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La familia del Sol
La Familia del Sol
Autores: JULIETA FIERRO / MIGUEL ÁNGEL HERRERA
SELECCIÓN
PASOS ORO SOLAR
CONTRAPORTADA
COMITÉ DE EDICIONES DEDICATORIA EPÍGRAFE PRÓLOGO I. EL INICIO II. PRIMEROS III. LA EDAD DE IV. EL SISTEMA APÉNDICE BIBLIOGRAFÍA GLOSARIO
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C O M I T É
D E
S E L E C C I Ó N
Dr. Antonio Alonso Dr. Gerardo Cabañas Dr. Juan Ramón de la Fuente Dr. Jorge Flores Valdés Dr. Leopoldo García-Colín Scherer Dr. Tomás Garza Dr. Gonzalo Halffter Dr. Raúl Herrera Dr. Jaime Martuscelli Dr. Héctor Nava Jaimes Dr. Manuel Peimbert Dr. Juan José Rivaud Dr. Julio Rubio Oca Dr. José Sarukhán Dr. Guillermo Soberón Coordinadora: Coordinadora:
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E D I C I O N E S
Primera edición, 1988 Segunda edición, 1990 Quinta reimpresión, 1996 La Ciencia para Todos es proyecto y propiedad del Fondo de Cultura Económica, al que pertenecen también sus derechos. Se publica con los auspicios de la Secretaría de Educación Pública y del Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnológica D.R. © 1988 y 1989 FONDO DE CULTURA ECONÓMICA, S. A. DE C. V. D.R. © 1997 FONDO DE CULTURA ECONÓMICA Carretera Picacho-Ajusco 227,14200 México, D.F ISBN 968-16-5372-6 ISBN 968-16-5372-6 Impreso en México
D E D I C A T O R I A
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4
E P Í G R A F E
... Y así, el Sol, como sentado en un trono real, rige a la familia de planetas que gira a su alrededor. NICOLÁS COPÉRNICO Sobre las órbitas de los cuerpos c uerpos celestes, capítulo celestes, capítulo X.
P R Ó L O G O
El 4 de octubre de 1957 el mundo entero se conmocionó por una noticia sensacional: el primer satélite artificial de nuestro planeta acababa de ser puesto en órbita por la Unión Soviética. El sueño de conquistar el espacio, un sueño largamente acariciado por el hombre, comenzaba a hacerse realidad. El Sputnik I — una esfera metálica de 58 centímetros de diámetro y 84 kilogramos de peso, provista de antenas— emitía señales de radio desde el espacio mientras giraba en torno a la Tierra a razón de una vuelta cada 96 minutos. ¡Había nacido la era espacial! El lanzamiento cayó como duchazo de agua fría sobre los científicos estadounidenses, entre cuyos planes se contemplaba, como parte del Año Geofísico Internacional, un lanzamiento similar en 1958. Aún no se reponían de la sorpresa cuando el 3 de noviembre, apenas un mes más tarde, un segundo satélite soviético era puesto en órbita. El , con sus 540 kilogramos de peso, no sólo era Sputnik II
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5
investigación espacial, cuando hubo de ser sacrificada ante la imposibilidad de recuperar el artefacto. En principio, la investigación científica no debería mezclarse con consideraciones políticas, pero los espectaculares logros soviéticos provocaron una reacción inmediata en la política interna de las potencias occidentales: se recalcó la enseñanza de las ciencias en todos los niveles, se impulsó su difusión y, desde luego, se aceleró el desarrollo del programa estadounidense de satélites. Bajo la presión de la opinión pública, el Congreso brindó todo el apoyo necesario; se trabajó a marchas forzadas y, finalmente, el primer satélite artificial estadounidense, el Explorer I , de 14 kilogramos de peso, órbita la Tierra el 31 de enero de 1958.
Figura 1. La nave soviética Sputnik II transportó transportó el primer pasajero espacial puesto en órbita por la humanidad: la perrita Laika.
Entre esos primeros pasos y nuestro días han transcurrido sólo 30 años, pero el avance ha sido inmenso. Hasta fines de 1987 se habían puesto en órbita más de 17 000 satélites, de los cuales más de 6 200 seguían girando alrededor de nuestro planeta: satélites de comunicaciones, tan de moda en nuestros días en que todo mundo sueña con tener su propia antena parabólica; satélites dedicados al estudio del clima, cuya importancia y utilidad es innecesario señalar; satélites de prospección geológica, satélites infrarrojos, satélites de rayos X y, desde luego, para recordarnos que el hombre sigue sin aprender de sus errores, satélites espías, con fines puramente militares.
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6
que nos han permitido conocer cada día más y mejor nuestro Sistema Solar. Por razones obvias, los primeros esfuerzos fueron dirigidos hacia la Luna, el astro más próximo a la Tierra, cuya cara oculta pudimos apreciar por vez primera en fotografías enviadas por la sonda soviética Luna 3 en 3 en octubre de 1959, y que el 21 de julio de 1969 se convirtió en el primer astro —y único hasta ahora— en el cual seres humanos han puesto pie, cuando la misión estadounidense Apolo II resultó un éxito rotundo. Después... Sólo Neptuno y Plutón han preservado su intimidad. Las sondas automáticas han estudiado y fotografiado desde las alturas a Mercurio, Júpiter, Saturno y Urano, han descendido en Venus y en Marte y han llevado a cabo encuentros con los cometas Giacobinni-Zinner y Halley. El enorme caudal de información que ha resultado de estas exploraciones ha alterado radicalmente nuestra visión del Sistema Solar. Numerosas dudas han sido aclaradas pero, al mismo tiempo, se nos han revelado hechos y situaciones inesperados que plantean, a su vez, multitud de nuevos interrogantes. Miles de datos están aún siendo analizados e interpretados y nuevas teorías van y vienen con frecuencia inusitada. El progreso ha sido tan rápido que los nuevos conocimientos han rebasado totalmente al hombre común y, en ocasiones, al mismo especialista. Son estas consideraciones las que nos han impulsado a escribir el presente libro. En él pretendemos presentar un panorama, lo más completo y conciso posible, de la evolución de nuestras ideas sobre el Sistema Solar desde la antigüedad hasta nuestros días, poniendo especial énfasis en los descubrimientos más recientes. En lo que se refiere a estos últimos, hemos intentado incluir solamente hechos comprobados, pero es justo mencionar que muchos de ellos podrían cambiar en el futuro cercano, dado que el campo se halla aún en continua evolución. Pero eso es inevitable: así funciona la ciencia. En ella, nunca es posible afirmar que se ha llegado a la verdad absoluta. Por suerte, como dijo alguna vez un célebre científico, "en la ciencia, lo bello no está en la presa, sino en la caza ".
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7
I .
E L
I N I C I O
EL DESCENSO DE KUKULKÁN EN EL sureste de la República Mexicana, a poco más de 100 km de Mérida, se yerguen las imponentes ruinas de la ciudad prehispánica de Chichén-Itzá, la "boca del pozo de los itzaes" en lengua maya. Cientos de turistas las visitan día con día, atraídos por su enigmática belleza; pero al acercarse los equinoccios de primavera (21 de marzo) y de otoño (22 de septiembre) el número de visitantes aumenta de manera impresionante, y han llegado a sobrepasar las 60 000 almas en los días precisos de los equinoccios. ¿Qué tienen de especial esas fechas? ¿Qué es lo que atrae a tales multitudes? Se trata del célebre fenómeno conocido como "el descenso de Kukulkán", un maravilloso juego de luces y sombras que arquitectura y naturaleza, unidas, nos ofrecen sólo en esas fechas, en la pirámide conocida como "El Castillo". El espectáculo es fascinante. Al amanecer la luz del Sol y la sombra de la arista noreste de la pirámide se combinan para producir la imagen de una serpiente (Kukulkán) sobre una de las paredes de la escalinata norte. Y ése es sólo el principio. Ante el asombro del espectador, la imagen de la "serpiente", que en sí misma ya es algo maravilloso, no permanece estática, sino que va descendiendo lentamente a lo largo de la escalinata conforme avanza el día. ¡Kukulkán desciende a la Tierra!
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8
Figura 2. La pirámide del Castillo, en Chichén-Itzá, durante un equinoccio. En el costado de la l a escalera izquierda aparece una sombra que se mueve a lo largo del día. La parte iluminada y la cabeza de piedra, situada en la parte inferior de la escalera, simula una serpiente.
