhasana, Ardhamatsyen-drasana, Yogamudra, Matsyasana, Viparita-karani, Sarvangasana, Halasana, Bhujang-asana, Shalabhasana, Dhanurasana, Shavasana, Kapalabhati, Tadagimudra, Agnisara, Nauli 4.
More Yoga Techniques
Trikonasana, Oarudasana, Ushtrasana, Chakrasana, Paschimottanasana, Bakasana, Kukkutasana, Uttanakurmasana, Parvatasana, Dolasana, Utkatasana, Padangusthasana, Mayurasana, Shirshasana, Malsyendrasana, Vrischikasana, Garbhasana, Suptavajrasana, Trataka, Dhauti, Basti
104
5. Pranayama: Controlling the Breath Pranayama, Ncti, Puraka and Rechaka, Kumbhaka, The Bandhas, The Varieties of Pranayama. 6. Dhayana: Controlling die Mind Dhyana, Yama and Niyama, Abhyasa 7. The Practice of Meditation Pratipakshabhavana, Maitri and other Bhavanas, Pracchardana and Vidharana, Calling to Mind Examples of Dispassionate Yogis, Taking Help from Dream Experience, Concentrating the Mind on Any Object of Choice. 8. Some Pertinent Questions and Answers Appendix Yogic Asanas: Meaning and Benefits
131
157 172
190
List of Illustrations Gomukh Asana Ardha Malsycn dra Asana Yogamudra Matsya Asana Vipritakarni Uttanamanduka Asana Sarvanga Asana Hala Asana Bhujanga Asana Dhaivur Asana Shava Asana Sidd ha Asana Padma Asana Bhadra Asana Utkata Asana Garbha Asana Tadagi Mudra
65 Ushtra Asana 99 Nauli 101 67 Chakra Asana 103 69 Garuda Asana 105 71 Trikona Asana 107 73 Ushtra Asana 109 75 Paschimottana 77 Asana 111 79 Kukkuta Asana 113 81 Baka Asana 115 83 Parvata Asana 117 85 Padangustha Asana 118 87 Mayura Asana 119 89 Shirsha Asana 121 91 Matsyendra Asana 123 93 Vrischika Asana. 125 99 Suptavajra Asana
95 Vajra Asana 127
127
<1 Yoga An Introduction
Is HUMAN LIFE on earth a matter, fundamentally, of misery and sorrow? This is a problem which seems to have engaged the minds of the Indian thinkers since ancient times. The answer to this question, as most of them appear to believe, is in the affirmative. It is an important business of philosophy, according to the Indian tradition, to seek to attain a state which is completely free from the clutches of misery and sorrow. This state has been variously spoken of as moksha, mukti, kaivalya, apavarga,
nirvana, and so on, by the adherents of various schools of philosophy in India, and philosophy is, therefore, truly called tmvajnana, or darshana. Whether all these words signify one and the same state, may be a moot point. But the fact of a complete cessation of suffering applies equally to all of them. The notion of suffering as a dominating factor in human life has loomed very large in Indian philosophy. In fact, it may be called the starting point of philosophical inquiries. Human suffering is traditionally supposed to be divided into three main types as follows: i) The bodily and mental conditions of an individual» such as ill health, disease, and emotions like hate, fear» passion, and so on*
ii) Suffering imposed on an individual through harmful behaviour of other human beings, animals, insects, and so on. Hi) Suffering which cannot be attributed to other beings, which is largely beyond the control of an individual e.g., earthquakes, floods, famines, epidemics, and the like. Beaten by the three-fold impact of suffering in the above manner, an individual is motivated or induced to think or act in such a way that he would ultimately succeed in overcoming the suffering. Naturally, the first response of an individual springs from the experiential field, and is based on common sense considerations. For example, one works at one's job in order to avoid starvation, takes medicine to get rid of diseases, constructs buildings, business industries, centres of production, etc., to foster good living conditions for the members of a society. In addition to this, an individual tries to belong to various organizations, parties, sects, blocks and groups, in order to overcome fear and the feeling of insecurity. Besides these common sense measures, and especially when these are found inadequate or ineffective, one turns to religion, to the gwus, to the spiritual guides and masters, and indulges in prayer, devotion, faith and the like. It is found, however, that both these ways lack the power of wiping out sorrow completely and in a once-for-all manner. For example, one may temporarily become physically fit by '*aking medicine, but some other disease may crop up after some time; the religious organizations and practices may not give full satisfaction, and one may have to run from one spiritual teacher or book to another. It is argued sometimes that science, with its tremendous technological advances, can eventually make 8
for human happiness. For example, it is thought that the science of medicine, in due course, may bring to man the ability of defying death as long as he wishes; the science of physics may make him gain an access to the heavenly bodies through outer space, and that there would indeed be a time, not in the far distant future, when man would attain full control over the forces of nature. Science is thus supposed by many to be a very powerful tool in the hands of man, which would, before long make him immune to grief and sorrow. But this seems to be a rather extravagant claim. It is indeed true that scientific discoveries have helped tremendously to make our life less hazardous* But science, obviously, is a way of collecting and arranging information, and mere information, however intelligently arranged, does not, and cannot make for an understanding of pain and suffering, which is a fundamental problem for life. Had this problem been the result of the forces of nature working in our surroundings alone, then perhaps science would have been an adequate tool for overcoming suffering. The problem, however, seems to arise largely from our internal environment, that is, our peculiar ways of looking at the world. It is really a problem of understanding ourselves and our behaviour in daily life, our fears and cravings, our beliefs and ambitions, passions and emotions, and, in fact, whatever we do in our relationship with the surrounding people and environment. Therefore, unless we understand properly the way in which we see things and react to the various happenings in and about us, a mere collection of information regarding the outer nature, and trying to get mastery over it will not take us very far. Supposing* for example, that human beings succeed in reaching the moon or even distant bodies in outer space, and live 9
there, or that the future developments in the science of human physiology make it possib possible le for men to live live as long as they wish; is this knowledge, as such, going to make hvnan life happier and more peaceful? The belief belief that that we shall shall be able to overcome overcome pain, pain, suffering suffering and war through becoming more well-informed, seems to have led us up a blind alley. We may quote a shru shruti ti here with advantage. It says: "Knowledge is even mo-c dangerous than ignorance, for the ignorant go ultimately to darkness, whereas those who take pride in their knowledge go to greater darkness still." (ishavas yopanishad, 9). The problem is really not of obtaining mastery over the outer nature or the surrounding environment, but rather of obtaining mastery over oneself, over over one's passions and ambitions, emotions and conflicts. For that, t hat, however, ho wever, something much more mor e profound than what our modern scientific techniques have to offer us, is needed. Only then the present human crisis all over the world can be resolved. To bring about about peace in the world, one must himself himself be peaceful first. Peace, within and about about oneself, has perhaps been the greatest greatest mark mark of yoga yoga.. It is, is, therefor therefore, e, that yoga can be of utmost utility to an individual whose mind, torn as it is between conflicting desires, seeks to attain peace and happiness. Yoga has rightly been held in very high high esteem by all the systems of Indian philosophy including Jainism and Buddhism. It is indeed looked upon as a panacea for human misery and sorrow. Let us at this stage set ourselves to inquire into what what yoga really means, what it claims claims to bring about in respect of the life of an individual, and also, the means through which that goal is realised. 5 The word 'yoga is associated by and large with the acquisition and exhibition of supernatural powers. It is 10
customary to look at yoga as a curious ancient art which combines a set of religious beliefs with a strange and mysterious practical discipline. It has become fairly common these days, to come across news about somebody claiming to be a yogi, performing miraculous feats like walking on fire (or even sometimes on water), passing a road-rolle road-rollerr on the chest, chest, or drinking drinking concenconcentrated acids, and so on. There seems to be a belief in the minds of many, that yoga is concerned mainly with sufch extraordinary phenomena. It is also supposed that yoga is not for the common man, and that only those who can get away from daily life in society, and retire in solitude for years, with a view to undergo rigorous discipline of the body and mind, are the fit persons to indulge indulge in yoga. It is supposed to be a very risky and dangerous path, of which a common man should keep clear. It is an amazing fact that such superstitious ideas are widespread even in the land of yoga. Actually, all these ideas about yoga turn out to be more or less erroneous, on a proper scrutiny. The The difficulty, however, is that the field of yoga is, at present, largely in the hands of lesser men, who are not properly educated, and who turn to yoga, mainly because they are not likely to succeed elsewhere. elsewhere. Dishonesty, insincerity and hypocricy are thus rampant causing frustration in the minds of sincere students of yoga. This sad state of affairs will be changed only when educated, intelligent men having a strength of character will be attracted towards the field of yoga in sufficient numbers. Secondly, not much is as yet scientifically known about the various processes of yoga. Some scientists are of late showing interest in this area, and it seems that much valuable information can be gathered through applying the modem techniques of research to the field of yoga. 11
The word "yoga" is perhaps older than the system of philosophy which goes by that name. The oldest use of the word "yoga", as found in the Vedic literature, (e.g. Rigveda Rigveda X, 114, 9; Atharva Atharvaved veda a VI, 91, 1) indicates a union of various things, especially the horses or the bullocks. This is derived from the Sanskrit root "yujir**, meaning to "unite" or "connect". In later times, however, another technical meaning came to be associated with the term, and this is derived from the Sanskrit root ``yuj " 9 indicating control of the mind. Both the meanings seem to be fairly common in the Sanskrit language even today. This does not, of course, mean that while the word "yoga** was being used (in the time of the Vedic Aryans) to denote simply a union, the facts about controlling and steadying the mind were themselves unknown. In the Vedas we find clear indications that the rishis and the seers were quite familiar with the highest state which is the goal of yoga. They used to achieve this through procedures described as dhyana, diksfta, tapas y etc. We shall now examine the various descriptions and definitions of yoga as found in ancient Indian literature. These are too numerous, and our purpose may be served by mentioning only a few typical ones out of them. The Ka The Kath thop opan anish ishad ad (II, 3, 10-11) defines yoga as "a state of steadiness and control of the senses, as well as the mind and the intellect, which, when attained, makes an individual completely faultless and unoffending**. Our minds are usually swayed away by the objects of enjoyment. But the mind of a yogi is not taken away by his senses, because it becomes free of the process of desire, and hence remains steady in the highest state of yoga- How this state of steadiness is to be achieved, achieved, is a problem problem which we shall shall discus discusss later later on12
In the Shvetaashvatara Upanishad (II» 12-13), the qualities of a yogi, whose body shines with the fire of yoga, are described, and it is said that disease, old age and death do not come to him, and further that Ms body body becomes becomes supple supple and health healthy, y, his mind mind devoid devoid of greed, and full of peace and satisfaction- There are many other references in the yoga texts where these and other similar qualities of highly developed masters of yoga are found mentioned- These descriptions show clearly that yogi is a person whose body and mind both become pure by the practice of yoga. This fact can be experienced, though to a limited extent, by everyone, who practises faithfully the physical and mental exercises, as we shall describe in the chapters to follow. It is especially due to this fact that we argue that yoga is not only for the chosen few or the superior few, but, in fact, it can be of immense benefit to everyone, learned as well as lay, rich or poor, who cares for his physical and mental health. It is customary in religious literature to look upon the world as a stream or an ocean of sorrow- Human beings, beings, since since birth birth till death, are supposed supposed to be drowning in this ocean. It is in this context that yoga is mentioned in the Yogavasista (VI, 13, 3) as a device that makes for reaching the other shore of the stream of sorrow. It is indeed true that a yogi is a person who is eternally free of cravings and sorrow. That is because he comes to overcome ignorance once for all. We find yoga defined at three different places in the Gita9 which is perhaps the most popular among the authoritative treatises on yoga. According to the first definition (Glta, II, 48) yoga signifies a state of equi pois poisee wherei wherein n opposi opposite tess like like succe success ss and failure failure make make little difference. This is something which looks rather strange to many thinkers. They ask as to what kind of 13
existence it would be» if one looks equally upon success and failure. We always happen to seek to attain success and avoid failure. And what can be the significance of a person to the members of his family or society, if one does not bother about success and failure? How can he live in the present-day society which is full of competition conflict? We should note one important point here, namely, that a yogi, according to the Gita9 is a person whose pattern of motivation is wholly changed for nothing remains for him to be achieved in this world; he is completely free of desire to attain anything. But he, nevertheless, does not abandon activity and work; he, on the contrary, continues to work for the good of humanity, and in this, he does not get elated or over joyed if his works bring success, or dejected when he fails to obtain good results. This is because his activity is not aimed at producing this or that limited result. He does continue to work, but renounces any enjoyment of the consequences. This fact has been made clear in another definition of yoga (II, 50-51), where it is stated that a yogi, who renounces the concern with the consequences of his deeds (that is, remains concerned only with action and not with the consequences), overcomes bondage- for ever. This means, for example, that a student should study very hard, according to his capacity, but should not be troubled, in the least, by the idea that he must beat his rival in the examination. Most of us are Iargely'concerned in life with pleasant imaginations of the good consequences of what we are engaged in. We always aspire for an improvement in our status and position; we always desire to be important and advanced in our society. But a yogi is not instigated to act by any such motive. He can, therefore, remain undisturbed even in the wake of the severest 14
misery. This is described in a very clear and masterly way in another definition of yoga, as found in the Gita (VI, 21-23). Yoga is defined here as a state of separation from sorrow. The Gita declares that when that state of happiness par excellence is achieved, there remains nothing else to be achieved, which may be greater than it; not even the greatest misery can ever disturb that state. It is said also that such a state of yoga is to be attained with a high resolve. It may be said, however, that in all the definitions mentioned above, yoga has been defined in such a high manner, that, frankly speaking, it must be admitted that the goal of yoga is something that lies completely beyond the reach of common man. The same difficulty would arise in the case of the definition of yoga as given in Patanjali's Yoga Sutra (I, 2), which is supposed to be the most important text of yoga philosophy. Patanjali defines yoga as a state in which there is complete elimination of the thoughts and modifications of the mind. Patanjali states further that there are eight parts of this yoga, which, when mastered individually and collectively, ultimately make that state come into being. Herein lies a hope for everybody, because it is possible for any sincere and faithful student to master the eight parts of yoga, through the practice of the required discipline. Two minimum conditions must be fulfilled for achieving this -However, they are mentioned in the Gita (VI, 35) as well as the Yoga Sutra (1,12), and are called abhyasa and vatragya respectively. An individual can attain the goal of yoga, only when he has these two qualities to begin with. Vatragya means lack of ambition; it is the opposite of raga, which means attachment. The absence of the process of desire is what is meant by vatragya. It is only through 15
valragya that one can succeed in getting rid of the tendency of the mind to run after various objects of en joyment. Such a mind can be made steady. Abhyasa is the process of steadying the mind. This can be achieved in various ways, according to one's temperament. They are known as different types of yoga, and although looking separate and different in the beginning, they all seem to lead to the same goal of mukti. We shall discuss here the essential features of the important approaches or varieties of yoga, namely, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga, Hatha Yoga, and Jnana Yoga. Bhakti Yoga This is perhaps the easiest of the varieties of yoga, because it does not involve any highly technical and complicated procedures, nor does it call for any special intellectual capacity on the part of the student. It has a tremendous appeal to the common man, because it develops a feeling of security in the devotee (bhaktd) who has a kind of reliance and dependence on the object of his devotion. It is based on the conviction that there exists a higher power (called God) that has wilfully created the universe, and that this power, which is all-powerful and merciful, may shower grace and mercy on the devotee, thereby protecting him from harms and evils. All that the devotee is expected to do is to make himself fit for obtaining the grace and mercy of God, the Supreme Creator, through devotion and the practice of virtue. The devotee aspires to become ultimately one with the object of devotion, resting eternally in peace and happiness with Him. The devotee surrenders all his motives and acts to the Divine Power, and renounces all responsibility towards the good or bad consequences of what he does, in the 16
name of the will of the Supreme. Devotion and faith are observed to play an important part in religion, and the devotee is usually a religious person, who is supposed to develop friendliness to all human beings, abstain from doing any harm to others, read religious literature, concentrate on the symbol of the Supreme, and so on. The widespread appeal of Bhakti Yoga is largely drawn from the element of simplicity, which is a characteristic mark of it. Karma Yoga This is the yoga of the Gita> as Lokamanya Tilak would have us believe. Karma in Sanskrit means action and this variety of yoga derives its name from the fact that even after attainment of the goal of yoga, i.e. jivartmukti, one does not renounce the various acts themselves. It is said that bondage is caused by the cravings and desires that are associated with an act, and that one can be free of the binding effect of any act if one does the act without associating himself with the consequences. It is not the acts themselves that bind an individual, but rather the attitude or intention involved. A Karma Yogi behaves with indifference which is the product of cessation of desire and an awareness of the real significance of happenings in the world. Karma Yoga thus involves doing one's duties without any reservation, and without tbecraving that one should get this or that benefit for his acts. This attitude is indeed very difficult to cultivate, for most of us have their mind usually swayed away by the imaginations of the pleasures that our acts may possibly give rise to. We thus always have an eye on the future improvement in our position» prestige, power and so on. We usually do various things in order to become more important in the society we 17
live in, we always happen to aspire and crave for achieving something that others cannot achieve, we always want to have something more and better than what our neighbours and friends have. A Karma Yogi behaves in life with all such mental activity having been stopped completely. But his lack of attention on the goal does not make him dull or inefficient in whatever he may be engaged in. On the contrary, he devotes his full energies towards good action, because his energy is not dissipated by hankering after this or that pleasure. A Karma Yogi is a man of the happiest behavioral adjustment within himself, as well as with the surrounding world. He does not pursue pleasure but pleasure follows him in whatever he does. Jnana Yoga This is supposed to be the yoga of the intelligent or the superior few. All other varieties of yoga are believed ultimately to lead to this kind of yoga, in which one comes to look at everything in the world as it is, without any ignorance and bias. This is supposed to be achieved through a continued practice of a strenuous mental discipline and virtue. This variety is also called Raja Yoga, because it is the highest variety, so to say, or the yoga that presides- Perhaps it is the variety which Patanjali has described in his Yoga Sutra, He has said that it is made of eight parts, five of which aie said to be external, and three internal* Yama and Niyama, that is» the first two parts, are concerned respectively with what habits a student of yoga should avoid (e.g. harming others, speaking lies, stealing, gathering wealth unnecessarily, etc.), and what habits he should positively cultivate (e.g. cleanliness of the body and mind, contentment, devotion etc.) Asana and Pranaywna, 18
which are respectively the third and fourth parts in Patanjali's system, are dealt with elaborately in Hatha Yoga. The fifth part, namely, Pratyahara, indicates a withdrawal of the sense organs from the objects of enjoyment The next three parts consist of a process of progressive mental concentration. Patanjali argues that through a faithful and intense practice of these eight parts of yoga for a sufficient length of time, a student of yoga can wash away all the impurities of his body and mind, so that he attains knowledge which ultimately liberates him from bondage and ignorance. This yoga is also called Ashtanga Yoga, because of the fact that it is mr.de of eight parts- It is also sometimes called Dhyana Yoga, because of an emphasis on mental concentration. Wc find a lucid description of this variety of yoga in the sixth chapter of the Gita. It is usually this yoga that is implied whenever the word "yoga" stands alone without any qualification. Hatha Yoga This is perhaps a comparatively later development among the varieties of yoga. It is made of four parts, namely, Asana, Pranayama, Mudra and Nadanu sandhana. Swatmarama, an old authority on this yoga, declares in the Hathayoga-Pradipika,that Hatha Yoga is the staircase which leads a sincere student ultimately to the goal of Raja Yoga. It is supposed that a practice of the techniques included in this yoga brings about a union of what are called the sun and the moon in our body. The moon is situated in a region above the hard palate, and is believed to exude a fluid which percolates down, and is swallowed by the sun, which is situated near the navel. It is due to the swallowing up of this elixir by the sun, that we are said to suffer from old 19
age and death. Hatha Yoga, in short, is a way of tackling these two, i.e. the sun and the moon in our body, so as to bring about a union of them. Asanas, which form the firЈt part of Hatha Yoga, bring about bodily and mental stability, which is a mark of perfect health- They make the body active and supple, by removing the impurities and extra fat. The next two parts.namely Mudra and Pranayama, are aimed at making the breath silent, thereby activating certain dormant areas of our nervous system, when the nerves are completely divested of all impurities. This is spoken of in yogic terms as the arousal of the Awndattni, the divine power that usually lies dormant in human beings. We shall have occasion to discuss the notion of the Ktfftdalini in detail while dealing with the techniques of the Mudras and Pranayama, in a later chapter. The fourth part of Hatha Yoga, which is supposed to be the result of an intense and prolonged practice of the first three parts, is associated with concentrating the mind on the subtle sounds {naila) which an advanced student of yoga can hear after arousal of the Kundalmi- This phenomenon continues for a while, and the student hears progressively subtler sounds until at least the nada becomes silent, making the mind com pletely absorbed in itself. This state is described by words like samadhi. saJiajavastha, unmani, etc., and is the highest state of happiness that remains ever undisturbed by whatever happens in one's life. Such a person may rightly be said to have reached the goal of yoga that is common to all the varieties of yoga. It is indeed the state of liberation in bodily existence. We shall here try to describe this state at some length, with a view to make two points clear, namely, what yoga really stands for, and who can be considered a real yogi. A student of yoga should understand these two 20
points very clearly. A lot of confusion seems to prevail among the minds of many people, on these two points. We are obviously not referring here to people, who, with their long grown beards and hair, move about in the masses as masters of yoga, trying to impress people with demonstrations of unusual powers concerning bending metal bars, breaking thick metal plates, stopping moving cars, or walking on fire or water. Patanjali has mentioned many yogic powers or siddhis in the third chapter of the Yoga Sutra. But he has clearly warned the students of yoga against an unwise use and exhibition of them, by declaring that they are actually distractions in the path of samadhL A yogi, to be sure, is a person who behaves in everyday life like other persons. He has his biological needs; he has to eat and drink in order to keep the body living. But on the psychological plane his behaviour shows a vast difference. He is not motivated in the same fashion as most of us are. He has nothing to attain in the world for himself. Yet, he keeps on working for the good of humanity. His sense organs do work like those of others, but he is not swayed away by the sensations, nor does his mind run after objects of enjoyment. Jnaneshwiira. the great master of yoga, has described the behaviour of a yogi in a very interesting manner as follows' "The yogi may apparently respond to experiences in life, but he remains unaffected or undisturbed from within. Just as the moon responds to moonlight or the ocean responds to showers of rain, the yogi reacts passively to whatever confronts him in life. His choicelessness, passivity and peace are never disturbed by whatever he does, and while his sense organs behave in their usual manner, his silent samadlii remains ever undisturbed with all that he does." (Anubhavamrita, 21
IX, 19-20). A yogi's personality may be described in a very real sense by the Sanskrit term "guru**, and according to the ancient Indian tradition, such a guru is verily equated with Brahman itself. The great Shankaracharya, who had himself attained the state of jivanmukti, speaks about such a person in terms of the following qualities: "He is sinless, unsmittcn by desire, peaceful like fire that has consumed its fuel to the end, and, being himself in a state beyond death and sorrow, he helps others mercifully and compassionately.'* (Viveka Chudamani, 33) An interesting fact in this matter has been brought out in the Yoga Vasishtha (II, 15. 2 and IT, 15 II) It says, "For a yogi who has found the treasure of eternal happiness, and whose intellect has stopped running after the objects of enjoyment, even the greatest empire on the earth is nothing more valuable than a dry leaf that is to be shed. Such a person, even if he may be without a single coin in hie possession, still obtains the pleasure that can hardly ever be obtained by an emperor.'' The Gita abounds in references to the behaviour of a yogi. Lord Krishna has, for example, described towards the end of the second chapter, how a yogi with a stabilized intellect behaves in everyday life. It is said that his mind is divested of all cravings, and that he remains at peace with himself and with the world; he loves all, and remains unmoved in the wake of disturbing circumstances. Such a yogi is rightly compared with a vast ocean, which remains undisturbed, although the big rivers are continually pouring water in Ш More or less the same qualities are found mentioned in the fourth chapter of the Gita (19-23), as also in* the fifth (20-28), twelth (13-19), and the fourteenth (22-27) 22
chapters. It is declared in the fifteenth chapter of the Gita (5) that the state of rnukti is reached by those who have become free of any feeling of superiority or prestige, as well as infatuati on, who have won over the feeling of attachment to anything, and who have risen above'the dualities like pleasure and pain, and have thereby become completely free of ignorance. But such highly pure and enlightened personalities are indeed very rare, and it looks almost impossible for a common man to rise to such immense heights. A common man can, nevertheless, aspire to reach there by trying, according to his own capacity, to tread the path shown by such highly developed personalities. Our main concern in this book is to show and describe how far yoga can be included in the daily routine of an average individual. We shall discuss thoroughly four main areas in this respect, namely, those having to do respectively with bodily health, silencing of the breath, psychological behaviour, and mental concentration. Let us, therefore, turn now to a detailed study of these aspects of yoga, from the point of view of an average individual.
