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Structures shape the world: How do we make a natural science of society?
# Han$out Re%ort Re%ort or "isci%line an$ &$eas in Social Science
Su'mitte$ 'y Ma. Christine Irra A. Cabreros 11()ine*eh Su'mitte$ to Mrs. Violeta . Saludar
March 2+, 2+1
Introduction Science is a 'o$y o kno-le$e -ith $i*erse $i*erse $isci%lines, $isci%lines, -hen -e say science, -e usua usually lly thin thinkk a'out a'out natu natura rall scien science ces, s, -ith -ith cert certain ain iel$ iel$ss such such as 'iol 'ioloy oy,, chemistry, zooloy, 'otany an$ the like. Social science, amon natural an$ ormal sciences, is a ma/or 'ranch o science, too.
!earnin" #b$ecti%es 1.
0amine the leacy o the classical rame-orks in the $e*elo%ment o the aca$emic stu$y o society
2.
"iscuss "iscuss a'out the oun$in athers o social science science an$ ho- their i$eas im%act %resent theorizin a'out society an$
3.
%erationalize1 the the mean eanin in o stru struct ctur ures es in term erms o hoho- they hey hel% hel% us 2 un$erstan$ social reality .
!et&s 'ecap(
o human society. Social Sciences 4 5he systematic stu$y o *arious as%ects o Society 4 Human 'eins *ie-e$ as a system -ithin -hich the in$i*i$ual li*es. Social science 'eins its roots on ancient %hiloso%hy, -ay 'ack on the #e o 0nlihtenment3. French ch %hil %hilos oso% o%her her -hose -hose i$ea i$eass inl inlue uenc nce$ e$ clas classi sica call Au"ust Au"ustee Comte Comte, a Fren thinkers6 theories, irst use$ the term science sociale to $escri'e the iel$ lon 'eore it -as ormally esta'lishe$ as an aca$emic $isci%line. Social sciences an$ sociolo"y are oten mistaken that they are the same. 7ee% in min$ that social sciences a 'roa$ 'ranch o science an$ is the um'rella term encom%a encom%assi ssin n *ariou *ariouss iel$s iel$s such as anthro anthro%ol %oloy oy,, crimino criminoloy loy,, ethnol ethnoloy oy,,
1
Operatonalize is to put into operaon or use; concreze an abstract concept (e.g. turn an input or an idea into an output or applicaon.) 2
Social realiy (As a count noun) a reality or fact of life peculiar to a parcular society; specically a phenomenon such as social class religion etc. as e!perienced by a parcular social group; (As a mass noun) reality as concei"ed by a parcular society or social group dependent on their customs and beliefs. 3 Age of Enlightenment occurred 1# th$mid 1%th &entury and 'as considered as the thiners mo"ement. *hey embraced embraced the noon that humanity could be impro"ed through raonal change. *his period produced substanal boos essays in"enons scienc disco"eries la's 'ars and re"oluon.
history, %sycholoy, et cetera. 8hereas socioloy is a stu$y o social %ro'lems an$ it is a iel$ un$er the social sciences.
)hey say *Structures shape the world+ and *,iscipline shape the beha%ior(+
Structure 4 5he -ay somethin is 'uilt, arrane$, or oranize$. Control that is aine$ 'y reuirin the ,iscipline 4 Control rule ruless or or$e or$ers rs 'e o'ey o'eye$ e$ an$ an$ %uni %unish shin in 'a$ 'a$ 'eh 'eha*io a*ior r a -ay -ay o 'eha 'eha*i *in n that that shosho-ss a -illinness to o'ey rules an$ or$ers.