Horas después, al atardecer, el proceso se invierte y la imagen de Kukulkán asciende majestuosamente por el muro opuesto de la misma escalinata hasta que, finalmente, el espectáculo concluye con la puesta del Sol dejando en el afortunado espectador un recuerdo imborrable. Es indudable que "el descenso de Kukulkán" tiene un efecto emotivo directo sobre el espectador. Pero no es el único. También despierta en él una gran admiración y un profundo respeto por los astrónomos mayas, cuyos precisos conocimientos de los movimientos de los astros permitieron diseñar un espectáculo tan increíble. Esos conocimientos tuvieron que surgir de un cuidadoso estudio del cielo y, según veremos, no fueron privativos de la cultura maya; los compartieron prácticamente todas las culturas de la antigüedad. Son una consecuencia del interés del hombre por el Universo en que vive y por cada una de sus partes: por el Sol, por la Luna, por los planetas y por las estrellas. Son, en fin, los cimientos de esa formidable estructura que hoy llamamos "astronomía". LOS PLANETAS ENTRAN EN ESCENA Es indudable que los primeros hombres tuvieron que dedicar la mayor parte de su tiempo a la lucha por la supervivencia. Y cazando animales o huyendo de ellos, resguardándose de la lluvia, protegiéndose de los rayos o temblando de miedo ante terremotos, incendios e inundaciones, poco tiempo les debe haber quedado para la contemplación del cielo. A pesar de ello, no debió de
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9
La palabra "planeta" se deriva del griego ( ), que significa "(cuerpo) errante, vagabundo". ¿Por qué se utilizó ese término para describir a ciertos astros? ¿Qué tenían de especial? Para comprenderlo veamos primero cuáles son los movimientos más evidentes de los astros que aprecia un observador situado en la Tierra. Si se observa el firmamento durante un par de horas, en una noche despejada, es fácil percatarse de que las estrellas se mueven; pero no al azar, cada una por su lado, sino todas exactamente de la misma manera (de este a oeste), de tal forma que sus posiciones y distancias relativas son siempre las mismas. En otras palabras, si un grupo cualquiera de estrellas forma, en un momento dado, cierta figura en algún lugar del cielo, horas más tarde las mismas estrellas seguirán formando exactamente la misma figura, sólo que ésta se habrá desplazado, como un todo, hacia el oeste. Este hecho ya era bien conocido hace al menos 10 000 años, e indujo a los hombres primitivos a agrupar a las estrellas en "figuras", según su conveniencia e imaginación. Estas figuras invariables se conocen, hoy día, como "constelaciones". En la actualidad sabemos que su lento desplazamiento en el cielo (de este a oeste) es simplemente el reflejo de la rotación de la Tierra sobre sí misma en sentido opuesto (esto es, de oeste a este). Pero los primeros hombres creían que la Tierra estaba inmóvil así que, para explicar este comportamiento, se vieron obligados a suponer que las estrellas estaban "incrustadas" en un enorme cascarón esférico —la "bóveda celeste"— que giraba alrededor de la Tierra. En síntesis, para ellos las estrellas estaban "fijas" y, por ello, las constelaciones eran inmutables. Si parecían moverse era tan sólo porque la bóveda celeste, en su constante giro alrededor de la Tierra, las acarreaba con ella.
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10
Figura 3. Los persas agrupaban así las estrellas de la constelación de Acuario, hacia el año de 1650
Es conveniente notar que, dado que con las estrellas visibles a simple vista se pueden "construir" infinidad de figuras diferentes, lo más probable es que cada tribu prehistórica haya tenido sus propias constelaciones de acuerdo con su muy particular forma de vivir y de pensar. De hecho, las que usaron las grandes culturas del pasado eran, en general, diferentes de las actuales y diferentes entre sí. Pero lo que aquí nos interesa no es la evolución de las constelaciones, sino el hecho de que, mientras identificaban a los miles de estrellas "fijas", los hombres primitivos identificaron también a unos cuantos objetos celestes que se movían respecto a ellas con desplazamientos caprichosos e impredecibles. Obviamente estos objetos no estaban fijos a la bóveda celeste, puesto que se desplazaban entre las estrellas, y estos astros errantes, estos "vagabundos" del cielo, son los planetas. LOS PRIMEROS El descubrimiento de los planetas se pierde en la bruma de la prehistoria. Sólo sabemos que cuando las primeras civilizaciones comenzaron a establecerse, hace poco más de cinco mil años, ya se habían identificado siete. Estos siete fueron conocidos por todas las grandes culturas del pasado, por lo cual se les suele llamar "los siete planetas de la antigüedad". Son, con sus nombres actuales, el Sol, la Luna, Mercurio, Venus, Marte, Júpiter y Saturno.
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11
Es posible que la inclusión del Sol y la Luna entre los planetas sea vista con extrañeza ya que, hoy día, no se les considera como tales. Pero hay que recordar que, en la antigüedad, se le llamaba "planeta" a cualquier astro que se desplazara respecto a las estrellas "fijas"; y como este comportamiento lo presentan los siete objetos mencionados, incluyendo al Sol y a la Luna, estos últimos fueron incluidos en el grupo. Más adelante veremos que el término "planeta" tiene, hoy día, un significado más restringido, que excluye tanto al Sol como a la Luna. El temprano reconocimiento de estos siete cuerpos se debió, sin duda, a que son fácilmente identificables a simple vista, lo cual queda corroborado por el hecho de que tuvieron que pasar más de 20 siglos para que, ya con la ayuda del telescopio, se añadiera uno más a la lista (que fue Urano). Después se descubrieron dos más (Neptuno y Plutón, este último ya en nuestro siglo), pero esa parte de la historia la veremos a su debido deb ido tiempo. Es muy probable que nunca logremos averiguar cómo y cuándo se descubrieron los primeros planetas. Sin embargo, algo se puede decir al respecto, utilizando tan sólo un poco de lógica y de sentido común. De los siete, el que se desplaza más rápidamente entre las estrellas es la Luna. Su movimiento es tan veloz que son suficientes unas horas de observación para detectarlo. Como, además, su brillo, sus dimensiones y sus cambios de apariencia (las "fases") la convierten en un objeto particularmente conspicuo, es más que natural atribuirle el honor de haber sido el primer planeta que se identificó. El segundo en la lista debe de haber sido el Sol. Aunque, obviamente, se le prestaba más atención que a la Luna, su movimiento entre las estrellas es mucho más difícil de
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12
observamos un amanecer y que hacia el este, más o menos por donde va a salir el Sol, conseguimos localizar una estrella muy cercana al horizonte. Unos minutos más tarde habrá amanecido y la estrella en cuestión ya no será visible. Si al día siguiente (o, mejor dicho al amanecer siguiente) observamos con atención a la misma estrella, exactamente a la misma hora que el día anterior, notaremos que su posición respecto al horizonte ha cambiado; se localizará un poco (muy poco) más "arriba": más alta en el cielo. Y si seguimos contemplando amaneceres comprobaremos que cada día la estrella se va localizando más alta en el cielo en el momento del amanecer. De hecho, cada día transcurrirán cuatro minutos más que en el anterior entre el orto de la estrella y el del Sol. Y como la estrella es "fija", es inevitable concluir que el que se mueve es el Sol, el cual, por lo tanto, fue para los antiguos un "planeta".
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13
de categoría. De los cinco, Venus fue, sin duda, el primero que se identificó como planeta, ya que, por un lado, su movimiento respecto a las estrellas es relativamente rápido (sólo Mercurio es más veloz) y, por el otro, es el objeto más brillante del cielo después del Sol y la Luna. Es tan espectacular que en innumerables ocasiones se le ha tomado por un "platillo volador". Es más, la mayor parte de los reportes de OVNIS que se han recibido —y que se siguen recibiendo— son simples confusiones con él, lo cual demuestra, de paso, que el hombre actual está muy poco familiarizado con el cielo. En síntesis, Venus es el "objeto volador no identificado" más común y más identificado. Los planetas que se descubrieron en cuarto, quinto y sexto lugar deben haber sido Marte, Júpiter y Saturno, respectivamente. De los tres, Marte es el que llega a ser más brillante (aunque, en promedio, Júpiter lo supera), el que se mueve más rápido entre las estrellas y, por si todo esto fuera poco, es de un color rojo intenso que resulta mucho más notable y atractivo que el blanco "común y corriente" de Júpiter o el blanco amarillento de Saturno. La lógica indica, por tanto, que fue el cuarto de la lista. Entre Júpiter y Saturno tampoco hay duda. Júpiter es siempre más brillante y su movimiento respecto a las estrellas es dos veces más rápido que el de Saturno, así que, en orden de descubrimiento, Júpiter debe haber sido el quinto y Saturno el sexto.
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14
Es alarmante advertir cómo aumenta, día con día, el número de personas que valoran las cosas sólo en términos de su utilidad práctica o de su productividad económica. Ello demuestra, una vez más, que el hombre no aprende de sus propios errores, ya que la historia registra innumerables casos en los que productos "inútiles" del intelecto humano —tales como poesía, música o descubrimientos científicos "puros"— tuvieron un papel preponderante en el progreso de la humanidad. Un ejemplo de lo anterior, particularmente ilustrativo, es el movimiento de los astros que, estudiado en un principio por mera curiosidad, proporcionó a la larga la solución de un problema de gran trascendencia tanto práctica como filosófica: la medición del tiempo. El origen de nuestras unidades básicas de tiempo —el día, el mes y el año— es, en efecto, astronómico y se pierde en las brumas de la prehistoria. De hecho, las civilizaciones más antiguas de las que se conservan registros (la china, la sumeria y la egipcia) ya las conocían y las usaban cotidianamente. La razón es evidente. Los fenómenos astronómicos presentan una notable regularidad y, en consecuencia, debió de transcurrir muy poco tiempo antes de que el hombre se percatara de que podía aprovechar a los astros como indicadores del paso del tiempo. Y, lógicamente, utilizó a los más ligados a su vida diaria: el Sol y la Luna.
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15
las subdivisiones del día que hoy conocemos: la hora (que, como es bien sabido, es la veinticuatroava parte de un día), el minuto (la sesentava parte de una hora) y el segundo (la sesentava parte de un minuto). Pero estas unidades no son fundamentales, sino derivadas. Otra unidad de tiempo, más larga, pero también muy evidente, se derivó de los cambios de apariencia de la Luna —sus "fases", como las llaman los astrónomos—: luna llena, luna nueva, cuarto creciente, etc. Al intervalo de tiempo entre dos fases iguales (sucesivas se le llama un "mes lunar". Así, por ejemplo, entre dos lunas llenas (sucesivas) o entre dos cuartos menguantes (sucesivos) transcurre exactamente un mes lunar. Esta unidad de tiempo fue ampliamente utilizada en el pasado, sobre todo en relación con ciertos ritos religiosos, pero en nuestros días prácticamente ya no se usa, por razones que se expondrán más adelante. Hay, sin embargo, algunas honrosas excepciones, como el caso del calendario musulmán, que sigue siendo lunar, y como su uso por la religión católica para determinar la fecha del domingo de ramos (por eso hay astrónomos en el Vaticano). Y hay, también, "deshonrosas" excepciones, como su aplicación —¡en pleno siglo XX!— en la práctica de ciertas dietas "milagrosas", dietas que, desde luego, funcionarían igual si no existiera la Luna.