23
Preparing for YOGA EVER SINCE the origin of civilized human life on the earth, human beings have been required to mould their behaviour according to the demands of the environment. It is customary to classify the environment into four main types, namely, the physical, psychological, physiological, and cultural. For making life possible at all, the physical environment must be sufficiently congenial. Atmospheric temperature and pressure, presence or absence of particular gases in the atmosphere, and availability of nutrients, are some of the factors which seem to constitute the physical environment. It is believed that our earth is the only planet in the solar system, where a congenial environment is available, and it is possibly due to the fact of an availability of a congenial environment that it is believed that human life is a rare phenomenon in the universe. Besides the physical environment, we are influenced by a physiological environment (which may also be called the internal environment) which depends upon factors like body temperature, body fluids, meta bolism, poor or proper development of the body tissues» especially the nervous system, and so on. Our psychological environment comprises the various beliefs, fears, emotions, likes and dislikes, attitudes, tendencies, etc., while the cultural environment is largely made by the
mores and taboos of the society we live in. Our environment is, however, never completely congenial. Had it been otherwise, and if all our desires and needs were automatically satisfied as they arose, we would have hardly ever been induced to think or act in any manner. Fortunately, there are discrepancies in the environment, both external as well as internal, which set us afoot on a course of thought and action. But what is unfortunate, these discrepancies often become too great, And the disturbance caused by these in an individual gives rise to pain and misery. Perhaps all our sciences and philosophies, our religious, cultural and political activities, and indeed all of what we think or do, is, in the ultimate analysis, directed towards one goal, that of reduction or cessation of tension, pain and misery. We have argued in the first chapter that yoga, with its physical and mental discipline, which moulds the behaviour of an individual in such a way that the happiest behavioural adjustment of an individual with his surroundings is brought about, is the panacea for human misery and sorrow* Our effort throughout the pages of the present book may be looked upon as an elaboration of this statement, which appears to be much more impressive and true in the context of the terrific tension or pressure to which the common individual is subjected in our modern society. Yoga, as we have said, is a discipline which seeks to bring the internal environment of an individual under his control, thereby making for a happy adjust' ment of the individual within himself, as well as with his surroundings. We have noted already that the way of science is the way of controlling the surrounding nature, which, as is experienced all over the world, falls much too short of the goal of peace within and 25
between individuals, societies, nations, and groups of nations. It may not be preposterous to claim that if the human society is to be saved from a tremendous peril that seems to be the result of one-sided development of science, we shall have to turn to yoga as the culture of tomorrow. The problem of violence, aggression and war can be solved, so it seems, only through a revolution from within, which is the way of yoga, which should go side by side with technological advances* As stated earlier, we shall discuss the yoga discipline under four heads, namely, techniques for bodily health, techniques of silencing the breath, behavioral discipline, and mental concentration. An individual who masters these four aspects of yoga, becomes, what may be called, a perfect individual, or a balanced personality* Yoga may thus be rightly described as a science of personality. We shall make a detailed study of the four aspects of yoga in the following chapters, after making note of certain preliminary considerations in the present chapter. There is an impelling question which, it would be better to settle at the outset* This question has been raised by very important personalities who we must say, had reached the goal of yoga, i.e. jivanmnktL The first among them, to be mentioned, is the great Shankaracharya. He has denounced the ways of yoga, samkhya, action, and acquiring knowledge, as of no avail for making the state of liberation come into being. In the Viveka-Chudamani (56 and 59), be declares emphatically that as long as the state of mukti is not there, the study of scriptures and the practice of whatever is mentioned therein, has no value, and when the state of mukti once comes into being, one has nothing to bother about what has been said in the 26
scriptures. He makes his point clear with the help of an example (verse 54). He says:' "A first-hand knowledge of the moon can be had, not by looking to the descriptions of it made by other people, but only by seeing the moon with one's own eyes. Similarly, the state of mukti is to be experienced through one's own insight, and not through trying to know what others have said about it." Jnaneshwara has explained the futility of the various techniques of yoga in a similar fashion (Anubhavamrita, IX. 27). He has spoken of the yoga techniques as being as insignificant and useless as the moon at daytime, so far as the state of mukti is concerned. When the sun shines bright in the sky, nobody has to depend on the moon for light. Similarly, yoga, with all its techniques becomes useless and unnecessary when the state of mukti is there. It may be argued here that although it may be true that the moon serves no purpose after sunrise, the moon, nevertheless, is important before sunrise or after sunset. The yoga techniques, it may be said, are similarly of great help to those who have not yet known the light of mukti. This argument looks very proper, But there is a difficulty in it, which has been brought out in the writings of J. Krishnamurti, who is supposed by many people to be a living example of a person who has reached the goal of yoga. He argues (Commentaries on Living, 3rd series, pp. 98-99) that there is actually no difference between an individual practising yoga, and other individuals engaged in the fulfilment of worldly desires. He looks upon both these to be equally greedy and ambitious. The desire for mukti or emancipation is also, as Krishnamurti says, only a form of desire, not different from other desires for enjoyment. The futility of the pursuit of mukti through efforts 27
based on what is said by others, is very well depicted in the Maitreyi Upanishad (II, 32). It is declared that the pleasure one obtains through the pursuit of mukti is not real, because it does not imply any experience of the state of mukti. It is like the pleasure derived from a mere description of the taste of a nice fruit, by seeing only a reflection of the fruit on the surface of water. The point raised in all these statements is very crucial. It is indeed true that mukti or moksha is not a state which can be produced as a result of any effort according to the directions or instructions of others. It is due to this fact that a liberated person cannot make others liberated through his teachings. Otherwise, a single individual like Lord Krishna, or Shankaracharya, could turn the whole humanity into liberated persons, en masse. Unfortunately, liberation cannot be given by a liberated person to others just as a testimonial or a certificate can be given by one person to another. The difficulty here lies in the fact that to be liberated, one has himself to be in a state of awareness, wherein one understands himself and the world without the limitations of any preconceived notions, biases and points of view. This requires a very special capacity of the mind, namely, the ability to look at anything as it is. Most of us lack this capacity completely and, therefore, we cannot be liberated, even if we may understand everything about the state of mukti intellectually, through reading descriptions of it made in the scriptures, or through hearing talks and lectures. A blind man may be able to describe all the facts about the moon in a very lucid and clear manner, through gaining information from what others have said. For a person who has seen the moon with his own eyes, and has enjoyed the beauty of the moonlight, such descriptions are of no importance at all. 28
And just as the blind man with all his intelligence and knowledge, cannot have a first-hand experience of seeing the moon., so too, most of us fail to reach the state of mukti inspite of anything that we may do in order to obtain it. The gap between the state of mukti and our efforts cannot be bridged, as is the experience of most of us, by talks and discourses» books and scriptures. This is a very vital point which makes most of us falter on the spiritual path. It is here that yoga seems to afford valuable help. It is a basic presupposition in yoga, that every human individual can have mukti if he succeeds in divesting his mind of the impurities which cover his intellect (buddhi)* barring it thereby from its intrinsic capacity for atmadarshana. Patanjali has declared in the Yoga Sutra (II. 28), that through a faithful and intense practice of the eight parts of yoga, the impurities of the mind are washed away progressively, and that the mind becomes sensitive and pure by this, so that its capacity for atmadarshana is automatically restored. We may thus say that the techniques of yoga can help an individual to attain mukti, by removing the obstacles in the way of atmadarshana. It is, of course, true that very few persons can actually reach the state of mukti through practising the yoga techniques. But this does not mean that yoga has nothing to offer to a common man. An examination of the four groups of yoga techniques which we shall describe in the following chapters, will show that a person who finds himself incapable of practising the higher or deeper techniques of yoga, so to say, can at least obtain some benefits, so as to make his body and mind healthy, and this in itself is not a small gain. We shall here try to note down certain facts about the human body and mind, before setting on a detailed study of what the yoga 29
techniques are, and what changes they can bring about in one's personality. The human body» as science tells us, is 9 product of the union of two microscopic structures, respectively called the sperm (or the male gamete) and the ovum (or the female gamete). The sperms are produced in the genital system of the male parent, and when one of them unites with the ovum in the body of the female parent, the union gives rise to a single cell called the "zygote". The zygote increases rapidly in size, in the womb of the mother, through a process of cell-division, and ultimately emerges as a new-born child, at the time of birth. The individual, at the time of birth, is a mass of innumerable cells arranged into various groups, by a process of differentiation. These groups are called tissues. There are Ave main types of tissues found in the human body. They are the epithelial tissue, the connective tissue, muscles, nerves, and bones. The epithelial tissue makes the inner as well as outer surfaces of various organs and glands in the body, and protects them. Various secretions in the body, like the saliva, digestive juices, and hormones of the endocrine glands, are supposed to be produced in the epithelial tissue. The connective tissue is concerned with filling the gaps between other tissues. It contains stored fat, and gives support to various organs. The storage of fat provides a good source of energy that can be utilized when the intake of food is reduced or stopped. It is due to this that we can live without food for some days or even weeks. The muscles form a very important tissue in the body. They are responsible for the shape of the body as well as for the capacity to perform various movements. Strength of the body depends upon the development of muscles. A strong person has well30
developed muscles, while a weak person has poorly developed muscles. Three types of muscles are found in our body, namely, the skeletal muscles, the smooth muscles, and the heart muscle. The skeletal muscles are attached to the bony framework and are called voluntary muscles. The smooth muscles form the walls of the hollow visceral organs like the stomach, the bladder, the intestines, etc., as well as of the blood vessels and the lungs. The muscles cannot be contracted voluntarily, and are called involuntary muscles on that account. The heart muscles, which is called cardiac muscle, is composed of a special kind of strong fibres, because the heart has to work continuously from birth till death. The fourth kind of tissue, namely, the nervous tissue, performs the function of conducting stimuli from various body parts to the brain, and impulses in the reverse direction. Those which carry the stimuli caused by pain, pressure, temperature, etc., towards the spinal cord or brain, are called "afferent" or"sensory" nerves, while those carrying impulses from the spinal cord or the brain to some muscle or organ, are called "efferent" or "motor" nerves. The bones form the frame-work of the body. Without them, the body would have been a mere mass of soft tissue. They render support and protection to delicate parts, and make movements possible. They may be either hard or soft. The soft ones are called "cartilage". The nasal septum which divides the nose into two nostrils, the external ears, the end portions of the ribs and the chest bone, are some of the examples of cartilage, which makes bending or extension of a part possible. The backbone is not a single piece, but is composed of a chain of different pieces, called the "vertebrae". This makes it possible to bend the back 31
forward or backward and to the sides. The large bones are hollow from inside, this gives two advantages, namely, first, that it increases the strength of the bones» and secondly, it reduces the weight of the bones to a minimum. The various functions in the human body can well be compared to those in a complicated machine. The human machine is, in fact, very much more complicated than the machines we know of, because it consists of physical as well as physiological factors. Just as a business concern or a big institution like a university, or a factory, has several departments, e.g. those having to do with acquisition of raw materials» processing, storage, disposal of waste materials, making the finished products available for use to others, and so on, so too, with the human body. For keeping the body in an efficient working order, so many functions have to go on hand in hand. For example, a group of organs in the body is engaged in acquisition of food and its digestion, assimilation and utilization in the body; another group of organs is concerned with the work of supplying nutrients to every part of the body, and collecting waste' materials from all over the body so as to throw them out ultimately, through the work of a third group of organs. Л fourth group of organs is concerned with obtaining the vitally needed oxygen, and supplying it to every tissue and organ. AH these functions are helped by a fifth group of organs called the "endocrine glands", while an overall control of all the functions going on in the human body in co-operation with one another, is the business of a separate group of organs. These various groups are respectively called the digestive, circulatory, excretory, respiratory, endocrine, and nervous systems. We shall describe the working of these systems in brief, one by one, so that
32
we can further understand the influence of the yoga techniques on the human organism. The Digestive System The organs constituting this system are: the mouth, the pharynx, the gullet (foodpipe), the stomach, the duodenum, and the small and large intestines. From the point of view of the science of diet, the food we eat should contain five constituents, namely, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral salts, and vitamins. The first three constituents in this list are supposed to yield energy that is required for the life activity of an individual. One gram of carbohydrate or protein gives 4.1 calories of energy, while one gram of fat is found to give 9.2 calories of energy. We get large amount of carbohydrates from cereals, potatoes» sugar, etc. The proteins, in addition to supplying energy, perform another important function, that of building the muscles of the body. They are of two types, namely, plant proteins, which are contained in large quantities in pulses, and dried nuts, and animal proteins, which may be received from animal sources, like eggs, meat, fish, poultry, milk, and so on. The animal proteins are more valuable» and hence vegetarians must include sufficient quantity of milk in their diet» so as to fulfil the requirements of animal proteins. The fats can also be had from two sources, namely, plants and animals. Both these are found to have equal energy value. But the animal fats, which are contained in butter, meat, egg, fish and poultry, are more valuable in as much as they are rich in vitamins Л and D. Many minerals, like Calcium, Magnesium, Phos phorus, Sodium, Iodine, Sulphur, etc., are found in the human body. They play an important role in control33
Mouth
Stomach Small "intestines Large intestines
Anal opening
The Digestive System ling the biochemical activity going on in the body. Calcium and Phosphorous are largely required for the proper development of bones and teeth. Many disorders are caused due to deficiencies of various minerals, and hence, it is necessary to have them in sufficient amounts in one's diet. The vitamins, although needed in very minute amounts, are often found to be lacking in diets. They are obtained from fruits, vegetables, milk, etc., and are 34
very intimately concerned with the maintenance of health and vigour of the body. Along with these nutrients, water is also needed in large amounts, because nearly 65% of the weight of our body is made by water. The body fluids, like saliva, the blood, the digestive juices, and endocrine secretions contain large amounts of water. Water helps in maintaining the body temperature within the normal range. The mouth is the receiving organ for food. The food is cut into pieces with the teeth, and is ground into finer forms, and is moistened with saliva, so that it can be easily passed down the throat The pharynx is a part next to the mouth, where seven paths come and meet: two from the nose, one from the mouth, two from the ears, one going down to the lungs, and one to the stomach. The food masticated and moistened in the mouth passes through the pharynx, down this last path, made by the gullet or oesophagus, which leads ultimately to the stomach. The food remains in the stomach for about two hours, and gets mixed with the Hydrochloric Acid and digestive juices secreted by the stomach wall. It then passes to the duodenum which has the shape of an inverted horse-shoe. Three digestive juices get mixed with it here, namely, the pancreatic juice (secreted by the glands called pancreas), the bile (produced in the liver), and the juice of the duodenum itself. As a result of the action of various digestive juices, the constituents of food, especially the fats, proteins and carbohydrates are broken down to simpler substances which can be assimilated in the body. The small intestines which are over twenty feet long, are responsible for absorption of the digested constituents of food. The remaining part goes to the large intestines (nearly five feet long), and is ultimately eliminated through the anus after absorbing water 35
from it in the large intestines. The assimilated constituents of food are largely stored in the liver, and are supplied to the tissues, muscles, and all the parts of the body, through the agency of blood* The Circulatory System Also known as the cardio-vascular system this consists of the heart (which pumps the blood to various body parts), and the blood vessels (which carry the blood from .the heart and back to it again). The heart is a very vital organ which works incessantly from birth till death. It is divided into four compartments. The upper right compartment receives impure blood from all over the body, and sends it to the lower right one, from where it is sent for purification \ in the lungs. The L purified blood from the lungs goes > to the upper left compartment of the heart, and thence to the lower left one, from where it is pumped all over the body, through the arteries. The arteries are thick-walled tube-like structures which carry blood from the heart to various body-parts, through their branches and minute sub branches. These minute sub-branches divide further into capillaries which are very thin-walled. The capillaries ramify into various muscles, organs, and tissues. Due to the thinness of their walls, the capillaries allow the nutrients and oxygen in the blood to come out of them, and be supplied to the tissues. In return, the carbon dioxide and other waste materials from the tissues diiTuse into the capillaries. Minute sub-branches of veins start from where the capillaries end, and blood (with the waste materials in it) proceeds through the veins, and is ultimately returned to the heart. The veins are thinwalled. They have to raise the blood from the lower extremities, pelvic region, trunk, and abdomen against the force 36
Spleen
Kidney
Capillaries
The Cardio-Vascular System
of gravity. This is achieved with the help of valves situated in the veins. The blood contains nearly 90% water, in which three kinds of bodies keep floating. These are: the red blood corpuscles, the white blood cells, and the blood platelets. The R.В.Сs contain a scarlet coloured substance called "haemoglobin", which is the carrier of oxygen. The W.B.C.s constitute the defence force in the body. They fight any foreign cells such as bacteria and other micro-organisms which, if allowed to infest the body, can cause many diseases. The blood platelets are supposed to play an important role in the coagulation of blood, when it comes out of the blood vessels due to cuts and wounds. The circulatory system is thus responsible for carrying out three main functions in the body, namely, supplying nutrients to various parts and collecting waste materials from them, maintaining the body temperature at the normal level, and supplying oxygen to every part and collecting carbon dioxide. In this last function it works in cooperation with the respiratory system. The Respiratory System This may be said to start from the nose, and is composed of the larynx, the wind pipe (trachea), its two branches (called "bronchi"), and the lungs. It is concerned with the vital function of making available the much needed oxygen to the body. It would be well to understand here why we need oxygen so badly for remaining alive. Our life activity is ever based on biochemical processes which cannot go on without a continuous supply of energy. This energy is received from the food we eat, especially the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The end products of these constituents are 38
The Respiratory System supplied to each tissue by the blood. The energy stored in these products can be released for the purpose of life activity of any tissue, only through the process of oxidation. This is a process in which oxygen combines with the substance containing energy, and releases energy along with water vapour and carbon dioxide. This process has to go on continually in every living tissue of the body, and it is, therefore that we cannot live without oxygen for more than a few minutes. The carbon dioxide produced in the process of oxidation is a poisonous gas, and must be removed from the body as quickly as possible. It is collected, as we have noted earlier, in the blood flowing in the capillaries. We 39
shall now see how it is eliminated from the body through the respiratory system. Air from the atmosphere enters our body through the nose, and goes to the larynx or the sound box, and then to the wind pipe. The wind pipe further divides into two branches, one of which goes to the left lung, and the other to the right lung. They give rise to further branches and sub-branches in the lungs-At the ends of the minute sub-branches are borne the air sacks or cells (alveoli) which are surrounded by capillaries, through which the blood flows from the heart to the lungs, and back again to the heart. The walls of the air sacks are very thin. They allow gases to pass through in both directions. The oxygen from the air sacks is absorbed in the blood in the capillaries, and the carbon dioxide and water vapour from the capillaries enters the air sacks. This gaseous exchange is a very important phenomenon concerning the res piratory system. The lungs are made of elastic tissues which expand and contract during respiration. They are contained in what is called the "thoracic cavity" which is protected on all sides by the ribs. The base of this cavity is made by a dome-shaped band of a muscle called the "diaphragm", which plays an important role in the mechanism of respiration. The cavity below the diaphragm is called the "abdominal cavity". The cavity accommodates organs like the stomach, duodenum, liver, pancreas, kidneys, and intestines. The act of respiration is composed of three parts, namely, inhalation, exhalation and pause. During inhalation the thoracic cavity increases in volume due to an elevation and extension of the ribs, along with a descent of the diaphragm downward. The lungs expand due to this, and air rushes in through the 40
nose to fill the vacuum created thereby. The lungs then contract automatically after a while, due to their elastic recoil, expelling some amount of air during exhalation. This is followed by a state of pause, and then another round of inhalation and exhalation takes place. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are got rid of through exhalation. The Excretory System This consists of the kidneys, the ureters, the bladder, the urethra, as well as the skin, and the large intestines. The kidneys (two in number) are situated in the abdominal cavity on the two sides of the body. They contain a network of very minute tubelike structures through which blood is strained, and the unwanted materials like extra amount of water, salts, waste products of digestion and other biochemical processes, are separated from the blood. This forms the urine, which goes down from the kidneys through two tubes called the ureters, to the bladder. The urine is passed out of the body through a duct called urethra. The skin provides another arrangement for getting rid of excess salts and water in the blood. This is achieved by minute glands called the sweat glands which are situated under the skin. When the blood flows through the sweat glands, they separate some salts and water, along with some other unwanted materials, from the blood. The separated fluid comes to the surface in the form of sweat, and evaporates. This helps to keep the body temperature normal during hot summer days.
41
The Endocrine System This system consists of many glands situated at various places in the body. The important ones among them are: the pituitary, the pineal (both in the head)» the thyroid, the parathyroids (both in the neck), the thymus (in the thoracic cavity), adrenals, and the sex
Pituitary
Para thyroids
Ovaries
Testicles
The Endocrine System 42
glands (in the abdominal cavity). A special feature of these glands is that there are no ducts to carry their secretion s(c a lied hormones) outside the glands. Hence they are also called the ductless glands. The hormones produced in the endocrine glands are thrown directly in the blood flowing through them and are thus made available to different organs and tissues of the body. The hormones (e.g. pituitrin, thyroxin, adrenalin, etc.) are very much essential for a proper development of the body» and are found to be intimately concerned with many important functions like metabolism» growth» sexual maturity, emotional set-up, action of the heart and the lungs» and so on. A deficiency as well as an excess of the secretion of hormones may lead to many disorders. The Nervous System This is like the central office or the head office controlling the various departments of an organized unit. There are two main divisions of this system» called the "central nervous system" and the "autonomous nervous system". The former is composed of the brain» the medulla» the spinal cord» and the nerves» while the latter consists of two chains of knotlike structures called "ganglia"» running along the two sides of the back-bone. The automatic nervous system controls the working of the heart, the digestive organs» the kidneys» the endocrine glands» etc.» which goes on without our being conscious of it. The brain is divided into two main parts» namely, the large brain (cerebrum) and the small brain (cerebellum). The large brain has various specified areas where specific stimuli (e.g. those concerning sight» smell, hearing» taste and touch, etc.) are received and registered» as 43
Spinal cord
The Nervous System well as the individual's responses to them are decided. The phenomena of memory, emotions, consciousness, etc., are also controlled by the large brain. The small brain is concerned with maintaining the balance of the body, and a co-ordination in the movements of various body-parts. Centres which control the action of the heart, and the lungs, are situated in the medulla. The spina! cord is a горе-like mass of nervous 44
tissue running from the medulla downward through the back-bone. In its course, it gives out branches of nerves on both sides, which spread all over the body, and conduct stimuli toward the spinal cord, as well as impulses from the brain or the controlling centres to the organs and tissues. They are respectively called the "sensory" and "motor" nerves. The Nature of Yogic Exercises We have so far gone through a rather hurried description of the various systems in our body so that we can now see how far and in what manner the yoga techniques can influence our body and its health. A healthy individual must have all the tissues and organs developed properly. Health is a function of physical as well as mental factors. The ancient masters of yoga were fully aware of the maxim "healthy mind in a healthy body", and hence it is that they developed a masterly system of techniques which takes care of all the tissues of the body and their functions in a superb manner. Maintenance of bodily health depends on' two factors, namely, supply of nourishment in ample amounts, and the quick removal of waste materials which are produced in the tissues as a result of biochemical activity. This can be achieved through properly exercising every tissue. Each tissue draws the nutrients necessary for its functions from the blood flowing in the capillaries. A tissue cannot get proper nourishment if it remains inactive, and waste materials are also not removed from it efficiently. The inactivity of a tissue reduces circulation of blood in it, and if such a situation continues for long durations, very little or no blood may flow through the tissue. Such a tissue loses its efficiency in due course of time. 45
If a tissue is exercised regularly by causing the muscles concerned to contract and stretch, the capillaries are pressed, 'and the tissue gets increased supply of blood, oxygen, and the nutrients. In rigorous types of exercises like running, swimming, gymnastics, weight training, wrestling, boxing, etc., particular muscles or set of muscles are repeatedly contracted rapidly. This causes the muscles to develop in beautiful shapes, due to an increase in the size of the muscles by addition or more number of fibres to them. A muscle is a bundle of a number of elastic fibres, and the number of these fibres can be increased by rigorous exercise, thereby adding to the physical strength of an individual. It is thus that various skeletal muscles (e.g. the muscles of the arms, chest, back, thighs, etc.) are developed through rigorous exercises. Such exercises involve rapid contraction of muscles, called "phasic" or "isotonic" contraction. This type of contraction of a muscle causes the bone to which that muscle is attached, to move around a joint, the bone acting as a lever, and the joint as a fulcrum. Most of the yoga techniques for health do not, however, involve phasic contraction of the muscles. They bring about a different type of contraction, known as static contraction, in which a muscle is maintained under a stretch or tension without causing repeated movements. We shall, at this stage, try to describe the general characteristics of the yoga techniques for health. The yoga system of health involves exercise of the skeletal as well as the deep-seated smooth muscles of the body. In this respect, it may be said to surpass any other system of exercise. The muscles of the abdominal wall, the pelvis, the trunk, the back and the chest, the abdominal viscera, the neck, as well as the muscles of the limbs are subjected to stretch in the various exercises 46
included in the yoga system for health. It is thus very useful in restoring the tone of the internal organs of the body. It is due to this fact that the yoga techniques are of great significance for corrective and restorative pur poses. It is, of course, true that for building the skeletal muscles, one has to practise some specialized exercises of a rigorous type» in addition to the yoga techniques. The internal pressure changes (eg. the intrathoracic and intra-abdominal pressures) may be mentioned as a special characteristic of the yoga system for health. There are certain exercises included in this system wherein an internal pressure is exerted on the various organs and glands. All these exercises promote bloodcirculation in various party, and render a sort of gentle massage to the organs concerned. Very little expenditure in terms of energy and money is involved in the yoga techniques. They can thus be practised by the rich as well as poor, and by men and women of all ages. Not m uch equipment or appliances are required. Considering all these points, it would seem obvious that the yoga techniques deserve much more serious attention of the people, than what they have hitherto been receiving. The scope of the yoga techniques is, however, not limited to the development of the body alone. It is a sad fact that yoga is equated mostly with the postures (asanas), and the so called institutions of yoga appear to emphasise this part of yoga alone. This is indeed a situation far from satisfactory. The yoga techniques, as we shall describe in the following chapters, are actually concerned with changing one's personality as a whole, by bringing about a revolution in one's attitudes, tendencies, emotions, as well as the physiological processes underlying these. Practice of the physical postures is to be taken just as a beginning in that direction. 47
The physiological and psychological changes that can be brought about in one's personality, through the practices involving control of the breath and the mind are usually overlooked. But it is actually these areas that need to be tackled by devoted students of yoga, in co-operation with the scientists. We shall have occasion later on to discuss how fruitful these areas can prove to be, approached properly. The techniques for bodily health, which we shall describe in the third chapter, include three types of procedures, namely, the asanas, tmtdras, and cleansing acts. The asanas, it seems, were developed initially mainly for the purpose of sitting comfortably for long durations in a state of peace and relaxation. This is clear from the mention of asanas as found m the older Upaniehads, the Gita, the Yoga Sutra of Patanjali, and some other ancient treatises. Later on, however, the physical aspects of the asanas were elaborated especially by the Hatha Yogis, and as a result, we find many simple as well as intricate postures described in com paratively later literature. The names of the various poses are derived mainly from the resemblance of the postures with the appearance of various animals, birds, and sometimes other symbols like a tree, a lotus, a circle, and so on. It is said in the Gheranda Samlrita (II, 1-2), which is an authoritative text of Hatha Yoga, that there are as many asanas as there are species of living beings, and that eighty four out of them are more in vogue. The significance of this number (eighty four) is not easy to determine. Perhaps it is related to the belief that in the world there are in all eighty four lakh species of living beings and that one can be born as a human being after one has completed a cycle of births in all these species. Actually, nearly forty poses have been described in the various Hatha Yoga texts 48
There is a tendency evident in the writings of many recent writers to invent various modifications of these traditional poses. We shall, in trie next chapter, give an account of some of the poses as found in the traditional sources, which we would think useful from the point of view of a general reader. Our effort would be to reduce their number to a possible minimum.