Social structure is the $istincti*e, sta'le system o social relations that eists in any human society an$ its %atterns. Social structure &t is not concerne$ -ith %eo%le as in$i*i$uals, in rou%s, or in the oranizations ormin the society, nor the ultimate oal o their their relati relationsh onshi%s i%s.. Rather Rather,, social social struct structure ure $eals $eals -ith -ith the oraniza oranizatio tion n o their their relationshi%s: ho- they are arrane$ into %atterns. 5hus, the conce%t o social structure assumes that human social relationshi%s are not ar'itrary or coinci$ental, 'ut rather they ollo- certain %atterns that can 'e i$entiie$. Such structure reulates the interaction interactionss amon mem'ers o the society, society, %ro*i$in %ro*i$in ui$elines -ithin the cultural norms or achie*in the oals $eine$ 'y cultural *alues. ;enera ;enerally lly,, social social struct structure ure mainta maintains ins societ societal al sta'il sta'ility ity.. Ho-e*er Ho-e*er,, -hen -hen the social social structure an$ the societal *alues 'ecome incom%ati'le, the structure must em'race social chane< to allo- the society to sur*i*e an$ continue healthy $e*elo%ment. 8hile a *ariety o socioloical a%%roaches ha*e souht to $escri'e the $e*elo%ment an$ maintenance maintenance o social structure, structure, un$erstan$in un$erstan$in the relationshi relationshi% % 'et-een 'et-een structure structure an$ chane is necessary or the $e*elo%ment o a %eaceul -orl$ society.
Modern times 5o$ay, o$ay, selfies are a common %henomenon amon us, es%ecially amon the youth. Selies are enerally %ortraits o = a'out onesel, ai$e$ 'y inormation an$ communication technoloy, -hich ena'les the %hotora%her to easily take, recor$ an$ $ocument as%ects. +
Social change (or social de"elopment) a general term 'hich refers to change in the nature the social instuons the social beha"ior or the social relaons of a society community of people or other social structures; any e"ent or acon that a,ects a group of indi"iduals that ha"e shared "alues or characteriscs; acts of ad"ocacy for the cause of changing society in a norma"e 'ay.
-uestions(
Ho- $oes a %hotora%her take %ictures o his or her o-n su'/ect> Ho- $oes he or she com%ose his or her %hot %hoto ora% ra%h h in acco accor$ r$an ance ce to %hys %hysic ical al an$ an$ tem%oral con$itions -here the shootin is takin %lace> 8oul$ there 'e a $ierence i the %hotora%her is emale or male> Ho- a'out i he or she is usin a $ierent technoloy in takin %ictures>
How do we see social reality? How should we see it? How do we intend to chan"e or reform? )heories are our e%lanatory mo$els -here -e coul$ analyze, eamine an$ inter%ret -hat -e see an$ e%erience a'out lie, society an$ a n$ humanity. humanity. #cross many $eca$es $e ca$es since the ormal oun$in o Social Sciences as an aca$emic iel$, there ha*e 'een many orms o social theories?.
inds of Social )heories Contemporary Social )heories !ens !ens:: &n contem%orary@ social science theories, the analoy or theoretical %ers%ecti*es is commonly e%resse$ 'y the -or$ ALens to connote that there are *arious -ays to *ie- somethin. Classical Social )heories Classical social theories %ro*i$e the oun$ation o social science. "ra-in rom a lon lon an$ an$ rich rich inte intellllec ectu tual al tra$i tra$itition on in %hil %hiloso oso%h %hic ical al cent centuri uries es 'eo 'eore re the the ae ae o mo$ernity D1th(19th CenturyE. 5hose i$eas $e*elo%e$ mainly as a res%onse to the most im%ortant $iscourse o the time: mo$ernity .
Classical /rameworks: 0%olution and /unction -
Contemporary $ belonging to or occurring in the present; synonymous to modern. Classical $ relang to the rst signicant period of an area of study. / Modernity refers to a period mared by a 0uesoning or reecon of tradion; the priorizaon of indi"idualism freed freedom om and forma formall e0uali e0uality; ty; faith faith in ine"it ine"itabl able e social social scien scienc c and and techn technolo ologic gical al progr progress ess and and human human perfecbility.