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16
intervalo de tiempo en el cual la Tierra le da una vuelta completa al Sol, que es la definición que todos conocemos (pero que no es la original).
Figura 6. Durante el año, el Sol se va viendo, desde la Tierra, proyectado sobre las constelaciones del Zodiaco, llamadas así porque muchas de ellas llevan nombres de animales.
Mientras el hombre fue nómada, el año fue una unidad sin ninguna utilidad práctica. El día y el mes lunar resultaban ser unidades de tiempo más que suficientes para las necesidades de tribus que dependían por completo de la caza, la pesca y la recolección. Pero con el advenimiento de
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17
humana: se inventó la escritura, ese maravilloso medio de comunicación que nos permite establecer contacto con nuestros semejantes a través del espacio y del tiempo. No es aquí el lugar ni el momento de analizar su trascendencia en el desarrollo del intelecto, pero sí es importante hacer notar que la capacidad de registrar en forma permanente los fenómenos naturales fue fundamental en el desarrollo de todas las ciencias. En la astronomía, en particular, una gran variedad de fenómenos tienen duraciones que sobrepasan, con mucho, la duración de una vida humana, y sólo ha sido posible descubrirlos comparando observaciones separadas por grandes intervalos de tiempo. Los escritos astronómicos más antiguos que conocemos pertenecen a la llamada cultura mesopotámica, que se desarrolló entre los ríos Tigris y Éufrates, en el Oriente Medio, a lo largo de los 5 000 años anteriores a nuestra era. Aunque a los mesopotámicos se les suele dar el nombre genérico de "caldeos" o "babilonios" no fueron
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18
es muy importante, pues en nuestros días se ha puesto de moda el hablar, sin ningún fundamento, de los "increíbles" conocimientos que poseían algunas de las civilizaciones más antiguas, o de los "asombrosos" descubrimientos que hicieron. Estas afirmaciones son totalmente falsas, según acabamos de ver, y quienes las hacen suelen buscar tan sólo notoriedad o algún beneficio personal.
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19
estuviera en un cierto lugar del cielo, habría robos. Probablemente, la idea se le ocurrió a los sacerdotes (que eran los encargados de observar el cielo para medir el tiempo y anunciar los momentos adecuados para llevar al cabo las festividades religiosas) como consecuencia de que muchos fenómenos naturales sí son predecibles a través de los astros —el día y la noche, las estaciones, los eclipses, etc. Sea como fuere, el caso es que decidieron que el acontecer humano está escrito en la bóveda celeste. Y fue así como a los caldeos les cupo el dudoso honor de inventar la astrología, esa falsa "ciencia" que pretende predecir el futuro con base en las posiciones de los astros y que, por desgracia, sigue contando con innumerables adeptos aún en nuestros días. PIRAMIDOLOGÍA La civilización egipcia es una de las que más ha apasionado
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20
Desafortunadamente, la misma magnificencia de esas ruinas, que tanta admiración y respeto despierta en el visitante de mente clara y abierta, ha inducido a algunos individuos de mente débil y enfermiza a elaborar teorías, a cual más descabellada, para explicar su origen, dando a entender, de paso, que los antiguos egipcios eran incapaces de semejante labor. La teoría más común afirma que estos espléndidos monumentos no fueron erigidos con fines comunes y corrientes, sino que fueron diseñados para preservar, de forma inteligible sólo a ciertos "iniciados", los profundos conocimientos que una raza superior (probablemente extraterrestre) reveló a los constructores. Por desgracia, este tipo de ideas no ha sido superado todavía. De los monumentos egipcios que han sobrevivido hasta nuestros días, la Gran Pirámide es, con mucho, el que más ha atraído a los buscadores de "misterios"; de hecho, fue ella la que dio origen a la piramidología, tan de moda en
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21
encontró que la altura de la pirámide era 1/270 000 de la circunferencia de la Tierra. ¡Asombroso descubrimiento! "Los egipcios", concluyó, "¡conocían las dimensiones de nuestro planeta!". Este es un ejemplo típico de cómo presentan los charlatanes sus resultados. No es que el hecho en sí no sea verdadero (lo cual, por cierto, estaría por verse, ya que la altura original de la pirámide no se conoce con precisión), sino que la manera de interpretarlo es engañosa. En otras palabras: ¿qué tiene de especial que la altura de la Gran Pirámide sea 1/270 000 de la circunferencia de la Tierra? La envergadura de un Boeing 720 de pasajeros es exactamente una millonésima parte de la circunferencia ecuatorial de la Tierra, y es obvio que la existencia de esta "asombrosa" relación no demuestra absolutamente nada.
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22
llegó a este resultado es sensacional. Como no se conocía la altura de la pirámide, tuvo que deducirla a partir del ángulo que forma cada uno de los lados con la horizontal. Este ángulo es de alrededor de 52 grados, y Smyth postuló que debió haber sido de 51° 51'14.3". Como consecuencia, la altura debió ser de 148.21 metros y, por tanto, el cociente del semiperímetro a la altura era exactamente . ¡Se necesita mucho descaro para anunciar este resultado como "descubrimiento"! En realidad, él mismo lo forzó, ajustando el ángulo al valor adecuado. Y son esta clase de métodos
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23
parecen tener equivalencia. La única estrella que parece haber tenido un significado especial es Sirio, la estrella más brillante del cielo, a la cual llamaban "Sothis". Es probable que su importancia se haya debido a que hubo una época (hacia el año 4200 a.C.) en que su orto helíaco coincidía, aproximadamente, con la crecida del Nilo, el suceso más trascendental en el antiguo Egipto. Es más, su contribución astronómica más importante se derivó, precisamente, de la crecida del Nilo. Como el fenómeno ocurre a intervalos aproximadamente de 365 días, los egipcios introdujeron
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24
herramientas de gran utilidad, y es cierto, también, que los caldeos fueron brillantes observadores del cielo y notables recopiladores de datos. Pero en ambos casos, el desarrollo y la recopilación de conocimientos se hizo con fines esencialmente prácticos (la construcción de tumbas más seguras para sus reyes o una predicción más precisa de los acontecimientos) y adjudicándole además a esos conocimientos un cierto sentido "mágico" que los hacía privativos de unos cuantos "iniciados" (los sacerdotes); nunca hubo, hasta donde sabemos, un intento de síntesis o
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JONIA A fines del siglo VII a.C., Mileto era la ciudad más próspera del mundo mediterráneo. Fundada unos cuatro siglos antes en las costas del mar Egeo, en lo que hoy es Turquía, había ido progresando poco a poco hasta convertirse, bajo el mando de Trasíbulo, su tirano en turno, en la capital tanto de la industria (textil) y el comercio como de las artes y la filosofía. Y fue allí, en medio de esta efervescencia económica e intelectual, donde nació Tales, fundador de la
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En síntesis, si a Tales se le ha llamado el "padre de la ciencia no ha sido por sus conocimientos —que, a fin de cuentas, no eran muy superiores a los de egipcios o babilonios (de quienes, por cierto, parece haberlos adquirido)— sino por haber introducido una nueva manera de pensar, una nueva actitud ante el Universo en la cual se le presupone inteligible y regido por leyes simples y asequibles al intelecto humano. Fueron la magnitud y la trascendencia de este paso las que le confirieron la inmortalidad.
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Pero... ¿en qué consiste la "armonía de las esferas"? Se
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República, República, uno de sus 27 diálogos, insiste en que la
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Aristóteles". Si un hecho no aparecía en sus escritos, tenía
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62
El estudio científico del Sol se inició desde la época de Galileo y ha venido perfeccionándose desde entonces. Galileo mismo, según se dice, se volvió ciego por observar el Sol durante los eclipses. Un avance muy importante, ocurrido hace más de cien años, fue el descubrimiento de la "espectroscopia". Ésta consiste en descomponer la luz proveniente de una fuente en sus diferentes frecuencias (o longitudes de onda). En el caso del Sol, gracias a ella hemos deducido: 1) la composición química; 2) la densidad; 3) la temperatura, y 4) la velocidad de los gases que forman su superficie. En síntesis: sus condiciones físicas. En los años cincuenta ya se conocía la física básica del Sol: 1) su composición gaseosa; 2) la temperatura sumamente elevada de la corona; 3) la importancia fundamental de los campos magnéticos en la actividad solar, y 4) el ciclo de 22 años para esta actividad. Sondas solares. solares. Las primeras mediciones de la radiación solar se hicieron desde globos, el siglo pasado, y continuaron en aviones, dirigibles y globos a principios de siglo. Esto fue necesario para evitar al máximo la absorción de la atmósfera terrestre, ya que las partículas de polvo y el gas atmosférico absorben y dispersan la luz. En 1914, C. Abbot envió un globo lleno de hidrógeno a una altitud de 24.4 km, con un detector para medir la constante solar (que, como vimos, es la cantidad de radiación proveniente del Sol que llega a la Tierra por centímetro cuadrado por segundo). En 1935, un globo con dos hombres y varios aparatos (el Explorador II) II) alcanzó la misma altitud. Sin embargo no logró captar radiación solar que no fuera la visible, debido a la absorción atmosférica. En 1946, un cohete V-2 con fines militares subió a 55 km; llevaba un espectrógrafo solar en la cola y pudo fotografiar el Sol en longitudes de onda menores que 2 400 Å, Å, es decir en el ultravioleta. En 1948, diez años antes de la fundación de la NASA, se pudo fotografiar al Sol en rayos X con cohetes. Hubo algunos cohetes que fotografiaron ráfagas
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63
En 1960 se lanzó la primera sonda solar: Solrad. Su misión fue monitorear el Sol en rayos X y en el ultravioleta —en especial en una longitud de onda de 1 216 Å, Å, que corresponde a una emisión muy importante del gas hidrógeno que los astrónomos conocen como la "línea " línea Lyman ". Más adelante se lanzaron ocho observatorios solares orbitantes alrededor de la Tierra, empezando con el OSO 1 en 1962. Los OSO fueron las primeras sondas que pudieron apuntar continuamente hacia el Sol. Lo monitorearon durante 17 años y en ellos se experimentó con nuevas técnicas de transmisión hacia la Tierra, T ierra, como la fotografía.