one thinks of taking to the practice of the yoga techniques only with a view to overcome some bodily disorder or disease, in this case, one has to be more cautious in learning the techniques, because* if administered without due care, the yoga practices may result in harmful effects on the functions of the body. An im prudent way of practising the yoga techniques is sometimes found to lead to impairment of the health of an individual, instead of making him healthier. This is due to the fact that delicate organs like the brain, the spinal cord, the lungs, the heart, etc., are involved in the influence of the yoga techniques, and they may be badly affected by the practice of the yoga technique in a wrong way. Persons who are very weak, or those who have recovered from illness, should, therefore, be careful in this respect. The athletes and gymnasts, so also those who are concerned with the development of various motor skills (i.e. skill of the various motor organs of the body), can be immensely benefitted by a regular practice of the yoga techniaues. For the persons whose occupation docs not call for much physical exertion, e.g. teachers, scientists, oflicegoers, shopkeepers, etc., the yoga techniques would provide a very suitable kind of exercise. And even those persons who are required to exert physically for earning their livelihood, would do well to keep their overall fitness by taking recourse to the yoga techniques. It is true that many ailments can be cured by wisely administering the yoga techniques, but, for that, one has to take the help of an expert. 2. Right Advice: It is a sad fact that experts in the yoga techniques who can give the right kind of advice are actually very rare. Most of the persons who turn to yoga as a profession do not usually have a scientific 50
attitude, and thus what they seem to propagate is their personal likes and dislikes and idiosyncracies. Their claims regarding the propensities of yoga are usually very tall and they are hardly ever ready to consider the views of others. An element of mystery is found to be rampant in their activities, and sincere and honest people are often cheated and deceived by the so-called masters in the field of yoga. It is a happy sign, however, that some intelligent and goodnatured people are also now getting attracted towards the art and science of yoga. A beginner in yoga should prefer to go to a teacher who is not greedy and too much of a boasting type. The best way to make reliable information available to those who are interested in learning the yoga practices, would be to introduce the subject in schools and colleges, not as a compulsory subject, but as an optional subject. We should also have more number of institutions and centres of higher learning, where research could be conducted. 3. Age and Sex: Age and sex do not offer any bar so far as the yoga techniques are concerned. This does not, of course, mean that every yoga technique may suit every individual. The young and old, for example, should avoid those techniques which involve much of stress or pull on the body parts. Women should abandon some practices during menstruation, and during advanced stages of pregnancy. But there are some practices which can be continued even during those conditions. Children may start practising the yoga techniques at about eight years of age, but they should not attempt yogic breathing till they become twelve. There is perhaps no upper age limit so far as the yoga techniques are concerned. Of course, one has to give up the strenuous practices after one reaches advanced 51
age, but yogic breathing, techniques of mental concentration* and some simpler postures can be practised even till the last day of one's life (if one is fit otherwise). 4. Place and Surroundings: The place for practising the yoga techniques should be well protected from the menace of animals, rodents» and insects. If it is indoors» it should be well-ventilated and having sufficient light. The yoga practices can also be performed outdoors if privacy is not Jacking, The surroundings should not be noisy. The yoga techniques may be practised in* dividualJy or even collectively. If they are performed in groups in the open» care should be taken to avoid undue exposure to severe cold, strong winds or hot sun. Practices like yogic breathing and mental concentration may be practised individually, because the capacities of different individuals in respect of these may vary to a great extent. The ground should not be wet, or full of undulations. It should be plane and flat, not sloping in one direction. 5. Time; Morning time is considered better by many from the point of view of regularity, while it is the experience of some people, especially the beginners» that the yoga practices can be done with more ease and comfort in the evening. Some people have a habit of doing them both morning and evening» but ordinarily this is not necessary. One should adjust the time according to his convenience. Yoga techniques, like any other physical exercise, should never be undergone with a loaded stomach. After a full meal, the food remains in the stomach for about a couple of hours, and takes another 2-3 hours to be absorbed in the intestines. Hence, nearly five hours should be allowed 52
to pass after a full meal, and nearly two hours after a snack, so that the exercise does not interfere in any way with the process of digestion and absorption of food* Morning time would be more suitable from this point of view, if one is not habitually a late riser. 6. Diet: The diet should be nutritious and wholesome» yet simple. Overeating must be avoided. Too much of chillies and spices are not desirable. One need not be a strict vegetarian to be successful in the practice of the yoga techniques* If one guards oneself against eating more than what the body needs» then what one eats (within moderate limits) or what one does not eat (e.g. onion» garlic, chillies, etc..) is not very important, at least in the beginning of the practice. 7. Interval: The life of many of us is so busy and full of disturbances that it becomes very difficult some* times to keep on regularity in the practices. But even under such situations a lot of benefit can be obtained if one is not lazy and does not fail to undergo the practices whenever one gets sufficient time. A regular daily practice is very desirable, but a gap of a day or two in a week should not do any harm. One should remember the famous saying of the Gita (II, 40), namely» that even a little practice of yoga can save an individual from great dangers. Too much of irregularity or frequent and long gaps in the practices should, however, be avoided if anything worthwhile is to be achieved. 8. Clothing: In warm countries like India, the clothing does not oiler much of a problem, and a vest with or without sleeves and a short would suffice for 53
males. In temperate climates, however, the clothes should be such as would afford protection against exposure to cold, while at the same time, causing the least possible interference in free movement of the body-parts. This problem would not arise even in severe winter» if the room is air-conditioned. Both men and women should, while practising the yoga techniques, wear as less number of clothes as permitted by the climate and their social customs. In sun, the dress should be clean, simple, and least cumbersome. 9. The Scat: It is not proper to perform the yoga practices on uncovered uncovered floor or ground, because the body comes in an immediate contact with it, during the practices. The traditional way of preparing the seat, as described in the Gita, and other yoga texts, is as follows: A grass carpet is first spread on the ground, and is covered with a deer hide, over which a clean linen cloth is spread. Such a traditional seat is indeed very comfortable for sitting for long durations in a state of meditation or for the purposes of practising yogic breathing. Advanced Advanced students of yoga are fond of using a tiger hide or a tanned skin of a lion, instead of a deer hide. For ordinary purposes, the seat may be prepared by first spreading a grass mat on the floor, covering it with a thick carpet or a coarse woolen rug, with a clean piece of cloth spread on the top. This cloth „may be kept clean by washing it frequently. The seat need not be very thick or soft like a mattress. The size of the seat should be such that one can lie down on it (as required in some yoga practices) or sit comfortably, as the case may be. A raised platform or a table may also be used. 54
10. The Order of Different Techniques: It is sometimes thought necessary to combine the yoga techniques with other exercises like Surya Namaskar* weight training, gymnastics, etc. In that case, a period of rest for about fifteen minutes in a relaxed state should be allowed to pass in between, if the yoga techniques are practised after other types of exercise. Among the yoga techniques themselves, the postural techniques, breath breathing ing exercis exercises, es, and techniq techniques ues of menta mentall concen concen-tration should be practised in that order. 11. General Hints: The postural exercises, as we have noted earlier, involve static or isometric contracc ontraction of the muscles, in which a set of muscles is held in a state of tension without causing repeated movements movements of the body рагь. The stretching of the muscles, or their contraction, should never be effected abruptly or all of a sudden. sudden. The final pose of every postuie should be reached as slowly as possible, causing the tension in a set of muscles to increase steadily. The final stag stagee of every posture should be reached through proper intermediate stages, which should be mastered one by one without any undue haste. It may so happen that one may take some days or even weeks to be able to attain the final stage of a posture. But there should be no hurry. The movement of each body part should exhibit complete control of the muscles concerned, and this requires a certain amount of training to the muscles, which takes time. There should be no violent jerks or abrupt movements. Ease, smoothness, and grace should be the watchwords of a student of yoga while learning the various yoga techniques. techniques . In the beginning there is a tendency to bring into play muscles which are not concerned with a particular action. This happens in learning any motor skill. But in due 55
course of time one learns how to avoid unproductive muscular activity, by causing only the required muscle or set of muscles to contract or stretch, as the case may be, while all other muscles are kept in a relaxed condition. This is a very important fact concerning graceful and smooth actions, and should be given serious attention since the very beginning. One should not rush to the final position of any posture unless he has mastered the the intermediate stages one by one. The best thing is to proceed as far as one comfortably can, and to remain in that position for some time. The muscles involved in action get trained in a few days, and smoothness and grace can be thus slowly achieved. achieved. Care should always be taken not to overwork any muscle. The breathing must not be restricted or controlled unnecessarily, unless it is specially called for. Whenever one restarts the practices after a long lapse of time due to illness or any other cause one should begin with a lower dose, and should reach the previous level only after practising the various techniques for a few more days. One should never have a feeling of fatigue or dullness towards the end of the practice. One should actually feel light, light, active and exhilarated during the practice, as well as after com pleting the the daily course. Duration of the various various techniques should be adjusted according to one's capacity, and there should never be a feeling of exhaustion or under tension. After having made a note of the preliminary considerations, we are now in a position to discuss the procedure and utility of the various yoga techniques. techniques. We shall do this in the chapters that follow.
56
Yoga Yoga for Better Health
As MENTIONED EARLIER , we shall, in this chapter, describe the procedure and utility of some selected yoga techniques (traditionally grouped under the asanas, mudras f and kriyas) for maintaining the health of an individual. We shall include here only those techniques which can very well form a part of the daily routine of an average individual. Our endeavour, as indicated earlier» would be to reduce the number of the techniques to a possible minimum, giving due consideration at the same time to the fact that the techniques included in our list should render sufficient exercise to all the body parts, taking care of all the various functions going on in the body. In other words, our list should make a fairly complete set of exercises fulfilling the needs of every particular organ and Amotion of the body. There seems to be a tendency among contemporary writers on yoga to give a very long list of the postures, inventing many modifications, and giving them very complicated names. This may, indeed, serve the pur pose of making making a book more impressive, impressive, and making the reader feel that the author is a great expert of yoga. The present book, however, as its very title would indicate, is aimed at bringing out the utility of yoga in one's daily life. But it can be claimed with
a fair measure of certainty that an individual who practises only these techniques every day (with a little of yogic breathing and meditation as described in the following chapters) need not do any other exercise for keeping himself healthy and lit. And all this should not take more than forty minutes a day. It is doubtful if many people would afford or care to spend even this much time every day for the practice of yoga. Of course, there are a few yoga enthusiasts whose interest in yoga is not just marginal, and who would be interested in having proficiency in yoga. For the benefit of such persons we shall describe some further yoga techniques involving more skill and practice, in a separate chapter. It may be said that in the present 9 chapter we have described the 'just sufficient or 'good enough* portion of daily yoga practice, and the next chapter is meant for those who have more time, a deeper interest, and possibly a fuller grasp of the sub ject. The exercises in this chapter may be practised in the same order in which they appear here. Preliminary Exercise to Limber-up Muscles and Joints It is often found that when one gets up in the morning the body is rather stiff. With the various movements during the day the muscles and joints lose the morning stiffness. Due to this it is usually easier to practise the yoga postures in the evening after a day's work, rather than in the morning. Yoga exercises involve stretching or pressing of various muscles and joints. This stress can be borne more easily and the postures can be done more gracefully if one undergoes movements of the muscles and joints in a systematic manner. The main procedure here is to do movements of various joints by contracting and 58
then relaxing the muscles which bring about these movements. The fingers, palms, wrists, elbows, shoulders, neck, hips, knees, heels and toes are thus worked up in the following manner, so that all the joints of the body are made more supple, which in turn makes for graceful performance of asanas. Sit down on the seat with the legs straight and together in front. Hold the arms in front horizontally, parallel to each other, palms facing down, and fingers touching each other. Keep the back straight. Then spread the fingers and bend them towards the palms* Hold the fists tightly for a couple of seconds and then spread the fingers again. Repeat this three times. Now keep the palms facing outward and repeat the exercise three times. Then the exercise should be repeated likewise, keeping the palms facing upward and then inward. Next, keeping the arms in a horizontal position as before, move the hands in a circle, both clock-wise and anti-clock-wise, several times, so as to exercise the wrists. Then to exercise the elbow joints keep the arms in the original position, palms facing upward, and move the hands towards the shoulders and to the original position again. This is to be done both in the vertical and horizontal plane six times each. The next thing is to exercise the shoulder joints. This is done by rotating the upper arm around the ball-and-socket joint of the shoulder in two directions. With this, one is ready to exercise the neck. For that, keeping the legs in front as before, place the hands on the ground (i.e., the seat) behind the hips, palms down and fingers pointing backward. Keep the shoulders relaxed and the back slightly inclined backward to allow free movement of the neck muscles. Turn the head slowly to the left side till the chin comes near the left shoul59
der. Then turn the head slowly to the right side. Repeat this three times. Then rotate the chin in a vertical plane slowly in the clockwise as well as the reverse direction» three times each way. This movement of the neck is called Brahma-wudra. This much about the limbering exercise of the upper extremities. The lower extremities can be well exercised in a lying down position. For that, lie down on the back, keeping the legs slightly apart, and the arms straight behind the head. Let the feet rest on the heels» with the toes pointing upward. Move the toes forward and backward thus exercising the joints between the phalanges. Then move the whole feet in the same manner to exercise the lower portions near the heels. Then rotate the feet in a horizontal plane in both directions» clock-wise and reverse. Next we come to the knees. Lying down on the back as before, bend the left leg at the knee joint» bringing the left knee towards the chest, and press it with both the hands against the chest, trying to touch the knee with the chin. Exhale deeply while doing this. Then let go, inhale, bring the hands back behind the head» and then with an exhalation repeat the same procedure with the right knee. After working the knee joints individually four to six times, repeat with both the knees together. In this case the legs are not to be straightened every time, but keeping them bent at the knees, a rocking movement should be made, in which exhalation accompanies the backward movement while the knees are pressed against the chest, and inhalation is done during the forward movement. This whole technique of pressing the knees against the chest, singly or together, is called Pavcmarnuktasana in popular language. It is good as a limbering exercise for the back, trunk, thighs, and knees. 60
A degree of suppleness can be actually felt after doing the exercises of various joints as described above* Especially the beginners can derive much advantage from them. When one gets sufficiently established in the practice of yoga techniques, one may not find them very necessary. Moreover, each one of the yoga postures which we are going to describe now does have the same effect of giving rise to suppleness. But still this preliminary exercise would be very useful for most of us. We shall now describe the yoga techniques proper, which include four different categories, namely, asana, mudra, bandha and kriya. We have made a selection from all these categories for the purpose of the present chapter. Bhadrasana Bhadra in Sanskrit means auspicious. So it is good to begin the practice of yoga with this posture. This asanci is found described in various yoga texts such as Hathayogapradipika (I. 53-54), Gherandasamhita (II. 9-10), DarshanopanishadilW. 7), Trishikhibrahwano panishad (45), Dhyanabindaopanishad (42), and YogaYajnyavalkya (III, 11-12). It is a sitting posture, and a rather difficult one for those who are not accustomed to sit on the ground with the legs crossed. Sitting on the seat, the feet are placed in front of the body with the toes pointing forward, the heels near the body, and the soles of the two feet touching each other from the toes to the heels. The toes are grasped by the two hands, and the feet are brought as near the body as possible so that the heels will almost touch the perineum (the soft portion between the anus and the genital organ). This is not very difficult if the knees are raised from the ground. But the knees are to be placed 61
on the ground. One may find this to be impossible in the beginning as there is much of stretch felt at the knees and along the thighs. In a week or two one learns to bear it, and then the knees can be placed well on the ground. In the beginning one may keep only the left knee on the ground for a few seconds, allowing the right knee to be raised, and then keep the right one on the ground, raising the left knee if necessary. This may be repeated half a dozen times. Gradually it will be possible to keep both the knees on the ground. The back should be kept straight. In some (exis it is said that the chin should be set below the throat and one should fix the gaze on the tip of the nose. In yoga terminology these two techniques are respectively called Jalandharahandha and NasagradrishtL Instead of these two, it is desirable to introduce the following modifica1 tion: — While holding the asana rather tightly, one should exhale deeply and then hold the breath out for a while by not allowing the air to enter the lungs again. At the same time, the anus should be contracted» the abdominal wall should be sucked in by expanding the thorax, and the chin should be set below the throat. In other words, one should do bahya-kwnbhaka with the three bandhas. (These techniques have been described in the chapter on pronayama). After holding the breath out with the application of the bandhas for a few moments, one should inhale, have two or three normal respirations, and repeat this once agaiA Then it may be repeated for a third time. Bhadrasana practised in this manner renders good stretching exercise to the thighs, perineum, pelvis, abdomen, and neck.
62
Uttaaamandukasana Uttana in Sanskrit means lying on the back with the face turned up. Afanduka is a frog. This asana is so named because in it the body looks like a frog as view** ed from the ventral side. This asana is a further development of another asana called Mandukasana. We find both of them described in the Gherandasamhlta (II. 33 and 35). The description reads as follows: "After assuming the mandukasana pose, the arms are so arranged that the head is held by the elbows, and the body gives an appearance of the ventral side of a frog". The final pose of Uttanamandukasana is achieved through three stages. In the first stage the knees are kept together In front and one sits between the heels keeping the feet in such a way that the soles are upturned and the greater toes almost touch each other the upper surface of the feet being well adjusted on the seat. This is felt very uneasy in the beginning, but this difficulty can be overcome by practice, and then the asana becomes quite comfortable. The back is kept erect. The hands are placed on the knees. This is called Vajrasana. In the second stage, keeping the feet as they are, the knees are taken apart as far as possible, keeping the hands on the knees. This is Mandukasana. From this one goes to Vttananumdukasana by raising the hands and keeping them on the opposite shoulders so that the elbows will point upward, touching the head on the sides. An upward pull is felt along the arms and the two sides of the trunk. This asana may be practised for ten to fifteen seconds to begin with, and the time may be increased gradually to two minutes. It provides good stretching exercise to the legs, perineum, pelvic floor, sides of the trunk and the arms. The utility of this asana can be 63
greatly enhanced if one would practice three rounds of bahya kwnbhaka with bandhas while holding the final pose, as described in the case of Bhadrascma. Gomukhasana Gomukha is a Sanskrit word meaning the mouth of a cow. This asana has derived its name from the fact that in this pose the body resembles the appearance of the face of a cow. The ffathqyoga-pradipika (I. 20), Gheranda-samhita (II. 16), Darshanopanishad (III. 3), and Shandilyopanlshad (I. 3. 2) speak only about the arrangement of the feet in this posture. No mention is found about the arrangement of the hands. We can, however, find that in the Yoga Yajnyavalkya (III. 6.), which says that the greater toes should be grasped by the hands crossed from behind. In the popular version of this asana this is not usually followed. Gomukhasana may be practised in two stages. Sitting comfortably on the seat with the legs crossed» the right heel is grasped with the hands, and is set against the base of the left hip, keeping the right hip well on the seat. The right knee is placed on the seat, and the left knee is made to come just over the right one, at the same time setting the left heel just by the back side of the right hip. Both the thighs should experience a steady stretch all along their length. The sex organs (in case of males) should be adjusted comfortably between the thighs in such a way that there is no undue pressure on them. The heels should be kept tightly pressed against the hips. The hands are kept over the left knee exerting some pressure on it, and the back is bent slightly forward. Then after exhaling deeply, bahya* kwnbhaka is done with the bandhas» three times, as explained earlier* This is the first stage of Gomukhasana. 64
Gomukha Asana
In the second stage, keeping the arrangement of the legs as it is» the right arm is spread on the back in such a way that its elbow points downward and the fingers point upward. The left arm is lowered on the back and its fingers are made to interlock with the fingers of the right hand. The left elbow will be pointing upward on the left side of the head. The back and neck are held erect. After maintaining this position for a while, the procedure of both the stages is repeated on the other side, now keeping the right knee over the left one, and in the second stage, spreading the right arm over the back from above and the left hand from below. The final pose may be maintained for a duration of fifteen seconds on each side to begin with, increasing it gradually to one minute on each side. Gomukhasana with the bandhas (in the first stage) provides good stretching exercise to almost all muscles of the limbs and the trunk. Ardhamatsyendrasana Matsyendranath was a renowned Master of Hatha yoga of ancient times. Matsyendrasana is a posture derived from his name. It is one of the very difficult but very important posture of yoga. We find it described in the Hathayogapradipika (I. 26-27), and Gheranda samhita (II. 23-24). As that posture cannot be practised by a beginner, a simpler version of it has become quite popular. It may be called Sara/a Matsyendrasana. Sara/a in Sanskrit means easy. But the name Ardhamatsyendrasana (Ardha meaning half) is much in vogue. Sitting on the seat with the legs crossed in front the left leg is arranged as in Gomukhasana, the left knee being put on the seat jn front, and the left heel being put below the right hip. The right foot is placed on the 66
left of the left клее and the right knee is kept in a vertical position- With the hands the right knee is pressed against the chest» the left shoulder is turned to the right, and the right foot is grasped with the left hand, the left arm being on the right side of the right knee. The head is turned as much as possible to the right side, and the right arm is spread over the back» the right hand coming upto the left thigh. The chin is held in line with the right shoulder. After holding the pose for |i while» the position of the legs and arms is changed. Now the right knee is placed on the seat, the left knee is held vertically, and the head is turned to the left, the left arm being spread on the back. The final pose may be maintained for fifteen seconds on each side in the beginning, and the duration may be increased gradually to one minute on each side. In Ardhamatsyendrasana the abdomen is pressed. The thighs, lower back, and the spine are exercised Exercise of the vertebral column by twisting it to the left and right sides is a special feature of this asana. Yogamudra It is often asked why this pose is called a mmlra and not an asana. This pose is not found mentioned in the traditional texts of Hathayoga. But it is a very useful pose, and quite popular, too- In Sanskrit literature the three words, asana* bandha and mudra have often been used to convey one and the same thing, namely, a posture. In Hathayoga, however, they are not used interchangeably, although the bandhas have actually been grouped under the mudras. Sitting on the seat, the right foot is placed on the left thigh with the sole facing up and then the left foot js similarly placed on the right thigh. This in itself is an 68
asana of yoga, called Padmasana. Now keeping both the knees well on the ground, the body is bent forward without raising the hips from the seat, and the forehead is kept touching the ground. The hands are kept on the back, holding the left wrist in the right hand. If Padmasana is felt very strenuous then it may be replaced by Vajrasana in the beginning, but the aim should be to practise Yogamudra in Padmasana. Starting with a duration of about ten seconds with increasing practice one may do it for a minute at a stretch or in two turns of thirty seconds each. The abdominal viscera are pressed in this pose. Muscles of the lower back and thighs are stretched, as also those of the shoulders and the neck. Thus Yogamudra renders exercise to these parts. Yogamudra involves forward bending. It may be followed by backward bending for which Matsyasana is the best thing to do. Matsyasana Matsya in Sanskrit means a fish. In this pose the body resembles the appearance of a fish. As the fish swims easily in water» so a person can float easily on water by taking the Matsyasana pose. Like Yogamudra this pose is also done in Padmasana. It may thus be called an extension of Yogamudra. Of course, it is not necessary that for doing this pose one must first have done Yogamudra. But it would make a good sequence to do this pose after Yogamudra. With the feet arranged as in Padmasana one should lie down on the back. Then keeping both the knees well on the ground» the elbows are placed on the two sides of the body and with their support the trunk and head is raised. Then turning the head backward its topmost portion is kept on the seat (never on the bare 70
Matsya Asana without Padma Asana
floor), the neck and back forming an arch. The hands may be kept on the thighs or one may grasp the big toes with them. Now opening the mouth fully wide and stretching the tongue out, air is thrown put with a sudden exhalation. This gives very good exercise to the abdominal and facial muscles. One may throw the air out like this two or three times. This is a useful modification, although it is not found mentioned in traditional yoga texts. In a description of this pose in the Gherandasamhita (I. 21). It is said that the hands should be kept encircling the head. But in common practice the hands grasp the feet or the toes. Duration of Matsyasana should be from fifteen seconds upto two minutes depending on practice. It is an excellent exercise of the lower back and the vertebral column. The modification mentioned above is very valuable for giving exercise to the abdominal muscles and to the throat. If there is difficulty with Padntasana then one may still derive much of the benefit from Matsyasana if one keeps the legs straight instead of crossing them as in Padntasana and going through thereat of the procedure for Matsyasana. Of course, this is only a make-shift arrangement recommended for a beginner. Viparitakarani This is counted in the yoga texts as a mudra, not as 9 an asana. As we have said, the terms 'asana and 'mudra* were used in ancient literature without strict discrimination or demarcation. We have, for instance, a pose called Bhoomisparshonamudra in which many images of Gautama Buddha have been found. It is difficult to differentiate this pose from Padntasana except for the fact that in the former the right hand is kept 72
touching the ground, while ш the latter both the hands are kept on the heels. There are actually two modifications of Viparitokarani which are popularly classified under asanas. These are the famous poses of Shirsha sana and Sarvangasana. An explanation for the name 'viparitakarani* is found in the Hathayogapradipika (III- 77, 79) and Gherandasamhita (III. 28-29.). It is said that in our body there is the moon situated in the head, above the hard palate. It secretes an elixir which is swallowed up by the sun situated at the navel. This leads to old age. If we can stop the sun from swallowing the elixir secreted by the moon, thus preserving that elixir, we can defy death. This can be achieved, say the texts, by the practice of viparitakarani, because in it the sun is held at a higher level than the moon, and so the elixir secreted by the moon does not reach the sun. Viparita in Sanskrit means inverted. Karani means an act. The essence of the act as brought out in the texts is "keeping the head down and the feet up". And this is achieved even in two popular poses called Shirshasana and Sarvangasana. The description of the pose found in Gherandasamhita (/1Г. 30) and Shivasamhita (IV. 69) is actually of Shirshasana. But the names Shirshasana and Sarvangasana are nowhere mentioned in the texts of Hatbayoga. But then the 4 three different poses, all involving a head-down—feetup' position, are so well established in every one's mind that it would be better to keep the/ r separate identity and separate names, although all the three poses are, in one sense, three varieties of one and the same thing, that is, Viparitakarani. For doing Viparitakuroni one should lie down on the back with legs straight and together and arms stretched behind the head. The left leg is raised slowly, 74
keeping the right one on the seat. Raising the left leg to a vertical position and holding it there for two or three seconds» it is lowered down slowly to the ground» and then the right leg is raised likewise and lowered down. This is repeated five or six tunes. Then both the legs are raised and lowered together slowly, three or four times. Then keeping the arms on the two sides of the body and keeping them pressed on the ground, the legs are raised together, raising the hips and the back and giving support to the inverted body at the waist with the hands* The back should be inclined at an angle of 45 degrees with the ground. This is the popularly known pose of Viparitakarani. It may be maintained for half a minute to begin with and the duration may be gradually increased upto five minutes. This pose is good for promoting blood circulation and removing congestion. Sarvangasana From Viparitakarani one can go into the pose of this asana by raising the hips still higher so that the back becomes perpendicular to the ground and the chin keeps pressing against the throat. The hands are lowered slightly, giving support at the lower ribs. This is a much more strenuous posture as compared to Viparitakarani. A three minutes duration is quite sufficient for ordinary purposes. Apart from promoting circulation and removing congestion due to the inverted position of the body, this pose gives an important advantage by exerting pressure on the throat which has a squeezing action on the thyroid gland, which greatly improves the function of the gland. 76
Halasana Mala in Sanskrit means a plough. This asana is so called because the body appears, like a plough in itThis name is not mentioned in the traditional yoga texts. It may be called an extension of Viparitakarani. It is convenient to assume the pose just after Sarvangasana. For this, the legs are lowered behind the head without bending them at the knees. After placing the toes on the ground they may be grasped with the hands and moved towards the head progressively, and then away from it, without bending the legs. This asana may be given one minute in all. Halasana exercises the back by exerting stretch on the spine. While the toes are brought near the head, the muscles of the back below the neck are exercised progressively downward upto the lower end of the vertebral column. While the toes are taken away from the head the muscles of the neck and the adjacent parts are stretched. Bhujangasana BImja in Sanskrit means the upper arm. Bhujanga is a large snake. This asana gets its name from the fact that in it the body resembles the appearance of a snake with the hood drawn out. The description of this asana as found in the Gherandasamhita (II. 41-42.) reads as follows: "The part of the body from the toes to the navel should be kept on the ground, and placing the palms on the ground the head should be raised like the hood of a snake. This is called Bhujangasana because it arouses the serpent goddess (kundalini)." Lying down on the chest, the hands are kept below the shoulders with the fingers pointing forward. The legs are kept straight with the feet touching each other 78
and the soles facing up. The head is then raised» giving a backward bend to the neck. The chest is then raised slowly, the muscles of the back are contracted» and the vertebral column (spine) is bent backward as much as possible without raising the navel. A steady pull should be experienced progressively from the neck downward. After holding the final position for a few seconds, the chest is lowered down» and after taking rest for a few seconds, the same procedure is repeated once more. One repetition may suffice during the first week, two in the second week, and so on, upto four repetitions. That would take in all about two minutes. Bhujangasana provides good stretching exercise to the muscles of the neck, back, and trunk. Shalabhasana Shatabha means the locust. The appearance of the locust is imitated in this asana. This asana is described in the Gherundasamhita (IL 38.) in the following manner :—"Keeping the chest and the two hands, palms down, on the ground, the feet are raised nearly nine inches (vitasti) high**' Lying down on the chest, keeping the arms straight near the body, the legs are raised slowly without any jerks. The hands may be kept with the fingers pointing backward, or one may form fists for anchorage while the feet are raised. The legs should be kept straight and stretching downward so that a comfortable stretch is experienced along the waist and thighs. The final pose may be maintained for ten to fifteen seconds. Then, the feet should be brought back to the ground. There may be one more repetition after some rest. The breath may be held out while maintaining the final pose. Holding the breath in during the final pose may hurt 80