1nderstandin" the 2ature of Society 3ased on 2ature Human e%olution e%olution is the lenthy %rocess o chane 'y -hich %eo%le oriinate$ rom a%elike ancestors. Scientiic e*i$ence sho-s that the %hysical an$ 'eha*ioral 'eha*ioral traits share$ 'y all %eo%le oriinate$ oriinate$ rom a%elike ancestors an$ e*ol*e$ o*er a %erio$ o a%%roimately si million years. ne o the earliest $einin human traits, 'i%e$alism (( the a'ility to -alk on t-o les (( e*ol*e$ o*er < million years ao. ther im%ortant human characteristics (( such as a lare an$ com%le 'rain, the a'ility to make an$ use tools, an$ the ca%acity or lanuae (( $e*elo%e$ more recently. Many a$*ance$ traits (( inclu$in com%le sym'olic e%ression, art, an$ ela'orate cultural $i*ersity (( emere$ mainly $urin the %ast 1++,+++ years. Humans are %rimates. Ghysical an$ enetic similarities sho- that the mo$ern human s%ecies, Homo sa%iens, has a *ery close relationshi% to another rou% o %rima %rimate te s%ec s%ecie ies, s, the the a%es. a%es. Huma Humans ns an$ an$ the the reat reat a%es a%es Dlar Dlare e a%esE a%esE o #rica #rica (( chim%anzees an$ orillas (( share a common ancestor that li*e$ 'et-een an$ million years ao. Humans irst e*ol*e$ in #rica, an$ much o human e*olution occurre$ on that continent. 5he ossils o early humans -ho li*e$ 'et-een an$ 2 million years ao come entirely rom #rica.
3efore ,arwin
5he -or$ homo, the name o the 'ioloical enus to -hich humans 'elon, is Latin or human.
&t -as chosen oriinally 'y Carl !innaeus in his classiication system.
5he -or$ human is rom the Latin humanus, the a$/ecti*al orm o homo.
5he Latin homo $eri $eri*e *ess rom rom the the &n$o &n$o(0 (0uro uro%e %ean an root root dhghem, or earth.
Linnae Linnaeus us an$ an$ other other scie scienti ntists sts o o his his time time also also consi consi$er $ere$ e$ the the reat a%es to 'e the closest relati*es o humans 'ase$ on mor%holoical an$ anatomical similarities.
Charles ,arwin
)aturalist Charles "ar-in -as 'orn in 0nlan$, on Fe'ruary 12, 1+9. &n 131, he em'arke$ on a i*e(year sur*ey *oyae aroun$ the -orl$ on the HMS Beale. His stu$ies o s%ecimens aroun$ the lo'e le$ him to ormulate his theory o e*olution an$ his *ie-s on the %rocess o natural selection. &n 1@9, he %u'lishe$ On the Origin of Species . He $ie$ on #%ril 19, 12, in Lon$on. Lon$on .
)heory of 0%olution
"ar-inIs e%osure to s%ecimens all o*er the lo'e raise$ im%ortant uestions. ther naturalists 'elie*e$ that all s%ecies either came into 'ein at the start o the -orl$, or -ere create$ o*er the course o natural history. &n eith either er case, case, the the s%ec s%ecies ies -ere -ere 'elie 'elie*e *e$ $ to rema remain in much the same throuhout time. "ar-in, ho-e*er, notice$ similarities amon s%ecies all o*er the lo'e, alon -ith *ariations 'ase$ on s%eciic locations, locations, lea$in him to 'elie*e 'elie*e that they ha$ ra$ually ra$ually e*ol*e$ rom common ancestors. He came to 'elie*e that s%ecies sur*i*e$ throuh a %rocess calle$ Jnatural selec selectition, on,JJ -here -here s%eci s%ecies es that that succe success ssul ully ly a$a%t a$a%te$ e$ to meet meet the the chan chanin in reuirements o their natural ha'itat thri*e$, -hile those that aile$ to e*ol*e an$ re%ro$uce $ie$ o. &n 1@, ater years o urther scientiic in*estiation, "ar-in %u'lically intro$uce$ his re*olutionary theory o e*olution in a letter rea$ at a meetin o the Linnean Society. n )o*em'er 2<, 1@9, he %u'lishe$ a $etaile$ e%lanation o his theory in his 'est(kno-n -ork, n the riin o S%ecies 'y Means o )atural Selection.
/oundin" /athers of Social Sciences
Au"uste Comte 45678 9586;
# French %hiloso%her -ho oun$e$ the $isci%line o %raeoloy an$ the $octrine o %ositi*ism 9. He is rear$e$ as the irst %hiloso%her o science in the mo$ern sense o the term. First use$ the term science sociale to $escri'e the iel$.