Figura 29. El Sol en luz ultravioleta mostrando una enorme prominencia. Se muestra también el tamaño de la Tierra a la misma escala. (NASA)
El mayor observatorio solar ha sido el Skylab. Llevaba tripulación y ocho telescopios solares. Estuvo en órbita durante nueve meses en 1973 y principios de 1974. Observó al Sol en rayos , X, ultravioleta y visible, y obtuvo la mayor cantidad de datos (y los mejor organizados) que hayamos logrado jamás para un objeto celeste. En 1974 y 1976 las sondas Helios A y A y B se acercaron al Sol más allá de la órbita de Mercurio, para medir las condiciones del viento solar. No llevaron cámaras. Desde luego que otras sondas soviéticas y estadounidenses, no específicamente diseñadas para estudios solares, lo han observado: Vela, Apolo, Mariner, entre otras. En 1980 se lanzó la sonda Solar Max, con el fin de estudiar
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64
empresa muy complicada, ya que Solar Max es del tamaño de un automóvil Volkswagen, rotaba una vez por minuto sobre su eje, y hubo que efectuar la compostura en el espacio vacío sin gravedad. El Sol en luz ultravioleta. La respuesta del ojo humano a la luz disminuye drásticamente en longitudes de onda menores de 3 500 Å Å y mayores de 7 000 Å. Å. Esto no es casual; la atmósfera terrestre tiene una "ventana" en este intervalo de longitudes de onda; no deja pasar longitudes de onda ni más cortas, ni más largas. Como consecuencia, el ojo de los seres vivos ha evolucionado, adaptándose a las longitudes de onda a su disposición; no le seria útil poder observar una longitud de 3 000 Å, Å, por ejemplo, ya que este tipo de radiación casi no existe sobre la superficie de la Tierra; aunque Superman tuviera visión de rayos X no vería nada. La luz que se produce en la fotósfera del Sol sólo tiene un ligero porcentaje de luz ultravioleta. Este no es el caso de la atmósfera superior del Sol, que por ser más tenue y más caliente, la produce en cantidades apreciables. Por ello, el estudio de la radiación ultravioleta del Sol es útil para estudiar ráfagas, regiones solares activas, así como los procesos físicos que gobiernan la estructura externa del Sol.
Figura 30. El Sol en rayos X se ve muy distinto al Sol en luz blanca. El disco desaparece totalmente totalmente y aparece la corona brillante y los llamados ll amados hoyos coronales (NASA).
En luz ultravioleta, el Sol no se ve como un círculo con
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65
Como vimos, la parte visible del Sol está a 6 000°C y la corona, más alejada, a 2 000 000°C. Estudiando al Sol en el ultravioleta se llegó a la conclusión de que el calentamiento de la corona se debe a la gran actividad magnética del Sol. El Sol en rayos X. Los rayos X siguen a los ultravioleta en el espectro electromagnético; tienen mayor energía. El estudio del Universo en rayos X es de gran utilidad puesto que los rayos X se producen sólo en regiones de temperatura muy alta, como la vecindad vec indad de ciertos agujeros negros o la corona del Sol, que está a varios millones de grados. Como la atmósfera terrestre es opaca a los rayos X, los primeros detectores de este tipo de radiación fueron enviados a estudiar el Cosmos montados en cohetes, en 1948. Pero las primeras fotografías de gran resolución del Sol en rayos X se obtuvieron hasta 1968. En rayos X, el disco solar se ve negro, ya que sólo está a 6 000°C y no radia en esas frecuencias, sino en luz visible. En cambio la corona se ve brillante, pero no de manera homogénea. Existen zonas muy brillantes que cambian de tamaño y de intensidad conforme varía la actividad solar. También existen los llamados hoyos coronales, zonas desprovistas de emisión y de un campo magnético que pueda confinar el material coronal. El viento solar se escapa del Sol a través de los hoyos coronales. LOS PLANETAS En esta sección, lo que se pretende es hacer una descripción somera del cuadro 1, que presenta algunas características de los planetas. En general, es difícil imaginar al Sistema Solar en su conjunto, ya que no estamos acostumbrados a manejar distancias y masas tan grandes. Es por ello que se invita al lector a que mire con cuidado cada una de las columnas y renglones del cuadro tratando de comparar unas características con otras. (Si lo desea, puede omitir esta sección si le parece complicada.) En la primera columna se han enumerado los nombres de los planetas en orden de su distancia respecto al Sol y en la segunda columna se han tabulado esas distancias. El último de la lista resulta ser Plutón, que está 40 UA del Sol, pero eso no quiere decir que con él se termine el Sistema Solar. Se piensa que más allá de la órbita de Plutón existe gas y
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66
bloques, que se mueven en órbitas elípticas muy alargadas alrededor del Sol, se acercan a él lo suficiente como para evaporarse y formar un cometa. CUADRO 1. Los planetas. _______________________________________________ _____________________ 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Inclinación Periodo Velocidad Periodo de la Distanca Inclinación de orbital Excentricidad de órbita Diámetro Planetas al sol del eje de ecuatorial s - de la órbita rotación rotación respecto (UA)a revolución (km (km) 1 (días) ) (días) a la eclípticac Mercurio
0.38
87.969
47.87
0.2056
Venus
0.72
224.701
35.02
0.0068
Tierra Marte Júpiter
1.00 1.52 51
29.79 24.13 13.06
Saturno
9.52
Urano
19.13
365.256 686.98 4 332.71 10 759.50 30 685.00 60 190.00 90 800.00
Neptuno 30.02 Plutón
39.42
0.0167 0.0934 0.0483
58.6462 243.0187b 0.99727 1.025957 0.41354
28 °
7.004
4 878
3°
3.394
12 104
23 ° 27' 23 ° 59' 3 ° 05'
0.000 1.850 1.308
12 765 6 794 142 792
9.66
0.0560
0.44401
26 ° 44'
2.488
120 000
6.80
0.0461
- 0.71833
82 ° 05'
0.744
52 400
5.44
0.0097
0.67125
28 ° 48'
1.774
50 450
4.74
0.2482
- 6.3872
85 ° 17.148
2 400
_______________________________________________ _____________________ Continúa
10
11
12
13
14 15 16 17 Gravedad Velocidad Campo f Número Número Masa Densidad Temperatura Densidad Temperatura superficial de magnético de de escape lunas anillos (Tierra=1) Tierra=1)d (g cm-3)e media ° C (G) (km s-1) gauss conocidas detectados Mercurio 0.055 5.43 350 0.38 4.3 160 0 ------Venus 0.815 5.24 480 0.91 10.4 4 0 ------Tierra 1.0 5.52 22 1.00 11.2 30 000 1 ------Marte 0.107 3.9 - 23 0.38 5.0 60 2 ------Júpiter 317.8 1.3 - 150 2.53 60 400 000 17 1 Saturno 94.3 0.7 - 180 1.07 36 20 000 25 ~1 000 Urano 14.6 1.3 - 210 0.92 21 23 000 15 15
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67
a
Una unidad astrómica (UA) es la distancia media de la tierra al sol, o sea, 150 millones de kilómetros. b El signo menos significa rotación retrógrada. c La eclíptica es la trayectoria aparente de la Tierra en el cielo. d La masa de la tierra es de 5.98 x 1027 g=1M e La densidad del agua es de 1 g cm³. f Campo magnético del Sol 1-2 gauss.