the beginner because of increased internal pressure in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. In Shaiabhasana the stretch is from the waist down» while in Bhujangasana it is felt from the waist up. So these two asanas make a good combination for exercising all the muscles on the dorsal side of the body. Those who find Shaiabhasana rather difficult may practise it in the beginning with one leg at a time. But it should be remembered that the full pose is far more advantageous than this simplified version. Dhanurasana Dhanush in Sanskrit means a bow. The body is made to appear like a bow in this asana. Jn the Hathayoga pradipika (I. 25») this asana is described thus: "Holding the big toes with the hands the bow should be stretched upto the ears. That is called the bow posture.*' Now the big toes can be grasped with the hands in a sitting position with the legs stretched in front, or while lying down on the chest. 'Which one of these two alternatives is to be followed is not made clear in the verse mentioned above. The commentator of the text has chosen the first option. But in the popularly known Dhanurasana the second option is followed. This second option seems to be meant in the Gherandasamhtia (II. 18.) also* There it reads as follows: "Spreading the legs on the ground straight like a rod and keeping the hands on Hie back, the two feet are grasped with the hands and the body is turned like a bow. That is Dhanurasana" This description fits in well with the posture in vogue. The former option mentioned above gives rise to another posture called akarnadhanurasana in popular language. The latter option is more useful as an exercise. 82
So, lying down on the chest 9 the legs should be folded at the knees and the feet should be grasped with the hands near the ankles. Then the thighs and the chest should be raised, making the body appear like a bow. A beginner would do better to keep the knees apart. But with practice one should try to bring the knees and the thighs near each other. That causes more strain. But it enhances the utility of the posture. The final pose may be maintained from ten seconds to one minute. Dhanurasana provides good exercise to the abdominal muscles, lower back and the thighs. To some extent it may be said to combine the advantages of Bhujangasana and Shalabhasana. Shavasana Shava in Sanskrit means a dead body. This asana derives its name from the fact that ill It the student lies down like a dead body. Strictly speaking it is a misnomer, because a dead body is not relaxed, it is only motionless. The most outstanding feature of this asana is relaxation. In the Hathayogapradipika (Г.32.) it is described as follows : "Lying down with the face up like a dead body is shavasana. It removes fatigue and puts the mind to rest." The technique of shavasana is simple enough to describe, but not quite easy to practise.. Lying on the back, the legs are spread with a comfortable distance (about two feet) between them. The arms are placed on the sides of the trunk. The head may be turned on one side or may be kept facing up. The back and shoulders should be well adjusted on the seat. The eyes are then closed. All the muscles of the body are then relaxed, there being no stretch or pull felt any84
where in the body. This requires some practice. By paying attention to each body part one by one starting from the head downward or from the toes upward» one should see if any tension or uneasiness is felt anywhere, and if so, give it up. Particular attention should be paid to the joints and the large muscles. Care should be taken to avoid sleep. Complete bodily relaxation brings about a reduction in the oxygen requirement of the body and in the production of waste materials like carbon dioxide and water vapour. This happens because of reduction in physiological activity while the muscles are relaxing. As a result of this breathing becomes silent. Then one should pay attention to the incoming and outgoing air, and make the breathing smooth and rhythmic. That helps to make the mind silent. Shavasana should be practised in the end of asanas. A duration of ten minutes is sufficient for ordinary purposes. For therapeutic purposes a longer duration (twenty to thirty minutes) is necessary. When one gets up from shavasana there should be a feeling of freshness and relief from strain and fatigue. That is what it is meant for. Kapalabhati This is a breathing exercise. But it is traditionally grouped under the kriyas and not under pranayama. Kapala in Sanskrit means the skull. Bhatih means brightness. Kapalabhati is thus the kriya which makes the skull luminous. It is described in the Hathayoga pradipika (11.35.), which as follows: "Like
Kapalabhati is essentially an exercise in abdominal breathing bringing about rapid lung ventilation. It should be done in a comfortable steady posture. Padmasana is supposed to be the most suitable posture as it provides a tight and strong foot-lock which does not become loose with the rapid movements of the abdominal wall. We have mentioned this asana already while describing the technique of Yogamudra and Matsyasana. In it the right foot is placed on the left thigh and the left foot on the right thigh so that the heels come near each other. The left hand is placed on the heels with the fingers touching each other and the palm facing up. Likewise, the right hand is placed on the left one. This arrangement of the feet and hands gives the appearance of a blooming lotus, for which the Sanskrit term is padnm. In Shivasanrhita (Ш. 105-106.) and other yoga texts one is asked to fix the gaze on the tip of the nose and set the chin below the throat. But that is obviously not necessary when one is doing Padmasana for (lie purpose of Kapala-hhati. The hands should be kept on the knees while doing Kapalabhati. The back and neck shouid be straight. Beginners experience a lot of difficulty in assuming this posture. They would do well, instead, to assume an easier posture, called Swastikasana. Swastika is a famous auspicious symbol of the ancient Aryans in which two lines cross each other at right angle. Like the swastika in this asana the legs are made to cross each other just above the ankles. According to the Hathayogapradipika (1.19.) and other texts, "in Swastika asana one sits with a straight back with the soles 9 thrust between the calf and thigh *. Both the knees should be on the ground. The genitals should be adjusted comfortably between the two heels on the 88
sides. This is a very comfortable posture for pranayama and meditation also* The most favoured posture by the advanced students of yoga is, however, Siddhasaiw. Siddha means an adept or Master of yoga. This asana is very highly talked about in all the texts of Hathayoga. The left heel is set against the perineum (called 'ypnisffwna* in technical language) and the right heel is placed over it, adjusting the genital organ comfortably in between. Keeping the knees well on the ground, and holding the back straight, the hands are placed on the knees in the jnyanamudra position, the gaze is fixed between the eyebrows, and as in Padmasana, the chin is set below the throat- Jnyatuiwudru is made by keeping the little finger, ring finger and middle finger straight in line with the palm and bending the index finger and the thumb so that their tips touch each other. What relation this may have with jnyana i.e., knowledge, is not clear. A beginner may find all the above three poses difficult. Such a person may be advised to practise Vajrasana for doing KapaJabhatL We have described that pose earlier. There is some special significance of these four postures. First, in them the legs are folded and pressed against the thighs, thereby giving a firm and steady base to the body. Second, these postures make free movements of the chest and abdomen possible, which is a primary requirement for practising Kupalabhati or Pranayama. Third, they can, with practice, be held comfortably for a long time without a feeling of uneasiness, thereby making it possible for the mind to be free from bodily entanglement, and fourth, they do not involve much tension or stress and thus make for a reduction of physiological activity. This fact, by a reduction of oxygen requirement, of 90
s
Bhadra Asana
Che body contributes to a silent state of the mmd. Assuming a suitable posture, one exhales abruptly, rapidly» and incessantly by suddenly contracting the abdominal muscles which push the abdominal viscera which in turn make an impact on the thoracic dia phragm which rises up in the thoracic cavity, thereby bringing pressure on the lungs, so that some air is expelled out of the lungs through the nose. The anus is kept contracted in this process. After the exhalation the abdominal muscles are relaxed» and a reverse sequense is affected in which the viscera and diaphragm come back to the original position, the thoracic cavity is expanded, and some air enters the lungs through the nose. This is immediately followed by another exhalation» and then a third one, and so on. Thus there is a wave of sudden exhalations, and an onlooker may feel as if the student is just exhaling repeatedly without inhaling the air at all. But actually there is a cycle of exhalation and inhalation in which exhalation is done by applying force or effort for the sudden contraction of the abdominal wall, while inhalation takes place passively when this force is withdrawn. This is exactly opposite of what happens in normal respiration. In normal respiration the act of inhalation involves effort for expanding the thoracic cavity, while exhalation is brought about passively due to the elastic recoil of the lungs. Respirations in Kapalabhati are slightly deeper as compared to normal breathing. Expulsions of air should be uniform in force and rapidity. There should be no undue friction of air with the surface of the respiratory tract Friction cannot» however, be avoided completely. There should be a uniform hissing-like sound like that of the bellows of a blacksmith. 92
One round of Kapalabhati includes a number of expulsions of air done repeatedly. One may be able to do ten or twenty or more expulsions non-stop in the beginning. When the respiratory muscles get tired, the rhythm of expulsions cannot be well maintained. One should stop here, and take rest a while going through normal respirations six or eight times. Then one can have another round of Kapalabhati. There should be two expulsions per second, and this rate should be uniformly maintained throughout a round. There should be no confusion of movements of the muscles of respiration, and one should be very careful about it since the very beginning. In the correct technique only the abdominal wall moves back and forth, while the chest does not expand or contract much. In a period of about two or three weeks one should be able to do three rounds with a gap of about half a minute between two rounds, each round consisting of one hundred twenty expulsions done in exactly one minute. Thus in ally a daily practice of Kapalabhati would take about four minutes. It does not involve holding the breath at any stage. During this period one res pires as much as two hundred litres of air. This is ten times more as compared to normal breathing. Due to such rapid lung ventilation large amount.of carbon dioxide is removed from the body. As a result of this Kapalabhati renders very valuable help in increasing one's capacity to hold the breath. This fact is taken advantage of in a variety of, Prawyama called Blmstrika. Kapalabhati is a shuddhikriya for cleansing the respiratory tract, and as traditionally believed, also the brain. 94
Tadagi Mudra Tadaga in Sanskrit means a lake or a pond. This technique is so named because in it the wall of the abdomen assumes a concave appearance. The Gheranclasamhita (111.56.) describes its technique in the words as follows: "Stretching the abdomen to the back and giving it the shape of a pond (results in) the Tadagi-mudra which dispels old age and death." There is another name, Uddiyana bandha, given to this same technique. But traditionally Uddiyana bandha is practised while doing pranayma, during the stage called kumbhaka, i.e., holding the breath inside. Uddina means to jump. There is an esoteric meaning associated with this bandha, according to which the prima is made to jump upward through the suswnna-nadi by the practice of this bandha' In popular language it may be said that this bandha is so called because it makes the thoracic diaphragm rise into the thoracic cavity. It may, be said that 'uddiyana-bandha' is a wider term as it can be applied to the act of raising the diaphragm while one is holding the breath in or out. The term 'tadagi-mudrw is applied to that act only when the breath is held out. Sucking the belly in is the essence of both. We have referred to this earlier while describing the technique of Bhadrasana, Tadagi-mudra may be practised in a standing position or while practising asanas like Uttana-mandvkasana or Bhadrasana* If it is practised along with these asanas, then one need not do it again separately. Otherwise it can also be practised as a separate exercise. We shall describe here how it is practised in a standing position. Standing with a comfortable distance between the feet (about one and half to two feet), the hands are kept 96
pressing on the knees, and the trunk is bent a little forward. After a deep exhalation the air is not allowed to enter the lungs again, and the thorax is expanded by raising the ribs. This gives rise to a vacuum inside the thoracic cavity, and to fill this vacuum the diaphragm rises up, pulling the abdominal wall and thereby giving it a concave appearance. The abdominal wall should be kept relaxed and the anus and the pelvis should be contracted. After holding the breath out so far as it is comfortably possible, one should let go the mudra (or bandha) and inhale. After three or four normal respirations one can have another round. Agnisara Muscles of the pelvis, abdominal muscles, and the organs and glands in the abdominal cavity (i.e., the abdominal viscera) are toned up by Tadagimudra. This effect can be greatly enhanced by an exercise called agnisara. It is a less known but very useful exercise of yoga. In it the abdominal wall is moved back and forth while holding the breath out in a standing position (hands pressing on the knees, and trunk slightly bent forward as in Tadagi-mudra). These movements may be done ten, fifteen, or twenty times in succession according to one's capacity while the breath is held out. A second round can be gone through after a few normal breaths, and then one may have a third round. Three rounds are enough. This is a very good abdominal exercise for improving the functions of digestion and excretion. The best thing is to do Tadagi-mudra or call it uddiyana bandha) along with Bhadrasana, Uttana- mandukasatuf, and the first stage of Gomukhasana and practise Agni sara separately after doing Kapalabhati and Pranayama. Agni means fire, especially, in the context of the body, 98
Ushtra Asana
the fire in the stomach which digests food. This fire is kindled up by doing agnisara, One who does agnisara properly can do Nauli without much difficulty. Nauli This is one of the purificatory acts, that are designed to remove impurities from the body. It is declared in the Hafhayogapradipika (II. 21.) that these acts (shuddhikriyas) should be practised when one finds that impurities have accumulated in the body. Otherwise they need not be practised everyday. There are two shuddhikriyas* however» which can be included with advantage in the daily routine. They are Kapalabhati and Nauli. We have already described the former. Nauli is highly praised in the Hathayogapradipika (II. 33-34.) in the words as follows: ''Stooping a little forward, one should turn the belly swiftly from left to right and vice versa. This is called Nauli, which is the foremost among the kriyas" Nauli should be performed in a standing position. The procedure, to begin with, is the same-as that for Tadagimudra* When the abdominal wall assumes a concave appearance, the front abdominal muscles are contracted, keeping other muscles of the abdominal wall relaxed. The abdominal wall is made by three sets of abdominal muscles, namely, the two vertical muscles called the abdominal recti, which run vertically from below* the navel upto the chest bone, the transverse abdominal muscles running across the abdominal wall, and the internal and external oblique muscles. Out of these three sets of muscles only the central vertical muscles are to be contracted. Their contraction causes them to be isolated from the other muscles of the abdominal wall» and they stand out vertically like a column in the middle of the concavity of the abdomen. 100
Nauli
This is effected by making a thrust from behind at their lower end, which is situated about two inches below the navel. How to make this thrust actually is something that cannot be explained easily by words. This should be learned through trial and error. It happens more easily if one has practised agnisara already. One should note how we contract the muscles of the pelvjs while defecating, i.e., passing the stools out of the body through the 'anus, especially when there is constipation. A similar contraction of the muscles would isolate the front abdominal muscles. This is called Madhya-nauli от NauJi-madhyama. The isolation, when once achieved, may be maintained for a few seconds while the breath is held out. A further development» called Nauli-chalana involves isolation of only one of the two abdominal recti at a time, moving it to the extreme and bringing it back to the centre» at the same time isolating the other rectus muscle and turning it in the same fashion. This is repeated swiftly several times in a round. After taking rest a while with normal respirations the abdomen is churned likewise in the reverse way. Two rounds in each direction is ordinarily sufficient. This makes a rigorous exercise. The diaphragm and the abdominal muscles are worked very vigorously. A vacuum is created in the abdominal cavity by the isolation of the abdominal recti. This was demonstrated for the first time in scientific experiments carried out by Swami Kuvalayananda at the Kaivalyadhama, Lon-avla. He gave it the name 'Madhavadas vacuum. Water or other fluids can be sucked in through the anus or the genital organ by creating this vacuum, as is done in the practices known respectively, as Basti and Vajrott. Nautt is said to be the foremost among the shuddhikriyas as it influences beneficially almost all the functions of the body. 102
Chakra Asana
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HP Yoga Techniques
How MANY YOGA TECHNIQUES are there in all? To this question no exact answer can be given. About the asanas it is said that there are as many asanas as there are number of species of living beings. And this number is traditionally believed to be eighty four lakhs. Similarly it is believed that there are one hundred twentyfive thousand different varieties of absorption of mind (laya). We do not have any detailed account of such things mentioned anywhere in the traditional texts. Two questions may be relevant here. First, what is the fairly representative minimum set of the yoga techniques? And second, what is there of importance apart from this minimum set? The first question we have solved in the preceding chapter. Now in this chapter we shall try to answer the second question» within the limitations of the present book. So our treatment of the subject matter can, obviously, not be claimed to be exhaustive. In this chapter we shall describe some further asanas and shuddhtkriyas* There is no particular order in which they may be practised. But we have ordered them in the following manner:— first the postures in a standing position» then those involving bending forward or backward, then the postures of balance, then some strenuous postures, and in the end the shuddhikriyas.
Trikonasana Trikona is a triangle. In this asana one stands with the legs resembling two sides of a triangle with the floor as its base. Standing with a distance of about two to three feet between the feet, the arms are stretched on the two sides and held parallel to the ground. Then bending the body forward» the right arm is lowered to touch the left foot with the right hand, the head is turned left, and the left arm is held straight up in line with the right arm, at the same time turning the neck so that one looks up at the left hand. Then raising the trunk, the arms are brought back to the original horizontal position. The procedure is then repeated on the right side, now touching the right foot with the left hand and holding the right arm perpendicular to the ground. One round is completed when one brings the arms to the starting position again. Three such rounds are ordinarily sufficient. While lowering the trunk down one should exhale. While bringing it up there should be inhalation. Trikonasana is a very useful stretching exercise of the waist and the shoulders. Garudasana Garuda means an eagle. In ancient Hindu mythology Gods used animals or birds for conveyance. Lord Shiva, for instance, had the divine bull Nandi to carry him from place to place. Similarly Lord Vishnu moved on the divine eagle Caruda. This asana derives its name from Garuda. It is a standing pose to be held steadily without any movements of the body. Standing on the left foot, the right leg is raised from the ground and with it the left leg is encircled. The hands are placed x>n the knees. After maintaining the pose a while, the procedure is repeated on the right side* There is an* 106
other pose called Sankatasana which has this same arrangement of the legs. But in it the arms are also encircled around each other. These postures are useful for increasing suppleness of joints. Ushtrasana Ushtra means the camel. In this asana one imitates the appearance of the long legs and neck of the camel, Sitting in Vajrasana, the hips are raised, making the thighs straight, so that one may be said to be standing on the knees. Keeping a distance of about a foot or more between the knees, the trunk is bent backward, the head is lowered and the hands are kept on the heels. The thighs should be held straight. The back is arched. This is much like the Dhanurasana pose. But due to the shift in the position, there is much more stretch in Ushtrasana on the waist, shoulders, neck and the throat. This is the popular way of doing it, which is different from its description in Gherandasamhita (II. 40). According to that text of yoga the procedure of Ushtrasana is almost the same as that of Dhanurasana with the difference that the legs are crossed below the knees and then the toes are grasped with the hands. Another difference is that the abdomen and the cheeks are pulled in. But it is not usually practised this way. Chakrasana This is another example of an asana where the description in a traditional text is ignored in practice, and a different version has become popular. Chakra means a wheel, and in the popular version of this asana the body is bent to appear like a wheel. It may be done in a'standing position or a lying down position. 108
The latter is much easier than the former procedure. Standing with the feet comfortably apart from each other one bends the back and the waist backward, and bringing the head, neck» and shoulde'rs down, the hands are placed on the ground. After holding the wheel posture for ten to thirty seconds the standing position is assumed again in a reverse order. This is rather difficult. So the final pose can be attained in another way, by lying down on the back. The feet are placed apart below the hips, raising the knees, and the hands are placed near the shoulders with the palms touching the ground and the fingers pointing toward the feet. The trunk is then raised from the ground to assume the wheel pose. This asana provides stretching exercise to the limbs and the trunk, especially the lower back. In the Vatahopanishad (V. 17.), Chakfasana is described thus: "Keeping the left thigh on the right heel and the right thigh on the left heel one should sit straight. This Chakrasana;" But this procedure is not popularly followed. Paschimotanasana Puna and Paschima are the Sanskrit words for the east and west. In the context of the human body purva means the front side or the ventral side, paschima meaning the dorsal or back side. Tuna means to stretch. Thus the name of this asana indicates that in it the backside is stretched. It is also called Paschimottana because the back side faces up (иишш). A third name often given to it is Ugrasana, ttgra meaning fierce. This posture is highly talked about in the yoga texts. The description of it in the Shivasamhita (III. 311313) as follows: "Keeping the legs straight in front of. the body and holding the feet fast with the hands, the 110
forehead is placed on the knees. This is called Paschimottana. One who masters it and practises it every day makes the vayu (air) flow through the dorsal path.'* Making the vdyu flow through the dorsal path has a great significance in connection with the arousal of the dormant spiritual power called KundaUnL This asana is very important for that because of the stretching influence on the lower back where the Kundalini power is said to reside. Sitting on the seat, the legs are kept straight in front of the body with the heels on the ground and toes pointing upward. The hands are kept on the thighs with the palms facing downward. The hands are then advanced slowly forward, at the same time bending the trunk forward, and without allowing the knees to be raised even slightly, the toes are grasped with the hands. The forehead is then lowered on the knees. Many people find it impossible to achieve this in the beginning because there is much strain on the hamstring muscles (on the inner side of the knee's). But these muscles can be trained to bear the strain within two to three weeks by subjecting them to a steadily increasing stretch every day for a few seconds. If one fails to grasp the feet with the hands on the first day» one should take the hands as near the feet as possible» and remain in that state for a few seconds. The hands may then be brought back to the starting position» and after relaxing for a few seconds the procedure may be repeated again. There should be no haste and no feeling of undue strain. When one starts grasping the feet with the hands without raising the knees» the head should be kept on the knees and the elbows should be kept on the ground by the two sides of the knees. The duration of the final pose may be increased gradually from a few seconds to begin with» to one minute. 112
This posture exercises the muscles of the limbs and the back, especially the base of the back by stretching them, and improves the tone of the organs in the abdominal cavity. This influence on the abdominal viscera can be enhanced by contracting the anus and pelvis with a deep exhalation during the final pose> and holding the breath out. This ascma helps to reduce the fat accumulated on the belly. Hakasana baka means the crane. In this asana the hands are placed on the seat with the fingers pointing forward. The distance between the bands should be about a foot and a half. The knees are placed above the elbows and the hips are raised» balancing the weight of the body on the hands. The head is lowered forward and the pose is maintained for a few seconds. This is a pose involving balance which helps to make the arms stronger. Kukkurasana Киккша is the Sanskrit name for the cock. Sitting in Padmasana, the hands are passed down through the gap between the calf and thigh on each side. Spreading the fingers, the hands are placed on the seat and the body is raised, balancing its weight on the hands. Like Bakasana this pose also helps to increase the strength of the arms. Uttanakurmasana Kurma means the tortoise. In Uttanakurmasana the hands are passe' down from below the knees as in 114
kitkkutasam (after assuming Padmasana). Then keeping the hips on the seat, the knees are raised, and the hands are brought up to encircle the neck. The pose may be maintained for a few seconds. It requires rather slender limbs and supple joints. Otherwise one finds it difficult to do it. Parvatasana Parvata in Sanskrit means a mountain. Padmasana is the starting pose in this asana also. Sitting in Padmasana, the hips are raised, balancing, the body on the knees, and the arms are stretched up over the head, the palms touching each other. This is a balancing pose which makes the knee joints supple. Dolasana Dolah means a swing. In this asana, after assuming the Padmasana posture the hands are kept on the seat on the two sides of the hips just behind the knees, and the body is raised,. balancing it on the hands. The body is swung back and forth, which gives this pose its name. It exercises the arms and the shoulders and also the abdominal muscles. Utkatasana Kata means the hips. Ud means upward. This asana gets its name from the fact that in it the hips are raised. Keeping the feet on the seat at a distance of nine inches or more from each other, with the knees standing up, the hips are raised and placed on the heels, raising the heels at the same time so that the weight of the body is balanced on the toes. This is a 116
pose useful for practising the yogic shlddhlkrlya called Basti. Padangusthasana Sitting in Utkatasana, the right foot is placed on the left thigh and the body is balanced on the toes of] the left foot. Pada in Sanskrit means the foot. Padangustha means the big toe. Thus this is a pose in which the body is balanced on the big toe. After practising it on the left side the same procedure is repeated on the right side. The hands may be placed on the knees. Mayurasana Mayura is the peacock. Sitting with the legs crossed, the hands are placed on the seat about four inches apart, with the fingers pointing backward. The elbows
ing the weight of the body on the triangular base with the head at the apex, and keeping the legs still folded at the knees, the thighs are now raised slowly until they become perpendicular to the ground. When steadiness of balance is achieved at this stage, the legs may be stretched ultimately, so that 'the body stands erect on the head. Some persons try to learn the procedure with the help of a wall. But that is not necessary at all. If one proceeds stage by stage, not hurrying up impatiently to throw the legs up at once, the posture can be learned and kept steady in a short time. While coming to the starting position the legs should be folded first, then the thighs should be lowered, and ultimately the knees may be kept on the seat. It is not necessary to stand up and remain standing for some time after completing the posture as is advised by some yoga teachers. Holding the body upside down helps the veins to carry blood to the heart by the force of gravity» and also helps to remove congestion from the limbs and abdomen. Circulation of blood in the head is promoted. Ordinarily a time of two minutes may be ideal for this pose. One should begin with ten to fifteen seconds and increase the time gradually. Matsyendrasana As pointed out earlier this asana is named after the great Master of Hathayoga, Matsyendranath. There is a legend about him according to which the account of Hathayoga which was narrated by Lord Shiva to his spouse Parvati was overheard by him while he was moving around in the guise of a fish (matsya). By hearing the-first-hand account from the mouth of the Lord he became a sidd/ш, and propounded the science of Hathayoga for the benefit of human beings. J22
The procedure of Matsyendrasana is similar to that of Ardhamatsyendrasana which we have already described earlier, with the difference that the foot is placed on the thigh instead of placing it under it. Thus, keeping the left foot on the right thigh, the right knee is kept standing, the right foot being placed on the left side of the left knee. The body is turned to the right, and passing the left arm to the right side of the right knee, the right foot is grasped with the left hand, The right arm is spread on the back. After holding the pose on the right side for some time, the whole procedure is repeated on the left side by changing the position of the feet. It is a pose for the advanced student of yoga. Apart from improving the power of digestion and removing many disorders, the pose is said to lead to the arousal of kundalini
Maisvendra Asana
Vrischikasana V'rischika means the scorpion. This is a strenuous pose requiring strength and suppleness. Keeping the fore-arms on the seat at a distance of 12 to 15 inches from each other, the fingers pointing forward, the body is raised and turned up, throwing the legs up and holding them in a curve like the sting of a scorpion. With practice one can touch the head with the feet. The pose may be maintained for half to one minute. It increases suppleness and strength. There is a sort of gymnastic beauty about it, and the pose is one of the spectacular poses of yoga, very enjoyable to watch, although rather difficult to perform. Garbhasana Garblut means the embryo. One lies in this usana like the embryo lying in the womb of its mother. Lying down on the seat with the back to the ground, the left foot is grasped with the hands, and bringing it near the left shoulder, the heel is set against the neck. Then the right foot is set in a similar fashion over the left one, both the legs crossing each other at the ankles. The hips are then encircled with the hands. The hips and the neck are then swung back and forth, not violently but gently. One minute is a sufficient duration. It exercises the limbs, back, neck and waist. Supta-Vajrasana Supta means sleeping. Assuming the Vajrcsana posture as described earlier, the back is lowered down slowly by giving support with the hands and then with the elbows. The knees should be kept together. The arms are then folded to grasp the opposite shoulders 124
with the hands. The head is kept between the two elbows. The back may not touch the ground all along in the beginning. It may form an arch. But with practice the back can be made to lie flat on the seat. There is stretch on the abdominal wall, back, shoulders, and the thighs. These parts are thus exercised along with the abdominal viscera. While coming back to the starting pose again, the arms are unfolded and with the support of the elbows and hands one gets up and then the legs are unfolded. If one tries to unfold the legs first, there may be excessive strain at the ankles, which must be avoided. The duration may be increased from a few seconds to one minute. Trataka
It is a shtuldhikrlya meant for cleansing the eyes and for making the" mind silent in concentration. Sitting with a straight back, the eyes are fixed on an object without winking until tears start rolling down the cheeks. And small object like the flame of an oil ( lamp, or an Image, or picture, or the letter AUM', would do. The object should be placed in line with the eyes at a distance of four to six feet. Perhaps the best thing is not to have any particular object at all to look at. One should just stare in front at the wall without moving the eye-balls or the eyelids. Before doing trataka one may go through movements of the eyes without moving the head in which the eye-balls are rolled up and down, sideways, and from corner to corner diagonally, repeating each movement four to six times. First these movements should be made with open eyes and then with the eye-lids closed. This gives exercise to the eye muscles. It should be followed by Trataka. Trataka is said to make the eyes clear, 126
Vajra Asana Suptavajra Asam
improve sight, and remove eye troubles. It makes the everwandering mind silent. Dhauti
This is a shuddhikrlya meant for cleaning -the stomach. There are three varieties» namely, vantana-dhautt, danda-dhauit\ and vastra-dhauti. Vamana-dhauti may be said to be the easiest. Vamana means vomiting. Its procedure is to drink about six glasses of water and then to vomit the water out by putting the index and middle fingers in the mouth upto the uvula. This helps to cleans the stomach, bringing out with the water impurities from the stomach. In danda-dhattti, after drinking water as above, a rubber tube, about three feet in length and slightly larger than a lead pencil in diameter is inserted in the mouth and is gulped down slowly so that one end of it reaches upto the stomach while the other end is held outside the mouth. Then by bending the trunk forward the water from the stomach is drawn out by siphon action. When all the water comes out, the tube is pulled out slowly. Before inserting the tube into the mouth it must be cleaned and disinfected by dipping it in boiling water for a few minutes. Many people find it difficult to gulp the tube down the throat without vomiting, because the throat is sensitive to touch stimuli* Such persons have to do vamana-dhauti in place of danda-dhauti. The latter has one advantage over the former as there is no spasm of the stomach wall and water comes out smoothly. Vastra-dhauti is more difficult but far more useful as compared to the above mentioned varieties* In it a strip of fine muslin cloth about three inches wide and twenty two feet in length is used. This strip is washed, disinfected (by dipping it in boiling water for a few 128
minutes), and made into a roll. One end of it is held between two fingers and inserted into the mouth. It is then gulped down slowly. When only six inches of its length remains outside the mouth, the gulping is stopped, never allowing this other end of the strip to go into the mouth. The abdomen is then churned by Nauli with the strip of cloth inside the stomach, and the strip is then taken out by pulling the other end slowly. By rubbing itself against the inner lining of the stomach, dhauti cleanses it, and removes all the impurities from the stomach. Dhauti has a great therapeutic value. It is employed in the yogic treatment of disorders like acidity and asthma. Basti It is a shuddhikrlya for cleansing the colon. Its action is like enema. One cannot do Basti Unless one knows how to practise Nauli. A rubber tube about nine inches in length and with an inner passage as wide as to allow the little finger to enter it, is necessary for doing Basti. Taking about a litre of clean water in a bowl, one sits in Utkatasana, and inserts one end of the cleaned and lubricated tube into the anus, passing about four inches length of the tube inside. Then dipping the other end into the bowl, Nauli is done, which creates vacuum in the abdominal cavity, thereby sucking some water into the colon. Now the end of the tube is closed with the tip of a finger, and after relaxing the abdominal muscles for a while, Nauli is done again, at the same time removing the finger from the end of the tube. This allows some more water to rush into the colon. The procedure is repeated a third time. Then the tube is removed from the anus and the bowels are 129
evacuated. So Basti is best done in a toilet. Bast! is better than enema in that it allows water to reach upto the сел cum, i.e., the beginning of the large intestine and cleans the colon very effectively. In the next chapter we shall describe the technique and utility of Pranayama or yogic breathing. As already mentioned, in addition to the exercises described for daily practice in the previous chapter, a few minutes' practice of Pranayama every day would be an idea] thing for keeping the student physically fit and mentally alert. The exercises given in the present chapter may be learnt and practised occasionally for the sake of variety and enjoyment.