Herbert Spencer 458<= 957=>;
British %hiloso%her, socioloist, 'ioloist, anthro%oloist, an$ %rominent classical li'eral1+ %olitical theorist. # ma/or iure in the intellectual lie o the Kictorian era. ne o the %rinci%al %ro%onents o e*olutionary theory, an$ his re%utation at the time ri*alle$ Charles "ar-in. &nitially 'est kno-n or $e*elo%in an$ a%%lyin e*olutionary theory to %hiloso%hy, %sycholoy an$ the stu$y o society (( -hat he calle$ his Jsynthetic %hiloso%hy.J %hiloso%hy.J
,a%id mile ,urkheim 4588 95756;
#
# French socioloist, social %sycholoist an$ %hiloso%her. %hiloso%her. Formall Formallyy esta'l esta'lish ishe$ e$ the aca$emi aca$emicc $isci% $isci%lin line e an$-i an$-ith th 7arl 7arl Mar Mar an$ an$ Ma Ma 8e'er e'eris is comm common only ly cite cite$ $ as the the %rin %rinci ci%a %all architect o mo$ern social science an$ ather o socioloy. socioloy.
Praxeology $ the deduc"e study of human acon based on the noon that humans engage in purposeful beha"ior as opposed to ree!i"e beha"ior lie sneezing and inanimate beha"ior % (posi"e) no'ledge is based on natural phenomena and Posivism $ a philosophical theory stang that certain (posi"e) their properes and relaons. relaons. *hus informaon informaon deri"ed from sensory e!perience interpreted interpreted through reason and logic forms the e!clusi"e source of all certain no'ledge. 14 Liberal $ open to ne' beha"ior or opinions and 'illing to discard tradional "alues.
0dward 3urnett )ylor 458>< 95756;
Father o cultural anthro%oloy. anthro%oloy. 5ylor is the re%resentati*e o cultural e*olutionism. &n his -orks Grimiti*e Culture an$ #nthro%oloy, he $ei eine$ the conte ntet o the scie cientiic stu$y o anthro%oloy, 'ase$ on the e*olutionary theories o Charles Lyell11. He 'elie*e$ that there -as a unctional 'asis 'asis or or the the $e*el $e*elo%m o%men entt o socie society ty an$ an$ reli relii ion on,, -hich he $etermine$ -as uni*ersal.
Ma@ eber 458BD57<=;
;erman socioloist, %hiloso%her, /urist an$ %olitical economist. His His i$ea i$eass %roo %rooun un$l $lyy inl inluen uence ce$ $ soci social al theo theory ry an$ an$ socia sociall research. He is oten cite$, alon -ith "urkheim an$ Mar, as amon the 3 oun$ers o socioloy. socioloy. Gro%ose$ 8e'er6s Bureaucracy o 5heory o @ 7ey Grinci%les.
3ronislaw Malinowski 4588D 57<;
Golish anthro%oloist an$ unctionalism ethnoloist ne ne o the the most most im%or im%orta tant nt anth anthro ro%o %olo loi ist stss o the the 2+th 2+th century -ho is -i$ely reconize$ as a oun$er o social anthro%oloy an$ %rinci%ally associate$ -ith iel$ stu$ies o the %eo%les o ceania.
Marcel Mauss 4586
# French socioloist )e%he- o mile "urkheim MaussIs aca$emic -ork tra*erse$ the 'oun$aries 'et-een socioloy an$ anthro%oloy. anthro%oloy. 5o$ay, he is %erha%s 'etter reconize$ or his inluence on anthro%oloy, %articularly -ith res%ect to his analyses o to%i to%ics cs such such as mai maic, c, sacri sacriiice, ce, an$ an$ it it echa echan ne e in $ierent cultures aroun$ the -orl$.
Studyin" ESocial /acts& 11
&harles 5yell 6 A 7co8sh geologist largely responsible for the general acceptance of the "ie' that all features of the 9arths surface are produced by physical chemical and biological processes through long periods of geological me.
8e stu$y society 'y stu$yin social acts, an$ -e can stu$y these Nsocial acts6 o'/ecti*elyO o #ll social acts can 'e stu$ie$ in$e%en$ent o the socioloist6s attitu$es to-ar$ the %henomenon 'ein stu$ie$. Social Social acts acts inclu$e inclu$e marria marriae, e, $i*orce $i*orce,, relii reliion, on, crime, crime, homele homelessn ssness, ess, o e$ucation Some Nsocial acts6 De.. social interationE cannot 'e $irectly measure$, so -e use in$icators?