Las distancias interplanetarias son enormes. Las naves Viajero, por ejemplo, tardaron 2.5 años en llegar a Júpiter, viajando a una velocidad de 11 km/seg. Para comprender el significado de estos números, suele ser útil el siguiente modelo a escala del Sistema Solar. Si el Sol fuera del tamaño de una canica, la Tierra sería una mota de polvo a un metro de distancia y Plutón una bacteria a 40 metros de la canica. El lector podrá imaginar la dificultad que representó el descubrimiento de este planeta. Es como pedirle que descubra un microbio a 40 metros de distancia. En la columna 3 se muestran los periodos de revolución de los planetas, o sea la duración de sus "años". Se observa un aumento en estos períodos del centro del Sistema Solar hacia afuera. Esto es precisamente lo que descubrió Kepler
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68
distancia que hay entre el Distrito Federal y Acapulco; pero tardaríamos ¡10 000 años! en llegar a la estrella más cercana al Sistema Solar. En la columna 5 se presentan las excentricidades de las órbitas, o sea el grado de elipticidad que tienen (una circunferencia tiene excentricidad cero y una elipse infinitamente elongada tiene excentricidad 1). Se puede apreciar que muchas de las órbitas son casi circulares, como las de Venus, Neptuno y la Tierra. En cambio, Plutón y Mercurio tienen órbitas mucho más elongadas. La columna 6 muestra el periodo de rotación (o sea, la duración del "día") de los diferentes planetas. Es interesante notar que Venus y Urano tienen direcciones de rotación distintas a las del resto de los planetas. Esto es más asombroso si se considera que el Sol, todos los demás planetas y casi todas las Lunas rotan y se trasladan en la misma dirección. Cualquier teoría de formación del Sistema Solar tendrá que explicar estas peculiaridades. La duración del día es muy semejante en la Tierra y en Marte. En Júpiter, en cambio, el día y la noche son muy cortos (duran menos de cinco horas cada uno), mientras que en Venus duran 121 días cada uno. En la columna 7 se muestra la inclinación del eje de rotación respecto al plano de la órbita. En la Tierra, esta inclinación es de 23° y a ella se deben las estaciones. Los ejes de rotación de Mercurio, Marte, Saturno y Neptuno también están inclinados y, por consiguiente, también ellos tienen estaciones. La inclinación del eje de Marte es muy parecida a la de la Tierra; en cambio la del eje de Urano es de 82° 82°, lo que nos indica que los polos de este planeta apuntan prácticamente hacia el Sol en invierno y verano. En la columna 8 se muestran las inclinaciones de los planos
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69
una parte muy pequeña de la masa total del Sistema Solar, siendo la mayor la de Júpiter, que es de 318 M. En la columna 11 se han tabulado las densidades de los planetas. La densidad del agua es igual a 1 g/cm³. g/cm³. Mercurio y Venus tienen densidades muy parecidas a la de la Tierra, y Marte un poco menor. En cambio las densidades de los planetas exteriores son mucho menores, siendo las de Saturno y la de Plutón menores que las del agua. Si hubiera un mar lo suficientemente grande, Saturno y Plutón flotarían en él.
Figura 31. El Sistema Planetario. En la parte inferior se muestran a escala los tamaños relativos de los planetas. Nótese que los cometas resultan ser los cuerpos más extendidos del Sistema Planetario.
En la columna 12 se muestra la temperatura superficial promedio de los planetas. Es interesante notar que la temperatura de Venus es sumamente elevada, mayor que la de Mercurio, que está más cerca del Sol. Más allá de Marte la temperatura superficial que tienen los planetas es
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70
En las columnas 13 y 14 se ha tabulado la gravedad superficial y la velocidad de escape de los distintos planetas. Nótese que aunque Saturno, Urano y Neptuno tienen masas mucho mayores que la terrestre, su gravedad superficial es casi igual a la terrestre debido a sus enormes diámetros. En la columna 15 se ha tabulado el campo magnético de los planetas en los cuales se ha podido medir. Cuando un planeta posee un campo magnético, el viento solar no incide directamente sobre su superficie, sino que es deflectado por las líneas de campo, dando así lugar a una "cavidad magnética". La Luna no tiene campo magnético ni atmósfera y el viento solar incide directamente sobre la superficie. Venus tampoco tiene campo magnético, pero el viento solar es deflectado por su ionósfera. En la columna 16 se presenta el número de lunas conocidas de cada planeta. Los planetas jovianos tienen más lunas que los terrestres. En la columna 17 se muestran los anillos detectados alrededor de los planetas. El anillo de Júpiter es muy tenue, formado probablemente por polvos de silicatos de micras de diámetro. Tiene 6 000 km de ancho y 30 km de espesor. Además, tiene un halo de 10 000 km (mucho más tenue) que llega hasta las nubes más externas del planeta. Saturno, por su parte, tiene más de 900 anillos, tanto de polvo como de rocas y hielos. LOS PLANETAS TERRESTRES Los planetas terrestres, también llamados interiores, son los más cercanos al Sol: Mercurio, Venus, la Tierra y Marte. Como su nombre lo indica, se parecen a la Tierra: tienen
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71
Puesto que la órbita de la Tierra está más alejada que la de Mercurio, éste siempre se ve, desde la Tierra, muy cercano al Sol. Por ello, sólo se puede observar al anochecer o al amanecer, nunca cuando el cielo está muy oscuro. Su máximo alejamiento del Sol es de 28°, por lo que, como máximo, se le ve dos horas antes de salir el Sol o dos horas después de ponerse. Es tan difícil observarlo desde la Tierra, que aun las mejores fotografías lo muestran como una pelota fuera de foco. El mismo Copérnico se lamentó de que nunca lo pudo observar. Se ve borroso porque su luz tiene que atravesar la atmósfera de la Tierra oblicuamente, a través de una capa gruesa de aire turbulento. La rotación de Mercurio. Debido a las dificultades de observación, los dibujos y las fotografías de Mercurio no muestran rasgos bien definidos sobre su superficie que pudieran ser utilizados para medir su periodo de rotación. Basándose en algunas estructuras superficiales indefinidas los astrónomos llegaron a la conclusión de que su periodo de rotación era igual a su periodo de traslación: 88 días. De ser esto cierto, Mercurio siempre le daría la misma cara al Sol, de la misma manera como la Luna siempre nos da la misma cara. Esto lo convertiría, simultáneamente, en el planeta más frío y más caliente del Sistema Solar. Su lado "día", siempre apuntando al Sol, alcanzaría temperaturas muy altas, recibiendo seis veces más energía solar que la Tierra, mientras que el lado "noche" estaría sumergido en el frío del medio interplanetario. En 1960 se terminó la construcción de un radiotelescopio para estudios planetarios, y ¡cuál sería la sorpresa de los radioastrónomos al observar que el lado noche de Mercurio no era tan frío como se había supuesto originalmente! Si Mercurio no rotaba, la única posible explicación para la temperatura elevada del lado noche era la presencia de una atmósfera. (Las atmósferas y las masas de agua son fundamentales en el clima. Por eso en la Tierra, la
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72
Figura 32. Mercurio. A primera vista es muy parecido a la Luna, con la superficie cubierta de cráteres de impacto. Esta fotografía fue tomada por la nave estadounidense estadounidense Mariner 10. (NASA).
Es muy difícil imaginar que Mercurio pueda tener una atmósfera. Por un lado, su gravedad superficial es baja (2/5 de la terrestre: una persona de 100 kg pesaría 40 kg en Mercurio, y si diera un salto de 40 cm en la Tierra daría uno de 100 cm en Mercurio). Por otro lado, como Mercurio está muy cerca del Sol, sus partículas gaseosas se moverían muy rápidamente (porque estarían a temperaturas muy altas), y el posible "aire de Mercurio" se escaparía fácilmente al espacio. En resumen, era poco probable que el planeta tuviera atmósfera.
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73
y con miles de cráteres de todos tamaños. Esta última es una característica muy común en los cuerpos del Sistema Solar y se piensa que se remonta a los primeros tiempos de su formación. Como los cuerpos más masivos atraen gravitacionalmente a los menos masivos, los meteoritos que pasan cerca de la Tierra son atrapados por ésta y al caer sobre su superficie forman un cráter. El resto de los cuerpos del Sistema Solar se comporta de la misma manera, y lo ha venido haciendo durante toda su historia.
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74
durante mucho tiempo (tal vez siga estándolo en el presente) mientras que las regiones externas se enfriaron y se solidificaron para formar la corteza. Conforme se enfrió el interior, se contrajo, y la corteza se arrugó; algunas porciones de la corteza se encimaron sobre otras, y en los puntos de contacto se aprecian las escarpaduras. Las arrugas produjeron las montañas. El interior de Mercurio se fundió como resultado del decaimiento de los elementos radioactivos presentes en el interior del planeta. Puesto que los elementos radioactivos producen calor cuando decaen, es probable que este calentamiento se haya producido en todos los planetas y en los satélites mayores, que tuvieron gran concentración de elementos radioactivos. Este proceso de fundición es importante, puesto que hace que los cuerpos de tamaños planetarios se diferencien, es decir que se separen en ellos los elementos más densos de los menos densos. Los materiales más densos se hunden, mientras que los elementos más ligeros se elevan. Por consiguiente, se forma un núcleo planetario central de hierro y níquel, un manto compuesto por rocas densas, y una corteza exterior formada por rocas de baja densidad. Como en otros cuerpos, encontramos regiones de Mercurio que están tan pobladas por cráteres que se cubren unos a otros en algunos lugares. En cambio, en otras regiones hay menor densidad de cráteres. Probablemente un proceso
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75
Figura 34. Venus visto desde el espacio. Se observan las nubes altas del planeta, que tienen velocidades de unos 400 km por hora. Sin embargo, la atmósfera es tan densa que cerca de la superficie los vientos apenas alcanzan velocidades de unos cuantos kilómetros por hora (NASA).
Venus A simple vista Venus se ve como una estrella nocturna más brillante que la demás. Por su hermoso aspecto algunos pueblos de la antigüedad le dieron un lugar privilegiado en el cielo. Los mesoamericanos hicieron un calendario con base en el periodo de traslación del planeta; los griegos lo
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76
plomo en la superficie, estaría fundido. Debido a la presión atmosférica, equivalente a la que soportaríamos bajo un kilómetro de agua en la Tierra, las rocas toman formas extrañas. Caen rayos continuamente y hay lluvias esporádicas de ácido sulfúrico. Las temperaturas superficiales tan elevadas se deben a la presencia de una gran cantidad de bióxido de carbono en la atmósfera. Esto hace que en Venus haya lo que se conoce como el efecto invernadero: la luz del Sol penetra hasta la superficie, ésta la absorbe e irradia fotones infrarrojos, los cuales no logran escapar debido al bióxido de carbono atmosférico. Así, la superficie se mantiene muy caliente — más que en Mercurio— a pesar de que Venus está 1.4 veces más lejos del Sol. Para las ciencias de la Tierra, es de vital importancia estudiar las características de la atmósfera de Venus. Puesto que no hay vida en Venus, su densa atmósfera no tiene O2, y por ello no es transparente a la radiación infrarroja. La radiación solar penetra y, como en el caso de la Tierra, se queda atrapada como en un invernadero. Probablemente, si la humanidad sigue depredando y contaminando su ambiente, logre alterar la composición química de la atmósfera hasta modificar seriamente el clima terrestre. Hasta hace muy poco tiempo se tuvieron noticias de la estructura superficial del planeta gemelo de la Tierra. Por un lado, Estados Unidos construyó un telescopio de radar
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77
Figura 35. Fotografía de radar de Venus, la Tierra y Marte, a la l a misma escala. En Venus los continentes tienen aspecto más granuloso y en Marte más masivos que en la Tierra, Los soviéticos han construido radares más poderosos que se han puesto en órbita alrededor de Venus y en breve se tendrán mejores fotografías de este planeta.