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Pranayama: Controlling the Breath BREATHING IS a very basic phenomenon concerning life. It is intimately concerned with the biochemical process of obtaining energy from digested food materials. Every cell and tissue of an organism's body depends continually for its life activity on the energy derived from oxidation of the digested food materials, and as this process cannot go on without a continued supply of oxygen to the cells and tissues, almost all forms of life seem to depend very largely on the process of breathing. For the sake of description, this process may be conveniently divided into two parts, one connected with the external environment, the other with the internal environment. Taking oxygen from the external environment into the body constitutes the first part of breathing» while making the oxygen available to every cell and tissue, is a function of what may be called internal breathing. In human beings, as we have noted earlier, the first part is played by the respiratory system, and the second by the circulatory system. We do not know if our ancient masters of yoga were aware of the fact that the air we breathe in is a mixture mainly of three gases, namely, nitrogen, oxygen and carbon di-oxide. They knew it fully well, however, that life activity depends fundamentally upon the vital air which they called "Prana"* They distinguished ten
different forms of this vital air. These were supposed to be responsible for performing different functions in the body. Five of these ten vayus were supposed to be more important. They are: Prana, Apana, Vyana, Udana and Samana. As declared by the great Shankaracharya {Vivekaclnulamani, 95), "one and the same prana becomes known as the five vayus due to diversity of functions/' The location and functions of the ten vayus are found described in many yoga texts, (e.g. Trishikhi-brahmanopanishad, mantra part 77-87; Yoga Yajnyavalkya IV, 48-72; Chhandogya Upanishad, I, Ш, 3; Amrltanado panishad, 34-35, and so on). We do not have space here to go into the details of these. We should note one fact, however, namely, that the word prana was in use in the Sanskrit language since very ancient times, and has been referred to at several places in the Vedic literature. It is said in the Atkarvaveda (VI, XXXI, 2) that the activities in the body are based on prana and apana. The same text at another place (XI, IV, 10; XI, IV, 15) has compared the relation of prana with the world of living beings to that of a father with his son» declaring that "prana is the fundamental basts of what-* ever is, was, and will be". The word "Pranayama", however seems to be of a later origin. Pranayama Pranayama, which may be called yogic breathing» is a technique of silencing the breath. Why should the breath be made silent at all? one may ask. We shall come to the answer to this question later, after describing fully the technique of silencing the breath. To start with, we shall survey a few definitions and descriptions as found in the yoga texts. 132
In the Yogakwidali Upantshad(\> 19-20) Pranayama has been defined in the following words: "Prana is the air that flows in the body. Its ayama means kwnbhaka. It is of two types, namely, sahita and kevala. Out of the two, sahita, should be practised till Kevala comes into being" This definition would require some clarification. It is customary to divide the process of yogic breathing into three constituents such as controlled inhalation, controlled exhalation, and holding of breath. When the last named act is accompanied by the first two, it is said to constitute the sahita variety. When it is devoid of these two constituents it makes the kevala variety. This fact has also been brought out in the Hathayoga Pradipika (II, 72-73). Yoga Yajnyavalkya (VI, 2) speaks of yogic breathing in terms of unification of prana and apana. This iff brought about by controlling the process of breathing. In the Vishnu Parana (VI, VII, 40), yogic breathing is described as a technique which brings under control all that is connected with prana. According to the Markandeya Parana (XXXVI, 12), making the prana and apana silent, is a mark of yogic breathing. The Gita (IV, 29-30) also speaks about the technique in a similar fashion. It says, "Those who practise yogic breathing, stop the movements of prana and apana by sacrificing the one for the other (in two ways).*' Patanjali has defined yogic breathing (Yoga Sutra, II, 49) as the cessation of the movement of shvasa (inhalation) and prashvasa (exhalation). The details of these definitions will become clear as we shall proceed presently to describe thoroughly the technique involved in silencing the breath. If we silently observe our breathing for a while it would be found that it is made of two acts» namely, inhalation and exhalation. During inhalation we take 133
some air from the atmosphere into our lungs, whereas during exhalation some air comes out of the lungs (usually through the nose). Both these acts follow each other in cycles. Actually after each exhalation there is a state of pause, which lasts for such a short time that it usually escapes attention. All these three acts together constitute what may be called one respiration. It is completed in nearly four seconds (in resting condition). We respire nearly fifteen times every minute. In each respiration we breathe (in and out) nearly 400 cubic centimeters of air (i.e. 0.4 litres). As it is alternatingly taken in and drawn out in each respiration» this air is known as the tidal air. In a deep inhalation we can breathe in extra quantity of air, to the extent of nearly 1.60 litres. Thus, in all we can, in a deep inhalation, inhale nearly 2.0 litres of air from the atmosphere. If a deep inhalation is followed by a deep exhalation, we can breathe out these 2.0 litres of air, and, in addition to it, nearly 1.50 litres extra air. Even then the lungs do not become emptied completely. They still contain nearly 1.S0 to 2.00 litres of air. Thus the total lung capacity (i.e. the amount of air that can be held in the lungs when they are filled with air to the maximum limit) of an average individual is about S.O litres. The amount of air that one can exhale in a deep exhalation after making a deep inhalation is called Vital Capacity. This amount, divided by the weight of the body, is known as the Vital Index. It indicates one's capacity'to breathe, as well as the vitality of the body and efficiency of its functions. It is observed that the Vital Index can be considerably increased through a regular practice of yogic breathing. Yogic breathing involves a reduction in the number of respirations made per minute. This should be achieved slowly through increasing practice. After assuming 134
a comfortable ana steady sitting position on the seat, one should proceed to practise yogic breathing as described below. The preliminary considerations as described in an earlier chapter should be properly attended to. For example, the practice should not be undertaken when the health is impaired due to any reason, the stomach should be empty, raising in a relaxed condition for at least ten minutes should be done before starting, and so on. Assuming a suitable position, one should note with the help of a watch (preferably a stop watch) how many seconds it takes for making a comfortably slow and deep exhalation, after making the lungs full. The time taken by each one of five successive deep exhalations should be noted, taking care that the inhalations preceding them should also be deep and slow, and not forceful. Whether this time is five or ten or fifteen seconds, does not matter much. An important thing to be noted here is that the time for all the five successive exhalations should be very nearly the same. If it so happens that the difference between them is too great, the lowest duration should be chosen. The time to be regulated for the inhalations should be half as much as this. Thus if the time for exhalation is ten seconds, that the inhalation should be five seconds. One respiration will here be completed in fifteen seconds. On the first day four such respirations should be made, taking care that each inhalation is completed in five seconds, and each exhalation in ten seconds. We usually make fifteen respirations per minute in resting condition. This number is here reduced to four per minute. On the second day five respirations (of fifteen seconds duration each) may be made, on the third day, six, and so on, upto twenty respirations. Thus at the end of a fortnight, one should be able to make twenty successive rounds of deep breathing, 135
each respiration being counted as one round. There should be no feeling of suffocation during the practice, nor any feeling of exhaustion at the end. Otherwise the duration of each round or the number of rounds may be reduced. Both the nostrils may be used while inhaling or exhaling. The following points should be observed very carefully: 1) Each inhalation and exhalation must take exactly the specified time. It may so happen that a few initial rounds may take comparatively longer time without any feeling of discomfort, but the next few rounds may take progressively decreasing time. This should never be allowed to happen. The time for each round must be reduced in such a case. 2) Both the acts of inhalation and exhalation must become complete in every round, exactly within the specified time. It should never be the case that the lungs may remain partially filled at the end of inhalation, or only partially emptied at the end of exhalation. In each inhalation the lungs must be completely filled, and in each exhalation maximum possible amount of air must be driven out 3) The implies a uniform flow of incoming or outgoing air. Some people are in the habit of making vigorous effort in the beginning of each inhalation or exhalation, then reducing the force after a few seconds. This should be strictly avoided. The start of each inhalation must be gentle and smooth; there or exhalation should be no jerky movements anywhere in the practice. 4) Feeling of suffocation or exhaustion must not be experienced at any stage. Never should there be any need to draw the air in or out with extra force or rapidity. There should, on the other hand, be an experience of comfort and full control right from the start upto the end. While completing the specified 136
number of rounds, one should actually enjoy the practice throughout, and be in a position to undertake a few more rounds without any feeling of discomfort. A feeling of enjoyment and exhilaration must never be lacking. The last round should be as easy and comfortable as the first few rounds. 5) At the time of inhalation the abdomen comes progressively forward, because of the descent of the diaphragm in the abdominal cavity. This should be checked by contracting the anus and the pelvis as well as the muscles of the abdominal wall* It is seen that this helps one to inhale some additional amount of air. 6) Some people are in the habit of making the face unnecessarily tense, by contraction of eyebrows, lips, or the muscles of the forehead, and so on, when ever they are engaged in any skillful activity requiring pointed attention. This is wholly unnecessary. The chest need not be drawn out excessively, and the back and, neck should be held erect. It is better to keep the eyes closed. For making this possible, however, some arrangement for counting seconds or measuring time not involving seeing a watch, becomes necessary. Counting numbers with eyes closed may be a suitable procedure. But this becomes tedious, and, moreover, keeping time correctly in counting is found very difficult by many persons. The best thing would be to keep a table time piece nearby, and count numbers with the tick-tick sounds of the clock. The clock may not make exactly sixty sounds per minute. So the number of sounds made during the required time (e.g. five seconds for inhalation and ten for exhalation) should be counted, and each round should be adjusted on these counts. Another method followed by many religious people includes mental recitation of some mantra, but in that 137
case, one should be able to recite a mantra exactly in a specified time, otherwise the durations for successive rounds may vary, which is undesirable. The point is that counting of time should not require much extra attention, and should be fairly exact. Making complete inhalations and exhalations within the specified time with ease and comfort, with* out any undue tension, is thus the first step to be mastered by a student of yogic breathing. This requires prudence and skill. The skill can be achieved by carefully controlling the muscular movements involved in the act of respiration. During the inhalation the chest expands due to an elevation and expansion of the ribs, caused by contraction of the muscles situated between the ribs. This is accompanied by a downward movement of the diaphragm. Reverse movements of these muscles take place during an act of exhalation. The walls of the lungs are attached to the inside of the chest, and so the lungs expand alongwith the chest, creating a vacuum inside them, which is filled by the incoming air. Full control of these respiratory movements is required for being able to do deep inhalations and exhalations properly. This can be slowly achieved through regular practice of deep breathing, Neti For smooth respiration, it is necessary that both the nostrils should be clear, with the passage inside them fully open for the movement of air. This is usually not the case with many people. It is found that one nostril works more freely than the other, sometimes the left, at other times the right. It therefore becomes necessary often to clear the nasal passage through 138
some means. Some people habitually have one nostril partially choked. There is a kriya called Neti, which is very useful for making both the nostrils clear. A thick thread made by interlacing three or four thinner threads) softened with butter or oil, is passed through one of the nostrils, and is taken out through the mouth. The thread may be about one foot in length. Holding the two ends of the thread (one from the nostril and the other from the mouth) in the hands, the inside of the nasal passage is rubbed by pulling both the ends of the thread alternatingly to and fro. When one nostril is cleaned, the thread is taken out from the mouth. After washing the thread with clean water, it may be inserted through the other nostril, and the whole procedure may be repeated. This is described in the Hathayoga-Pradipika (II, 29). Instead of a thread of cotton fibre, a rubber catheter of suitable thickness may be used with advantage. A mild form of Neti can be performed with lukewarm water to which a pinch of table salt is added. A feeding cup with a long spout is required for this purpose. The cup is filled with water, and stooping a little forward and tilting the head on one side, the spout is inserted slightly inside the upper nostril, and water is poured into it. Water should not be allowed to go down the throat. It comes out through the other (lower) nostril. The procedure may be repeated by tilting the head on the other side, and pouring water through the other nostril which now comes up. Drinking water through the nose may be called a modified form of Neti. Water (which should not be too cold or hot) is taken in a bowl, and both the nostrils are partly dipped in it. Now tilting the bowl a little, the water is allowed to go down the nostrils, by sucking very gently. This causes irritation of the 139
inside of the nasal passage, in the beginning, because water comes in contact with the upper side of the nasal passage, which is very delicate. In course of time one learns how to allow the water to pass only through the lower part of the nasal passage, and then there is no irritation. Drinking water through the nose is a very useful practice, especially in warm climate, because it cleans the .nasal passage, and has a soothing and refreshing effect not only on the nasal canal, but on the brain and the eyes as well. Traditionally, water is kept in a clean copper vessel at night and is drunk through the nose early in the morning. An experienced person can easily empty a full glass of water through the nose within one or two minutes. It is, of course necessary to clean the.nose in the usual manner before drinking water through it. Yogic breathing can be enjoyed better when both the nostrils are thus made clear. Persons having a deviated nasal septum or any other disorder of the nose, would however do well to obtain medical advice before taking to the practice of yogic breathing. Puraka and Rechaka A deep inhalation performed by noting the points mentioned above, is called puraka in yoga terminology. It is defined in Brihadyogiyajnyavalkya Smriti (VIII, 19) as follows: "Sucking in the vayu from the atmosphere, through the nose, and making it fill all the nadis in the body, is the puraka variety of control of breath/* Rechaka is the yogic term for a deep exhalation performed in the manner described above. The above text defines this act by saying that "rechaka** is that kind of breath control in which the air from the body 140
(called prand) is thrown into the atmosphere to the maximum possible extent". We may note here that prana (as described in the Chhandogya Upanishad* I, III, 3) is the air which goes forward through the nose» while apana is the air which come backward into the body. Knmbhaka The state when neither puraka nor rechaka is taking place, is called kwnbhaka. We find two varieties of this state defined in the Muktikopanishad (II, 51-52) in the following terms: "When the apana becomes silent (i.e. the act of inhalation is complete) and the prana does not arise (i.e. the act of exhalation is with held), the state of kwnbhaka is experienced by the student of yoga. Conversely, when the prana becomes silent and the apana does not arise, the state of external kwnbhaka comes into being." These two varieties of kwnbhaka have been referred to in the Gita (IV, 29-30) by saying that in the former, the prana is sacrificed for apana, and in the latter, vice-versa, Patanjali speaks of these two varieties in terms of abhyantaravritti and bahyavritti Pranayama. (Yoga Sutra II, SO). Both these varieties together constitute what is called sahitakwnbhaka. A student should not, however, practise holding the breath in the beginning. To begin with» only deep inhalations and exhalations should be practised. After achieving ease and comfort over twenty successive rounds as described above (each round of 5+10=15 seconds), one should practise this dose everyday, for about a fortnight. One should then learn to make inhalations through alternate nostrils, using only one nostril at a time. The right hand should be used for this 141
purpose. The middle finger and the one adjacent to it on the side of the thumb (i.e. the two fingers next to the thumb) are folded together on the palm. When the right nostril is to be closed for breathing through the left nostril alone, this may be done by closing the right nostril by placing the thumb slightly pressing on it. It should be noted here that the thumb is not to be placed on the opening of the nostril. It should press the wall of the nostril gently against the nasal septum (the wall running in between the two nostrils). The two fingers are not folded (i.e. the index finger and the one adjacent to it) should be placed on the bridge of the nose, as shown in Plate 13. When the left nostril is to be closed, this may be done by keeping the index finger and the one adjacent to it pressing slightly on the left nostril. The thumb, in this case, should be placed on the bridge of the nose, as shown in Plate 14. Both the nostrils are to be closed (as shown in Plate 15) while holding the breath inside. Care should be taken not to turn the head to the side while inhaling or exhaling through one nostril alone. Another situation may be introduced here. This is the fact of inhaling or exhaling against a slight pressure created by a partial closure of the glotis. Glotis is the space between the vocal cords, which are two thin plates of tissue placed in the sound box or the larynx. A soft sound is produced during inhalation and exhalation due to a partial closure of the glotis. This sound comes from the throat» and different from the sound produced by friction of air with the nostrils when the nostrils are contracted. This difference should be noted, and a gentle sound should be properly produced from the throat The vocal cords are responsible for the production of sound. When the air passes up through them, the cords vibrate» and sound is produced by these vibra142
tions. This sound takes the form of various spoken words, when it is modified by the movements of the tongue and the slip. By producing the sound uniformly during inhalation and exhalation, the student of yogic breathing can be sure of a uniform flow of the incoming or outgoing air. One round of breathing through the alternate nostrils will include two inhalations and two exhalations. The first inhalation should be made through the left nostril, to be followed by an exhalation through the right nostril. The next inhalation should be made through the right nostril, which should be followed by exhalation through the left nostril. This makes one round. Further rounds should be made in the same order. Ten such rounds would include twenty inhalations and twenty exhalations in all. The nostril should be changed after each inhalation. Each inhalation (except the very first one) should be done through the same nostril that had been used for the immediately preceding exhalation. After the inhalation the nostril should be changed, making the immediately following exhalation through the other nostril. Inhalations and exhalations must follow each other immediately, without leaving any gap in between. There should be no abrupt or unnecessary movements while changing the nostrils. The fingers should be moved gently while changing their position from the bridge of the nose to a nostril and vice versa* The right elbow should be held pointing downward. It should not hang uncomfortably away from the chest. No heaviness or weight should be felt at the right shoulder. When one succeeds in making ten successive rounds of breathing through alternate nostrils (involving twenty inhalations and twenty exhalations) without any trouble, over a period of fifteen days, one may proceed to 143
increase the duration of each rounu jn the following manner. Supposing that each round was initially of thirty seconds (five seconds for each inhalation, and ten seconds for each exhalation—and there are two inhalations and two exhalations in each round), one may shift on to a round of thirty six seconds. On the first day, only the last round should be of the longer duration. This should be done after making nine rounds of the shorter duration. One round of the longer duration would here include two inhalations for six seconds each, and two exhalations each for twelve seconds. Each res piration of the longer durations would take three seconds more than a respiration of the shorter duration. On the second day, the last two rounds may be of the longer duration, after making eight rounds of the shorter duration. On the third day, the last three rounds would be of the longer duration, on the fourth day, the last four, and so on, upto ten days, by which time all the rounds of the shorter duration will be replaced by the rounds of the longer duration. If there is any feeling of suffocation or exhaustion at any time one should have normal breathing for a few minutes, and the further rounds should then involve the lower duration. There should be no hurry in replacing the rounds of the shorter duration by those of the longer one. The most important point to be remembered all along is that one must never try to surpass one's capacity for deep breathing. Yogic breathing is an art that calls for patience and caution. There should never be a tendency to sacrifice the uniformity, ease, and completeness of each inhalation and exhalation for any hasty, impatient action. When a shorter duration is completely replaced by a longer duration, this dose may be practised for a fortnight, and one can then slowly introduce a still longer 144
duration progressively. Within a period of nearly six months from the start» one should be able to prolong each inhalation to ten seconds and each exhalation to twenty seconds. This would mean a total time of ten minutes for ten rounds of breathing through alternate nostrils. When this is practised for a month or so, one can very well suppose that one had made a good start towards the practice of yogic breathing proper. Kwnbhaka may now be introduced. It is only when breathing involves holding of breath» that we can properly call the breathing "yogic breathing"» i.e. Pranayama. The deep inhalations and exhalations may just be called preparation for yogic breathing. They can be described as yogic breathing only in a secondary sense of the term, not in the strict sense. Yogic breathing proper, i.e. the one involving kwnbhaka, is not necessary at all for ordinary purposes. A student whose interest in deep breathing is just for the purpose of maintenance of good health may exclude kwnbhaka altogether. Ten rounds of breathing through alternate nostrils» where each inhalation takes ten seconds and each exhalation twenty, is a sufficient dose for an average individual. It is, accordingly» only those who are interested in the deeper aspects of yoga, that may take to a practice of holding the breath. It may be mentioned that it is not very essential to follow strictly the mode of increasing the number of rounds and the duration of each round» exactly as described above- For example» instead of increasing the number of rounds by one every day, one may find it more convenient to increase it by four or five after every week. This may be adjusted according to one's convenience and capacity. Similarly about increasing the duration of each round. It is not necessary that everyone should start with inhalations and exhalations 145 .