/unctionalism
# theory theory a'out the nature o mental states. Mental states are i$entiie$ 'y -hat they $o rather than 'y -hat they are ma$e o. 5his can 'e un$erstoo$ 'y thinkin a'out arteacts like mousetra%s an$ keys. &t states that mental states are constitute$ solely 'y their unctional role 4 that is, they ha*e causal relations to other mental states, numerous sensory in%uts, an$ 'eha*ioral out%uts.
Structure
#n arranement or oranization o interrelate$ elements in a material o'/ect or system, or the o'/ect or system so oranize$.
Classical /ramework: Historical Materialism F Human ersonality arl Mar@ 4586
# Grussian %hiloso%her, economist, socioloist, /ournalist, an$ re*olutionary socialist. Colla' Colla'orat orate$ e$ -ith -ith ;erman ;erman thinker thinker Frie$ri Frie$rich ch 0nels 0nels12 in Lon$on an$ %u'lishe$ *arious -orks, the most -ell(kno-n 'ein the 1< %am%hlet 5he Communist Maniesto. His -ork -ork has since since inluen inluence$ ce$ su'se su'seuent uent intell intellect ectual, ual, economic, an$ %olitical history. history.
Classical sychoanalysis F Si"mund /reud
12
Friedrich Engels 'as a :erman socialist philosopher the closest collaborator of arl
sychoanalysis ( a set o %sycholoical an$ %sychothera%eutic theories an$ assoc associa iate te$ $ tech techni niu ues, es, creat create$ e$ 'y #ust #ustri rian an %hys %hysic icia ian n Sim Simun$ un$ Freu Freu$ $ an$ an$ stemmin %artly rom the clinical -ork o !ose Breuer an$ others.
Si"mund /reud 4586
5he Father o Gsychoanalysis an$ Gsycholoy #n #ustrian neuroloist an$ the oun$er o %sychoanalysis, a clinical metho$ or treatin %sycho%atholoy throuh $ialoue 'et-een 'et-een a %atient %atient an$ a %sychoanalyst.
Freu$ian %sychoanalysis reers to a s%eciic ty%e o treatment in -hich the Janalysan$J Danalytic %atientE *er'ally e%resses his or her thouhts, inclu$in ree associations, antasies, an$ $reams, rom -hich the analyst iners the unconscious conlicts causin the %atientIs sym%toms an$ character %ro'lems, an$ inter%rets them or the %atient to create insiht or resolution o the %ro'lems. He contri'ute$ theories in %sycholoy like the Gsychoseual 5heory o "e*elo%ment -hich Ma6am #urora tauht us in our Gersonality "e*elo%ment su'/ect, as -ell as the structure o the human %syche com%osin o &$, 0o, an$ Su%ereo.
)he basic tenets of psychoanalysis include:
# %ersonIs $e*elo%ment is $etermine$ 'y oten orotten e*ents in early chil$hoo$ rather than 'y inherite$ traits alone. Human attitu$e, mannerism, e%erience, an$ thouht is larely inluence$ 'y irrational $ri*es that are roote$ in the unconscious. &t is neces necessa sary ry to 'y%a 'y%ass ss %syc %sychol holo oic ical al resi resist stanc ance e in the the orm orm o $ee $eense nse mechanisms -hen 'rinin $ri*es into a-areness. Conlicts 'et-een the conscious an$ the unconscious, or -ith re%resse$ material can materialize in the orm o mental or emotional $istur'ances, or eam%le: neurosis, neurotic traits, aniety, $e%ression etc. Li'eratin the elements o the unconscious is achie*e$ throuh 'rinin this materia materiall into into the consci conscious ous min$ min$ D*ia D*ia e.. e.. skille skille$ $ ui$anc ui$ance, e, i.e. i.e. thera% thera%eut eutic ic inter*entionE.
S#1'C0S
Carlos . )atelG r. , Re Bokkstore.
DISCIPLINES AND IDEAS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES ,
8iki%e$ia articles an$ ;oole $ictionaries
2+1,