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78
Una vez sobre la superficie, que no es lisa (no se disponían de fotografías de antemano para estimar en qué posición iba a quedar el módulo), se procedió al análisis químico. El módulo contaba con un brazo dotado de un taladro y de una aspiradora. El taladro no sabía con qué tipo de suelo se iba a enfrentar. Tuvo que taladrar roca dura y aspirarla, una vez dentro del módulo fue necesario bajar la presión de la muestra, ya que esta última estaba a una presión cien veces mayor que el interior del módulo (hubiera sido como abrir una olla express con 50 veces la presión usual). Hubo que analizar la muestra y enviar los resultados en forma de ondas de radio a la Tierra. Simultáneamente el módulo fotografió el paisaje venusino. ¡Todo esto en menos de trece minutos! La nave Venera 13 13 se posó sobre la región Phoebe; cerca del ecuador, y sacó varias fotografías. El cielo, las nubes y la superficie de Venus son de color naranja. Las rocas tienen aristas agudas, lo que parece indicar que hubo flujos
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79
La Tierra presenta una estructura superficial de gran diversidad: tiene agua gaseosa, líquida y sólida, alberga vida, y normalmente, el 50% de su atmósfera está opacada por nubes. Si fuéramos un astrónomo de Titán, una de las lunas de Saturno, podríamos hacer el siguiente reporte acerca de la Tierra: INFORME DE LA ACADEMIA TITANIANA DE CIENCIAS Desde hace siglos nuestros antepasados han estudiado a la Tierra. Nuestros primeros habitantes suponían que se trataba de una estrella vagabunda, que aparece al atardecer o al anochecer: puesto que es un planeta interior sólo se observa cerca del Sol. Desde que el gran Galilixto utilizó el primer telescopio (que en realidad era un anteojo de pirata) para estudiar los cuerpos celestes, descubrió que la Tierra es redonda y presenta fases, como nuestro hermoso planeta Saturno y
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80
El estudio de la Tierra es importante para poder compararla con el resto de los planetas del Sistema Solar, y se ha podido realizar cuidadosamente dado que la conocemos con mucho más detalle y desde hace mucho más tiempo. La geología de la Tierra es tan compleja que resulta necesario el estudio del resto de los planetas, que presentan actividades geológicas más sencillas, para ayudarnos a entenderla. La corteza terrestre está dividida en nueve grandes pedazos o placas que flotan parcialmente sobre el manto viscoso. Estas placas están en movimiento, impulsadas por un flujo de magma que surge del manto a través de las cuarteaduras de la corteza que las originaron. Cuando dos placas se alejan, el espacio entre ellas se llena de agua, dando lugar a mares u océanos, en el fondo de los cuales encontramos cordilleras formadas por el magma
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81
ondas P que las S. Existen cientos de estaciones sismológicas sobre la superficie terrestre con las cuales se pueden hacer las interpolaciones adecuadas. Las ondas P no atraviesan líquidos. Midiendo la llegada o no de estas ondas a las distintas estaciones sismológicas se ha encontrado que la Tierra posee un núcleo líquido. Dado que las ondas sísmicas se refractan al pasar de un medio a otro (como la luz: por eso una cuchara se ve doblada en un vaso de agua), por su desviación de una trayectoria rectilínea se pueden conocer las distintas sustancias de las que está compuesto el interior de la Tierra. Éste no es un trabajo sencillo; ha tomado decenas de años empezar a conocer el manto y el núcleo terrestre. Se han colocado sismógrafos en la Luna y en Marte, y en 1998 se piensa colocar uno en Venus. Probablemente el interior de la Tierra esté formado por níquel y hierro. El núcleo central es sólido, pero está rodeado de líquido. La fuente de calor del interior de la
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82
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83
Los tres tenían agua y bióxido de carbón, pero evolucionaron de acuerdo a sus diferentes masas y a sus distancias distintas al Sol. Venus, el más cercano al Sol, recibe mayor cantidad de radiación. Probablemente Venus tenía vastos océanos cuando estaba recién formado y el Sol era menos brillante; pero al aumentar la luminosidad del Sol, los océanos se evaporaron. Mientras tanto, los volcanes venusinos arrojaron bióxido de carbono a la atmósfera. En la Tierra, el
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84
cantidad de este isótopo en nuestro organismo permanece relativamente constante, porque lo renovamos en forma continua. Pero al morir dejamos de renovarlo, y como el 14C decae radiactivamente, midiendo la cantidad de 14C en restos humanos se puede determinar con precisión el año en que murió la persona. El llamado método del carbono catorce es ampliamente utilizado por los antropólogos para datar restos arqueológicos de origen biológico. El 80% 80% de la masa de la atmósfera se encuentra en los
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85
Venus
90
CO2 (96) N2 (35)
Tierra
1
N2 (77) O2 (21) H O (1)
H2O (~100), SO2 (~ 150) Ar (70), CO (40), HCL (0.4) CO2 (330), Ne (18), He (70) Kr (1.1), Xe (.087), CH4 (1.5) H2 (.5), N 2O (.3),
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86
Marte Marte ha sido siempre uno de los cuerpos celestes más interesantes, tanto para astrónomos como para legos. Su aspecto nocturno es el de una estrella roja muy brillante. Los griegos lo bautizaron con el nombre del dios de la guerra. Se ha especulado durante siglos sobre la probabilidad de que haya vida en ese planeta.
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87
obtienen fotografías borrosas. Por esta razón en el pasado
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88
corrido algún líquido, que podría haber sido agua. También se pueden
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89
1
1976
amartizaje fallido
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90
Las naves Vikingo, además de buscar vida, pudieron
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91
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122
Figura 59. Las lluvias de estrellas se producen cuando pequeños fragmentos de cometa entran en la atmósfera y se incendian i ncendian por fricción.
Colisiones. A veces los cometas chocan contra algún otro cuerpo del Sistema Solar. Por ejemplo, se piensa que en 1908 un cometa chocó contra la Tierra en un lugar llamado Tunguska, en la Unión Soviética, localizado en Siberia, en una región pantanosa y helada. Al caer, el cometa derribó todos los árboles distribuidos en un área de 3 000 km2. No quedaron residuos, ya que al estar compuesto en esencia de hielo, se evaporó totalmente. Algunos autores piensan que la extinción masiva de los dinosaurios y otras especies se debió a numerosas colisiones de cometas con la Tierra, que levantaron una capa de polvo haciendo disminuir así la temperatura superficial de la Tierra, lo que provocó la muerte de plantas y animales. La teoría más aceptada sobre el origen de los cometas señala que son restos de la formación del conjunto del Sistema Solar. Se considera que el Sol y los planetas se formaron por contracción gravitacional de una nube de gas y polvo y que casi toda la materia fue absorbida por ellos. La materia restante, distribuida muy lejos del Sol, la constituyen los cometas, el polvo y el gas interestelar. Las primeras fotografías del núcleo de un cometa A principios de 1987 cuatro sondas espaciales se acercaron al núcleo del cometa Halley, enviadas por Japón, la URSS y los países socios de la Agencia Espacial Europea.
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123
ciertos procesos físicos como la interacción de la coma con el viento solar. La nave que envió la Agencia Espacial Europea se llamó Giotto, Giotto, en honor del célebre pintor que inmortalizó la aparición del Halley en 1301 en un fresco titulado La adoración de los Reyes Magos. Magos. Esta nave pudo tomar la primera fotografía del núcleo del cometa. En estas fotografías se observa que el núcleo del cometa tiene forma de cacahuate, es de 15 km de largo y posee un color oscuro, debido a su corteza de tierra. Se observó que salía gas y polvo a gran velocidad por las fisuras. El núcleo del cometa Halley liberaba 60 toneladas de vapor de agua cada segundo durante su perihelio. Los chorros de gas apuntaban hacia el Sol, ya que la zona más caliente del cometa apunta hacia él.
Figura 60. El núcleo del cometa Halley fue fotografiado por vez primera por la nave Giotto. Tiene forma de papa, es muy oscuro y del lado día emanan chorros de material gasificado (Agencia Espacial Europea).