of five and ten seconds respectively. One can, instead, very well start with a duration of ten and twenty seconds respectively, if this can be done with ease and comfort. It should be noted that what ever the duration of a round, the exhalation should every lime take double the time of an inhalation. We shall, at this stage, mention some of the benefits that may be derived from a regular practice of deep breathing as described above. During each puraka, the lungs get filled completely with air making all the minute air sacks full to their capacity. Conversely, during each rechaka, the lungs are emptied to the maximum possible extent, causing the walls of the air sacks to sink as completely as possible. This situation, when repeated over several rounds, renders very good exercise to all the parts of the lungs, improving the tone of the lung tissue to a considerable extent. It is found that the upper extreme parts of the lungs do not usually get appreciably ex panded and contracted during normal respirations. If a person does not take regular exercise involving forced breathing, these upper extremities habitually remain inactive. The tone of the tissue in these parts is slowly lost, thereby making tissue more vulnerable to attack of micro-organisms- It is this part of the lungs which usually gets affected initially in ease of tuberculosis and other types of affections of lungs. This situation is prevented completely, if the lungs are exercised regularly by practising puraka and rechaka. This also makes an individual less prone to disorders like asthma, by making the lung tissue strong enough. People who have asthma in their ancestral history, i.e. those individuals whose parents or grandparents or great-grandparents might have bad to suffer from asthma, would thus be tremendously benefitted by a regular practice of deep breathing as a preventive measure against asthma. 146
Having strong lungs and a healthy and efficient lung tissue is a very desirable thing indeed. This makes for general health. The vital index, which is an indication of good health and vitality, can be increased by a regular practice of deep breathing. All the muscles involved in the mechanism of respiration get a sort of training, so that it becomes one's habit to make more complete respirations even at other times than at the time of the practice itself. During inhalation the intra-thoracic pressure remains lower than atmospheric pressure. Due to the downward movement of the diaphragm, and a slight contraction of the abdominal muscles, the pressure in the abdominal cavity registers an increase during inhalation. These situations are changed during exhalation, where the intrathoracic pressure becomes more than atmospheric pressure, while the intra-abdominal pressure gets lowered down. These pressure changes which are more pronounced in deep breathing cause two beneficial effects. First, they gave a gentle massage to the heart and the abdominal viscera, and second, they stimulate blood circulation due to the fact that blood flows more easily from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure. Deep breathing thus makes a very good exercise not only for the lungs, but also for the heart and the organs contained in the abdominal cavity. It helps the functions of digestion, excretion and circulation, to be carried out efficiency. This much being said about the beneficial effects of yogic breathing for ordinary purposes, let us now describe how a student, who is interested in the deeper aspects of yogic breathing, should proceed in the practice of holding the breath. One must have practised deep breathing as described earlier for a few months so as to prepare oneself for the practice of kumbhaka. The 147
two varieties of kwttbhaka involve different techniques; We shall first speak about the procedure for holding the breath inside the lungs The Bandbas Taking for granted that one has already practised purakas and rechakas of ten and twenty seconds respectively» for a month or so, one should, on the first day, introduce holding of breath in the last round, for ten seconds. After completing the puroka, both the nostrils should be closed, the right one with the thumb, and the left one with the last two fingers. The head should be lowered down in the front, and the chin set against the jugular notch below the throat. This technique is 99 known as "jalandhara-bandha. It should be accom panied by two other bandhas called respectively "nudabandha"* and "uddiyana-bandha". The former involves contraction of the anus, the latter, contraction of the pelvis (lower abdomen). These three bandhas are supposed to have a special significance. After holding the breath for ten seconds after the pwaka through the left nostril, the head may be taken to its normal erect position, the muscles of the anus and pelvis are relased, and then rcch.aka and the next pwaka are made through the right nostril. Another kumbhaka is then made, which is followed by rechaka through the left nostril. The number of rounds involving kwnbhakas maybe increased by two per week, so that within five to six weeks all the ten rounds would include holding of breath. After practising twenty kwnbhakas (of ten seconds duration each) every day for about a month» the duration of each kumbhaka may be slowly increased to fifteen seconds. This would be achieved in about a month and a half, and may be practised regularly for nearly a 148
month. Then the time may be progressively increased to twenty seconds. Another sitting may be added at this stage. In the beginning the dose of ten rounds (i.e. twenty kwnbhakas of twenty seconds each) may be split up into two doing ten kwnbhakas in the morning and ten in the evening. The number at both sittings may be increased by one every week, so that after five weeks one will be doing forty kwnbhakas per day, twenty in the morning and twenty in the evening. The maximum dose of ktanbhaka. that an advanced student of yoga is expected to practise every day, as mentioned in Hathayoga-Pradipika (II, 11), is eighty kwnbhakas per sitting, with four sittings in a day. One should thus practise Pranayama in the morning, evening, and at midday and midnight. The maximum duration of kwnbhaka in each round is traditionally expected to be sixty four mairas- The definition of a ntatra seems to vary in different traditional texts. For example, in the Yogatatvopanishad (40) it is said that a mairas is the period required for taking the hand round the knee neither hastily nor slowly, and making a sound by sliding the middle finger downward from the apex of the thumb. This means nearly thirty six matras in one minute. A matra is defined in the Markandeya Parana (XXXVI, 15) as the time required for winking of the eyelids, or for uttering a syllable- This may mean about one hundred mairas per minute. The Brihadyogi yajnyavalkya Smriti (VII, 12) speaks of a matra as the time required for making a sound thrice by the middle finger and thumb, or for moving the hand once around the knee and the thigh. This is rather vague- Brahmananda, the commentator of Haihayoga-Pradipika mentions several meanings of the word "matra" (II, 12). We need not go into the details of these meanings. 149
It seems reasonable to assume that sixty four matras are equal to nearly forty eight seconds. A kwnbhaka of this duration may be described as of the "highest type". A duration of twenty four seconds would make a kwnbhaka of the "medium type", while a kwnbhaka lasting only twelve seconds may be called the one of a "low type". It is supposed that & kwnbhaka of the low type causes profuse perspiration of the body, the one of a "medium type," cause tremors in the body, while that of the "highest" type may cause the body to be raised from the ground (e.g., see Gheranda Samhita, V, 55). The highest type of kwnbhaka must, however, be developed with due care and caution, preferably under the guidance of a person .who has himself mastered it. The author of the Hathayoga Pradipika (II, 15-16) does well to warn the student of yoga against the ill effects of an improper practice of Pranayama. He has rightly compared breath control with the process of taming a lion or an elephant, em phasizing the need for exercising caution and care. The Varieties of Pranayama Eight varieties of Pranayama have been mentioned in traditional yoga texts. We shall survey them in brief, one by one. The procedure described above, in which kwnbhaka is accompanied by breathing through alternate nostrils, is traditionally called Anuloma-Viloma Pranayama. It is not necessary at all to practise all the eight types. The kwnbhaka part is, in fact, the same in all of them, there being only a difference as regards the technique of inhalation and exhalation. The eight types are respectively called 1) suryabhedana, 2) ujjayi 3) shitali, 4) sitkari, 5) bhastrika, 6) bhramari, 7) murchha and 8) plavini. In the first, the right nostril 150
is used every time for inhalation, and the left one for exhalation. In the second type, inhalations are made through both the nostrils, and exhalations through the left one. These are accompanied by a sound produced by contraction of the throat (i.e. a partial closure of theglotis). The third type is characterized by inhalations through the mouth, and exhalations through both the nostrils. The tongue is slightly drawn out of the mouth for this purpose, and its sides are turned up, forming a passage like a channel, for sucking in air. The fourth type includes inhalations through the mouth, with the tip of the tongue pressing against the teeth, and exhalations through both the nostrils. The fifth type is combination of kcpalabhati and swyabhedana, in which twenty to forty expulsions of air through both the nostrils are made to precede each inhalation. In the sixth type a sound like that of the bumble-bee (bhramara) is produced while inhaling and exhaling, using both the nostrils. The seventh type requires jalandhara-bandha to be practised during kwnbhaka as well as rechaka. The last one is practised for the purpose of floating on water. All these varieties of Pranayama, except perhaps the last one, may be said to be aimed at one common goal, that of bringing the mind ultimately under one's control. The physiological effects that go with these varieties, however, show some variations* For example, the first and the fifth types are said to give roe to heat in the body, while the third and fourth types are sup posed to produce cold, an unconscious state which is foil of pleasure, and so on. We need not go into the details of these varieties, because our main interest is in the utility of Pranayama in general. We shall discuss this after describing the technique of holding the breath outside the lungs. 151
After assuming a comfortable sitting position» one should make twenty to forty expulsions of Kapalabbati. Then a deep exhalation should be made, contracting the anus and pelvis towards the end of exhalation. Then, not allowing the air to rush into the lungs again» the chin should be set against the jugular notch by lowering the head forward. This position may be maintained for five to ten seconds and then, raising the head to its normal position, inhalation may be allowed to occur. There is no need to make this inhalation very long or deep. This makes one round. After going through three or four normal respirations, another round may be undertaken. The duration of each kumbhaka, and the number of rounds in a sitting may be slowly increased as described earlier. Patanjali has mentioned this technique in the Yoga Sutra (I, 34), while describing various ways of making the mind peaceful and blissful. It has also been mentioned in the Yoga Vasishiha (V, 78, 22 and VI, 25,17). We are now in a position to describe the effects of a prolonged practice of Pranayama. After how much practice can one take oneself to have mastered the art of yogic breathing ? This is a question which must be answered at the outset. We find an answer to this question in the Trishikhi-brahmanopanishad {Mantra part, 102), wherein it has been mentioned that after a continuous practice for three years one can be said to be firmly established in the art of yogic breathing. This period may, of course, vary with different individuals. The best way would be to observe whether one has developed the marks of a good practice of yogic breathing. These marks have been mentioned in the above text (Mantra part. 103*104) in the following words: An individual who has mastered the vayu achieves full control over his senses, requires less food and 152
sleep, becomes strong physically and mentally, and achieves longevity of life." We have an interesting passage in the Goraksha Pathlhati (f, 93) wherein it is said while emphasizing the fact of achieving longevity through yogic breathing, that even Lord Brahma, the Supreme Creator of the world, takes recourse to the practice of Pranayama, instigated as he is by fear of death. It is believed that the life span of every individual is limited in terms of the inhalations and exhalations he is destined to make in the whole of life. This number being fixed, one can increase the span of life by prolonging and stopping these acts for specified times. We do not know how far this belief may be correct, but we may, nevertheless, say that it would be proper to expect that yogic breathing may help to prolong one's life, just as proper cleaning, lubrication and timely overhauling of a machine results in a long and trouble-free service. This very text describes at another place (II, 11), the importance of yogic breathing for wiping out vices {papa)- It declares that "Pranayama swallows the vices just as fire swallows ftiel, and helps like a bridge to cross the ocean of sorrow (samsardy*. The Shiva Samhita (III, 58) speaks of it as a sure and certain way of cancelling the binding effect of past karma. It is described in the Manusmriti (VI, 69) as a powerful means for making oneself free of the vice (papa) accruing from killing other beings. The Yoga Yajnyavalkya (VI. 81) mentions it as the best hope for those who are drowning in the stream of sorrow. These statements are, however, based on the peculiar Indian view of looking at the world as a stream of sorrow, and presuppose a belief in transmigration (punarjanma). For an individual who does not happen to hold the 153
two beliefs, namely, that the world is intrinsically miserable» and that there is life after depth, these statements are not of much value. We shall now describe these effects of yogic breathing which can be very valuable even from the point of view of such an individual. These, as we shall presently see» have tremendous scientific implications. It has been declared in the Hathayoga-Pradipika (IJ, 6; II, 19-20), that with a faithful practice of yogic breathing, the suswnna nadi becomes divested of impurities. Leanness and suppleness of body, capacity to hold breath according to will, a healthy and charming glow on the face, a remarkable power of digestion» mental health, and arousal of subtle sounds called nada, have been mentioned as the external marks of purification of the nadis- The Darshanopanishad (V, 11-12) mentions the same indications and recommends that the practice of yogic breathing must be continued until these marks become evident. The suswnna nadi is a very crucial notion in Hatha Yoga. It has been referred to in as old a text as the Kathopanishad (II, III, 16). It is said that there are 101 nadis arising from the heart» and one of them» which goes up to the head, makes for immortality if one can find his way up along this nadi. From a description of this nadi in the Shiva Shamhita (II» 17-18), it seems as if this is nothing else but the spinal cord. Two more nadis have been mentioned here (II, 25-26), namely, the Ida, which is situated on the left of suswnna, and the pingala, situated on its right The former is said to lead upto the left nostril, the latter, upto the right. Our normal respirations occur through these two nadis. When» through Pranayama, the passage of the central nadi (suswnna) is cleared, vayu is supposed to follow its path upward. This 154
happens when kundalini, the serpent goddess, lying dormant in all human beings, gets aroused due to a joint impact of prana and apana on it during the state of kwnbhakaSwatmarama, the author of Hathayoga-Pradipika, declares (III, I) that "huidalini is as basic to any yoga technique» as is the Shesha (divine serpent) to the mountains and plants and all living beings on the earth." There has been a belief in Indian mythology that the earth remains steady and does not fall down because of a support given to it from below, by the divine serpent called "Sheshcf*. Accordingly» everything on the earth is supposed ultimately to rest on the support of Shesha. Similarly, all yoga techniques have the base of kimdalini, i.e. they are all directed ultimately towards the goal of arousing the kimdalini. It is situated slightly above what is called the kanda or trikona, the location of which has been mentioned in various yoga texts. For example, it is said in the Shiva Samhita (V, 74-77), that "the kanda is situated between the anus and the genital organ, and that it is four angulas (nearly two inches) in length as well as breadth. The kundalinl is situated in the kanda, making three and a half circles like a coil. It rests in the beginning of the suswnna, closing its mouth, and lying dormant like a serpent.** We find the following description of kanda in the Yoga Yajnyavalaya (IV, 12-24). "The centre of the body is situated nearly one rich above the anus, and one inch below the genital organ. The kanda extends upto a distance of nearly four and a half inches (nine angulas) from this centre. The place of kundalinl is above the kanda, which is a little above and behind the point of the navel (nabhi). The kundalinl, making eight folds, surrounds the surface of the kanda, and 15S
remains there closing the mouth of the susimma (i.e. brahma-randhm). When it is awakened by an impact of apana it rises up and shines very bright in the hridayakasha" The same description is found in the Trishikhibrahmanopanishad {Mantra part, 58-65) also. The Hathayoga-Pradipika (III, 105) compares the kundallni to a kay that can open the door to moksha. It says (П, 41-42): "When through the practice of Pranayama the nadis are purified» pram rises through the central nadi, making the mind ultimately com-* pleteJy silent. This state of steadiness of the mind is indeed the state of liberation." This fact has also been brought out in Yogashikhopanishad (I, 114-116). The physiology of this process is not yet perfectly understood. It is, however» the experience of those who practise yogic breathing for a sufficient length of time, that the mind becomes silent thereby. Our normal breathing is controlled by a nervous centre situated in the medulla oblongata (which is a part of the nervous system between the brain and the spinal cord). Th is respiratory centre is made of two parts. One of them is responsible for bringing about the act of inhalation; the other part causes exhalation when it is stimulated. Deep breathing as well as yogic breathing involves additional impulses coming from the brain cortex. They cause the act of inhalation or exhalation to be prolonged or stopped temporarily. We do not quite know how this causes the mind to become silent. But it is, nevertheless, a fact of experience. As explained in Muktikopanishad (II, 27), "the mind depends upon two factors, namely, pram and vasana, for its very existence. Consequently, it becomes silent the moment either of the two factors stops working". 156
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(Щ Dhayana: VQ) Controlling the Mind
HUMAN MIND has ever been a thing of great concern to the philosophers, thinkers, and masters of yoga. Guided by the maxim "healthy mind in a healthy body", we have tried to show in the earlier chapters how yoga practices involving control of muscles and breath can help to make the mind healthy and peace-fill. In the present chapter we shall inquire into those yoga techniques which are useful in tackling the mind in a direct manner. A question that we must answer at the outset would be why should the mind be made silent at all? An answer to this question is found in the Amritahindupanishad (I, 4), wherein it is said that, "the mind has two parts: one impure, the other pure. The impurities of the mind are made by desire and passion. Mind itself is thus the cause of bondage and liberation; it binds the individual when it is overtaken by desire for enjoyment, it makes for wukti when it becomes peaceful and silent" We shall first try to understand here the nature of mind according to yoga, before proceeding to see how it is made silent. As explained by the great Shankaracharya (Viveka Chudamani, 93-94), the mind (which is known in Sanskrit as antahkarana) gets four different names according to its functions: it is called manas for the activity of resolving and doubting; buddhi, when it
comes to a decision or judgement about anyming; it derives the name asmita from the fact of consciousness of its own existence; and lastly» it comes to be known as chita by the event of remembering previous experience. It is customary to compare the mind to a river. Just as a river is nothing but a huge mass of innumerable drops of water, mind is a vast collection of thoughts and traces of past experience. Water is observed to flow always to a lower level; so, too the mind, which always gets attracted towards one or other object of enjoyment. Traditionally it is believed by all the branches of Indian philosophy (except perhaps the solitary example of the Charvaka school of thought) that the mind of every individual is, at any time, full of traces of experience gathered in all the past lives through which one has passed. According to this belief, one's mind at the very moment of birth, may be looked upon as a vast river of samskaras gathered over countless past Jives. Many samskaras out of that vast collection are supposed to be wiped out due to enjoyment of their fruits in the present birth, but many more are also being continually added throughout the present life, due to the various acts one does from birth till death. This is known as the law of karma, which states that the various events one comes across in the present life are the fruits of what one had done in past lives, and secondly, that the mind of an individual contains, at birth, the whole collection of past samskaras. It may be pointed out that science seems to disbelieve both these statements. Whether the mind is full of traces of past experience at birth or not, it is true that the mind of most of us is ever engaged in activity that is the outcome of desireto be something or to obtain something. As explained in 158
the Mahopanishad (V, 99-101), "mind is always unstable, and it is almost impossible to get rid of the instability of the mind, because it is a quality as basic to the mind as is heat to fire. When the mind becomes devoid of this instability, it attains moksha" Our mind may be compared to a horse that is • free to run wherever it likes. Like an uncontrolled horse, the mind of an individual always runs from one object of enjoyment to another. We find the mind to be continuously engaged in some kind of thought. Whenever it is not engaged in any event actually happening, it either remembers some past event or contemplates some future event. It is at very rare movements that the mind may be found to be still. We find a very lucid description of the mental activity of an individual in the Kathopanishad (I, 3, 3-9). It is said that, '"the body is like a chariot of which intellect (buddhi) is the charioteer. Mind works like the reins; the senses are the horses, the objects of experience being their field of operation. The individual endowed with mind and senses is the enjoyer of all that happens. The senses act like bad horses out of control of the charioteer when the mind is not steady. When right knowledge is attained by steadying the mind, the senses act like good controlled horses. Such an individual reaches the other shore of samsara9 that is the highest state." Yoga philosophy recognizes five factors as being basic to the mental activity of an individual. These are called the five kleshas, because they are the root cause of human misery and sorrow. They are named respectively avid) a, asmita, raga, dvesha, and abhbtivesha. Avidya means false knowledge or ignorance of one's own nature in relation to the objects of experience. Various schools of Indian philosophy are observed to have different views regarding what avidya means, but they all agree 159
that it is a fundamental fact underlying human behaviour* Asmita means the ego feeling. According to the yoga view» the soul is, in fact, completely different from the body. But due to avidya, it starts taking the body to be its own, or rather, it gets identified with the body, and thus gets affected with pleasure and pain. Asmita is thus an immediate consequence of avidya. The next three kleshas are also looked upon as consequences of avidya (e.g. see Yoga Sutra, 11,3-10). Raga means liking for pleasurable experience» that is, the desire for enjoyment. Dvesha is the opposite of this» namely, aversion for pain. The last, klcsha, indicates the desire to live, i.e. the fear of death. Yoga philosophy thus tries to derive all human behaviour from these five innate and universal tendencies. It is believed that these five basic tendencies are present in the mind of an individual right from the moment of birth. They are the motivating agents which guide the behaviour of an individual in various situations- These five innate tendencies are looked upon as impurities of the mind. Their presence in the mind makes for unsteadiness and instability. The mind can» therefore, become steady and peaceful only when these impurities are completely washed away. There are two ways of making the mind clear of impurities, namely, Pranayama and Dhyana. We have already discussed the former in an earlier chapter. The latter will engage our attention presently. Dhyana It is the experience of almost everyone of us that whenever we try to concentrate the mind on an object or an idea, the mind immediately starts wandering. It is very difficult to keep the mind steadily concerned 160
about a single thought. This difficulty has been expressed even by such a superior disciple as Aijuna, even when there was such a highly capable guru as Lord Krishna to instruct him. After hearing carefully the description of yoga from the mouth of Lord Krishna {G:ta9 VI), Arjuna had to confess that he could not understand it properly, because of the instability of his mind. He expressed that control of the mind was even more difficult than control of the wind. On this, Lord Krishna has said something which is important for everybody who wishes to bring the mind under control-Krishna declares in clear terms (GUa9 VI, 35-36) that although there is no doubt that the mind is a very difficult thing to be brought under control, it can, nevertheless, be made silent and steady, by a two-pronged attack, that of vairagya and abhyasa. He does not fail to warn that yoga is Impossible for those whose minds are not steady and controlled. Patanjali, the author of the Yoga Sutra, has also emphasized the importance of these two means (I» 12) for making t hemind silent. We may say that these two qualities make the very essence of yoga. We shall, in the remaining pages, make a detailed study of these two. The former quality constitutes what we may call the behavioral aspects of yoga, the latter is concerned directly with steadying the mind. Mind usually is like a disturbed pond containing* many impurities. For cleaning such a pond, we have first of all to stop the inflow of fresh impurities» and then to remove existing impurities. The mind has similarly to be tackled in two ways, and these are the ways of vairagya and abhyasa, Vairagya is the cessation of raga, and means an absence of the urge or longing for enjoyment. It indicates a complete lack of the tendency of mind to be swayed away by objects of experience. It" 161
means a total lack of ambition or desire for achievement. Itis, however, a very rare quality. Our minds are usually overtaken by the process of desire—desire to attain success» to become important, to have power, and so on. We usually get caught up easily in an endless circle of achievement and further achievement. Vairagya can dawn only upon a mind which has come to realize the futility of the process of desire and achievement. There are three techniques in yoga in terms of which the state of vairagya may be analysed. They are respectively called yama, niyama and pratyahara. We shall describe these three aspects of vairagya in brief at this stage. Yama and Niyama Yama and niyama may be respectively called the negative and positive aspects of behaviour. Traditionally, ten yamas and ten niyamas are found mentioned in texts such as Trishikhibrahmtmopanishad (Mantra part, 32-33), Dorshanopanishad (I, б and II, 1), and Yoga Yajnyavalkya (I, 50-51, II, 1-2). In other authoritative texts like the Yoga Sutra (II, 30, 32), Vishnu Purana (VI, 7, 36^38) only five yamas and five nlyamas have been mentioned. On the whole, the yamas may be said to have greater importance. As explained in the Manitsmriti (VI, 204), "one must always follow the yamas without any exception; one gets ruined if he follows the niyamas alone, ignoring the yamas." We shall here consider five yamas and five niyamas as mentioned in the Yoga Sutra. 1) Ahimsa (Non-violence): This is the foremost among the yamas. It implies an absence of the attitude to harm others in any manner. This has been very highly spoken of in Jainism as well as in Christianity. 162
But it is very difficult to bring this yama into practice in everyday life. A judge, for example, who is the custodian of law and order, or a warrior on the battle-field, or a butcher, cannot go to the extreme of not causing any harm to any one. More importance should here be given not to the fact of killing or harming others» but to the attitude involved in the act. Thus the executioner whose lot it is to hang those who are sentenced to death, is never charged with murder of any one, although his actual act involving killing of a human being may not be different from the act of a murderer. But if he hangs any one without the proper orders of a competent authority, his act may be treated as murder. Thus, whether an act involves killing, does not have much importance. The attitude involved is, in fact, what is most important. The definition of ahimsa in yoga is more rigorous than the ordinary sense of the term. It means excluding from one's behaviour not only such acts as would involve killing or physically offend others, but also the acts of offending others through speech or even thinking ill about any one. A yogi exhibits ahimsa by his very nature. He does not have to think every time that he has to refrain from himsa9 because it is harmful. 2) Satya (Truthfulness): This means being truthful in thought, speech and action. One can be extremely truthful in this way, only when one has overcome greed and ambition. But most of us arc greedy utd ambitious, and hence we often deceive others whenever our interests are served by deceit. Honesty and simplicity are two qualities that are a "must" for one who aspires for making any progress on the path of yoga. ! lonesty is not only necessary for a student of yoga, but it is something most essential for every individual in society. The 163
student of yoga comes to look upon the whole world as a single family, and his dealings with every human being are therefore full of love and honesty. 3) Asteya (Non-theft): "Steya" in Sanskrit means enjoying or keeping with oneself what rightly belongs to others, i.e. stealing, or theft. A student of yoga, who is a man of vairagya, is never expected to steal anything from anywhere, because he has a feeling of love for all. How can such an individual ever think of robbing others of their belongings, or gathering wealth or objects of enjoyment? One ihinks of robbing others* or exploiting them, only when there is no love, and there is some selfish motive. Vairagya* which puts an end to all selfish activities, greed and ambition, causes an individual to renounce the very idea of enjoying at the cost of others, and such a man retires spontaneously from all activities which may deprive others, knowingly or unknowingly, of the fulfilment of their needs. The needs of a yogi are indeed very few, and he does not have to exploit others in the slightest manner in order to make his own life possible. 4) Brahmacharya (Celibacy): This indicates a complete absence of sex desire. It is held with very high esteem in the yoga texts. For example, it is described in the Matsya Parana (174, 36-40) as the highest austerity. Sex urge is one of the very strong urges. It causes great uneasiness whenever it remains unfulfilled. It is perhaps a need which is next ш importance only to the vital needs of air, water and food. Desire for sex enjoyment equally overtakes the laymen as well as the learned. Celibacy involves absence not of the sex act alone, but rather a total qbsence of any thoughts about sex also. It may be said to indicate a complete cessation 164
of what may be called the *sex complex*. This sex com plex has been described in the Katharudropanishad (6,7) by saying that the sex act has eight aspects, all of which must be avoided by an aspirant of yoga. This means that abandoning merely the physical act of sex does not serve any useful purpose, because having an urge to watch the members of the opposite sex, or to talk to them whenever an opportunity arises, or to go on thinking about them by engaging the mind in thoughts concerning them, is also often observed to create disturbance and tension in one's mind. But it is a fact of experience that it is almost impossible for an average human individual to keep away sex-enjoyment for all times* In religious literature we find many stories of great rishis (who wanted to obtain the title of Indra), who were deceived and distracted from the rigorous discipline necessary for reaching their goal, when Indra sent one or more beautiful damsels to allure them. It is said in the Manusmritt (II, 214), that women can allure the ignorant as well as the highly educated, and throw them away from the path of mukti. It is, therefore, that the individual who can keep the sex urge well under contol, has been praised highly in traditional texts. It may be argued that an average individual need not abandon sex altogether. It is not a sane attitude to condemn sex as something bad or harmful. Sex has a very important place in the life of an individual, and it should not be denied its proper place. But the overwhelming effect of sex on the minds of modern youth, caused by the world of cinema and advertisement, is definitely posing a serious problem today. Proper training, concerning the working of sex, and proper social atmosphere in which the sex urge can be modified by some other useful and strong urge, are the two things which will help a great deal in solving the tremendous 165
problems problems of sex in the life life of of modern modern youth. youth. A jivanmukta completely overcomes all passions and desires, and with them, the sex urge, too. He is ever free' as described by Jnanadco, (Anubhavamrita, V, 47), of any tension or disturbance produced by sex. But all other students of yoga have to struggle with themselves to greater or smaller extent, according to the extent of vairagya in their minds, with a flew to overcome the disturbance created by the sex urge. Brahma Brahmach chary arya a is no doubt a very arduous but paying aspect of vairagya. As declared by Patanjali (Yoga Sutra у II, 38) it increases tremendously the mental strength (yearya) of an individual which is very useful in silencing the mind. 5) Aparigrah 5) Aparigraha a (Non-gathering): This means not going after accumulation of wealth and objects of enjoyment. We usually long for increasing our belongings infinitely, infinitely, because we are greedy. An aspirant of yoga has, however, to turn his mind away from greed, and be concerned only with the fulfilment of his primary needs. Accumulation of wealth causes distraction —it keeps one's mind mind tied down to the enjoyments that that are imagined to go with amassing wealth. It causes a lot of strain to gather wealth, and it causes strain too to keep it safe. And all this is nothing but distraction for a student of yoga who is truly a man of vairagya, which, in the true sense of the term, involves renunciation not only of unnecessary belongings, belongings, but of the very idea of desire and attainment attainment in any form. We have so far gone through the nature of the five yamas, or the negative aspects of vairagya. We shall now make a brief survey of what a man of vairagya is expected positively to show in his behaviour, namely,
166
the niyamas. The five niyamas, as mentioned by Patau* jali are as follows: 1) Shoucha (Cleanliness) : This includes cleanliness of the body and the mind. A clean mind means a mind which is free of passions like greed, envy, and so on, and the impurities of mind, like false beliefs and ignorance. In a general sense, all the five yamas can be included under cleanliness of mind, because each one of them implies removal of some kind of impurity from the mind. 2) Saniosha (Contentment): This is one of the striking qualities of a yogi who, in the absence of any idea of achievement or fulfilment of ambition, ever remains satisfied with whatever he confronts in life. 3) Tapas (Religious austerities): These include various procedures like fasting, and subjecting the body to severe conditions in various ways with a view to increase the power of resistance of the body. This is supposed to increase the strength of the body and mind and make them more capable of fighting adverse situations. 4) Svadhyaya (Reading religious literature): This is very helpful in overcoming ignorance by giving an insight into various problems. It fills the mind with good and pious thoughts, and makes it peaceful. 5) Ishwatapranidhana Ishwatapranidhana (Devotion): This means relying on the Divine Will, by ascribing the effects of whatever one does to Divine Providence. This attitude, if properly and faithfully developed, relieves an individual of tension, because of the habit to accept everything thin g as the will of God. God. It is a good means for those 167
who have faith in the existence of a Supreme Being as a Creator and Governor of the whole universe. They can relinquish the burden of fear and worry by developing developing a reliance on God's will. It may be said that the list of the positive and negative aspects of viragya as considered above, is not exhaustive, and we can add many more qualities to the list. But that is not very important, as all such qualities, in fact, exhibit one and the same basic fact, namely, peace of mind. We shall now consider the third behavioral aspect, which, although inseparable from vairagya as such, deserves a few words. This is the aspect called pratyahara. It indicates a withdrawal of the senses and mind from the objects of enjoyment. The five cognitive senses, namely, the organs of sight, touch, hearing, smell and taste, grasp specific stimuli alone. For example, the organ of sight grasps light rays, the organ of hearing grasps sound waves, and so on. Pratyahara means a withdrawal of the sense organs from their respective areas. This does not, of course, mean that a student of yoga actually stops seeing, or hearing, or touching objects of experience. That is not the idea implied in prat pratya yaha hara ra.. It really means a detachment of the mind. i.e. a complete cessation of the urge for enjoyment, which is exactly the meaning of viragya. Such viragya has been described in the Gita (XV, 3) as a powerful and pointed instrument useful in cutting the tree of samsara It is said further (XV, 4-5) that "wise men whose minds have become pure by washing away all the impurities accuring from attachment, infatuation, cravings, etc., and who have become free of all opposites like pleasure and pain, can reach the highest place of God, from where there is never any 168
return." Vairagya is thus the beginning of yoga. It is indispensable for those whose interest in yoga is deep and profound. Every one who aspires for making progress on the spiritual path must, therefore, see carefully how far he has acquired this quality of detachment and peace, because as long as this quality has not developed in one's mind, whatever he does in the field of yoga has really no meaning at all. The great Shankaracharya has rightly declared (Vfoeka Chudamaniy 78) that "even though one is well-versed in all the branches of knowledge, he does not become 9 fit for liberation unless he is a man of vairagya. * Vdiragya is thus the most essential mark of a yogi. Abhiyasa The mind of such a person stops running about, and becomes steady and still very easily. The process of steadying the mind is called abhyasa in yoga terminology. It is made of three stages respectively called dharana, dhyana, and sa and sam madhi adhi (see Yoga Sutra, III, 1-3). Dharana h a state of mental concentration in which the mind, which has stopped running after the objects of enjoyment (due to vairagya) gets associated with a restricted area of operation, which may be an idol or a picture, or any symbol like a cross, or dot, and so on. This is a state of absorption of the mind in an engrossing topic. All thoughts are here concerned about a single topic. For example, one may fix the mind on some areas in the body, such as any one of the six chakras, the tip of the tongue or nose, the mid point between the eyebrows, the heart, and so on, or on, an attractive idol of Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, or a picture of the rising sun. No thought other than those that are in some way or the 169
other related to the object of concentration, is allowed to arise in the mind. This is not an easy thing to do, because of the habit of mind to move continuously from one thought to another. But an individual, from whose mind vasana or trishna has completely retired, can easily apply his mind to any limited topic (tlesha), just as a trained horse can be made to follow any specified path, by carefully controlling his actions. As an individual proceeds deeper in the process of concentration, the mind becomes steadier, and, out of the limited set of thoughts concerning the same topic, only one single thought starts arising in the mind, time and again. This is the state of dhyana in which the mind becomes very stable like the flame of a lamp in a very calm atmosphere, and its contact with the object of experience becomes intense and complete. There are two varieties of dhyana as explained III the Shandilyopanishad (1, 13,1), namely, sagtuwdhyaiw and nirgunadhyana. The former involves stillness of the mind associated with an object of experience that can be grasped through the sense organs, e.g. it may either be seen with eyes, or touched with the hands or at least it can be thought of as having certain qualities. The latter variety implies complete absorption of the mind into itself. This is a state in which the mind is not associating with any object, external or internal, or perceptible through the senses. The mind becomes completely still in this state. It is supposed that such a still and silent mind becomes so sensitive as to be able to understand any event, past, present or future, that might have happened anywhere in the universe. We may quote, for example, an incident mentioned by Kalidasa in his Raghuvamsha (I, 73-74). King Dilipa, as the story goes, was not having a child. He went to his guru Vasishtha for a remedy, and tcld him 170
the reason of his sadness. The rlshi, од this, stood still for a few moments and came to know, through concentration of the mind, why king Dilioa was not getting a son. Whether such a thing is possible through dhyana, is a question on which opinions may diner. Science, it may be said, has not yet succeeded in gathering sufficient information which may confirm this belief. But we may still come across many people in India who would defend such possibilities heart and soul. Let us now see how dhyana is turned into what is called samadhi. This is a state that can be achieved only by a mind which is purified like a g^txt or crystal. When all the impurities of the mind are completely washed away through dhyana, the mind shows a capacity to grasp any object very clearly and vividly. When a crystal (which is colourless in itself) is placed adjacent to a flower, it shows in itself the colour of that flower very completely, so much so that one feels as if that is its own colour. Similarly, a mind that is purified by dhyana, when cast on any object of thought, can establish such an intimate contact with the object that it becomes completely identified or one with it. This is known as tadaimya of the mind with the object. It indicates complete stillness and steadiness which is accompanied by silencing of the breath. In that state, the consciousness of one's own existence vanishes. This is called "sabija samadhi", because it always involves some object of experience or some thought on which the mind is concentrated. Nirbija samadhi (also called "sahajavastha") is a state very different from this. It is jiot a state of concentration but the state of liberation in bodily existence {jivan mukti). 171
The Practice of Meditation "MEDITATION" is a prestigious word which has recently become extremely popular among people of all ages and vocations. Fifty years ago it was hardly ever mentioned in common parlance. But now we almost have a separate creed or sect of those who meditate and talk about their experiences during their state of meditation, and the influence of meditation on the life of people» inner, as well as that which happens in the external world. We now see a wholly new chapter in the long history of meditation being unfolded before Us. How did such a revolution come about? It all started in the western countries in the late fifties of the present century, with the advent of the hallucinogenic drugs and their increasing use in the affluent society, especially among those of the younger generation. Use of drugs like marijuana, heroine, LSD, mescaline, and methedrineamphetamine (speed) spread very quickly like a wave among the turbulent, uneasy teen-agers of post-war Europe and America, who were in a mood to revolt against the established norms and morality of the older people. These drugs had a tranquillising effect on the mind. So one could find an escape from the frustrations and anxieties of life. But these were not mere tranquillisers. They produced very unusual and marvellous experiences 172
like extreme elation, intense peace and tranquillity, hightened sensations, universalisation of the ego, impersonalization of personality, floating in the air, and so on. One could feel completely free from one's worries and problems, and live actually in a wonderland in which sensations of colour were immensely enjoyable, and ideas and sounds could be seen as having very attractive forms and colours. Thus one could live in a world of unimaginable pleasure and happiness. This was a world to which millions of youth were attracted. If only the effect could last permanently, then the psychidelic drugs, as they came to be called, could have turned our earth into a veritable paradise. But it soon became evident that this was. not possible. The drugs had two defects. First, as one went on the dose had to be increased. Secondly, and this was a very serious problem, the drugs had their side effects, so that when one was back from a 'trip', one was not the same person. There was a sort of crippling effect on the body and mind, and one became more helpless after taking the drugs to fight with the problems, which returned after the influence of the drug was over. Psychidelic drugs thus offered not a permanent solution to the problems of the new generation, but only an escape for a while. But the experiences during that period were so fascinating and overwhelming, and they were felt actually to be so real that they were described by the drugs users by words like ecstasy, nirvana, santadhi, meditation, liberation, and mukti. These words and the state of being indicated by them did make a mark on the minds of every one who had a trip into nirvana and this mark persisted in spite of the disillusionment with the hallucinogens. About the same time, Maharishi Mahcshyogi, the propounder of 173
the famous 'transcendental meditation' was trying to popularise bis new technique in the west. The time Seemed ripe for it, as hundreds of talented young men who were in search of a substitute for the drugs flocked around the Maharishi for having a lasting experience of the marvels of samadhl and nirvana, which they had tasted only temporarily under the influence of the drugs. This opened a new chapter in the history of meditation, giving rise to a continued flow of seekers in the direction of the orient. This brings us to the question, "What is meditation?*' This is an important question about which there should be no confusion in one's mind. It may be pointed out in the very beginning that 'meditation' is not an exact term, because it has a variety of meanings. These meanings differ very vastly from each other There is no contradiction in this, but one must understand the difference between the meanings. That difference can best be brought out by considering what meditation was called in Sanskrit in the ancient tradition of India. We shall here consider three words, all of which stand for what is meant by meditation. They are : dhyana, samapatti, and satnadhi. The word dhyana is derived from the root dhyai which means to think of, meditate upon, ponder over, contemplate, or simply to call the mind. Dhyana as a technique of yoga indicates an undisturbed process in which a single thought or idea arises in the mind with a continuous flow, and without intervention by any other thought or idea. It is a state of absorption of the mind, called ekagrata in Sanskrit. Usually our mind is in a state of survarthata, that is to say, it grasps all objects (sarva artha), one or many at a time. As opposed to this, ekagrata involves application of the mind to a single object which is a state of steadiness. 174
The word samapatti is derived from the root samapad, meaning to obtain, to attain to arrive or fall upon. Samapatti means arriving, encountering, accom plishing, completion, or conclusion of a process. It is a tchnical term of yoga indicating a state of oneness (tadanjanata) or unity of (he mind with an object. In it the mind arrives or falls upon an object completely because of a total absence of any distraction, and just as a crystal placed on a coloured flower shows the colour of the flower in itself and thereby it shows as if there is oneness of colour between the two. Similarly, the mind in samapatti becomes one with the object. In other words this is the same thing as ekagrata in the state of dhyana. The word samadhi issues from the root samadha which means to put together or to unite intensely. The basic root here is dha meaning to put or place, i.e., to take hold of. There are two grades of samadhL In one there is an object into which the mind is absorbed, while in the other the whole of thought process comes to an end, there being no effort to apply the mind to any particular idea or object There is a world if difference between the former and the latter. The former is the same as samapatti, and it has been called dhyana at many places in ancient Sanskrit texts. The latter state is described by words like sahajawastha or unmani awastha. The word 'meditation* includes all these meanings. Thus we must differentiate between two meanings of the word 'meditation'. In one sense meditation is a process of thought, rather of silencing thoughts, which involves effort to overcome the instability of the mind and its savage nature. Seeing that the savage tendencies of the mind are the root cause of misery and sorrow, one desires to bring them under control. 175
One Imagines a state of freedom from the savage tendencies and visualises a gap between one's actual state and the ideal or the posited state. This gap is sought to be filled by meditation. All the mighty traditions of religion, philosophy, cultural and ethical behaviour and morality that man has formulated through ages have advocated various means for filling the gap between the 'actual' and the 'ideal*. Meditation has always been the foremost among such means. Thus in one sense meditation is looked upon as a means, as a way of discipline, control, a way to be gradually traversed in order to achieve liberation or freedom. In this sense meditation may be called dhyana, sanmpatti, or samprajnyata samadhl. In another sense, meditation is not a means but an end in itself. It is not something to be sought after or achieved through effort. Rather it comes uninvited when all effort ceases completely and the desire for improvement or change, for filling a gap, comes to an end. Meditation in this sense is called nirbija samadhi. It cannot be taught or learned, as there is no technique for it. To avoid confusion the two forms of meditation may respectively be called meditation with seed and seedless meditation. In the tradition of yoga the former is described by words like dhyana, samapatti, sampra jnyata samadhi or sabija samadhi y while the latter form of meditation, as pointed out above, is called nirbija samadhi. Bija means the seed. In the context of samadhi it means the seed of ignorance which sprouts in the form of misery and sorrow. This seed must be destroyed for seedless meditation to come about. Can there be any relation between the two forms of meditation ? To put the question in other words, can the practice of meditation with seed lead ultimately to a state of seedless meditation ? Or can one, who has 176
mastered technique of meditation with seed eventually drop the seed and enter into the uncharted territory of seedless meditation? Clearly, the answer to this question must be in the negative. J. Krishnamurti, the most outstanding unconventional thinker of our times, has come to emphasise this point again and again throughout his talks over the last fifty years. By way of a foreword to the book "Meditations** (London Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1980.), he says. "Man, in order to escape his conflicts, has invented many forms of meditation. These have been based on desire, will and the urge for achievement and imply conflict and a struggle to arrive. This conscious, deli berate striving is always within the limits of a conditioned mind and in this there is no freedom. All effort to meditate is the denial of meditation. Meditation is the ending of thought. It is only then that there is a different dimension which is beyond time.'* Since all effort to meditate is the denial of meditation, it is clear that any form of meditation with seed can never by itself lead to seedless meditation. Patan jali, the oft-quoted authority of yoga, seems to have said the same thing in Yogasutra (I. 51.) when he declares that "nirbija samadhi comes into being with the total destruction of all the past experiences, those even of the highest form of sabija samadhi, by self knowledge (jnyanaprasada)" Thus there is no relation between the two forms of meditation. It is not possible to go from one to the other. Keeping this important point in mind, let us now discuss how meditation is to be practised, what its pie-requisites are, whether there are any special aids to it, and how they are to be employed. It is an experience of those who practise meditation that actually it is almost impossible to make the mind 177
steady and silent for a longtime- The mind can be temporarily put to rest by giving it a mantra to recite or by concentrating it on some idea or image. But the mind is utterly unsteady by its very nature. Just as a child may be absorbed in a toy for a while, or in some attractive game, but it can not go on playing for ever, so too, the mind can not be held up in meditation continuously even for a few minutes. Every now and then the mind runs away, and it has to be brought back to meditate. This is an unending process, and many of us who might have tried to make the mind steady and silent in meditation for years do have the same experience. Practice continued over many years does not seem to bring about and basic change in the attitudes and tendencies of the mind. This is a great hurdle in the way of meditation. For crossing this hurdle it is necessary to understand how the mind works, how It deceives itself, and why it is that the mind is always running after something, never giving up the chase. As mentioned earlier, the kleshas, which are present in themind since birth as innate tendencies, are mainly responsible for the unsteadiness of the mind. All the behaviour of the mind is classified by Patanjali in his Yogasutra in terms of states of the mind called chittabhumis and fluctuations or activities of the mind called yrtttis. If these are understood properly, then one may be in a position to have a silent mind. 1 Remembering that 'chitto is the word used in yoga for themind, let us first discuss the five cluttabhuntis or the states of the mind. So long as one lives, the mind is in one or the other of these five states. These states are respectively called kshipta, moodhd* vikshipta, ekagra9 and niruddha. Kshipta is the most common of these states. Kshipin Sanskrit means to let go, send, cast, or 178
throw. In waking life our mind always goes from object to object, when there are impacts from the external world carried to the mind by the sense organs that of sight, smell, sound, taste, and touch. When these impacts are cut off, the mind still keeps on moving, from thought to thought, memory to memory, from the present to the past or the future, and so on. The driving force for this continuous movement of the mind is, indeed, the kleshas (which we have discussed eariler), and the traces of past experience, called sams-karas. Propelled by this dual force, the mind is thrown unceasingly to various thoughts, objects, and memories. Hence this state is called kshipta. This perpetual movement of the mind is stopped temporarily during sleep, whether natural or the one induced by drugs. This state is called moodha, Midi in Sanskrit means to lose consciousness. Sometimes the ever-wandering mind does halt and get absorbed in an object or thought for a while, because of deep interest or amusement, for instance, while we are watching a picture or a game, or when we are deeply thinking or enjoying something. This is called the vikshipta state. The ekagra state is characterised by pin-pointedness. This is the state, as we have seen earlier, of dhyana, samapatti, sublja-samadhi or meditation with seed. In the niruddha state there is seedless meditation, as the seed of ignorance or the conditioning influence of the past comes to an end. The chlttabhwnis may be called levels of consciousness. They indicate the stability of the content of consciousness. The nature of this content is described in terms of the vrittis. Vrittih in Sanskrit means function, operation or movement. While the mind operates or functions at the levels of different chittabhumis, the actual nature of the operation or function is described 179
by the word vritti. Thus the mind may have different vriitis in one bhwni or one vritti in different bhttmis. The vrittis are classified into two main groups called klishtavrittis and aklishtavtlttis, respectively. So long as the kleshas are working as the driving force for the operation of the mind, the vrittis arising in the mind are called klishta, i.e., born of the kleshas. When the kleshas are removed by dhyana and other means, and the mind is filled with self-knowledge called viveka. khyati the vrittis arising in the mind are called aklishta vrittis* This happens in seedless meditation. Meditation with seed is characterised by klishtavrittis. Thus most used throughout our life have only the klishtavrittis. These vrittis are classified into five different types, The chitta is likened in yoga to a river. Just as a river Sows to the lower level, the mind always flows into thoughts, memories, imaginations, and ideas. All these 9 are included under the term 'vritti . These activites of the mind may pertain to true knowledge, false knowledge, a mere combination of ideas which does not correspond to anything in the external world, or they may give rise to experience of sleep, or memory. These 9 are the five categories of vaitt s. They are respcctivly called pramana, vipa ray а у a vikalpa, nidra, and smriti. Like ripples or waves arising in water, the vrittis arise in the chitta. When there is true knowledge in the mind, it is called pramana vritti. True knowledge arises from three sources, namely, sense perception, inference, and authority or testimony. This vritti plays a very important role in our everyday life. In life we come across circumstances in which our sense organs deceive us, for instance, when in insufficient light a rope appears as a snake, or when we see water in place of sand is what is called a mirage. In dreams we see objects which are not actually there. 180
Fallacious inference or misleading testimony may also give rise to false knowledge- All these are examples of viparyaya vritti, which is the opposite of pramana vritti. It is an amazing fact that much of our thinking is actually based on viparyaya vritti, as many of our beliefs, even many of those which are extremely dear to us, and which are passed on to us in a long tradition spread over many generations, are actually false beliefs, although we are told again and again by the books, the gurus, and the religious and political leaders that they are true. Viparyaya vritti is, indeed, responsible for much of misery in human life* Vikalpa vritti is different from both the above mentioned vrittis in that it is neither true nor false. The human mind has capacity to combine ideas. For instance, there is the idea of rabbit, and the idea of horns. Both these ideas are drawn from actual experience. By combining these two ideas we can form an idea of a homed rabbit. But this idea does not corres pond to anything actually in existence, and so it is meaningless although it appears to be meaningful because the two terms combined in this idea are in themselves meaningful. Thus vikalpa gives rise to much confusion in thinking, and the confusion often becomes very difficult to understand, as it has a semblance of truth. Nidra, i.e., sleep is the next form of activity of the mind. It is different from the other four forms in that the mind has for the support of its activity the absence of objects (abhava) whereas other vrittis stand on the support of existence ibhava) of objects. In deep sleep the activity of the mind is reduced very considerably, but it is not totally devoid of activity. The fifth vritti is memory (smriti), which arises from traces of past experience stored up in the mind, due to a similar experience 181
or a new experience having some association with it. The mind always functions with one or the other of these vrittis, never knowing freedom from them. For meditation to be possible it is necessary to have freedom from the vrittis. So long as the vrittis go on arising, no meditation is possible. A mind which has become free from them is called kshinavritti. Thus the kshinavritti state of the mind is really the key to meditation. Knowing this, one may immediately ask the question: How to make the mind kshinawitti ? There is no simple answer to this question. One has to understand how the vrittis arise. It is dear that the vfittis arise out of past experience, and unless one puts aside the whole of the past and observes the working of the mind without any influence of the past, without taking any particular standpoint and without any desire to achieve any particular result, one would not be in a position to break up completely from the circle of the vrittis. For that it is necessary that the kleshas should be washed away from the mind. Abhyasa and vatragya, as we have already pointed out earlier, are the two means for washing away the kleshas. .When the mind is freed from the burden of the kleshas, it becomes filled with graciousness of disposition and tranquility which is called chittaprasadam in yoga. This is a quality of the kshmavritti mind. It is only such a mind that can meditate. This state of prasada is described in the Gita (11.64-65.) in the following words:— "One who allows the senses to enjoy the objects of experience without likes and dislikes and without going out of hand enjoys the state of prasada. That puts an end to sorrow. That is the state of meditation." But, for most of us it is not possible to divest the mind of likes and dislikes, i.e., the kleshas. Many do try it by the cultivation of virtue, by controlling the 182
mind through the recitation of mantras and in a hundred other ways. But we fail at crucial moments. It is not that we lack sincerity or a strong will. Yet we find that there is no progress on the path to meditation. For such persons Patanjali, the author of the Yogasutra* has mentioned several situations. An understanding of these situations greatly helps to understand deeply and intimately the nature of the human mind, so that the mind is filled with prasada and it automatically finds itself in the realm of meditation. Let us consider these one by one. Pratipakshabhavana Meditation is not possible so long as the savage tendencies of the mind such as violence, greed, anger, hate, etc, have an upper hand. The struggle to put them down in order to make the mind silent often fails. If one examines the savage nature of the mind by pratipakshabhavana, then an awareness about them is kindled, by which they are dissolved. These vicious tendencies are called 'vitarkas, in yoga. One should examine them in their three forms, their source, their three states, and their results. The three forms of violence, for instance, are:-1. That which is done actually by oneself. 2. That which is managed through others, and 3. That which is tolerated in principle. The source of violence is greed, anger, and insensibility. There are three states or grades in which violence takes place, namely, mild, moderate, and intense. The result of violence and the other vitarkas is a perpetual chain of sorrow, confusion, and ignorance. By examining the vitarkas in all these details the mind can be freed from their influence. That is what happens by pratipakshabhavana. 183
Maifri and other Bhavanas In life one meets with four kinds of events, namely, those which are pleasurable, miserable, virtuous, and sinful. We often fail to have right attitudes towards them, and that creates tension and conflict. This conies in the way of meditation. For example, when another person gets something which I fail to achieve, then I become jealous. Jealousy is an obstacle to meditation. The right attitude is to have friendliness towards pleasurable events happening anywhere, compassion towards misery, feeling of joy about all virtuous events, and an attitude of forgiving sinful events. These are respectively called maitriy karuna, mudita, and upeksha. These bhavanas or attitudes when they become one's very nature, because of an understanding of the whole process of their action, open up the say, to meditation. Pracchardana and Vidharana Pracchardana means breathing out suddenly and vigorously as in KapalabhatL Vidharana means holding the breath out. This is very useful for making the mind peaceful. The prana and chitta are said to be interde pendent Both of them operate together, i. e-, when one becomes active, the other is activated too. Hence, with the silencing of prana the mind becomes peaceful. Calling to Mind Examples of Dispassionate Yogis By pondering over the life and teachings of a great yogi who had conquerred passions and afflictions, the. mind of the student interested in meditation itself gets purified. Such examples provide good support for the mind to become peaceful. Patanjali calls such a yogi 184
a veetaraga. Raga is desire. A veetaraga is one who has completely overcome the whole process of desire. His example purifies and inspires the mind, and thus one can meditate more easily. A veetaraga might have lived at any time in the past at any place in the world, and might* have spoken any language or might have belonged outwardly to any religion. But the inner state of all the veetaraga persons being the same, the student js helped to bring about that state in himself. Meditation does not belong to any religious belief particularly, or to any particular tradition. Hence the example of any veetaraga is very inspiring and equally useful. Taking Help from Dream Experience In sleep and in dreams the mind is cut off from external stimuli. As there is no distraction due to these stimuli, one sometimes has very intense marvellous experiences during sleep. There may be perception of a very absorbing colourful vision of a scene or of a sage or of God, or one may experience the hearing of an absorbing tune, or there may be the experience of extremely enjoyable sensations of touch, taste, or smell. There are many examples of getting spontaneous solutions of philosophical or mathematical problems during sleep. The intense experience during sleep or dreams can be used by a student with advantage for making the mind peaceful in meditation. Concentrating the Mind on Any Object of Choice Stability of mind can be achieved only when the tendency of the mind to run after the objects of enjoyment is reduced. For this one may concentrate 185
the mind in dhyana on an object of choice, because when there is an object or an idea that one likes very much, the mind can be more easily associated with it. When the mind gets accustomed to stand still like this, it can become silent in meditation. Now this is just like asking a person to meditate in order to meditate. It is a tautology. The main point in all this is that unless the mind is free from the burden of the past, from its afflictions {kleshas), and from greed, fear, and rage, it cannot be brought to meditate. The six different approaches suggested by Patanjali, which we have described above, are aimed at achieving freedom of the mind* This is perhaps the most crucial fact about meditation, whether with seed or of the seedless type. If this is true, then it must be accepted that for most of us meditation is an impossibility. And indeed, it is so, because it happens in the rarest of the rare cases of individuals that the mind may be free from all its accumulations. What significance has meditation then for the common man? In one sense, probably none at all. But we need not be disheartened by this bitter truth, for it has been proved by many scientific experiments conducted at many places in the world in recent years that meditation is of immense value for the average individual of our times, because it helps to relieve tensions, gives rest to the body and mind, and brings about the much needed psycho-somatic balance which is lost by hurry and worry. Meditation has been found very useful in the treatment of disorders like hypertension, insomnia, and in fact in all cases of disorders which are produced by strain, anxiety, frustration, and so on. Meditation has been found to yield very encouraging results in cases of drug addiction, alcoholism, excessive smoking, and the like. It has been demonstrated that meditation helps to reduce 186
criminality and it can be employed as a valuable tool in the correction of criminal behaviour. Meditation can thus play an exceedingly important role in the conflicttorn, tension-filled world of our day. Of course, all these results are mainly the outcome of a relaxed state of the body and mind, rather than of any particular technique of meditation. But then, meditation does have importance in inducing relaxation. It might fail to induce freedom, and it may indeed, be true, as pointed out by J. Krishnamurti, that 'all effort to 9 meditate is the denial of meditation . Yet, meditation is useful for all of us in daily life because of its sooth* ing and relaxing effect. This brings us to one final question, namely, how to practise meditation actually? Or rather, what is the simplest way of practising meditation? We shall here describe a simple technique called pranci-dhavana. pranci-dhavana. Prana here means the air we breathe in and out. Dharana means its awareness. Breathing is the most basic act of life which continues continues from birth till death. We are not usually aware of it unless the attention is specially drawn to it. Pran Pranaa-dh dhat atana ana involves applying the mind to the flow of air in breathing. Its technique is as follows: Sit in a meditational posture with the back straight and the eyes closed. It is advantageous to sit in a po postu sture lik like Slddliasana, Padmasana, or Swastikasana. But if that is not possible, then just sit steadily with the legs crossed. If pr If prana anaya yama ma is practised already, then meditation becomes easier. Keep the knees well on the ground, and do not stoop or pull the shoulders backKeep the whole body relaxed, holding the whole frame steady without there being any pull or pressure felt along the thighs, at the feet, knees, or along the spine or neck. Keep the abdominal wall completely completely free of 187
any stretch or tension. Let it move back and forth very smoothly and effortlessly with each respiration. Keep the facial muscles fully relaxed and the mouth closed with a slight gap between the two jaws so that the upper and lower teeth do not exert any pressure on each other. Keep the tongue touching the palate, its tip touching the back side of the upper front teeth. Let there be no movement of the lips, tongue, or the lower jaw. It is important to keep the eyeballs and eyelids steady and the muscles of the forehead relaxed. Every part in this whole posture should be very comfortable, steady, and relaxed. That is one essential thing for meditation. There should be no strain anywhere in the body. Now start being aware of breathing. Let the flow of air be uniform, rather slow, and smooth. Do not exercise any control or effort. Do not hold the breath. Do not utter any word or see any image. This is very important. Whenever we are left to ourselves and have nothing particularly to attend to, words and images come to our mind, and that is how we entertain various thoughts. We go on speaking to ourselves and in doing this, there are incipient movements of the apparatus of speech. We are never aware of them. Unless we put an end to the words and images arising in the mind, it will go on thinking endlessly. This is what happens when we sit quietly. The mind uses the two vehicles of words and images to move unceasingly through the past, present, or future. It is essential to stop the mind from using these vehicles. The words can be stopped if the lips and tongue and the lower jaw jaw are all held motion motionless less and comple completel tely y still. still. To put the images out the best thing is to keep the eyeballs and eyelids steady» yet relaxed. Keep the eyes fixed as if you are looking far away in the plane of the eyes (with the eyes closed) without visualising anything 188
there, not even a dot, or a flame, or the letter AUM, or any such thing. It is like looking far into blank space with a vacant look. If you succeed in putting away words and images in this way, then you are already on the threshold of meditation. meditation. Go on watching the process of breathing and the flow of incoming and outgoing air, feeling it at the mid poin pointt of the the eye bro brows ws (bhrukuti-madhya)- There should be no friction of the air, no sound, and no effort. This is pranadharcma, pranadharcma, which should go on smoothly for ten to fifteen minutes. It is not necessary to sit for long ours. The essence of this meditation is relaxation, and awareness of breath, freeing the mind from all else.