Las futuras misiones a los cometas son las llamadas Magallanes y Roseta a cargo de la NASA y la Agencia Espacial Europea. LOS PLANETAS MENORES Los planetas menores o asteroides son inmensas rocas que se encuentran en órbitas elípticas rotando alrededor del Sol, principalmente entre las órbitas de Marte y Júpiter, aunque
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124
El diámetro del mayor, Ceres, es de 1 000 km. Este asteroide tiene el 30% de la masa de todos los demás asteroides conocidos juntos. Le siguen en tamaño Vesta y Palas, que tienen unos 500 km de diámetro. La composición química de los asteroides es muy variada: algunos contienen, esencialmente, compuestos de carbono o compuestos ricos en silicio y el 5% son ricos en metales. Se piensa que en un principio había varios asteroides que sufrieron diferenciación, es decir, que en ellos los metales se fueron al centro y las rocas a la superficie, por el calentamiento que produjo el decaimiento de materiales radioactivos. Debido a los choques frecuentes de unos con otros, con una velocidad de impacto típica de 5 km/seg, estos asteroides se fragmentaron, formando "familias" de asteroides más pequeños. Los asteroides de aspecto metálico surgieron del interior de los asteroides primitivos y los rocosos de la superficie. Cuando los choques entre asteroides son menos violentos, los fragmentos se pueden "quedar pegados", dando origen a asteroides de composición química mixta. Un astrónomo japonés buscó (y encontró) "familias" de asteroides con órbitas muy parecidas. Se llaman "familias Hirayama" en su honor. Existen asteroides dobles, que giran uno alrededor de otro, o que tienen forma de "mancuerna", como Héctor. Los tres anillos de polvo que se encontraron con el satélite infrarrojo IRAS, entre la órbita de Marte y Júpiter, se pudieron haber formado por la molienda continua que resulta del impacto de los asteroides. Existen algunos planetas menores, como Quirón, cuya órbita está entre la de Júpiter y Saturno. Su diámetro es de sólo 300 km y podría ser el núcleo de un cometa desviado gravitacionalmente por los planetas gigantes. Otro planeta menor interesante es Hidalgo. Su órbita es la más elongada de todos los asteroides estudiados; llega más allá que la de Júpiter y está inclinada 60° respecto de la eclíptica. La Unión Astronómica Internacional agrupa a los astrónomos profesionales de todo el mundo. Tiene una
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125
Figura 61. Los 33 asteroides con diámetros mayores que 200 km. El arco grande a la izquierda representa a Marte.
La Comisión de nombres de planetas menores de la Unión Astronómica Internacional decidió bautizar a siete asteroides en honor a los astronautas que perecieron durante el despegue del Challenger el 28 de enero de 1986. Los nombres son 3350 Scobe, 3351 Smith, 3352 McAuliffe, 3353 Jarvis, 3354 McNair, 3355 Onizuka y 3356 Resnik. Estos asteroides fueron descubiertos entre 1980 y 1984 por los astrónomos Bowell y Thomas del Observatorio de Lowell en Estados Unidos. Los números de los asteroides corresponden a su número de descubrimiento. Las órbitas de los asteroides suelen ser muy elípticas y desorganizadas. Tal vez algunos cuerpos masivos pasaron por el cinturón de asteroides y desorganizaron sus órbitas, volviéndolas caóticas e impidiendo que los asteroides se aglutinaran en un planeta, produciendo en cambio sus choques frecuentes. Existen dos familias de asteroides, troyanos y griegos, llamados así porque llevan nombres de héroes de la Ilíada, que se mueven en una órbita muy cercana a la de Júpiter. Los "griegos se mueven por delante de Júpiter y los "troyanos" por detrás, en los llamados puntos lagrangianos (las regiones en donde la atracción gravitacional ejercida por Júpiter es igual a la del Sol). METEORITOS
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126
trayectorias luminosas conocidas como estrellas fugaces. Todo los días caen aproximadamente 19 toneladas de materia del espacio sobre la Tierra. Se dispone de muy poca materia extraterrestre. Sólo se tienen algunas muestras lunares y meteoritos, aunque ya se ha hecho un análisis directo de las superficies de Marte y de Venus. Uno de los meteoritos más importantes que se ha analizado es el meteorito Allende, que cayó en 1969 cerca de Toluca, cuya masa se estima en cuatro toneladas de materia sólida. Este meteorito tiene muchas peculiaridades. Su composición química es muy similar a la del Sol, lo que viene a mostrar que probablemente ambos se formaron de la misma nube. Sus diferencias (en composición química) se deben a que el Sol quema rápidamente elementos como el litio y a que Allende no puede tener gases muy volátiles y gases nobles. Se ha podido determinar con mucha precisión la edad de Allende que es de 4.67 X 109 años, que dentro de la incertidumbre, se piensa que es la edad del Sol y del Sistema Solar. El estudio de la composición química de los meteoritos es fundamental para entender la evolución y el origen del Sistema Solar. Esto se debe a que muchos meteoritos provienen de regiones muy alejadas del Sistema Solar en donde no fueron contaminados por la presencia de vida ni por los intensos vientos solares que producía el Sol en su etapa de protoestrella. La composición de los minerales de un meteorito depende de la presión y de la temperatura del medio en que se formaron.
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127
Existe una clase peculiar de meteoritos llamados tectitas. Tienen aspecto vidrioso y formas circulares, alargadas y de mancuerna; las mayores tienen 8 cm de diámetro. Se han encontrado principalmente en Indonesia y Australia. Las tectitas son muy pobres en agua, lo que ha hecho suponer a algunos investigadores que pueden ser de origen lunar. Es posible que en el pasado, pas ado, cuando hubo vulcanismo activo en la Luna, algunos fragmentos volcánicos hayan logrado escapar de ella y hayan caído en la Tierra. Esta hipótesis se confirma por el hecho de que las tectitas parecen haber estado fundidas a alta presión y haberse solidificado rápidamente. Otros investigadores piensan que se formaron por el impacto de un enorme meteorito sobre la Tierra que lanzó pequeños fragmentos fundidos a la atmósfera, que al caer por el aire tomaron esas formas curiosas. Se ha encontrado que algunos meteoritos tienen inclusiones con aminoácidos. Este descubrimiento es importante para los estudios sobre el origen de la vida, puesto que muestra que se puede formar compuestos orgánicos complejos en el medio interestelar. Allende muestra sobreabundancia de algunos isótopos del oxígeno y del magnesio; esto parece indicar que poco antes de la formación del Sistema Solar hubo una explosión de supernova en su vecindad, lo cual, por un lado, enriqueció a la nube de la cual se formó el Sistema Solar con elementos químicos recién procesados y, por otro, ayudó a generar una onda de choque que propició su colapso. Hoy en día se está realizando una búsqueda intensa de meteoritos en el Polo Sur. En esas regiones, los meteoritos se conservan muy bien enterrados en los hielos, prácticamente sin contaminación orgánica. NOMBRES DE LOS CRÁTERES
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128
artistas y poetas, como por ejemplo el cráter Sor Juana, ubicado en el hemisferio norte del planeta. A raíz de los descubrimientos de los nuevos satélites del Sistema Solar y de las fotografías cercanas de algunos de los ya conocidos, la cantidad de estructuras por bautizar ha aumentado enormemente. La nave Viajero II, por ejemplo, fotografió las lunas de Urano y habrá que darles nombre. En la actualidad los nombres de los objetos astronómicos son asignados por el pleno de los astrónomos profesionales. Éstos están agrupados en la Unión Astronómica Internacional que se reúne cada tres años. Está subdividida en comisiones dedicadas a varios aspectos de la astronomía, por ejemplo, la Comisión de Galaxias, la de Supernovas y la de Nomenclatura. La próxima reunión será en agosto en la ciudad de Baltimore, Estados Unidos. Durante la reunión de Patras, Grecia, en 1983, se les dio nombre a las estructuras de las lunas de Júpiter y Saturno. Por ejemplo, las estructuras superficiales de la luna Encélado de Saturno llevan nombres de los personajes de Las mil y una noches. Un cráter se llama Alí Babá, otro Aladino y otro más Simbad. Ahora, en Baltimore, las recientemente descubiertas lunas de Urano serán bautizadas. Algunas estructuras llevarán nombres de las personas que las descubrieron y de científicos e ingenieros que ayudaron a construir las naves Viajero; otras tendrán nombres tomados de libros y leyendas. OTROS PLANETAS La existencia de otros planetas más allá de la órbita de Plutón es factible. Pero, de haberlos, serían muy difíciles de detectar.
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129
Se ha observado que, en la galaxia, las estrellas se forman por condensación de nubes de gas y de polvo. Para que se dé la contracción, la energía potencial gravitacional de la nube deberá ser mayor que la energía que tiende a disiparla: la energía cinética más la energía magnética.
Figura 63. Una nube interestelar de gas y polvo semejante, probablemente, probablemente, a la que dio origen al Sistema Solar.
A rasgos muy generales, se piensa que el Sistema Solar se formó de la siguiente manera: Existía, en el medio interestelar, una "nube molecular" con temperatura de unos 10°K y densidad de 1 000 partículas por cm3. Esta nube protosolar estaba en equilibrio con el medio; tenía campo magnético y rotación. Estaba compuesta por gas (H, H2, He, N, O, C) y polvo (polvos metálicos refractarios y polvos volátiles o hielos). En la vecindad de esta nube protosolar ocurrió una explosión muy violenta, la explosión de una estrella supernova (en la que una sola estrella libera más energía que toda una galaxia). La onda de choque producida por la supernova obligó a la nube protosolar a contraerse hasta el punto en que las fuerzas de contracción vencieron a las de expansión, y se produjo el colapso.
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130
contrajo la nube, y por lo tanto, el protosol se calentó. Una vez que la temperatura central en el interior del Sol fue lo suficientemente elevada, se llevaron a cabo reacciones nucleares en su centro y esta nube de gas se convirtió en una estrella con luz propia. De manera simultánea a la formación protosolar se empezaron a aglutinar también los polvos del resto de la nube. Cuando el Sol empezó a radiar, evaporó los polvos de hielos no refractarios que estaban en su vecindad, pero los polvos metálicos refractarios sobrevivieron al calentamiento (los polvos de hielo alejados del Sol no se evaporaron). Después, los polvos se aglutinaron en partículas y éstas, más tarde, en piedras de tamaño cada vez mayores, hasta formar planetesimales, que siguieron creciendo conforme atrapaban más y más materia del medio y conforme chocaban unos con otros.