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WE SHALL NOW discuss some of the problems concerning yoga that usually occur in the minds of people. Different persons may have different attitudes towards yoga. On one side we have those who feel convinced that yoga contains something very high and auspicious, and stands for the very best and highest that one can ever achieve in one's life. Such an opinion springs from an element of faith and belief. On the other hand, h and, there are those who, being deeply absorbed in the game of achievement and competition in life, are just not interested in yoga at all. They usually look at yoga as something to be ridiculed and to be laughed l aughed at. This is mainly an outcome of ignorance and lack of understanding, although the misbehaviour of many socalled yogis who pretend to be masters of yoga is also responsible for such an attitude in a large measure. Then there are those who are interested in yoga, but do not quite know what it properly means and what it really stands for. We shall pick up some typical problems, doubt expectations and objections expressed by various people which could not not be considered in the earlier chapters, and try to make the position of yoga clear in respect of these. Q. 1. What is yoga after alii Is it merely a set of complicated procedures of controlling the body and mind 190
and demonstrating the supernaturalphenomena ? Ans. Y oga is truly a science of human personality. It considers the whole field of personality including its various aspects such as the physical,physiological,emotional, behavioral, environmental, and social aspects. It has a very efficient system of postural and breathing exercises, which promotes the health and vigour of the skeletal as well as deep seated smooth muscles and the organs contained in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. These techniques have great preventive, curative, restorative, and relaxative value. Yogic breathing is observed to have remarkable physiological effects on various systems of the body, including the nervous systems. Some of these effects have already been demonstrated by researches conducted so far (for example, at the Kai•valyadh ama Institute. Lonavala, Dist. Poona, India). The techniques of у a ma, niyanm, and pratyahara bring about emotional stability and the happiest behavioral adjustment of an individual with his surroundings. Stability of mind brings peace within and about the individual, and such individuals can influence society with their own example by bringing about better understanding and more intimate relations between the people of different nations, thus, ultimately making for world peace, the much talked about need of the hour. Q. 2. Does yoga mean union with God 1 If so, how about the atheist who does not believe in God 1 Does yoga have anything to offer him ? Ans. "Union" or "connection" is, indeed, the oldest meaning of the word "yoga". This meaning used to be attributed to the word, in all probability, before the magnificient system of controlling the senses and steady ing the mind was evolved. It is often said by those who are not very well informed, that yoga is the union of an 191
individual with God. But this belief is inconsistent with the basic philosophical position of yoga (as one of the six. systems of Indian philosophy), wherein His assumed that there are innumerable souls, every one of whom is wholly independent of anything else. In the state of mukti, the soul is supposed to remain in complete isolation. Thus there is really no problem of union of the soul with God. The belief that yoga brings about union of the soul with God, probably indicates a vestige of the meaning of the word "yoga" in ancient times, when the word "yoga" had not gathered any technical sense. This belief, to be frank, involves a confusion of the technical and non-technical meanings of the word "yoga". Many people do not seem to be aware of the difference between these two meanings. The non-technical meaning is derived from the root "уц/ir'* (to unite or connect), while the technical meaning which we now attach to the term is derived from the root "yuj* (to control or make steady). An atheist can also derive full advantage of the various yoga techniques involving silencing the breath and mind, as well as the postural techniques, and, in fact, it is found many a time that true atheists, who are more honest and clear in thinking, are the people who are more suited to undertake a deeper inquiry in yoga. The goal of yoga is something to be achieved in one's very life, and an atheist can be a more fit person to achieve it, because he does not become satisfied easily, and his inquiry is not smothered or stopped by faith. We do not, of course, argue here that atheism is a necessary quality of a yogi, we only want to emphasize the fact that a scientific attitude, which does not take things for granted merely on faith or uncritical convictions is something that is very essential for attaining the goal of yoga. 192
Q. 3. What is the goal of yoga ? Ans. It may be said that the goal of yoga is to bring about a complete harmony within the individual, due to the cessation of the process of desire and achievement, as a result of realization of the futility of that process. It is a state of separation from misery and sorrow, a state of silence and peace. But it becomes almost impossible for most of us to attain such a state, because the minds of most of us are endlessly caught • up in wishful thinking, and seeking security, prestige, power, permanent and lasting pleasure, and so on. We thus ever carry a burden caused by desires, cravings, hopes and despairs, greed, envy, and what not. It becomes very difficult to understand clearly how this burden and tension is essentially of our own making, because our beliefs, judgments and conclusions, hardly ever permit us to think in a free manner. We are conditioned by the beliefs we unknowingly gather from our parents, friends, teachers, leaders, and other influential members of the society. This process of condition* ing has a very overwhelming influence on almost every child born in society. The goal of yoga is to put an end to this conditioning, seeking and grief. An individual then stops looking at the problems he confronts, through what others have said, and he starts understanding any situation as it is. But all this indeed remains beyond the grasp of most of us, because we lade sensitivity and simplicity of mind. It is therefore that individuals who reach the goal of yoga are very rare in any society. Q. 4. If mukti is the goal of yoga, and if it is true that individuals who attain mukti are very rare, then does it not mean that yoga is without any hope for a common man! Ans. Strictly and philosophically speaking, this 193
question must be answered in the affirmative. But this does not mean that there are no advantages at all that the common.man can derive from yoga. It is common experience that the postures and breathing exercises» as well as some simple techniques of mental concentration are of tremendous use in daily life, in so far as they can help in keeping the body and mind healthy. Many of our ailments are caused by a loss of tone of various muscles and tissues, due to a lack of sufficient activity» Yoga can help a good deal in overcoming this. Control of passions and emotions can be achieved through a regular practice of yoga exercises. Q. 5. What are the basic tenets of yoga philosophy! Ans. Philosophy in India is traditionally divided into two main groups called the orthodox and heretic groups respectively. There are six systems of thought included in the orthodox group» all of whom recognize the authority of the Vedas in philosophical matters. Yoga as a system of philosophy is counted as one of these six orthodox schools with whom it shares some fundamental beliefs. They are : (i) A belief in a permanent soul which is supposed to be the principle of life, (ii) It is supposed to leave one body at the time of death, and enter another in the next birth, (Hi) A belief in the law of karma, according to which whatever happens in an individual's life is supposed to be the outcome of what he did in the previous life or lives, (iv) A belief that the life of an individual is predominently a matter of misery and sorrow, (v) A belief in the state of mukti or moksha which is a state of eternal freedom from misery and sorrow. Yoga has a dualistic doctrine of explaining the universe of objects and beings. It is supposed that the universe originally comes into existence by a coming together (samyoga) of two eternal realities respectively called purusha and 194
prakriti. The former is the essence of spirituality, the latter that of everything material. The prakriti and all that emerges from it» is supposed to contain the three gunas in various proportions and combinations. The samyoga of the puntsha and prakriti is not real but illusory. The illusion is known as avidya which binds the purusha and makes him transmigrate from one body to another in different births. The cycle of births is supposed to break once for all when avidya is dispelled by a continuous practice of the eightfold path of yoga as described by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutra. Q. 6. What is the truth about the yogic powers! Ans. There seems to be a belief in the minds of many that through an intense practice of sanmdhi a student of yoga can have his intellect purified and made capable of knowing anything in the universe. This has actually been explained by Patanjali, the bestknown authority on yoga, in the third chapter of Yoga Sutra. Two fundamental problems are involved here, namely, first, whether it is possible to attain any new knowledge through concentrating the mind on any matter, and second, whether one's mind communicates at all with anything in the external world» when it is in a state of mental concentration. It seems that, from the point of view of science, both the above questions have to be answered in the negative. Patanjali's exposition of the yogic powers, however» is based on an affirmative answer to these two questions. These questions are both epistemological and psychological, and it would appear that both epistemology and psychology» at the present state of our knowledge, do not have anything that can support Patanjali's position. It should, therefore, be concluded, tentatively at least» that there is no good evidence for the case of yogic powers. If someone comes forward to 195
demonstrate some of the yogic powers as mentioned by Patanjali, e.g. flying in the air» becoming invisible, remaining alive and active without food and water, i.e. overcoming completely the need of food and water, being able to see and hear events from great distances (without using any instruments, of course), and so on, die possibility of the yogic powers will be proved beyond doubt. Till then it will remain a mystery. Q. 7. Yoga is often called an ancient art. What are your comments on this*! Ans. Yoga is ancient, no doubt, the word being much more ancient, in all probability, than the system of thought and techniques of control which go by that name. It is both an art and a science, an art because of the skill involved in the physical and mental practices. The scientific part has, unfortunately, not yet been explored fully. It was only nearly sixty years ago that Swami Kuvalayananda, for the first time, inspired by the idea that the processes described in the yoga texts were full of scientific implications, started subjecting the yoga techniques to scientific experimentation and scrutiny* Some information has so far been gathered in the laboratory founded by him, and published in the journal *' Yoga Mimamsa". But what is actually done so far is too insufficient, and many facts concerning the various yoga techniques are still shrouded in mystery. Absence of sufficient research is perhaps the main reason why yoga has not yet come to be recognised as a science as such. The field of yoga is still largely in the hands of men who are far from having developed a scientific attitude. Everybody seems to be understanding and propagating yoga in his own way, posing to be the only one who knows it properly and authoritatively, and blaming and hating others in the field as psudo-yogis, or the like. There-arc very 196
few people who are real yogis. It is very necessary to convert yoga from an ancient art to a modern science. Only then we shall be able to do justice to it as the panacea for human miseries. 1111 then it would not be easy for an honest seeker to obtain proper guidance and instruction in the field of yoga. Q. 8. Bow can the behaviour of a yogi be differentiated from that of otherst Ans. One of the most striking marks of a yogi is that he is free of any idea of achievement. Most of us ever work for achieving something, for reaching somewhere, for an improvement in our position, an enhancement in our undertaking. We always happen to wish for some state as an ideal state, depending upon our understanding of ourselves 111 relation to the world around, and we ever happen to seek to make progress in order to reach the ideal. For a yogi, however, there is no differentiation in the terms of the ideal and the actual* he has nothing to achieve in life because he comes to see very clearly that his actual state is not different in any way from what others may call the ideal state* There being nothing to be achieved, craved for, or sought after, a yogi has never to take recourse to any discipline, or sadhana, or any practice of virtue, and the like. He does not have to practise Pranayama in order to make his mind silent; nor does he ever have to practise dhyana, or samadhi, because he is always in a state of sahajapastha, which does not come and go. Freedom from seeking, effort, and sadhana, is thus an essential quality of a yogi. Such an individual is obviously a man of simplicity, honesty and detached love. He is truly a man of vaifagya. He loves everyone without any motive, and remains undisturbed like an ocean in every situation he confronts in life. He looks equally indifferently upon 197
the dualities like success and failure, pleasure and pain honour and dishonour, and so on. It is often found that when an individual renounces (he pleasures and comforts of daily life, and undergoes rigorous disci pline of yoga for years together, he develops a kind of arrogance, and a high feeling about himself and his capacities. He keeps himself rather aloof, and does not mix freely with people, thinking that he is far too superior to others. He is not usually ready to hear 9 others viewpoints, and makes much fuss about his own personality and achievements. We have many persons in India today who take for themselves titles like yogiraj* swwni, paramahamsa, parivrajakacharya, and so on. Many of them are not yogis in the true sense of the term, however. Yogi Changadeo (13th century, A.D) was a good example of such a personality. He was very proud of himself, because he had tamed lions and tigers, as the belief goes, through his yogic powers. But he was humbled by a young boy,. Jnanadeo, in their very first meeting. A real yogi, we may say, is a person like Jnanadeo, and not like Changadeo, who, with all the pomp and elegance of the yogic powers, was very far from the goal of yoga, i.e. jivanmuktt. Q. 10. What can be the role of women in the field of y°g
for men and women. Women can play a formidable role in the field of yoga, by learning the various techniques themselves, and by convincing the men-folk of their beneficial effects on the body and mind. Mothers play the most important part in moulding the personalities of children, and if the mother is well informed, prudent and healthy, she can definitely make a good influence on the developing child* Q. 11. Is eating meat feasible with yogal Ans. This problem has two aspects, one dietetical, the other psychological. Dietetically, meat is a substance very rich in animal fat, animal protein, and minerals: Eating meat is almost a need in cold countries although this does not at all mean that one cannot live comfortably without meat there. If we divide food habits of human beings into three broad groups, namely vegetarian, non-vegetarian, and mixed diets, the last group is supposed to be the best from the point of view of dietetics. Emotionally, however, not only meat but eggs, fish, and poultry are also objectionable, because they involve killing. Considering what Lord Krishna tried to emphasize on the mind of Arjuna regarding the nature of the soul, one may say that, as the soul of an animal is eternal, and does not die when the animal is killed, we need not abandon eating flesh simply because it involves killing. This would be a sufficiently sane attitude from the common sense point of view. A developed student of yoga, who aspires to probe the depths of yoga completely, would do well not to lay much emphasis on eating meat, fish, poultry, and so on. Q. 12. Isit necessary for a student of yoga to giveup smoking, drinking tea, coffee, etc.1 Ans. Any habit taken to the extreme gives rise to bad effects. Taking tea just once or twice a day or 199
smoking cigarette occasionally (say once in a week or a fortnight) may not do any harm. But it often becomes very difficult to keep away from the habit of smoking or* drinking rather excessively, when one allows oneself to get caught up in the course once. Strictly speaking, these stimulants, and narcotics are not very necessary at all, and to a student of yoga, they may pose a serious problem, if he becomes habituated to them. And why should one have them at all ? This is an important question. Psychologists say that one becomes more inclined to take to these habits when there is tension or anxiety in the mind. If it is true that yoga is effective in reducing tension and anxiety, then it may be said that a student of yoga can easily keep himself away from the habits of smoking, and drinking which are decidedly harmful in the long run. As with meat, so too with these habits. We do not say that-yoga is impossible for those who smoke or drink. Yoga for the common man need not come in' conflict with these habits if they are kept within reasonable limits. It would always be better for an advanced student, however, to get rid of these habits if at all he has fallen a prey to them. Q. 13. Which disorders or aiments can be prevented or crued by the yoga praeitices ? Ans. The therapeutical aspects of yoga practices have not yet been explored completely, but whatever is known so far in this regard is sufficient to prove the utility of yoga"techniques in preventing and curing many ailments. For example, constipation is a trouble fairly common with many people. It is caused mainly because of improper food habits, and loss of tone of the bowels due to various reasons, such as not answering the nature's call promptly, taking top .much of alcohol, not drinking enough water, and so on. When the waste materials of digestion are not evacuated properly, they 200
remain in the large intestines for hours, and undergo decay and decomposition. The toxins produced thereby may be absorbed in the body, causing various kinds of disorders. This situation can both be prevented and remedied by a judicious practice of yoga techniques involving stretch and pressure on the abdominal viscera. Deep breathing also can be of great help. Another ailment which can be prevented and cured by these techniques is diabetes, which is a disorder of pancreas. These are the glands responsible for secreting insulin, which converts sugar (glucose) into glycogen, in which form it is stored in the liver. If the pancreas (which are situated near the stomach in the abdominal cavity) fail to secrete enough insulin, sugar is not converted into glycogen, with the result that it is thrown into the blood in quantities larger than those, can be utilized in various tissues and muscles immediately. The excess of sugar is eliminated through the urine. Diabetes can be prevented or cured by exercising the pancreas and the liver through various yoga techniques Asthma is an ailment of the lungs, which can better be prevented than cured by yoga techniques, especially deep breathing, because it makes the lung tissue strong and healty. Resistance to T.B. can be increased by a regular practice of yogic breathing. These are just a few examples of the therapeutical value of yoga techniques. There are actually many more situations, e.g. headaches, sexual weakness, nervous debility, high blood pressure, weakness of heart, and so on, where yoga practices can render considerable help. This is a very fruitful topic which deserves scientific investigation and scrutiny. Q. 14 It is often said that Pranayama is a very dangerous thing. How far is this correct ? What precau201
tions should one take to avoid the dangers ? Ans. Pranayama has been rightly compared in the Hath Yoga texts with the process of taming a lion, an elephant, or a tiger. The point is that it involves control of the process of respiration, which is a very delicate process involving very vital organs like the lungs the respiratory centre, and the brain cortex. If administered improperly, it can give rise to various disorders. But this need not dissuade a sincere student from undertaking its practice. We may very well compare Pranayama with the act of walking in a crowded street. It involves danger of being overrun by a vehicle, yet, one can easily get trained in making one's way through the street by exercising sufficient caution. Pranayama can similarly be practised without any trouble if an individual exercises due caution. Danger lies in hasty, impatient action, and in overdoing beyond one's capacity, both in respect of the duration of each round and the number of rounds in a sitting* There is no danger whatever in Pranayama if this is carefully avoided.
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1. Pavanamukta asana:
Appendix
Yogic Asanas: Meaning & Benefits
2. Bhadra asana:
Limbering exercise: Good for the back, trunk, thighs and knees. Bhadra means auspicious: Renders good stretching exercise to the thighs, perineum (the soft portion between the anus and the genital organ), pelvis, abdomen and neck. Ut tana means 3. Uttana-manduka lying on the back with face turned asana: up and Mem-dttka means a frog: Provides good stretching exercise to the legs, perineum (as described in the case of Bhadra asana), pelvic floor, sides of the trunk and the arms. 4. Gomukha asana: Gomukha means mouth of a cow: Provides good stretching exercise to almost all muscles of the limbs and the trunk. 5. ArdhaMatsycndra (Ardha meaning half) This asana: asana derived its name from Matsyendranath, a renowned Master of Hathayoga a com* parative later development among the varieties of Yoga: Provides good stretching exercise to thighs, lower back and spine (vertebral columns). Mudra means 6. Yogamudra: posture. This in itself is an asana of Yoga, a
7. Matsya asana:
8. Viparitakarani:
9. Sarvanga asana:
10. Hala asana:
11. Bhujanga asana:
12. Shalabha asana:
variation of Padmasana: Renders exercise to muscles of the lower bade, thighs and abdominal viscera. Matsya means a fish: Very valuable for giving exercise to the abdominal muscles and to the throat. Viparita means inverted and Karani means act: Good for promoting blood circulation and removing congestion* Santa means entire or whole and Anga means body: Good for promoting blood circulation, removing congestion and improving the function of the thyroid gland. Hala means a plough: Renders exercise to the back by exerting stretch on the spine, the muscles of the back, below the neck and downward upto the lower end of the vertebral column. Bhuja means upper arm and Bhujangct means a large snake. Hence the name Bhujanga because of its posture of a snake with the hood drawn out: Provides good stretching exercise to the muscles of the neck, back and trunk. Shalabha means locust The appearance of the locust is imitated in this posture (asana): 204
13. Dhanur asana:
14. Shava asana:
15. Pranayama:
Good stretching exercise for waist, thighs and all the muscles on the dorsal (back) side of the body. Dhanur means a bow. The body is made to appear like a bow in this posture (Asana): Provides good stretching exercise to the abdominal muscles, lower bade and the thighs. Shava means a dead body. Hence the name because of its posture: Practiced at the end of the asanas: Gives feeling of freshness and relief from strain and fatigue. Prana means vital force or cosmic energy signifies life or breath and Ayama means the control of the Prana hence control of the vital force by concentration and regulated breathing: Breathing from the abdomen (Kapalabhati Kriya) provides an excellent massage for all the abdominal organs and regularizes the functioning of the intestines and stimulate the digestion; breathing from the middle part of the chest (Thorax) purifies the blood» improves its circulation and calms the heart» and breathing from the upper part of the chest cleans and fortifies the 205
16. Kapalabhati Kriya:
17. Tadagi Mudra:
18. Agnisara:
19. Nauli:
20. Trikona asana:
21. Paschimottana asana:
upper chest. A breathing exercise: Kapala means skull and Bhatih means brightness: Hence the kriya (act) which makes the skull luminous: An exercise for abdominal breathing: Due to rapid lung ventilation large amount of carbon dioxide is removed from the body and thus increases one's capacity to hold the breath. Tadaga means a lake or a pond. This technique is so -named because in it the wall of the abdomen assumes a concave appearance: It is a good breathing exercise. Agni means fire.. «hence the fire in the stomach which digests food: Good abdominal exercise for improving digestion and excretion. One of the foremost purificatory acts (Shuddhi Kriyas) designed to remove impurities from the body and influences beneficially almost all the functions of the body. Trikona is a triangle: Very useful stretching exercise of the waist and the shoulders. Paschim means west—hence in the context of human body it means the dorsal or back side. 206
Tana means to stretch: Renders exercises to the muscles of the limbs and the back, influences the organs in the abdomen and helps to reduce the fat accumulated on the belly. Baka means .22. Baka asana: the crane: Good for making the arms stronger. Kukkuta means 23. Kukkuta asana: thp cock: Helps to increase the strength of the arms. Kurma means the tortoise— 24. Uttanakurma hence the posture of a tortoise: asana: Good for fimbs and joints. Parvata means a mountain: 25. Parvata asana: Makes the joints supple Dolah means a swing. It exercises the 26. Dola asana: arms and the shoulders and also the abdominal muscles. Rata means the hip and XJd means upward: Useful for 27. Utkat asana: practising purificatory acts (Shuddhi-Kriyas) designed to remove impurities from the body and influences almost all the functions of body. Pada means the foot and Padangustha means the big toe: 28. Padangustha asana: Useful for practising purificatory acts* Mayura means a peacockhence the posture of a peacock, Helps to remove congestion, 29. Mayura asana: indigestion and other abdomi207