Figura 64. Remanente de la explosión de una supernova, que podría ser parecida a la que causó la l a formación del Sistema Solar.
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131
Si los planetas se formaron por la agregación de planetesimales y partículas menores que rotaban alrededor del Sol como un disco plano, se pueden explicar a grandes rasgos muchas propiedades observadas del Sistema Solar, como la dirección de la rotación y de la traslación de la mayoría de los planetas y sus satélites. En el caso de Urano, cuyo eje de rotación está muy inclinado y cuya rotación es retrógrada, se ha tenido que recurrir a la explicación de que se podría haber formado por la colisión de dos protoplanetas muy masivos, ya que uno solo formado por agregados de gran cantidad de partículas con movimiento al azar en pequeña escala habría dado lugar a un planeta con el eje de rotación perpendicular al plano ecuatorial, como Júpiter. La rotación retrógrada de Venus sugiere desaceleración fuerte por efecto de mareas. Al observar el cinturón de asteroides nos podemos dar una idea de cómo se veía el plano del Sistema Solar antes de la formación de los grandes cuerpos. Los asteroides nunca se aglutinaron, probablemente por la fuerza de marea que ejerce Júpiter sobre ellos. En el Sistema Planetario se observa una traslación gradual en cuanto a composición química: más cerca del Sol encontramos materia refractaria, rocas y metales; y lejos del Sol, materia volátil y hielos, además de la anterior. La formación del Sistema Solar es, pues, resultado de una secuencia de eventos físicos normales. ¿Tendrán otras estrellas sistemas de planetas también?
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132
Aunque se ha avanzado enormemente en los últimos años, en cuanto a datos y teorías, todavía no se explican todas las características del Sol, de los planetas y sus lunas. Conforme aumentan las observaciones surgen más dudas que siguen haciendo misteriosos a nuestros vecinos más cercanos.
A P É N D I C E
Sondas espaciales planetarias Mercurio Cometas
1974: Mariner l0ª 1985: 1985: ISSE l0ª l0ª (GiaccobiniZinner) 1986: Vega I y II y II b (Halley) 1986: Planeta 1986: Planeta Ac (Halley) 1986: Giottod (Halley)
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133
a partir del Pionero 4 en 1959, incluyendo seis misiones Apolo con hombres entre 1969 y 1972.
Marte
1963, Marte 1b; 1965 Mariner 4a; 1965, Zond 2b y 3b; 1969, Mariner 6 y 7 a; 1971, Marte 1971, Marte 2 y 3a; 1971, Mariner 9a 1973, Marte 4, 5, 6 y 7 b; 1976, Vikingo 1 y 1 y 2a
Júpiter
1973 Pionero l0a; 1974, Pionero 11a; 1979, Viajero 1 y 2a; 1988, Galileoa.
Saturno
1979, Pionero 11a; 1980, Viajero 1a; 1981, Viajero 2a
Urano
1986, Viajero 2a.
Neptuno
1989, Viajero 2a
NOTA: a Misiones norteamericanas
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134
Abetti, Giorgio, Historia de la astronomía, Fondo astronomía, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Breviarios, México, 1966. Asimov, Isaac, Historia universal Asimov: Los griegos, Alianza, Madrid, 1983. Beatty, J K., O'Leary B. y Chaikin A., The New Solar System, Cambridge System, Cambridge University Press, 2a edición, 1985. Berry, Arthur, A Short History of Astronomy, Dover Publications, Nueva York, 1961. Bravo, Silvia, Encuentro con una estrella, Fondo de Cultura Económica (La Ciencia para Todos, núm. 38), México, 1987. Cetto, A. M., La luz, luz, Fondo de Cultura Económica, La Ciencia para Todos, 1987. Coudere, Paul, Histoire de l'Astronomie, l'Astronomie, Universitaires de France, París, 1966.
Presses
Dreyer, John L. E., A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler, Dover Kepler, Dover Publications, Nueva York, 1953.
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Wilson, Collin, Buscadores de estrellas, estrellas, Editorial Planeta, Barcelona, 1983. Xirau, Ramón, Introducción a la historia de la filosofía, UNAM, México.
G L O S A R I O
año luz. luz. La distancia que recorre la luz en un año, 9.5 x 17 10 cm. asteroide. "Planeta asteroide. "Planeta menor"; un fragmento no luminoso de materia de tamaño menor que un planeta, pero mayor que un meteorito, que está en órbita alrededor de una estrella. asteroides troyanos. Grupo de asteroides que preceden o
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campo magnético. Un magnético. Un campo de fuerzas que afecta a los imanes, atrayendo una parte del imán y repeliendo otra. ciclo del carbono. Cadena de reacciones nucleares que involucra al carbono en uno de sus estadios intermedios y que transforma cuatro átomos de hidrógeno en uno de helio y libera energía. El carbono funciona como catalizador. El ciclo del carbono es importante en las estrellas más masivas que el Sol. cinturón de asteroides. Región del Sistema Solar, entre las órbitas de Marte y Júpiter, en donde orbitan la mayor parte de los asteroides. cinturones de Van Allen. Regiones de partículas de alta energía atrapadas en el campo magnético terrestre. condrita. Tipo de meteorito rocoso que contiene partículas esféricas pequeñas llamadas cóndrulos. corona. corona. Región más exterior de la atmósfera solar (o de otras estrellas) que se caracteriza por tener temperaturas muy elevadas, de millones de grados. cometa. Objeto del Sistema Solar, con una órbita muy
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137
vehículo para transportar energía mecánica desde des de el interior del Sol hasta la corona. densidad. Masa contenida en una unidad volumen. deriva continental. continental. Nombre informal que se le da a la tectónica de placas, que describe la superficie de la Tierra como un conjunto de secciones móviles llamadas placas. diferenciación. En el caso de un planeta se dice que tiene diferenciación cuando las sustancias más densas están en las regiones centrales y las más livianas en la superficie. división de Cassini. Región de los anillos de Saturno que se ve oscura desde la Tierra. eclipse. Paso de un cuerpo celeste por la sombra s ombra de otro.
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desarrollar un trabajo, por ejemplo la capacidad de desplazar un objeto por medio de una fuerza. epiciclo. En el sistema de Tolomeo, un círculo pequeño, que se desplaza sobre un círculo mayor, llamado deferente, sobre el que se mueve un planeta. Tolomeo recurrió a los epiciclos para explicar el movimiento aparente de los planetas. equinoccio. Día en el cual el centro del Sol permanece tiempos iguales por encima y por debajo del horizonte; día en el cual el día y la noche tienen igual duración. efecto de invernadero. Efecto por el cual la atmósfera de un planeta se calienta por encima de su temperatura de equilibrio porque es transparente para la radiación visible que le llega del Sol pero opaca a la radiación infrarroja remitida por la superficie del planeta.
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inglés: "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation" (amplificación de la luz por emisión estimulada de radiación). límite de Roche. Esferas dentro de las cuales las masas de gas no se pueden aglomerar por atracción gravitacional sin romperse por fuerzas de marea. longitud de onda. Distancia que recorre una onda al llevar a cabo una oscilación completa. luna llena. La fase de la Luna en la cual la cara que da a la Tierra está completamente iluminada por la luz del Sol. luna nueva. La nueva. La fase de la Luna cuando la cara de la Luna que da hacia la Tierra no está iluminada por la luz del Sol.
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movimiento retrógrado. Movimiento aparente de los planetas en dirección contraria a sus movimientos usuales. nucleosíntesis. nucleosíntesis. Proceso mediante el cual se forman nuevos elementos químicos a partir de reacciones atómicas. nube de Oort. Cientos de millones de núcleos de cometas que rodean al Sistema Solar a una distancia de unas 50 000 unidades astronómicas. ocultación. El ocultación. El encubrimiento de un cuerpo astronómico por otro, como la ocultación de una estrella por la Luna. ondas de radio. Radiación radio. Radiación electromagnética con longitudes de onda mayores que 1 mm. Molécula formada por tres átomos de oxígeno que
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141
prominencia. Gas solar que sobresale por encima del disco del Sol; se observa a simple vista sólo durante un eclipse total de Sol. protón. Partícula elemental masiva con carga positiva, uno de los constituyentes fundamentales de los átomos. radar. Acrónimo de las palabras en inglés: "Radio "R adio Detection and Raging" (detección e inspección por radio). Técnica de estudio en la cual se transmiten señales de radio y se estudian sus reflexiones. ráfaga. Erupción ráfaga. Erupción rápida de material de la superficie del Sol o de otra estrella. rayos X. Radiación electromagnética de longitud de onda de milésimas de micra.
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tectitas. tectitas. Objetos vidriosos pequeños que se encuentran dispersos en el hemisferio sur terrestre. Son meteoritos de formas extrañas y simétricas. tectónica de placas. Nombre que se le da a un modelo de superficie de la Tierra en el cual ésta se divide en secciones móviles llamadas placas. tránsito. El tránsito. El paso de un cuerpo celeste por delante de otro
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caso de Galileo. En nuestros más ilustrados tiempos la ciencia, si bien sigue enfrentando algunos prejuicios, avanza a grandes pasos, frenada casi exclusivamente por la escasez de recursos destinados a la investigación. Así, cuando en estas páginas se afirma que el Sistema Solar está formado por el Sol, que constituye casi el total de su masa, un complejo conjunto de cuerpos (planetas, satélites, asteroides, cometas, meteoritos, polvo y gas), nadie se siente ofendido; al contrario, se demanda explicaciones y definiciones. El interés por conocer nuestro Sistema Solar; así como la estrella más próxima, el Sol, es grande, como
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Diseño: Carlos Haces / Fotografía:
NASA .